A Manager’s Guide

to Coral Reef Restoration

Planning and Design

NOAA Technical Memorandum CRCP 36
CITATION:

Shaver E C, Courtney C A, West J M, Maynard J, Hein M, Wagner C, Philibotte J, MacGowan P, 

McLeod I, Böstrom-Einarsson L, Bucchianeri K, Johnston L, Koss J. 2020. A Manager’s Guide to Coral 

Reef Restoration Planning and Design. NOAA Coral Reef Conservation Program. NOAA Technical 

Memorandum CRCP 36, 128 pp.

FOR MORE INFORMATION:

For more information about this report or to request a copy, please contact NOAA’s Coral Reef 

Conservation Program at 301-713-3155 or write to:

NOAA Coral Reef Conservation Program, NOAA/NOS/OCM, 1305 East West Highway, Silver Spring, MD 

20910 or visit www.coralreef.noaa.gov.

DISCLAIMER:

Mention of trade names or commercial products does not constitute endorsement or 

recommendation for their use by the United States government. The views expressed in this publication 

are those of the authors and do not necessarily represent the views or policies of the U.S. Environmental 

Protection Agency.
i

A Manager’s Guide

to Coral Reef Restoration

Planning and Design

Elizabeth C. Shaver1, Catherine A. Courtney2, Jordan M. West3, Jeffrey Maynard4, 

Margaux Hein5, Cherie Wagner1, Jason Philibotte6, Petra MacGowan1, Ian McLeod5, 

Lisa Böstrom-Einarsson5,7, Kristine Bucchianeri8, Lyza Johnston9, Jennifer Koss6

1

The Nature Conservancy, 2Tetra Tech, Inc., 3United States Environmental Protection Agency, 

4 SymbioSeas, 5 TropWATER, James Cook University, 6United States National Oceanic and 

Atmospheric Administration, 7Lancaster Environment Centre, Lancaster University, 8US All 

Islands Coral Reef Committee, Lynker Technologies, 9 Johnston Applied Marine Sciences

National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration

National Ocean Service

Office for Coastal Management

Coral Reef Conservation Program

U.S. Department Of 

Commerce 

National Ocean Service

Nicole LeBoeuf

Acting Assistant Administrator

Neil A. Jacobs

Acting Under Secretary of Commerce 

for Oceans and Atmosphere and 

NOAA Administrator

National Oceanic and 

Atmospheric Administration

Wilbur L. Ross

Secretary of Commerce

NOAA Technical Memorandum CRCP 36
ii Restored coral in Seraya-besar, Indonesia. Image: Martin Colognoli | Coral Guardian | Coral Reef Image Bank A MANAGER’S GUIDE TO CORAL REEF RESTORATION PLANNING AND DESIGN
A MANAGER’S GUIDE TO CORAL REEF RESTORATION PLANNING AND DESIGN iii

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

Production of this manual has been made possible through financial support from the United 

States National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) Coral Reef Conservation 

Program and Restoration Center, United States Environmental Protection Agency’s Office of 

Research and Development, and The Nature Conservancy’s Reef Resilience Network. This work was 

also supported by the National Environmental Science Program Tropical Water Quality Hub.

We are grateful to the many coral reef managers and restoration practitioners from a diversity 

of locations around the globe who provided valuable feedback on this Guide. We extend our 

sincere thanks to our external peer reviewers who gave substantial and invaluable suggestions that 

elevated many aspects of this manual: 

Ilsa Kuffner, United States Geological Survey 

Tom Moore, National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration

Jerker Tamelander, United Nations Environment Programme 

David Wachenfeld, Great Barrier Reef Marine Park Authority 

A crucial role was played by managers from the US Pacific jurisdictions of American Samoa, 

Commonwealth of the Northern Mariana Islands (CNMI), Guam, and Hawai‘i in helping to develop, 

refine and realize the Guide. These teams were the pioneers and test drivers of this document, 

and their experiences developing restoration action plans in their locations provided invaluable 

insights into the efficacy of the planning process presented in this Guide. We thank all of the 

members of these planning teams, especially the following team leads: 

American Samoa: Georgia Coward, American Samoa Coral Reef Advisory Group

CNMI: Dave Benavente, Division of Coastal Resources Management

Guam: Whitney Hoot, Bureau of Statistics and Plans

Hawai‘i: Ryan Okano, Division of Aquatic Resources

We also extend our gratitude to Lani Watson and Shannon Ruseborn from NOAA’s Office 

of Habitat Conservation and Kim Hum from The Nature Conservancy’s Hawai‘i Program for 

supporting the use of this Guide and the chance to learn from real-world experiences with coral 

reef restoration planning.

Many others volunteered their time to review early versions and provide comments that 

contributed to the Guide, including: Aric Bickel, Karen Bohnsack, Andrew Bruckner, Robert 

Brumbaugh, Calina Zepeda Centeno, Nathan Cook, David Cuevas, David Delaney, Mandy Elliot, 

Ximena Escovar-Fadul, Sarah Fangman, Leslie Henderson, Whitney Hoot, Kristi Kerrigan, Jessica 

Levy, Caitlin Lustic, Neil Mattocks, Phanor Montoya Maya, David Obura, Hudson Slay, Tali Vardi, 

Joanna Walczak, Thea Water, and Dana Wusinich-Mendez.
iv A MANAGER’S GUIDE TO CORAL REEF RESTORATION PLANNING AND DESIGN

PHOTOGRAPHY CREDITS:

Cover photo: A local fisherman trained as a coral gardener works with Grupo Puntacana Foundation 

and The Nature Conservancy to outplant colonies of Caribbean staghorn coral, Acropora cervicornis, 

on reefs near Punta Cana, Dominican Republic. Credit: Paul Selvaggio | The Nature Conservancy.

Other photography credits are appended to individual images.
A MANAGER’S GUIDE TO CORAL REEF RESTORATION PLANNING AND DESIGN v

CONTENTS

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . III

INTRODUCTION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1

Types of Restoration and Restoration Principles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2

Considering Climate Change in Coral Reef Restoration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3

MANAGER’S GUIDE SUMMARY . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7

Steps of the Planning Process . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7

How to Use this Guide . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8

Supporting documents . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10

STEP 1: SET GOAL AND GEOGRAPHIC FOCUS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13

Overview . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13

1A. Identify and Prioritize Goals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13

1B. Identify Geographic Focus for Each Goal . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16

1C. Select Goal and Geographic Focus for Restoration Planning and Design . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19

STEP 2: IDENTIFY, PRIORITIZE, & SELECT SITES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21

Overview . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21

2A. Identify Potential Restoration Sites . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23

2B. Use Framework to Prioritize Sites . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24

Semi-Quantitative Approach . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27

Quantitative Approach . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30

2C. Finalize Site Selection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34

STEP 3: IDENTIFY, DESIGN & SELECT INTERVENTIONS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37

Overview . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37

3A. Identify an Array of Intervention Options . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37

3B. Apply Climate-Smart Design Considerations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40

3C. Evaluate and Select Interventions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 50

STEP 4: DEVELOP RESTORATION ACTION PLAN . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 55

Overview . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 55

4A. Define SMART Objectives . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 55

4B. Develop Activities and Implementation Timeline . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 61

4C. Build Action Plan . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 64

MOVING INTO ACTION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 67

Building a Strategic Plan . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 67

Considerations for Step 5: Implement Restoration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 68

Considerations for Step 6: Monitor & Evaluate Progress . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 69

CONCLUSION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 71

REFERENCES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 73

RESOURCES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 75

APPENDIX 1: GUIDE WORKBOOK . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . A1-1

APPENDIX 2: RESTORATION ACTION PLAN TEMPLATE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . A2-1
vi Attaching a coral fragment. Image: Martin Colognoli | Coral Guardian | Coral Reef Image Bank A MANAGER’S GUIDE TO CORAL REEF RESTORATION PLANNING AND DESIGN
A MANAGER’S GUIDE TO CORAL REEF RESTORATION PLANNING AND DESIGN 1

INTRODUCTION

Coral reefs are among the most biologically diverse and economically valuable ecosystems 

on our planet. Home to a quarter of marine fish and millions of species, coral reefs provide 

critical services to local communities, including coastal protection, food provisioning, and revenue 

from fisheries and tourism (Wilkinson 2004, Burke et al. 2008, 2011). Yet despite their importance, 

coral reefs are rapidly declining across the globe due to extreme temperature events caused by 

climate change and a host of local-scale threats like pollution and overfishing (Burke et al. 2011, 

De’ath et al. 2012, Jackson et al. 2014, Hughes et al. 2017). As rising global temperatures result in 

more frequent and severe bleaching events, many coral reefs across the world will likely struggle 

to recover and thrive (IPCC 2018).

To combat the global loss of coral reefs, there is a growing interest among resource managers 

in using active restoration interventions to mitigate reef degradation and promote recovery and 

resilience (Possingham et al. 2015, Boström-Einarsson et al. 2020). Some of the most common 

restoration interventions to date have included directly transplanting coral fragments from 

one reef to another, and coral gardening, where coral fragments are propagated and grown in 

nurseries before being outplanted to a reef (Boström-Einarsson et al. 2020). More techniques are 

being trialed and used every day in various regions around the world, such as micro-fragmentation 

of massive boulder corals, gamete collection and seeding of reefs with coral larvae, and artificial 

reef structures. 

However, coral reef restoration as a field is still in its infancy, only recently growing from small 

grassroots efforts to becoming a significant component of broader management planning. 

As reef managers seek to invest in restoration activities, it is therefore essential that thoughtful 

consideration be made for this endeavor, including how, when, and where restoration will 

be conducted, as well as how it can complement - rather than take away from - other reef 

management strategies. Importantly, restoration should not be considered as a replacement for 

conventional strategies like marine protection and threat reduction. Rather, restoration may only 

be successful in the long-term when used alongside strong local conservation efforts as well as 

climate change mitigation.

While coral reefs become increasingly degraded, new techniques are increasingly needed to 

assist reefs in recovering and adapting to changing environmental conditions (Anthony et al. 2017, 

Van Oppen et al. 2017, Mcleod et al. 2019). The urgent motivation to sustain coral reefs has fueled 

a building momentum to restore and rebuild reefs, with increasing numbers of projects, research 

studies, and investments (Young et al. 2012, Boström-Einarsson et al. 2020). Coral reef restoration 

is a burgeoning new field with much potential, and the authors of this Guide are excited to 

contribute to this global effort. As a global community of managers, scientists, restoration 

practitioners, and stakeholders embarking on the UN Decade on Ecosystem Restoration (2021-

2030), we must thoughtfully implement coral reef restoration projects, monitor and evaluate 

success, and share lessons learned in order to leverage and expand our collective knowledge. 

A Manager’s Guide to Coral Reef Restoration Planning and Design supports these needs by 

providing a six-step, adaptive management planning process to assist managers in setting and 

meeting their restoration goals.

INTRODUCTION
2 A MANAGER’S GUIDE TO CORAL REEF RESTORATION PLANNING AND DESIGN

Deciding Whether to Conduct Restoration

Coral reef restoration is not always a viable management strategy for every context. Before starting 

a restoration project, managers are advised to complete a thorough assessment of whether 

restoration should be conducted in their location. For users of this Guide, it is assumed that this 

evaluation has taken place and restoration has been determined to be necessary and feasible.

The Reef Rehabilitation Manual (Edwards 2010) provides guidelines and a decision tree that 

can be used to assist in this evaluation. Several key questions from this manual have also been 

summarized in Coral Reef Restoration as a Strategy to Improve Ecosystem Services: A Guide 

to Coral Restoration Methods (Hein et al. 2020) to guide managers and practitioners with this 

assessment, including:

1. Why did coral mortality or reef degradation happen in the first place, and have these 

causes of degradation stopped or are they currently under effective management?

If local threats to reefs have not been identified, managed, or mitigated, they may continue to 

threaten restored coral populations and severely limit the success of the restoration project. 

Restoration may need to be considered after other management activities are in place. 

2. Are there currently any barriers to natural reef recovery? 

Restoration is cost and labor intensive, and many techniques and approaches are still being 

trialed. If a reef ecosystem is likely to recover naturally (e.g., coral recruitment is occurring), 

other management actions may be a more suitable approach than restoration.

3. What type of repair or intervention is necessary to recover ecosystem function?

The most common restoration interventions involve outplanting corals onto reefs. 

However, some reefs may require physical repair of the reef structure, or rehabilitation of 

ecological processes like herbivory. Step 3 of this Guide helps managers decide on a suite of 

interventions to use for restoration, but a broad understanding of what is needed will help 

guide whether restoration is appropriate for your location. 

For more information, see Edwards 2010 and Hein et al. 2020.

Types of Restoration and Restoration Principles

Ecological restoration is defined as the “process of assisting the recovery of an ecosystem that 

has been degraded, damaged or destroyed” (Society for Ecological Restoration, Gann et al. 

2019). Restoration helps place an ecosystem on a trajectory towards recovery so it can persist 

on its own in its natural state. For coral reefs, most restoration projects aim to restore ecosystem 

functioning in a degraded or damaged reef habitat. Restoration includes any activity that aims 

to help an ecosystem recover, regardless of the amount of time it takes to achieve a certain level 

of recovery (Gann et al. 2019).

Following guidance from the Society for Ecological Restoration’s (SER) International Principles 

and Standards for the Practice of Ecological Restoration (Gann et al. 2019) and the United Nations 

(UN) Report Coral Reef Restoration as a Strategy to Improve Ecosystem Services: A Guide to 

Coral Restoration Methods (Hein et al. 2020), restoration is part of a continuum of activities 

used to support habitats, from reducing local threats to fully recovering ecosystem function. 

Interventions that protect reefs and encourage natural recovery processes can be thought of as 

“proactive” (also called passive interventions), and include examples such as marine protected 

areas and water quality management. These actions also support “reactive” interventions, 

commonly thought of as “restoration”. Reactive interventions involve measures that more 

directly assist in the recovery of reef functions or populations, should they not be able to recover 

naturally (McDonald et al. 2016). Examples include coral propagation and outplanting, algal 

removal, or substrate addition (Hein et al. 2020). 
A MANAGER’S GUIDE TO CORAL REEF RESTORATION PLANNING AND DESIGN 3

Although restoration in coral reef ecosystems is a relatively new field, restoration has been 

practiced in other natural habitats for many decades. Lessons learned in other habitats and 

shared through SER’s International Principles and Standards can be adapted for use by coral reef 

managers and restoration practitioners. For instance, the Standards defines the following eight 

principles that underpin the best practices of ecological restoration (from Gann et al. 2019):

• Engages stakeholders

• Draws on many types of knowledge

• Is informed by native reference ecosystems, while considering environmental change

• Supports ecosystem recovery processes

• Is assessed against clear goals and objectives using measurable indicators 

• Seeks the highest level of recovery possible

• Gains cumulative value when applied at large scales 

• Is part of a continuum of restorative activities

This Guide was developed considering the principles and standards set forth in other 

ecosystems by the Society for Ecological Restoration. 

Micro-fragmented corals growing in land-based nursery.

St. Croix, US Virgin Islands.

Image: Joe Pollock | The Nature Conservancy 
4 A MANAGER’S GUIDE TO CORAL REEF RESTORATION PLANNING AND DESIGN

Considering Climate Change in Coral Reef Restoration

Changing climate conditions, including rising temperatures and increasingly intense storms, 

are the greatest threat to many reefs around the world. While restoration is being conducted, 

climate change is likely to pose significant direct impacts to the restoration effort, such as 

causing mass bleaching events on outplanted corals. It will also have indirect effects on local 

threats that are also of concern to the restoration effort. For instance, changing patterns of 

precipitation, drought, storms, and currents may influence the intensity, timing, and spatial 

pattern of local threats in ways that would affect restoration success.

Therefore, this Guide recommends that adaptative management be used in order to account 

for these changes and adapt restoration projects over time. Adaptive management is a 

process that involves a continuous cycle of experimentation and evaluation, where strategies 

that are not successful are removed from further work (Tompkins and Adger 2004). Adaptive 

management is a core component of resilience-based management that can help identify 

strategies that are robust to climate change (Mcleod et al. 2019). 

The need to account for climate change has been integrated into each of the Guide’s planning 

and design steps. Specific sections of the Guide where adaptation is particularly relevant 

include:

• Restoration goals and objectives: restoration planning should result in establishing goals 

and objectives that account for existing and projected future conditions.

• Site selection and maintenance: restoration planning should, as much as possible, 

target sites where local threats are under effective management and climate change 

vulnerabilities are minimal relative to other sites.

• Restoration interventions: restoration planning should identify and design restoration 

interventions that will be robust under existing and projected future changes in global and 

local conditions.

Though you may explicitly design your restoration interventions to consider future climate 

change, or may engage in strong adaptive management over the lifetime of the project, some 

may still question whether restoration should be undertaken in an era of climate change. For 

instance, if global temperatures continue to rise unchecked, restoration interventions may not 

be able to be sustained. Nevertheless, successful restoration projects may still be able to provide 

several key benefits, including:

• Assisting coral population recovery by promoting sexual reproduction and genetic 

diversity, and thus the potential for populations to adapt to climate change

• Helping prevent the extinction of certain coral species 

• Supporting coral populations that act as critical stepping-stones for connectivity 

• Encouraging the migration of species to new locations

• Supporting reefs to continue to provide critical ecosystem services 

• Maintaining aesthetic quality of key tourism locations

• Generating new employment, economic, or tourism opportunities

• Providing opportunities for education and stewardship
A MANAGER’S GUIDE TO CORAL REEF RESTORATION PLANNING AND DESIGN 5

Restoration as a Tool in a Coral Reef Manager’s Toolbox

Diverse restoration interventions are being explored by reef scientists and managers around the 

world. Restoration interventions have been defined as genetic, physiological, coral population 

and community, and environmental activities meant to enhance the persistence and 

resilience of coral populations or reefs (National Academy of Sciences 2019). The United States 

National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine (NASEM), in a comprehensive 

review of 23 restoration interventions, concluded that none have been implemented beyond 

experimental scales (NASEM 2019). For this reason, restoration should be carefully considered 

and implemented along with - and not instead of - management actions used to abate local 

and regional stressors.

With the distressing decline of coral reefs around the world, it is tempting to look at restoration 

as a silver bullet. However, natural ecosystems are complex, and restoration projects to assist 

natural recovery after disturbances or degradation can be challenging. Restoration in general 

can be a labor intensive, costly, and technically complex management intervention. For 

all of these reasons, restoration is far more likely to be successful if carefully planned. Early 

success will breed future successes for restoration programs. Lessons learned and shared 

during restoration projects will facilitate even more successful and efficient future restoration 

projects. Further, attention and support among decision-makers and communities will rapidly 

grow when all can see and participate in the success of restoration projects, highlighting the 

importance of stakeholder engagement. This Guide aims to support thoughtful planning and 

design of restoration projects prior to implementation to increase the chances that restoration 

projects and programs can be successful.

Cleaning a floating rope nursery in San Andres, Colombia. Image: Corales de Paz
6 Coral outplanting in the Dry Tortugas, Florida, USA. Image: Carlton Ward Jr. | The Nature Conservancy A MANAGER’S GUIDE TO CORAL REEF RESTORATION PLANNING AND DESIGN
A MANAGER’S GUIDE TO CORAL REEF RESTORATION PLANNING AND DESIGN 7

Diagram: “Coral reef 

restoration planning and 

design.” Steps 1 to 4 focus on 

Restoration planning. Active 

restoration occurs in Steps 5 and 6. 

Step 1: Set Goal and Geographic Focus. 

Step 2: Identify, Prioritize, and Select 

Sites. Step 3: Identify, Design, and 

Select Interventions. Step 4: Develop 

Restoration Action Plan. Step 5: 

Implement Restoration. Step 6: 

Monitor and Evaluate Progress.

MANAGER’S GUIDE SUMMARY

A Manager’s Guide Guide to Coral Reef Restoration Planning and Design aims to assist coral reef 

managers - together with their practitioner partners and stakeholders - in developing restoration 

projects for coral reefs in their location. For this Guide, managers are defined as government, 

nongovernment, and community leaders tasked with managing reefs and the resources they 

provide. Managers may also be restoration practitioners who plan, implement, and monitor 

restoration activities (Gann et al. 2019). By using information available about specific reefs in their 

locations, both managers and practitioners alike can use the planning process detailed in this 

Guide to make critical decisions about where and how restoration could be conducted.

Steps of the Planning Process

The Guide describes a six-step adaptive process for planning and implementing restoration 

interventions through a climate-smart lens (modified from West et al. 2018). These steps help 

managers design restoration projects to increase the likelihood of success and support learning 

throughout the implementation process. A hallmark of the process is the iterative nature of the 

cycle, where availability of new information at any one step is used to refine other steps and 

continuously improve restoration outcomes through time.

CORAL REEF 

RESTORATION 

PLANNING & 

DESIGN

Restoration planning

Active restoration

1

Set Goal & 

Geographic

Focus

2

Identify, 

Prioritize, & 

Select Sites

3

Identify, Design 

& Select 

Interventions

4

Develop 

Restoration 

Action Plan

5

Implement 

Restoration

6

Monitor & 

Evaluate

Progress

SUMMARY
8 A MANAGER’S GUIDE TO CORAL REEF RESTORATION PLANNING AND DESIGN

The first four steps of this Guide focus on goal-based planning and design of restoration 

interventions, culminating in the creation of a Restoration Action Plan (hereafter, ‘Action Plan’). 

A key component of the Action Plan is an initial pilot phase to test the appropriateness of sites 

and interventions prior to full implementation investment. Active restoration using the Action 

Plan occurs in the final two steps, first through implementation and monitoring of a pilot phase, 

followed by full-scale implementation and long-term monitoring for effectiveness of the full plan. 

The planning and implementation cycle includes the following six steps:

1. Set Goal and Geographic Focus 

2. Identify, Prioritize, and Select Sites

3. Identify, Design, and Select Interventions

4. Develop Restoration Action Plan

5. Implement Restoration

6. Monitor and Evaluate Progress

How to Use this Guide

We recommend that this Guide be used to develop an Action Plan for one priority goal at a time. 

In each planning step, we provide suggestions for how managers can best proceed through the 

material in this Guide. This includes background information for each step as well as a suggested 

process and key stakeholder groups to engage. After the first pass, you may find that subsequent 

iterations of working through the planning cycle may take less time, as much of the information 

can be used again, particularly where two goals have overlapping focus areas or the same 

interventions are considered.

Following the sequence of steps is a flexible process – you can start at any of the steps 

depending on the current status of restoration activities and planning in your location. You 

may come to this Guide feeling that some steps have already been completed, in which case 

you may wish to begin in the middle of the planning cycle. At the beginning of each step, we 

provide a box with “Assumptions” describing what you need to have already completed before 

beginning that step.

Planning Process Examples

Throughout this Guide, green boxes or text are used to indicate the use of an example 

that illustrates how the Guide may be used by managers to complete the planning steps. 

One example goal has been identified and is then carried through for all four planning 

steps. Note that the example is not meant to prescribe or advocate for any goal or 

intervention, but rather to exhibit how the steps can be used by managers going through 

the planning process.

It may be useful to work through the planning steps in the Guide within a group setting with a 

dedicated planning team. To do this, we suggest including members so the group has a collective 

expertise in the following topics:

• Local coral reef sites, conditions, and realities of working in or implementing restoration 

in different sites in the management jurisdiction or location

• Ongoing management of coral reef habitats in the location, including knowledge and 

access to scientific databases from monitoring programs
A MANAGER’S GUIDE TO CORAL REEF RESTORATION PLANNING AND DESIGN 9

• Ongoing management of watersheds in the location as it relates to or may be 

connected with potential restoration sites

• Social-cultural complexities and context, knowledge of the private sector, and important 

local stakeholders to engage

• Location-specific vulnerabilities, such as to climate change impacts, coral disease 

outbreaks, or invasive or nuisance species

In addition to the core team members, a technical advisory group may be needed for some steps. 

This advisory group could include experts or scientists that the planning team feels are needed to 

complete any of the steps. It will also be important throughout this process to share progress on 

restoration planning with other key stakeholders, including those with decision-making authority. 

In each step of the Guide, we describe how planning teams can work through the material and 

engage with local stakeholder groups.

What about missing or incomplete data?

You may not have all of the information or data discussed in each of the steps. Depending on 

the information that is missing, you may wish to pause the planning process and obtain any 

relevant datasets or information before continuing. However, do not let incomplete data hinder 

your progress. Where possible, use the best judgment of technical experts in your local area to 

make informed decisions.

Corals growing on table and rope nursery in Belize. Image: Fragments of Hope
10 A MANAGER’S GUIDE TO CORAL REEF RESTORATION PLANNING AND DESIGN

Supporting Documents

To assist planning teams in completing steps, two appendices have been included that can be 

used alongside the Guide: the Workbook and Action Plan Template.

• The Workbook (Appendix 1) provides a place to document the process, information, 

and decisions made during Steps 1-4 of the planning cycle that guide you toward 

developing an Action Plan. In the “Suggested Process” sections within each step of this 

Guide, we provide instruction for when to turn to the Workbook to complete activities 

with your planning team. The full Workbook can be retained as a reference document 

for evaluating and adapting the Action Plan over time. The Workbook can provide a 

comprehensive record of the information and assumptions made in developing your 

Action Plan and may provide valuable insights as new information becomes available or 

underlying assumptions change.

• The Action Plan Template (Appendix 2) is intended to help develop your Action Plan, 

which serves as the final output from completing the planning steps in this Guide. 

An Action Plan provides details on a project’s goals, objectives, sites, and actions to 

be undertaken (Figure 1). The template is intended to be populated from information 

summarized in your Workbook, and the labeled steps correspond with the Guide and 

Workbook. Not all of the information you have documented in the Workbook will go into 

your Action Plan. Rather, final decisions and summaries of your process to reach these 

decisions will be included and described. The Action Plan you develop may be used as part 

of a broader Restoration Strategic Plan that also includes plans for monitoring, operations, 

and individual work plans (see Figure 1). The Action Plan may also be useful for supporting 

a grant or project proposal, as an executive summary for more detailed strategies, or for 

reporting on the outcomes of the project. It is important to note that other strategic plans 

may already be in place in your location for reef management and conservation, and a 

restoration strategic plan should seek to align with these wherever possible.

Collecting coral spawn to fertilize new coral colonies. Image: Paul Selvaggio | SECORE International 
A MANAGER’S GUIDE TO CORAL REEF RESTORATION PLANNING AND DESIGN 11

Figure 1. Developing an Action Plan for restoration as part of a broader strategic plan for restoration. 

Adapted from the Open Standards for the Practice of Conservation (CMP 2020).

ACTION PLAN

A description of a project’s 

goals and objectives, sites 

selected for restoration, and 

the interventions and actions 

that will be undertaken to 

conduct restoration.

OPERATIONAL PLAN

A plan including information 

on funding requirements, 

human capacity, skills, and 

other non-financial resources 

required, risk assessments, 

estimate of project lifespan, 

and exit strategy.

MONITORING PLAN

A description of monitoring 

activities for your restoration 

project. It includes 

information needs, indicators 

and methods, spatial scale 

and locations, timeframe, 

and roles and responsibilities 

for collecting data.

WORK PLAN

A short-term schedule for implementing any of the plans above. Work plans 

typically list tasks required, the party responsible for completing each task, 

and when and how tasks should be completed.

RESTORATION STRATEGIC PLAN

The overall plan for a project. A complete strategic plan includes descriptions of a project’s 

scope, vision, and targets; an analysis of project situation; an Action Plan, Monitoring Plan, 

and Operational Plan.

Stabilized coral fragments in underwater nursery,

Puerto Morelos, Mexico.

Image: Jennifer Adler
12 Coral tree nursery. Key Largo, Florida. Image: Alex Neufeld | Coral Restoration FoundationTM
A MANAGER’S GUIDE TO CORAL REEF RESTORATION PLANNING AND DESIGN 13

STEP 1: SET GOAL AND GEOGRAPHIC FOCUS

Overview

Articulating the goal of your restoration project and the 

geographic area of interest where you will work is the first 

step towards completing your Action Plan.

In Step 1A, you will identify priority restoration goals for your 

management region. You are encouraged to review the 

guidance in Step 1A and develop a well-articulated goal 

statement before moving on to Step 2, even if you have 

already identified the geographic focus area(s) and potential 

sites for your restoration intervention. In Step 1B, you will 

determine geographic focus area(s) for each restoration 

goal you have identified. These are areas where conducting 

restoration interventions would help to achieve the goal.

By the end of the step, you will select a single restoration goal and will define the geographic focus 

areas for this goal (Step 1C). Keep in mind that you can go through the planning process again 

for each of your priority goals. Potential sites within the geographic focus areas may begin to be 

recognized at this stage, but prioritization of specific sites and restoration interventions will occur 

in Steps 2 and 3, respectively.

Assumptions for Step 1

» Coral reef and watershed management plans are being actively implemented in the areas of 

interest for coral reef restoration. 

» Any well-documented threats causing reef degradation have been identified and are 

currently or will be under effective management.

» A planning team has been assembled with the correct expertise to carry out restoration 

planning.

1A. IDENTIFY AND PRIORITIZE GOALS

A clearly articulated goal is an essential first step in the planning and design of a successful 

restoration project. This first step is intended to help reef managers avoid “trial and error” 

restoration interventions that are not grounded in a realistic and achievable vision for successful 

restoration. In conservation, a goal is a formal statement that details the desired impact you 

hope to achieve by conducting restoration interventions (CMP 2020). Goals should be thought 

of as being achieved over the medium-to-long term (CMP 2020), and reached through more 

concerted objectives that occur over shorter time intervals. Goals are important components 

of your Action Plan that will be defined in this step, while further details and objectives will be 

included and refined in subsequent steps in this Guide. 

Importantly, the goals of broader coral reef management and conservation in the area(s) 

where restoration may occur can help guide your process for goal setting for restoration. 

Aligning restoration goals with other strategies already in place can ensure that restoration is 

contributing to larger efforts. 

STEP 1: SET GOAL & GEOGRAPHIC FOCUS

Step parts:

1A. Identify and Prioritize 

Goals

1B. Identify Geographic 

Focus for Each Goal

1C. Select Goal and 

Geographic Focus for 

Restoration Planning 

and Design
14 A MANAGER’S GUIDE TO CORAL REEF RESTORATION PLANNING AND DESIGN

This list of general restoration goals is adapted from Coral Reef Restoration as a Strategy to 

Improve ecosystem services (Hein et al. 2020); Coral Restoration – A Systematic Review of Current 

Methods, Successes, Failures and Future Directions (Boström-Einarsson et al. 2020); and Coral 

Reef Restoration Monitoring Guide: Methods to Evaluate Success from Local to Ecosystem Scales

(Goergen et al. 2020).

Ecological Goals

» Mitigate coral population declines and preserve biodiversity

» Re-establish reef ecosystem function and structure 

Socio-Economic Goals

» Sustain local tourism opportunities 

» Promote local coral reef stewardship

» Recover and sustain fisheries production 

» Recover and sustain coastal protection

Disturbance-Driven Goals

» Respond to acute disturbances to accelerate reef recovery 

» Mitigate anticipated coral loss prior to disturbance

Climate Change Adaptation Goals

» Mitigate impacts and promote reef resilience to climate change

SUGGESTED PROCESS

1. Brainstorm and prioritize restoration goals. The primary aim of coral reef restoration is to recover 

a functioning and self-sustaining reef ecosystem. However, goals with a narrower focus may 

motivate reef managers and practitioners to conduct restoration as well.

Starting with example restoration goals provided in Box 1.1, brainstorm and prioritize goals for your 

location. When doing so, it may be helpful to consider the level of maturity of your restoration 

program (i.e., whether you are just starting or have been doing restoration for a number of years). 

The goals in Box 1.1 are examples, and you may wish to combine or add to the list of goals as 

needed. We suggest initially limiting the list to three or fewer priority goals that will be your ‘general 

goals’. You will then select just one of your specific goals in Step 1C to move forward with for the 

remaining planning steps.

Box 1.1. Examples of General Restoration Goals.

2. Craft SMART Goals. For the remainder of the planning process, we suggest working with up to 

three priority goals. To convey what successful restoration would entail, it is useful to develop more 

specific language for your priority goals. To do this, we suggest using the SMART attributes, which 

are Specific, Measurable, Achievable, Relevant, and Timebound, to craft your goals (see Table 1.1). 

For example, in Box 1.2, if a priority is to recover and sustain fisheries production services, what would 

success look like now and in the future considering climate change and ocean acidification? It may 

be useful to begin by describing the specific problems that would be addressed by the goal.

At this stage, the language of the goal should be crafted to reflect the medium- to long-term 

vision of the restoration project (approximately 10-20 years). The shorter-term vision (one to five 

years) will be reflected in setting objectives in Step 4 that progress towards your goal.

You may not be able to address every SMART attribute in your goal statement. For example, you 

may not be able to assign metrics to quantify the desired impacts, such as the percent increase 

in fish abundance. Some attributes can be addressed when you define SMART objectives for 

your goal in Step 4.
A MANAGER’S GUIDE TO CORAL REEF RESTORATION PLANNING AND DESIGN 15

Attribute Description (from CMP 2020) Examples

Specific Clearly defined so that all people involved 

in the project have the same understanding 

of what the terms in the goal or objective 

mean

Identifies the restoration site, 

species or techniques to be used 

in the restoration intervention, or 

biophysical conditions

Measurable Definable in relation to some standard scale 

(numbers, percentages, fractions, or all/ 

nothing states)

Identifies the area to be restored 

(e.g., square m or km area), number of 

corals outplanted or percent survival 

compared to a baseline, or amount of 

reef crest accretion

Achievable Practical and appropriate within the 

context of the project site and in light of 

the political, social, and financial context 

(especially relevant to objectives; goals may 

be more aspirational)

Considers numbers of corals or 

measurable outcomes that are 

feasible within the project scope, 

considers local and climate threats 

(e.g., land-based pollution, sea level 

rise) to restoration activities

Relevant Ensures the significance of the outcome 

within regional or local management 

context

Coral species selected is particularly 

resilient, endangered, or ecologically 

critical

Timebound Achievable within a specific period of time, 

generally 10-20 years for a goal and 1-10 

years for an objective

Identifies deadlines considering 

biological and ecological parameters 

(e.g., year achieved)

Documenting the process and providing any supporting rationale for identifying the details for 

each goal is important for sharing with decision-makers and stakeholders and when revisions 

of the Action Plan need to be made. Later in Step 4, the goal will be used to develop SMART 

objectives, which reflect interim outcomes in the one to 10-year timeframe.

Table 1.1. Attributes of SMART Goals and Objectives. Adapted from the Open Standards for the Practice of 

Conservation (CMP 2020). Examples are illustrative and not intended to be comprehensive.

Example General Goal: Recover and sustain fisheries production

» Define Problems:

» Loss of coral reef structure from bleaching and trampling of corals by tourist snorkelers is 

reducing available food and habitats for reef fishes

» Loss of coral biodiversity results in reduced abundance and diversity of reef fishes

» Loss of reef fishes reduces fisheries production locally 

» Loss of reef fishes locally negatively impacts fisheries regionally and globally as coral reefs 

support over 25% of the ocean’s biodiversity.

Example SMART Goal: Within 10 years, restore diverse and structurally complex coral reef 

fisheries habitats that increase abundance of valued species and support local fisheries 

production and livelihoods.

Box 1.2. Developing a SMART restoration goal.

Workbook activity: List and describe the priority goals for your management area. 

Summarize the process and decisions made in generating the list of goals. Rewrite 

your goals using specific language to make each goal SMART. Summarize key problems 

addressed by each goal and the process used to generate these specific goals.
16 A MANAGER’S GUIDE TO CORAL REEF RESTORATION PLANNING AND DESIGN

1B. IDENTIFY GEOGRAPHIC FOCUS FOR EACH GOAL

It is likely that in defining goals in Step 1A, you have already been making the connection between 

goals, geographic focus areas, and potential restoration sites. Here, a geographic focus area is a 

broad area where conducting restoration interventions would be most appropriate or relevant to 

achieving your goal. This could be the northeastern side of an island or multiple islands that are 

experiencing similar issues and where coral reef restoration might be needed and appropriate. 

Within these geographic focus areas, specific reef sites may then be identified and selected for 

restoration (in Step 2 of this Guide). In some cases, your geographic focus area(s) may already be 

known, such as when a restoration plan is being developed specifically for a marine protected 

area with boundaries already defined, or in response to an acute disturbance event. Despite 

this, completing this exercise is still important for determining whether these areas match your 

restoration goal, whether other areas should be considered, and if some areas are relevant for 

multiple goals.

For the example goal developed in Box 1.2 (i.e., restoring reef fisheries habitat), the geographic 

focus area might include shorelines where, or adjacent to where, local fishers fish. In some cases, 

a secondary goal may also be applicable within the geographic areas identified. For example, in 

areas where tourism resorts are threatened by loss of coral cover, a secondary restoration goal 

might be to also improve the quality of the reef experience for visitors. Places where multiple 

restoration goals overlap may be places where restoration can achieve multiple goals.

SUGGESTED PROCESS

1. Develop a technical advisory group. It is recommended that a technical advisory group of 

experts be convened to review each goal and identify the relevant geographic focus area(s). 

Some members of this group may be the same for all priority goals, others may not. For 

example, the goal of restoring reef fisheries habitat should include a group of experts who 

collectively have knowledge of local commercially important fisheries, fishing grounds, and 

coral reef species that provide adequate diversity and structure for the fisheries of particular 

interest. In addition, knowledge of other factors such as larval connectivity that may enhance 

fish recruitment to the chosen restoration area should be included. The technical advisory group 

should be invited to provide initial feedback on the goals and to identify any additional expertise 

that might be needed.

Outplants of Acropora palmata, Key Largo, Florida. Image: Alex Neufeld | Coral Restoration FoundationTM
A MANAGER’S GUIDE TO CORAL REEF RESTORATION PLANNING AND DESIGN 17

2.Map the geographic focus area(s) for each priority restoration goal. 

Using detailed maps of the region and expertise of the technical advisory group, identify 

areas in the region most relevant to each restoration goal. For example, a goal to restore 

reef biodiversity may have different geographic focus areas than a goal to restore coastal 

protection. After you have established the geographic focus area(s) for each goal, you can look 

across goals for opportunities where areas overlap and multiple goals can be addressed in 

the same area (Figure 1.1). It is recommended that this mapping exercise consist of two rounds 

of discussion and mapping for each goal, using the expert elicitation questions below (and 

repeating this process for each goal).

Round 1: Functionality and Benefits. Identify areas where reefs provide the functionality and 

benefits related to the goal. Experts discuss and provide responses by circling areas on the map.

• What areas currently or in the recent past have performed functions that are relevant to 

the goal? 

• What areas are currently experiencing the problems that the goal seeks to address? 

• Within these areas, where could reef restoration provide social and ecological benefits?.

Round 2: Management and Biophysical Context. For the areas where reefs perform functions 

relevant to the goal and where reef restoration could provide social and ecological benefits, 

describe the management and biophysical context in order to define challenges and 

opportunities. See Table 1.2 and Figure 1.1 for example knowledge areas and questions.

• What are the greatest management challenges in each area for achieving the 

restoration goal?

• What is the biophysical context in which these challenges will need to be addressed? 

• What is the likelihood of overcoming these challenges? What are unique opportunities?

Each expert writes down or discusses relevant knowledge of the circled areas of the map. Using 

this information, the geographic focus area(s) for each goal can be set, considering areas where 

challenges can be overcome or unique opportunities exist.

Table 1.2. Example questions to consider in describing the management and biophysical context of geographic 

focus areas.

Management context Biophysical context

• What is the extent of landbased runoff, overfishing, 

tourism overuse, and other 

direct or indirect human 

uses in the area?

• How effective is 

management of these uses?

• Have there been previous 

attempts at coral reef 

restoration that could inform 

the current project?

• What government policies 

and programs provide 

challenges or opportunities 

for coral reef restoration?

• Are there oceanographic 

conditios that may support 

recruitment?

• Is there localized upwelling 

that may be a source of cool 

water?

• Does the geomorphology 

of the area impact the 

residence time of water?

• What is the extent of 

ecological connectivity 

between habitats?

• How do watersheds and 

hydrological conditions 

contribute to water quality in 

the area?

• What are the historical and 

future projected incidence 

of coral bleaching, recovery, 

and disease in the area?

• What factors in the area may 

contribute to or mitigate 

ocean acidification and its 

interactions with bleaching 

and disease?

• How will increasingly intense 

storms affect wave energy, 

flooding, and volume and 

concentration of pollution 

runoff?
18 A MANAGER’S GUIDE TO CORAL REEF RESTORATION PLANNING AND DESIGN

Within 10 years, restore diverse and structurally complex coral reef fisheries habitats 

that increase abundance of valued species and support local fisheries 

production and livelihoods.

Example – Identifying the geographic focus area(s) for priority goals

Area A

Area B

Area C

Area currently or in the recent 

past performing functions that 

are relevant to the goal

Candidate restoration sites – identified 

and then selected in Step 2

Area currently experiencing 

the problems that goal seeks 

to address

Area where reef restoration 

could provide social and 

ecological benefits

 reef structure reduces wave energy and coastal erosion 

a level and increasingly intense storm events.

Area A

Are

ecent 

ns that 

cing 

eeks 

ion 

d 

Determining the geographic focus area(s) should consist of two rounds of discussion:

1) Functionality and benefits 2) Management and biophysical context

• What areas currently or in the recent past 

have performed functions that are relevant to 

the goal? 

• What areas are currently experiencing the 

problems that the goal seeks to address? 

• Within these areas, where could reef 

restoration provide social and ecological 

benefits?

Example knowledge areas

• Land-based runoff

• Overfishing

• Tourism overuse

• Government policies 

and programs

• Oceanographic 

processes

• Geomorphology

• Ecological connectivity

• Watersheds and 

hydrology

• Ocean temperature, 

bleaching, and disease

• Ocean acidification

• Coastal flooding and 

inundation

• Increased storm surge 

and runoff

Figure 1.1. Conceptual figure and example map describing how restoration goals relate to geographic 

focus areas, and how the focus areas can be determined through rounds of discussion. After going through 

this process for two or more of your priority goals, you may find that focus areas for some of your goals 

overlap. The example knowledge areas for the management and biophysical context are described in 

question form in Table 1.2.

Workbook activity: Describe and provide a labeled map of the geographic focus 

area(s) for each priority goal. Provide notes about the functionality and benefits, 

and management and biophysical context. Then, summarize the process used and 

experts consulted when determining the geographic focus area(s). This process 

should be completed for each goal.
A MANAGER’S GUIDE TO CORAL REEF RESTORATION PLANNING AND DESIGN 19

1C. SELECT GOAL AND GEOGRAPHIC FOCUS FOR 

RESTORATION PLANNING AND DESIGN

At this point, a single restoration goal and set of geographic focus area(s) related to that 

goal should be selected for continuing with the planning and design steps of this Guide. 

With a stated goal and geographic focus area(s), a rigorous site selection process can be 

undertaken in Step 2.

SUGGESTED PROCESS

1. Decide on one goal to continue with for planning. The planning team should review the outputs 

of Steps 1A and 1B and select a restoration goal and geographic focus area(s) to move forward 

with for planning and design of a restoration project. It may be useful to convene a technical 

advisory group to review the goals and focus areas and provide feedback on whether the 

options selected are viable. The project will take place at specific sites identified in Step 2 

and will consist of one or more types of restoration interventions that will be selected in Step 

3. This intervention selection step is where other practical factors will be considered, such 

as the availability of funding for the number of interventions and sites, stakeholder interest 

in supporting restoration efforts, and regional priorities. Finally, the suitability of the specific 

sites and selected interventions will be trialed during the pilot phase of implementation, as 

described in Step 4 of this Guide.

Workbook activity: Describe the restoration goal your team selected to continue 

with for planning and design, as well as the final geographic focus area(s). Describe 

the process and rationale used to make this determination.

Stakeholder Engagement

Stakeholders can be critical players in successful implementation of restoration activities and 

for ensuring the long-term sustainability of the project. It may be beneficial to have certain 

stakeholder groups serve as active participants during different steps of the planning process. 

Step 1 provides an opportunity to convene a technical advisory group to develop goals, 

determine the geographic focus area(s), and establish priorities.

In addition to technical expertise, a broad range of stakeholders can be involved in the 

planning and implementation of a restoration project. It is recommended that relevant 

stakeholders are identified early in this process. As more details of your restoration plan are 

determined during the subsequent steps of this Guide, you may need to revisit this exercise and 

consider changes to your stakeholder engagement strategy.

Workbook activity: List technical experts, stakeholders, and partners 

including scientists, engineers, community members, and members of 

the private sector and national and local governments engaged to review 

and prioritize restoration goals and the geographic focus area(s). Provide a 

summary of stakeholder engagement activities to be taken for this step.
20 Diver preparing substrate for outplanting corals in Grenada. Image: Tim Calver A MANAGER’S GUIDE TO CORAL REEF RESTORATION PLANNING AND DESIGN
A MANAGER’S GUIDE TO CORAL REEF RESTORATION PLANNING AND DESIGN 21

STEP 2: IDENTIFY, PRIORITIZE, & SELECT SITES

Overview

STEP 2: IDENTIFY, PRIORITIZE, 

& SELECT SITES

Assumptions for Step 2

» Restoration goals have been identified, and one priority goal has been selected to continue 

working with for planning and design of a restoration project (Step 1)

» Geographic focus areas have been identified where restoration interventions could help 

managers to achieve the set goal (Step 1)

» The management and biophysical context for restoration has been described for the 

geographic focus areas (Step 1)

Identifying and selecting sites where restoration will 

occur to meet the goal you have selected is the second 

step towards completing your Action Plan.

This step of the planning process involves identifying 

and prioritizing sites where restoration will occur 

to meet a specific restoration goal. In Step 2A, a 

technical advisory group will meet to: identify potential 

restoration sites within the geographic focus area(s) 

set during Step 1; discuss the framework for prioritizing 

sites; and agree on how the framework will be 

implemented, including whether it will be completed 

using semi-quantitative or quantitative data. The 

technical advisory group can be the same as in Step 1, or the group can be supplemented with 

additional managers, scientists and stakeholders as needed. 

In Step 2B, a subset of the group with skills in data collection, analysis, data visualization, and 

mapping will complete the framework for assessing and prioritizing sites. The framework for 

prioritizing sites places emphasis on relevance to goal, the potential to improve site condition 

through restoration, and short- and long-term coral survivorship. Survivorship is assessed by 

combining projected future exposure to disturbances, resilience and the extent and severity of 

human impacts, which equates to assessing vulnerability to climate change and other interacting 

stressors. The end result is a ranking or classification of the potential restoration sites as high, 

medium, or low relative priority.

In Step 2C, the results will be shared in a workshop setting with the group involved in Step 2A, 

and potentially other decision-makers, manager colleagues, and reef stakeholders. The final 

sites will be selected at this meeting. Note that “final sites” refer to sites selected to test and start 

the restoration process, and the number of sites selected will likely be determined by available 

resources and capacity. As with every step in this guide, site selection might be refined as part 

of an iterative process through time. You may want to select a small number of sites for the pilot 

phase with a plan to expand to other sites in the next phase.

Step parts:

2A. Identify Potential 

Restoration Sites

2B. Use Framework to 

Prioritize Sites

2C. Finalize Site

Selection
22 A MANAGER’S GUIDE TO CORAL REEF RESTORATION PLANNING AND DESIGN

2A. IDENTIFY POTENTIAL RESTORATION SITES

A site can be defined as an area of reef habitat that is within (i.e., not larger than) the geographic 

focus area determined in Step 1. Sites are likely to be a few hundred square meters of reef habitat 

and could take a variety of shapes depending on the habitat there and depth profiles. The 

geographic coordinates will need to be recorded for the approximate center of the site. In some 

cases, many candidate sites could be assessed and compared with sites set using GIS software to 

set a grid (e.g., 250x250 m cells) over the geographic focus area(s). In these cases there will be many 

sites, and the analysis (Step 2B) can be used to short-list candidates for final selection (Step 2C). 

All sites compared using the framework should be of the same habitat type with similar depths 

and area. This ensures sites can be meaningfully compared. For example, values for some resilience 

indicators and human impacts would likely vary between a fore reef site 12-15 meters deep and a 

nearby lagoon site that is 1-3 meters deep. You would need to complete the framework for lagoon 

sites and then again for fore reef slope sites independently. You can then discuss and compare 

results within and among the habitat types during Step 2C when the final sites are selected.

Outplanting Acropora corals in the Dominican Republic. Image: Paul Selvaggio | The Nature Conservancy
A MANAGER’S GUIDE TO CORAL REEF RESTORATION PLANNING AND DESIGN 23

Outplanting corals onto damaged reefs, US Virgin Islands. Image: Tim Calver | The Nature Conservancy

Workbook activity: List restoration sites within the geographic focus area(s) being 

considered for restoration. Document their location and provide a brief rationale for 

why each site was selected.

SUGGESTED PROCESS

1. Brainstorm potential restoration sites. In this step, it is important to list all potential sites where 

restoration could be conducted within the geographic focus area(s) set during Step 1. Alternately, 

GIS software can be used to set a grid over the focus area, and your team can determine the 

reef habitat cell or area size. Then, a framework for prioritizing sites (or habitat grid cells/areas) 

will be applied to set priority levels for each site to inform site selection. This step should be 

completed with your technical advisory group. Sites that should be considered are sites where 

some or all of the following are true:

1. Management is in effect – causes of reef degradation have been identified and are under 

effective management (now or in the future)

2. Reef value is high – reef provides important ecosystem services that offer multiple 

benefits in addition to the goal, or has high cultural value

3. Data are or can become available – long-term monitoring takes place, data and information 

on the site are available or accessible, or plans and resources are available to collect new data

2.Develop a site list or map. A list of sites (names or numbered codes) with center point 

coordinates should be developed as an output from the process above. Consider developing 

a map that shows the entire area under management, the geographic focus areas for the 

restoration goal (from Step 1), and the sites under consideration for restoration within the 

geographic focus areas (from Step 2A).
24 A MANAGER’S GUIDE TO CORAL REEF RESTORATION PLANNING AND DESIGN

2B. USE FRAMEWORK TO PRIORITIZE SITES

The framework for prioritizing sites enables a rigorous process for site selection. Collecting or 

compiling information to use the framework, and then presenting the information within data 

tables and maps, can help ensure that the sites eventually selected (in Step 2C) are those where:

» Restoration will help to achieve the set goal (‘Relevance to restoration goal’)

» Restoration will most improve conditions at the site (‘Potential to improve site condition’)

» Short- and long-term coral survival potential is high (‘Coral survivorship’)

This is where you may also want to consider connectivity, because restoration sites that are sources 

of coral larvae (rather than sinks) will increase the benefits for the larger reef system. High-resolution 

connectivity information is rarely available in reef areas, so it is likely that you may need to exclude 

connectivity. However, if connectivity information is available, all sites can be classified as relative 

sources or sinks, and a criterion can be set that weights sites that are sources as higher priority.

The framework is composed of five types of data or information under the categories of: Relevance 

to Restoration Goal, Potential to Improve Site Condition, and Coral Survivorship. Coral Survivorship 

is subdivided into Future Exposure to disturbances, the capacity of sites to show positive Ecological 

Resilience, and Human Impacts – these, in combination, equate to assessing vulnerability to 

climate change. The framework has been designed to be adaptable; all framework parts should be 

considered, but how each part is assessed is expected to vary among users.

1. Relevance to Restoration Goal: To what extent would restoration at the site help to 

achieve the set goal?

Let’s continue with the example goal:

Within 10 years, restore diverse and structurally complex coral reef fisheries habitats that 

increase abundance of valued species and support local fisheries production and livelihoods.

The sites closest to known fishing areas would have the greatest relevance to meeting this 

goal. Restoring sites close to known fish aggregation areas (nursery or spawning grounds) 

and accounting for local currents and connectivity patterns is also relevant and should be 

considered. For goals related to ecosystem services, consider using available tools such as the 

Mapping Ocean Wealth Portal (see Resources). There will probably be different spatial patterns 

in ‘Relevance to Restoration Goal’ for each of your different goals. This is why the framework 

for prioritizing sites needs to be repeated for each restoration goal (following setting a new 

geographic focus for each goal in Step 1 and identifying candidate sites in Step 2A). Note that 

it is possible that ‘Relevance to Restoration Goal’ will be considered to be equal for all of your 

candidate sites. In these cases, the Relevance to Restoration Goal part of the prioritization 

framework can be omitted.

2. Potential to Improve Condition: To what extent will restoration improve site condition?

In many cases, the potential to improve condition at a site through restoration can be assessed 

as the change in coral cover or another metric of ecological condition (e.g., ratio between 

corals and macroalgae) over the last year due to a disturbance event, or over the last 3, 5, or 

10 years due to several disturbance events combined with human impacts. In these cases, the 

potential to improve condition at a site would be greatest where the potential to reverse recent 

negative change in coral cover or another metric of ecological condition is greatest.

It is important to remember that some sites will be able to recover naturally if there is sufficient 

recruitment of coral larvae. Sites where natural recovery potential is high should not be 

considered for restoration interventions, as interventions can be costly, and other traditional 

management actions may be more successful with supporting the site over the long-term. 
A MANAGER’S GUIDE TO CORAL REEF RESTORATION PLANNING AND DESIGN 25

Table 2.1. Factors influencing coral survivorship.

Future Exposure Ecological Resilience Human Impacts

What is the likely frequency and 

severity of future disturbances?

What is the capacity of the 

site to resist and recover from 

disturbances?

What are the types and severity 

of human impacts affecting coral 

reef communities at the site, and 

which are or could be mitigated 

through management actions?

Disturbance is a regular part of the 

dynamics of coral reefs. In all reef areas, 

there can be large spatial variations in 

impacts caused by disturbances. While 

many disturbances are unpredictable 

and hence difficult to include in the 

framework, some can be projected. 

Climate model projections suggest there 

will be great variation, even at local scales, 

in future exposure to coral bleaching 

events. Similarly, some reefs are more 

prone to coral predator outbreaks or 

sediment pulses from intense storms 

due to their location. Coral survivorship 

is likely greater where impacts to coral 

communities from future disturbances are 

less likely, may be less severe, or will occur 

much later as the climate changes.

Resilience can vary widely among 

reef sites, depending on the 

intactness of ecological processes 

that support resilience. Within any 

area of interest, reefs with greater 

relative resilience will have relatively 

high coral diversity and recruitment, 

high herbivore biomass, abundant 

crustose coralline algae, and low 

levels of coral predation, disease 

and macroalgae cover. These 

characteristics of relatively resilient 

reefs are ‘resilience indicators’ that 

can be assessed or quantified.

Even at the most remote reefs 

in the world, there are impacts 

caused by human activities.

Human impacts reduce reef 

resilience; they reduce the 

capacity of reefs to resist 

disturbances and can lengthen 

recovery timeframes. The types 

and severity of human activities 

that impact each candidate 

reef site will vary. Examples of 

human impacts in reef areas 

include: marine-based pollution, 

watershed-based pollution, 

marine debris, overfishing, coastal 

development, tourism and 

shipping, among many others.

3. Coral Survival: What is the short- and long-term likelihood that corals at the site 

will survive?

Corals are more likely to survive where they are exposed to less frequent and/or severe future 

disturbances, at sites with greater resilience to disturbance, and at sites exposed to lower levels 

of pressure or stress from human activities (see Table 2.1).

Coral bleaching in American Samoa Image: The Ocean Agency | Coral Reef Image Bank
26 A MANAGER’S GUIDE TO CORAL REEF RESTORATION PLANNING AND DESIGN

SUGGESTED PROCESS

1. Decide how to use the framework for prioritizing sites. The framework can be completed semiquantitatively, using assessments and judgments from local experts, or quantitatively, using 

data from local and regional ecological and social monitoring programs. Deciding whether to 

complete the framework semi-quantitatively or quantitatively requires first reviewing available 

data. Using a strictly quantitative approach requires that data are available for each framework 

part. As a starting point, you can review the information used to set the geographic focus for the 

goal. List each framework part within a document or spreadsheet file and then list all available 

datasets. Examples of datasets to consider include:

• Reef monitoring data on benthic cover and fish community structure, as well as coral 

predation and disease

• Projections of future exposure to bleaching events (publicly accessible on the UN 

Environment Live, see Resources)

• Extent and severity of impacts from recent disturbances

• Patterns in impacts caused by other disturbances (e.g., crown-of-thorns starfish 

outbreaks, floods)

• Human impacts data showing patterns and severity of impacts on reefs caused by 

human activities (e.g., ship groundings, overfishing)

• Data on other uses of the area, such as a marine spatial plan, zoning plan, or MARXAN

• Data from previous attempts at restoration in the area

You should only list datasets that are sufficiently rigorous and recent, meaning the group is 

comfortable with how and when the data were collected. You should state on your list exact 

dates of data collection. Data more than 3-5 years old may not be representative of current 

spatial patterns in any of the variables for the framework parts, so should be considered with 

care. Your group can then discuss what data would be needed to fill in any gaps and whether 

you have the expertise, resources, and time to generate or collect those data.

The next step is to consider whether to apply the framework quantitatively or semiquantitatively (Table 2.2). For some, data limitations will result in the conclusion that 

completing the framework semi-quantitatively is the only option. For others, the framework 

could be completed either semi-quantitatively or quantitatively. That both are an option 

does not automatically mean that the framework should be completed quantitatively; each 

approach has different advantages and disadvantages.

Outplants of Acropora cervicornis, Key Largo, Florida. Image: Alex Neufeld | Coral Restoration FoundationTM
A MANAGER’S GUIDE TO CORAL REEF RESTORATION PLANNING AND DESIGN 27

Table 2.2. Advantages and disadvantages of semi-quantitative and quantitative approaches.

Advantages

Semi-Quantitative Framework

 Site prioritization based on expert judgment

Quantitative Framework

 Site prioritization based on comprehensive datasets

• Does not require extensive, detailed, rigorous 

and recent data on each framework part

• Allows for input from local experts

• No issues with data gaps in the identified 

restoration area

• Can be easier to interpret than fully 

quantitative scoring

• Relatively easy to analyze and present the 

response data

• Less data, time, and resource-intensive 

than completing the framework entirely 

quantitatively

• Results in a way to compare sites within 

priority classes; i.e., five sites may end up ‘high 

priority for restoration’ and they can be ranked 

from 1 to 5

• More objective than human responses, which 

can be especially important for the Resilience 

category

• Enables comparisons among several areas of 

interest within the same location (i.e., where 

groups of responses from different expert 

groups cannot be compared)

Disadvantages

Semi-Quantitative Framework Quantitative Framework

• Cannot compare sites within priority classes; 

i.e., five sites may end up ‘high priority 

for restoration’ with no objective way to 

determine which is the highest priority

• Human responses can be highly subjective

• Cannot easily compare areas within the same 

location

• Masks detail as a single priority rating is 

used for resilience, which is a composite 

metric derived from many indicators in the 

quantitative analysis

• Requires extensive, detailed, rigorous and 

recent data on each framework part

• Has potential to be very time- and resourceintensive

• There may be data gaps at candidate sites 

requiring new data collection

• Requires technical expertise in compiling and 

analyzing the data

• Data rigor will be a common concern and 

spurious data (in a quantitative analysis) has the 

same limitations as subjective human responses

Semi-Quantitative Approach

For this approach, site prioritization is conducted based on expert judgment. Statements are 

developed for each framework part, and experts rate the level of agreement with each statement 

using a five-point scale (e.g., 5 = Strongly Agree; 1 = Strongly Disagree). The statements need to 

be developed in such a way that the direction of the scoring is the same for all framework parts; 

i.e., that a high score means higher relative priority for restoration and a low score means lower 

relative priority for restoration. The responses from local experts for each site and statement are 

averaged and can then be translated into relative classifications (e.g., low, medium, and high, for 

relative restoration priority).

SUGGESTED PROCESS

1. Develop framework part statements and record average responses. Each framework part is 

associated with a statement that is graded by local experts on a scale of 1-5. Example statements 

and a site rating sheet are provided in Table 2.3. The number values associated with each 

agreement level are then averaged for each framework part. Importantly, variance among the 

average scores should exceed 1 for sites to be considered different. If all sites have average scores 

within just 1 point, respondents do not think the sites are very different and all sites could be 

considered of equal priority level. This is likely to be a rare case, but in these cases all sites would 

be discussed in Step 2C as equal priority and a range of other considerations related to the social, 

cultural, political, and management context could be discussed and used to select sites.
28 A MANAGER’S GUIDE TO CORAL REEF RESTORATION PLANNING AND DESIGN

SITE 1:

Example Statements for Each 

Framework Part

Rating

Total 

(N) Avg. Strongly 

Agree (5)

Agree

(4)

Neutral 

(3)

Disagree 

(2)

Strongly 

Disagree (1)

1. Relevance to Restoration Goal:

Restoring this site is extremely and 

directly relevant to achieving our 

restoration goal.

5,5,5 4,4 3 0 0 26 (6) 4.3

Document data or rationale provided.

2. Coral Survival:

a. Future Exposure:

This site is among those in our 

geographic focus that is likely to 

rarely be exposed to disturbances or 

is projected to be exposed to these 

disturbances much later.

Document data/rationale used for rating.

Considerations: future exposure to 

cyclones, coral bleaching conditions, 

extreme low tides, predation, and other 

disturbance events.

b. Ecological Resilience:

This site is relatively resilient, with great 

relative capacity to resist and recover 

from disturbances.

Considerations: common resilience 

indicators include: coral recruitment, 

coral diversity, herbivore biomass, 

macroalgae cover, CCA cover, 

coral predation, coral disease, and 

temperature variability.

Document data/rationale used for rating.

c. Human impacts:

Human impacts are relatively low at this 

site.

Considerations: common human 

impacts on reefs include reef fish fishing, 

marine-based pollution, watershedbased pollution, marine debris, coastal 

development, tourism, and shipping.

Document data/rationale used for rating.

2. Potential to Improve Site Condition:

Restoration will greatly improve condition 

at this site.

Considerations: extent to which 

ecological condition has declined or 

degraded in recent years.

Document data or rationale provided.

Table 2.3. Example site rating sheet to record responses and rationale using a semi-quantitative approach.
A MANAGER’S GUIDE TO CORAL REEF RESTORATION PLANNING AND DESIGN 29

2.Color code responses to facilitate discussion of priorities. Next, the results need to be made 

intuitive to the people who will eventually select the restoration sites in Step 2C and need 

to consider and discuss the framework results. For this reason, average responses for each 

framework part can be color-coded based on the average level of agreement with the 

statement (Table 2.4).

Table 2.4. Coding system for converting average responses to prioritize sites using a semi-quantitative approach.

Level of Agreement Conversion to Relative Restoration Priority Color Code

Strongly Agree (5) High (average values >4.1 and ≤5) [Dark Blue]

Agree (4) Med-high (average values >3.1 and ≤4) [Light Blue]

Neutral (3) Medium (average values >2.1 and ≤3) [Light Orange]

Disagree (2) Medium-Low (average values >1.1 and ≤2) [Orange]

Strongly Disagree (1) Low (average values ≤1) [Red]

3. Establish relative restoration priority level. Finally, relative restoration priority levels are 

established by classifying reefs as ‘high’, ‘medium’, or ‘low’ priority for restoration. Average 

responses for each framework element are then converted to relative restoration priority levels 

with color codes for tables and maps. Either 2 or 3 priority levels are recommended but you 

could have more. Example criteria for 3 priority levels are provided in Table 2.5.

Table 2.5. Coding system to establish priority levels based on site prioritization.

Relative Restoration 

Priority Level Conversion to Relative Restoration Priority Color Code

HIGH priority for restoration There are MEDIUM-HIGH or HIGH values for at 

least 3 of the 5 framework elements AND there are 

no LOW values for any element of the framework 

[Dark Blue]

MEDIUM priority for restoration There are no LOW values for any framework 

element and criteria for HIGH is not met

[Orange]

LOW priority for restoration There are LOW values for one of the framework 

elements

[Red]

A completed table is shown over the page (Table 2.6), as a worked example to show how the 

criteria above result in a priority rating for each restoration site. Using a color scheme in a 

table enables readers to see which sites are high versus low priority and why, since all average 

values and relative classifications (low to high) are shown for each framework part. This table 

format also enables quick identification of sites with relatively high priority where a focus on 

management of human impacts would support the success of restoration interventions, or even 

change the ranking of the site. For example, in Table 2.6, Orchid Reef and Rose Reef have the 

same final average score (3.40), yet Rose Reef is considered a high priority reef, and Orchid Reef 

is medium priority. Both have high or medium-high value scores for at least 3 of the framework 

parts, but Orchid Reef has medium-high human impacts. If addressing those impacts is 

tractable through short-term management actions, Orchid Reef could be seen (for the purposes 

of site selection) as having lower human impacts, thereby moving it into the high priority 

category. Those discussions can take place among your group in Step 2C.
30 A MANAGER’S GUIDE TO CORAL REEF RESTORATION PLANNING AND DESIGN

Table 2.6. Hypothetical site prioritization results using a semi-quantitative approach. Example analysis table for 15 reefs, 

using the criteria described above. In the color scheme used throughout the table, blue means higher restoration priority 

and red means lower (here, only 3 classes are used – low, medium, and high – see tables 2.4 and 2.6 for examples of use 

of 5 classes and colors). The sites are organized from highest to lowest priority level. Note that there is a high priority 

reef, Lily Reef, and a medium priority reef, Azalea Reef, where mitigating human impacts could support the success of 

restoration interventions (orange and red boxes for human impacts). The value in each cell is an average of the responses 

(with value from 1 to 5), so could be paired with variance to show level of agreement among respondents.

Quantitative Approach

If this approach is selected, continuous data are compiled for each framework part. Data for 

all framework parts must be set to a unidirectional standard scale. This requires dividing by the 

maximum value for each variable or indicator from among the sites being considered. This 

generates new data values between 0 and 1, with a maximum value of 1 (called ‘normalizing’ the 

data). This scale can be made unidirectional to ensure high scores equate to a relatively high 

priority for restoration; in some cases (e.g., human impacts, see below), this requires subtracting 

the normalized values from 1. With all scoring scales aligned and unidirectional, the scores for all 

framework parts can be averaged and compared.

SUGGESTED PROCESS

1. Develop metrics and units to support quantitative assessment of each framework part. For each 

framework part, at least one metric and unit should be defined. These will vary based on your 

planning team, but suggestions and examples are provided below.

Relevance to Goal: In Step 2A you identified sites from within the geographic focus area(s) 

identified for the goal. This part of the prioritization framework is intended to further define 

site conditions needed to achieve the goal and metrics that can be used to prioritize these 

site conditions. For the example goal of “Within 10 years, restore diverse and structurally 

complex coral reef fisheries habitats that increase abundance of valued species and support 

local fisheries production and livelihoods”, relevance to goal could be quantified as the 

proximity (in hundreds of meters or kilometers) of the candidate site to a known fishing area. 

Examples of other valuable metrics might include abundance of important fish and coral 

species or the proximity of sites to fish nursery habitats like seagrass beds and mangroves.

Reef Name

Priority 

Level 

FINAL

Average Relevance 

to Goal

Potential 

to Improve 

Condition

Short and long-term Survivorship 

[Climate vulnerability]

Future 

Exposure Resilience Human Impacts

Geranium Reef HIGH 4.52 4.92 4.92 4.92 4.92 2.92

Tulip Reef HIGH 3.73 3.84 4.97 4.93 1.93 2.97

Lily Reef HIGH 3.71 3.97 3.88 3.88 4.88 1.92

Periwinkle Reef HIGH 3.71 2.91 3.91 3.91 3.91 3.91

Rose Reef HIGH 3.35 1.95 3.95 3.95 1.95 4.95

Orchid Reef MEDIUM 3.33 3.93 3.93 2.93 3.93 1.93

Petunia Reef MEDIUM 2.27 1.87 1.87 1.87 2.87 2.87

Azalea Reef MEDIUM 2.10 3.90 1.90 1.90 1.90 0.90

Chrysanthemum Reef LOW 3.76 0.96 4.96 4.96 2.96 4.96

Lavender Reef LOW 3.58 3.98 3.98 4.98 0.98 3.98

Hydrangea Reef LOW 2.43 4.83 0.83 0.83 2.83 2.83

Daisy Reef LOW 2.29 2.89 0.89 0.89 4.89 1.89

Marigold Reef LOW 2.11 1.91 0.91 0.91 3.91 2.91

Buttercup Reef LOW 1.70 0.97 0.96 0.84 3.89 1.84

Violet Reef LOW 1.61 1.10 2.15 2.20 0.20 2.42
A MANAGER’S GUIDE TO CORAL REEF RESTORATION PLANNING AND DESIGN 31

Potential to Improve Site Condition: The potential to improve site condition could be measured 

as the percent decline in absolute coral cover in the last five years (i.e., that decline could 

potentially be reversed). Declines can then be quantified and compared among sites; i.e., the sites 

where declines have been greatest, and which may benefit most from reversing degradation.

Future Exposure: Many different disturbances could affect reefs in the future. At the time of 

publication of this Guide, there are publicly accessible data on projected spatial variation in the 

likelihood, frequency and severity of cyclones/hurricanes and coral bleaching for all coral reefs. 

For coral bleaching, climate models have been used to project the date (between 2020 and 

2100) when coral reefs will start to experience annual severe bleaching (ASB). These long-term 

projections provide an indication of coral bleaching conditions in the decades ahead. These differ 

from NOAA Coral Reef Watch products, which provide near real-time updates on thermal stress in 

reef areas as well as short-term outlooks (for the 3-6 months ahead). Given that reefs will degrade 

before annual bleaching events occur, ASB is a conservative estimate of when reefs will degrade 

and begin losing their capacity to provide ecosystem services. ASB dates can vary greatly on local 

scales (van Hooidonk et al. 2016). These projections have 4 km resolution and are available at the UN 

Environment Live website (see Resources), where data can be downloaded and extracted for the 

sites being considered for restoration (sites will only have differing values in the Projections Dataset 

if >4 km apart). Reefs projected to experience ASB later relative to other candidate sites may have 

greater potential for long-term coral survivorship. You may also want to consider floods, extreme low 

tide events, predator outbreaks, or disease epidemics.

Ecological Resilience: Indicators of ecological resilience in reef areas may include coral diversity, 

coral recruitment, herbivore biomass, and presence or cover of crustose coralline algae, all of 

which relate to ecological processes that can support short-term coral survivorship and the 

capacity for reefs to recover after disturbance. In contrast, coral predation, coral disease, and 

macroalgae cover are all indicators of ecological processes that will limit or hinder short-term 

survivorship. Readers may want to consider other indicators. The indicators listed here are 

examples of commonly used resilience indicators recommended within A Guide to Assessing 

Coral Reef Resilience for Decision Support (Maynard et al. 2017) which includes lists of indicators 

and appropriate metrics. Data for the indicators will come from ecological reef monitoring data 

collected locally or by regional/national monitoring teams. Data for each indicator are combined 

to produce a resilience score for each site.

Human Impacts: Examples of human impacts 

in reef areas include: marine-based pollution, 

watershed-based pollution, marine debris, 

overfishing, coastal development, tourism, and 

shipping. That is not an exhaustive list. There 

may be other human impacts on coral reefs in 

your area. Data for human impacts will come 

from ecological reef monitoring data collected 

locally or by regional/national monitoring teams. 

Human impacts risk information is also available 

from Reefs at Risk Revisited (Burke et al. 2011) 

at 500 meter resolution. These datasets include 

coastal development, marine-based pollution and 

damage, overfishing and destructive fishing, and 

watershed-based pollution, as well as those four 

combined into Integrated Local Threat (ILT). The 

ILT data (see Resources) can be used if quantitative 

data are not available for human impacts in your 

area and are available as projections of local threat 

severity for 2030 and 2050. Image: Link Roberts | Marine Photobank
32 A MANAGER’S GUIDE TO CORAL REEF RESTORATION PLANNING AND DESIGN

A single value or score must be generated for any framework part that has more than one 

variable or indicator (certain to be the case for resilience and human impacts). Each of these 

is an ‘aggregate index’; these indices combine scores for a number of different indicators or 

metrics. The analysis steps are reviewed in detail in A Guide to Assessing Coral Reef Resilience for 

Decision Support (Maynard et al. 2017). For Ecological Resilience and Human Impacts data, the 

procedure is:

1. Normalize the data for each indicator or variable (e.g., human impact type) by dividing 

by the maximum value among the candidate sites; this sets a standard scale for all 

indicators and impacts of 0-1. 

2. That scale is then made unidirectional in an intuitive way. With resilience, it makes sense 

to talk about high resilience being good. High scores equal ‘high resilience’, meaning 

the normalized values are subtracted from 1 for indicators where high values are bad for 

resilience (e.g., coral predation, coral disease, and macroalgae cover).

3. The scores for the indicators and impacts are then averaged. 

4. The aggregate resilience and human impacts scores are then normalized to a scale of 

0-1 by dividing by the maximum value. 

5. The ‘human impacts’ aggregate scores are subtracted from 1, so that high scores are 

good scores for both resilience and human impacts.

2.Conduct quantitative assessment using metrics. A completed example is shown in Table 2.7. The 

steps to complete the framework include:

1. Average the scores for each framework part to generate the raw priority score.

2. Normalize raw priority scores, as was the case for resilience and human impacts, by 

dividing by the maximum value. This results in a final restoration priority score of 0-1 with 

the sites with greatest priority having a score of 1, and all other sites assessed as relative 

to those sites (i.e., a site with a score of 0.7 has 30% lower priority than the highest priority 

sites).

3. Establish relative restoration priority level using criteria for low, medium, and high priority 

level as shown in Table 2.5. Re-sort data from highest to lowest score within each priority 

level, and list the levels from highest to lowest priority (as in Table 2.7).

4. Rank sites from highest to lowest final priority scores from 1 to X (note: any number of 

sites can be included). 

5. Use the color scheme for all scores for all framework parts, as follows (where avg is 

average and sd is standard deviation): high (≥avg+1sd), med-high (≥avg and <avg+1sd), 

med-low (≥avg-1sd and <avg), and low (<avg-1sd). Med-high and med-low can be 

combined into medium as in the example in Table 2.7.

The same example used for the semi-quantitative section (Table 2.6) is now shown for the 

quantitative approach in Table 2.7.

Workbook activity: List available datasets applicable to each part of the prioritization 

framework. Document any data or information that are missing or need to be 

collected. Describe the rationale for your decision to complete the framework 

quantitatively or semi-quantitatively, including the advantages and disadvantages in 

your case. Complete the framework, documenting steps in the analysis as described in 

the Workbook. Develop final tables with sites sorted by priority level with color-coding 

to distinguish low, medium, and high scores and rankings.
33

Table 2.7. Hypothetical site prioritization results using a quantitative approach. Priority Level categories are the same as those used for the semi-quantitative approach (see Table 2.6). In the color scheme used throughout the table, blue means greater restoration priority and red means lower priority (where avg is average and sd is standard deviation): high (≥avg+1sd), med-high (≥avg and <avg+1sd), med-low (≥avg-1sd and <avg), and low (<avg-1sd). The sites are organized from highest to lowest priority level. Quantitative scoring, combined with criteria setting for priority levels, ensures that relative priority within the category is clearly seen, and that sites with high priority scores (averages) but a low score for a key category, are low priority (e.g., Chrysanthemum Reef which has low value to goal but the third-highest average score). See below table for variable codes.

Reef Name Priority Level Priority Score FINAL Priority Score RAW Relevance to Goal Potential to Improve Condition Short and long-term coral survival . [Climate Vulnerability] Future Exposure Resilience/ecological processes Human Impacts R CD HB CR CCA CP* CD MA* HI MBP WP MD OF CD T S

Geranium Reef HIGH 1.00 0.76 0.88 0.92 0.87 4.92 0.38 0.60 0.73 0.50 0.82 0.95 0.86 0.25 0.40 0.15 0.87 0.84 0.64 0.27 0.77

Tulip Reef HIGH 0.96 0.73 0.83 1.00 1.00 1.93 0.79 0.70 0.57 0.65 0.14 0.19 0.00 0.25 0.97 0.50 0.23 0.75 0.88 0.11 0.47

Lily Reef MEDIUM 0.92 0.70 0.78 0.82 0.77 4.88 1.00 0.99 0.65 0.45 0.91 0.68 0.74 0.12 0.73 0.38 1.00 0.54 0.35 1.00 0.60

Periwinkle Reef MEDIUM 0.84 0.64 0.40 0.79 0.74 3.91 0.14 0.99 0.47 0.98 0.98 0.76 0.61 0.35 0.32 1.00 0.32 0.79 0.29 0.56 0.14

Rose Reef MEDIUM 0.78 0.59 0.33 0.83 0.78 1.95 0.32 0.48 0.61 0.41 0.10 0.15 0.86 0.48 1.00 0.07 0.01 0.96 0.20 0.13 0.33

Orchid Reef MEDIUM 0.70 0.54 0.82 0.54 0.49 3.93 0.51 0.40 0.98 0.05 0.04 0.97 0.00 0.29 0.98 0.02 0.46 0.91 0.23 0.83 0.30

Petunia Reef MEDIUM 0.51 0.39 0.35 0.29 0.24 2.87 0.72 1.00 0.80 0.12 0.83 0.52 0.01 0.32 1.00 0.26 0.68 0.09 0.63 0.86 0.05

Azalea Reef MEDIUM 0.47 0.36 0.78 0.25 0.20 1.90 0.87 0.34 0.28 0.55 0.51 0.00 0.42 0.00 0.43 0.99 0.99 0.34 0.75 0.97 0.76

Chrysanthemum Reef LOW 0.90 0.69 0.13 1.00 0.95 2.96 0.80 0.45 0.05 0.70 0.00 0.51 0.94 0.72 0.68 0.32 0.09 0.10 0.04 0.04 0.20

Lavender Reef LOW 0.90 0.69 0.86 0.89 0.84 0.98 0.28 0.47 0.80 0.06 0.21 0.55 0.12 0.36 0.05 0.91 0.48 0.15 0.62 0.69 0.44

Violet Reef LOW 0.56 0.42 0.35 0.52 0.47 2.83 0.05 0.08 0.84 0.11 0.17 0.94 0.43 0.29 0.76 0.07 0.09 0.19 1.00 0.71 0.89

Daisy Reef LOW 0.54 0.41 0.66 0.21 0.16 4.89 0.86 0.66 0.37 1.00 0.21 0.82 0.88 0.16 0.93 0.74 0.75 1.00 0.41 0.12 0.46

Hydrangea Reef LOW 0.53 0.40 1.00 0.04 0.01 3.91 0.60 0.66 0.81 0.52 0.38 0.45 0.64 0.22 0.42 0.79 0.00 0.12 1.00 0.86 0.86

Buttercup Reef LOW 0.42 0.32 0.20 0.20 0.15 3.89 0.44 0.74 0.92 0.76 0.53 0.97 0.43 0.15 0.97 0.35 0.17 0.96 0.89 0.71 0.40

Marigold Reef LOW 0.41 0.31 0.34 0.08 0.03 0.20 0.49 0.46 1.00 0.57 0.55 0.87 0.74 0.25 0.06 0.19 0.70 0.67 0.37 0.91 1.00

al disease, or CD = c

verfishing, = o

tion,

 OF

edaal pror = c CP

 MD = marine debris,

alline algae, orose c

shed-based pollution, er

A = crust

t

C

a

 C

 = w

ecruitment, al ror CR = c e biomass, or

 MBP = marine-based pollution, WP

 S = shipping.

 HB = herbiv sity,eral div

, HI = human impacts,

ourism, = tT 

er

or CD = c

v

e,

oalgae co

velopment,

esilienc

oastal de

 = macr

R = rMACD = c
34 A MANAGER’S GUIDE TO CORAL REEF RESTORATION PLANNING AND DESIGN

2C. FINALIZE SITE SELECTION

The aim of this step is to share the results of the site prioritization framework with members 

of the technical advisory group or other decision-makers, managers, community leaders, and 

stakeholders to ensure that site selection decisions are made collaboratively and through a 

transparent process, with additional perspectives and local site knowledge accounted for in the 

decision. For example, there may be social, cultural, political or regulatory constraints that make 

restoration at some of the highest priority sites either very attractive or unattractive or even not 

viable. This is also where other aspects of feasibility come into play, including costs, logistical 

constraints (e.g., site accessibility), and any other issues that could affect restoration success. 

There may also be important perspectives on variation in ‘Relevance to Goal’ and ‘Potential 

to Improve Site Condition’ that were not considered when completing the site prioritization 

framework. Another consideration is that recovery can occur naturally at some of the sites the 

framework suggested are highest priority. Discussing this may help your group determine relative 

restoration need, and you may then select from among the highest priority sites where restoration 

is considered most needed. Additionally, the number or size of sites selected at this stage will likely 

need to account for the resources and capacity available for this work.

Note that this section is about finalizing decisions about potential restoration sites. However, you 

may find that your program may need to adapt and make changes to the list of restoration sites 

based on the results and new insights gained from pilot phase activities.

SUGGESTED PROCESS

1. Facilitate a discussion to finalize site selection. The meeting may begin with review and 

discussion of the: 1) framework parts and methods used to complete the framework; 2) criteria 

used to set priority levels; and 3) results, with focus on the medium and high priority sites. Plan 

to facilitate two rounds of discussion, one to reduce the number of medium- and high-priority 

sites being considered and another to select a list of sites that is feasible for your program (for 

example, 3-5 sites). You can use the following points to guide the meeting:

• Discuss the results from the site prioritization framework generally – how many low, 

medium, and high priority sites are there? 

• Discuss all medium- and high-priority sites. Why were each ranked medium- or highpriority? Are there additional considerations, such as regulatory, social or cultural 

constraints, that make one or more of these sites higher (or lower) priority than the others? 

Low priority sites probably should not be considered or discussed at length. The criteria are 

set in the site prioritization framework for high, medium, and low final priority levels such 

that sites considered low priority have a low score for at least one of the framework parts. 

Restoration should not be considered at sites where the ‘Relevance to Goal’ is low, ‘Coral 

Survivorship’ is low, or ‘Potential to Improve Site Condition’ is not expected to improve 

through restoration. For those reasons, you can focus on the medium- and high-priority 

sites, and potentially just the high-priority sites depending on how many there are. 

• Some may feel that one or more of the framework parts is more important than others 

and should be given greater weight during final site selection. Those discussions 

could result in your group viewing framework results from a new perspective or in the 

development of new criteria for rating the sites as low-, medium-, and high-priority. Such 

discussions are likely to help your group identify the highest priority sites. 

• Discussions at the meeting should be facilitated or directed towards the group agreeing 

on a smaller list of priority sites that is feasible for your program. To do this, you may 

need to narrow down the medium- and high-priority sites. A leader (or facilitator) could 

ask whether there are any medium- or high-priority sites that should be considered the 

highest priority, and why. They can also ask whether there are any medium- or highpriority sites that should be excluded from consideration and why. The color-coded tables 

and supplementary maps will inform these discussions and ensure that participants 
A MANAGER’S GUIDE TO CORAL REEF RESTORATION PLANNING AND DESIGN 35

understand why some medium- and high-priority sites are being given the greatest 

consideration. The final site or sites can then be selected from among the highest priority 

sites through further discussion and consideration of these sites to identify the sites 

considered the greatest priority right now, to meet the identified restoration goal. 

• ‘Human Impacts’ will need to be considered and discussed for each of the sites being 

seriously considered for selection. ‘Human Impacts’ should be relatively low at the selected 

sites or managers can consider addressing any human impacts likely to affect short- and 

long-term coral survivorship. This ensures that this final site selection step prepares the 

planning team to identify actions that will support the success of any planned restoration 

interventions (Step 3: Identify, Design, and Select Interventions).

Workbook activity: Provide a brief description of the highest priority sites selected 

for restoration. Include the site name, general description of the site, and a summary 

(quantitative or qualitative) on how sites compare to others using the prioritization 

framework. You may also wish to indicate which site(s) might be suitable for the pilot 

phase. Develop a map of the geographic area of focus for the restoration goal with 

the final selected sites clearly marked. Then, provide a summary of the process used to 

finalize your list of restoration sites, including stakeholders or decision-makers involved.

Locals attach coral fragments, Pulau Hatamin, Indonesia. Image: Martin Colognoli | Coral Guardian | 

Coral Reef Image Bank

Stakeholder Engagement

Stakeholders will want to know where restoration will take place and why, which means 

engaging with stakeholders during Step 2 will be important. Opportunities can be made to 

engage stakeholders and benefit from stakeholder knowledge during each part of Step 2. 

Stakeholders can help identify sites during Step 2A. Stakeholders can then assist with data 

compilation or new data collection efforts when completing the framework for prioritizing 

sites during Step 2B. During Step 2C, stakeholders can provide valuable insight and fresh 

perspectives when reviewing and discussing the results from the framework for prioritizing 

sites. Stakeholder engagement during Step 2 will increase support for the restoration 

interventions identified and selected during Step 3.

Workbook activity: List technical experts, stakeholders, and partners 

including scientists, engineers, community members, and members of 

the private sector and national and local governments engaged to review 

and prioritize restoration goals and the geographic focus area(s). Provide a 

summary of stakeholder engagement activities to be taken for this step.
36 Research informs intervention options. Image: Tracy Ainsworth | UNSW
A MANAGER’S GUIDE TO CORAL REEF RESTORATION PLANNING AND DESIGN 37

STEP 3: IDENTIFY, DESIGN & SELECT INTERVENTIONS

Overview

Assumptions for Step 3

» A restoration goal has been selected to support the identification and design of restoration 

interventions (Step 1)

» The management and biophysical context for restoration has been described for the 

geographic focus area(s) that relate to the set goal (Step 1)

» Sites within the geographic focus area(s) have been identified, prioritized, and selected that 

are relevant to the goal, support coral survival and resilience, and have high potential to 

improve site condition (Step 2)

STEP 3: IDENTIFY, DESIGN, & SELECT

INTERVENTIONS

3A. IDENTIFY AN ARRAY OF INTERVENTION OPTIONS

In this step, you will create a list of intervention options to support your selected restoration goal. 

Each intervention option will then undergo a design process in the next section (Step 3B) to tailor 

it to your specific situation.

Having defined your restoration goal and sites, you will 

now identify, design, and select interventions that will be 

used to achieve your restoration goal. This requires careful 

consideration of various design elements that may be 

needed to tailor a restoration intervention for use in your 

specific context. The identification of a variety of possible 

intervention options - and consideration of how they 

would need to be designed for maximum effectiveness 

both now and in the future - is a critical step to making 

informed decisions about which restoration interventions 

to select for priority action.

In Step 3A, you will brainstorm options for restoration interventions that support the selected 

priority goal and specify how they would be applied at your specific sites. In Step 3B, you will 

examine basic design questions and then add climate-smart design considerations to ensure 

that future environmental changes are examined and incorporated into the design process. 

Armed with the resulting information about how different intervention options compare in their 

potential to be well-designed and effective, you will use five types of criteria to evaluate and 

select your final choice of restoration interventions in Step 3C.

The science and practice of coral reef restoration is evolving rapidly. Managers are advised to 

stay current with the literature to identify field-tested methodologies that may be appropriate 

for your area.

Similarly, climate science is also evolving rapidly both in global projections and regional 

and local observations. Managers are advised to periodically check the latest projections 

and observations as they relate to the planning and design of restoration interventions, and 

throughout subsequent implementation, monitoring, and evaluation.

Step parts:

3A. Identify an Array of 

Intervention Options

3B. Apply Climate-Smart 

Design Considerations

3C. Evaluate and Select 

Interventions
38 A MANAGER’S GUIDE TO CORAL REEF RESTORATION PLANNING AND DESIGN

SUGGESTED PROCESS:

1. Brainstorm options for restoration interventions. Table 3.1 provides a list and descriptions 

of restoration interventions that are currently being applied in field programs, though many 

interventions have still only been successfully applied at small scales. This list has been 

adapted from several comprehensive reviews and includes those that are currently feasible 

and are “reactive” restoration interventions (see Hein et al. 2020). Note that this list may not be 

comprehensive and should not limit the creation of new options. You may also consider this 

table through the lens of information you already have on restoration interventions that may 

have been or currently are being trialed in your location.

Table 3.1. Coral reef restoration interventions currently feasible at local scales. This table is adapted from A 

Research Review of Interventions to Increase the Persistence and Resilience of Coral Reefs (NASEM 2019) and 

Coral Restoration – A Systematic Review of Current Methods, Successes, Failures and Future Directions (BoströmEinarsson et al. 2020).

Intervention What it is

Coral Population Interventions

Direct Transplantation Transplanting coral colonies or fragments without an intermediate 

nursery phase

Coral Propagation and 

Outplanting

Enhancing coral population size through captive rearing and 

transplantation of coral colonies in the field, using an intermediate 

nursery phase; often called coral gardening or asexual propagation

Gamete and Larval Capture 

and Seeding

Collection and manipulation of gametes in the field and/or laboratory 

and release into the wild, either directly at the restoration site or by 

deploying settlement substrates with settled coral recruits; often 

called larval enhancement or sexual propagation

Managed Relocation Increasing the abundance of desired colony types within a population 

range through removal, transport and re-attachment at other 

locations

Reef Community Interventions

Coral Predator Management Manual removal or culling of coral predators during or preemptively 

before outbreak events

Disease Management Use of antibiotics or other compounds or methods to control 

pathogenic microbes

Reef Substratum Enhancement Interventions

Substrate Addition Addition of man-made structures for purposes of coral reef 

restoration, with or without corals attached

Substratum Stabilization Repairing substratum or removing reef rubble to facilitate coral 

attachment and recruitment

Macroalgae Management Manual or mechanical removal of macroalgae by humans or through 

the introduction of herbivores to facilitate coral recruitment or 

recovery

Environmental Interventions

Seagrass Meadow 

and Macroalgal Bed 

Management

Facilitating nearby plant communities to reduce CO2 levels on 

adjacent reefs
A MANAGER’S GUIDE TO CORAL REEF RESTORATION PLANNING AND DESIGN 39

Using Table 3.1 as a starting point for ideas, identify an array of restoration options that support 

achieving your restoration goal. If you are considering restoration at multiple sites, this process 

may need to be repeated for each site (or for a group of sites that face similar challenges to 

meeting the goal) because different types of interventions may be needed. For instance, in 

the case of our example goal of restoring reef fisheries production, the sites that you have 

selected in Step 2 to restore reef fisheries habitats may vary in the amount of existing structural 

complexity, live coral cover, or coral diversity, such that brainstormed interventions might look 

different depending on the site context.

Goal: Within 10 years, restore diverse and structurally complex coral reef fisheries 

habitats that increase abundance of valued species and support local fisheries 

production and livelihoods.

At the selected sites:

» Option 1: Propagate and outplant branching corals to increase structural complexity

» Option 2: Remove macroalgae to enhance natural recruitment 

» Option 3: Supplement existing reef structure with artificial/engineered structure

» Option 4: Propagate and outplant massive and encrusting corals to add biodiversity

» Option 5: Relocate detached corals collected onsite or at other locations

» Option 6: Stabilize loose substrate to facilitate safe attachment and recruitment

» Option 7: Remove Crown-of-Thorns Starfish during outbreaks

At this stage, it is important to think broadly about a full range of options; final selection of 

a more limited number of options for actual implementation will occur later in Step 3C after 

considering how well each potential option could be designed to be effective (in Step 3B). 

This is key because effectiveness-potential is an important factor to weigh when making your 

final selection of interventions. Box 3.2 provides some potential options based on our example 

goal “Within 10 years, restore diverse and structurally complex coral reef fisheries habitats that 

increase abundance of valued species and support local fisheries production and livelihoods.”

Box 3.2. Example intervention options tailored to the reef fisheries goal. In this scenario, we are assuming that we 

are working at a site where there is some existing reef structure.

Another resource to help guide brainstorming and designing restoration interventions is the 

United Nations Report: Coral Reef Restoration as a Strategy to Improve Ecosystem Services: A 

Guide to Coral Restoration Methods (Hein et al. 2020). This report provides information on the 

suitability of different methods for coral reef restoration based on goals, including a method 

suitability index where methods currently applied in the field have been qualitatively ranked 

from least to most appropriate in fulfilling specific goals, based on the best-available current 

knowledge. This index is meant to assist managers, practitioners and decision makers in 

choosing methods depending on their initial goals. Note that the goals in this report follow 

those in Step 1 of this Guide in Box 1.1.

Box 3.1. UN report on coral reef restoration interventions.

A variety of novel techniques for enhancing coral reef resilience are under development and 

may be applicable to restoration efforts soon (see Box 3.2). Managers are encouraged to follow 

progress in these emerging areas of research and testing and consider new techniques when 

they become more widely feasible.
40 A MANAGER’S GUIDE TO CORAL REEF RESTORATION PLANNING AND DESIGN

Research and testing are being conducted on various emerging techniques. These 

emerging techniques have been reviewed in A Research Review of Interventions to 

Increase the Persistence and Resilience of Coral Reefs (NASEM 2019), including:

» Managed Selection: Creating increased frequencies of existing genes for stress tolerance

» Outcrossing Between Populations: Introducing diversity from other populations through 

managed breeding

» Hybridization Between Species: Creating novel genotypes through managed breeding

» Coral Cryopreservation: Frozen storage of gametes and other cells for later use and transport

» Stress Exposure: Using stress exposure prior to outplanting to make colonies more tolerant

» Algal Symbiont or Microbiome Manipulation: Changing algal symbionts to more tolerant 

types; maintaining/increasing abundance of the native or new beneficial microbes

» Nutritional Supplementation and Antioxidant Use: Using nutrients to improve coral fitness 

and increase stress tolerance; reducing oxidative stress using antioxidant chemicals

» Cool Water Mixing: Pumping cool water onto reefs to reduce heat stress

» Abiotic Ocean Acidification Interventions: Reducing CO2 levels through chemical mechanisms

3B. APPLY CLIMATE-SMART DESIGN CONSIDERATIONS

After brainstorming potential intervention options, the next step is to think about the specifics of 

how those interventions will be achieved. Consideration of climate change should be built into 

this thought process to ensure that interventions will be as effective as possible in the face of 

changing environmental conditions.

SUGGESTED PROCESS:

This is a two-fold process that involves first analyzing the basic design of each intervention, 

then incorporating climate change design considerations to enhance the effectiveness and 

resilience of the intervention to future conditions. We can then create a summary description of 

the climate-smart design needed for each intervention option. These descriptions will be used 

in Step 3C to evaluate and select a limited (and more realistic) number of priority interventions 

for implementation.

1. Address basic design questions. For each of the options you have brainstormed, there will be 

several methods or techniques from which to choose. For instance, propagating and outplanting 

corals can be done through asexual or sexual propagation, in a land- or field-based nursery, and 

with outplanting to natural or artificial substrates. Several guidance manuals and publications 

are available that can be used to help design details and best practices for certain restoration 

techniques (see Box 3.4). Managers are encouraged to review these resources and other existing 

literature for information when thinking through the details of their restoration interventions.

Box 3.3. Emerging restoration interventions.

Workbook activity: List the full array of intervention options that could be applied 

towards your restoration goal, indicating how they connect to the goal where 

appropriate. Then, summarize the process used to make these decisions.
A MANAGER’S GUIDE TO CORAL REEF RESTORATION PLANNING AND DESIGN 41

Below is a non-comprehensive list of resources that have been developed 

detailing common coral reef restoration techniques and methodologies. See the 

Resources section for links and information.

» Caribbean Acropora Restoration Guide: Best Practices for Propagation and Population 

Enhancement (Johnson et al. 2011, The Nature Conservancy) 

» Reef Rehabilitation Manual (Edwards 2010, GEF)

» Guidance Document for Reef Management and Restoration to Improve Coastal Protection: 

Recommendations for Global Applications Based on Lessons Learned in Mexico (ZepedaCenteno et al. 2018, The Nature Conservancy)

» Early Warning and Rapid Response Protocol: Actions to Mitigate the Impact of Tropical 

Cyclones on Coral Reefs (Zepeda-Centeno et al. 2019, The Nature Conservancy)

» Considerations for Maximizing the Adaptive Potential of Restored Coral Populations in the 

Western Atlantic (Baums et al. 2019)

Box 3.4. Resources available to aid in the design of restoration interventions.

Figure 3.1 below presents a series of questions to help you specify the design details to be 

incorporated into your intervention options when considering your specific goal, sites, and 

management context. Answer these questions for each of your brainstormed interventions as 

appropriate, noting that not every question applies to every intervention.

Figure 3.1. Intervention design questions. There may be additional questions to consider based on your specific 

situation; at the same time, not all questions will apply to every intervention.

Intervention

Design

What coral species will 

be used?

Where will corals 

be obtained?

What biological 

control techniques 

will be used?

What physical or 

engineering techniques 

will be used?

Attachment methods/materials

Artificial structure type/materials

Positioning of structures or 

outplants on reef

Collection outside 

restoration site

Sourced from a nursery

Massive

Encrusting

Multiple

Branching

Single

Digitate

Gametes captured in 

the wild or laboratory

Collection within 

restoration site

Type of manual or mechanical 

removal method for macroalgae, 

predators, or invasive species

Addition of herbivores raised in 

a nursery or transplanted from 

another site

Application of disease mitigation 

techniques in situ or in the laboratory Substrate stabilization or repair

Fragmentation 

(Asexual)

No propagation

(Direct transplantation)

Larval rearing 

(Sexual)

What coral propagation and/or 

outplanting methods will be used?

Outplanting

Propagation

On artificial reef structures

Field-based nursery

On existing reef structures

Land-based nursery
42 A MANAGER’S GUIDE TO CORAL REEF RESTORATION PLANNING AND DESIGN

A major question in the design of coral reef restoration is which corals to work with, including 

specific species, genotypes, or morphologies (e.g., growth forms such as branching, tabular, 

or massive). Box 3.5 presents a series of questions that can be used to help guide the initial 

selection of corals for restoration. Selections can then be refined as lessons are learned during 

pilot-phase projects. Refer to Box 3.5 as you work through the design questions in Figure 3.1.

Coral reef restoration requires determining which types of corals to work with, 

such as coral species, genotypes, or morphologies (e.g., growth forms such as 

branching, tabular, or massive). Use the questions below to help guide your initial 

selection of corals for restoration. The corals selected can then be refined as 

pilot-phase projects are conducted.

What is the natural composition of corals in reefs in your area?

Is there a healthier nearby reef site in your area that can serve as 

a reference or model ecosystem? If so, this site can be surveyed 

to determine the natural composition of coral species being 

sought at the restoration site. Generally, restoring multiple 

coral species, genotypes, and growth forms may increase reef 

resilience by helping to spread the risk of coral loss due to any 

one disturbance event (Nyström 2006). Also consider that the 

type or ratio of coral species being restored may change in 

different phases of the project.

Are there particular corals that pertain to your restoration goal?

Does a particular coral species need to be restored due to 

population loss, or are certain growth forms more important for 

providing fisheries habitat or abating wave energy? Generally, 

corals on the reef crest provide the most wave energy reduction 

(Ferrario et al. 2014). However, fish communities supported 

by corals vary widely depending on the coral species and 

may require gathering data before coral species selection 

(Komyakova et al. 2018).

Is there sufficient genetic diversity in your area to restore a particular coral species?

Genetic diversity is critical for restoring coral populations, as it 

ensures higher success rates of sexual reproduction and allows 

coral populations to adapt to new conditions and environments 

over time. Generally, practitioners should collect genetically 

distinct coral colonies (or genets) by collecting from 10 different 

parent coral colonies, spaced at least 5 meters apart or from 

different habitats, that exhibit different traits such as size, color, 

or morphology (Baums et al. 2019).

Which corals appear more resilient to common threats in your area?

Are there particular coral species, genotypes, or growth forms 

that perform better after a certain disturbance? For bleaching, 

corals that are more resistant are characterized by massive 

growth forms, thick or less-integrated tissues, and slow growth 

rates; corals that are more susceptible include fast-growing 

species with fine-structured, branching, or tabular growth forms 

(Loya et al. 2001; Marshall and Schuttenberg 2006). Corals in sites 

that experience more varied temperatures may also be less 

susceptible to bleaching.

Box 3.5. Guiding questions for selecting corals for restoration.
A MANAGER’S GUIDE TO CORAL REEF RESTORATION PLANNING AND DESIGN 43

Table 3.2 provides example design answers for three of the restoration options that were 

brainstormed in Box 3.2. Note that this table includes three options for brevity; however, all of 

the options you brainstorm with your planning team should be included in your final exercise. 

Answers to these basic design questions are shown in BLACK text. The BLUE text will be 

explained in the next section, where we explore how climate-smart considerations can be 

folded into the intervention design.

As you answer the basic design questions, you may find yourself automatically incorporating 

some climate change considerations right away, and that is okay! You can double-check 

whether there are any more climate-smart ideas to add to your design elements in the next 

section. As per the examples in the bottom row of Table 3.2, it may be useful to document the 

sources of some of your ideas by including the citations for important reference documents or 

websites that you will need later for implementation.

Removing invasive algae from coral patch reefs 

in Kaneohe Bay, Hawai’i.

Image: Ian Shive | Hawai’i Department of Aquatic Resources
44 A MANAGER’S GUIDE TO CORAL REEF RESTORATION PLANNING AND DESIGN

Goal: Within 10 years, restore diverse and structurally complex coral reef fisheries habitats that increase abundance 

of valued species and support local fisheries production and livelihoods .

Restoration Interventions

Design 

Questions

OPTION 1

Propagate and outplant branching 

corals to increase structural 

complexity

OPTION 2

Remove macroalgae to 

enhance natural coral 

recruitment

OPTION 3

Supplement existing reef structure 

with artificial reef structure

What coral 

species will 

be used?

2 species of branching corals. Species 

A and B will be used because they are 

more resistant to bleaching while also 

being known to attract fish for food and 

habitat. Using more than one species will 

also allow for functional redundancy and 

increase the potential for resistance to 

other disturbances.

N/A Local species

Where 

will corals 

obtained?

Other sites outside the restoration site that 

have sufficient numbers for collection. 

Corals will be collected from sites that 

have experienced past bleaching events 

such that corals are more likely to be 

acclimatized or have genes for increased 

stress tolerance.

N/A Natural recruitment

What coral 

propagation 

and/or 

outplanting 

methods will 

be used?

Propagation method used will be asexual 

fragmentation followed by grow-out in 

a field-based nursery where corals will 

be exposed to temperature extremes to 

further acclimatize corals. Colonies will be 

outplanted onto existing reef structure 

across a range of depths where the coral 

species naturally occurs to spread the risk 

of impacts from potential bleaching events. 

A rapid response plan will be put into place 

for replenishment of corals lost to bleaching 

or storm events using new outplants.

N/A N/A

What 

biological 

control 

techniques 

will be used?

Manual algal removal for substrate 

preparation prior to outplanting, and 

for coral maintenance and protection 

after outplanting. A plan will be put into 

place for more frequent maintenance 

of outplants through algal removal as 

increasing temperatures result in increased 

algal growth.

Use “Super Sucker” vacuum 

systems for mechanical 

removal of macroalgal cover. 

Plan for greater volume and 

frequency of algae removal 

that will be needed as growth 

rates increase with warmer 

water temperatures and 

increased nutrient runoff.

N/A

What 

physical or 

engineering 

techniques 

will be used?

Fragments will be attached with adhesive 

directly to the natural reef substrate. The 

specific adhesive will be marine epoxy, 

which has been shown to have the 

lowest detachment rate and thus should 

hold up the best against wave action 

(Dizon et al. 2008).

N/A Reef structure will be built of wire with 

attached coral skeletons collected from 

rubble as substrate. The structure designs will 

mimic reef aesthetics and provide holes and 

crevices of different sizes to provide a range 

of habitats for different fish species. Wire will 

be installed on a welded steel frame with 

screw anchors embedded in the substrate 

to withstand high wave energy and storms 

(e.g., Reef Balls, see Resources). The structure 

will be oriented parallel to the direction of 

prevailing winds. Structures will be placed at a 

range of depths to spread the risk of impacts 

from bleaching and storm events. A rapid 

response plan will be created for repair or 

replacement of structures after storms.

Table 3.2. Example intervention options with design information. Three options are shown here for brevity. Answers to basic design 

questions are shown in BLACK. Climate-smart design additions highlighted in BLUE will be discussed in the next section.
A MANAGER’S GUIDE TO CORAL REEF RESTORATION PLANNING AND DESIGN 45

2.Apply climate-smart design considerations. The next step is to ensure that you are being 

climate-smart with your designs. Applying climate-smart design considerations (Box 3.6) helps 

to determine and plan for the impacts of climate change on different restoration interventions. 

Since restoration interventions are designed as long-term actions, climate change impacts 

must be considered now and revisited regularly as new climate science emerges and conditions 

change. For any restoration intervention to be considered “climate-smart”, two categories 

of design considerations must be examined - and appropriate adjustments made to the 

intervention — to maximize effectiveness both now and in the future.

Box 3.6. Adaptation Design Tool for coral reefs.

An Adaptation Design Tool and user guide (Parker et al. 2017, West et al. 2017, 2018) are available 

that provide a structure to break down Category 1 and Category 2 design considerations into 

a series of smaller, more tractable steps. An interactive self-paced course - Corals & Climate 

Adaptation Planning: Adaptation Design Tool Online Course - is also available (see Resources). 

Depending on time availability, you can use the tool to look at your intervention options in 

detail, or simply familiarize yourself with key principles of climate-smart design and how the 

tool works before using the simplified method here.

Here we have adapted the climate-smart design considerations of West et al. 2018 (Adaptation 

Design Tool for Climate-Smart Management of Coral Reefs and Other Natural Resources) within the 

context of restoration. You can use the following questions to guide your thinking and discussion 

to incorporate climate change considerations into your restoration intervention design.

• Category 1 Climate-Smart Design Considerations: How will climate change and 

its interaction with local stressors of concern impact the biological resilience of the 

restoration intervention? Example: increased temperature and precipitation may interact 

with local pollution runoff to exacerbate coral bleaching and macroalgae blooms.

• Category 2 Climate-Smart Design Considerations: How will climate change affect the 

physical functionality of the restoration intervention through direct impacts on structural 

components? Example: increasingly intense storms may threaten physical destruction of 

natural or artificial structures.

Use these questions to determine the implications of climate change and how the intervention 

should be adjusted in terms of species selection/manipulation, location, timing, or structural 

design to be climate-smart (e.g., maximize resilience) in the face of climate change. For 

example, it may be possible to adjust the species used, project placement, timing of outplanting 

(e.g., during cooler months), maintenance schedules, and/or construction materials to 

counteract vulnerabilities and improve long-term effectiveness and resilience.

The potential to make improvements based on climate-smart considerations should be 

examined for each design element. Table 3.3 provides examples of how these considerations 

can be folded into the basic design questions used in Figure 3.1. Once you have reviewed Table 

3.3, you can go back to Table 3.2 to see how some climate-smart ideas have been added in BLUE 

text to the three restoration options featured. Table 3.3 is intended to help start your thought 

process; the design considerations that you use for your options will depend not only on your 

goal, but also on the types of vulnerabilities associated with your specific sites. The Workbook 

(Appendix 1) also features a checklist for Table 3.3 that can be used to support discussions about 

applying climate-smart considerations for each intervention option.
46 A MANAGER’S GUIDE TO CORAL REEF RESTORATION PLANNING AND DESIGN

Design 

Questions

Climate-Smart Design Considerations

Category 1

How will climate change and its interaction with 

local stressors of concern impact the biological 

resilience of the restoration intervention?

Category 2

How will climate change affect the physical 

functionality of the restoration intervention 

through direct impacts on structural 

components?

What coral 

species will be 

used?

• What is the vulnerability of the site to bleaching 

conditions? Are certain coral species more resistant 

to bleaching and disease?

• How is climate change affecting sediment and 

nutrient transport to the site? Are certain coral 

species more tolerant?

• What are the implications of ocean acidification for 

coral growth rates and skeleton density/strength?

• Are enough coral species being used to account for 

genetic and functional diversity and redundancy to 

spread the risk of local losses from coral bleaching 

and disease?

• How much is wave energy expected to increase 

with increasingly intense storms? Are certain coral 

species less brittle or more robust against storm 

damage?

Where 

will corals 

obtained?

• Are there in situ sites where corals have naturally 

been acclimatized to bleaching or poor water 

quality?

• Are there genotypes with special characteristics 

with respect to climate change-related stressors 

specific to the restoration site?

• Are there sites that have experienced intense 

storm events from which corals that have 

withstood damage could be collected?

What coral 

propagation 

and/or 

outplanting 

methods will 

be used?

• Are there nursery sites in the field where corals 

could be acclimatized during propagation?

• Is there a lab with options for pre-treating corals 

to acclimate them to variations in temperature or 

other stressors?

• How often will it be necessary to outplant more 

corals to replace losses from bleaching?

• How much is wave energy expected to increase 

with increasingly intense storms? Does this affect 

the decision whether to use natural substrate or 

build an artificial substrate? (Also see engineering 

question below.)

• How often will it be necessary to outplant more 

corals to replace losses from storms?

• Will materials or methods used to outplant corals 

be able to withstand wave energy from storms?

• How will the laboratory where corals will be 

propagated be safeguarded to withstand intense 

storms? Are structures and water intake fortified? Is 

there back-up power generation?

What 

biological 

control 

techniques will 

be used?

• How will climate change affect predator or algal 

outbreaks? Will this affect the frequency or intensity 

with which removal techniques will need to be 

used? Will removal techniques be able to keep up 

with algal growth under changing conditions?

• How is climate change affecting environmental 

conditions for valued herbivore populations? Will 

regular replenishment of herbivores be needed?

• How will climate change affect the frequency and 

severity of disease outbreaks? Will this affect the 

type, method, or frequency of treatments needed? 

Should it affect the coral species chosen?

• Will certain predator or algal removal techniques 

be difficult to do in areas of increasingly high wind 

and wave energy? Will this limit the time of year 

or efficiency (amount that can be done in a given 

time) with which the technique can be used?

• How will the laboratory where herbivores will 

be reared be safeguarded to withstand intense 

storms? Are structures and water intake fortified? Is 

there back-up power generation?

What physical 

or engineering 

techniques will 

be used?

• Is there anything about the coral attachment 

methods or materials that could render corals 

more or less susceptible to climate changerelated stress?

• Will the chosen materials be able to stand up to 

increasingly intense wave energy and storms?

• Will increasing water temperatures have any effect 

on the lifetime of epoxy or other adhesives?

• At what depth should structures be placed to 

account for sea level rise given coral growth rates?

Table 3.3. Example climate-smart design considerations associated with the basic design questions of Figure 3.1. 

The relevance of these and other potential questions will depend on the specifics of your goal, option type, site and 

management context.
A MANAGER’S GUIDE TO CORAL REEF RESTORATION PLANNING AND DESIGN 47

You have already collected quite a bit of information in your earlier work that will be helpful for 

developing your climate-smart design considerations. In Step 1, you described the management 

and biophysical context for your restoration goals by assessing existing threats and projected 

future impacts of climate change. In Step 2, you identified and selected sites within your 

geographic focus areas to support survival of restored corals, which included looking at 

resilience and vulnerability to climate change. All this information is helpful now for applying 

climate-smart design considerations to your specific intervention options. You’ll want to 

develop-out the information you already have with additional information based on:

• Expected climate change effects (temperature, precipitation, storm intensity, etc.) and 

interactions with local stressors of concern (sediment, nutrients, disease/predator/algae 

outbreaks, ocean acidification, etc.) that could threaten the biological resilience of your 

restoration options. This should include information on the direction, magnitude, and 

mechanism of changes along with levels of uncertainty.

• Anticipated timing of when climate change will affect stressors of concern. This informs 

sequencing with other actions (important for Step 3C) and the timeframe under which 

effectiveness should be evaluated (Step 4A).

• Anticipated timing and severity of physically destructive aspects of climate change 

(flooding, storm damage to natural or man-made structures). This can include 

consideration of any tipping points at which the intensity of climate change may 

eventually be so frequently and severely destructive as to render an intervention no 

longer effective or feasible.

• How monitoring (frequency, location, duration, etc.) might need to be modified given how 

climate change may affect biological and physical aspects of the restoration. This includes 

beginning to identify management targets and metrics to assess technical performance 

(effectiveness) of the intervention (important for Step 4).

Outplanting seedling units on the reef, Curaçao. Image: SECORE | Reef Patrol
48 A MANAGER’S GUIDE TO CORAL REEF RESTORATION PLANNING AND DESIGN

Box 3.7. Summary descriptions of example restoration options. Again, you would complete this exercise for all 

your brainstormed options in Box 3.2.

OPTION 1: Asexually propagate and outplant branching corals onto existing reef structure to create 

structural complexity.

Branching coral species A and B will be collected from locations that have experienced past 

bleaching events, propagated through fragmentation, and grown-out in a field-based nursery where 

corals will be exposed to temperature extremes to acclimatize corals. Fragments will be cemented to 

existing reef substrate using marine epoxy that can withstand wave energy. Outplants will be placed at 

a range of depths where the coral species naturally occur to spread the risk of impacts from potential 

bleaching events. Manual removal of algae will be undertaken to prepare the substrate before 

outplanting and protect the corals after outplanting, with a plan for more frequent maintenance as 

increasing temperatures lead to increased algal growth. Corals lost to bleaching or storm events will 

be replenished with additional outplants based on a rapid response protocol.

OPTION 2: Mechanically remove macroalgae to enhance natural recruitment on existing reef structure.

Divers with Super Suckers will be deployed for one week annually during the calm season to 

mechanically remove macroalgal cover. Scheduling adjustments will be made as needed for greater 

frequency, intensity and time investment for algae removal in subsequent years as algal growth rates 

increase with warmer water temperatures and greater nutrient runoff.

OPTION 3: Supplement existing reef structure with artificial reef structure for natural recruitment.

Artificial reef structures will be constructed of wire with attached coral skeletons collected from 

rubble to serve as substrate. The structure designs will mimic reef aesthetics and provide holes and 

crevices of different sizes to provide a range of habitats for different fish species. The wire structures 

will be installed on welded steel frames with screw anchors embedded in the substrate to withstand 

high wave energy and storms, and oriented parallel to the direction of prevailing winds and waves 

to reduce stress on the frames. The structures will be placed at a range of depths to spread the risk 

of impacts from potential bleaching and storm events. A plan will be developed for replacement of 

structures lost to storm events.

Points for Consideration:

• During the design process, you might begin to identify that some interventions are 

interdependent with each other or need to be employed in a sequence. Record these 

insights, as they will be important for the evaluation and selection process in Step 3C.

• Recognition of interdependencies could even lead you to go back and add more 

intervention options to your list. For example, in the case of Option 2 (mechanical removal 

of macroalgae) you might realize that this option will not succeed unless it is used in 

combination with seeding of the reef with urchin larvae as an herbivore replenishment 

intervention.

• Addressing design questions could even lead you to re-evaluate your site selections from 

Step 2. Given the potential for effective intervention design, are all the selected sites still 

the most suitable for these interventions? This is a natural and appropriate question that 

illustrates the nonlinear, iterative nature of this process, where new information can prompt a 

return to previous steps to re-evaluate assumptions and make improvements to decisions.

3.Prepare a summary description of each restoration option. A clear and concise description of each 

restoration option can now be prepared that provides a more explicit name for the intervention 

based on the design choices and a detailed summary of the climate-smart design. These 

descriptions will be used in Step 3C to evaluate and make the final selection of interventions to 

implement. Box 3.7 provides illustrative descriptions for our example options in Table 3.2.
A MANAGER’S GUIDE TO CORAL REEF RESTORATION PLANNING AND DESIGN 49

Workbook activity: For each intervention option, use the Step 3B table provided 

to record your answers to the basic design questions that apply. After reviewing the 

climate-smart design considerations in Table 3.3 (and adding any further questions 

appropriate to your situation), build climate-smart improvements into all relevant 

design elements in your Step 3B table. Add additional Option columns until all 

brainstormed intervention options from 3A above have been designed. Use the 

checklist of climate-smart design considerations to indicate which questions apply to 

each intervention option to support discussion of climate-smart improvements. Add 

questions as necessary to address Category 1 and 2 considerations. Finally, prepare 

a summary description of each intervention option, synthesized from the detailed 

design information that you have developed.

Coral tree nursery in Jamaica. Image: The Nature Conservancy
50 A MANAGER’S GUIDE TO CORAL REEF RESTORATION PLANNING AND DESIGN

Urgency

(e.g., threat level,

sequencing,

lead time)

Feasibility

(e.g., cost,

technical capacity,

infrastructure)

Effectiveness

(e.g., reduces

vulnerability, robust

under uncertainty)

Flexibility

(e.g., reversibility,

adjustability, ease

to implement)

External

benefits

(e.g., benefits other

systems, small

carbon footprint)

Select

Interventions

SUGGESTED PROCESS:

1. Develop evaluation criteria and process. Use Table 3.4 as a starting point to describe the criteria 

and rating system you will use for your evaluation process. You may use some of the example 

criteria provided, and/or you can craft your own. Criteria may be chosen and weighted in 

importance according to the preferences of the stakeholders and decision-makers involved. You 

may consider conducting one or several activities to support evaluation and selection, such as:

• One-on-one meetings with federal, state, and local officials to identify any permitting 

issues or environmental reviews and timing needed to provide input on the feasibility of 

the interventions

• A technical advisory group meeting to provide input on evaluation process and criteria 

and to discuss and rank the restoration options

• Broader stakeholder engagement such as through a workshop to seek input from 

government, private, and nongovernmental entities as well as community members

An Intervention Criteria Evaluation Tool has also been developed to assist managers in using or 

adapting Table 3.4. This tool can be accessed on the NOAA CoRIS website alongside this Guide.

3C. EVALUATE AND SELECT INTERVENTIONS

The array of restoration interventions identified and designed in Step 3A and Step 3B can now be 

evaluated and compared to determine which interventions to implement. While the previous step 

focused on identifying a range of possible options and assessing their potential for effective design, 

this section focuses on narrowing down the possibilities and selecting a more limited combination 

of priority interventions to carry out. An informal, consensus building process can be used to 

achieve prioritization but can be hampered if different stakeholders have different priorities or use 

different criteria to make decisions. This makes it difficult to achieve transparency and consensus 

and can lead to setting priorities based solely on available funding or opportunistic convenience. As 

a result, the best restoration intervention for the goal might not be selected. 

Therefore, it is helpful to use a 

common set of evaluation criteria (e.g., 

Figure 3.2) to engage stakeholders 

in selecting priority restoration 

interventions. A multicriteria evaluation 

framework provides a structured 

process that can be used to discuss 

and document stakeholder input. 

Five common categories of criteria 

are typically used for evaluating 

and selecting among management 

interventions: effectiveness, feasibility, 

flexibility, urgency, and external 

benefits. Within each of these 

evaluation categories there can be a 

variety of criteria applied (see Figure 

3.2 for examples).

Figure 3.2. Suggested categories of evaluation criteria for selecting 

restoration interventions.
A MANAGER’S GUIDE TO CORAL REEF RESTORATION PLANNING AND DESIGN 51

Table 3.4. Example evaluation criteria and rating scale for restoration options. Insert additional columns to accommodate your 

full number of brainstormed options.

Evaluation Criteria

Restoration Intervention Ratings

Strongly Agree (5), Agree (4), Neutral (3), Disagree (2), Strongly Disagree (1)

Option 1 Option 2 Option 3

Effectiveness

Intervention will be technically effective at achieving 

restoration goal 

Intervention will be climate-smart in addressing changing 

conditions and uncertainties in climate change projections 

Average rating 

Rationale

Feasibility

Costs of implementation and maintenance are feasible 

Technical capacity will be in place to implement 

intervention (data, technical knowledge, number of staff)

Physical infrastructure is achievable to implement 

intervention (e.g., land-based laboratory)

Required government regulations and permits are 

obtainable within the implementation timeline

Strong community, political, and private sector 

acceptance/support for intervention is available

Average rating 

Rationale

Flexibility

Intervention is designed to be adjustable to 

accommodate changing conditions and incorporate 

learning

Intervention is reversible if needed 

Average rating 

Rationale

Urgency 

Degree of threat and cost of inaction is high if 

intervention is not implemented

There is an immediate opportunity associated with 

implementing the intervention based on availability of 

partnerships, funding, or leveraging other existing efforts

Results from the intervention can be achieved in a 

timeframe aligned with urgency of threat

Average rating 

Rationale

External Benefits

Intervention achieves benefits outside of the target 

system, to other ecosystems, and/or human communities 

(e.g., economic, coastal protection, biodiversity, larval 

source, education, or research benefits)

Intervention minimizes unintended negative 

consequences, including carbon footprint

Average rating 

Rationale

Interactions

Are there interdependencies, sequencing requirements, 

or conflicts with other options?
52 A MANAGER’S GUIDE TO CORAL REEF RESTORATION PLANNING AND DESIGN

It is recommended that the technical advisory group be convened to review and refine the 

criteria and propose any weighting as needed. A description of each restoration intervention 

option should be provided for review by the technical advisory group, based on your 

descriptions in Step 3B. At first, each option should be discussed and evaluated on its own 

merit and not relative to the other options. It is, however, important to document whether each 

option has any interdependencies, sequencing requirements, or conflicts with other options, as 

this can figure into final selections at the end. The rationale for the rating for each of the criteria 

should be documented for each option (see Table 3.4) to support the selection of restoration 

interventions that will be included in the implementation plan. More important than an absolute 

rating or number will be the documentation of the rationale for selection. As you work through 

the criteria with the technical advisory group, you will likely begin to identify factors that will be 

relevant to establishing performance metrics in Step 4.

2. Select restoration intervention(s) and document rationale. After completing the evaluation 

process, the core planning team can discuss all the inputs received and select the restoration 

intervention(s) that will be implemented in the pilot phase and later in the scaling-up phase to 

support the goal. Some interventions may be selected individually, but others may be selected 

as combinations. This is because the evaluation process may lead you to select multiple 

interventions together that are positively interdependent, or to combine details of multiple 

intervention options to create a new and improved intervention.

For instance, in the case of the three example options in Box 3.7, we might decide after careful 

evaluation that Option 1 (“Asexually propagate and outplant branching corals onto existing reef 

structure to create structural complexity”) by itself will not succeed because there is too little existing 

reef structure available for the number of outplants needed to build up the reef. Likewise, we might 

judge that Option 3 (Supplement existing reef structure with artificial reef structure for natural 

recruitment) by itself will not work due to insufficient larval supply to the site for natural recruitment. 

However, we might conclude that merging elements of the two options into one combined option 

will succeed at achieving the necessary amount and pace of reef structure build-up to reach the 

goal. A statement of the combined option might look like the example in Box 3.8.

Box 3.8. Example restoration intervention combining multiple interventions into a mixed approach.

OPTION 1 + OPTION 3

Supplement existing reef structure with artificial reef structure and outplant asexuallypropagated branching corals onto both substrates to create structural complexity.

Artificial reef structures will be constructed of wire with attached coral skeletons collected from 

rubble to serve as supplemental substrate. The structure designs will mimic reef aesthetics and 

provide holes and crevices of different sizes to provide a range of habitats for different fish species. 

The wire structures will be installed on welded steel frames with screw anchors embedded in the 

existing substrate to withstand high wave energy and storms, and oriented parallel to the direction 

of prevailing winds and waves to reduce stress on the frames. The structures will be placed at a 

range of depths to spread the risk of impacts from potential bleaching events. Branching coral 

species A and B will be collected from locations that have experienced past bleaching events, 

propagated through fragmentation, and grown-out in a field-based nursery where corals will be 

exposed to temperature extremes to acclimatize corals. Fragments will be cemented throughout 

both the artificial and existing reef substrates using marine epoxy that can withstand wave energy. 

Manual removal of algae will be undertaken to prepare the substrate before outplanting and 

protect the corals after outplanting, with a plan for more frequent maintenance as increasing 

temperatures lead to increased algal growth. A rapid response protocol will be developed for 

replacement of structures and replenishment of corals lost to storms and bleaching events.
A MANAGER’S GUIDE TO CORAL REEF RESTORATION PLANNING AND DESIGN 53

Once you have selected and refined your more limited set of priority options to implement, you can 

proceed with developing specific measurable objectives and finalizing your Action Plan in Step 4.

Stakeholder Engagement

The process outlined in this step should allow you to make decisions with a number of diverse 

stakeholders and be transparent about the decisions made about restoration interventions. 

You can use Table 3.4 or a similar table or figure to present a summary of the evaluation and 

selection process and share the rationale behind decisions for your location. It will be useful 

to document the process of engaging stakeholder groups in this process as well to show how 

diverse interests were incorporated. 

Workbook activity: Describe the evaluation criteria used to select restoration 

interventions and provide a summary of how these details were determined. Record 

ratings for each evaluation criteria (scale from 1-5) for each intervention option, using 

criteria from Table 3.4 and/or criteria developed by your planning team. Add additional 

columns until all brainstormed intervention options have been evaluated. Then, 

document the intervention(s) that best support the priority goal as well as the process 

and rationale used during your evaluation process.

Workbook activity: List technical experts, stakeholders, and partners including 

scientists, engineers, community members, and members of the private 

sector and national and local governments engaged to review and prioritize 

restoration goals and the geographic focus area(s). Provide a summary of 

stakeholder engagement activities to be taken for this step.

Corals growing on artificial reef structure in Kenya. Image: REEFolution
54 Coral reseeding at the Great Barrier Reef, Australia. Image: Biopixel | James Cook University
A MANAGER’S GUIDE TO CORAL REEF RESTORATION PLANNING AND DESIGN 55

STEP 4: DEVELOP RESTORATION ACTION PLAN

Overview

STEP 4: DEVELOP RESTORATION

ACTION PLAN

Assumptions for Step 4

» Restoration goal and site(s) have been selected (Steps 1-2)

» Restoration interventions have been identified, designed to include consideration of climate 

change, and prioritized for implementation at the selected restoration sites to specifically 

meet the goal (Step 3)

4A. DEFINE SMART OBJECTIVES

Objectives are formal statements of the interim outcomes (over a one to 10-year timeframe) along 

the path to recovery as your restoration project moves towards reaching the goal (Gann et al. 2019, 

CMP 2020). Objectives allow you to set and reach targets for a project like rungs on a ladder, with the 

restoration goal being met at the top of the ladder. We suggest defining SMART objectives, where 

objectives are written to be Specific, Measurable, Achievable, Relevant, and Timebound (see Table 1.1). 

A final test of your objective is whether it is understandable to all stakeholders and provides a picture 

of what success looks like. Because objectives are time-bound and occur over shorter time periods, 

you may consider developing multiple SMART objectives that together reach the project goal. For 

instance, if your goal is defined at 20 years, multiple objectives may be set for every one to five years 

during this timeframe. An initial objective, within the first two to three years, may be to validate your 

intervention on a smaller scale during a pilot phase, before moving to full-scale implementation.

Objectives are measured by specific performance metrics. Performance metrics are quantifiable 

and relate to a specific information need (CMP 2020). Performance metrics are used to quantify the 

desired results of restoration interventions and monitor progress. Measuring performance through 

metrics is key for determining if the restoration intervention is achieving the desired outcome.

The next step in the planning process is to define SMART 

objectives and develop activities needed to complete your 

Action Plan. 

In Step 4A, you will define SMART objectives detailing 

how the project will achieve progress toward the goal. 

This includes identifying performance metrics that will 

allow you to monitor progress. In Step 4B, you will develop 

activities for each objective and an implementation 

timeline needed to complete restoration interventions. 

Key activities include not only those required for the 

restoration project, but also management and community engagement activities needed 

to support the project. In both Steps 4A and 4B, special emphasis is placed on defining an 

objective and activities to support a pilot phase as a proof of concept for the restoration 

intervention. These steps, as well as the information gathered through the previous four steps in 

this Guide, are then used in Step 4C to build your Action Plan.

Step parts:

4A. Define SMART 

Objectives

4B. Develop Activities and 

Implementation TImeline

4C. Build Restoration 

Action Plan
56 A MANAGER’S GUIDE TO CORAL REEF RESTORATION PLANNING AND DESIGN

SUGGESTED PROCESS:

1. Identify potential performance metrics relevant to the restoration goal and intervention(s).

Your restoration goal and interventions provide the framework to identify potential performance 

metrics. You will consider these metrics in crafting SMART objectives. You can use Table 4.1 

below to assist with this process. This table was developed using information from Coral Reef 

Restoration Monitoring Guide: Methods to Evaluate Success from Local to Ecosystem Scales 

(Goergen et al. 2020) (see Box 4.3) and the list of example restoration goals presented in Step 

1 (Box 1.1). Example goals from Step 1 have been highlighted in the table in BLUE. Questions 

to consider in identifying potential performance metrics related to your restoration goal and 

intervention may include:

• Which metrics are we already monitoring in the restoration site(s)?

• Which metrics do we know how to monitor but are not monitoring now?

• What additional metrics are relevant to the restoration goal and intervention?

You will revisit this list and Table 4.1 as you craft SMART objectives.

Restored coral at Pulau Haramin, Indonesia. Image: Martin Colognoli | Coral Guardian | Coral Reef Image Bank
A MANAGER’S GUIDE TO CORAL REEF RESTORATION PLANNING AND DESIGN 57

Table 4.1. Example indicators and data that can be used to develop metrics for different restoration goals. Adapted from 

Goergen et al. 2020.

Goals Indicators Data Outcomes

Ecological Goals

Coral Population Enhancement Abundance and Cover • Changes in abundance and cover of restored corals

• Mitigate coral population • Rates of coral recruitment

declines and preserve 

biodiversity

Reproductive Capacity and 

Survival

• Observations of timing, genotype variability, and 

percent of corals spawning 

• Survival rate of transplanted corals

Coral Condition • Presence/absence of corals

• Prevalence of coral conditions

• Percent tissue loss

Species Richness and Diversity • Species richness, diversity, and evenness

Community and Habitat 

Enhancement

Invertebrate Community • 

• 

Invertebrate abundance/density

Presence/absence

• Re-establish reef ecosystem • Species richness, diversity, and evenness

function and structure Reef Fish Community • Species richness, diversity, and evenness

• Recover and sustain fisheries • Abundance

production services. • Size distribution

Reef Structure and Complexity • Mean coral height

• Mean structure height

Habitat Quality • Water quality parameters

• Sedimentation rates and characterization

• Secchi disk depth

• Percent cover and diversity of functional groups

• Abundance, diversity, and survival of coral recruits

Socio-Economic Goals

Economic Benefits Coastal Protection • Wave energy reduction/attenuation

• Recover and sustain coastal • Shoreline erosion over time

protection services

• Recover and sustain fisheries 

production services

• Costs associated with coastal protection and 

economic benefits

Fisheries Production • Catch per unit effort

• Sustain local tourism 

opportunities

• Sales of local fish

Eco-Tourism Opportunities • Number of participants

• Trends in participation and revenue generated

• Job creation

Socio-Cultural Benefits Cultivating Stewardship • How many participants return

• Promote local coral reef • Which events created the most reach

stewardship • Change in volunteer opinion on restoration

Capacity Building • Retention of volunteers

• Presence of program financial plan

Reef-User Satisfaction • Reef-user perception of restoration

Event-Driven Goals

Disease and Bleaching Post-Impact Change • Number of colonies impacted

• Respond to acute 

disturbances to accelerate 

• 

• 

Rates of recovery of colonies impacted

Types and rates of diseases present

reef recovery

Physical Impacts Post-Impact Change • Damage extent

• Respond to acute • Determination if restoration is feasible

disturbances to accelerate 

reef recovery

Climate Change Adaptation Goals

Improved Reef Resilience Coral Thermal Tolerance • Corals with tolerance to certain stressors 

• Mitigate impacts and 

promote reef resilience to 

climate change

• 

• 

Percent of corals manipulated that show increased 

tolerance

Water temperature

Disturbance Response • Reduced losses due to bleaching (e.g., increased 

resistance)

• Recruitment and recovery post-bleaching 
58 A MANAGER’S GUIDE TO CORAL REEF RESTORATION PLANNING AND DESIGN

2.Craft SMART Objectives. Craft objectives that use the SMART approach, looking back to Step 1 

(Table 1.1) for more information as needed. Again, developing a SMART statement means that 

it should be Specific, Measurable, Achievable, Relevant, and Timebound. Multiple objectives 

may be needed for a single restoration intervention which requires a critical path of activities. 

For example, if the restoration intervention requires establishing a field-based nursery and 

successfully growing corals for outplanting, a restoration objective should describe these 

specific activities. The development of multiple objectives will help organize activities and 

establish the timeframe for implementation (see Step 4B). 

In crafting SMART objectives, you may start by developing a qualitative statement of 

intermediate results for the goal and interventions. Intermediate results statements for the goal 

should be aligned with longer timeframes. Intermediate results for the restoration interventions 

should be aligned with timeframes for pilot phase testing and scaling up restoration 

interventions over time.

It is recommended that you craft one or more SMART objectives for your pilot phase activities. A 

pilot phase objective would serve as statement of immediate-term results for activities designed 

to address unknowns or uncertainties related to your restoration intervention. These unknowns 

and uncertainties are likely to require testing before conducting the intervention at large, more 

resource-intensive scales. A pilot phase objective will enable you to evaluate whether you have 

successfully addressed the uncertainties and if activities are ready for scaling-up. To craft a SMART 

objective for the pilot phase, brainstorm the unknowns and uncertainties that would require 

testing. In cases where there are only a few aspects that need investigation, work with scientists 

and technical experts to develop hypotheses and conduct research to test these questions. If 

there are many uncertainties, you can conduct a small-scale version of the restoration intervention 

to develop an understanding of its efficacy overall. See Box 4.1 for an example of uncertainties that 

would be addressed through a pilot phase for our example restoration goal and intervention.

Now, revisit the potential performance metrics you identified in Step 4 and Table 4.1. You may wish 

to use the framework in Table 4.2 to list performance metrics you identified in Step 4A and record 

your intermediate results statements.

Box 4.1. Example uncertainties requiring a pilot phase.

Goal: Within 10 years, restore diverse and structurally complex coral reef fisheries 

habitats that increase abundance of valued species and support local fisheries 

production and livelihoods.

Intervention: Supplement existing reef structure with artificial reef structure for natural recruitment.

Uncertainties about intervention requiring pilot phase:

» Materials of artificial structures: What materials will encourage settlement by corals and other 

benthic organisms? What materials will be sustainable over the long-term, including during 

increasingly intense storms?

» Design and attachment of artificial structures: What design will encourage use by reef fishes? 

What design can withstand storm surge from a Cat 4 hurricane?

» Number and configuration of artificial structure placement on reefs: How many structures and 

what configuration on the reef will achieve the goal of increasing fisheries productivity?

» Method for securing artificial structures onto reefs: What method will ensure structures won’t 

become dislodged, including during increasingly intense storms?
A MANAGER’S GUIDE TO CORAL REEF RESTORATION PLANNING AND DESIGN 59

Goal: Within 10 years, restore diverse and structurally complex coral reef fisheries habitats that 

increase abundance of valued species and support local fisheries production and livelihoods .

Time (Years)

Objectives

1 – 3 4 – 6 7 – 10 10 – 20 

Potential 

Performance 

Metrics 

(from Step 4A)

• Number of 

coral fragments 

propagated

• Percent of corals 

manipulated that 

show increased 

tolerance

• Survival rate of 

propagated corals

• Number of 

coral fragments 

outplanted

• Percent of corals 

manipulated that 

show increased 

tolerance

• Survival rate of 

transplanted 

corals

• Rates of coral 

recruitment

• Fisheries species 

abundance and 

diversity

• Fisheries species 

abundance and 

diversity

• Reef height and 

rugosity

• Survival rate of 

transplanted 

corals

• Changes in 

abundance and 

cover of restored 

corals

• Fisheries species 

abundance and 

diversity 

• Reef height and 

rugosity

• Survival rate of 

transplanted 

corals

• Changes in 

abundance and 

cover of restored 

corals

• Fish catch per 

unit effort 

• Sales of local fish

• Reef-user 

(fishermen) 

satisfaction

Intermediate 

Results

(Goal)

• Fisheries species 

abundance and 

diversity increased

• Reef structure 

improved and 

maintained

• Fisheries 

productivity 

improved

• Reef structure 

improved and 

maintained

Intermediate 

Results

(Intervention)

• Nursery 

established 

producing corals 

for propagation

• Corals outplanted 

survive and 

support local 

recruitment of 

fisheries species 

and corals

Finally, craft SMART objectives by considering specific, measurable, achievable and relevant 

metrics and targets. For each intermediate result described in Table 4.2, you need to ask 

questions about how many, when, and why. For example, how many coral fragments would 

need to be propagated and at what rate to support the restoration at the site? Is it achievable? 

Example SMART objectives are provided in Box 4.2 building on our example goal and 

intervention from Step 3.

Table 4.2. Example framework for crafting objectives and making the objectives SMART.
60 A MANAGER’S GUIDE TO CORAL REEF RESTORATION PLANNING AND DESIGN

Box 4.2. Example questions to consider for making SMART objectives

Goal: Within 10 years, restore diverse and structurally complex coral reef fisheries habitats that increase abundance of valued species 

and support local fisheries production and livelihoods.

Questions to identify metrics for medium to long-term objectives related to 

the goal

• Which valued fish species will be targeted?

• How much and what type of reef habitat needs to be restored to support an 

increase in targeted fish species?

• What is the current and desired abundance of target fish species at the 

restoration site? 

• By what timeframes should we expect to see increases in the abundance of 

target fish species from these interventions?

Activity to Address Information/ Data Gaps

• Determine the area and type of reef habitat 

that needs to be restored to increase the 

abundance of valued fish species at the site 

• Determine the current and desired 

abundance of valued fish species compared 

to baseline 

Intervention (from Box 3.8): Supplement existing reef structure with artificial reef structure and outplant asexually propagated 

branching corals onto both substrates. Artificial reef structures will be constructed of wire with attached coral skeletons collected 

from rubble to serve as supplemental substrate. The wire structures will be installed on welded steel frames with screw anchors 

embedded in the existing substrate to withstand high wave energy and storms, and oriented parallel to the direction of prevailing 

winds and waves to reduce stress on the frames. The structure designs will provide holes and crevices of different sizes to provide 

a range of habitats for different fish species. The structures will be placed at a range of depths to account for sea level rise and 

spread the risk of impacts from potential bleaching events. Digitate coral species A and B will be collected from locations that have 

experienced past bleaching events, propagated through fragmentation, and grown-out in a field-based nursery where corals will 

be exposed to temperature extremes to acclimatize corals. Fragments will be cemented throughout both the artificial and existing 

reef substrates using marine epoxy that can withstand wave energy. A rapid response protocol will be developed for replacement of 

structures and replenishment of corals lost to storms and bleaching events.

Questions to identify metrics for short-term and medium-term objectives 

related to propagation

• Which coral species should be selected to maximize fish recruitment to the 

restored area?

• How many coral species A and B can be propagated per year?

• How many nurseries will be required? Where should the nurseries be 

established to achieve desired pre-conditioning?

• How many colonies of coral species A and B should be propagated in 

nurseries to account for future losses of corals?

Activity to Address Information/ Data Gaps

• Conduct monitoring of potential nursery 

sites for potential desired pre- conditioning 

environment

Questions to identify metrics for short-term and medium-term objectives 

related to outplanting

• How many artificial structures must be deployed to achieve sufficient habitat 

for a variety of fish species? What type of storm event must the artificial 

structures be able to withstand? How many outplanted corals can each 

structure support?

• How many colonies of coral species A and B each must be outplanted to 

natural and artificial substrates to achieve sufficient habitat for commerciallyimportant fishes

Activity to Address Information/ Data Gaps

• Conduct interviews with local fishermen to 

determine which fish species are critical to 

their livelihoods

• Conduct monitoring of fish abundance and 

diversity of potential restoration sites and 

modelling for connectivity with fish nursery 

habitats like mangroves and seagrass beds 

Example SMART Objectives

• Objective 1 (pilot phase): Within 3 years, 500 fragments each of coral species A and B haven been preconditioned annually in 

two field-based nurseries and 10% outplanted with 80% survival on existing reef and artificial reef prototypes within one site to 

demonstrate proof of concept. 

• Objective 2: Within 5 years, coral propagation and outplanting is scaled up to 1000 fragments each of coral species A and B 

outplanted on natural reef substrate and 50 artificial structures annually with an 80% survival rate within each of three sites. 

Abundance of target fish species has increased by 25% compared to prior to restoration. 

• Objective 4: Within 10 years, abundance of target fish has increased by 30%. Over 75% of fishermen and other reefs users are 

satisfied with the outcomes from the restoration project.

List of Metrics for Performance Monitoring: Number of fragments propagated/outplanted, percent of corals manipulated that 

show increased tolerance, survival rate, fish abundance, fish diversity, reef height and rugosity, water temperature.
A MANAGER’S GUIDE TO CORAL REEF RESTORATION PLANNING AND DESIGN 61

The technical advisory group established in Step 1 should be convened to review the restoration 

objectives. This group should review each objective based on the SMART criteria, suggest revisions 

as needed, and document the assumptions and rationale for each objective. 

Workbook activity: Identify potential performance metrics and intermediate results 

for the priority goal and restoration intervention(s) selected in Step 3C. Craft SMART 

objectives and metrics that will be used to monitor performance of the restoration 

intervention(s) towards the goal.

4B. DEVELOP ACTIVITIES AND IMPLEMENTATION TIMELINE

Activities are developed to accomplish objectives and ultimately the restoration goal. These 

activities represent the key tasks you need to accomplish and are not as detailed as a work 

plan. You may find that you will need to include activities to answer questions you did not have 

answers for in crafting your SMART objectives. For each activity, the timeframe and methods for 

completing the activities should also be included (CMP 2020).

SUGGESTED PROCESS:

Restoration activities are developed for each objective along with timelines for completing this work. 

In addition to restoration activities, you may need to also consider whether any additional activities 

should be conducted including management actions or community engagement that will support 

the restoration project. 

1. Identify Restoration Activities. In this step, restoration activities are defined for each objective 

along with the timeline and the responsible party or person (see Table 4.3). Activities should 

be organized according to your SMART objectives. Activities in the pilot phase should test the 

viability of specific details of your restoration interventions, such as sites and methods. For 

example, to determine the best location for field-based nurseries or species to use for asexual 

propagation and outplanting, you may need to conduct pilot studies in multiple locations 

and for several species. Phase 2 activities include those that will be conducted after piloting 

and during full-scale restoration. These activities can be defined at this time but may need 

modification based on the results of pilot studies.

Snorkelers checking on seeding units in floating coral rearing pools. Image: Ari Bickel | SECORE
62 A MANAGER’S GUIDE TO CORAL REEF RESTORATION PLANNING AND DESIGN

Table 4.3. Example activities and timeline for a restoration project, using objectives from Box 4.2.

Goal: Within 10 years, restore diverse and structurally complex coral reef fisheries habitats that increase abundance of valued 

species and support local fisheries production and livelihoods.

Objective 1 (pilot phase): Within 3 years, 500 fragments each of coral species A and B have been preconditioned annually in two fieldbased nurseries and 10% outplanted with 80% survival on existing reef and artificial reef prototypes within one site to demonstrate 

proof of concept. 

Activities Timeframe

1.1 Conduct interviews with local fishermen to confirm target fish species, fishing gear and methods, and fishing areas 

critical to their livelihoods, and to establish baseline and historical catch rates

Year 1

1.2 Develop propagation and outplanting protocol Year 1

1.3 Obtain permits for field activities Year 1

1.4 Conduct monitoring of potential nursery sites for potential desired pre-conditioning environment Year 1

1.5 Conduct baseline monitoring of fish abundance and diversity of potential restoration sites and modelling for 

connectivity with fish nursery habitats like mangroves and seagrass beds

Year 1 – 2

1.6 Establish nursery and develop and test propagation protocol Year 1 – 3

1.7 Develop and test artificial reef prototypes and test outplanting protocol Year 1 – 3

1.8 Develop and test manual removal of algae to prepare the substrate before outplanting and protect the corals 

after outplanting

Year 1 – 3

1.9 Monitor coral survival, artificial reef viability, and environmental conditions that could impact results (e.g. 

bleaching, wave events, land-based runoff)

Year 2 – 3

1.10 Analyze pilot phase results and conduct comprehensive evaluation with technical advisory group and make any 

adjustments in coral species, outplanting techniques, sites, and metrics

Year 2 – 3

1.11 Develop a rapid response protocol to replace structures and replenish corals lost to storms and bleaching events Year 2 – 3

Objective 2: Within 5 years, coral propagation and outplanting is scaled up to 1000 fragments each of coral species A and B outplanted 

on natural reef substrate and 50 artificial structures annually with an 80% survival rate within each of three sites. Fish abundance and 

diversity has increased by 25% compared to prior to restoration. 

2.1 Review and refine Restoration Action Plan adjusting SMART objectives, metrics, and activities as needed based on 

pilot phase results and evaluation

Year 3

2.2 Update existing or obtain new permits for field activities Year 3

2.3 Refine propagation and outplanting protocol and schedule Year 3

2.4 Continue algae maintainance as needed Year 3

2.5 Develop and implement long-term monitoring and evaluation plan Year 3

2.6 Scale-up nursery operations Year 3 – 4

2.7 Scale-up outplanting operations Year 3 – 4

2.8 Monitor coral survival, fish abundance, catch unit effort, and environmental conditions that could impact results 

(e.g. bleaching, wave events, land-based runoff)

Year 2 – 5

2.9 Analyze results and conduct comprehensive evaluation with technical advisory group and make any adjustments 

in coral species, outplanting techniques, sites, and metrics

Year 3 – 5

Objective 3: Within 10 years, the abundance of target fish species has increased by 30%. Over 75% of fishermen and other reefs users 

are satisfied with the outcomes from the restoration project. 

3.1 Maintain nursery and outplanting operations to support ongoing reef restoration Year 5 – 10

3.2 Continue algae maintainance as needed Year 5 – 10

3.3 Maintain rapid response protocol Year 5 – 10

3.4 Continue to monitor coral survival, fish abundance, catch per unit effort, and environmental conditions that could 

impact results (e.g. bleaching, wave events, land-based runoff)

Year 5 – 10

3.5 Analyze results and evaluate success of restoration efforts Year 5 – 10
A MANAGER’S GUIDE TO CORAL REEF RESTORATION PLANNING AND DESIGN 63

The pilot phase of the Action Plan allows practitioners to experiment with different technologies, 

coral species, or other details of an intervention (e.g., depth, placement, or materials used for 

coral nursery structures) and experience unforeseen events like bleaching or storm events 

without the threat of losing the entire project or all invested resources. A pilot phase can 

either be smaller-scale versions of the restoration interventions outlined in your Action Plan, 

or experiments that test specific research questions to answer any unknowns or uncertainties 

about the restoration interventions. To be most effective, the pilot phase should use principles 

of standard experimental design, including control sites where restoration activities are not 

occurring, but environmental conditions are as similar as possible. This is the only way to 

attribute changes observed in the reef site to the restoration intervention rather than unknown 

factors. To develop sound experimental designs such that data can be accurately analyzed, we 

recommend that the technical advisory group includes scientists, such as coral reef ecologists. 

A pilot phase that is set up to answer specific research questions (e.g., how growth and mortality 

rates differ among outplanted corals of two different species) will require data to be collected 

to test the hypothesis. For pilot studies that are smaller versions of your restoration intervention, 

monitoring should be conducted based on plans developed in the Action Plan and conducted 

over at least one year to ensure any seasonal variations are experienced. At the conclusion of 

the pilot phase, evaluate whether the intervention continues to put the project on the right track 

towards the pilot phase objectives and restoration goal. If the pilot phase fails, you will need 

to reevaluate conducting that specific intervention or determine whether your planning team 

should return to Step 3 of this Guide. In addition, this process may cause you to need to return 

to your goals and objectives and adjust accordingly. In the process of evaluating restoration 

interventions, you may need to further refine your vision of what success looks like.

Your list of performance metrics serves as the basis for developing a more detailed monitoring 

plan for the restoration work in your location. A Monitoring Plan should include details on 

information needs, performance metrics (or indicators), the methods you will use to measure the 

metrics, spatial scale and locations, timeframe, and project personnel roles and responsibilities 

for collecting data (CMP 2020). To develop a monitoring program, we recommend using Coral 

Reef Restoration Monitoring Guide: Methods to Evaluate Success from Local to Ecosystem Scales

(Goergen et al. 2020) (see next section, Moving into Action).

2.Identify Supporting Management and Community Engagement Activities. A key assumption 

from Step 1 is that current coral reef and watershed management are in place in the 

geographic focus area(s) and being implemented to ensure that local and regional threats 

to reefs are addressed. Managers of these ongoing efforts should be regularly consulted to 

determine if this assumption remains valid throughout the implementation of restoration 

activities. These ongoing efforts should be part of restoration planning discussions but are not 

included as part of the Action Plan.

In addition to ongoing efforts, additional management and community engagement activities 

may be required to assist and promote coral reef restoration interventions. For example, 

activities may be needed to advocate for revised fishing rules to support the goal of increasing 

reef fisheries production, or engage local community groups to assist in long-term monitoring 

of catch per unit effort at the restoration sites. These additional activities, along with an 

implementation timeframe, should be included and SMART objectives developed to the extent 

practicable in your Action Plan.

Workbook activity: Prepare a table describing restoration activities with the timeframe 

and responsible party for completing each activity. Then, prepare a table with this 

information for any supporting management and community engagement activities.
64 A MANAGER’S GUIDE TO CORAL REEF RESTORATION PLANNING AND DESIGN

4C. BUILD ACTION PLAN

Now that you have completed the four planning steps in this Guide, you are ready to build 

your Action Plan. The Action Plan Template, provided with this Guide and aligned with the 

Workbook, can be found in Appendix 2. In this template, you will find sections labeled with 

the corresponding steps in this Guide. Not all of the information you have documented in the 

Workbook will go into your Action Plan. Rather, final decisions and summaries of your process to 

reach these decisions will be detailed.

It is recommended that the full Workbook be retained as a reference document for evaluating and 

adapting the Action Plan over time. The Workbook can provide a comprehensive record of the 

information and assumptions made in developing your restoration interventions and may provide 

valuable insights as new information becomes available or underlying assumptions change.

Your Action Plan should be shared with the Technical Advisory Group and any critical 

stakeholders or decision-makers to obtain their support and approval.

Workbook activity: Develop your Action Plan (you can use Appendix 2 as a template). 

Provide an overview of the process used to develop your plan.

A land-based coral nursery growing coral fragments.

St. Croix, US Virgin Islands.

Image: Paul Selvaggio | The Nature Conservancy
A MANAGER’S GUIDE TO CORAL REEF RESTORATION PLANNING AND DESIGN 65

After restoration: the community’s reefs are now thriving. Image: Martin Colognoli | Coral Reef Image Bank

Stakeholder Engagement

The process outlined in this step should allow you to make decisions with a number of diverse 

stakeholders and be transparent about the decisions made about restoration interventions. 

You can use Table 3.4 or a similar table or figure to present a summary of the evaluation and 

selection process and share the reasons and rationale behind decisions for your location. It will 

be useful to document the process of engaging stakeholder groups in this process as well to 

show how diverse interests were incorporated. 

Workbook activity: List technical experts, stakeholders, and partners including 

scientists, engineers, community members, and members of the private 

sector and national and local governments engaged to review and prioritize 

restoration goals and the geographic focus area(s). Provide a summary of 

stakeholder engagement activities to be taken for this step..
66 Outplanting corals using ropes in Belize. Image: Fragments of Hope
A MANAGER’S GUIDE TO CORAL REEF RESTORATION PLANNING AND DESIGN 67

MOVING INTO ACTION

Congratulations! With the creation of your Action Plan, you have completed the planning phase 

of the cycle and are ready to implement active coral reef restoration. Your Action Plan will serve 

as a basis for securing funding, communicating with stakeholders, building out your broader 

Restoration Strategic Plan, and moving into action.

Building a Strategic Plan 

As discussed in the Introduction of this Guide, a Strategic Plan encompasses the overarching plan 

for a project, including an Action Plan, Monitoring Plan and Operational Plan (Figure 1; CMP 2020). 

This Guide helps you develop the Action Plan, part of which also involves identifying your process 

to develop a Monitoring Plan.

An initial Monitoring Plan is needed for the pilot phase described in your Action Plan to assess 

the suitability of the chosen sites and the stability and short-term effectiveness of interventions 

before scaling them up to the full project scope. The list of performance metrics from your 

Action Plan supports this and provides a basis for building out a more detailed, long-term 

Monitoring Plan that assesses how reefs recover at your restoration sites. Your plan will need to 

include details on information needs, targets for performance metrics, the methods you will use 

to measure the metrics, spatial scale and locations, timeframe, and project personnel roles and 

responsibilities for collecting data. To develop a monitoring program, we recommend using the 

Coral Reef Restoration Monitoring Guide: Methods to Evaluate Success from Local to Ecosystem 

Scales (Goergen et al. 2020) (see Box 5.1). In addition to monitoring progress towards your 

objectives and goals, regular status assessments of the project should be conducted to identify 

needs for maintenance. Checking the status of the project will likely need to be done more 

regularly than data collection.

STEPS 5 & 6: MOVING INTO ACTION

Coral Restoration Foundation coral tree nursery, Florida Keys. Image: Alex Neufeld | Coral Restoration FoundationTM
68 A MANAGER’S GUIDE TO CORAL REEF RESTORATION PLANNING AND DESIGN

This brings us to the third component of the overall Strategic Plan: the Operational Plan. 

An Operational Plan analyzes and documents the resources required to complete the work 

(funding, capacity, skills, etc.); risks involved and plans for addressing or mitigating them; and 

an exit strategy including plans for long-term sustainability of the project if needed. It lays out 

responsibilities and budgets for implementation (Step 5), as well as a structure for regularly 

scheduled forums to review progress, analyze results, adapt plans and share lessons learned (Step 

6). For more information on how to develop an Operational Plan, see the Open Standards for the 

Practice of Conservation (CMP 2020, Chapter 2). 

Coral Reef Restoration Monitoring Guide: Methods to Evaluate Success from Local 

to Ecosystem Scales (Goergen et al. 2020).

The Coral Reef Restoration Monitoring Guide (Goergen et al. 2020) has been developed by the 

Coral Restoration Consortium’s Monitoring Working Group to assist restoration practitioners 

and managers with monitoring coral reef restorations and evaluating success. It provides a 

hypothesis- and data-driven monitoring framework to support informed decisions about 

data and metrics necessary to monitor and describe the effectiveness of a restoration goal or 

objective. The Monitoring Guide describes two types of monitoring metrics: Universal Metrics 

and Goal-Based Performance Metrics. Universal Metrics are described as basic requirements for 

monitoring for all restoration projects regardless of the goal, to improve our collective ability to 

compare projects and learn from others. The four Universal Metrics are: Landscape/Reef-Level, 

Population-Level, Colony-Level, and Genetic/Genotypic Diversity. Goal-Based Performance 

Metrics provide information on monitoring for five distinct goal categories (i.e., Ecological, 

Socio-Economic, Event-Driven, Climate Change Adaptation, and Research Goals). A Coral 

Restoration Database and Evaluation Tool has also been developed to complement and be 

used with this Guide.

The Coral Reef Restoration Monitoring Guide can be used alongside this Guide for planning and 

design to develop a monitoring plan that is complementary of the Action Plan and part of an 

overall Restoration Strategic Plan.

Web links for the Coral Restoration Consortium can be found in the Resources section.

Box 5.1. Developing a Monitoring Plan for coral reef restoration.

Monitoring using a combination of transects and quadrats. Image: Tom Moore | NOAA
A MANAGER’S GUIDE TO CORAL REEF RESTORATION PLANNING AND DESIGN 69

Finally, a Work Plan, often created annually, lays out what aspects of each of the three pieces 

will be accomplished in the next period (e.g., in the near-term). This includes tasks, roles and 

responsibilities, and timelines for accomplishing the work of the upcoming year.

CONSIDERATIONS FOR STEP 5: IMPLEMENT RESTORATION

Based on the Restoration Strategic Plan, implementation of a restoration project will occur 

over a period of several years, during which the interventions are piloted, scaled up, and 

monitored to determine if and when the restoration goal has been achieved. It is highly 

recommended to identify proper control sites that are similar to your restoration sites so you 

can compare them over time, as this is the only way you will be able to attribute changes in 

the reef state to restoration interventions rather than natural recovery processes. A common 

method for this is called a BACI (Before-After-Control-Impact) experiment (Smith 2014). It is 

important to remember that natural recovery of reef ecosystems can take years to decades, 

so implementation and monitoring should also occur over this timeframe. For this reason, 

implementation and monitoring should be viewed as occurring simultaneously and iteratively 

rather than sequentially.

As with planning, stakeholders will likely be critical players in successful implementation of 

restoration activities and for ensuring the long-term sustainability of the project. Some stakeholder 

groups may become partners in implementing restoration activities and allowing projects to 

achieve larger scales when funding resources are limited. Such partnerships can provide essential 

support for the project while boosting shared ownership and interest in the restoration project. 

Several case study examples of restoration programs engaging community groups are available 

on the Reef Resilience Network Case Study database (see Resources).

Community-based monitoring may also be especially helpful to managers. This may include 

actively engaging communities in monitoring activities, to assist with collection of regular 

monitoring data through citizen science projects and to help “keep an eye” on projects in 

their local areas. It is advisable to consider conducting regular meetings with local community 

members and stakeholders about restoration projects. Providing updates on the progress of 

the restoration project allows involved stakeholder groups (those both positively or negatively 

affected by or partnering directly on the project) to remain knowledgeable of constraints, 

setbacks, or limitations to the project and what revisions need to be made and why. Sharing 

this knowledge may lead to solutions to problems, or else simply help to set and keep 

reasonable expectations.

CONSIDERATIONS FOR STEP 6: MONITOR & EVALUATE PROGRESS 

As mentioned above, monitoring is occurring throughout and simultaneously with restoration 

implementation. In the beginning phases of implementation, monitoring will involve assessing 

shorter-term effects of the restoration interventions, such as tracking the fate of outplanted corals 

or the efficacy of certain methods. Over time, monitoring should switch to examining reef-scale 

effects that take longer timeframes to occur, such as ecosystem recovery (e.g., coral cover, coral 

recruitment), as they are relevant to your restoration goal. Performance metrics to be monitored 

during this process should include those identified from your SMART objectives.

Remember that other forms of data collection are important during restoration implementation, 

such as information on the operations of your restoration program (e.g., financial costs and 

budgeting). You may also want to periodically review the state of knowledge on restoration and 

climate science. Techniques for coral reef restoration and our ability to predict future impacts of 

climate change are rapidly evolving. It may also be helpful to remain aware of events or changes 

that occur around the restoration site that may affect the project, such as the broader context of 

natural resource management around your restoration project (e.g., watershed management).
70 A MANAGER’S GUIDE TO CORAL REEF RESTORATION PLANNING AND DESIGN

As relevant data and information are compiled, periodic analysis is required to review project 

progress. Data analysis is the process of transforming raw data into useful information that 

typically answers a specific research question (CMP 2020). Remember that SMART objectives were 

developed to serve as benchmarks towards your selected restoration goal. These benchmarks 

include specific performance metrics to be met by certain dates. You should consider discussing 

the methods or models used to analyze data with scientists or other technical experts before 

monitoring begins. This will ensure selected analyses inform you of progress towards one of your 

objectives or answer a specific research question. 

Once monitoring data have been analyzed, you will be able to evaluate progress towards your 

objectives and overall programmatic efficiency. This will allow you to identify whether changes 

need to be made to adjust either the interventions being used or the objectives. You can refer to 

documentation in the Workbook (Appendix 1) and your Action Plan developed from the template 

(Appendix 2) and review the process and underlying assumptions used to make these decisions. 

Then, determine what aspects of the Action Plan need to be revised. You can use the following 

questions to help frame your thoughts during this process:

• Have you been consistently meeting the objectives you previously set in your Action Plan? 

If not, why? If the reason is out of your control, consider redefining your objectives to set 

more accurate expectations of what you can achieve. If the reason can be altered, consider 

making these improvements and updating your restoration objectives and overall goal.

• What happened that was not planned for or anticipated? Are there specific problems 

with the intervention that need to be addressed? What are possible mechanisms 

to address these problems and improve progress towards the objective? Are these 

mechanisms possible?

• If you have multiple interventions and thus multiple objectives, how is progress going 

across all interventions? Should more time or focus be moved to any one intervention?

• At this time, do adjustments need to be made to the Action Plan? Have other needs for 

restoration surfaced and do other restoration goals need to be designed through this 

planning process? If so, consider returning to the Action Plan planning process in this 

Guide (Steps 1-4). 

Remember that the cycle of coral reef restoration planning and design is a constantly evolving 

and iterative process, where you may need to return to previous steps in the process in any 

order that matches the needs of your program. This is consistent with an adaptive management 

approach, where management activities provide learning through monitoring and evaluation, so 

that improvements can be made as new information becomes available.

Divers outplanting corals onto a reef in the Dominican Republic. Image: Paul Selvaggio | The Nature Conservancy
A MANAGER’S GUIDE TO CORAL REEF RESTORATION PLANNING AND DESIGN 71

CONCLUSION

In A Manager’s Guide to Coral Reef Restoration Planning and Design, you have followed an 

adaptive cycle to develop an Action Plan for coral reef restoration for your location that 

thoughtfully considers and plans for the future. The planning steps are followed by important 

considerations for implementing and monitoring restoration interventions in order to assess 

project progress. For any management process to be truly adaptive, it should not stop after 

analysis and evaluation. To continue improving the restoration project and its chances of 

success, you will need to continually make changes based on what has been learned, and refine 

strategies, plans, and the various restoration interventions, as well as the associated monitoring 

and stakeholder engagement.

For managers ready to embark on coral reef restoration, it is important to remember that 

restoration does not supercede reducing threats to reefs from human activities. Restoration, 

strong management of local threats to reefs, and climate change mitigation will all be needed 

and likely used in combination to give coral reefs around the world the best chance of coping 

with climate change.

As a global community, we have an opportunity to build our collective capacity to plan and 

implement restoration. Users of this Guide are encouraged to share results and lessons learned 

with others in their regions and globally. Restoring coral reef ecosystems in the face of a changing 

climate and increasing human populations will be a journey for us all, and we must share our 

successes and failures along this journey to help the field of restoration improve as quickly as 

possible. In this way, we may all be better equipped to conduct and tailor interventions when 

armed with knowledge of what does and does not work for the wide range of situations and 

circumstances within which coral reef restoration will be conducted.

To share with others, the Reef Resilience Network (reefresilience.org) and the Coral Restoration 

Consortium (crc.reefresilience.org) are global communities of practice that support 

collaboration and communication amongst coral reef managers, restoration practitioners, and 

experts. Consider becoming a member of these communities and sharing your lessons learned 

with others in these groups.

Good luck with your work in planning and implementing restoration activities! The authors and 

sponsors of this Guide hope that the planning process and accompanying Workbook and Action 

Plan Template prove to be useful resources for your current and future restoration efforts.
72 Nursery structure growing Acropora corals in the Dominican Republic. Image: Paul Selvaggio | The Nature Conservancy
A MANAGER’S GUIDE TO CORAL REEF RESTORATION PLANNING AND DESIGN 73

REFERENCES

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Moore, T. and Mumby, P.J., 2017. New interventions are needed to save coral reefs. Nature Ecology & 

Evolution, 1(10), pp.1420-1422.

Baums, I.B., Baker, A.C., Davies, S.W., Grottoli, A.G., Kenkel, C.D., Kitchen, S.A., Kuffner, I.B., LaJeunesse, T.C., 

Matz, M.V., Miller, M.W. and Parkinson, J.E. 2019. Considerations for maximizing the adaptive potential of 

restored coral populations in the western Atlantic. Ecological Applications, 29(8), p.e01978.

Boström-Einarsson, L., Babcock, R.C., Bayraktarov, E., Ceccarelli, D., Cook, N., Ferse, S.C., Hancock, 

B., Harrison, P., Hein, M., Shaver, E., Smith, A., Suggett, D., Stewart-Sinclair, P.J., Vardi, T., and McLeod, 

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Version 4.0.

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on the Great Barrier Reef and its causes. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 109(44), 

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coral transplants to clam shell substrates. Aquatic Conservation: Marine and Freshwater Ecosystems, 

18(7), pp.1140-1148.

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for Management Program: St Lucia, Australia. pp.166.

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coral reefs for coastal hazard risk reduction and adaptation. Nature Communications, 5(1), pp.1-9.

Gann, G.D., McDonald, T., Walder, B., Aronson, J., Nelson, C.R., Jonson, J., Hallett, J.G., Eisenberg, C., 

Guariguata, M.R., Liu, J., Hua, F., Echeverría, C., Gonzales, E., Shaw, N., Decleer, K., and Dixon, K.W. 2019. 

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Goergen, E.A., Schopmeyer, S., Moulding, A., Moura, A., Kramer, P., and Viehman, S. 2020. Coral reef 

restoration monitoring guide: Methods to evaluate success from local to ecosystem scales. NOAA NOS 

NCCOS Technical Memoradum 279. 

Hein, M., McLeod, I., Shaver, E., Vardi, T., Pioch, S., Boström-Einarsson, L., Ahmed, M, and G. Grimsditch. 

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methods. Report to the United Nations Environmental Programme. 

Hughes, T.P., Kerry, J.T., Álvarez-Noriega, M., Álvarez-Romero, J.G., Anderson, K.D., Baird, A.H., Babcock, 

R.C., Beger, M., Bellwood, D.R., Berkelmans, R. and Bridge, T.C. 2017. Global warming and recurrent 

mass bleaching of corals. Nature, 543(7645), pp.373-377.

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World Meteorological Organization. https://www.ipcc.ch/sr15/

Jackson, J.B.C., Donovan, M.K., Cramer, K.L., Lam, V.V. (editors). 2014. Status and Trends of Caribbean 

Coral Reefs: 1970-2012. Global Coral Reef Monitoring Network, IUCN, Gland, Switzerland.
74 A MANAGER’S GUIDE TO CORAL REEF RESTORATION PLANNING AND DESIGN

Komyakova, V., Jones, G.P. and Munday, P.L. 2018. Strong effects of coral species on the diversity and 

structure of reef fish communities: A multi-scale analysis. PloS one, 13(8), p.e0202206.

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winners and the losers. Ecology Letters, 4(2), pp.122-131.

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Australia, Great Barrier Reef Marine Park Authority.

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management in coral reef ecosystems. Journal of environmental management, 233, pp.291-301.

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resilience of coral reefs. AMBIO: A Journal of the Human Environment, 35(1), pp.30-35.

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Bradley, P. 2017. Adaptation Design Tool: Corals and Climate Adaptation Planning. Silver Spring, MD: 

NOAA Coral Reef Conservation Program. NOAA Technical Memorandum CRCP 27, 58 pp.

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restoration and protection. PLoS biology, 13(1), : e1002052.

Smith, E.P., 2014. BACI Design. Wiley StatsRef: Statistics Reference Online.

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resilience to climate change? Ecology and Society, 9(2).

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S.F. and Planes, S. 2016. Local-scale projections of coral reef futures and implications of the Paris 

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A., Damjanovic, K., Epstein, H. and Harrison, P.L., 2017. Shifting paradigms in restoration of the world’s 

coral reefs. Global Change Biology, 23(9), pp.3437-3448.

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MacGowan, P., 2017. Climate-smart design for ecosystem management: A test application for coral 

reefs. Environmental management, 59(1), pp.102-117.

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Resources. Environmental management, 62(4), pp.644-664.

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Bulletin of Marine Science, 88(4), pp.1075-1098.
A MANAGER’S GUIDE TO CORAL REEF RESTORATION PLANNING AND DESIGN 75

RESOURCES

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org/case-studies/fiji-ecological-restoration/

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76 Outplants of Acropora cervicornis, Key Largo, Florida. Image: Alex Neufeld | Coral Restoration FoundationTM
APPENDIX 1: GUIDE WORKBOOK

A1-1

A Manager’s Guide

to Coral Reef Restoration

Planning and Design

Elizabeth Shaver1, Catherine A. Courtney2, Jordan M. West3, Jeffrey Maynard4, 

Cherie Wagner1, Ian Mcleod5, Lisa Boström-Einarsson6,7, Petra MacGowan1, 

Jason Philibotte7, Kristine Bucchianeri7, Lyza Johnston8, Jennifer Koss7

1

The Nature Conservancy, 2TetraTech, 3United States Environmental Protection Agency, 

4 SymbioSeas, 5 TropWATER, James Cook University, 6 Lancaster Environment Centre, 

Lancaster University, 7United States National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration 

Coral Reef Conservation Program, 8 Johnston Applied Marine Sciences
The Manager’s Guide Workbook provides a place to document the process, information, 

and decisions made during the planning process that guide you to developing your specific 

Restoration Action Plan. In the “Suggested Process” sections within each Guide step, we indicate 

when to turn to the Workbook to complete activities with your planning team. It is recommended 

that the full Workbook be retained as a reference document for evaluating and adapting the 

Restoration Action Plan over time. The Workbook can provide a comprehensive record of the 

information and assumptions made in developing your Action Plan and may generate valuable 

insights as new information becomes available or underlying assumptions change.

The Workbook Icon is used throughout the Manager’s Guide to indicate when 

there is an accompanying Workbook Activity to conduct.

INTRODUCTION TO THE 

MANAGER’S GUIDE WORKBOOK

This Workbook accompanies the strategic planning process described in A Manager’s Guide 

to Coral Reef Restoration Planning and Design. The Manager’s Guide describes four key steps 

intended to help managers develop an Action Plan for coral reef restoration in their location. The 

four planning steps include:

• Step 1: Set Goal and Geographic Focus

• Step 2: Identify and Select Sites

• Step 3: Identify, Design, and Select Interventions

• Step 4: Develop Objectives and Action Plan

These steps are illustrated by a cycle, but it should be noted that these steps can be completed in 

any order and may often be iterative as new information becomes available through time.

CORAL REEF

RESTORATION 

PLANNING &

DESIGN

1

Set Goal & 

Geographic

Focus

2

Identify,

Prioritize, & 

Select Sites

3

Identify, Design 

& Select 

Interventions

4

Develop 

Restoration 

Action Plan

5

Implement 

Restoration

6

Monitor & 

Evaluate

Progress

Restoration planning

Active restoration

A1-2 WORKBOOK: A MANAGER’S GUIDE TO CORAL REEF RESTORATION PLANNING AND DESIGN
STEP 1: SET GOAL AND GEOGRAPHIC FOCUS

1A. IDENTIFY AND PRIORITIZE GOALS

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1B. IDENTIFY GEOGRAPHIC FOCUS FOR EACH GOAL

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1C. SELECT GOAL AND GEOGRAPHIC FOCUS FOR 

RESTORATION PLANNING AND DESIGN

STAKEHOLDER ENGAGEMENT

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STEP 2: IDENTIFY AND SELECT SITES

2A. IDENTIFY POTENTIAL RESTORATION SITES

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2B. USE FRAMEWORK TO PRIORITIZE SITES

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A1-14 WORKBOOK: A MANAGER’S GUIDE TO CORAL REEF RESTORATION PLANNING AND DESIGN
COMPLETING THE FRAMEWORK QUANTITATIVELY

Document the process used to decide on the metrics to be used to quantify each 

framework part.

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2C. FINAL SITE SELECTION

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STAKEHOLDER ENGAGEMENT

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STEP 3: IDENTIFY, DESIGN AND SELECT 

INTERVENTIONS

3A:BRAINSTORM AN ARRAY OF INTERVENTION OPTIONS

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3B:APPLY CLIMATE-SMART DESIGN CONSIDERATIONS

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3C. EVALUATE & SELECT RESTORATION INTERVENTIONS

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STAKEHOLDER ENGAGEMENT

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STEP 4: DEVELOP RESTORATION ACTION PLAN

4A:DEFINE SMART OBJECTIVES

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4B:DEVELOP ACTIVITIES AND IMPLEMENTATION TIMELINE

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STAKEHOLDER ENGAGEMENT

4C:BUILD ACTION PLAN

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A1-34 Coral nursery in Grand Anse, Grenada. Image: Tim Calver | The Nature Conservancy
APPENDIX 2: RESTORATION ACTION PLAN 

TEMPLATE

A2-1

A Manager’s Guide

to Coral Reef Restoration

Planning and Design
A2-2

Action Plan for Coral Reef Restoration in

[insert jurisdiction name]

[Insert date]

[List all major contributors and affiliations]

Project Description

Provide a brief description of the project and stakeholders engaged in the 

development of the action plan, including how the plan fits into existing and 

ongoing coral reef and watershed management efforts in the geographic scope 

of the project. Describe the process for identifying the top priority goals; list all of 

the priority goals and discuss how the priority goal chosen for this action plan was 

selected.

*If this plan is in DRAFT, describe the process for sharing the plan with decisionmakers and stakeholders.

Priority Restoration Goal

[Planning Step 1]

List the highest priority goal used during the planning process.

The priority goal selected for this restoration action plan is:
A2-3

Sites Selected for Restoration

[Planning Step 2]

Provide a brief description of the highest priority sites for restoration. Include 

for each site: site name, general description of the location, and a summary 

(quantitative or qualitative) of how each site compared to other sites in the following 

categories: Relevance to Restoration Goal, Potential to Improve Condition, Future 

Exposure, Resilience/Ecological Processes, and Human impacts (delete or write 

‘UNKNOWN’ for any categories for which you did not have data or information). 

Include a map of selected restoration sites in Appendix 1 below.

Below is a brief description of the priority site(s) selected for restoration intervention.

Site 1 name; geographic focus area; coordinates:

• Relevance to Restoration Goal: 

• Potential to Improve Condition:

• Future Exposure: 

• Resilience/Ecological Processes:

• Human Impacts:

Site 2 name; geographic focus area; coordinates:

• Relevance to Restoration Goal: 

• Potential to Improve Condition:

• Future Exposure: 

• Resilience/Ecological Processes:

• Human Impacts:

Site 3 name; geographic focus area; coordinates: 

• Relevance to Restoration Goal: 

• Potential to Improve Condition:

• Future Exposure: 

• Resilience/Ecological Processes:

• Human Impacts:
Ongoing Management

Provide a summary of management actions and regulations already in place at the 

selected restoration sites.

The management actions and regulations already in place at this site are:

A2-4

Rationale for Site Selection

Provide a summary of the rationale behind setting these as ‘highest priority’, 

including the data sets used and any discussions held during final site selection.

The rationale behind determining these sites as the highest priority sites includes:
A2-5

Restoration Interventions

[Planning Step 3]

Provide a summary describing the climate-smart restoration interventions that 

were designed and selected for restoration at each site, including the rational 

for selecting these interventions. Include information about pilot studies that are 

required as appropriate.

Below is a description of the planned restoration interventions at each priority 

restoration site:

[Insert Site 1 name; insert description of restoration intervention(s); insert rationale 

for selecting interventions]

[Insert Site 2 name; insert description of restoration intervention(s); insert rationale 

for selecting interventions]

[Insert Site 3 name; insert description of restoration intervention(s); insert rationale 

for selecting interventions]

[Include additional sites as needed]
A2-6

Objectives and Performance Metrics

[Planning Step 4]

Describe specific objectives and performance metrics that will be used to assess 

project progress, including objectives that support any pilot studies needed before 

scaling up the restoration intervention are as follows.

The specific objectives and performance metrics that will be used to assess project 

progress are as follows. A summary is provided in Appendix 2 of this Action Plan 

detailing the site(s), lead personnel or agencies, partners, and timeframe to complete 

each of these activities.

Objective 1.1: [List the SMART objective]

Performance Metrics: [Describe the performance metrics identified for Objective 1.1]

Activities: [Describe restoration activities as well as supporting management and 

community engagement activities for Objective 1.1]

Objective 1.2: [List the SMART objective]

Performance Metrics: [Describe the performance metrics identified for Objective 1.2]

Activities: [Describe restoration activities as well as supporting management and 

community engagement activities for Objective 1.2]

Objective 1.3: [List the SMART objective]

Performance Metrics: [Describe the performance metrics identified for Objective 1.3]

Activities: [Describe restoration activities as well as supporting management and 

community engagement activities for Objective 1.3]

[Copy the description above for additional objectives as needed]
A2-7

Stakeholder Engagement and Outreach

[All Planning Steps]

Provide a description for your stakeholder engagement plans for this coral reef 

restoration action plan, including plans for accessing any additional or needed 

technical support, sharing our experiences with others locally, and collaborating with 

ongoing management efforts in the area.

Our strategy for stakeholder engagement for this coral reef restoration plan includes:
A2-8

Appendix 1. Map of Priority Sites
A2-9

Appendix 2. Action Plan Summary Matrix

[Complete the table below for the priority goal (Goal 1)]

[Copy the format of the table for additional objectives as needed]
U.S. Department of Commerce

Wilbur L. Ross

Secretary of Commerce

National Ocean Service

Nicole LeBoeuf

Acting Assistant Administrator

National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration

Neil A. Jacobs

Acting Under Secretary of Commerce

for Oceans and Atmosphere and

NOAA Administrator