NOVEMBER 2010

BRIEFING

REPORT

U.S. COMMISSION ON CIVIL RIGHTS

U.S. COMMISSION ON CIVIL RIGHTS

Washington, DC 20425

Visit us on the Web: www.usccr.gov

The Educational Effectiveness of 

Historically Black Colleges and Universities
The Educational

Effectiveness

of Historically Black

Colleges

and Universities

A Briefing Before

The United States Commission on Civil Rights

Held in Washington, D.C.

Briefing Report

The Educational Effectiveness of Historically Black Colleges and Universities_____________i

Table of Contents i

TABLE OF CONTENTS

EXECUTIVE SUMMARY ...........................................................................................................1

FINDINGS AND RECOMMENDATIONS ................................................................................8

INTRODUCTION........................................................................................................................11

SUMMARY OF THE PROCEEDINGS....................................................................................17

Louis W. Sullivan ..............................................................................................................17

Historically Black Colleges and Universities and the Development of

Students......................................................................................................17

The Morehouse School of Medicine......................................................................17

Factors Accounting for the Educational Success of Students at

Historically Black Colleges and Universities ............................................18

Earl S. Richardson .............................................................................................................18

Challenging the Rightful Place of Historically Black Colleges and

Universities in Higher Education...............................................................18

Impact of the Civil Rights Act of 1964 on Historically Black Colleges

and Universities .........................................................................................19

How the Historically Black Colleges and Universities Survived ..........................20

Historically Black Colleges and Universities are Primary in Narrowing

the Higher Educational Gap between African-Americans and

Whites ........................................................................................................20

Jamie P. Merisotis..............................................................................................................22

Four Areas of HBCU Effectiveness.......................................................................22

Serving as Leaders in Student Engagement...........................................................22

Promoting Civic Engagement and Service Learning.............................................23

Enabling Educational Attainment for Low Income, First Generation,

and Disabled Students................................................................................23

Science, Technology, Engineering, and Mathematics (STEM).............................24

Raymond C. Pierce ............................................................................................................24

A Real and Continuing Threat to Historically Black Colleges and

Universities ................................................................................................24

Desegregation in Higher Education.......................................................................25

The 1978 Civil Rights Policy for Higher Education Desegregation......................26

The 1994 Federal Policy for Higher Education Desegregation .............................26

The Present.............................................................................................................27

Mikyong Minsun Kim........................................................................................................28

Four Areas of Focus...............................................................................................28

Institutional and Student Characteristics of Historically Black Colleges

and Universities and Historically White Colleges and
ii Table of Contents

Universities ................................................................................................28

Research Findings on Selected Outcomes .............................................................30

Historically Black Colleges and Universities and Student Engagement

and Development .......................................................................................31

Historically Black Colleges and Universities Merit Support.................................32

Discussion Summary .........................................................................................................32

Academic Outcomes at Historically Black Colleges and Universities..................32

Dropout, Graduation, and Performance on National Examinations ......................33

Historically Black Colleges and Universities as Pipeline to Graduate

School ........................................................................................................34

Historically Black Colleges and Universities, STEM, and Teacher

Education Programs...................................................................................34

Historically Black Colleges and Universities as Catalyst for Change...................35

A Nurturing Environment......................................................................................36

Lack of Parity between HBCUs and Non-HBCUs................................................37

Subsidizing Student Tuition...................................................................................37

Greater Staff Workload..........................................................................................38

Lack of Adequate Facilities ...................................................................................38

Lack of Technology Transfer and Commercialization Centers.............................38

Faculty Salaries......................................................................................................39

The Right to Exist ..................................................................................................39

Struggle Over State Funding and Program Duplication ........................................40

A Complementary System of Higher Education ...................................................42

Dearth of Black Male Undergraduates at TWIs ....................................................44

Policy Initiatives to Support HBCUs.....................................................................44

Threats that Imperil HBCUs ..................................................................................45

STATEMENTS ............................................................................................................................47

Louis W. Sullivan, M.D., Chair of The President’s Board of Advisors on

Historically Black Colleges and Universities ........................................................47

Contributions of Historically Black Colleges and Universities to the

Nation.........................................................................................................47

Earl S. Richardson, President, Morgan State University...................................................49

Jamie P. Merisotis, President, Institute for Higher Education Policy................................54

HBCUs and Student Engagement..........................................................................56

HBCUs and Civic Engagement/Service-Learning.................................................56

HBCUs and Success for Low-Income, First Generation, and Disabled

Students......................................................................................................57

HBCUs and Science, Technology, Engineering and Math (STEM) .....................58

Raymond C. Pierce, Dean and Professor of Law, North Carolina Central

University...............................................................................................................61

Failure of the Federal Government to Enforce Federal Civil Rights

Laws: A Real Threat to Historically Black Colleges and

Universities ................................................................................................61

Mikyong Minsun Kim, Associate Professor of Higher Education, Graduate

School of Education and Human Development, The George
Table of Contents iii

Washington University ..........................................................................................65

Institutional and Student Characteristics at HBCUs versus HWCUs....................65

Effectiveness of HBCUs versus HWCUs..............................................................66

Academic Development and Success ....................................................................66

Early Career Earnings............................................................................................66

How Do Students’ Learning Opportunities Differ between HBCUs and

HWCUs?....................................................................................................67

Conclusion and Recommendation .........................................................................67

The Role of Ethnicity in Choosing and Leaving Science in Highly Selected

Institutions..............................................................................................................78

The Causes and Consequences of Attending Historically Black Colleges and

Universities ..........................................................................................................102

SPEAKER BIOGRAPHIES .....................................................................................................150

COMMISSIONER STATEMENTS.........................................................................................155

Statement of Commissioner Abigail Thernstrom ............................................................155

Dissent of Commissioners Michael Yaki and Arlan D. Melendez..................................157

Rebuttal By Commissioner Gail Heriot...........................................................................158

Executive Summary 1

EXECUTIVE SUMMARY

The Black College and University Act defined an historically black college and university

(HBCU)1as one that existed before 1964 with a historic and contemporary mission of

educating blacks while being open to all. An HBCU must either have earned accreditation

from a nationally recognized accrediting agency or association or be making reasonable

progress toward accreditation. Currently, 103 HBCUs are located mainly in the Southeastern

United States, the District of Columbia, and the Virgin Islands.

The U.S. Commission on Civil Rights conducted a briefing on May 5, 2006, to assess the

educational effectiveness of HBCUs. The Commission invited five distinguished panelists to

discuss the issue: Louis W. Sullivan, founding dean and first president of Morehouse School

of Medicine, as well as a presidential advisor and former cabinet secretary; Earl S.

Richardson, president of Morgan State University and a former presidential advisor on

Historically Black Colleges and Universities; Jamie P. Merisotis, president of the Institute for

Higher Education Policy; Raymond C. Pierce, dean and professor of law at North Carolina

Central University and a former deputy assistant secretary at the U.S. Department of

Education; and Mikyong Minsun Kim, associate professor at the George Washington

University’s Graduate School of Education and Human Development.

After the briefing, Commissioners offered two articles to help provide the reader with a

richer understanding of the subject because policymakers should base conclusions about the

efficacy of HBCUs in educating black students as compared to non-HBCUs on stronger

evidence than mere public support. In both studies the researchers rely on extensive empirical

data to reach their conclusions. The two articles are reproduced at the end of this report and

cast some additional light on the briefing topic.

In one study,2economists Fryer and Greenstone found that during the 1970s, HBCU

attendance resulted in a greater likelihood of graduation when compared to black attendees at

traditionally white institutions, as well as an increased probability of majoring in a physical

science. As important, HBCUs provided a substantial wage premium to their graduates.

However, by the 1990s, HBCU attendance yielded a substantial wage penalty to black

matriculants in comparison with black students attending a traditionally white institution.

1 During the course of this briefing our panelists and commissioners used a wide variety of terms to describe a

college or university that is not an HBCU. These terms included traditionally white institutions, historically

white colleges and universities, and predominantly white schools, among others. For clarity in this report we

used the term non-HBCU except when directly referencing a phrase, sentence or quotation from the prepared

statements or the transcript where the panelist or author used a different but synonymous term. In these cases

we used the term or phrase used by the panelist or author.

Terms such as traditionally white institutions and historically white colleges and universities should

not be construed to mean that such institutions are racially segregated or that blacks or other minorities are

discouraged from attending those institutions. In fact, many institutions which our panelists describe using

terms such as historically white college or university are quite racially diverse.

2 Roland G. Fryer, Jr., and Michael Greenstone, “The Causes and Consequences of Attending Historically Black

Colleges and Universities,” National Bureau of Economic Research Working Paper No. 13036, April 2007.
2 The Educational Effectiveness of Historically Black Colleges and Universities

Other differences are more positive. Students attending HBCUs appear to demonstrate

increased charitable giving, political participation, religious participation, and propensity to

major in the physical sciences compared with those who went to traditionally white

institutions.

In the second research effort Commissioners identified, psychologists Elliott, et al.,3sought

to assess the effects of black students attending HBCUs rather than non-HBCUs. The study

focused on predictors of whether or not black students decide to major in the sciences with

some discussion of the special role HBCUs might play in this process. The authors note an

initial substantial interest in, and favorable feelings toward, science among blacks pursing

science careers, an effect more positive than that found among white students. The black

students failed to manifest such interest later in college and subsequently. To understand this

change, the researchers studied the likelihood of students enrolled in four Ivy League

institutions majoring in science and, to a lesser extent, of their dropping out of college

completely. Elliott, et al., were particularly interested in the situation of high-ability minority

students.

The researchers’ overall finding is that “preadmission variables accounted for a significant

fraction of the variance in persistence decisions, while ethnicity did not.” Although black

students have a greater initial interest in choosing science majors and careers than whites,

and an attraction equal to that of all nonblacks, the heightened appeal of these pursuits is not

sustained. While students’ initial interest predicts their persistence in the field of science, the

enhanced attraction does not stem the disproportionately large attrition among black students.

The analysis indicates that the greater attrition of black majors arises from a very large

disadvantage in black students’ average developed academic ability compared to whites and

Asian Americans.

Elliott, et al., indicate that the relative position of blacks in HBCUs as compared to those at

non- HBCUs probably accounts for the positive effects of HBCUs. The authors note that

black students at non-HBCUs—even those who score well compared to national racial and

ethnic norms—are competitively disadvantaged relative to their school’s student body on

indicators of developed ability that predict science persistence and achievement, particularly

at elite colleges and universities. This results in weaker performance and persistence among

blacks than might occur in less competitive settings. The authors note that the differences are

large enough to suggest that the achievement gaps are due to nonacademic factors as well as

to differences in developed ability.

Most importantly in the context of this briefing, Elliott, et al., note that while HBCU

enrollees and graduates have quite low SAT scores and high school grades, they nonetheless

produce 40 percent of black engineers with only 20 percent of black enrollment. They also

note that the top 21 undergraduate producers of blacks with doctoral degrees were HBCUs,

and none of the highly successful schools were among the 30 most selective academic

institutions.

3 Rogers Elliott, A. Christopher Strenta, Russell Adair, Michael Matier, and Jannah Scott, “The Role of

Ethnicity in Choosing and Leaving Science in Highly Selective Institutions, ” Research in Higher Education,

vol. 37, No. 6. (1996).
Executive Summary 3

Elliott, et al., found support for their comparative performance hypothesis in a re-analysis of

data from 11 private colleges. The research shows that, when students are ranked by SAT

math scores and divided into three groups, each institution awarded science degrees to, on

average, 54 percent of students in the top tercile, 31 percent in the middle group, and only 15

percent in the bottom third, regardless of differences across colleges in each tier’s average

math scores. While having a higher SAT math score is associated with becoming a science

graduate, the rank of an SAT math score within any given institution also matters in

predicting whether a student will become a science graduate. For example, a student among

the top third of a less selective institution is likely to have a far greater probability of

graduating with a science degree than a student in the bottom tercile of a selective institution,

even when they have the same SAT math score. The example that Elliott and his coauthors

provide predicts that 55 percent of the former, and only 15.4 percent of the latter, are likely to

graduate with a science degree. Relative student position in institutions matters. Here, then,

the HBCUs can continue to have an important role in nurturing academic talent among black

students.

Despite widely ranging methods, data sources, and professional disciplines, theories, and

analyses, both studies that Commissioners contributed to the record after the briefing support

the conclusion that HBCUs make a distinctive contribution to the well-being of black

Americans.

In the briefing session, Dr. Sullivan stated that for some young African-Americans the

development that occurs at HBCUs might have a profound influence on their lives. For

example, African-American graduates of certain HBCUs, such as Xavier University, Spelman

College, and Morehouse College, successfully gained entry into graduate, medical, engineering,

law schools and other fields, in percentages and numbers equaling or exceeding those of

African-American students that attended wealthier, longer established, and predominantly-white

institutions. He noted that graduates of the Morehouse School of Medicine pass national

medical examinations at rates equaling or surpassing the overall national pass rate even though

the institution is one of the most recently established medical schools in the United States. Dr.

Sullivan suggested that faculty members’ dedication to teaching, a supportive social

environment on campus, faculty and staff members’ encouragement of students to explore

leadership roles in their chosen careers, and the general availability of faculty role models help

explain HBCU success.

Dr. Richardson indicated that after the enactment of the Civil Rights Act of 1964 (CRA) and

initial federal enforcement in the early 1970s, questions arose about the future role of

HBCUs in contemporary higher education. Previously, there was a clear understanding that

HBCUs were open to all students and were the only type of institution in the Southern states

available to African-American students seeking a college education. Continuing, he explained

that the CRA mandated that non-HBCUs increase minority enrollment but did not require

HBCUs to raise their white enrollment. He went on to say that African-American educational

attainment seriously lagged behind that of whites despite HBCUs’ success in enabling

access, and that the gap between the two groups has been widening in recent years. He

observed that HBCUs are far more productive in graduating African-Americans than are

selective institutions and therefore must be an “integral part of any strategy for increasing the
4 The Educational Effectiveness of Historically Black Colleges and Universities

number of black graduates in the nation.” Elliott, et al., made a comparable point on HBCU

productivity, albeit pertaining to the graduation of science graduates.4

Mr. Merisotis said that a 2004–2005 national survey of student engagement found that,

compared to African-American students enrolled in “predominantly white institutions,” those

attending HBCUs reported more interactions with faculty members. He indicated that the

2004 Campus Compact5 membership survey documented that HBCUs are more likely to require

service and service-learning as a condition of graduation. Mr. Merisotis also said HBCUs

provide “additional support, guidance, and mentoring to students from educationally and

economically disadvantaged backgrounds and disabled students to ensure their admission into

and graduation from college. Finally, he drew attention to the success of the undergraduate-level

“HBCU UP” program that the National Science Foundation (NSF) funds at 14 HBCU sites.

NSF, he said, reported that at HBCUs in which the program has been in place for five years, the

passing rates in required mathematics courses improved as did performance in mandatory

science, technology, and engineering courses. Of the science, technology, engineering, and

mathematics (STEM) graduates from these HBCUs, he said about 25 percent have acquired

undergraduate research experience that would be helpful to them in graduate school. It bears

noting that existing empirical literature suggested that blacks aspire to be in science.6 Elliott, et

al., pointed out that “intention to concentrate in science is by far the strongest predictor of

actually doing so.”7

Dean Pierce stated that HBCUs continue to educate large numbers of African-Americans

effectively, thus contributing to the nation’s need for a learned population and skilled

workforce. He indicated that desegregation efforts in state higher education systems involved

private lawsuits seeking equal funding for HBCUs relative to traditionally white institutions in

conjunction with federal government intervention. The 1970s Adams cases are illustrative.8In

these cases, Dean Pierce said private individuals filed suit in federal court against the Secretary

of the U. S. Department for Health, Education, and Welfare (HEW), the agency itself, and its

Office for Civil Rights (OCR) for failure to enforce federal civil rights laws with regard to

4 Rogers Elliott, A. Christopher Strenta, Russell Adair, Michael Matier, and Jannah Scott (1996), “The Role of

Ethnicity in Choosing and Leaving Science in Highly Selective Institutions,” Research in Higher Education,

Vol. 37, No. 6, p. 684, citing E. Culotta (1992), “Black colleges cultivate scientists,” Science 258: 1216–1218

and D. H. Thurgood and J. E. Clark (1995), Summary Report 1993: Doctorate Recipients from United States

Universities. Washington, DC: The National Academy Press.

5

“The National Campus Compact is a coalition of more than 950 institutions committed to the civic purposes of

higher education.” USCCR briefing transcript, May 5, 2006, p. 27.

6 Rogers Elliott, A. Christopher Strenta, Russell Adair, Michael Matier, and Jannah Scott (1996), “The Role of

Ethnicity in Choosing and Leaving Science in Highly Selective Institutions,” Research in Higher Education,

Vol. 37, No. 6, p. 690, citing G. H. Dunteman, J. Wisenbaker, and M. E. Taylor (1979), Race and Sex

Differences in College Science Program Participation. Research Triangle Park, N.C.: Research Triangle

Institute and J. Oakes (1990), “Opportunities, Achievement, and Choice: Women and Minority Students in

Science and Mathematics,” Review of Research in Higher Education 16:153–222.

7 Rogers Elliott, A. Christopher Strenta, Russell Adair, Michael Matier, and Jannah Scott (1996), “The Role of

Ethnicity in Choosing and Leaving Science in Highly Selective Institutions,” Research in Higher Education,

Vol. 37, No. 6, p.690.

8 Adams v. Richardson, 351F. Supp. 636 (1972) and Adams v. Califano, 430 F. Supp. 118 (D.D.C. 1977).
Executive Summary 5

African-Americans enrolled in HBCUs. The court found against OCR and directed it to develop

guidelines to desegregate state systems of higher education. OCR’s 1978 policy, he explained,

examined two components to determine civil rights compliance—HBCU enhancement and

traditionally white institution affirmative action in recruitment to attract and enroll more

African-American students. Following Ayers v. Fordice, 1992 (Fordice), he said OCR created a

policy for higher education desegregation in 1994 that was far more rigorous than that of the

1978 one. Continuing, he offered that the “problem we face today is almost a re-visitation of the

situation that led to the Adams cases in the 1970s.” In 2000, 2001, and especially 2002, he

observed that some states were seeking to revert to a policy of hindering HBCUs’ ability to

offer attractive educational programs, while others were unnecessarily duplicating programs.9

Historically, he said program duplication served to create and maintain a segregated higher

education system.

In her turn to speak, Dr. Kim first provided some characteristics about HBCUs and their

students. Compared to “historically white colleges and universities,” she said that HBCUs tend

to have fewer resources, smaller enrollments, a lower student-faculty ratio, and higher studentfaculty interactions. Of their students, she said that they were close to 1.5 times likelier than

students at historically white colleges and universities to participate in faculty members’

research, their family backgrounds tended to be less affluent, and they are generally less

academically prepared. With respect to the latter, the research of Elliott, et al., noted, for

example, that “black grade-12 achievement in math is about the same as, and in science a

little worse than, white grade-8 achievement.”10 Dr. Kim then discussed her research, which

examined the impact of HBCUs and historically white colleges and universities on three

academic outcomes: overall academic ability, writing ability, and mathematics ability. She

found no significant difference between African-American students at HBCUs and historically

white colleges and universities in these three areas. Similarly, she found no significant

difference between African-American students in HBCUs and historically white colleges and

universities in the likelihood of earning a baccalaureate degree and in early career earnings.11

9 USCCR briefing transcript, May 5, 2006, p. 42. Unnecessary program duplication refers to those instances in

which broadly similar high demand programs at an historically black college or university (HBCU) are offered

at a geographically proximate TWI. See, for example, MARYLAND’S REPORT AND THE PARTNERSHIP

AGREEMENT BETWEEN THE STATE OF MARYLAND AND THE U. S. DEPARTMENT OF

EDUCATION, OFFICE FOR CIVIL RIGHTS, <http://www.mhec.state.md.us/higherEd/ocrplan/index.asp>

(last accessed Jan. 26, 2007) The HBCU and TWI in question may be public or private. Genevieve Segura

senior education policy analyst, Maryland Higher Education Commission, telephone interview, Jan. 26, 2007.

10 Rogers Elliott, A. Christopher Strenta, Russell Adair, Michael Matier, and Jannah Scott (1996), “The Role of

Ethnicity in Choosing and Leaving Science in Highly Selective Institutions,” Research in Higher Education,

Vol. 37, No. 6, p. 682, citing J. Oakes (1990), “Opportunities, achievement, and choice: Women and minority

students in science and mathematics,” Review of Research in Higher Education 16:153–222; L. Suter (ed.)

(1993), Indicators of Science and Mathematics—1993. Washington, D.C.: U. S. Government Printing Office

(NSF 93–95); P. E. White (1992), Women and Minorities in Science and Engineering: An Update. Washington,

D.C.: National Science Foundation.

11 “Factors influencing Black students’ persistence in college,” by P. Cross, P. and H. Astin, in G. Thomas (Ed.).

Black Students in Higher Education, 1981, pp. 76–90. Westport, CN: Greenwood Press; “Do historically Black

institutions of higher education confer unique advantages on Black students: An initial analysis,” by. R. G.

Ehrenberg, and D. S. Rothstein, Cambridge, MA: National Bureau of Economic Research, 1993, unpublished

paper; “The influence of college on self-concept: A consideration of race and gender differences,” by E.
6 The Educational Effectiveness of Historically Black Colleges and Universities

Dr. Kim pointed out that these findings showed that an African-American student’s attendance

at an HBCU or an historically white college or university did not affect his or her academic

success and early career earnings. She said that her findings along with those of others “lend

support to the proposition that HBCUs contribute significantly to higher education in this

country and merit strong support.”

The discussion began with Commissioner Kirsanow commenting on Dr. Kim’s research. He

noted that Dr. Kim did not control for regional effects in her study. Nonetheless, given HBCUs

lower funding levels and the academic under-preparedness of their students on admission,

such institutions were “doing a much better job than historically white colleges and

universities in educating African-American students,” he said, more than the findings of no

significant difference suggest. Dr. Sullivan stated that Spelman College’s graduation rate of 77

percent exceeds those of several respected and well-resourced white institutions. He added that

Morehouse School of Medicine students performed better on the United States’ Medical

Licensing Examination than the country’s other medical students despite scoring lower on

SATs. Dean Pierce pointed out that in 2005, despite fewer resources and pre-entry academic

profiles predicting lower achievement, graduates of North Carolina Central University School of

Law achieved a first-time bar passage rate of 81 percent, which tied with that of Duke

University School of Law. Vice Chair Thernstrom expressed admiration for HBCUs. During a

visit to Savannah State University some years ago, she noted that many of its African-American

students have limited academic skills, a reflection of the “racial gap in academic achievement at

the end of high school.” She was impressed by the quality education the institution offered and

its dedicated efforts to improve students academically.

Commissioner Kirsanow found it striking that HBCUs awarded 40 percent of all black graduate

STEM degrees. Further, he observed that the top 30 HBCUs graduated the largest numbers of

blacks who enrolled in STEM doctoral programs. In the same vein, the Elliott, et al., article

reported that despite generally weak pre-college academic credentials, HBCUs produced 40

percent of black science and engineering degrees even though they enrolled only 20 percent

of the total black undergraduate students.12 Elliott and his coauthors also commented that of

the top 21 undergraduate producers of black doctoral graduates during the period 1986–1993,

17 were HBCUs.13

Panelists offered several suggestions for HBCUs’ educational success with students whose precollege profiles are not sterling. Dr. Sullivan suggested that faculty commitment played a role.

Pascarella, J. Smart, C. Ethington, and M. Nettles, in American Educational Research Journal, 24 (1), 1987, pp.

49-77. Kim written statement, pp. 46, 56–57.

12 Rogers Elliott, A. Christopher Strenta, Russell Adair, Michael Matier, and Jannah Scott (1996), “The Role of

Ethnicity in Choosing and Leaving Science in Highly Selective Institutions,” Research in Higher Education,

Vol. 37, No. 6, p. 700, citing The College Handbook, for example, 1988, or any recent edition; Barron’s

Profiles of American Colleges, for example, 1988, or any recent edition; E. Culotta (1992), “Black colleges

cultivate scientists,” Science 258: 1216–1218 and T. R. Phillips (1991), ABET/EXXON Minority Engineering

Student Achievement Profile.

13 Rogers Elliott, A. Christopher Strenta, Russell Adair, Michael Matier, and Jannah Scott (1996), “The Role of

Ethnicity in Choosing and Leaving Science in Highly Selective Institutions,” Research in Higher Education,

Vol. 37, No. 6, p. 700, citing D. H. Thurgood and J. E. Clark (1995, Table 5), Summary Report 1993: Doctorate

Recipients from United States Universities. Washington, DC: The National Academy Press.
Executive Summary 7

Dr. Richardson and Dean Pierce both spoke of HBCUs’ nurturing environment wherein a

culture of engaging students within and outside the classroom flourishes. Both Dr. Richardson

and Dr. Kim cited the importance of role modeling. Of interest here is the finding of Elliott, et

al. that persistence is not just a matter of average preparation but of comparative position as

well. A reasonably well-prepared student at an HBCU is in a strong competitive position in

his or her institution, unlike a similar student at an elite, majority white institution, and is

thus more likely to succeed and persist beyond the baccalaureate.14

Chairman Reynolds noted the severity of the budget reality and HBCUs’ heavy dependence on

state and federal funding, and then asked if HBCU officials have considered any alternative

funding model. Dr. Richardson responded that in fiscally difficult times, the higher education

community has to be particularly efficient in delivering quality education. He proposed a

complementary system of higher education that strategically locates high quality academic

programs aimed at developing the state’s work force in a few geographically dispersed

institutions, rather than unnecessarily duplicating them.

At the close of the discussion, Commissioner Kirsanow asked panelists to identify key federal

policy initiatives that could sustain and enhance HBCUs and significant threats that could

imperil them. With respect to the former, panelists proposed a return to complementary

academic programming among institutions within a higher education system while avoiding

unnecessary program duplication in geographically proximate HBCUs and non-HBCUs,

continued enhancement of HBCUs, enforcement of federal civil rights laws, additional Title

III support for HBCUs, and an increase in financial aid. The threats that panelists identified

are unnecessary program duplication, declining financial resources, and public challenges to

HBCUs’ right to exist.

Based on panelist presentations and the ensuing discussion during the briefing, the

Commission offers the following findings and recommendations: (Please see next page.)

14 Rogers Elliott, A. Christopher Strenta, Russell Adair, Michael Matier, and Jannah Scott (1996), “The Role of

Ethnicity in Choosing and Leaving Science in Highly Selective Institutions,” Research in Higher Education,

Vol. 37, No. 6, pp. 701–702.
Findings and Recommendations 8

FINDINGS AND RECOMMENDATIONS

Findings

1. A historically black college or university (“HBCU”) is a college or university that

existed before 1964 that has a historic and contemporary mission of educating

African-Americans while being open to all students. There are currently 103 HBCUs

in the United States. Forty are public four-year colleges and universities, and 49 are

private. The remaining 14 are two-year colleges, 11 of which are public and three

private [Chairman Reynolds and Commissioners Gaziano, Heriot, Kirsanow, and

Taylor voted in favor of this finding. Commissioner Yaki abstained.]

2. Many distinguished and highly successful Americans have graduated from one of

these institutions, including high percentages of African-American congressmen,

professors, CEOs, lawyers, and judges. Indeed, during the days of legally mandated

segregation, academically talented African-American students desiring university

degrees often had few or no options other than HBCUs. Today’s African-American

students have many more choices, among them universities formerly segregated by

law or custom, leading some commentators to question what role HBCUs should play

now and in the future [Chairman Reynolds and Commissioners Gaziano, Heriot, and

Kirsanow voted in favor of this finding. Commissioners Taylor and Yaki abstained.]

3. According to survey data collected by the National Study for Student Engagement

(NSSE), students at historically black colleges and universities (“HBCUs”) report

higher levels of engagement on some survey dimensions than do their counterparts at

non-HBCUs. For example, according to 2004 and 2005 NSSE data from 37 HBCUs,

African-American students report more contact with faculty than African-American

students at non-HBCUs. Other studies also show that African-American students at

HBCUs are more likely to be involved in faculty research projects than are AfricanAmerican students at non-HBCUs [Chairman Reynolds and Commissioners Gaziano,

Heriot, Kirsanow, and Taylor voted in favor of this finding. Commissioner Yaki

abstained.].

4. Generally, HBCUs have less funding and fewer support resources for their students

than comparable non-HBCUs. A study conducted by one panelist, Dr. Kim, nonetheless

found no significant differences in academic outcomes between HBCUs and wealthier

non-HBCUs [Chairman Reynolds and Commissioners Gaziano, Heriot, Kirsanow,

and Taylor voted in favor of this finding. Commissioner Yaki abstained.].

5. HBCUs have an average graduation rate of 55 percent, which is lower than the 63

percent average graduation rate for non- HBCUs. This may occur, in part, because of

HBCUs’ generally liberal admission policies and their average student’s weaker

academic profile. However, for similarly situated students, attendance at an HBCU

versus a non-HBCU has no differential effect on an individual African-American

student’s chances of obtaining a bachelor’s degree [Chairman Reynolds and
9 The Educational Effectiveness of Historically Black Colleges and Universities

Commissioners Gaziano, Heriot, Kirsanow, and Taylor voted in favor of this finding.

Commissioner Yaki voted against this finding].

6. HBCUs succeed in educating and graduating disproportionately large numbers of

African-American students in part because their admission policies do not create the

situation of academic mismatch often found at non-HBCUs. Many African-American

students granted preferential admission at elite non-HBCUs, even when they score well

compared to national norms, are competitively disadvantaged in developed ability

relative to their school’s student body who are admitted without consideration of racial

or ethnic preferences. Thus, at some of these institutions, academically well-prepared

non-Asian minority students, including African-Americans, have weaker performance

and persistence rates than might occur in settings where the competition is in line with

their current academic preparation [Chairman Reynolds and Commissioners Gaziano,

Heriot, and Kirsanow voted in favor of this finding. Commissioner Yaki voted against

this finding. Commissioner Taylor abstained.].

7. HBCUs also produce a disproportionately high share of African-American students

who receive degrees in science, engineering, technology, or mathematics (the

“STEM” fields). Though only about 20 percent of African-American college students

attend HBCUs, 40 percent of all African-American engineers received their degrees

from an HBCU. Similarly, of the top 21 undergraduate producers of AfricanAmerican science PhDs, 17 were HBCUs. The prevalence of academic mismatch,

caused by non-HBCUs granting preferential admission to certain minority students as

opposed to overt discrimination against African-Americans at non-HBCUs, or

African-American students’ lack of interest in science, appears to best explain

HBCUs’ successes in producing African-American STEM graduates [Commissioners

Gaziano, Heriot, Kirsanow, and Taylor voted in favor of this finding. Chairman

Reynolds and Commissioner Yaki abstained.].

Recommendations

1. African-American students interested in STEM majors may also particularly wish to

consider attending a college or a university, including an HBCU, at which their

academic credentials match those of the typical student so that they avoid

experiencing the negative effects of academic mismatch [Chairman Reynolds and

Commissioners Gaziano, Heriot, and Kirsanow voted in favor of this

recommendation. Commissioner Yaki voted against this recommendation.

Commissioner Taylor abstained.].

2. State governments should allocate funds to HBCUs and non-HBCUs based on

racially neutral criteria [Chairman Reynolds and Commissioners Gaziano, Heriot, and

Kirsanow voted in favor of this recommendation. Commissioner Yaki voted against

this recommendation. Vice Chair Thernstrom and Commissioner Taylor abstained.].

3. Researchers should carefully study the success of HBCUs to learn how other schools

can emulate their best practices. [Chairman Reynolds and Commissioners Gaziano,
Findings and Recommendations 10

Heriot, Kirsanow, and Taylor voted in favor of this recommendation Vice Chair

Thernstrom and Commissioner Yaki abstained.].
Introduction 11

INTRODUCTION

Section 322 of Title III of the Black College and University Act offers criteria that define

historically black colleges and universities (HBCUs). An HBCU is a college or university

that existed before 1964, with a historic and contemporary mission of educating blacks1

while being open to all.2 An HBCU must either have earned accreditation from a nationally

recognized accrediting agency or association, or be making reasonable progress toward

accreditation.3This definition covers a wide range of HBCUs—private, public, churchaffiliated, large, small, rich, and poor.4 Currently, 103 HBCUs are located mainly in the

Southeastern United States, the District of Columbia, and the Virgin Islands. Of these, 40 are

public four-year colleges or universities and 49 are private-four-year ones. The remaining 14

are two-year colleges, 11 of which are public and three private.5

HBCUs were created to fill a gap in the higher education of black students prior to the civil

rights era. The historic mission of HBCUs grew out of racially discriminatory policies in

education that were emblematic of an era of segregation in the broader society. Before the

Civil War (1861-1865), public policy in the South prohibited the education of blacks,6a

majority of whom were enslaved.7 A handful of freed blacks, however, found rare

opportunities to attend white colleges in the North.8 After the Civil War, Christian

missionaries established colleges in some Northern states to educate free blacks or runaway

slaves. The earliest missionary-established historically black colleges were Cheney

University, founded in 1837, Lincoln University, founded in 1854, both located in

Pennsylvania, and Wilberforce University in Ohio, founded in 1856.9 Most private HBCUs

came into existence during this period.10

1

John A. Moore, Note: Are State-Supported Historically Black Colleges and Universities Justifiable after

Fordice?—A Higher Education Dilemma,” 27 Fla. St. U. L. Rev. 547, 549 (2000).

2 Earl S. Richardson, president, Morgan State University written statement to the U.S. Commission on Civil

Rights, Washington, DC, May 5, 2006, p. 33 (hereafter cited as Richardson written statement).

3

John A. Moore, Note: Are State-Supported Historically Black Colleges and Universities Justifiable after

Fordice?—A Higher Education Dilemma,” 27 Fla. St. U. L. Rev. 547, 549 (2000).

4 Debra A. Harley, “Desegregation at HBCUs: Removing Barriers and Implementing Strategies.” The Negro

Education Review, Vol. 52, No. 4, October 2001, p. 151.

5 United States Department of Education, President’s Board of Advisors on Historically Black Colleges and

Universities, “White House Initiative on Historically Black Colleges and Universities,”

<http://www.ed.gov/about/inits/list/whhbcu/edlite-index.html> (last accessed Jan. 19, 2007).

6

Samuel L. Meyers, “What is a Black College?” NAFEO Inroads, (February /March, 1987), p. 2.

7

PBS, From Swastika to Jim Crow, “Historically Black Colleges and Universities,”

<http://www.pbs.org/itvs/fromswastikatojimcrow/Black colleges.html> (last accessed October 16, 2005).

8

PBS, From Swastika to Jim Crow, “Historically Black Colleges and Universities,”

<http://www.pbs.org/itvs/fromswastikatojimcrow/Black colleges.html> (last accessed October 16, 2005).

9

Samuel L. Meyers “What is a Black College?” NAFEO Inroads, (February./March., 1987), p. 2.

10 John A. Moore, Note: Are State-Supported Historically Black Colleges and Universities Justifiable after

Fordice?—A Higher Education Dilemma,” 27 Florida State University Law Review 547, 549–550 (2000).
12 The Educational Effectiveness of Historically Black Colleges and Universities

The first Morrill Act of 1862 indirectly contributed to the founding of public HBCUs. Under

this law, each state received grants of federal land to build colleges to teach agriculture,

mechanical arts, and liberal education. Many states, however, prohibited blacks from

attending white colleges.11 The second Morrill Act of 1890 mandated states to make

available separate educational facilities for blacks or admit them to white colleges.12

Southern states chose to set up separate public colleges for blacks rather than admit them to

white colleges.13

While de jure segregation is a thing of the past, HBCUs still enroll a substantial proportion of

black students. In the pre-civil rights era, a large majority of blacks who attended colleges

enrolled in HBCUs. Currently, about 20 percent of black students attend four-year HBCUs.14

More strikingly, even today, HBCUs have educated a large proportion of black leaders

including 40 percent of all Congressmen, 50 percent of non-HCBU professors, 12.5 percent

of chief executive officers, 50 percent of lawyers, and 80 percent of judges.15

The Supreme Court’s decision in Ayers v. Fordice16 made the situation of HBCUs more

precarious. Fordice instructed state legislatures either to find an educational justification for

the continued existence of HBCUs or to integrate them with the non-HBCU institutions of

their respective states. However, public support for HBCUs remains strong. As part of the

recently passed College Cost Reduction Act, Congress increased the federal investment in

HBCUs by over $170 million over the next two years.17

The U.S. Commission on Civil Rights (hereafter the Commission) conducted a briefing on

May 5, 2006, to assess the educational effectiveness of HBCUs.18 These institutions, despite

11 John A. Moore, Note: Are State-Supported Historically Black Colleges and Universities Justifiable after

Fordice?—A Higher Education Dilemma,” 27 Fla. St. U. L. Rev. 547, 550 (2000); PBS, From Swastika to Jim

Crow, “Historically Black College and Universities,”

<http://www.pbs.org/itvs/fromswastikatojimcrow/Blackcolleges_2.html> (last accessed October 16, 2005).

12 John A. Moore, Note: Are State-Supported Historically Black Colleges and Universities Justifiable after

Fordice?—A Higher Education Dilemma,” 27 Fla. St. U. L. Rev. 547, 550 (2000).

13 John A. Moore, Note: Are State-Supported Historically Black Colleges and Universities Justifiable after

Fordice?—A Higher Education Dilemma,” 27 Fla. St. U. L. Rev. 547, 550 (2000); PBS, From Swastika to Jim

Crow, “Historically Black College and Universities,”

<http://www.pbs.org/itvs/fromswastikatojimcrow/Blackcolleges_2.html> (last accessed October 16, 2005);

Leonard H. O. Spearman, Governance in the Nation’s Historically Black Colleges and Universities,, 2005, p. 7.

14 National Center for Educational Statistics, Historically Black Colleges and Universities, 1976–2001,

September 2004, p.2, Table 1.

15 Roland G. Fryer, Jr., and Michael Greenstone, “The Causes and Consequences of Attending Historically

Black Colleges and Universities,” National Bureau of Economic Research Working Paper No. 13036, April

2007, p.1.

16 505 U.S. 717 (1992).

17 United Negro College Fund, <www.uncf.org/print/index.asp?prlD=174) (last accessed Nov. 23rd, 2007).

18 The Executive Summary and the Summary of the Proceedings are based on the briefing held on May 5, 2006.

A transcript of the briefing is available on the Commission’s Web site <http://www.usccr.gov> and by request
13 Introduction

difficult beginnings, have been pivotal in educating students, especially African-Americans,

for generations. The Commission consulted numerous experts on HBCUs to identify

distinguished panelists to discuss this important issue. The five panelists were:

 Louis W. Sullivan, chair of the President’s Board of Advisors on Historically Black

Colleges and Universities, founding dean and first president of Morehouse School of

Medicine, and former Secretary of the U.S. Department of Health and Human

Services;

 Earl S. Richardson, president of Morgan State University and former chair of the

President’s Board of Advisors on Historically Black Colleges and Universities;

 Jamie P. Merisotis, president of the Institute for Higher Education Policy;

 Raymond C. Pierce, dean and professor of law at North Carolina Central University,

and former deputy assistant secretary for civil rights at the U. S. Department of

Education; and

 Mikyong Minsun Kim, associate professor of Higher Education at The George

Washington University’s Graduate School of Education and Human Development

and director of the Higher Education Administration Doctoral Program at the

institution’s Virginia Campus.

After the briefing, Commissioners offered two articles to help provide the reader with a

richer understanding of the subject because policy makers should base conclusions about the

efficacy of HBCUs in educating black students as compared to non-HBCUs19 on stronger

evidence than mere public support. In both studies the researchers rely on extensive empirical

data to draw their conclusions. The two articles are reproduced at the end of this report and

cast some additional light on the briefing topic.

In one study, economists Fryer and Greenstone analyzed several National Center for

Education Statistics’ databases collected in the 1970s and the 1990s. They found that during

the 1970s, HBCU attendance resulted in a greater likelihood of graduation when compared to

black attendees at traditionally white institutions, as well as an increased probability of

from the Publications Office, U.S. Commission on Civil Rights, 624 Ninth Street, NW, Room 600, Washington,

D.C. 20425. The telephone number and e-mail address of the Publications Office are (202) 376-8128 and

publications@usccr.gov, respectively.

19 The acronyms TWI, HWI, HWCU, and non-HBCU are used at various points in this report to reflect the

differing terminology used by our panelists. For purposes of this report these terms mean the same thing. When

referring globally or collectively to the panelist and or commissioner comments this report uses the term nonHBCU. In addition, note that it would be interesting to assess the impact of attending an Historically Black

College or University (HBCU) on white students, but this is beyond the scope of the Commission’s discussion.
14 The Educational Effectiveness of Historically Black Colleges and Universities

majoring in a physical science.20 As important, HBCUs provided a substantial wage premium

to their graduates. However, by the 1990s, HBCU attendance yielded a substantial wage

penalty to black matriculants in comparison with black students attending a traditionally

white institution.21

Other differences are more positive. Students attending HBCUs appear to demonstrate

increased charitable giving, political participation, religious participation, and propensity to

major in the physical sciences compared with those who went to traditionally white

institutions.22

If these conclusions survive further testing, they indicate that attending an HBCU no longer

provides the economic advantage to black matriculants that it once did. It may also imply, as

Fryer and Greenstone suggest, that traditionally white institutions may be more efficacious in

placing their black matriculants than HBCUs. However, HBCUs’ wage penalties are offset at

least partly with non-pecuniary advantages that may accrue to black matriculants in attending

HBCUs rather than traditionally white institutions. These include greater civic participation

and greater willingness of students to major in the physical sciences. The large proportions of

black lawyers, judges, members of the Congressional Black Caucus, and professors

graduated from HBCUs, mentioned earlier, support such a finding.

In the other research effort Commissioners identified, psychologists Elliott, et al., sought to

assess the effects of black students attending HBCUs rather than non-HBCUs. The study

focused on predictors of whether or not black students decide to major in the sciences with

some discussion of the special role HBCUs might play in this process. The authors note an

initial substantial interest in, and favorable feelings toward, science among blacks pursing

science careers, an effect more positive than that found among white students. The black

students failed to manifest such interest later in college and subsequently.23 To understand

this change, the researchers studied the likelihood of students enrolled in four Ivy-league

institutions majoring in science and, to a lesser extent, of their dropping out of college

20 Roland G. Fryer, Jr., and Michael Greenstone, “The Causes and Consequences of Attending Historically

Black Colleges and Universities,” National Bureau of Economic Research Working Paper No. 13036, April

2007, p. 18.

21 Roland G. Fryer, Jr., and Michael Greenstone, “The Causes and Consequences of Attending Historically

Black Colleges and Universities,” National Bureau of Economic Research Working Paper No. 13036, April

2007, pp. 18–25.

22 Roland G. Fryer, Jr., and Michael Greenstone, “The Causes and Consequences of Attending Historically

Black Colleges and Universities,” National Bureau of Economic Research Working Paper No. 13036, April

2007, Appendix, Table 6, p. 46.

23 Rogers Elliott, A. Christopher Strenta, Russell Adair, Michael Matier, and Jannah Scott, “The Role of

Ethnicity in Choosing and Leaving Science in Highly Selective Institutions, ” Research in Higher Education,

vol. 37, No. 6. (1996), p. 682.
15 Introduction

completely.24 Elliott, et al., were particularly interested in the situation of high-ability

minority students. Their study examined data from 1988 to1992.25

The researchers’ overall finding is that “preadmission variables accounted for a significant

fraction of the variance in persistence decisions, while ethnicity did not.” 26 Although black

students have a greater initial interest in choosing science majors and careers than whites,

and an attraction equal to that of non-blacks, the heightened appeal of these pursuits is not

sustained. Students’ initial interest ordinarily does predict their persistence in the field of

science. This study, however, finds that the enhanced attraction does not stem

disproportionately large attrition among black students majoring and pursuing careers in

science. The analysis indicates that the greater attrition of black majors arises from a very

large disadvantage in black students’ average developed academic ability compared to whites

and Asian Americans.27

Elliott, et al., indicate that the relative position of blacks in HBCUs as compared to those at

majority white institutions probably accounts for the positive effects of HBCUs. The authors

note that black students at majority white institutions—even those who score well compared

to national racial and ethnic norms—are competitively disadvantaged relative to their

school’s student body on indicators of developed ability that predict science persistence and

achievement, particularly at elite colleges and universities. This results in weaker

performance and persistence among blacks than might occur in less competitive settings.28

The authors note that the differences are large enough to suggest that the achievement gaps

are due to nonacademic factors as well as to differences in developed ability.

24 The article did not name the Ivy-league schools. See Rogers Elliott, A. Christopher Strenta, Russell Adair,

Michael Matier, and Jannah Scott, “The Role of Ethnicity in Choosing and Leaving Science in Highly Selective

Institutions, ” Research in Higher Education, vol. 37, No. 6. (1996), p. 682

25. Rogers Elliott, A. Christopher Strenta, Russell Adair, Michael Matier, and Jannah Scott, “The Role of

Ethnicity in Choosing and Leaving Science in Highly Selective Institutions, ” Research in Higher Education,

vol. 37, No. 6. (1996), p. 682.

26 Rogers Elliott, A. Christopher Strenta, Russell Adair, Michael Matier, and Jannah Scott, “The Role of

Ethnicity in Choosing and Leaving Science in Highly Selective Institutions, ” Research in Higher Education,

vol. 37, No. 6. (1996), p. 695.

27 Using a composite predictor of academic achievement, the authors found that, in statistical terms, white and

Asian American students enjoy an advantage amounting to 1.75 standard deviations over black students. Note

that in this study the averages of students’ combined SAT scores were: 1325 for white matriculants; 1160 for

blacks; 1345 for Asians; and 1219 for Hispanics. Rogers Elliott, A. Christopher Strenta, Russell Adair, Michael

Matier, and Jannah Scott, “The Role of Ethnicity in Choosing and Leaving Science in Highly Selective

Institutions, ”Research in Higher Education, vol. 37, No. 6. (1996), pp. 682 and 700.

28 Rogers Elliott, A. Christopher Strenta, Russell Adair, Michael Matier, and Jannah Scott, “The Role of

Ethnicity in Choosing and Leaving Science in Highly Selective Institutions, ”Research in Higher Education,

vol. 37, No. 6. (1996), p. 684.
16 The Educational Effectiveness of Historically Black Colleges and Universities

Most importantly in the context of this briefing, Elliott, et al., note that while HBCU

enrollees and graduates have quite low SAT29 scores and high school grades, they

nonetheless produce 40 percent of black engineers with only 20 percent of black

enrollment.30 They also note that the top 21 undergraduate producers of blacks with doctoral

degrees were HBCUs, and none of the highly successful schools were among the 30 most

selective academic institutions.31

Elliott, et al., found support for their comparative performance hypothesis in a re-analysis of

data from 11 private colleges. The research shows that, when students are ranked by SAT

math scores and divided into three groups, each institution awarded science degrees to, on

average, 54 percent of students in the top tercile, 31 percent in the middle group, and only 15

percent in the bottom third, regardless of differences across colleges in each tier’s average

math scores. While having a higher SAT math score is associated with becoming a science

graduate, the rank of an SAT math score within any given institution also matters in

predicting whether a student will become a science graduate. For example, a student among

the top third of a less selective institution is likely to have a far greater probability of

graduating with a science degree than a student in the bottom tercile of a selective institution,

even when they have the same SAT math score. The example that Elliott and his coauthors

provide predicts that 55 percent of the former, and only 15.4 percent of the latter, are likely to

graduate with a science degree.32 Relative student position in institutions matters. Here, then,

the HBCUs can continue to have an important role in nurturing academic talent among black

students.

Despite widely ranging methods, data sources, and professional disciplines, theories, and

analyses, both studies that Commissioners contributed to the record after the briefing support

a common conclusion. In short, HBCUs make a distinctive contribution to the well-being of

black Americans.

29 The test, originally known as the Scholastic Aptitude Test, was later renamed the Scholastic Assessment Test,

and now is simply called the SAT. See Fair Test: The National Center for Fair and Open Testing, “The SAT

Questions and Answers,” <http://www.fairtest.org/facts/satfact.htm.>, (last accessed Aug. 31, 2006).

30 Rogers Elliott, A. Christopher Strenta, Russell Adair, Michael Matier, and Jannah Scott, “The Role of

Ethnicity in Choosing and Leaving Science in Highly Selective Institutions, ”Research in Higher Education,

vol. 37, No. 6. (1996), pp. 684, 700.

31 Rogers Elliott, A. Christopher Strenta, Russell Adair, Michael Matier, and Jannah Scott, “The Role of

Ethnicity in Choosing and Leaving Science in Highly Selective Institutions, ”Research in Higher Education,

vol. 37, No. 6. (1996), p. 700.

32 Rogers Elliott, A. Christopher Strenta, Russell Adair, Michael Matier, and Jannah Scott, “The Role of

Ethnicity in Choosing and Leaving Science in Highly Selective Institutions, ”Research in Higher Education,

vol. 37, No. 6. (1996), pp. 700–701.
17 The Educational Effectiveness of Historically Black Colleges and Universities

SUMMARY OF THE PROCEEDINGS

Louis W. Sullivan

Historically Black Colleges and Universities and the Development of Students

Dr. Sullivan stated that a majority of the nation’s historically black colleges and universities

(HBCUs) came into existence after the Emancipation Proclamation in 1863. Religious

organizations built many of them with states taking over this task in later years.47 Passage of

the Voting Rights Act of 1965 and other momentous civil rights legislation in the 1960s,

designed to prohibit discriminatory conduct and “eliminate the vestiges of segregation and

discrimination,” guaranteed equal rights in principle for African-Americans and other

minorities.48 There was, however, an unintended consequence: persistent questions arose in

some quarters on the continued need for HBCUs and their educational effectiveness.49

The college years, Dr. Sullivan explained, are significant in the academic, social, and

personal development of undergraduates. During this period, they make the transition from

the certain, intimate world of the home to the more indeterminate, impersonal environment of

the campus.50 For some young African-Americans, he said, the development that occurs at

HBCUs may have a profound influence on their lives, including how they perform roles such

as spouse, parent, professional, or responsible citizen.51 For example, African-American

graduates of certain HBCUs successfully gained entry into graduate, medical, engineering, and

law schools and other fields in percentages and numbers equaling or exceeding those of

African-American students that attended wealthier, established predominantly white colleges

and universities. Dr. Sullivan noted that HBCUs with such eminent track records include, for

example, Xavier University, Spelman College, Morehouse College, Florida A & M, North

Carolina A & T University, and Jackson State University.52

The Morehouse School of Medicine

Dr. Sullivan explained that the Morehouse School of Medicine is a predominantly AfricanAmerican medical school. Morehouse College established its medical school in 1975

specifically to increase the number of African-American and other minority physicians in

Georgia and, more generally, the nation. The Morehouse School of Medicine, with modest

financial resources, began as a two-year institution enrolling the first class of medical students in

47 U.S. Commission on Civil Rights, briefing on the educational effectiveness of historically black colleges and

universities, Washington, DC, May 5, 2006 transcript (hereafter cited as USCCR briefing transcript, May 5,

2006), testimony of Louis W. Sullivan, p. 11.

48 USCCR briefing transcript, May 5, 2006, p. 11.

49 USCCR briefing transcript, May 5, 2006, p. 11.

50 USCCR briefing transcript, May 5, 2006, p. 12.

51 USCCR briefing transcript, May 5, 2006, p. 12.

52 USCCR briefing transcript, May 5, 2006, pp 12–13.45
Summary of The Proceedings 18

1978. It expanded to a four-year school by 1981, and earned full accreditation in 1985.53

The institution, according to Dr. Sullivan, now counts 800 medical alumni, including a

commissioner for health for the State of Georgia, a vice president of a large prestigious medical

school, the personal physician of the President of South Africa, and physicians practicing in

medically underserved rural and inner city communities. Dr. Sullivan noted that the institution’s

graduates pass national medical examinations at rates equaling or surpassing the overall national

rate. Yet the Morehouse School of Medicine is one of the most recently established medical

schools in the United States.54

Factors Accounting for the Educational Success of Students at Historically Black

Colleges and Universities

Dr. Sullivan identified four factors that help explain HBCU students’ successful experience.

These are:

(1) Faculty members’ dedication to teaching;

(2) HBCUs’ supportive social environment;

(3) Strong encouragement to students to explore career options and leadership roles in their

chosen careers; and

(4) Faculty role models.55

Ending on a sober note, Dr. Sullivan said the vestiges of segregation and discrimination still

linger in contemporary American society. Their elimination demands our sustained and

dedicated efforts. The nation’s HBCUs are significant in this regard, contributing to the

academic, social, and personal development of many African-American and other minority

citizens.56

Earl S. Richardson

Challenging the Rightful Place of Historically Black Colleges and Universities in Higher

Education

Dr. Richardson stated that the Civil Rights Act of 1964 (CRA) changed the landscape for

HBCUs. According to him, following its enactment and federal enforcement in the early

1970s, discussions arose about the future role of HBCUs in contemporary higher education.

Previously, the understanding of what HBCUs represented was clear: they were open to all

53 USCCR briefing transcript, May 5, 2006, p. 13.

54 USCCR briefing transcript, May 5, 2006, pp. 13–14.

55 USCCR briefing transcript, May 5, 2006, p. 14.

56 USCCR briefing transcript, May 5, 2006, pp. 14–15.
19 The Educational Effectiveness of Historically Black Colleges and Universities

students, and, according to him, were the only type of institution in the Southern states

available to African-American students seeking a college education.57

Dr. Richardson said that during this historic period, an erroneous assumption that HBCUs

restricted enrollment to African-Americans precipitated a discussion of HBCUs’ rightful

place in contemporary American higher education. In fact, he said, a high percentage of

prominent African-American leaders in public life and the professions earned their college

degrees from HBCUs because of the concentration of blacks in the South.58 The State of

Maryland illustrates this unique history. For example, Morgan State University counts among

its graduates the “first black judge in Maryland, the first black congressman, the first [black]

state senator, and the first [black] official to hold any statewide office.” Dr. Richardson

added that these leaders would not be in their positions without their HBCU attendance.59

Impact of the Civil Rights Act of 1964 on Historically Black Colleges and Universities

According to Dr. Richardson, the CRA required traditionally white institutions to increase

minority enrollment. Traditionally white institutions sought to meet this requirement through

financial incentives to mostly poor black students, who were thus able to enroll in such

institutions for the first time.60 He noted that there was no parallel requirement for HBCUs to

attract white students. He suggested that the federal government missed an opportunity to create

a fully desegregated higher education system by adopting this approach to integration.61

At the same time, Dr. Richardson said, HBCUs were not on par with traditionally white

institutions in many important respects, such as the quality of facilities and range of academic

programs.

62 He opined that Southern states deliberately neglected HBCUs as part of a strategy

to limit educational opportunities for blacks at all levels.63 He estimated that by the time the

federal government enforced CRA, most HBCUs were about a century behind traditionally

white institutions.64 HBCUs therefore were not competitive in attracting their traditional

constituency and even less so with respect to white students.65 In the early 1970s, Dr.

Richardson noted that black enrollment at HBCUs declined substantially as did the smaller

white enrollment.66 With regard to Morgan State University, he said the graduate student

57 Richardson written statement, p. 31.

58 USCCR briefing transcript, May 5, 2006, pp. 16–17.

59USCCR briefing transcript, May 5, 2006, pp. 16–17; Richardson written statement, p. 31.

60 Richardson written statement, p. 31.

61 USCCR briefing transcript, May 5, 2006, pp. 17–18; Richardson written statement p. 31.

62 USCCR briefing transcript, May 5, 2006, p. 18.

63 Richardson written statement, p. 31.

64 Richardson written statement, p. 31.

65 Richardson written statement, p. 31.

66 Richardson written statement, p. 31. From kindergarten through the 12th grade, poor funding of black schools

resulted in closure and caused black students to enroll in predominantly white schools that were once closed to

them. See Richardson written statement, p. 31.
Summary of The Proceedings 20

population was once slightly majority white, but became almost entirely black within a decade.

He further noted that the institution’s enrollment only recently re-attained its previous heights.67

How the Historically Black Colleges and Universities Survived

Dr. Richardson suggested that four factors contributed to the survival of HBCUs:

(1) In the mid-1970s, in light of the devastation wrought on HBCUs’ enrollment, the

federal government required states to enhance such institutions as a precondition to

developing desegregation plans.68 These plans were intended to “create parity and

comparability between ... black ... [and] white institutions so that they could be

equally competitive to students regardless of ... [the] race [of the student body],” a

task that Dr. Richardson said is still incomplete;69

(2) There is a core group of African-American students who choose to attend HBCUs

over traditionally white institutions;70

(3) Growth in the African-American population since the 1960s translated into a growing

number of college-age students by the mid-1980s. On the other hand, the white

college-age population had been declining, and would continue to do so for another

decade;71

(4) Traditionally white institutions became more selective in their admission

requirements. African-American students, on average, were less competitive on

standardized tests and other measures of pre-college academic achievement than their

white counterparts were. This compelled more and more African-American students

to seek admission in institutions with liberal admission policies, including HBCUs

and community colleges, which led to substantial growth in the enrollments of such

schools.72

Historically Black Colleges and Universities are Primary in Narrowing the Higher

Educational Gap between African-Americans and Whites

Dr. Richardson stated that African-American educational attainment lags far behind that of

whites despite HBCUs’ success in enabling college access. In 1970, a year that marked the

beginning of a federal emphasis on “parity, equity, and affirmative action,” he said the

difference between whites and African-Americans holding at least a bachelor’s degree

among persons 25 to 29 years of age favored whites by 10 percent. 73 At that time, attaining

67 Richardson written statement, p. 31.

68 Richardson written statement, pp. 31–32.

69 USCCR briefing transcript, pp. 19–20.

70 USCCR briefing transcript, p. 20.

71 USCCR briefing transcript, p. 20.

72 USCCR briefing transcript, p. 20.

73 Richardson written statement, p. 32
21 The Educational Effectiveness of Historically Black Colleges and Universities

parity necessitated increasing the number of African-Americans with at least a bachelor’s

degree by 160,000. 74 Dr. Richardson pointed out that the trend in recent years has been an

ever-widening educational gap between the two groups.75 A similar comparison made today

shows a 17-point difference between the groups because whites exhibit a higher level of

degree attainment.76 Attaining parity now requires approximately 400,000 additional

African-Americans with bachelor’s degrees, far more than the necessary number in 1970.77

Dr. Richardson stated that less selective or open-access campuses such as HBCUs would

have to shoulder the enormous task of increasing the numbers of minority students enrolling

in and graduating from college if this goal were to be met.78 He reasoned that:

(1) With growing emphasis on selectivity, traditionally white institutions are increasingly

recruiting students that scored in the upper ranges of the SAT.79 Less than 1 percent

of blacks as compared to 6 percent of whites score 1400 or higher on the SAT, and

less than 5 percent of blacks as compared to 24 percent of whites score 1200 or

higher. HBCUs and less selective institutions therefore represent “realistic” options

when it comes to enrolling minority students; 80

(2) Selective campuses generally graduate a percentage of African-Americans that is half

that of the total population from which they recruit. For example, the Ivy League

institutions, all of which are national universities, collectively have a graduating class

that is 7 percent African-American; the graduating class of the University of

California, Berkeley and the University of California, Los Angeles combined, 4

percent; and the graduating class of the University of North Carolina, Chapel Hill, 11

percent. These percentages constitute about half the proportion of blacks in the

nation, California, and North Carolina, respectively. Thus, the nation cannot look to

selective campuses to increase significantly the number and percentage of black and

other minority graduates;81

(3) HBCUs, in contrast, produce a larger number of black graduates than selective

institutions. Twenty-four individual HBCUs graduate the same numbers of blacks as

the University of Michigan and the University of North Carolina, Chapel Hill

combined. Morgan State University alone graduates almost as many black students as

all of the Ivy League campuses taken together, and Southern University graduates

even more. Howard University and Florida A & M graduate more blacks than the

74 USCCR briefing transcript, May 5, 2006, pp. 21–22; Richardson written statement, p. 34

75 Richardson written statement, p. 34.

76 Richardson written statement, p. 32.

77 USCCR briefing transcript, May 5, 2006, p. 22; Richardson written statement, p. 32

78 Richardson written statement, pp. 33–34.

79 See note 29.

80 Richardson written statement, p. 33.

81 Richardson written statement, p. 33.
Summary of The Proceedings 22

entire University of California System, the largest public university system in the

nation. “HBCUs [therefore] must be an integral part of any strategy for increasing the

number of black graduates in the nation.”82

In light of the reasons he presented, Dr. Richardson was emphatic that allocation of

additional resources to HBCUs would have the greatest impact in narrowing the degree

attainment gap between minority and majority students.83

Jamie P. Merisotis

Four Areas of HBCU Effectiveness

According to Mr. Merisotis, any review of the educational effectiveness of HBCUs should

consider four areas. They are:

(1) HBCUs as leaders in student engagement;

(2) HBCUs as community-based institutions that “promote civic engagement and service

learning;”

(3) HBCUs as drivers of educational attainment for “low income, first generation, and

disabled students;” and

(4) HBCUs as examples of success in a national effort to “improve the quality of science,

technology, engineering, and mathematics” (STEM) in education and research.84

Serving as Leaders in Student Engagement

Mr. Merisotis stated that a 2004–2005 National Survey of Student Engagement (NSSE) found

“more supportive learning environments for students” on HBCU campuses.85 For example,

compared to African-American students enrolled in “predominantly white institutions,” those

attending HBCUs reported more frequent interactions with faculty members.86 They also

82 Richardson written statement, pp.33–34.

83 USCCR briefing transcript, May 5, 2006, p. 22; Richardson written statement, p. 34.

84 USCCR briefing transcript, May 5, 2006, p. 24

85 USCCR briefing transcript, May 5, 2006, p. 25. Other panelists, for example, Dr. Sullivan also noted this

factor. USCCR briefing transcript, May 5, 2006, pp. 14, 56–57. The National Survey of Student Engagement

(NSSE), administered by the Indiana University Center for Post Secondary Research, documents the extent to

which institutions are involved in educational practices or activities that result in preferred learning and

personal development outcomes. NSSE collects information from students attending colleges and universities

nationwide about their participation in institutional programs and activities designed for “learning and personal

development.” The findings estimate “how undergraduates spend their time and what they gain from attending

college.” NSSE began in 2000 and since then close to 1,000 colleges and universities have participated. Jamie

P. Merisotis, president of the Institute for Higher Education Policy, written statement to the U.S. Commission

on Civil Rights (hereafter cited as Merisotis written statement), Washington, DC, May 5, 2006, p. 25.

86 USCCR briefing transcript, May 5, 2006, p. 26. Other panelists, for example Dr. Kim also noted this factor.

USCCR briefing transcript, May 5, 2006, p. 44.
23 The Educational Effectiveness of Historically Black Colleges and Universities

reported greater likelihood of voting and believed that their institutions promoted “personal

spiritual growth.”87According to Mr. Merisotis, the NSSE results in conjunction with other

relevant research support the claim that HBCUs offer an educational experience that encourages

a high level of student engagement and “enhances [students’] intellectual gains and

accomplishments.”88

Promoting Civic Engagement and Service Learning

Mr. Merisotis noted that the extent to which colleges and universities contribute to student

“civic engagement and participation in ... democratic institutions, such as voting, volunteering,

and community involvement”89 is of general interest. Institutions may affect this in a number of

ways, one of which is to require service learning.90 The 2004 Campus Compact91 membership

survey, according to Mr. Merisotis, documented that HBCUs and other minority-serving

institutions are more likely to have service and service-learning requirements as a condition of

graduation, community service or service learning offices, directors of community service or

service learning, and partnerships with kindergarten through secondary schools and faith-based

organizations.92 He said that such deliberate cultivation of civic engagement among HBCU

students “point[s] to a profoundly different approach to student success.” He noted that the

national literature on service learning and civic engagement has yet to document adequately the

effects of HBCUs’ intentional strategies.93

Enabling Educational Attainment for Low Income, First Generation, and Disabled

Students

HBCUs, Mr. Merisotis said, offer disabled students and those from educationally and

economically disadvantaged backgrounds “additional support, guidance, and mentoring” to

ensure admission into and graduation from college.94 According to him, the Council for

Opportunity in Education reported that almost 75 percent of HBCUs participate in the TRIO95

program compared to less than 25 percent for non-HBCUs. The TRIO programs on these

87 USCCR briefing transcript, May 5, 2006, p. 26.

88 USCCR briefing transcript, May 5, 2006, p. 26.

89 Merisotis written statement, p. 37.

90 Merisotis written statement, p. 38.

91 “The National Campus Compact is a coalition of more than 950 institutions committed to the civic purposes

of higher education.” USCCR briefing transcript, May 5, 2006, p. 27.

92 USCCR briefing transcript, May 5, 2006, p. 28.

93 USCCR briefing transcript, May 5, 2006, p. 28.

94 USCCR briefing transcript, May 5, 2006, pp. 28–29.

95 The federally funded TRIO program historically has provided educational opportunities for low-income, firstgeneration college attendees, and disabled persons. The TRIO program includes Upward Bound, Talent Search

and Student Support Services, and is authorized under the Higher Education Act. TRIO serves students from the

pre-college to the pre-graduate levels. USCCR briefing transcript, May 5, 2006, p. 29.
Summary of The Proceedings 24

HBCU campuses collectively serve about 70,000 students and receive approximately $70

million in federal funds.96

Science, Technology, Engineering, and Mathematics (STEM)

Mr. Merisotis stated that study of science, technology, engineering, and mathematics (STEM)

plays a critical role in enhancing America’s global and economic competitiveness. He offered

that African-Americans are seriously underrepresented as a percentage of the STEM workforce

and as a percentage of students enrolling in and graduating from college-level STEM programs.

In his view, enhancing the quality and success of HBCU STEM programs is an appropriate way

to improve the nation’s strength in these fields.97

Mr. Merisotis reported that the undergraduate level initiative known as “HBCU UP” enhances

the success of HBCU STEM programs. The National Science Foundation (NSF) funds the

program at 14 HBCU sites and supports a wide range of activities, including “curriculum

enhancement, faculty professional development, undergraduate research [to enable acquisition

of research experience], collaborations with research institutions, and other activities that meet

institutional needs.”98 NSF, according to Mr. Merisotis, reported that institutions with “HBCU

UP” programs in place for five years have improved passing rates in mathematics courses

essential to success in STEM programs, such as Algebra, Pre-calculus, and Calculus I.99

Performance in other required STEM courses, such as Biology I and Physics I, also showed

improvement. Of the STEM graduates from these HBCUs, about 25 percent have acquired

undergraduate research experience that will help them in graduate school.100

Mr. Merisotis said that the four factors discussed above illustrate the multidimensional nature of

educational effectiveness. A fair and comprehensive assessment of HBCU performance should

extend beyond examinations of rates of graduation, retention, or job placements, which are

necessary indicators but not fully representative of the benefits of attending such institutions. He

further pointed out that a multidimensional approach would “improve the targeting of strategies

to continuously upgrade quality and performance at these nationally essential institutions of

higher learning.”101

Raymond C. Pierce

A Real and Continuing Threat to Historically Black Colleges and Universities

Dean Pierce stated that HBCUs continue to effectively educate large numbers of AfricanAmericans, thus contributing to the nation’s need for a learned population and skillful

96 USCCR briefing transcript, May 5, 2006, p. 29.

97 USCCR briefing transcript, May 5, 2006, p. 30.

98 USCCR briefing transcript, May 5, 2006, p. 30.

99 USCCR briefing transcript, May 5, 2006, p. 31.

100 USCCR briefing transcript, May 5, 2006, p. 31.

101 USCCR briefing transcript, May 5, 2006, pp. 31–32.
25 The Educational Effectiveness of Historically Black Colleges and Universities

workforce. On the other hand, he said there is no evidence that their closure would result in

extant students enrolling in and graduating from traditionally white institutions.102 He also

declared that there is a “real and continuing threat” to HBCUs in part because the federal

government refused to enforce federal civil rights laws that pertain to African-Americans

enrolled in public HBCUs.103 He further pointed out that because of HBCUs’ critical

educational contribution, and because full participation in the world economy demands an

educated workforce, this threat directly undermines the nation’s global competitiveness.104

Desegregation in Higher Education

Dean Pierce stated that federal civil rights efforts involving HBCUs occurred after the 1954

desegregation litigation in Brown v. Board of Education.

105 He pointed out that desegregation

in state higher education systems involved private lawsuits seeking equal funding for HBCUs

relative to traditionally white institutions in combination with federal government

intervention.106 The Adams cases of the 1970s107 are illustrative. Private individuals filed suit in

federal court against the U. S. Department for Health, Education, and Welfare (HEW) for failure

to enforce federal civil rights laws with regard to the equality of African-Americans enrolled in

HBCUs.108 According to Dean Pierce, HEW’s Office for Civil Rights (OCR) had determined

that 19 Southern and border states violated Title VI of the Civil Rights Act of 1964 for “failure

to equally protect the rights of African-Americans attending [HBCUs] pursuant to the

Fourteenth Amendment of the United States Constitution.”109 He noted that these states

nonetheless continued to treat HBCUs unequally vis-à-vis traditionally white institutions in a

number of areas, including resource allocation.110 Furthermore, federal funds flowed

uninterrupted to these states, thereby allowing them to operate segregated institutions of higher

education.111 In the Adams cases, Dean Pierce said, the court found against OCR and directed it

to develop guidelines to desegregate state systems of higher education. OCR required the 19

Southern and border states to submit plans that would bring about compliance with Title VI.112

According to Dean Pierce, 14 of the 19 states presented plans acceptable to OCR and entered

into agreements to implement five-year Title VI compliance plans.113 Of the remaining five,

102 USCCR briefing transcript, May 5, 2006, pp. 32–33.

103 USCCR briefing transcript, May 5, 2006, p. 33.

104 USCCR briefing transcript, May 5, 2006, p. 33.

105 USCCR briefing transcript, May 5, 2006, p. 33. Brown v. Board of Education, 347 U. S. 483 (1954).

106 Raymond C. Perce written statement to the U.S. Commission on Civil Rights, Washington, DC, May 5,

2006, p.42 (hereafter cited as Pierce written statement).

107 Adams v. Richardson, 351F. Supp. 636 (1972) and Adams v. Califano, 430 F. Supp. 118 (D.D.C. 1977).

108 USCCR briefing transcript, May 5, 2006, pp. 33–34; Pierce written statement, p. 42.

109 USCCR briefing transcript, May 5, 2006, p. 34.

110 Pierce written statement, p. 42.

111 Pierce written statement, p. 42.

112 Pierce written statement, p. 42.

113 USCCR briefing transcript, May 5, 2006, p. 34; Pierce written statement, p. 43.
Summary of The Proceedings 26

four of them—Louisiana, Tennessee, Alabama, and Mississippi—failed to reached agreement

with OCR, and each went on to litigate in federal court. Dean Pierce stated that Mississippi’s

case advanced to the U. S. Supreme Court as Ayers v. Fordice in 1992. OCR referred Ohio, the

fifth state, to the U.S. Department of Justice (DOJ) for litigation, when the parties could not

agree on a plan to desegregate Ohio’s system of higher education. DOJ, however, did not file

the case in court.114

The 1978 Civil Rights Policy for Higher Education Desegregation

Dean Pierce explained that OCR’s 1978 civil rights policy, “Revised Criteria for the

Desegregation of State Systems of Higher Education,” used whether or not states were

enhancing their HBCUs as one factor in determining state compliance with desegregation

requirements. He said that HBCUs’ limited academic program offerings and substandard

physical facilities were typical at that time and resulted largely from the circumstances of their

founding and existence. Enhancement consisted of establishing and locating attractive academic

programs on HBCUs’ campuses to expand educational opportunities for African-American

students and attract a diverse student body. The policy’s second component for determining

states’ compliance was whether or not traditionally white institutions used affirmative action in

recruitment and scholarship to attract and enroll more African-American students. The intent of

the 1978 policy, according to Dean Pierce, was to make academic offerings, rather than the

racial composition of the student body, the primary basis for students’ choice of HBCUs. If

successful, the 1978 policy would have created a unitary system of higher education in place of

racially identifiable black and white institutions.115

Dean Pierce stated that in 1988 Secretary William Bennett of the U. S. Department of Education

directed its Office for Civil Rights (OCR) to review the 14 states that had entered into

agreements in 1978 to ascertain progress in compliance with Title VI of the 1964 Civil Rights

Act. OCR employed a checklist analysis116 to make that determination and concluded that eight

of the 14 states were indeed in compliance.117 According to Dean Pierce, OCR did not conduct

compliance reviews for the remaining six states.118

The 1994 Federal Policy for Higher Education Desegregation

Dean Pierce stated that the U. S. Supreme Court ruled in United States v. Fordice that “states

have an affirmative duty to remove all vestiges of the past practice of segregation that have a

present day effect to the greatest extent practicable.”119 In response to the Supreme Court

114 USCCR briefing transcript, May 5, 2006, pp. 34–35; Pierce written statement, p. 43.

115 USCCR briefing transcript, May 5, 2006, pp. 35–36; Pierce written statement, pp. 42–43.

116 In a check list approach, such questions may be asked, “did the states enhance public HBCUs and implement

affirmative action procedures at TWIs?” Pierce written statement, p. 43.

117 USCCR briefing transcript, May 5, 2006, p. 37; Pierce written statement, p. 43.

118 Pierce written statement, p. 43.These six states were Florida, Kentucky, Maryland, Pennsylvania, Texas, and

Virginia. USCCR briefing transcript, May 5, 2006, p. 38; Pierce written statement, p. 43.

119 USCCR briefing transcript, May 5, 2006, p. 38; United States v. Fordice, 505 U. S. 717 (1992)
27 The Educational Effectiveness of Historically Black Colleges and Universities

decision, Mississippi initially suggested desegregating its higher education system by closing all

of the state’s HBCUs.120

Dean Pierce said that in 1994, following Fordice, OCR created a far more rigorous policy for

higher education desegregation than its 1978 version. Dean Pierce explained that under the 1994

policy, OCR employed a vestige analysis to determine if states previously found in violation of

Title VI were currently in compliance. Specifically, it sought to ascertain if states had to the

“greatest extent practicable addressed and removed all of the vestiges that have a present day

effect on the educational opportunities of African-Americans attending historically black

colleges and universities.” 121 Subsequent to publishing its 1994 policy, OCR obtained newly

signed five-year compliance agreements from seven states—Ohio and the remaining six of the

14 states that entered into agreements with OCR under the 1978 policy.122 Notably, Dean Pierce

said, the 1994 agreements did not include traditionally white institution affirmative action

programs to attract African-Americans, focusing instead on enhancing HBCUs and addressing

“the remaining vestiges of [segregated higher education] found to have continuing and present

day effects.”123

The Present

In Dean Pierce’s view, the “problem we face today is almost a revisitation of the situation that

led to the Adams cases in the 1970s.”124 In 2000, 2001, and especially 2002, there were

indications that the seven states that signed the new agreements were backing away from them.

Ohio in particular was seeking to revert to policies that would negatively affect Central State

University, a historically black university, potentially in violation of Title VI. Dean Pierce

suggested that the State of Maryland faces a similar situation. These states, though, continued to

receive federal funds for public higher education.125

At the same time, Dean Pierce said strong evidence exists that the eight states found in

compliance with Title VI in 1988 are now engaged in actions that negatively affect some

HBCUs, such as unnecessary program duplication.126 Historically, program duplication served

120 USCCR briefing transcript, May 5, 2006, pp. 38–39.

121 USCCR briefing transcript, May 5, 2006, pp. 39–40.

122 USCCR briefing transcript, May 5, 2006, p. 40.

123 USCCR briefing transcript, May 5, 2006, pp. 39–40.

124 USCCR briefing transcript, May 5, 2006, p. 40; Pierce written statement, p. 41.

125 USCCR briefing transcript, May 5, 2006, p. 41; Pierce written statement, p. 44.

126 USCCR briefing transcript, May 5, 2006, p. 42. Unnecessary program duplication refers to those instances in

which broadly similar high demand programs at an historically black college or university (HBCU) are offered

at a geographically proximate traditionally white institution (TWI). See, for example, MARYLAND’S

REPORT AND THE PARTNERSHIP AGREEMENT BETWEEN THE STATE OF MARYLAND AND THE

U. S. DEPARTMENT OF EDUCATION, OFFICE FOR CIVIL RIGHTS,

<http://www.mhec.state.md.us/higherEd/ocrplan/index.asp> (last accessed Jan. 26, 2007). The HBCU and TWI

in question may be public or private. Genevieve Segura senior education policy analyst, Maryland Higher

Education Commission, telephone interview, Jan. 26, 2007.
Summary of The Proceedings 28

to create and maintain a segregated higher education system. Dean Pierce predicted:

“[L]itigation that was brought in the Adams cases will once again find its way to the courts.”127

Mikyong Minsun Kim

Four Areas of Focus

Dr. Kim stated that she studied the educational effectiveness of HBCUs. To do so, she

employed longitudinal, national-level data sets from the Higher Education Research Institute

(HERI), which is located at the University of California, Los Angeles.128 She concentrated on

four areas: (1) comparisons of institutional and student characteristics between HBCUs and

historically white colleges and universities, (2) review and comparison of her research findings

with those of other studies, (3) discussion of HBCUs’ contribution to the development of

African-American students, and (4) evaluation of whether HBCUs merit strong support.129

Institutional and Student Characteristics of Historically Black Colleges and Universities

and Historically White Colleges and Universities

Dr. Kim indicated that the American higher education community includes 103 HBCUs of

which 89 are four-year institutions. Of these 89 institutions, 41 are public and 48 private.

Collectively, the 89 HBCUs award about 30 percent of the bachelor’s degrees that AfricanAmericans earned. Dr. Kim’s research also showed that a high percentage of African-American

political leaders, professionals such as lawyers and doctors, and doctoral degree recipients are

graduates of HBCUs.130

Dr. Kim reported that HBCUs tend to have fewer resources compared to historically white

colleges and universities, such as lower expenditures for each full time equivalent student, lower

average faculty salaries, and poorer physical facilities.131 HBCUs also tend to have smaller

enrollments, a lower student-faculty ratio, and higher student-faculty interactions, characteristics

that other panelists noted as well.132 She pointed out that research has shown that these same

institutional characteristics tend to be positively associated with student development.133

Continuing, Dr. Kim stated that students enrolled in HBCUs were generally less academically

prepared than historically white college and university students.134 Other research, such as that

127 USCCR briefing transcript, May 5, 2006, p. 42.

128USCCR briefing transcript, May 5, 2006, p. 45; Kim written statement, p. 46.

129 USCCR briefing transcript, May 5, 2006, p.43; Kim written statement, p. 45.

130 Kim written statement, Washington, DC, May 5, 2006, p. 45; Mikyong Minsun Kim, PowerPoint document

to the U.S. Commission on Civil Rights, Washington, DC, May 5, 2006, p. 49 (hereafter cited as Kim

PowerPoint document).

131 USCCR briefing transcript, May 5, 2006, p. 45; Kim written statement, p. 50.

132 USCCR briefing transcript, May 5, 2006, p. 44; Kim written statement, p. 45.

133 Kim written statement, p. 45.

134 Kim written statement, p. 45.
29 The Educational Effectiveness of Historically Black Colleges and Universities

of Elliott, et al., reported a similar but more detailed observation: “accounts of race, ethnicity,

and science made it clear that [African-Americans] are relatively low on most measures of

preparation and developed ability, and that these deficits begin early in their school careers.

They are concentrated just before the point of entrance to college. Both the average SAT

mathematics ... scores and the math and science proficiencies of the twelfth-grade blacks are

about a standard deviation [a statistical measure of the breadth of African-Americans’ range

of scores] behind ... those of whites. Thus, black grade-12 achievement in math is about the

same as, and in science a little worse than, white grade-8 achievement.”135 In their study on

the causes and consequences of attending HBCUs, Fryer and Greenstone found that blacks

enrolled in traditionally white institutions generally have substantially stronger academic

credentials than those attending HBCUs.136

Dr. Kim stated that the family backgrounds of students enrolled in HBCUs tended to be less

affluent. She noted that this finding is consistent with other researchers’ reports.137 In addition,

she said African-American students at HBCUs were close to 1.5 times more likely than AfricanAmerican students enrolled in historically white colleges and universities to participate in

faculty members’ research. Dr. Kim said such engagement is a predictor of degree

completion.138 Based on HERI data, she reported that the African-American degree completion

rate at HBCUs was 55 percent compared to 63 percent at historically white colleges and

universities,139 although the college grade point averages of African-American students in both

types of institutions did not differ.140

135 Rogers Elliott, A. Christopher Strenta, Russell Adair, Michael Matier, and Jannah Scott (1996), “The Role of

Ethnicity in Choosing and Leaving Science in Highly Selective Institutions,” Research in Higher Education,

Vol. 37, No. 6, p. 682, citing J. Oakes (1990), “Opportunities, achievement, and choice: Women and minority

students in science and mathematics,” Review of Research in Higher Education 16:153–222; L. Suter (ed.)

(1993), Indicators of Science and Mathematics—1993. Washington, D.C.: U. S. Government Printing Office

(NSF 93–95); P.E. White (1992), Women and Minorities in Science and Engineering: An Update. Washington,

D.C.: National Science Foundation.

136 Roland G. Fryer, Jr., and Michael Greenstone, “The Causes and Consequences of Attending Historically

Black Colleges and Universities,” National Bureau of Economic Research Working Paper No. 13036, April

2007, p. 9.

137 Kim written statement, p. 45.

138 Kim written statement, pp. 45, 47; Kim PowerPoint document, Table 1, p.58.

139 The national six-year graduation rate for first-time, full-time degree-seeking African-American freshmen

attending HBCUs who graduated in academic year 2005/2006 is 37 percent. The comparable figure for AfricanAmerican freshmen attending TWIs is 42.7 percent. Andrew Mary, statistician, National Center for Education

Statistics made several special data runs for the Commission drawing on data from the Integrated Postsecondary

Education Data System (IPEDS). See Andrew Mary e-mail, October 4, 2007. Dr. Kim’s graduation statistics are

clearly based on different parameters. What is consistent between her graduation statistics and those retrieved

from IPEDS data is that African-Americans who attended TWIs have higher graduation rates than their peers

who went to HBCUs. Yet the difference is much smaller than might otherwise be expected when considering

the difference in academic credentials alone between blacks who attend HBCUs and TWIs.

140 USCCR briefing transcript, May 5, 2006, p. 44.
Summary of The Proceedings 30

Research Findings on Selected Outcomes

Dr. Kim examined the impact of students’ attending HBCUs and historically white colleges and

universities on three academic outcomes: (a) their overall academic ability, (b) writing ability,

and (c) mathematics ability.141 Specifically, she examined a sample of African-American

students who earned bachelor’s degrees from either HBCUs or historically white colleges and

universities with data that included information covering a nine-year period after their

graduation.142 Dr. Kim studied institutional effectiveness using sophisticated statistical

procedures.143

Dr. Kim found no significant difference between African-American students in HBCUs and

historically white colleges and universities in the three outcome areas.144 These findings are

somewhat consistent with research literature produced more than a decade ago.145 Similarly, she

found no significant difference in the likelihood of earning a baccalaureate degree between

African-American students in HBCUs and historically white colleges and universities. In this

respect, she said her finding contradicted those that several scholars reported more than 10 years

ago.

146 Her finding that African-American students in HBCUs and historically white colleges

and universities faced no significant difference in early career earnings echoed the results of

141 USCCR briefing transcript, May 5, 2006, p. 45; Kim written statement, p. 46.

142 Kim written statement, pp. 49–50; USCCR briefing transcript, May 5, 2006, p. 50.

143 Dr. Kim used hierarchical linear and non-linear modeling, which, according to her reviews of statistical

procedures, has “well-established advantages over standard regression techniques for evaluating the effectiveness of

schools and colleges and handling multi-level nested data sets.” USCCR briefing transcript, May 5, 2006, p. 45;

Kim written statement, p. 46. She explained that she controlled for selectivity, enrollment, SAT scores, grades,

high school grade point average, pre-test measures, and parental income and level of education. In other words,

the HBCU students and African-American TWI students in her sample are comparable with regard to these

factors. For example, parental income level would be generally similar for both groups of students. Dr. Kim

indicated that she did not control for regional effects, that is, the HBCUs and TWIs in her sample are not found

in the same type of locale. They might be located in urban, rural, or suburban areas. Kim written statement, pp.

49–50.

144 USCCR briefing transcript, May 5, 2006, pp. 45–46; Kim written statement, p. 46.

145 “Do Black students learn more at Historically Black or Predominantly White Colleges?” by L. Bohr, E.T.

Pascarella, A. Nora, A., and P. T. Terenzini in Journal of College Student Development, 36(1), 1995, pp. 75–85;

“Academic growth in predominantly Negro and predominantly White colleges,” by J. Centra, R. Linn, and M.

Parry, in American Educational Research Journal, 7(1), 1970, 83-98; and “Additional evidence on the cognitive

effects of college racial composition: A research note,” by E. T. Pascarella, M. Edison, A. Nora, L. S.

Hagedorn, and P. Terenzini, P. in Journal of College Student Development, 37(5), 1996, 494-501. Kim written

statement, pp. 46, 56–57.

146 “Factors influencing Black students’ persistence in college,” by P. Cross, P. and H. Astin, in G. Thomas

(Ed.). Black Students in Higher Education, 1981, pp. 76–90. Westport, CN: Greenwood Press; “Do historically

Black institutions of higher education confer unique advantages on Black students: An initial analysis,” by R.

G. Ehrenberg, and D. S. Rothstein, Cambridge, MA: National Bureau of Economic Research, 1993,

unpublished paper; “The influence of college on self-concept: A consideration of race and gender differences,”

by E. Pascarella, J. Smart, C. Ethington, and M. Nettles, in American Educational Research Journal, 24 (1),

1987, pp. 49-77. Kim written statement, pp. 46, 56–57.
31 The Educational Effectiveness of Historically Black Colleges and Universities

some previous studies but contradicted others.147 Dr. Kim viewed her findings of no significant

differences in a positive light because attendance at HBCUs or historically white colleges and

universities has no effect on African-American students’ academic success and early career

earnings.148

With respect to earnings, Fryer and Greenstone’s 2007 study may be of interest. The authors

reported that “in the 1970s, HBCU matriculation [on the part of African-Americans] was

associated with higher wages, relative to attending a traditionally white institution. By the

1990s, however, there was a substantial penalty. In fact, there is a statistically significant 20

percent decline in the relative wages of HBCU graduates between the two decades. [The data]

provide some support for the possibility that HBCUs’ relative decline is partially due to

improvement in traditionally white institutions efficacy in educating blacks, but this evidence

certainly [is not] decisive. This question of why HBCUs’ performance declined merits further

research.”149 One should view these findings with the authors’ caveat in mind: “The results

[here referring to the sum of their findings] are robust across ... [the] four [statistical]

approaches [employed in the study]. However, lacking a randomized experiment or credible

quasi-experiment, thorny issues of selection [of cases for study] may remain. Consequently, we

urge caution in interpreting the results as causal.”150

Historically Black Colleges and Universities and Student Engagement and Development

Dr. Kim observed that African-American students in HBCUs were more deeply engaged in the

academic community than their counterparts at historically white colleges and universities. She

also pointed out, as did other panelists, that the environment at HBCUs was strongly supportive

of students’ academic growth.151 Historically white colleges and universities, on the other hand,

147 Dr. Kim’s finding of no significant difference was reflected in E. Pascarella, J. Smart, and J. Stoecker

“College, race and the early status attainment of Black students,” The Journal of Higher Education, 1989 60(1),

pp. 82-107 and R. G. Ehrenberg, and D. S. Rothstein, “Do historically Black institutions of higher education

confer unique advantages on Black students: An initial analysis,” Cambridge, MA: National Bureau of

Economic Research, 1993, unpublished paper.

Research contrary to Dr. Kim’s finding of no significant difference includes Roland Fryer and Michael

Greenstone, “The Cause and Consequences of Attending Historically Black Colleges and Universities,” NBER

Working Paper No. 13036, April 2007, pp. 1–53; and J. Baratz, and M. Ficklen, “Participation of recent Black

college graduates in the labor market and in graduate education,” Research Report, Education Policy Research

Institute, Princeton, NJ: Educational Testing Service, 1983. Her finding was also contrary to J. M. Constantine,

“The effect of attending Historically Black Colleges and Universities on future wages of Black students,”

Industrial and Labor Relations Review, 48(3), 1995, pp. 531–46. Kim written statement, pp. 46, 56–57.

148 USCCR briefing transcript, May 5, 2006, p. 46; Kim written statement, p. 46.

149 Roland G. Fryer, Jr., and Michael Greenstone, “The Causes and Consequences of Attending Historically

Black Colleges and Universities,” National Bureau of Economic Research Working Paper No. 13036, April

2007, pp. 25–26.

150 Roland G. Fryer, Jr., and Michael Greenstone, “The Causes and Consequences of Attending Historically

Black Colleges and Universities,” National Bureau of Economic Research Working Paper No. 13036, April

2007, p. 2.

151 USCCR briefing transcript, May 5, 2006, pp. 45–46; Kim written statement, p. 4.
Summary of The Proceedings 32

are able to offer more resources to their students.152 Thus, she posited that HBCUs and

historically white colleges and universities contribute to student learning in different ways.153

Historically Black Colleges and Universities Merit Support

In considering whether HBCUs have a significant impact on academic outcomes and early

career earnings given students’ weaker pre-admission academic profiles and the institutions’

severely constrained resources, Dr. Kim believed that the issue merited further investigation.154

She concluded that the "findings of [her] studies and of other reports lend support to the

proposition that HBCUs contribute significantly to higher education in this country and merit

strong support.”155

Discussion Summary

Academic Outcomes at Historically Black Colleges and Universities

Commissioner Kirsanow noted that despite HBCU students’ generally lower SAT scores, Dr.

Kim found no significant differences between HBCUs and historically white colleges and

universities in developing the writing, mathematics, and general academic abilities of

students.156 He asked Dr. Kim if her study controlled for the nature of an institution (for

example, whether an institution is urban, suburban, or rural), because a significant difference

might occur between HBCUs and historically white colleges and universities in urban

settings. Dr. Kim stated that she did not control for regional effects, but controlled for

institutional selectivity, size of enrollment, SAT scores, high school grade point average, pretest measures, and parental education and income levels.157 The lack of a control for regional

effects notwithstanding, Commissioner Kirsanow argued that, HBCUs were “doing a much

better job than traditionally white universities in educating African-American students”—

more than the findings of no significant difference suggest—given the institutions’ generally

lower funding levels and the academic under-preparedness of their students at enrollment.158

Dr. Richardson agreed with Commissioner Kirsanow’s assessment, but stressed the

importance of comparing similar types of institutions. Morgan State University’s graduation

rate at the end of six years is 43 percent and seemingly modest. Yet when matched against

equivalent urban universities, he stated that Morgan State University’s retention and

graduation rates exceeded theirs.159 Dean Pierce similarly maintained that institutional

comparability remains important in the assessments. For example, he noted that North Carolina

Central University School of Law is different from Howard University School of Law and

152 USCCR briefing transcript, May 5, 2006, pp. 46–47.

153 USCCR briefing transcript, May 5, 2006, p. 47.

154 USCCR briefing transcript, May 5, 2006, p. 47; Kim written statement, p. 47.

155 USCCR briefing transcript, May 5, 2006, p. 47; Kim written statement, p. 47.

156 USCCR briefing transcript, May 5, 2006, pp. 48–49.

157 USCCR briefing transcript, May 5, 2006, pp. 49–50.

158 USCCR briefing transcript, May 5, 2006, pp. 48–49, 51.

159 USCCR briefing transcript, May 5, 2006, pp. 50–51.
33 The Educational Effectiveness of Historically Black Colleges and Universities

equivalent to the Southern University School of Law, Texas Southern University Thurgood

Marshall School of Law, and Florida A & M University. 160

Dropout, Graduation, and Performance on National Examinations

Commissioner Kirsanow raised the concern of dropouts from the nation’s five black law

schools. He noted that 43 percent of enrolled black law students leave without earning a

degree.161 Dean Pierce said that North Carolina Central University School of Law has a higher

attrition rate particularly among African-American males. He explained that the North Carolina

Central School of Law accepts students with lower Law School Admissions Test (LSAT) scores

who nonetheless have high college grade point averages. Notably, the institution’s law school

also enrolls large numbers of students.162 Likely contributing to the higher attrition rate,

Commissioner Kirsanow postulated, is the greater need for financial aid among HBCU students.

Some 84 percent of HBCU students compared to 55 percent of white students at traditionally

white institutions require financial aid to attend college.163

Dr. Sullivan stated that Spelman College’s graduation rate of 77 percent exceeds, for example,

those of Bates College, Colby College, University of California at Berkeley, University of

California at Los Angeles, University of Michigan, Claremont College, and Carnegie-Mellon

University—all of which are [predominantly] white institutions with greater financial resources.

He also pointed out that students at the Morehouse School of Medicine performed better on the

U. S. Medical Licensing Examination than all other medical students in the nation despite lower

SAT scores on entry. Part of the reason, according to Dr. Sullivan, is recognition that student

potential may not have been developed, frequently because of the high schools attended.164

Commenting on a different national-level examination, Dean Pierce stated that in 2005, the firsttime bar passage rate of North Carolina Central University School of Law’s graduates was 81

percent, tying with Duke University School of Law. The law school produced this achievement

despite fewer resources and enrolling students whose pre-entry academic profiles predicted

lower achievement.165

160 USCCR briefing transcript, May 5, 2006, p. 52.

161 USCCR briefing transcript, May 5, 2006, pp. 51–52.

162 USCCR briefing transcript, May 5, 2006, p. 52.

During his review of this draft report, Dean Pierce elaborated on his statements: “North Carolina Central

University School of Law has a comparatively higher attrition rate amongst the HBCU Law Schools. NCCU

School of Law also has the highest bar passage rate amongst the HBCU Law Schools and one of the highest bar

passage rates for African-Americans amongst all law schools in the nation. NCCU School of Law continues its

mission as a school of opportunity and admits many students with comparatively lower Law School Admission

Test (LSAT) scores and lower grade point averages (GPAs). Grading is tough at the Law School for first year

students. Students not achieving a minimum 2.0 GPA at the end of the end of the first year are academically

dismissed.” See Dean Pierce’s comments on the Summary of Proceedings, Nov. 30, 2007, p. 2.

163 USCCR briefing transcript, May 5, 2006, pp. 52–53.

164 USCCR briefing transcript, May 5, 2006, p 53.

165 USCCR briefing transcript, May 5, 2006, p. 54.
Summary of The Proceedings 34

Historically Black Colleges and Universities as Pipeline to Graduate School

Vice Chair Thernstrom expressed admiration for HBCUs. Several years ago, she visited

Savannah State University and found that many of its African-American students had limited

academic skills on entry, a reflection of the “racial gap in academic achievement at the end of

high school.”166 Savannah State University’s dedicated efforts to improve students’ academic

abilities impressed Vice Chair Thernstrom, particularly the quality of education that the

institution offered.167

Vice Chair Thernstrom recalled that perhaps nine of the 10 top institutions sending AfricanAmericans to graduate education were HBCUs. Commissioner Kirsanow said that the top 20

institutions in sending African-Americans to graduate school were HBCUs. He added that the

figure varied by academic discipline. Among the STEM disciplines, such as biology, 12 of the

15 institutions sending the largest number of African-Americans to graduate school were

HBCUs, while in the physical sciences, the comparable figure was 14 or 15 out of 15. Such

statistics, Vice Chair Thernstrom said, affirmed HBCUs’ quality of education.168

Historically Black Colleges and Universities, STEM, and Teacher Education Programs

Commissioner Kirsanow found it striking that HBCUs awarded 40 percent of all black graduate

STEM degrees.169 He noted that the top 30 HBCUs graduated the largest numbers of blacks that

enrolled in STEM doctoral programs, despite variations by gender.170 Panelists offered several

suggestions for this phenomenon. Dr. Sullivan speculated that faculty commitment played a

role. He pointed to Xavier University, which, despite marginal resources, sent more black

graduates to medical schools than any other institution in the country, black or white. He

referred to a long-time Xavier faculty member, Professor Carmichael, who was renowned for

spending an “inordinate amount of time” with Xavier University students. Such faculty

members are the reason for Xavier University’s success, he suggested.171 Mr. Merisotis said that

HBCUs are open access institutions responsive to market and community needs. Thus, they

channel students into STEM programs in which the labor force need is great.172

Dr. Richardson stated that the culture on HBCU campuses is a critical factor in their remarkable

productivity in the STEM fields. Although both HBCUs and non-HBCUs provide academic

support programs to assist minority students, he observed that predominantly white schools

offer more of a collection of individual programs. HBCUs, on the other hand, integrate such

programs into a nurturing culture that permeates the entire university. Dr. Richardson discerned

that HBCUs send a message that the institution will help students every step of the way. This

166 USCCR briefing transcript, May 5, 2006, pp. 57–58

167 USCCR briefing transcript, May 5, 2006, pp. 57–58.

168 USCCR briefing transcript, May 5, 2006, pp. 58–59.

169 USCCR briefing transcript, May 5, 2006, pp. 77.

170 USCCR briefing transcript, May 5, 2006, pp. 77.

171 USCCR briefing transcript, May 5, 2006, p. 78.

172 USCCR briefing transcript, May 5, 2006, pp. 78.
35 The Educational Effectiveness of Historically Black Colleges and Universities

fosters a campus culture that reaffirms that dedicated students can and will succeed, regardless

of their SAT scores.173

Role modeling, Dr. Richardson stated, also helps explain HBCUs’ success in the STEM

disciplines. Dr. Richardson said HBCUs convey to students that their professors and

administrators come from similar economic backgrounds, and if the professors and

administrators succeeded, so too can the students.174 Dr. Kim also emphasized the importance of

role modeling. She observed that on HBCU campuses, African-American teaching assistants

and professors in engineering, mathematics, and science serve as “special role models” to

students. Of interest here is Dr. Kim’s research finding that undergraduate African-American

students on HBCU campuses are approximately 1.5 times more likely to be involved in faculty

members’ research than their counterparts in historically white colleges and universities.175

Mr. Merisotis shifted the discussion to HBCUs’ role in teacher education. Almost half of the

African-American teachers in today’s schools trained in such institutions, but this

accomplishment has not been sufficiently acknowledged, he said.176 The need for AfricanAmerican and minority teachers is greater than ever, given current and predicted future

demographic trends. Mr. Merisotis called for investment in HBCUs to ensure their success in

educating African-American teachers.177

Historically Black Colleges and Universities as Catalyst for Change

According to Dr. Richardson, HBCUs not only prepare students for graduation but also serve

as catalysts for systemic change in higher education. In 1980, for example, Maryland had

graduate engineering programs located at Johns Hopkins University, the United States Naval

Academy, and the University of Maryland, all of which are non-HBCUs. Yet, he noted that

in 1981 about 20—less than 1 percent—of the engineers in the state were African-American.

Today, the comparable figures are about 150 or 19 percent. Dr. Richardson attributed the

increase to the state establishing an engineering program at Morgan State University in 1984.

Notably, Morgan’s program graduated about 100 of the 150 African-American engineers. 178

Dr. Richardson pointed out that historically, scholars explained the dearth of AfricanAmerican engineers by the paucity of African-Americans who could successfully complete

an engineering program. According to him, by its action and achievement, Morgan State

University compelled non-HBCUs to “find ... blacks and [enroll] them in [their] engineering

schools.”179

173 USCCR briefing transcript, May 5, 2006, pp. 81–82.

174 USCCR briefing transcript, May 5, 2006, p. 82.

175 Kim written statement, Table 1, p. 50.

176 USCCR briefing transcript, May 5, 2006, p. 79.

177 USCCR briefing transcript, May 5, 2006, p. 79.

178 USCCR briefing transcript, May 5, 2006, pp. 82–83.

179 USCCR briefing transcript, May 5, 2006, p. 83.
Summary of The Proceedings 36

A Nurturing Environment

Chairman Reynolds commented that HBCUs as well as some TWIs enroll students who lack an

academically rigorous education, yet traditional white schools seem to have a much higher

attrition rate.180 He postulated that these institutions might use different teaching models.

Chairman Reynolds asked whether “it could make a significant difference if a student,

especially a student who has not received a rigorous preparation, [enrolls] in a college that

focuses on research [and makes heavy use of] teaching [assistants] as opposed to [one in which]

students are [principally taught by professors].”181

Dean Pierce stated that HBCUs, both historically and presently, provide a nurturing

environment in which a culture dedicated to engaging students within and outside the classroom

flourishes. He said such an environment enabled North Carolina Central University School of

Law to match Duke University School of Law’s bar passage rate in 2005, despite its students’

lower LSAT scores. Consequently, Dean Pierce deliberately encouraged his faculty members to

spend more time engaging with students to improve student performance than on producing

scholarly articles for law journals.182

The Elliott, et al., article reported that “... persistence is not just a matter of average

preparation, but of competitive position as well: a reasonably well-prepared student at an

HBCU ... would be in a strong competitive position in his or her institution[al environment]

...” and thus more likely to succeed.183 The article concluded that HBCUs have a stronger

record of producing science graduates at the undergraduate and doctoral levels than more

elite, predominantly white institutions. This success occurred despite evidence that black

students enrolling in HBCUs are, on average, less prepared than those entering elite

institutions.184

Vice Chair Thernstrom asked Dr. Sullivan if any curriculum distinction existed between

Morehouse School of Medicine and other medical schools. Dr. Sullivan responded that the

critical factor is not curricular, but rather the medical school faculty members’ commitment to

student success. One indication of this is the enormous amount of time faculty members spend

with students. Another factor, Dr. Sullivan stated, is an environment that encourages students to

180 USCCR briefing transcript, May 5, 2006, pp. 54–55. According to Dr. Kim, African-American degree

completion rate at HBCUs was 55 percent compared to 63 percent at HWCUs. USCCR briefing transcript, May

5, 2006, p. 45. At first glance, Chairman Reynolds and Dr. Kim’s statements seem contradictory. Note,

however, that Chairman Reynolds was referring to the attrition of poorly prepared students at TWIs. Dr. Kim,

on the other hand, addressed national-level degree completion rates for African-American students at both types

of institutions regardless of their academic preparation level.

181 USCCR briefing transcript, May 5, 2006, p. 55.

182USCCR briefing transcript, May 5, 2006, pp. 56–57.

183 Rogers Elliott, A. Christopher Strenta, Russell Adair, Michael Matier, and Jannah Scott (1996), “The Role of

Ethnicity in Choosing and Leaving Science in Highly Selective Institutions,” Research in Higher Education,

Vol. 37, No. 6, pp. 701–702.

184 Rogers Elliott, A. Christopher Strenta, Russell Adair, Michael Matier, and Jannah Scott (1996), “The Role of

Ethnicity in Choosing and Leaving Science in Highly Selective Institutions,” Research in Higher Education,

Vol. 37, No. 6, p.684.
37 The Educational Effectiveness of Historically Black Colleges and Universities

“take risks, [including the] risk [of] asking question[s]” without fear of embarrassing

themselves. The learning process demands not only a good teacher, but also a student who is

willing to engage. He said successful HBCUs create an environment that encourages student

participation. Yet another factor, one that made the Morehouse School of Medicine distinctive,

is encouraging students to think of themselves as leaders. Dr. Sullivan stated that all of these

factors are found at other HBCUs.185

Chairman Reynolds suggested that perhaps HBCUs teach at the pace of their students. He

observed that the basis for this suggestion was that at schools that are traditionally white, the

white students’ generally higher level of academic preparedness permitted faculty members

to teach at a faster pace, which had a negative consequence on the black students who are

less academically prepared. He suggested the pace of teaching at HBCUs was more in sync

with black students’ level of academic preparation.186 Dr. Sullivan agreed, noting that he

would have to modify his earlier statement of no curricular difference between the Morehouse

School of Medicine and other medical schools. First year medical students arrive on campus in

mid-July, the earliest opening date of any medical school. He said this gave the institution time

to raise the level of academic preparedness of students with deficiencies. The medical

curriculum itself begins in September and is similar to those of other medical schools. Dr.

Sullivan added that faculty members often help students that experience academic difficulty,

highlighting again the criticality of faculty commitment.187

Lack of Parity between HBCUs and Non-HBCUs

Vice Chair Thernstrom asked Dr. Richardson to clarify what he meant when he spoke of “...

creating a parity between black and white institutions.” Dr. Richardson explained that parity

involved provision of “equitable resources ... [that are] consistent with the magnitude of the

task.” He stated that the average education cost per student is higher at HBCUs than at white

institutions, giving rise to the perception that HBCUs have more resources than white

institutions. Dr. Richardson was emphatic that this was manifestly incorrect. The task of

educating academically under-prepared students imposes a heavier workload on faculty

members and staff from the moment of their admission.188 He offered four examples to

debunk the notion of more resources at HBCUs.

Subsidizing Student Tuition

First, Dr. Richardson stated that African-American students enrolled in HBCUs almost always

need extensive financial assistance. The only source of support for many of them is the federal

Pell Grant that today supports less than half the total cost of college attendance. Dr. Richardson

said that some HBCUs use monies collected from tuition and fees to make up the difference so

that students are able to enroll. The institution would ordinarily use these funds for operating

costs, he pointed out. Subsidizing tuition is indispensable for student retention, but reduces the

185 USCCR briefing transcript, May 5, 2006, pp. 59–61.

186 USCCR briefing transcript, May 5, 2006, p. 61.

187 USCCR briefing transcript, May 5, 2006, pp. 62–63.

188 USCCR briefing transcript, May 5, 2006, pp. 63–64.
Summary of The Proceedings 38

funds available to operate the institution. This seriously undermines necessities, such as hiring

more faculty members and purchasing new equipment.189

Greater Staff Workload

Second, Dr. Richardson argued that staff workload at HBCUs is greater than that at historically

white campuses of similar size and levels of staffing and resources. Because of their limited

financial resources, many students who attend HBCUs lack access to the Internet to apply,

register, and pay tuition and fees. Thus, students complete each of these processes manually and

generate a “horrendous” need for staff time. The situation is exacerbated when staff must repeat

the payment process monthly because almost all HBCU students participate in installment

payment plans. Such time-intensive payment methods, Dr. Richardson said, are less common at

comparable majority institutions. Their students are more likely to come from middle and upper

middle class families and hence have the financial capability to use the Internet for application,

registration, and payment of tuition and fees. Majority institutions’ need for staff time to manage

such processes is consequently less. The nature of disparity between HBCUs and majority

institutions is not always readily apparent.190

Lack of Adequate Facilities

Third, Dr. Richardson stated that facilities at HBCUs are not adequate. The State of Maryland

has two state-supported architectural programs, one at a traditionally white institution, housed in

a state-of-the-art building, and the other at Morgan State University. The 30-year old

architectural program at Morgan State University does not have its own facility and, according

to Dr. Richardson, was moved to different buildings on campus to ensure its accreditation. He

noted that this disparity denies architectural students at Morgan State University an equal

opportunity to experience state-of-the-art facilities.191

Lack of Technology Transfer and Commercialization Centers

Fourth, Dr. Richardson pointed out that in the State of Maryland, engineering and business

programs have well-established technology transfer and commercialization centers. Two such

centers are on the majority institution campuses with engineering and business programs. Dr.

Richardson stated that Morgan State University’s engineering program, despite being the most

recently established, graduates the largest number of baccalaureate and doctoral AfricanAmerican engineers in the state. Morgan State University also has the proper combination of

engineering and business programs, but despite the institution’s request, the state has not

provided faculty, facilities, or other support comparable to what it makes available to the other

two public campuses with similar engineering/business program combinations. 192

189 USCCR briefing transcript, May 5, 2006, pp. 64–65.

190 USCCR briefing transcript, May 5, 2006, pp. 65–67.

191 USCCR briefing transcript, May 5, 2006, p. 67.

192 USCCR briefing transcript, May 5, 2006, pp. 67–68.
39 The Educational Effectiveness of Historically Black Colleges and Universities

Faculty Salaries

Vice Chair Thernstrom raised the question of HBCU faculty salaries. Dr. Richardson said that

faculty salaries are dependent on the amount of resources available. In the main, HBCU faculty

salaries still lag behind those of majority institutions, even when the comparison is within a

similar institutional classification.193 Morgan State University’s faculty salaries fit this pattern,

but they compare favorably with other HBCUs. Dr. Richardson stated that most of Morgan

State University’s faculty members have doctoral degrees from the same prestigious universities

as faculty members at any other school, but limited financial resources prohibit the institution

from offering competitive salaries. This is a significant obstacle to the institution as it competes

for the best faculty minds with better-endowed schools in similar institutional classifications.194

The Right to Exist

Vice Chair Thernstrom noted that academic scholarship on elementary and secondary education

still calls for integration, including the use of busing to achieve this goal. She suggested that

proponents of such views would have serious reservations about the continued existence of

HBCUs.195 She asked Dean Pierce if any “politically significant voices” still challenge the need

for racially identifiable colleges and universities.196

Dean Pierce replied that he discounted such voices. Segregation (i.e., racially identifiable

schools) at the kindergarten through secondary school levels is distinct from racially identifiable

institutions in higher education because students in the former are assigned to schools by

district, whereas college attendance is voluntary. However, the resources available at colleges

competing for the best applicants influence students’ decisions about college attendance.197

Vice Chair Thernstrom further asked if the civil rights community, particularly among black

spokespersons, was split on integration when the Supreme Court decided Fordice in 1992.198

Dean Pierce responded that many within the civil rights community expressed some concern

that the Supreme Court decision in Fordice might result in states placing the burden of higher

education desegregation on HBCUs.199

Dean Pierce stated that Supreme Court Justice Clarence Thomas’ concurring opinion in Fordice

illustrated this tension. On the one hand, Justice Thomas opposed the creation of HBCUs as

“enclaves” for the black community. At the same time, he pointed out how unfair it is for

HBCUs, which bore the burden of segregation in the past, to again shoulder responsibility for

193 The reference here is to the Carnegie Classification of institutions. For example, disparity in faculty salary

still prevails even when comparing, for example, HBCU teaching institutions to TWI teaching institutions.

194 USCCR briefing transcript, May 5, 2006, pp. 69–70.

195 Vice Chair Thernstrom noted that Harvard faculty Gary Orfield is a “leading spokesman for integrated

schools,” USCCR briefing transcript, May 5, 2006, p. 70.

196 USCCR briefing transcript, May 5, 2006, p. 70.

197 USCCR briefing transcript, May 5, 2006, p. 71.

198 USCCR briefing transcript, May 5, 2006, pp. 71, 89. United States v. Fordice, 505 U. S. 717 (1992).

199 USCCR briefing transcript, May 5, 2006, pp. 72, 90.
Summary of The Proceedings 40

present day desegregation efforts. Dean Pierce remarked that some voices continue to argue that

removal of the vestiges of past segregation requires merging or shutting down HBCUs.

Fortunately, federal policy now directs OCR to “strictly scrutinize any state effort to close or

merge an historical black college or university in the desegregation process ... as long as [there

are] outstanding Title VI violations.” Dean Pierce recognizes that the qualification is necessary

and that state fiscal considerations might force the merger or closure of some public colleges in

the future.200

Struggle Over State Funding and Program Duplication

Remarking on Vice Chair Thernstrom’s earlier reference to politically significant voices

“arguing against HBCUs,” Dean Pierce claimed to have heard such opinions in the state

assemblies and legislatures.201 They are not arguing against the existence of HBCUs per se,

because these institutions are segregated by choice rather than by law. According to him, the

belief that HBCUs have funds that traditionally white institutions need underlies these voices.

For example, “Ohio State University needs [the] money that Central State University has, or

the University of Mississippi needs [the] money that Alcorn State has, or the University of

Georgia needs [the] money that Savannah State has.”202 Higher education, Dean Pierce

remarked, is a very costly enterprise and competition for limited state funds is aggressive.203

Vice Chair Thernstrom asked whether racially identifiable schools were an element in the public

argument against HBCUs’ existence. Dean Pierce assented but deemed such an argument as

misleading.204 He pointed out that students choose Savannah State University because the

school offers a nurturing environment and a better chance of graduating, not because, for

example, the University of Georgia barred the attendance of blacks, as it did in a different era.205

He said that state legislators claim that Savannah State University is a segregated institution and

should not be maintained as such. The real issue, he said, is the reduced funding for higher

education. According to Dean Pierce, legislators resolve this situation by “back[ing] off

agreement[s] to enhance or strengthen historically black colleges and universities so that more

money [is available] for the traditionally white institutions.” He submitted that state legislatures

and assemblies duplicate programs to diminish the effectiveness of HBCUs and build up

traditionally white institutions to further support the argument for closing black colleges.206 This

explains the growing program duplication that is contrary to established federal policy and case

law.207 He also mentioned that the State of Georgia is replicating an academic program that

Savannah State University has in a geographically proximate public two-year community

college, thus placing the university’s unique attraction for good students “under a significant

200 USCCR briefing transcript, May 5, 2006, pp. 90–91.

201 USCCR briefing transcript, May 5, 2006, p. 73.

202 USCCR briefing transcript, May 5, 2006, p. 73.

203 USCCR briefing transcript, May 5, 2006, p. 73.

204 USCCR briefing transcript, May 5, 2006, p. 74

205 USCCR briefing transcript, May 5, 2006, p. 74–75.

206 USCCR briefing transcript, May 5, 2006, pp. 75–76.

207 USCCR briefing transcript, May 5, 2006, p. 75.
41 The Educational Effectiveness of Historically Black Colleges and Universities

threat.” In addition, program duplication now threatens Morgan State University, Bowie State

University, Kentucky State University, and other institutions.208

Commissioner Taylor stated that while serving in the Attorney General’s Office in the State of

Virginia, he resolved a case involving a review of program duplication in state higher education

institutions.209 He discovered that when resources enabled the creation of excellent and highly

desirable academic programs, states rarely placed them on an HBCU campus.210 Commissioner

Taylor also said that the discussions at public hearings on such programs had no “adversarial

racial motive” and the parties involved were not persons of “bad will.” “[P]ure, raw economics

in competition,” according to him, drove the dialogue. It made sense, for example, to locate a

program in an institution with better infrastructure and that could “maximiz[e] [gains from

limited] state resources.”211 Dr. Richardson interjected that an institution could not have better

infrastructure if facilities were never built.212 Bypassing such institutions denies them

opportunities to improve their infrastructure. In turn, this diminishes the chances of placing

excellent programs on their campuses. Dr. Richardson stressed that this was “a vicious

cycle.”213

Commissioner Taylor asked if any states circumvent program duplication.214 The states of

Oklahoma and Kentucky, according to Dean Pierce, successfully avoided program duplication.

Kentucky State University, an HBCU, is the only state-supported institution that offers a

master’s level public administration program. White students seeking this degree enroll in large

numbers even though Kentucky State University is an HBCU. Dean Pierce opined that if the

University of Kentucky, a geographically proximate traditionally white institution, secured a

master’s level program in public administration, white students undoubtedly would leave

Kentucky State University for the former, leading to educational apartheid. He noted that

Florida A & M University, an HBCU, and nearby Florida State University, a traditionally white

institution, duplicate an engineering program and wondered rhetorically which of the two

institutions draws the most students.215

Dean Pierce stated that the State of Oklahoma located a School of Physical Therapy at Langston

University, an HBCU. Most of the program’s students were white. The fact that Langston

University is an HBCU apparently was of little consequence since student interest lies in

earning the degree in physical therapy. Dean Pierce also noted that the State of Virginia had

circumvented program duplication. However, he reiterated that when funding for higher

education is tight, as is the case in the States of Georgia, Maryland, Ohio, and Tennessee, the

present state of affairs in Oklahoma and Kentucky might not continue to prevail. He emphasized

208 USCCR briefing transcript, May 5, 2006, pp. 72–73.

209 USCCR briefing transcript, May 5, 2006, pp. 83–84.

210 USCCR briefing transcript, May 5, 2006, pp. 84–85.

211 USCCR briefing transcript, May 5, 2006, p. 85.

212 USCCR briefing transcript, May 5, 2006, p. 111.

213 USCCR briefing transcript, May 5, 2006, p. 111.

214 USCCR briefing transcript, May 5, 2006, p. 85.

215 USCCR briefing transcript, May 5, 2006, pp. 86, 87.
Summary of The Proceedings 42

again that the critical action occurs in the state legislatures. Depending on states’ economic

circumstances and available funding for higher education, state legislatures are HBCUs’

“greatest threats or ... greatest champions.”216

A Complementary System of Higher Education

Against many states’ backdrop of shrinking revenue sources and looming Social Security and

Medicare crises—difficulties which are expected to grow over time—and the heavy dependence

of public and private HBCUs on state and federal funding, Chairman Reynolds asked if HBCU

officials have discussed any alternative funding models.217

Dr. Richardson agreed that one could not ignore the severe budget reality. In fiscally difficult

times, the higher education community must deliver particularly efficient quality education. He

proposed a complementary system of higher education in which institutions’ high quality

academic programs are not unnecessarily duplicative. This system requires states to identify

“high-demand, unique programs” that are key to workforce development and strategically place

them in a few geographically dispersed colleges and universities. Efforts to avoid duplication

would naturally not extend to core liberal arts programs.218

Dr. Richardson reported that the State of Maryland initiated such a complementary higher

education system for a short time in the late 1970s and early 1980s. For example, the state

started an engineering program at Morgan State University in 1984 and did not immediately

duplicate it in nearby white institutions. However, Dr. Richardson pointed out that even before

the state had fully invested in the program to ensure growth and excellence, it created redundant

programs endowed with better facilities in geographically proximate white institutions. In Dr.

Richardson’s judgment, an efficient solution to budgetary constraints is “greater efficiency in

the way ... programs [are distributed] across [a state’s] universe of institutions.”219

Commissioner Yaki commented that a current debate at the University of California (UC)

system concerns programmatic specialization by campus. For example, some UC campuses

would specialize in engineering, others in architecture, and additional ones in alternative

disciplines. Raising his question in the context of program duplication and resource allocation,

he wondered if HBCUs’ administrators had similar discussions about academic specializations

within their states.220 Dr. Richardson pointed out that resource distribution within any state

concerns the entire higher education system. The crux of the issue is the disparity between

already underresourced black colleges and white colleges. According to him, the most efficient

is a complementary or nonduplicative state system of higher education that distributes resources

according to state needs.221

216 USCCR briefing transcript, May 5, 2006, pp. 87–89.

217 USCCR briefing transcript, May 5, 2006, pp. 91–92.

218 USCCR briefing transcript, May 5, 2006, pp. 92–93

219 USCCR briefing transcript, May 5, 2006, pp. 93–95.

220 USCCR briefing transcript, May 5, 2006, pp.,94–96

221 USCCR briefing transcript, May 5, 2006, p. 99.
43 The Educational Effectiveness of Historically Black Colleges and Universities

Commissioner Yaki asked about the process by which a state allocates academic programs to

institutions. Specifically, he inquired whether the Commission should examine or encourage

OCR to review the Title VI implications of program duplication and the allocation process.222

Dean Pierce reaffirmed the political nature of program distribution and the critical role of state

legislatures. For example, in Georgia, officials of the influential University of Georgia or

Georgia Institute of Technology would lobby legislators for budget and academic programs.

Representatives of HBCUs, such as Albany State University or Fort Valley State University,

were seldom involved in the dialogue.223

Dean Pierce also argued that Title VI violations had occurred. Adams v. Richardson and Adams

v. Califano cited program duplication as a remnant of segregation and as violating the federal

policy of equal protection for people of color attending publicly funded institutions of higher

education. He said the federal circuit court and later the Supreme Court accentuated this point in

Fordice. Based on the holdings in Adams and in Ayers, OCR adopted a policy that similarly

opposed program duplication.224

Dr. Richardson commented that the failure to enforce Title VI with respect to program

duplication has a negative effect on desegregation in higher education. He explained that in the

early 1970s, Morgan State University was “unique,” being the only institution in the Baltimore

area to offer several graduate programs. Consequently, a little over 50 percent of its graduate

enrollment was white. By the early 1980s, with program duplication and the state’s refusal to

invest in Morgan State University’s graduate programs, the graduate enrollment became

overwhelmingly black. 225 Dr. Richardson emphasized that state and community workforce

needs should drive the establishment of new academic programs. States should locate similar

programs on a small number of geographically dispersed campuses enabling students to obtain a

quality education in their particular fields regardless of which of the dispersed institutions they

choose to attend. In such a scenario, an institution’s program -- and not the racial composition of

its student population -- serves to draw students. Such a complementary system at the state

level, Dr. Richardson asserted, would dismantle a dual system of higher education.226 He added

that the State of Maryland is again investing in programs duplicative of those at Morgan State

University at a close-by white college, even before it has fully funded those at the HBCU.227

Dr. Richardson anticipated that OCR would shortly review Maryland’s progress in

desegregating its public higher education system. He said that the level of desegregation at

HBCUs had decreased because of excessive focus on enrolling black students in white

institutions. The final measure of whether desegregation has been successful, Dr. Richardson

emphasized, is if the higher education community and the state have given students “a choice to

222 USCCR briefing transcript, May 5, 2006, p. 95.

223 USCCR briefing transcript, May 5, 2006, pp. 96–97

224 USCCR briefing transcript, May 5, 2006, pp. 96–97.

225 USCCR briefing transcript, May 5, 2006, pp. 97–98.

226 USCCR briefing transcript, May 5, 2006, pp. 93, 98.

227 USCCR briefing transcript, May 5, 2006, pp. 98–99.
Summary of The Proceedings 44

[enroll in] black ... or white institutions [that does not entail] ... sacrifice [of] the quality of

[campus] life or [academic] programs.”228

Dean Pierce noted that states remaining under federal higher education desegregation

agreements are required to submit reports periodically to OCR. OCR should use those reports to

monitor progress and determine states’ efforts towards compliance with Title VI.229 However,

Dean Pierce was clear that OCR does not enforce Title VI with regard to unnecessary program

duplication.230

Dearth of Black Male Undergraduates at TWIs

Commissioner Kirsanow commented on the dearth of black male undergraduates at white

institutions. Of note, at some institutions 80 percent of the black student population is female.

The numbers of black male and female undergraduates are somewhat more balanced at HBCUs.

With respect to STEM programs, however, the enrollment is disproportionately male. This is

true at other institutions as well, but the gender imbalance is pronounced at HBCUs.231

Dr. Richardson said the absence of black males on campus, whether HBCUs or white

institutions, is bewildering. At Morgan State University, 58 percent of the undergraduate

students are females and 42 percent males. In addition, black males generally graduate at

reduced rates compared to black females; thus, to the extent that HBCUs have increased their

proportions of black males, their overall graduation rate is lower.232

Policy Initiatives to Support HBCUs

At the culmination of the panelists’ presentations and discussions with Commissioners of the

educational effectiveness of HBCUs, Commissioner Kirsanow asked for suggestions of federal

policy initiatives that might sustain and enhance these institutions.233 Panelists offered

recommendations in the following five areas.

Complementarity in Academic Programming

Dr. Richardson recommended that the states return to complementary academic programming

among institutions within a higher education system while avoiding unnecessary program

duplication in geographically proximate HBCUs and their white counterparts.234

Continued Enhancement of HBCUs

228 USCCR briefing transcript, May 5, 2006, pp. 99–100.

229 USCCR briefing transcript, May 5, 2006, p 103.

230 USCCR briefing transcript, May 5, 2006, pp. 102–104.

231 USCCR briefing transcript, May 5, 2006, p. 80.

232 USCCR briefing transcript, May 5, 2006, pp. 80–81.

233 USCCR briefing transcript, May 5, 2006, p. 110.

234 USCCR briefing transcript, May 5, 2006, p. 110.
45 The Educational Effectiveness of Historically Black Colleges and Universities

Dr. Richardson also advised states to continue to enhance HBCUs to the point of comparability

with their white counterparts. Federal investment in HBCUs, for example, to build up and

augment graduate programs, would make HBCUs more competitive in federal grant

applications.235 Other benefits of such investment include higher numbers of African-American

students enrolling in and graduating from STEM programs. 236

Enforcement of Federal Civil Rights Laws

Dean Pierce stressed that OCR must enforce federal civil rights laws in order to ensure the

continued vitality of HBCUs. Enforcement is particularly critical in seven states (Ohio,

Pennsylvania, Florida, Kentucky, Maryland, Texas, and Virginia) that have been found to be in

violation of Title VI of the Civil Rights Act of 1964. Their violations have not yet been

corrected. Dean Pierce believed that addressing these critical states will prompt others to

examine if their own program allocations are within the law.237

Increase Title III Support for HBCUs

Mr. Merisotis called for a substantial increase in funds for Title III of the Higher Education Act

of 1965. Title III has been significant in the success of HBCUs over the last 20 years.238

Increase in Financial Aid

Mr. Merisotis supported an increase in student financial aid, especially in the form of grants.

HBCU students are “about twice as economically disadvantaged as students in other

institutions.”239

Threats that Imperil HBCUs

Commissioner Kirsanow also asked panelists to identify critical threats that undermine the

viability of HBCUs.240 Panelists identified threats in the following three areas.

Program Duplication

Dean Pierce emphasized that unnecessary program duplication is an arch-enemy of HBCUs.241

Declining Financial Resources

Mr. Merisotis identified declining financial resources as a major threat to HBCUs. HBCUs are

increasingly serving educationally and economically disadvantaged students. They thus require

235 USCCR briefing transcript, May 5, 2006, p. 110.

236 USCCR briefing transcript, May 5, 2006, p. 111–112.

237 USCCR briefing transcript, May 5, 2006, pp. 112–113.

238 USCCR briefing transcript, May 5, 2006, p. 114

239 USCCR briefing transcript, May 5, 2006, p. 114.

240 USCCR briefing transcript, May 5, 2006, p. 110.

241 USCCR briefing transcript, May 5, 2006, p. 112.
Summary of The Proceedings 46

additional resources to meet the substantial academic support and financial needs of these

students.242

Right to Exist Questioned

Mr. Merisotis said HBCUs are the only group of institutions whose right to exist is frequently

questioned. This adds to the challenges HBCUs face daily as they strive to teach educationally

unprepared and economically disadvantaged students.243

242 USCCR briefing transcript, May 5, 2006, p. 113.

243 USCCR briefing transcript, May 5, 2006, pp. 113–114.
Statement of Louis W. Sullivan 47

STATEMENTS

Louis W. Sullivan, M.D., Chair of The President’s Board of Advisors

on Historically Black Colleges and Universities

Contributions of Historically Black Colleges and Universities to the Nation

For more than two centuries the United States has struggled with the social and economic

consequences of former systems of legally sanctioned slavery of its Black citizens in

Southern states followed by legally-sanctioned segregation and discrimination, based upon

race.

The majority of the nation’s 106 Black colleges were created in the second half of the

nineteenth century, following the emancipation proclamation by President Abraham Lincoln,

which abolished slavery on January 1, 1864. Many of these colleges were created by

religious organizations and others by state governments.

With passage of voting rights legislation in the 1960s and other legislation designed to

eliminate the vestiges of segregation and discrimination, the question has arisen about the

need for and the educational effectiveness of historically Black colleges and universities. For

most young people entering college, this is their first experience away from home for an

extended period. It is a time of socialization, of developing a clear identity and a time for

reinforcing their values. It is during this time that young people move from the familiar

protected environment of home to the new, more open, challenging and less secure ambiance

of the college campus.

For some African-American young people, this interplay of academic, social and personal

development which occurs on the campus of Historically Black Colleges and Universities

(HBCUs) during their personal transition from home to the wider world can have a profound

influence on their development as scholars, future family members, members of the country’s

workforce and as responsible citizens. An example of this is illustrated by the number and

percentage of the graduates of some HBCUs who are successful in gaining entry to, and

graduation from, schools of medicine, engineering, law and other fields. For a number of

HBCUs these percentages are equal to or exceed the outcomes achieved by the AfricanAmerican students and graduates from predominantly white colleges and universities which

are often older and wealthier.

Among the HBCUs that have demonstrated this level of success in their graduates are Xavier

University, Spelman College, Morehouse College, Florida A&M University, North Carolina

A&T University, Jackson State University and others.

This phenomenon may also be seen at the professional school level. I wish to share with you

our experience at Morehouse School of Medicine, (MSM), a predominantly AfricanAmerican Medical School which was founded in 1975 by Morehouse College, to increase the
48 The Educational Effectiveness of Historically Black Colleges and Universities

number of African-American (and other minority) physicians in Georgia and the nation.

MSM began with modest financial resources, admitting its first class as a two-year school of

medicine in 1978, becoming a four-year medical school in 1981 and receiving full

accreditation of its M.D. program in 1985.

Among MSM’s 800 M.D. alumni today are (1) a state health commissioner, (2) a vice

president of a large medical school, (3) the personal physician of the president of South

Africa and (4) physicians who are providing care in previously-underserved rural and urban

areas in Georgia and around the nation.

Today, MSM’s students pass national examinations given to medical students at or above the

passing rates of medical students nationwide, although MSM is one of the youngest medical

schools in the United States and does not yet have the level of financial resources of most

U.S. medical schools.

What accounts for this experience of the students and the graduates of HBCUs? There are

multiple factors, including (1) the dedication of the faculty to their teaching responsibilities,

(2) the supportive social environment, (3) the strong encouragement given to the students to

explore a full range of career possibilities (including leadership roles) in business, the

sciences, public service, education and other fields and (4) the role models for students

among the faculties of the HBCUs.

As U.S. citizens, all of us look forward to the day when the lingering vestiges of segregation

and discrimination will no longer be present in our society. But, our experience as a nation

has shown us that to reach that goal will require the sustained and dedicated efforts of all of

us that includes the contributions of HBCUs to our nation’s higher education community and

the effectiveness of HBCUs in facilitating the academic, social and personal development of

a significant number of our African-American (and other minority) citizens.
Statement of Earl S. Richardson 49

Earl S. Richardson, President, Morgan State University

Since the Civil Rights Act of 1964 and the first serious efforts by the federal government to

enforce that legislation beginning in the early 1970s, there has been a continuing discussion

about the role that historically Black campuses should play in contemporary higher

education. Before that legislation, the role of HBCUs was clear—they were open to anyone

of any race or ethnicity, but they were essentially the only place that African-Americans

could obtain a college education in the Southern states. Because of the high concentration of

Blacks in the South, a very high percentage of the prominent African-Americans in public

life and the professions nationally have obtained their degrees from HBCUs This is the case

in the state in which Morgan is located; Morgan graduates have, among other

accomplishments, been the first Black judge in Maryland, the first Black congressman, the

first Black state senator, and the first Black official to hold any statewide office.

The Civil Rights Act changed the rules of the game. Now, Black students for the first time

could attend a traditionally white campus, if they qualified. And the traditionally white

schools, under legal pressure to increase minority enrollments, provided inducements,

particularly financial ones, to Black students who in most instances could barely afford

college, if at all. By contrast, HBCUs, by design, had been neglected. It had been the

philosophy in segregated states to limit the educational opportunities available to Blacks at

all levels of education, and neglect of HBCUs was part of this philosophy. Any campus

president will tell you that it takes decades of hard work and adequate resources to build a

quality institution. By the time the Civil Rights Act was enforced, most HBCUs were nearly

a century behind their white counterparts. It is not surprising then that when the federal

government began to enforce the Civil Rights Act, the HBCUs were not in a position to

compete for their traditional constituency, much less for white students. When people have

choices, they choose their best alternative and, in most instances, HBCUs were not attractive

options.

The initial impact of federal desegregation enforcement was devastating to Black educational

institutions. At the K-12 level, Black schools were so poorly funded that most closed and

their staffs were terminated as the students who would historically have attended them

enrolled in formerly segregated predominantly white schools. At the college level, the

movement of students was almost entirely in one direction, from HBCUs to formerly

segregated predominantly white campuses. Morgan lost so many Black students after the

early 1970s that it has been only recently that it has again enrolled students in comparable

numbers. As the white campuses developed, HBCUs also usually lost their white enrollment.

At Morgan, which had non-duplicated graduate programs in the Baltimore area until the early

1970s, we went from a large graduate student body that had a slight majority of white

students to one that was almost entirely Black ten years later. There is little question as to

why the future of HBCUs was suspect.

However, unlike the K-12 experience, a number of factors have intervened to keep most

HBCUs in business. Because initial federal desegregation efforts were focused on moving

minority students to historically white campuses, HBCUs suffered enrollment declines.
50 The Educational Effectiveness of Historically Black Colleges and Universities

Therefore, the federal government subsequently began to require states to enhance their

HBCUs if they were to conclude acceptable desegregation plans. This helped many of these

campuses. Second, there remained and remains today a strong core of students who want to

attend an HBCU. Third, demographic trends since the since 1960s have been more favorable

for the young Black population than for the young white population. This began to translate

into increasing numbers of college-age Blacks in the mid-1980s, a period when the white

college-age population would still be declining for another decade. While we are in a

temporary period of increases for all racial groups of college age, in a few more years, the

white college-age population will again decline. Finally, there has been the attraction of

prestige. Whether due to rankings published in U.S. News and World Report and elsewhere

or other factors, growing numbers of predominantly white campuses have given priority to

increasing the academic profile of their entering classes. This has negatively affected Black

students, who on the average, score lower on standardized tests and other measures of precollege academic achievement than white students. HBCUs, other liberal admissions

campuses, and community colleges have become their campuses of choice in recent years.

For the most part, their enrollments have increased significantly as a result.

While the role of HBCUs has been of significance in providing access to the growing young

minority population, measures of educational outcomes suggest a role of continuing

importance. It is clear we have a long way to go and will probably have to change our

priorities if we are to ever approach educational equity for Blacks and whites in our country.

This goal is important not only from a social justice perspective but from the perspective of

our global competitiveness. To a greater extent than at any time in our history, advanced

education is important for our national well-being and we need to utilize the talents of as

many of our citizens as possible in this environment.

Perhaps the single best indicator of how well we have been educating our young population

is the percentage of the 25-29 age group holding at least a bachelor’s degree. I am going to

use 1970 as a base year because that is the period during which we began to emphasize

educational equality between the races and affirmative action. This emphasis has resulted in

numerous high profile programs to improve minority educational attainment. Coincidently, it

is the period during which the value of a high school degree relative to a college degree

began to decline. The news is not good. While higher percentages of both Black and white

young adults hold college degrees than in 1970, the gap between the races has grown due to a

more rapid increase in white college degree attainment. In 1970 the difference in the

percentages of young Black and white adults holding a college degree was 10 percentage

points. Now it is 17 percentage points, and the size of the population is much larger. This

translates into a very large numerical difference. In 1970 about 160,000 more Blacks in the

25-29 age group would have had to hold a college degree to have achieved parity with the

white population. Today, that gap amounts to over 400,000 persons in this age group. This

means that we have to almost double the number of baccalaureates awarded to Blacks each

year to achieve parity among young adults. This is a huge task.

Some might argue that we need to be patient in our expectations for equality in degree

attainment. We have to start at the lower grade levels. The news is not good here, either. On

most measures of educational progress at the K-12 level, the gap has not been closing. Over
Statement of Earl S. Richardson 51

the past decade white SAT scores have risen more rapidly than Black SAT scores, even

though they were much higher to begin with. While I would agree that there is a great deal of

potential for improving the qualifications of minority students in the educational pipeline, I

also would argue that we cannot wait. We have been waiting for over three decades without

visible signs of progress. Instead we need to be concerned about how we can take college-age

students where they are and improve their chances of obtaining a degree.

To illustrate how pre-college academic indicators affect admissions at selective colleges it is

useful to look at how many students score in various ranges on the SAT. Most people know

that whites score some 200 points higher on the combined math and verbal portions of the

SAT. At the upper ranges, where majority campuses increasingly recruit, the differences are

stark. Whereas 6 percent of whites score 1400 or higher on the SAT M+V, fewer than 1

percent of Blacks do so. Fewer than 5 percent of Blacks score 1200 or higher compared to 24

percent of whites. This is the range in which both moderately and highly selective campuses

recruit. Fewer than one-quarter of Blacks score over 1000 on the SAT while 60 percent of

whites do so. It is no wonder that the lack of lower income and minority students at selective

campuses has been the topic of so many articles and conferences in recent years. These

campuses simply cannot mirror the increasingly diverse population of the nation if they

remain so selective. Under current circumstances, they would have to tolerate a large

disparity in pre-college credentials between the races to achieve anything approaching a

student body that is representative of the college-age population. This is why the selective

campuses recruit from each other’s pool rather than expanding the size of the pool of

minority students enrolling in college. Hence, less selective campuses, including HBCUs,

offer the only realistic option for significant increases in the numbers of minority students

enrolling in and graduating from college.

A useful rule of thumb is that campuses that are relatively selective graduate student bodies

that have only about half the percentage of African-Americans as the relevant population

from which they recruit. For example, the Ivy League campuses, as a group, are national

universities and have a graduating class that is 7 percent Black. This is about half the national

representation of Blacks. UCLA and Berkley have graduating classes that are only 4 percent

Black, half the African-American representation in the state’s population. The University of

North Carolina – Chapel Hill graduates a class that is 11 percent Black, about half the Black

representation in that state. Hence, there is little that such campuses can do to significantly

increase the representation of Blacks among degree holders nationally.

One might also argue that there are many minority college students who could be admitted to

more selective institutions if non-traditional measures of academic potential were utilized.

The facts show a different picture. In most states, once you look beyond the flagship

campus(es), you see relatively low graduation rates for African-Americans. Morgan, for

example, has a graduation rate of 43 percent. While this sounds like it is just average, it is

well above average for African-Americans at urban universities across the country. Hence, it

is unlikely that selective campuses are likely to double the percentage of African-Americans

in their graduating classes by recruiting from the pool from which less selective campuses in

their states recruit.
52 The Educational Effectiveness of Historically Black Colleges and Universities

This leads one to look at the productivity of liberal admissions campuses as a source of

African-American graduates. The HBCUs stack up well on this measure. For example, 24

HBCUs graduate as many Black students as the University of Michigan and the University of

North Carolina-Chapel Hill. My campus graduates almost as many Black students as all of

the Ivy League campuses combined. Southern University graduates more. Howard University

and Florida A & M graduate more Black students that the total University of California

System, the largest public system in the nation. Thus, because the size of the degree

attainment gap is so large and HBCUs are quite productive in the overall picture, they should

be an integral part of any strategy for increasing the number of graduates nationwide.

One reason that HBCUs are effective in increasing the number of minority graduates is their

tradition of providing a nurturing environment. These campuses always have had to educate

many students who are not as well prepared for college as is desirable. For different reasons

than in the past, there remains a large pool of under-prepared minority students of college

age. A support system that is part of the campus culture, rather than a programmatic

appendage, is a real advantage in addressing student academic needs, particularly when

relatively large numbers may be in need of extra assistance. About 10 years ago, Morgan was

one of two HBCUs in a national study in which gains in student achievement were measured

at various points during college. Even though a number of the campuses in the study were

considerably more selective than the two HBCUs, the gains in educational achievement were

greater for African-Americans at the HBCUs than at the other campuses. The researchers

conducting the study attributed this to the supportive environment found at the HBCUs.

On other measures of educational outcomes our campus does well even though we are an

access-oriented institution whose graduates must compete with other graduates who typically

began their college careers with stronger records of preparation. Our annual follow-up

surveys of graduates find that the employment measures of our graduates are equal to

statewide averages. Our graduate and professional school going rates are consistently above

the state average. We are one of the leading producers of Fulbright scholars in the region, and

near the top nationally on a size-adjusted basis.

While I think that Morgan as well as other HBCUs do a pretty good job of making students

from difficult backgrounds into productive middle class citizens I think that a lot of other

access-oriented campuses do so as well. I include most regional college and universities,

urban institutions, and community college in this group. However, the general public and

many in the higher education community associate effectiveness with having a wellcredentialed entering freshman class. I would submit that the intellectual distance your

students travel while they are enrolled at your campus is a better measure. I think that until

we face the fact that our current strategies have not closed the educational achievement gap

between the races, many will continue to be preoccupied with input rather than output.

In summary, the magnitude of the educational attainment gap is large. The trend in recent

decades has been a widening of this gap. Campuses which are relatively selective do not

increase the size of the pool of African-Americans going to college. Rather they recruit from

the relatively small pool of students who would be successful wherever they enrolled.

Access-oriented campuses such as HBCUs have the greatest impact on degree attainment for
Statement of Earl S. Richardson 53

students of all races. It is these campuses where additional resources will have the most

impact because they have the ability to increase the size of the pool of students enrolling and

completing college.
54 The Educational Effectiveness of Historically Black Colleges and Universities

Jamie P. Merisotis, President, Institute for Higher Education Policy

Mr. Chairman and Members of the Commission:

Thank you for this opportunity to appear at this Commission briefing regarding the

educational effectiveness of Historically Black Colleges and Universities (HBCUs).

I would like to begin with a brief introduction to the Institute for Higher Education Policy

and our role in the policy process. Established in 1993, the Institute is a non-profit, nonpartisan research and policy organization whose mission is to foster access and success in

postsecondary education through public policy research and other activities that inform and

influence the policymaking process. The Institute’s work addresses an array of issues in

higher education, ranging from technology-based learning to quality assurance to student

success. However, the Institute is probably best known for its studies and reports concerning

higher education financing at all levels. These studies and reports address topics ranging

from federal and state student financial aid to state funding formulas to trends in institutional

expenditures and revenues. We also have worked on higher education financing issues in the

international context, especially in Southern Africa and Eurasia.

The Institute’s independent voice on these issues is well known. Our primary funding is

derived from major foundations that are interested in supporting higher education research

and analysis. We also have conducted a fair amount of analytic work at the behest of state

governing and coordinating boards for higher education, as well as national governments

outside the U.S.

In addition to this independent analytic work, the Institute also plays a unique role as

facilitator and convener of the Alliance for Equity in Higher Education, a groundbreaking

collaborative established in 1999 by the American Indian Higher Education Consortium

(AIHEC), the Hispanic Association of Colleges and Universities (HACU), and the National

Association for Equal Opportunity in Higher Education (NAFEO). Combined, these three

organizations represent over 350 colleges and universities that serve more than one-third of

all students of color in the United States. As institutions educating the nation’s emerging

majority populations, these minority-serving institutions (MSIs) of higher education

represent the vanguard of the nation’s future potential and promise.

As the Alliance’s facilitator, the Institute has served in two key roles: we have conducted

research that examines the unique context of MSIs in areas such as teacher education and the

use of technology, and we have functioned as a manager of programs that address common

issues of concern to MSIs. Our program management responsibilities include a program to

train future presidents of HBCUs and other MSIs (MSI Leadership Fellows), supported by

the W.K. Kellogg Foundation; a program to enhance the data and analytic capacities of MSIs

committed to increasing student learning and success (Building Engagement and Attainment

of Minority Students [BEAMS]), supported by Lumina Foundation for Education; and an

initiative to disseminate knowledge learned as the result of a decade-long investment to

improve undergraduate education in Science, Technology, Engineering, and Mathematics
Statement of Jamie P. Merisotis 55

(Model Institutions for Excellence), jointly supported by the National Science Foundation

and the National Aeronautics and Space Administration. The Alliance also recently has

assumed leadership and management of the National Articulation and Transfer Network

(NATN), a major national initiative designed to increase enrollment, retention, and

graduation rates for minority students.

Improving the educational effectiveness of higher education continues to be one of the most

important contributions that the federal government, states, individuals, and the private sector

can make to our national well-being. The simple fact remains that increasing educational

opportunities for all Americans results in tremendous public private social and economic

benefits. As the chart at the conclusion of my testimony points out, going to college is much

more than just a process of enhancing one’s personal economic status. The combination of

societal and individual benefits of higher education must continue to motivate what we do at

many levels, and I hope it will be an important consideration for the Commission as it takes

up this important issue of the educational effectiveness of HBCUs.

At this briefing you will be hearing from many distinguished leaders from the community of

HBCUs, individuals who speak with a great deal of authority and experience. I will not take

time to cover territory about the historical and contemporary role of HBCUs as key drivers of

educational effectiveness, since these other witnesses are highly qualified to do so. Instead,

as a complement to their testimony, I will focus my remarks on several issues regarding the

effectiveness of HBCUs that draw from the Institute for Higher Education Policy’s combined

work as both an independent research and analytic organization and as an organization that

manages programs on behalf of HBCUs and other minority-serving institutions.

My remarks address four areas concerning the educational effectiveness of HBCUs. These

are somewhat lesser known, but nonetheless critically important, ways in which we should be

viewing the educational effectiveness of HBCUs. They are:

 HBCUs as leaders in student engagement;

 HBCUs as community-based institutions that promote civic engagement and service

learning;

 HBCUs as drivers of educational attainment for low-income, first generation, and

disabled students; and

 HBCUs as examples of success in the national effort to improve the quality of

science, technology, engineering, and mathematics (STEM) education and research.

In each case, I will point to a specific example of success of the effectiveness of HBCUs in

this area. This information is illustrative of the types of accomplishments we have seen at

HBCUs in recent years.
56 The Educational Effectiveness of Historically Black Colleges and Universities

HBCUs and Student Engagement

One of the most important trends in higher education in the last decade has been an effort to

document how well institutions engage in effective educational practices—that is, activities

that are empirically related to desired learning and personal development outcomes of

college. Perhaps the best example of this is the work that has been conducted by the National

Survey of Student Engagement (NSSE), administered by the Indiana University Center for

Postsecondary Research. NSSE is designed to obtain information from colleges and

universities nationwide about student participation in programs and activities that institutions

provide for their learning and personal development. The results provide an estimate of how

undergraduates spend their time and what they gain from attending college. Nearly 1,000

higher education institutions have administered NSSE since it began national administration

in the year 2000.

The NSSE survey questions focus on the frequency with which students participate in

effective educational practices. For example, students are asked how often they discussed

ideas with faculty outside of class, participated in a community-based project as a part of a

course, and used an electronic medium for an assignment. In addition, the survey asks

students to identify the degree to which their courses emphasize different mental processes

(such as memorizing and analyzing), how many hours per week they spend studying,

working, or participating in co-curricular activities, as well as how they would characterize

their relationships with people on campus. All of these factors have been shown through

prior research to influence student retention and graduation.

According to 2004 and 2005 data collected by NSSE at 37 HBCUs, African-American

students at HBCUs report more frequent interactions with faculty than African-American

students at predominantly white institutions (PWIs). HBCUs also generally appear to provide

more supportive learning environments for students, including more contact with faculty.

Students at these HBCUs report a greater belief that their institutions contribute to their

personal spiritual growth, and report a higher likelihood that they will vote compared to their

counterparts at PWIs.

These data from NSSE, combined with a significant body of research undertaken by others,

suggest that HBCUs provide a superior level of student engagement, and therefore offer an

educational experience that enhances the intellectual gains and accomplishments of students.

This increased engagement of students is an important indicator of the effectiveness of

HBCUs that deserves closer examination and study by those seeking to enhance the payoffs

of the investment in HBCUs.

HBCUs and Civic Engagement/Service-Learning

A key national issue is the extent to which institutions of higher education contribute to civic

engagement and participation in our democratic institutions, such as voting, volunteering,

and community involvement. In general, we know that higher educational attainment is

highly correlated with increased civic engagement. For example, a 50-state study of the

benefits of higher education published last year by the Institute for Higher Education Policy

found that 36 percent of Americans over the age of 25 with a bachelors degree volunteer,
Statement of Jamie P. Merisotis 57

compared to just 21 percent of those with a high school diploma. Similarly, voting rates in

national elections for individuals with a bachelor’s degree are nearly 50 percent higher than

for those with a high school diploma. Clearly higher education makes a profound difference

in terms of our national civic well-being.

The question for higher education institutions is what specifically they may be doing to foster

those values and goals. While there are many ways in which colleges and universities can

contribute to the development of civically-engaged citizens, one way is through the use of

service-learning or other activities that integrate service and democratic engagement into the

curriculum of the institution.

According to the National Campus Compact, which represents over 950 colleges and

universities committed to the civic purposes of higher education, HBCUs and other MSIs do

a remarkable job of civically engaging students. The 2004 Campus Compact membership

survey found that these institutions are more likely than others to require service and service

learning for graduation. They also found that HBCUs and other MSIs are more likely than

other colleges and universities to have a community service or service-learning office; to

have a director of community service or service learning on their campus; and to have

partnerships with local K-12 schools and faith-based organizations.

These intentional strategies by HBCUs to engage their students at the community or civic

level are not well documented in the national literature about service learning and civic

engagement, but clearly deserve further exploration. As an example of the effectiveness of

institutions, they point to a profoundly different approach to student success than what is

seen at many other colleges and universities.

HBCUs and Success for Low-Income, First Generation, and Disabled Students

Another indicator of the effectiveness of HBCUs is the degree to which they have committed

to the educational advancement of low-income, first generation, and disabled students.

HBCUs are well known for the opportunities they provide to students who come from

educational and economically disadvantaged circumstances. In so doing, these institutions

work hard to provide these students with additional support, guidance, and mentoring that

will improve their opportunities to get into, and succeed in, college. For example, the federal

government has long supported increased opportunity for these populations through the

federally funded TRIO programs. These programs, authorized under the Higher Education

Act, provide a continuum of services from pre-college to pre-graduate level study for the

nation’s low-income, first-generation, and disabled students. In FY 2006, the $828 million in

funding for TRIO programs supported more than 850,000 students in over 2,700 distinct

TRIO programs.

There are a total of seven TRIO programs. The pre-college programs include Talent Search,

which provides counseling and information about college admissions requirements and

student financial aid to young people in grades six through 12, and Upward Bound, which

works with students starting in the 9th grade to provide instruction in literature, composition,

mathematics, and science on college campuses after school, on Saturdays and during the

summer. In addition, Upward Bound Math Science helps students from low-income families
58 The Educational Effectiveness of Historically Black Colleges and Universities

to strengthen math and science skills, frequently providing research opportunities for

underrepresented students, while Veterans Upward Bound provides intensive basic skills

development and short-term remedial courses for military veterans to help them successfully

transition to postsecondary education.

At the college level, Student Support Services programs provide tutoring, counseling, and

supplemental instruction to help students stay in college through the completion of a degree,

and in the case of community colleges, assist them in the transfer process. The Ronald E.

McNair Post-Baccalaureate Achievement programs are designed to encourage low-income

students and minority undergraduates to consider careers in college teaching as well as

prepare for doctoral study. Students who participate in this program are provided with

research opportunities and faculty mentors. Finally, the Educational Opportunity Centers

located throughout the country primarily serve displaced or underemployed workers from

low-income families.

According to the Council for Opportunity in Education, nearly three quarters of all HBCUs

have TRIO programs, serving nearly 70,000 students. This compared to less than one quarter

of all other colleges and universities. The more than $70 million in support provided by these

programs to serve students at HBCUs goes a long way toward increasing the odds of student

success than students who do not have the benefit of these programs.

HBCUs and Science, Technology, Engineering and Math (STEM)

The final example of ways in which HBCUs are educationally effective is the role that they

play in improving the quality of STEM education and research. At the national level,

investments in science, technology, engineering, and mathematics have been universally

accepted as a national imperative. The President’s proposed 2007 Budget, for example,

advocates significant new investments in these efforts as key drivers of the nation’s global

competitiveness and economic capacity. However, research indicates that African-Americans

are significantly underrepresented both as a percentage of the national STEM workforce and

as a proportion of those enrolling and succeeding in STEM programs at colleges and

universities.

An interesting example of a program that is designed to increase the quality of STEM

education and research at HBCUs is the Historically Black Colleges and UniversitiesUndergraduate Program (HBCU-UP) at the National Science Foundation (NSF). HBCU-UP

provides an array of support to institutions to help strengthen STEM education and research.

This includes curriculum enhancement, faculty professional development, undergraduate

research, academic enrichment, and infusion of technology to enhance STEM instruction,

collaborations with research institutions and industry, and other activities that meet

institutional needs.

According to NSF, Math gatekeeper passing rates—including in Algebra, Pre-Calculus, and

Calculus I—have improved at 14 HBCU-UP grantee sites that have had projects in place for

five years. Improvements have also been seen in other STEM gatekeeper courses, such as

Biology I and Physics I. These improvements correlate to the faculty development and course

revision and enhancement activities that are implemented by HBCU-UP projects. Similarly,
Statement of Jamie P. Merisotis 59

several indicators of research and professional development activity have increased as a

result of HBCU-UP—such as the number of refereed journal articles and other publications,

conference presentations, and proposals submitted for external funding. This reflects

increased research opportunities at HBCU campuses for undergraduates to experience either

in their classes or as researchers. Approximately 25 percent of STEM graduates from these

HBCUs now have had an undergraduate research experience that better prepares them for

success in graduate school.

These brief examples of the educational effectiveness of HBCUs are not intended to be

definitive or inclusive. Rather they are designed to illustrate that the educational

effectiveness of HBCUs has many dimensions that go beyond the simple calculation of

aggregate graduation rates, retention rates, or job placements. In assessing the educational

effectiveness of HBCUs, it is critical to consider a wide array of information and data that

paint a more complete portrait of effectiveness than might be indicated by more narrowly

drawn measures. This more comprehensive picture of educational effectiveness can then be

used to provide a fair assessment of HBCU performance and, in so doing, help to improve

the targeting of strategies to continuously upgrade quality and performance at these

nationally essential institutions of higher learning.

Thank you again for this opportunity to appear before the Commission on this important

issue. I would be pleased to answer any questions you may have.
60 The Educational Effectiveness of Historically Black Colleges and Universities

THE ARRAY OF HIGHER EDUCATION BENEFITS

Public Private

*Increased Tax Revenues *Higher Salaries and Benefits

*Greater Productivity *Employment

Economic *Increased Consumption *Higher Savings Levels

*Increased Workforce Flexibility *Improved Working Conditions

*Decreased Reliance on *Personal/Professional Mobility

Government Financial Support

*Reduced Crime Rates *Improved Health/Life Expectancy

*Increased Charitable Giving/ *Improved Quality of Life

Community Service for Offspring

Social *Increased Quality of Civic Life *Better Consumer Decision making

*Social Cohesion/ *Increased Personal Status

Appreciation of Diversity

*Improved Ability to Adapt to and *More Hobbies, Leisure Activities

Use Technology
Statement of Raymond C. Pierce 61

Raymond C. Pierce, Dean and Professor of Law, North Carolina

Central University

Failure of the Federal Government to Enforce Federal Civil Rights Laws: A Real

Threat to Historically Black Colleges and Universities

The value of Historically Black Colleges and Universities (HBCU) to our nation is clear. Our

nation or any nation benefits from an educated population. HBCUs continue to provide

educational opportunities for African-Americans in significant numbers. There is no

indication that closing public HBCUs would create a comparable shift in African-American

student enrollment in and graduation from traditionally white institutions. The case has been

made for HBCUs in terms of their effectiveness and contribution toward the education of the

people of this nation. This presentation, however, focuses on a real and continuing threat to

HBCUs in large part due to the federal government’s refusal to enforce federal civil rights

laws as they relate to African-Americans attending HBCUs. This threat puts in jeopardy the

significant contribution HBCUs provide in allowing our nation to be competitive in a world

where higher education is necessary for participation in a fast moving global economy.

For the most part federal civil rights activity in higher education involving HBCUs followed

school desegregation litigation in the wake of Brown v. Board of Education. In the area of

higher education, the Adams cases of the 1970s tied equal protection for African-Americans

in the Southern and border states to state treatment of publicly funded HBCUs. Nineteen

states were involved in what can be called higher education desegregation activity. Higher

education desegregation actually involved legal actions brought by private individuals

seeking equal funding for HBCUs in relation to traditionally white institutions. These actions

were coupled with federal efforts through intervention to desegregate state systems of higher

education that were created with an apartheid approach to providing public higher education.

In the Adams cases Southern and border states with public HBCUs were determined by a

federal agency (the Office for Civil Rights of the Department for Health Education and

Welfare) to be in violation of Title VI of the 1964 Civil Rights Act. Essentially these states

continued to operate HBCUs with resources and standards substantially below traditionally

white institutions. Private individuals (Adams) alarmed by the executive branch of the

federal government’s refusal to address violations of federal civil rights laws turned to the

federal courts. The Adams litigation involved actions against the Office for Civil Rights

(OCR) for its failure to enforce federal civil rights laws. States found in violation of federal

civil rights laws continued to receive federal funding to support state systems of higher

education that were wrought with vestiges of the system of apartheid. The federal

government’s OCR was not requiring these states to submit plans to bring themselves into

compliance with Title VI, nor was OCR crafting guidelines for any such plans. The result of

the Adams cases was a finding against OCR, the development of federal guidelines for

desegregating state systems of higher education, and Southern and border states entering into

desegregation plans (Agreements) with the federal government designed to bring about

compliance with Title VI.
62 The Educational Effectiveness of Historically Black Colleges and Universities

The Agreements with the various states designed to bring about Title VI compliance was

based on 1978 federal civil rights policy derived in part from the court decisions in Adams.

The federal civil rights policy for desegregating state systems of higher education was

basically in two parts: 1. Strengthening HBCUs and 2. Affirmative Action at Traditionally

White Institutions (TWIs).

Strengthening or enhancing HBCUs was aimed at accomplishing two things: providing

expanded educational opportunities for African-American students and attracting white

students to form a more diverse student population. The history of HBCUs includes

significant constriction in the educational programming offered at these institutions. Further,

the physical facilities were limited consistent with the limited educational programs. The

federal policy for desegregation included the placement of attractive educational programs at

HBCUs to address the history of limited educational programming and thus offer expanded

educational opportunities to African-Americans attending these institutions. In addition, this

enhancement was intended to attract a more diverse student population seeking quality

educational programs. The design was for students to select public colleges based on

educational offerings and not solely on a legacy of racial congregation.

The second component of the federal higher education desegregation policy was one of

affirmative action at the Traditionally White Institutions. The affirmative action here was not

affirmative action in admissions but affirmative action in recruitment and affirmative action

in scholarships, both targeting African-American students. The intent was to attract more

African- American students to become enrolled in the public Traditionally White Institutions.

Enhancing HBCUs to provide expanded educational opportunities and attract a more diverse

student population combined with affirmative action programs at TWIs designed to attract

African-American students together formed the policy intended to do away with white

colleges and Black colleges and create one system of colleges. That was the plan.

Most of the 19 states entered into compliance plans. Five states did not enter into agreements.

Four of these states proceeded to federal court litigation. One state, Ohio, was prepared for

litigation but pleadings prepared by the U.S. Department of Justice were never filed in court.

Louisiana, Tennessee, Alabama and Mississippi all went to court with the Mississippi case

going all the way to the U.S. Supreme Court. It was the Supreme Court decision in the

Mississippi case that would produce the foundation for new federal civil rights policy on

higher education desegregation that was published in 1994.

In 1988, the U.S. Secretary of Education, William Bennett, directed OCR to conduct reviews

of those states that had entered into the Agreements and make determinations as to whether

or not those states had brought themselves into compliance with Title VI. Using a checklist

analysis OCR concluded that eight of the 19 states had performed according to the

Agreements and that those states were now in compliance with Title VI. Reviews were not

conducted for the remaining six states at that time (Virginia, Pennsylvania, Florida,

Maryland, Texas and Kentucky). In 1994 OCR published new federal policy for higher

education desegregation that was based on the U.S. Supreme Court decision in Ayers (the

Mississippi case). The 1994 policy created a higher standard for compliance. Whereas the
Statement of Raymond C. Pierce 63

1978 policy was based on a checklist analysis (e.g., did the states enhance the public HBCUs

and implement affirmative action procedures at the TWIs), the 1994 policy was based on a

vestiges analysis which places on states an affirmative duty to remove all vestiges of the past

practice of segregation that have present day effects to the greatest extent practicable.

Pursuant to the higher standard contained in the 1994 policy the remaining six states plus

Ohio entered into new five year plans (New Agreements) designed to bring about Title VI

compliance. In addition, there was some debate within OCR as to whether or not the eight

states that were closed out in 1988 under the old 1978 standard should be reviewed for Title

VI compliance using the newer standard contained in the 1994 policy. The five year plans

focused mainly on further enhancement of the public HBCUs in the seven states.

The problem we are faced with today is almost a re-visitation of the situation that led to the

Adams cases in the 1970s. There is substantial indication that many of the seven states have

ceased performance pursuant to the New Agreements. In some of the states (Ohio in

particular) there is actually action being taken to revert back to a policy of constraining

HBCUs in their ability to offer attractive educational programs. Clearly in many cases in

these states there is no focus on compliance with federal civil rights laws. In addition, there is

strong evidence that HBCUs in some of the states that were closed out in 1988 are being

negatively impacted by state actions that are in direct contradiction of federal higher

education desegregation policy. The most egregious of these state actions is unnecessary

program duplication. Duplication of programs in colleges within close proximity was

historically done for apartheid purposes. Courts and federal civil rights policy have cited the

unnecessary duplication of programs as being segregative and violative of Title VI.

Unnecessary program duplication in a highly competitive business of higher education poses

serious threats to HBCUs particularly with respect to their ability to compete in the arena of

masters and doctorate level programs.

There is every indication that OCR will continue its non-enforcement of the Agreements of

which it entered into with the various states for Title VI compliance purposes. At the same

time it is clear that states will continue with initiatives, primarily at the legislative level, that

encroach upon the vitality and strength of HBCUs. This is all going on while at the same

time federal funds are being provided to these very states that continue to have outstanding

violations of federal civil rights laws. This is in many respects the situation that existed that

ultimately launched the Adams cases.

I submit that litigation against the federal government’s OCR be initiated similar to that

litigation that formed the basis of Adams. As in Adams, declaratory and injunctive relief

should be sought to both obtain a statement from the federal courts as to the constitutional

obligations of the states in this matter and to also prevent further state actions that will have

damaging effects on HBCUs. Federal court involvement is also needed as in Adams to

declare the responsibility of OCR in this matter and to direct that agency to conduct

compliance reviews of the various states with respect to the Agreements and in light of

federal civil rights and higher education desegregation policy. There is some debate as to

legal strategies to pursue such claims, including whether or not case law subsequent to

Adams would even allow such causes of action. These issues must be resolved and the
64 The Educational Effectiveness of Historically Black Colleges and Universities

appropriate litigation commenced. Otherwise there is no real preventative measure against

what clearly are real threats to higher educational opportunities for significant numbers of

African-Americans.
Statement of Mikyong Minsun Kim 65

Mikyong Minsun Kim, Associate Professor of Higher Education,

Graduate School of Education and Human Development, The

George Washington University

Thank you for the opportunity to testify before the Commission. My name is Mikyong

Minsun Kim, and I am an Associate Professor of Higher Education at The George

Washington University. Former posts include faculty positions at the University of Arizona–

Tucson and the University of Missouri – Columbia. I have also served as a grant panelist and

consultant for the National Science Foundation.

While I have a wide range of scholarly interests, a great deal of my focus has been on the

impact and effectiveness of Historically Black Colleges and Universities (HBCUs) on

African-American students. Therefore, my testimony will focus on research findings

concerning the effectiveness of these institutions. (As a possible point of interest, I have

studied the effectiveness of women-only colleges as well.)

First, I will briefly compare the institutional and student characteristics of HBCUs with those

of Historically White Colleges and Universities (HWCUs). Second, I will review the findings

of my studies on the effectiveness of HBCUs and compare my findings with those of other

studies. Third, I will discuss how HBCUs contribute to the learning opportunities of AfricanAmerican students and the higher education community. Fourth, I will discuss whether and

why HBCUs merit strong support.

Institutional and Student Characteristics at HBCUs versus HWCUs

There are 103 HBCUs in this country (National Center for Education Statistics [NCES],

1996, 2003), and about 30 percent of the BA degrees earned by African-Americans annually

are awarded by the 89 four-year (41 public and 48 private) HBCUs (NCES, 1996, 2003).

Among African-American college graduates, a high percentage of political leaders, lawyers,

doctors, and PhD recipients have graduated from HBCUs (Jackson, 2002; Willie and

Edmonds, 1978).

Nevertheless, HBCUs have relatively fewer resources than HWCUs. HBCUs, on average,

tend to have academically less prepared students and poorer institutional resources than

HWCUs (e.g., physical facilities, expenditure per FTE student, and average faculty salary),

and students’ parents are less affluent. The findings of students’ poor academic preparation

and low parental socioeconomic status are consistent with Allen’s findings (1992).

On the other hand, HBCUs tend to have a lower student-faculty ratio, lower enrollment, and

somewhat higher student-faculty interaction, all of which are positive predictors of student

development in general (Pascarella and Terenzini, 1991, 2005; Astin, 1993). From the mean

comparison of Table 1, African-American students are more likely to be involved in faculty's

research projects at HBCUs, and this involvement is a positive predictor for degree

completion. The information in Table 1 was drawn from my recent HBCU study, published

in Research in Higher Education.
66 The Educational Effectiveness of Historically Black Colleges and Universities

Effectiveness of HBCUs versus HWCUs

Let me share with you some of my findings. I used national longitudinal data sets (from the

Higher Education Research Institute at UCLA), institutional effectiveness models, and

rigorous multi-level statistical techniques (hierarchical linear and non-linear modeling) for

the design and analysis of my HBCU studies. Hierarchical linear and non-linear models have

well-established methodological advantages over standard regression techniques for

evaluating the effectiveness of schools and colleges and handling multi-level nested data sets

(Raudenbush and Bryk, 2002).

Initially, the finding of no significant difference between HBCUs and HWCUs throughout

three academic outcomes (overall academic ability, writing ability, and math ability) was

rather surprising. I found the same pattern of “no significant difference” between HBCUs and

HWCUs in their graduates’ early career earnings as well as the probability of obtaining a

baccalaureate degree. In what follows, I will explain how my findings are consistent with or

contrary to the previous studies on HBCUs.

Academic Development and Success

My research finding that attending HBCUs is not more beneficial in developing Black

students’ overall academic ability, writing ability, and math ability than attending White

institutions is somewhat consistent with previous studies by Central, Linn, and Parry (1970),

Bohr, Pascarella, Nora, and Terenzini (1995), and Pascarella, Edison, Nora, Hagedorn, and

Terenzini (1996).

The finding of no differential effect of HBCUs on obtaining a bachelor’s degree is somewhat

inconsistent with previous studies (Cross and Astin, 1981; Pascarella, Smart, Ethington, and

Nettles, 1987; and Ehrenberg and Rothstein, 1993). Although the degree completion rates for

African-American students are 55 percent for HBCUs and 63 percent for HWCUs, college

GPAs of African-American students did not differ between the two institution types.

Early Career Earnings

My findings show that HBCUs are doing as well as HWCUs in producing African-American

graduates who are financially successful—at least in the early part of their careers. The

finding of no difference in HBCUs impact on their graduates’ early income is consistent with

that of Pascarella, Smart and Stoecker (1989) and with that of Ehrenberg and Rothstein

(1993), but it is contrary to Constantine's study (1995), which found significant economic

benefits associated with attendance at HBCUs. It is also contrary to Baratz and Ficklen

(1983), who found that graduates of HBCUs have lower earnings than their counterparts at

HWCUs. The finding is also partly contrary to Solnick (1990), who reported that HBCU

graduates started with high salaries but received smaller wage increases and fewer

promotions than HWCU graduates.

We should take the finding of "no significant difference" as a positive sign that AfricanAmerican students, as a group, now benefit equally in their academic success and early

career earnings whether they attend HBCUs or HWCUs. By way of explanation, I speculate
Statement of Mikyong Minsun Kim 67

that the discriminatory climate at HWCUs might have eased since the desegregation

movement.

How Do Students’ Learning Opportunities Differ between HBCUs and HWCUs?

African-American students at HBCUs are more actively and deeply involved in the academic

community than are their counterparts at HWCUs. As the previous studies contend, HBCUs

seem to provide a more academically supportive and engaging environment for AfricanAmerican students. One of my studies also indicates less satisfying and more difficult

academic experiences among African-American female students at HWCUs. Although

HWCUs provide African-American students with equal access (or even preferential

treatment) in admissions, they may still be less likely to include African-American students

in their academic communities. For example, my previous study of HBCUs revealed that

helping more undergraduates participate in professors’ research projects is a good strategy

for improving African-American students’ retention and graduation rates. The same study

also suggested that African-American students had many more chances (1.5 times) to

participate in professors’ research projects at HBCUs. Judging by the findings of my studies,

as well as those of previous investigators’ studies, there are obvious compensating factors,

and the two types of institution contribute to student learning in different ways: HWCUs

provide more visible monetary resources and prestige, while HBCUs offer greater humane

support and deeper involvement.

Conclusion and Recommendation

How are HBCUs able to have such an impact with relatively few resources and with students

whose pre-college performance was poorer than that of their counterparts at HWCUs? How

they manage to produce the same level of student outcomes as HWCUs in spite of poorer

academic and financial resources needs to be investigated further in future studies. Based on

numerous research findings, HBCUs appear to be more cost-effective in achieving their

mission of educating Black students. Given that HBCUs are significantly underfunded

relative to HWCUs, the findings of my studies and of other reports lend support to the

proposition that HBCUs contribute significantly to higher education in this country and merit

strong support.

Thank you for this valued opportunity to participate.
68 The Educational Effectiveness of Historically Black Colleges and Universities

Table 1

Comparing Student and Institutional Characteristics of HBCUs and HWCUs: Means, Standard

Deviations, and Correlation Coefficients

HWCU HBCU

Means SD Means SD

r with Black

college

Student characteristics

Degree completion 0.63 0.48 0.55 0.50 –0.08

Respondent's early earnings 4.23 1.76 3.97 1.65 –0.08

Parental income 6.96 3.28 6.25 3.21 –0.11 *

High school GPA 5.55 1.67 4.56 1.69 –0.29 *

College GPA 23.67 0.95 3.79 1.04 0.06

Institutional characteristics

Global characteristics

Selectivity in admission 1105.00 120.63 724.80 77.32 –0.73 *

Total enrollment 14486.94 10864.51 1823.40 1002.92 –0.67 *

Internal characteristics

Student-faculty ratio 20.88 5.76 15.80 2.78 –0.42 *

Percentage: research project with faculty 22.96 7.23 31.89 5.77 0.50 *

Student-faculty interaction 7.92 0.18 8.06 0.16 0.27 *

Average faculty salary 42751.94 6579.04 26814.00 5470.87 –0.68 *

Percentage: faculty with a Ph.D. 84.53 6.19 62.80 12.20 –0.68 *

Percentage: total instruction-related

expenditure

73.13 11.61 72.35 8.80 –0.03

Instruction-related expenditure per FTE

student

9246 5306 6506 1208 –0.25 *

Percentage: students transferring 12.25 7.48 15.71 6.41 0.22 *

Percentage: undergraduates receiving aid 53.53 13.18 84.00 11.10 0.67 *

Note: 1The correlation coefficients are Spearman's rho; * p < 0.05 (two-tailed)

2

The information of the variable was much reduced, and the available samples of college GPA for mean, SD, and

correlation analyses were only 280.

Most of the comparative data were drawn from Kim (2002) and Kim and Conrad (2006).

Power Point Presentation
Statement of Mikyong Minsun Kim 69

1

The Effectiveness of Historically

Black Colleges and Universities

United States Commission on Civil Rights

Washington D.C.

May 5, 2006

Testimony of Mikyong Minsun Kim

Associate Professor of Higher Education

Graduate School of Education and Human Development

The George Washington University

2

Demographic Information

 There are 103 Historically Black Colleges and

Universities (HBCUs) in the U.S.

 About 30 percent of the BA degrees awarded to

African American students are from the 89 fouryear (41 public and 48 private) HBCUs (NCES,

1996, 2003).

 Among African American college graduates, a

high percentage of political leaders, lawyers,

doctors, and PhD recipients have graduated from

HBCUs.
70 The Educational Effectiveness of Historically Black Colleges and Universities

3

Institutional and Student Characteristics

 HBCUs tend to have academically less prepared

students and poorer institutional resources than

HWCUs.

 HBCUs tend to have a lower student-faculty

ratio, lower enrollment, and somewhat higher

student-faculty interaction.

4

Institutional and Student Characteristics

 African American students are more likely to be

involved in faculty's research projects at HBCUs

(almost 1.5 times).

 The degree completion rates for African

American students are 55% for HBCUs and 63%

for HWCUs, but college GPAs of African

American students did not differ between the two

institution types.
Statement of Mikyong Minsun Kim 71

5

Effectiveness of HBCUs

 No significant difference between HBCUs and

HWCUs throughout three academic outcomes

(overall academic ability, writing ability, and

math ability).

 The same pattern of “no significant difference”

between HBCUs and HWCUs in their graduates’

early career earnings as well as the probability of

obtaining a baccalaureate degree

6

Effectiveness of HBCUs

 Academic development.

My finding that attending HBCUs is not more

beneficial in developing Black students’ overall

academic ability, writing ability, and math ability

than attending White institutions is somewhat

consistent with previous studies by Centra, Linn,

and Parry (1970), Bohr, Pascarella, Nora, and

Terenzini (1995), and Pascarella, Edison, Nora,

Hagedorn, and Terenzini (1996).
72 The Educational Effectiveness of Historically Black Colleges and Universities

7

Effectiveness of HBCUs

 Degree completion.

The finding of no differential effect of HBCUs

on obtaining a bachelor’s degree is somewhat

inconsistent with previous studies (Cross and

Astin, 1981; Pascarella, Smart, Ethington, and

Nettles, 1987; Ehrenberg and Rothstein, 1993).

8

Effectiveness of HBCUs

 Early career earnings.

The finding of no difference in HBCUs impact

on their graduates’ early income is consistent

with that of Pascarella, Smart and Stoecker (1989)

and with that of Ehrenberg and Rothstein (1993),

but is contrary to Constantine's study (1995) and

Baratz and Ficklen (1983).
Statement of Mikyong Minsun Kim 73

9

Effectiveness of HBCUs

 We should take the finding of "no significant

difference" as a positive sign that African

American students, as a group, now benefit

equally in their academic development whether

they attend HBCUs or HWCUs.

10

Students’ learning opportunities

 African American students at HBCUs are more

actively and deeply involved in the academic

community than are their counterparts at

HWCUs

 One of my studies also indicates less satisfying

and more difficult academic experiences among

African American female students at HWCUs.
74 The Educational Effectiveness of Historically Black Colleges and Universities

11

Reasons for “no difference”

 There are obvious compensating factors, and the

two types of institution contribute to student

learning in different ways: HWCUs provide

more visible monetary resources and prestige,

while HBCUs offer greater humane support and

deeper involvement.

 In addition, the discriminatory climate at

HWCUs might have eased since the

desegregation movement.

12

Conclusion

 HBCUs appear to be more cost-effective in

achieving their mission of educating black

students. How they manage to produce the same

level of outcomes as HWCUs in spite of poorer

academic and financial resources needs to be

investigated further.

 Given that HBCUs are significantly

underfunded relative to HWCUs, the findings of

my studies and of other reports lend support to

the proposition that HBCUs contribute

significantly to higher education in this country

and merit strong support.
Statement of Mikyong Minsun Kim 75

13

T able 1.

C om paring Student and Institutional Characteristics of H B CU s and H W C Us:

M eans, Standard Deviations, and C orrelation C oefficients

H W C U H BC U

M eans SD M eans SD

r with Black

college

Student characteristics

D egree completion 0.63 0.48 0.55 0.50 –0.08

Respondent's early earnings 4.23 1.76 3.97 1.65 –0.08

Parental income 6.96 3.28 6.25 3.21 –0.11 *

H igh school G PA 5.55 1.67 4.56 1.69 –0.29 *

College G PA 23.67 0.95 3.79 1.04 0.06

Institutional characteristics

G lobal characteristics

Selectivity in admission 1105.00 120.63 724.80 77.32 –0.73 *

T otal enrollment 14486.94 10864.51 1823.40 1002.92 –0.67 *

Internal characteristics

Student-faculty ratio 20.88 5.76 15.80 2.78 –0.42 *

Percentage: research project with faculty 22.96 7.23 31.89 5.77 0.50 *

Student-faculty interaction 7.92 0.18 8.06 0.16 0.27 *

Average faculty salary 42751.94 6579.04 26814.00 5470.87 –0.68 *

Percentage: faculty with a Ph.D . 84.53 6.19 62.80 12.20 –0.68 *

Percentage: total instruction-related

expenditure

73.13 11.61 72.35 8.80 –0.03

Instruction-related expenditure per FT E

student

9246 5306 6506 1208 –0.25 *

Percentage: students transferring 12.25 7.48 15.71 6.41 0.22 *

Percentage: undergraduates receiving aid 53.53 13.18 84.00 11.10 0.67 *

N ote: 1 T he correlation coefficients are Spearman's rho; * p < 0.05 (two-tailed)

2 The information of the variable was much reduced, and the available samples of college G PA for mean, SD ,

and correlation analyses were only 280.

M ost of the comparative data were drawn from K im (2002) and K im and Conrad (2006).
76 The Educational Effectiveness of Historically Black Colleges and Universities

References

W. Allen, “The color of success: African-American college student outcomes at Predominantly White and

Historically Black public colleges and universities,” Harvard Educational Review, vol. 62(1) (1992), pp. 26–

44.

A. W. Austin, What Matters in College: Four Critical Years Revisited. (San Francisco: Jossey-Bass, 1993).

J. Baratz, and M. Ficklen, Participation of recent Black college graduates in the labor market and in graduate

education (Research Report, Education Policy Research Institute). (Princeton, NJ: Educational Testing

Service, 1983).

L. Bohr, E. T. Pascarella, A. Nora, and P. T. Terenzini, “Do Black students learn more at Historically Black or

Predominantly White Colleges?” Journal of College Student Development, vol. 36(1) (1995), pp. 75–85.

J. Centra, R. Linn, and M. Parry, “Academic growth in predominantly Negro and predominantly White

colleges,” American Educational Research Journal, vol. 7(1) (1970), pp. 83–98.

J. M. Constantine, “The effect of attending Historically Black Colleges and Universities on future wages of

Black students.” Industrial and Labor Relations Review, vol. 48(3) (1995), pp. 531–46.

P. Cross, and H. Astin, “Factors influencing Black students’ persistence in college,” in Black Students in Higher

Education, ed. G. Thomas (Westport, CN: Greenwood Press, 1981), pp. 76–90.).

R. G. Ehrenberg, and D. S. Rothstein, “Do historically Black institutions of higher education confer unique

advantages on Black students: An initial analysis” (Cambridge, MA: National Bureau of Economic Research,

1993). Unpublished paper.

D. H. Jackson, “Attracting and retaining African-American faculty at HBCUs,” Education, vol. 123(1) (2002),

pp. 181–185.

M. M. Kim and C.F. Conrad, “The Impact of Historically Black Colleges and Universities on the Academic

Success of African-American Students,” Research in Higher Education, vol. 47 (4) (2006), pp. 399–427.

M.M. Kim, “Historically Black vs. White Institutions: Academic Development among Black Students,” The

Review of Higher Education, vol. 25(4) (2002), pp. 385–407.

E. Pascarella and P. Terenzini, How College Affects Students (San Francisco: Jossey-Bass, 1991).

E. Pascarella, M. Edison, A. Nora, L. S. Hagedorn, and P. Terenzini, “Additional evidence on the cognitive

effects of college racial composition: A research note,” Journal of College Student Development, vol. 37(5)

(1996), pp. 494–501.

E. Pascarella, J. Smart, C. Ethington, and M. Nettles, M, “The influence of college on self-concept: A

consideration of race and gender differences,” American Educational Research Journal, vol. 24(1) (1987),

pp. 49–77.

E. Pascarella, J. Smart, and J. Stoecker, “College race and the early status attainment of Black students,” The

Journal of Higher Education, vol. 60(1) (1989), pp. 82–107.

S. Raudenbush and A. Bryk, A. Hierarchical Linear Models: Applications and Data Analysis Methods (2nd ed.)

(Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Publication, 2002).

L. M. Solnick, “Black college attendance and job success of Black college graduates,” Economics of Education

Review, vol. 9(2) (1990), pp. 135–148.

C. V. Willie, and R. R. Edmonds, Black Colleges in America: Challenge, Development, Survival (New York:

Teachers College Press, 1978).
77 The Role of Ethnicity in Choosing and Leaving Science in Highly Selected Institutions

It has been Commission practice to include summaries of all panelist statements and

Commissioner remarks in briefing reports. This briefing report includes two additional

scholarly research articles which several of the Commissioners recommended as providing

further insight on the performance of HBCUs in furthering student educational objectives.

The article by Rogers Elliott is reprinted by permission of the copyright holder.
78 The Educational Effectiveness of Historically Black Colleges and Universities

The Role of Ethnicity in Choosing and Leaving Science in Highly

Selected Institutions

From Research in Higher Education, Vol. 37, No. 6, 1996

Authors: Rogers Elliott, A. Christopher Strenta, Russell Adair, Michael Matier, and Jannah Scott

(Foreword: This study sought to assess the role of ethnicity in both initial choice of, and persistence

in, science majors. Standardized test scores, high school records, initial concentration preference,

college grades, and final majors of all the white, Asian, black, and Hispanic students who enrolled

in 1988 at four highly selective institutions provided the database. Despite relative deficits in

scores on measures of preparation and developed ability, blacks entered college with a strong

interest in majoring in science. Black students interested in science also suffered the highest

attrition from it; Asians were lowest, with whites and Hispanics near the average attrition of 40%.

Ethnicity did not add significantly to ability and achievement variables in predicting attrition from

science. The results are discussed in terms of two main issues: first, the effect of different

standards of selection for the various groups on their success in science curricula; and second,

the relevance of various well-known intervention strategies to the problems of minority attrition in

science in highly selective institutions.)

The question of why much larger proportions of non-Asian minorities leave the science

pipeline than do whites or Asians has long concerned all persons and organizations

interested in the vitality of science and in equality of opportunity to become a scientist.

Science is a rewarding career for those inclined to pursue it, and many of the world's serious

problems cannot be solved without science and technology. If large pools of potential

scientists are being shut out by action of educational institutions themselves, that fact needs

to be known, and the problem needs to be described and examined, so that effective ameliorative policies might be devised.

Our first reports (Strenta et al., 1993, 1994) concerned general issues about choice of,

persistence in, and attrition from science, along with the way gender affected those issues in

our population. Here we will examine these questions with respect to ethnicity.i Our

strategy and goal is as it was with gender: to describe and analyze the predictors of initial

interest in science, and then the predictors of persistence in science—that is, actually

majoring in science—in terms of variables measuring intellectual achievement and

developed ability.

The situation with respect to minorities differs from that for women very likely in several

ways, but surely in one important respect: minorities are at least as interested in pursuing

science as whites (Astin and Astin, 1993; National Science Board, 1993; White, 1992), and

the attitude toward science, at least for African-Americans, is very positive—more positive,

other things being equal, than that of whites (Dunteman, Wisenbaker, and Taylor, 1979; see

also citations in Oakes, 1990). In large unselected samples of college-bound students, just

about a fifth of the whites, blacks, and Hispanics taking the SAT or filling out a student

information form in their first college term intended to major in science or engineering

(College Board, 1988a, or any recent year; National Science Board, 1993), with whites

being slightly lower in rate of interest than blacks or Hispanics; over a third of Asians
The Role of Ethnicity in Choosing and Leaving Science in Highly Selected Institutions 79

intended to major in science. In the somewhat more selective longitudinal sample reported

by Astin and Astin (1993), the rates of initial interest were higher but in similar ethnic

order: Asians, 53%; whites, 27%; Hispanics (Chicanos), 36%; and blacks, 34%.

Recent accounts (Oakes, 1990; Suter, 1993; White, 1992) of race, ethnicity, and science

make it clear that non-Asian minorities are relatively low on most measures of preparation

and developed ability, and that these deficits begin early in their schooling careers. They

are considerable just before the point of entrance to college. Both the average SAT

mathematics (SATM) scores and the math and science proficiencies of twelfth-grade blacks

are about a standard deviation (S.D.) behind, and those of Hispanics are about .75 S.D.

behind, those of whites (Suter, 1993). Thus, black grade 12 achievement in math is about the

same as, and in science a little worse than, white grade 8 achievement. And while blacks

and Hispanics are a little closer to whites on scores on College Board Achievement Tests

and Advanced Placement (AP) tests, that is in part because very small and selected

proportions of those minority groups take such tests (White, 1992).

Partly for these reasons, not many minority students actually enter science in higher

education, and many who do drop out along the way. White (1992) and the National

Science Board (1993) have reported that blacks received about 5.3% of the bachelor's

degrees in science in 1989 and 1991, though they constituted about 13% of the population and

about 9% of the higher education enrollment; Hispanics, who were about 7% of the general

population, and 5% of the higher education enrollment, had 4% of the science degrees.

Asians (9%) and whites (82%) together had 91% of the science baccalaureates given in

1991, with Asians obviously greatly overrepresented.

The recent study by Astin and Astin (1993) illustrates the disproportionately large losses of

blacks and Hispanics (in their case, Chicanos). The final pool of blacks in science was only

47% of the size of the pool of those initially intending to major in science, and of Hispanics

only 37%, whereas the corresponding percentages for Asians and whites were 68% and 61%,

respectively (all these figures are overestimates of persistence rates, because there was some

recruitment from nonscience pools into science). This result occurred even though in the

original pools of those initially interested in science and engineering as freshmen, as shown

above, blacks and Hispanics had just over a third of their numbers declaring initial interest in

science majors and were 7-8% more likely to do so than whites. Other large and possibly

more representative samples (National Science Foundation, 1990) have found persistence

rates of only 21% for minorities, compared with 43% for majority students. And Hilton,

Hsia, Solorzano, and Benton (1989) reported persistence rates for the high school and beyond

database (high school seniors who had intended to go to college and major in science or

engineering and who were in college still doing or intending to do science 2 years after

graduation) as 54% for Asians, 44% for whites, 36% for blacks, and 29% for Latinos;

considering only those students who had actually gotten to college and remained there, the

corresponding rates were 61%, 58%, 54%, and 48%. Finally, in Phillips's recent report (1991)

of a large representative sample of engineering students from predominantly white schools,

the 5-year graduation rates were as follows: for whites, 67%; for Hispanics, 47%; and for

blacks, 36%.
80 The Educational Effectiveness of Historically Black Colleges and Universities

Rates of persistence depend on its definition—they are lower measured in the senior than

in the sophomore year of college, and lower in less selective pools—but it appears that of

students who actually begin their first year in college and intend a science major, Asians

will have the highest proportion, they will be best prepared (White, 1992), and they will

persist most strongly; whites will have the lowest proportion of students interested in

science, but those will be well prepared and about as highly persistent; blacks will be

strongly represented in initial interest, but they will be the least well prepared and over half

will leave science; and Hispanicsii will be represented as much as, and a little better prepared

than, blacks, but slightly more likely to drop out.

There is some evidence, however, indicating very substantial persistence rates among

non-Asian minority students. Hilton et al. (1989), studying gifted (i.e., SATM scores of 550

or more) students interested in science, found that the persistence of non-Asian minority

students in math and science fields in (usually) the spring of their second year beyond high

school was higher than that of matched whites (61% vs. 55%). Because the black and Hispanic

samples of this study were, like our own, highly selected, we will have more to say about

them below; but the study certainly supports the view that equally developed ability among

students interested in science predicts equal persistence, regardless of ethnic or racial

affiliation. Finally, historically black colleges and universities (HBCUs) have a strong record

of B.S. (and, later, science Ph.D.) production, more so than more elite, predominantly

white institutions (Culotta, 1992; Thurgood and Clarke, 1995), despite student bodies that

are on average much less well prepared than black students in elite institutions.

This last fact makes clear that persistence is not just a matter of average preparation, but of

competitive position as well: a reasonably well-prepared student at an HBCU who would be

in a strong competitive position in his or her institution would be in a far less strong one at an

elite institution. The context for judging equality of developed ability is at least as salient

within institutions as between them. At white-majority institutions non-Asian minorities are,

by virtue of race-preferential admission policies, at an often serious disadvantage with

respect to validly predictive indices of talent, and if equally developed ability predicts equal

persistence, unequally developed ability should predict differential persistence. For example,

Ramist, Lewis, and McCamley-Jenkins (1994) have shown that for thousands of students in

various racial and ethnic categories, from dozens of predominantly white institutions of

higher learning, blacks averaged nearly 100 points and Hispanics nearly 50 points lower

than whites in SATM, a strong predictor of science and math performance (Astin and

Astin, 1993; Ramist, Lewis, and McCamley-Jenkins, 1994; Strenta et al., 1993), and the

differences were larger for more selective schools. Since the standard deviation of SATM

within their institutions was 85 to 90 points (and less than that in highly selective

institutions), these are substantial differences.

Not only SATM but other preadmission indicators (SATV, high school grades,

achievement tests) are significant predictors of success in science courses. Basic science

courses are difficult, fast-paced, impersonal, and competitive (Hewitt and Seymour, 1991;

Manis et al., 1989; Tobias, 1990), and the more selective the school, the more this is likely to

be the case. Science is also hierarchical, so that relative failure at the basic levels is not only

discouraging but to some extent incapacitating for the next courses. We would expect, for the
The Role of Ethnicity in Choosing and Leaving Science in Highly Selected Institutions 81

foregoing reasons, that the relative deficit in preparation and ability-achievement measures

of the black and Hispanic students who go to very selective and predominantly white schools

will be especially damaging to their prospects in science. There have been dozens of studies

showing associations between ethnic differences in SAT scores and corresponding

differences in college grades. We know of none, however, in which both the high school

and college grades of different ethnic groups have been separated into science and nonscience

categories for differential prediction of science-relevant outcomes. Such a level of analysis is

important, we think, to a more complete understanding of differential persistence in science.

It is sometimes alleged that predominantly white institutions are difficult for blacks and

Hispanics to deal with for reasons that go beyond achievement and ability. In a recent

special report on minorities in science (Gibbons, 1992, p. 1194), Treisman is quoted as

follows: "There is a belief that [minority] kids that are strong will make it anyway. In fact,

national data show that's false. If you control for socio-economic background and class

rank in high school, black kids still do less well than nonminorities. These [lower

performances] are measures of institutional inhospitality." The controls Treisman mentions,

however, do not control for SAT total scores: matching on parental income or education

preserves from 75% to 90% of the mean black-white population difference of about 200

points on SAT (e.g., College Board, 1988a). High school grades are moderately correlated with

SAT scores (about r = .55 in the whole population, and less in selective schools; see Ramist,

1984; Ramist et al., 1994; Strenta et al., 1993). However, SAT scores contribute more to the

prediction of individual course grades, especially at selective colleges, than do high school

grades (Ramist et al., 1994). In the Ramist et al. sample, blacks were only .36 S.D. lower than

whites in high school grades, and Hispanics were actually slightly higher than whites, which

means that with respect to freshman grade-point average, on which those groups were .7 and .4

S.D.s lower than whites, both groups were greatly overpredicted by high school grades. (They

were overpredicted by the SAT as well, but only by about half as much.)

A test of whether there is an "inhospitality" effect or any other ethnic effect is to use a

regression analysis of persistence with ethnicity as a predictor, along with high school grades

and test scores—if there is no ethnicity effect, there is nothing to explain in terms that go

beyond the preadmission measures. Both Hilton et al. (1989) and Astin and Astin (1993)

have done such analyses, with no reported ethnic effects, but their students were attending

an enormous number and variety of institutions. We wished to study institutions that were

very much alike in being high in selectivity and high in the production of scientists and

science practitioners. We have chosen for study four Ivy League schools that are so similar

in admission practices and academic standards that they may be treated, as we do here, as

one superinstitution with four campuses.

The group of students we are investigating here, especially those initially interested in

science, is obviously representative of students in highly selective private research

universities, of which the present four are a part. These four alone are collectively an

important producer of scientists, even though the 1,625 science majors in this group represent

only I% of the total science B.A. degrees given by U.S. institutions (National Science Board,

1993: about 165,000 degrees in natural sciences, math and computer science, and

engineering were conferred in 1991, or about a sixth of all baccalaureates). But however
82 The Educational Effectiveness of Historically Black Colleges and Universities

highly selected these students are, and however elite their institutions, we think that they are

not very different from natural science and engineering majors at other selective colleges or

public research universities. There are some 30 private universities and technical schools

with average SAT totals of about 1,200 or more, and about 25 smaller colleges that are

similarly selective. We believe that 8-9% of the total science degrees is a reasonable

estimate of their production.

There are at least 15 great public research universities, where the culture, curricula, and

standards of high-level science are similar to those that prevail in the ones we are

investigating here. Though they are less selective overall than the highly selective private

universities, they are closer to them in science than in other areas, because the degree of

selection for developed ability in the science departments of selective public research

universities is severe: smaller proportions of students enter such institutions initially interested in

science, and persistence rates are lower (see the review in Strenta et al., 1993). But the select

few who remain include many very talented students. Thus, for example, Humphreys and

Freeland (1992) have shown that the SAT scores for four successive groups entering the UC

Berkeley School of Engineering are very close to the average for the engineering schools

or departments of the group of schools we are studying (Strenta et al., 1994). These public

universities are huge by private standards, a fact that offsets to some extent the smaller

proportions of science concentrators in them. We assume that they give at least another 10-

12% of the total of science degrees. Finally, we assume that these degrees represent the

best of science education of students in the high end of the ability range, so that the roughly

20% under discussion will constitute a far larger percentage of postbaccalaureate science,

engineering, and medical students.

In short, though our argument rests heavily on plausibility grounds, we would not expect

the major factors affecting choice of and persistence in science to be very different at such

public research universities as Washington, Michigan, Berkeley, Illinois, San Diego, Texas,

UCLA, Wisconsin, Virginia, or North Carolina than they are at Rice, Stanford, Notre Dame,

Duke, Chicago, Northwestern, Tufts, Georgetown, Carnegie-Mellon, Washington University,

or Johns Hopkins. Chipman and Thomas (1987, p. 425), noting that high-ability students

were not much studied, went on: "Yet they are the population of real interest with respect to

participation in mathematics and science. It would be particularly important to study minority

students of high ability." That is what we do here.

METHOD

Subjects

In 1988 an average of about 13,000 students applied to each of the four highly selective

institutions whose data are combined here for analysis. These institutions accepted between a

fifth to a quarter of them, and matriculated about half of those. The population of students

under investigation was thus highly selected by the institutions, and also highly selfselected in applying.

With respect to the four ethnic groups targeted here for study, an average of 8,250 whites,

averaging a total SAT of 1,268, applied to each institution; 22% were selected, yielding a
The Role of Ethnicity in Choosing and Leaving Science in Highly Selected Institutions 83

group of white matriculants with an average SAT of 1,325. Similarly, an average of 735 black

students applied to each institution, averaging a SAT score of 1,089; 35% of them were

selected, with a resulting group of matriculants having an average SAT of 1,160. Of the

1,620 Asian applicants per institution, with an average SAT of 1281, 23% were selected,

producing a matriculant group averaging 1,345; and of the 490 Hispanic applicants per

institution (SAT = 1,152), 29% were selected, resulting in a matriculant group with a 1,219

average SAT. The matriculant groups averaged 410 points above their respective population

1987-88 SAT means, ranging from 390 for whites to 425 for blacks.

Measures

The basic data came from high school transcripts, admissions office data, and college

transcripts through June 1992. We employed the following pre-matriculation measures in

many of our analyses: SAT verbal score and SAT math score (SATV and SATM); the

average of the best three achievement tests (ACH); the number of high school science and

mathematics courses (NSCI); average grade earned in these courses (HSSCI); average grade

in high school nonscience courses (HSNON); stated initial interest (INT) in a major (the first

stated if more than one), coded 0 for nonscience and 1 for science, where science is

defined as natural science and engineering. Students who were undecided or wrote nothing

were classified as nonscience. Other prematriculation measures occasionally employed were

the standard measures used by admission departments: the high school percentile rank in

class converted to a normal deviate with mean 500 and standard deviation 100 (CRS, or

converted rank score), and the Academic Index (AI), which is one-tenth the sum of (a) the

average of the two SAT scores (e.g., 670), (b) the ACH (e.g., 680), and (c) the CRS (e.g.,

690 for someone who was third in a class of 100); in the examples, the AI would be 204.

Finally, we coded participation and performance in high school science courses.

College performance measures included the grade-point average for science and mathematics

courses taken during the first 2 years (SGPA), the counterpart measure for nonscience courses

(NGPA), and the broad area of actual concentration (MAJ, coded, like INT, as 0 or 1 for

nonscience and science, respectively). Other measures occasionally used were the yearly

and cumulative GPAs.

We were conservative in what we classified as science, not including history of science,

cognitive science, psychology, environmental science, science and ethics, biology and

society, or other interdisciplinary concentrations, which were placed into social science

(usually) or humanities as seemed most appropriate. We were interested in analyzing

science concentrations like those that are traditionally part of natural science divisions:

hierarchical, laboratory-based disciplines with several prerequisites, usually including many

mathematics courses, and usually with heavy workloads and frequent assignments.

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

Preparation

The top panel of Table 1 shows the percentage of each group that took the indicated

Advanced Preparation (AP) science course, and the average group grade for each course.

The most frequently recorded course was AP Biology, closely followed by AP Chemistry;
84 The Educational Effectiveness of Historically Black Colleges and Universities

AP Physics and AP Calculus BC were substantially less often chosen. With but three

exceptions for grades and one for percent participation, the order of grades and participation

was Asian, white, Hispanic, and black. Regardless of these differences, the overall participation

in advanced high school science courses was well above the national average (College

Board, 1988b). Group differences on these variables, as on those of the lower panel, were

highly significant, which simply means that much of the effect of ethnicity occurred prior to

college matriculation. We take such differences into account in examining whether there

were further ethnic effects during college.

The bottom panel of Table 1 shows the values of the preadmission variables used in various

analyses. Most of the preadmission data are standard, but we have included as a variable

the number of science and math courses (NSCI), and disaggregated the overall high school

GPA into science (HSSCI) and non-science (HSNON) components. The standard predictors,

SATM, SATV, and Achievement Test average (ACH), are shown in rows 4-6; as noted,

these, along with high school record, make up the Academic Index (Al—shown in row 7),

which is the chief predictor of grades used by the admission departments of these schools.

In this population, AI correlated r = .50 with first-year GPA, and .45 and .46, respectively,

with NGPA (the average grade in courses outside the science division in the first 2 years) and

SGPA (the average grade in science division courses in the first 2 years). The eighth row

indicates the percentage of each group that expressed an intention to major in science or

engineering.

These credentials shown in the bottom panel are the ones that admissions officers look at,

and they manifested extensive course work in science and math, very good high school

grades, and high scores on standardized tests. As the introduction and the AP science course

data suggest, the Asian students showed the greatest preparation and the most highly

developed ability, especially with respect to science-related scores, averaging just over a

third of an S.D. above the general average on those. Asians and whites together constituted

about 77% of the students who were initially interested (and 82% of the students who

finally majored) in science, with blacks and Hispanics together making up about 11% of

those interested (and 7% of those who finally majored) in science. (The remainder was made

up predominantly of foreign students, many of them Asian, and students of unknown

ethnicity, many of them white.) From the point of view of the non-Asian minorities, then,

their colleagues and competitors in science classes were overwhelmingly whites and Asians,

and we take the combined white-Asian mean as the reference for non-Asian minority disadvantage in preadmission and college performance variables.

For blacks, that disadvantage was a third of an S.D. in number of high school science courses

taken (NSCI), and four-fifths of an S.D. in high school science grades (HSSCI). On SATM,

ACH, and AI, blacks were 1.3 to 1.5 S.D.s behind. The relative disadvantage for Hispanics

was about half that for blacks on the most science-relevant variables—HSSCI, SATM,

ACH, and Al. Note, as Ramist et al. (1994) showed (particularly at selective colleges of

the sort under study here), that high school grades evinced far smaller disadvantage for

blacks and, especially, for Hispanics, than SAT scores. Note also that nearly all of these

minority disadvantages would be larger if measured against the Asian-white standard

deviation.
The Role of Ethnicity in Choosing and Leaving Science in Highly Selected Institutions 85

AP Courses % GPA % GPA % GPA % GPA GPA SD

Biology 33.2 3.71 22.5 3.64 21.5 3.44 26.4 3.52 3.63 0.47

Chemistry 33.4 3.65 20.0 3.70 17.0 3.55 14.7 3.19 3.65 0.52

Physics 23.6 3.52 17.7 3.61 12.5 3.43 5.2 3.29 3.56 0.58

Calc (BC) 22.4 3.62 14.3 3.50 5.0 3.30 4.3 3.19 3.51 0.57

Variables M S.D. M S.D. M S.D. M S.D. M S.D.

NSCI 9.91 1.33 9.29 1.39 9.25 1.37 8.94 1.37 9.34 1.40

HSSCI 3.75 0.31 3.62 0.38 3.52 0.44 3.33 0.46 3.61 0.39

HSNON 3.75 0.51 3.67 0.52 3.59 0.62 3.44 0.59 3.66 0.54

SATM 712. 54 692 62 641 73 597 73 685 68

SATV 633 79 633 70 578 81 563 75 625 75

ACH 680 57 663 62 628 70 577 64 657 67

AI 208.4 11.8 204.6 13.2 193.7 14.0 183.6 14.2 203.1 14.5

& Interest in Science

TABLE 1. Preadmission Data by Ethnic Group

A: Advanced Placement Science Courses: Percent Participation and Grades

Asian White Hispanic Black M Total

M Total

N = 582 N = 3534 N = 216 N = 355 N = 4687

Asian White Hispanic Black

43.4

Note: Panel A includes the percent of students in each ethnic group taking indicated high school AP courses and their mean

grade point average. In Panel B, NSCI is the mean number (M) and standard deviation (S.D.) of all math and science courses

taken in high school; HSSCI is the high school science GPA; HSNON is the nonscience GPA; SATM and SATV are the math

and science portions of the SAT; ACH is the mean of the highest three Achievement Tests; AI is the Academic Index; and %

Interest is the percentage of each group expressing an intention to major in science or enigneering. Mean totals are weighted.

N s listed are maxima; some data re missing in every cell.

B: Admission Data

55.0 41.4 44.0 44.2
86 The Educational Effectiveness of Historically Black Colleges and Universities

Apart from the Asians, these differences in preparation and developed ability for science did

not affect the proportion of each group having an initial intent to major in science (row 8 of

the lower panel of Table 1), with blacks and Hispanics having been a little more interested

initially than whites, despite relative deficits in high school preparation, performance, and test

scores. Such a result implies an ethnic effect of the sort suggested in the literature: blacks,

especially, aspire to be in science, all other measures held equal (Dunteman, Wisenbaker,

and Taylor, 1979; Oakes, 1990). This implied finding is important, because intention to

concentrate in science is by far the strongest predictor of actually doing so (in our group

overall, the phi correlation was .55).

The implication of an ethnic effect was tested by analyzing the residuals from the multiple

regression equation predicting initial interest (Science = 1; Nonscience = 0). In the

predictive equation, all the preadmission variables were highly significant (p < .0001),

with R2= .20; number of high school courses in math and science (NSCI), the average

grade in them (HSSCI), and SATV were by far the most powerful predictors, the last one

being negative. High school nonscience grades (HSNON), SATM, and ACH were weaker

predictors, with the first being negative. Analysis of variance of the residual scores by ethnic

group yielded a significant ethnic effect (F(3, 3662) = 5.05, p < .002). Blacks were more

likely than predicted to express an intention to major in science (mean residual, .10), and,

by Bonferroni t-tests, were more likely than the other groups (whose mean residuals were

.00, .00, and — .01 for Asians, Hispanics, and whites, respectively) to do so.3The

interactions of ethnicity with the preadmission variables were separately assessed by the

tests for covariate by-treatment interactions outlined by Stevens (1992, pp. 344-355). No

single covariate-by-treatment interaction was significant, nor was the lumped covariate-bytreatment interaction.

It does appear, once more, that blacks would be very well represented in science if intention

to be a scientist were the decisive controlling variable. The present data on rates of initial

interest in natural science and engineering agree with data cited in the introduction: Asians

and whites are high and low in interest, with blacks and Hispanics close together in the

middle.

Performance

Table 2 shows data for the same variables shown in the lower panel of Table 1, now

subdivided by initial interest in either science or nonscience majors; and it adds data on

college performance variables of interest. These are grades in the first two undergraduate

years in science courses (SGPA), courses not in science (NGPA), and the percentages of

each group who finally majored in science. The chief differences between the two major

interest groups were, understandably, on three variables very strongly predictive of interest

in science—number of and grades in high school science courses (NSCI and HSSCI),

and SATM, where the differences exceeded a half standard deviation—and on ACH, where

the difference amounted to a third of an S.D. Because grades in nonscience high school

courses were nearly the same in each major group, and SATV scores only moderately favored

those not initially interested in science, the students initially interested in science had a

modestly though significantly higher AI, a common result (Green, 1989; White, 1992) with
The Role of Ethnicity in Choosing and Leaving Science in Highly Selected Institutions 87

Variables M S.D. M S.D. M S.D. M S.D. M S.D.

N

NSCI 10.24 1.26 9.89 1.20 9.58 1.33 9.47 1.22 9.90 1.23

HSSCI 3.80 0.25 3.75 0.29 3.62 0.37 3.44 0.31 3.73 0.31

HSNON 3.74 0.51 3.67 0.54 3.51 0.62 3.46 0.55 3.66 0.55

SATM 721 52 714 52 653 74 607 72 704 63

SATV 621 81 627 68 563 84 541 78 617 76

ACH 685 58 677 58 630 78 573 66 669 66

AI 208.6 12.0 206.9 12.1 193.2 15.4 182.4 15.0 204.9 14.2

SGPA 2.94 0.64 2.99 0.70 2.46 0.68 2.21 0.71 2.89 0.72

NGPA 3.23 0.48 3.23 0.52 2.97 0.63 2.85 0.58 3.19 0.54

% Sci. Major 70.0 60.6 55.8 33.8 60.00

& Terminated 4.0 4.1 10.5 14.6 5.2

N

NSCI 9.50 1.30 8.85 1.35 8.98 1.35 8.53 1.34 8.90 1.36

HSSCI 3.68 0.35 3.53 0.41 3.44 0.47 3.24 0.49 3.52 0.43

HSNON 3.76 0.52 3.68 0.52 3.65 0.61 3.42 0.56 3.67 0.53

SATM 701 54 677 63 632 71 589 74 670 69

SATV 648 74 637 71 590 76 579 69 632 74

ACH 673 55 653 63 626 63 580 62 648 66

AI 208.1 11.5 202.9 13.7 194.1 13.0 184.5 13.6 201.6 14.5

SGPA 3.08 0.75 3.02 0.82 2.73 0.92 2.22 0.96 2.96 0.85

NGPA 3.32 0.39 3.25 0.49 3.08 0.54 2.80 0.55 3.22 0.51

% Sci. Major 14.9 8.6 5.8 2.5 8.6

& Terminated 4.6 4.7 10.7 11.1 5.5

Black

Note : For both Panels, N = sample size. Total sizes exclude unknown ethnicity and foreign students. NSCI is the mean number

(M) and standard deviation (S.D.) of all math and science courses taken in high school; HSSCI is the high school science GPA;

HSNO is the nonscience GPA; SATM and SATV are the math and science portions of the SAT; ACH is the mean of the highest

three Achievement Tests; AI is the Academic Index; SGPA is the grade point average for science courses in the first two

undergraduate years; NGPA is the average for nonscience courses in the first two years; % Sci Major is the percentage of each

group who majored in science or engineering; and % Terminated is the percentage of each group no longer matriculated in the

1991-92 year (i.e., students who left or were separated).

Total

B: Initial Interest Not in Science

262 2070 121 198 2653

Table 2. Preadmission and College Performance Variables by Ethnic Group and Initial Interest

A: Initial Interest in Science

320 1462 95 157 2034

Asian White Hispanic
88 The Educational Effectiveness of Historically Black Colleges and Universities

respect to the relatively high overall quality of academic preparation among science

students.

Despite these differences, science grades in the first two college years were slightly greater

for the group not initially interested in science than for the group that was. We analyzed

this anomaly in the earlier paper (Strenta et al., 1994): science departments offer fairly easy

courses for nonscientists and do not grade them as rigorously as courses that are part of

their majors. Here, however, we are primarily concerned with ethnic differences, in particular

differences in persistence among the students who came to their colleges intending to

concentrate in science. Some can be accounted for by differences in preadmission measures

of preparation and developed ability; whatever cannot be so accounted for may be fairly

attributable to ethnicity or to variables associated with it.

Of the students initially interested in science, the relative position of blacks and Hispanics

on science-relevant variables was worse than it was among all students (as was shown in

Table 1), another example of the rule that the more rigorous the selection from groups differing

at the mean, the greater the relative disadvantage of the groups with the lower means. The

deficits were particularly large on the Academic Index (Al), about 1.7 and 1 S.D., respectively,

below the average of similarly interested white and Asian students. There were somewhat

smaller but still substantial deficits in high school science grades (HSSCI of about 1.0 and

0.5 S.D.s, respectively) and ACH (about 1.6 and 0.7 S.D.$), so that the deficits in the

Academic Index were about the same as in SATM (in these comparisons we have used as

divisors for units of effect size the S.D.s for the students interested in science, since they are the

ones populating the serious introductory science classes—if the white-Asian S.D.s are used, the

differences grow by 15% to 20%).

Persistence

The expected consequences of these differences on science-relevant variables are differences

in persistence, the proportion of students initially interested in science who actually majored

in science, shown in the next-to-last row of the top panel of Table 2. Such persistence varied

predictably: the rate for Asians, at 70%, was twice that for blacks (34%); and rates for

whites (61%) and Hispanics (55%) were intermediate. The differences shown in percent who

majored in science were highly significant (x2= 58.99, df = 3, p < .0001), as were the ethnic

differences, in the same order as just given, in rate of recruiting to science majors (next to

last row of the lower panel) from those students who had not expressed an initial intent to

major in it (x2= 23.37, df = 3, p < .001). The high rates for Asians and whites resemble

those given in the High School and Beyond (in Hilton et al., 1989) and the Astin and Astin

(1993) data discussed in the introduction.

The most serious form of nonpersistence, leaving school altogether, manifested similar

differences (final row of each panel). For students initially interested in science, the ethnic

termination rates were significantly different (x2= 37.91, df = 3, p < .001), as were the

differences among the highly similar termination rates among those students not initially

interested in science (x2= 21.40, df = 3, p < .001). By national standards, of course, the

termination rates shown in Table 2 are very low loss rates.
The Role of Ethnicity in Choosing and Leaving Science in Highly Selected Institutions 89

Hispanics appear to have persisted more, and blacks less, than preadmission variables might

have indicated. The R2for the regression of persistence on preadmission variables was .10,

with the strongest predictors being number of, and grades in, high school science courses

(NSCI and HSSCI), ACH, and (negatively) SATV (all p < .0001). We again analyzed the

residuals from this regression by ethnic group. The F-ratio (2.54, df = 3, 1631, p < .06) was

nonsignificant. Blacks averaged a residual score of — .08 (they persisted less than

predicted); Hispanics averaged .09 (they persisted more than predicted); whites (— .01) and

Asians (.04) averaged closer to prediction.iv The interactions of preadmission variables with

ethnicity were again assessed for covariate-by-ethnicity interactions (Stevens, 1992), which

were again nonsignificant.

The marginal ethnic effect of the main analysis perhaps warrants some speculation. The

decrement for blacks may be to some degree the complement of the "excess" initial interest

beyond what preparation and developed abilities would have predicted. The Hispanic

increment over the predicted rate may have to do with the uncommonly large proportion,

over 50%, of their science-interested group who wanted to go into engineering, the science

area where persistence is highest. These speculations notwithstanding, however, the main

result of this analysis of ethnic group residuals is not significant: preadmission variables

accounted for a significant fraction of the variance of persistence decisions and ethnicity

did not. This lack of ethnic effects on persistence echoes similar noneffects in the Hilton et

al. (1989) and Astin and Astin (1993) regression analyses.

Overview

For our subjects, the combined effects of persistence, recruiting, and termination left 45.2%

of the entire incoming group of Asians, 30.1% of whites, 27.8% of Hispanics, and 16.6% of

blacks still majoring in science after 4 years. By comparison, a recent NSF report (National

Science Board, 1993) gives corresponding percentages of all science degrees (among all

bachelor's degrees given in 1991) as 33.1% for Asians, 14.0% for whites, 10.3% for

Hispanics, and 12.4% for blacks. Astin and Astin (1993) reported corresponding figures of

35.9%, 16.6%, 13.1%, and 16.1%. The Asians, whites, and Hispanics in our selective sample

did much better, but the blacks, though also highly selected, did not.

Figure 1 shows the conventional grade-point averages (GPAs) of the different ethnic groups,

for each year and by kind of major: science in panel A and nonscience in panel B. As is

typical, grades in humanities and social sciences were generally higher than those in science,

even though the average Academic Index (AI) in the nonscience majors was significantly

lower, by 0.4 S.D., than that in science. Grades in nonscience majors rose more steeply from

the first to the final year; indeed, grades of science majors did not on average rise at all in

the second year, and for minority groups they fell. The ordering of the ethnic groups was the

same, regardless of year or category of major.

We used these data to test a common hypothesis, the "late bloomer" hypothesis: that is, that

non-Asian minority groups will close the initial gap with whites and Asians after they

have made their adjustments to a putatively strange, unsettling, elite, largely white

collegiate world. The dependent measure was the difference between first- and fourth-year

GPA, by group and category of final major. The effect of major category was very large
90 The Educational Effectiveness of Historically Black Colleges and Universities

(FBI, 4186) = 64.5, p < .0001), the effect of ethnic group nonexistent (F < 1), and the

interaction of ethnicity and major category marginal (F(3, 4186) = 2.37, p < .07). This last

result arose from the very small net upward shift over years for blacks who majored in

science, and it may have something to do with the fact that their average science grade in

the first 2 years (SGPA = 2.40) was 1.3 S.D.s lower than the average SGPA of white and

Asian science majors (3.16), a very difficult competitive position. But the chief result here

was one found in every longitudinal test of the "late bloomer" hypothesis we know of

(Elliott and Strenta, 1988; Wilson, 1980, 1981): non-Asian minorities do not catch up with

whites and Asians over time. Astin and Astin (1993) reported, in fact, that the AfricanAmericans in their longitudinal sample had lost relative ground on quantitative tests (e.g.,

from SATM to GREQ) over 4 years, probably because they were less likely to have studied

in quantitative areas.

Many discussions of choice of, and persistence in, science do not employ many of the

variables used here—achievement test scores and scores derived from high school

transcripts—because they are unavailable or difficult to get. But many investigators do have

SAT scores for analysis. We therefore present a more detailed analysis of the SATM

scores—their relation to various choices and their distribution—to facilitate comparisons

with other work. Figure 2 illustrates the general relation between SATM scores and the rate,

at any score level, of majoring in science in this sample. For scores below 640 the rate was

low and moderately rising. Above 640, there was a steep increase in rate with score level

until at the top two score levels over half the students majored in science. Indeed, 89% of all
The Role of Ethnicity in Choosing and Leaving Science in Highly Selected Institutions 91

science majors had SATM scores of 650 or more, and 70% had scores at or above 700. The

implications of these figures for the representation in science majors of Hispanics and

blacks, of whom only 53% and 25%, respectively, had scores of 650 or more, are negative.

The leftmost panel of Table 3 shows the SATM score distribution for each ethnic group, as

proportions of each group falling within three broad score categories: <550, 550-640, and

650-800. The middle and rightmost panels show the proportions within each score category

who were interested in or who majored in science, respectively. The rightmost panel shows

that, given a score of 650 or better, the Asians were more likely than all others to major in

sciencev(x2= 32.2, df = 3; p < .001); the proportions for the other groups were not

different. Given a middling score of 550-640, both Asians and Hispanics were relatively
92 The Educational Effectiveness of Historically Black Colleges and Universities

more likely to major in science (x2= 25.3, df = 3, p < .001) than blacks and whites, and

within each of those pairs there was no difference. Particularly noteworthy is the fact that,

score level for score level, roughly the same proportions of blacks as whites majored in

science, and at the highest level where the vast majority of the majors came from, Hispanics

were also the same as blacks and whites.

Group <550 550-640 >640 <550 550-640 >640 <550 550-640 >640

ASIAN ____ a 10.0 89.1 ____ a 36.8 57.3 ____ a 26.3 47.6

WHITE 2.1 18.8 79.1 11.3 22.3 47.4 5.6 13.0 35.4

HISP. 10.0 37.0 53.1 23.8 46.2 46.4 4.8 32.1 29.5

BLACK 23.8 51.0 25.2 33.3 46.6 48.8 7.4 13.2 30.2

TOTAL 3.9 21.0 75.1 24.2 29.6 48.9 6.7 15.4 36.9

aCell size <10.

TABLE 3. Distribution of SATM Scores and Science Choice by Ethnic Group

Of All Students Interested in Science Who Majored in Science

Percent in Each Score Category

These data may assist us in dealing with the most obvious disparity in results concerning

persistence in science among talented non-Asian minority students. We refer to the results of

Hilton et al. (1989) on students who aspired to major in science or engineering and had

SATM scores of 550 or better. Our persistence rates of 70% for Asians, 61% for whites,

and 55% for Hispanics are similar to the corresponding rates of 70%, 55%, and about 60%

for the groups of students studied by Hilton et al., but their rate for persistence by blacks was

nearly double ours, 62% vs. 34%. Can this disparity be reconciled?

Whether it can be completely or not, we think the size of the discrepancy is more apparent

than real, for several reasons.

First, to mention probably the smallest contribution to it: over half the non-Asian minority

subjects in Hilton et al. (1989) were prospective engineers (compared with 42% of our black

and Hispanic science intenders), and engineering is the field of highest persistence. Second,

their subjects were selected from SAT takers who had SATM scores of 550 or higher in

1984-85, intended to major in science or engineering, and were later asked, in February

1987, what they were doing. Of the half who responded to the questionnaire, 61% were in

a 2-year or 4-year college or university and either majoring or intending to major in science

or engineering: i.e., they were persisters. But a few of those persisters had less than a year of

higher education, and virtually none would have completed more than three semesters.

Persistence in sciences, especially outside of engineering, can by no means be assumed at

that point in a career-there is a substantial outflow from the science pipeline after the

second year (NSF, 1990; Massey, 1992). In a large-scale study of persistence in

engineering, for example, a third of black and a fifth of Hispanic attrition occurred after

four semesters (Phillips, 1991).Thus, the 61% overall figure would probably have diminished

in the next 2 to 3 years by some nontrivial amount.

Third, and most challenging, Hilton et al. (1989) give the figures for black persisters in six

Ivy League schools, including three of those studied here, and they show 58% persistence,
The Role of Ethnicity in Choosing and Leaving Science in Highly Selected Institutions 93

well above our 34%. Perhaps the postsophomore attrition just mentioned would bring the

figures together, but so might other influences. The 93 black students in those institutions in

the Hilton et al. sample were, we estimate, about a third of all the black students on those

campuses interested in science, and they may well have been among the best ones, both

because none were below 550 in SATM, and because, within the study sample, self- and

institutional selection may have worked to that end. In our sample, nearly a quarter of the

black students had SATM scores below 550, and while a third of that group were initially

interested in science, only a fifth persisted. At the other end, the persistence rates of blacks

in our sample with SATM scores of 650 or more was 59%, about the same as the figure of

61% for whites.

Finally, Phillips (1991), reporting on engineering students who began higher education, as most

of Hilton et al. (1989) students did, in 1985, and who also had SATM scores of 550 or more,

gave graduation rates as of 1990 as 62% for blacks, 58% for Hispanics, and 83% for

nonminority students (these high rates for all groups presumably result from engineering

being the science under investigation). Here, in very large samples going well past the third

semester, the majority-minority persistence difference reasserts itself, even in talented groups.

Whites and Asians in such selected groups will still have higher means on SAT scores and

high school grades, as they did in the Hilton et al. samples, and can be expected therefore to

persist more.

We believe, in short, that the Hilton et al. (1989) results are unusual: the facts that their

sample was truncated at the low end, and that their students attended a wide range of

institutions and were very early in their college careers when they responded, complicate

the comparison with other results, including our own.

GENERAL DISCUSSION

Though non-Asian minority students in this sample had strong interests in pursuing science

as a concentration, their persistence in that choice was below average, by a small amount for

Hispanics and a large one for blacks. It was the preadmission variables describing developed

ability—test scores and science grades—that accounted chiefly both for initial interest and

for persistence in science, though being black clearly added something to initial interest.

These results—the noneffects of ethnicity on persistence—echo those of Hilton et al. (1989)

and Astin and Astin (1993), who in predicting persistence using elaborate regressions with

large data sets found no significant ethnic effects. Even so, the persistence of blacks was in

our case very low.

Why are so many talented minority students, especially blacks, abandoning their initial

interests and dropping from science when they attend highly selective schools? The question

has many possible answers, but we will begin with the factor we think most important, the

relatively low preparation of black aspirants to science in these schools, hence their poor

competitive position in what is a highly competitive course of study. As in most

predominantly white institutions, and especially the more selective of them (Ramist,

Lewis, and McCamley-Jenkins, 1994), whites and Asians were at a large comparative
94 The Educational Effectiveness of Historically Black Colleges and Universities

advantage by every science-relevant measure (see Table 2), and on the composite predictor,

the Academic Index, they were at a 1.75 S.D. advantage.

That it is the comparative rather than the absolute status of the qualifications is clear from

two strands of evidence. First, students at historically black colleges and universities

(HBCUs) have quite low average SAT scores and high school grades (The College

Handbook, e.g., College Board, 1988c, or any recent edition; Barron's Profiles of American

Colleges, e.g., 1988, or any recent edition), but they produce 40% of black science and

engineering degrees with only 20% of total black undergraduate enrollment (Cullotta,

1992; Phillips, 1991). For example, with SATM scores averaging about 400, half the

students at Xavier University are reported to be majoring in natural science (Cullotta, 1992);

with scores somewhat higher (about 450), Howard University is the top producer of black

undergraduate science and engineering degrees (Suter, 1993; Cullotta, 1992). It may be that

many of these students will not progress to higher degrees in science in the same

proportions that students with an Ivy League science education do; but it is a virtual

certainty that no one goes on in science without either majoring in it or taking a wellprescribed premedical (or predental or preveterinarian) science program. You can't play if you

don't stay, and leaving science or premed for education or history usually means leaving

science or premed forever.

And enough of the graduates of HBCUs do go on in science to establish an interesting and

significant fact: of the top 21 undergraduate producers of black Ph.D.s during the period

1986-1993, 17 were HBCUs and none were among the 30 or so most selective institutions

that so successfully recruit the most talented black secondary school graduates (Thurgood

and Clarke, 1995, Table 5). Cullotta (1992) quoted a biology professor from one of the

HBCUs: "The way we see it, the majority schools are wasting large numbers of good

students. They have black students with admission statistics [that are] very high, tops. But

these students wind up majoring in sociology or recreation or get wiped out altogether." In fact,

at our institutions, non-Asian minority students tend to shift out of science rather than to

drop out altogether.

We think it certain that more of the black students in our sample would have persisted in

science had they been, say, at Howard, but more of them would also have persisted at any of

several majority white institutions as well, and that brings us to the other strand of evidence

for the competition argument. It appears in Table 4, which we calculated from data tapes

kindly supplied to us by Warren Willingham from the data sets on nine private colleges he

studied for his book, Success in College (1985). We have added the data of two others. The

table shows how science degrees are distributed within each institution as a function of

terciles of the SATM distribution; institutions are listed in descending order of average

SATM score. Thus, in institution A, over 53% of all the science degrees given were earned

by students whose SATM scores were in the top third of its SATM distribution, averaging

753. A similar percentage of all the science degrees given in institution J were earned by

students in the top tercile of their SATM distribution, but the average of that tercile was

much lower, at 591. That figure lies just below the figure for black students in our sample

(Table 1), but it is also just above the score of 581 that characterizes the bottom tercile of

Institution A, where only 15% of the science degrees were awarded.
The Role of Ethnicity in Choosing and Leaving Science in Highly Selected Institutions 95

The table makes clear two things about these and presumably similar schools: first, the

proportions of science degrees awarded, by terciles of the SATM distribution, are about

54%, 31%, and 15%. Second, the same SATM score may be associated with any of these

terciles, depending on the selectivity and general level of developed ability that may

characterize an institution. Put concretely, a student with an SATM score of 580 who wants

to be in science will be three or four times more likely to persist at institutions J and K,

where he or she is competitive, than at institutions A and B, where he or she is not.

Institutions F—K are only about half as likely to give science degrees—with only about

15% of their degrees in science—as institutions A—E, , which average 28% science

degrees. Still, a 54% chance of getting one

Institution % Degrees SATM % Degrees SATM % Degrees SATM

Institution A 53.4 753 31.2 674 15.4 581

Institution B 57.3 729 29.8 656 12.9 546

Institution C 45.6 697 34.7 631 19.7 547

Institution D 53.6 697 31.4 626 15.0 534

Institution E 51.0 696 34.7 624 14.4 534

Institution F 57.3 688 24.0 601 18.8 494

Institution G 62.1 678 22.6 583 15.4 485

Institution H 49.0 663 32.4 573 18.6 492

Institution I 51.8 633 27.3 551 20.8 479

Institution J 54.9 591 33.9 514 11.2 431

Institution K 55.0 569 27.1 472 17.8 407

Medians 53.6 31.4 15.4

TABLE 4. Percentage of Earned Degrees in the Natural Sciences as a Function of Terciles of

the SATM Distribution in 11 Institutions

Note: Percentages indicate the proportion of natural science degrees awarded to students as a

function of terciles of the SATM score distribution. SATM numbers are mean scores for each

tercile, which vary depending on the selectivity and general level of developed ability that

characterizes an institution. SATM is the score on the mathematical reasoning section of the

Scholastic Assessment Test.

Tercile 1 Tercile 2 Tercile 3

of the 15% of the degrees that are in science is nearly twice as good as a 15% chance of

getting one of the 28% of degrees that are in science. Our institutions are collectively like A:

51.6% of the science degrees were given to top tercile students, 31.5% to middle tercile

students, and the rest, 16.9%, to the bottom tercile. The associated mean SATM scores were,

respectively, 753, 695, and 607, the last figure being exactly the mean score for blacks

interested in science in our sample.

The gap in developed ability between the white-Asian majority and non-Asian minorities,

especially blacks, especially in science, results from institutional policies of preferential

admission from pools differing in measures of developed ability and achievement at the

point of entry into higher education, as the Method section (see Subjects) made clear. These

policies subserve the several goals collectively categorized as diversity or affirmative

action goals, and these institutions are firmly committed to these admissions practices. That

being the case, non-Asian minority students initially aspiring to science will continue for

some time to bear a cost in lower grades and in altered academic and vocational goals. It

may well be a cost such students regard as worth bearing in return for benefits in quality of
96 The Educational Effectiveness of Historically Black Colleges and Universities

education, variety of points of view, richness of social experience, prestige of degree, or

enhancement of career prospects. Still, it is a serious cost that should be acknowledged, and

minimized if possible.

There are several methods and combinations of methods that have been proposed to reduce

the gap, and they can be categorized into three general groups: direct inducements to, or

requirements for, greater study, more general support (mentoring, advising, group work and

meetings, internships, and monetary incentives), and the elimination of institutional racism.

It is possible that some features of some of the better-known intervention programs

designed to increase the number of minority scientists are transportable to highly selective

institutions. We discuss three of them briefly.

The Meyerhoff scholars program (Gibbons, 1992; Hrabowski and Maton, 1995; Mercer,

1994) at the University of Maryland, Baltimore County (UMBC), selects some 40 bright

African-American students (who must have a B average and, currently, a minimum SATM

of 600, and whose average SATM is 650) from among some 600 applicants from schools

throughout the state; offers tuition, fees, room and board, and a stipend; requires a 6-week

program of science and math courses in the summer prior to matriculation; requires a B

average to be maintained (this motivational device could not be employed at our schools,

which give only need-based aid); provides a program community, including group meetings

and common housing; encourages group study and the use of tutoring; links the students

with scientists and engineers as mentors; and provides summer internships in various labs.

The program appears to be very successful both in grade performance (no student had gotten

a grade below C) and persistence (only three had left the program, which began in 1989) as of

the June, 1994, report in the Chronicle of Higher Education by Mercer. A recent study of its

first three cohorts (Hrabowski and Maton, 1995) found the Meyerhoff scholars getting freshman

GPAs averaging 3.5, while a historical comparison group of black science students (most of

whom who had entered UMBC between 1980 and 1989), matched on SAT and high school

grades, averaged only 2.8, with the biggest part of the difference coming in science courses,

particularly calculus and chemistry. There are some problems with historical comparisons, as

the authors recognize. Also, Meyerhoff students may get special instruction in calculus and

chemistry in their summer program, and perhaps be graded somewhat less rigorously in

summer.

Still, it is easy to believe that the Meyerhoff scholars are doing well, and it would be easy to

believe that they are doing somewhat better than they would have done without the program

features that exercise and reward the further development of their talent for science. But

UMBC is not an unusually selective institution (the white students there average well below

650 SATM): an SATM average of 650 characterizes African-Americans at such places as

Harvard and MIT, but virtually nowhere else. So the competitive advantage of the Meyerhoffs

should not be taken lightly as a contributor to their success. The program is selective and

voluntary, which makes control for motivation by random allocation nearly impossible. The

hypothesis that the white-black performance gap, at least in the case of the Meyerhoff

scholars, has been eliminated at UMBC simply by eliminating any gap in entering developed

abilities cannot, therefore, be rejected on any evidence given so far.
The Role of Ethnicity in Choosing and Leaving Science in Highly Selected Institutions 97

One of the public technical schools vying for the enrollment of talented non-Asian minority

students is Georgia Institute of Technology (Georgia Tech), which also has a well-known

program, the Challenge Program, devoted to the recruitment and retention of black and

Hispanic scientists and engineers. In its present form, as described by Smothers (1994), this

voluntary program begins with a 5-week summer program of the study of calculus and

chemistry, with an option to take a credit course in psychology in order to reduce the regular

fall term course load. There are also provisions for mentoring and counseling, and an annual

awards banquet, but before the introduction of the summer program in 1990, these had done

little to improve grades and retention. A report of the program's results (Hume, 1994)

shows that the black participants now get grades that are better than those of their black

nonparticipating compeers, and nearly as good as those of all Tech students (primarily whites,

but including the minority students). Retention rates for classes entering in 1990 and 1991

appear to be higher than those of all Tech students entering in those years. For the Hispanic

students, the Challenge program has made little difference, but their grades and retention

rates appear to equal or surpass the average for the institution anyway. The advantage for the

program participants in GPA is highest in the first term, and drops off to varying degrees

thereafter, a fact that points to the summer session as perhaps the chief contributor to

program success. (The somewhat longer summer session of the Meyerhoff program may have

played a similar role in its effect on freshman grades, cited above. We do not know

whether the advantage conferred by that program, however large it might be, also fades

with time.)

Again, it is difficult to tell how much is contributed by the Challenge Program without

knowing the data on the level of developed ability brought to it by the various groups.

Because participation is voluntary, a random allocation study is unfeasible, so motivation

would remain uncontrolled; but a regression of retention or GPA on preadmission scores

and grades, with program status added as a predictor, might indicate how much might be

due to the program itself. It looks to us as if the largest effect in both of these programs,

Meyerhoff and Challenge, may be on retention. Why might that be?

A relatively ill-prepared student has a higher than average likelihood of getting one or more

shockingly bad grades, perhaps his or her first bad grades, in a rigorous college science

course in the first term. One response is to leave school or leave science. But if the

student has just finished a 5- or 6-week summer course emphasizing the very materials

offered in that first term, or making possible a reduced first term course load, there is less

chance for such failure, and less defection from science. The improvement in grades may

fade—after all, there will be no more preparatory summer programs—but the student will

have gotten over the first and most difficult hurdle. In data cited by Massey (1992), 40% of

black students entering college immediately after high school left in the first year, and the

figure for science aspirants may well have been higher. The summer sessions of these two

programs are ideally suited to provide help when it is most needed. An important feature of

them, emphasized by both sponsoring institutions, is that they demand hard work on collegelevel material.
98 The Educational Effectiveness of Historically Black Colleges and Universities

How might such a program be adapted for our institutions? To require it of non-Asian

minority-aspiring scientists below some level of preparation would be coercive and might

be stigmatizing and unpopular. If the program were voluntary, and were minority only, it

might have some of the effect of the Challenge or Meyerhoff programs, though such

exclusiveness might be neither necessary nor wise. In our sample, the number of students

initially interested in science, and who had SATM scores less than 600, was 139-67

blacks, 42 whites, 23 Hispanics, and 7 Asians—or about 35 per institution. It might be

feasible to offer these students such a summer session, and if voluntary and multiracial, it

would scarcely be stigmatizing. There might be equity problems near the border—What

about students scoring 600 or 620 or even 640—but even if the cutoff were raised to 650,

there would be only 81 students eligible per institution (46% black and Hispanic), and

many would not come. At the higher cutoff, because of the increased numbers, there is

some tension between the ideals of compensation (minorities only) and integration (all

students who are eligible) when money is, as it usually is, tight, but the lower cutoff at 600

might serve most goals quite well. Similar calculations could be done by any majority white

selective school.

Most of the other features of the two programs considered seem to us less useful than

working on essential course material—nothing is quite so motivating to a student as

succeeding at the serious business of learning. For that reason, any method of encouraging

continued hard work would be important. One of the best-known methods of encouraging

hard work among minority students was devised by Treisman (1992; see Fullilove and

Treisman, 1990, for an evaluation), who recruited black and Hispanic students at Berkeley

and later at Texas to special sections of calculus classes where they put in an extra 4 hours

beyond what they would ordinarily have done, spent in small groups working on

challenging problems, inevitably teaching and learning from each other and doing whatever

remedial work might be necessary in that context. Calculus is prerequisite to most sciences,

so that its successful completion is critical to advancement in science.

Such selected students had stated an interest in a science or math career, had been specially

invited to "honors" sections, and had accepted. Clearly they were more motivated than the

average student in their comparison groups, and they also had slightly but not significantly

higher SATM scores than those who elected not to participate, with both groups having

medians in the 470-540 range. That they did significantly better than their comparisons,

both in grades and in persistence, is no surprise. More persuasive of the program's power

is the evidence that the nonparticipant minority controls performed the same as all the

minority students (the comparisons reported were exclusively concerned with black

students) had done prior to the intervention, which means that the program was offering a

new way of enlisting the motivation and realizing the potential of at least some substantial

fraction of the black population.

A later evaluation of the method (Bonsangue, 1994), done on a largely Hispanic population of

beginning science students at California Polytechnic State University, arrived at similar

conclusions and added data on comparisons with white and Asian students not in the

program. Again, minority students who volunteered for the program did far better in the

first quarter of calculus, by close to a full grade, than nonprogram minority students with
The Role of Ethnicity in Choosing and Leaving Science in Highly Selected Institutions 99

similar SAT scores and high school grades. They also scored half a grade better than the

large group of whites and Asians taking calculus, even though the latter averaged 70 points

higher on SATM. Some of the gains faded in the second year, when the program group got

slightly lower calculus grades than the white-Asian group, but the 3-year persistence rate

of the program students was far better than that of any other comparison group.

The relevance of the Treisman model to highly selective institutions is uncertain. Certainly

the establishment of so-called "honors" sections exclusively for blacks and Hispanics would

have doubtful merit—the white-Asian "nonhonors" students in calculus would average over

700 on the SATM. But making available sections devoted to workshop problem solving

would be undoubtedly useful for those of any ethnicity who volunteered for them. We do

not feel that excluding all or most white or Asian volunteers from such groups is a good

idea, particularly at private institutions. Race relations are difficult enough without

keeping majority students from access to curricular methods of presumed efficacy. There

seems every reason to encourage, though little to require, students to attend such groups; they

would appear to be especially effective for students who are highly motivated and near some

threshold of advanced understanding.

In sum, we believe there are some grounds for considering that prematriculation summer

sessions, as described, and the provision of group problem-solving sessions associated with

calculus and perhaps other science courses, would palliate the effects of relatively poor

preparation for science. It seems especially important that these curricula be demanding and

not remedial. The white-black gap is sufficiently large and these interventions are

sufficiently small in scope and unproven in effect that we would anticipate continued large

differences in persistence, though a little smaller than what now obtains. In addition, we can

repeat a suggestion we gave in our report on science and gender (Strenta et al., 1994): Let

secondary schools know quite specifically what sort of preparation typical successful science

majors at these institutions have had. Black and Hispanic students in our sample took far

fewer AP courses in physics, chemistry, and calculus than did whites and Asians, and they

should learn early in their high school careers what they ought to be taking if they aspire to

study science in highly selective institutions.

Finally, with respect to the question of institutional or any other sort of racism, it was in our

sample remarkable for its absence. The only significant ethnic effect in our analyses of fullsample data was in initial interest, a measure that preceded matriculation. On a questionnairevi

answered by 33 black and 25 Hispanic science majors, and 36 black and 26 Hispanic

dropouts from science, only one (a defector from science alleging a lack of support for a

woman of color engineer) said anything about racism. Neither these comments nor

anything else in the questionnaire seemed to us to constitute even a small indictment of

these institutions as being inhospitable, much less racist. The chief problems for nonAsian minority students aspiring to science majors would appear to be not institutional

racism, but rather a relative lack of preparation and developed ability.

Acknowledgments. We especially thank John Jalowiec, Ph.D., who was the indispensable central figure in

organizing, coding, and entering the vast quantities of data that flowed into his files; and the deft constructor

of the tables and figures of this report. Many others provided essential assistance on this project: Oscar Larsen

(Cornell) and Mark Gloria (Brown) formatted data files at their respective institutions; Kathleen Gemmel
100 The Educational Effectiveness of Historically Black Colleges and Universities

(Cornell) provided feedback on early versions of the questionnaire survey instrument; and George Wolford and

Jay Hull (Dartmouth) gave generously of their statistical advice. This work was supported by grants from the

National Science Foundation (RED 93 53 821) and from the Alfred P. Sloan Foundation.

NOTES

1. "Ethnic" includes "racial" in our discussion. We omit Native Americans as a group because there were too

few of them (34, with only 9 interested in science) for analysis. Also excluded were foreign students (N =

266) and "others" (N = 333).

2. The precise mix of Mexican Americans, Cubans, Puerto Ricans, and others will usually not be known.

Because of the varying subgroup composition of Hispanic samples, their place in relation to other groups

will vary from study to study.

3. The same result was found when a MaxR2stepwise regression model was employed. The variable "black"

entered after the six preadmission variables, was significant (p < .0001), and raised the R2from .203 to .207.

Neither "Hispanic" nor "Asian" was significant.

4. MaxR2regression analysis produced a similar result: in the nine-variable model (six preadmission variables

plus the three nonwhite ethnic groups), "black" was marginally significant (p < .10) and the other groups

were not.

5. This fact does not contradict the lack of an ethnic effect on persistence, since it is based on SATM alone,

with regard neither to initial interest nor to the several other predictors employed in that analysis.

6. The analysis of the questionnaire, contained in a report of these data to NSF, is available from the authors.

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102 The Educational Effectiveness of Historically Black Colleges and Universities

The Causes and Consequences of Attending Historically Black

Colleges and Universities

From National Bureau of Economic Research, Working Paper 13036, April 2007

Authors: Roland G. Fryer and Michael Greenstone.

Foreword: We are grateful to David Card, David Cutler, Bryan Graham, Chang-Tai Hsieh,

Lawrence Katz, Henry Louis Gates, Jr., Edward Glaeser, Lani Gunier, Caroline Hoxby, Glenn

Loury, Enrico Moretti, Andrei Shleifer, Lawrence Summers, colleagues at the Mellon Foundation, and

participants in numerous seminars. Fryer is especially thankful to the Michor family in Kritzendorf,

Austria for their support and generous hospitality while working on the paper. This paper makes use

of the College and Beyond (C&B) database. The C&B database is a restricted-use database.

Researchers who are interested in using the database may apply to the Andrew W. Mellon

foundation for access. Sam Schulhofer-Wohl, Sheldon Bond, Jörg Spenkuch, Elizabeth

Greenwood, and Paul Torelli provided exceptional research assistance. All errors are our own.

The views expressed herein are those of the author(s) and do not necessarily reflect the views of

the National Bureau of Economic Research.

© 2007 by Roland G. Fryer and Michael Greenstone. All rights reserved. Short sections of text,

not to exceed two paragraphs, may be quoted without explicit permission provided that full credit,

including © notice, is given to the source.

Abstract

Until the 1960s, Historically Black Colleges and Universities (HBCUs) were practically the only

institutions of higher learning open to Blacks in the US. Using nationally representative data

files from 1970s and 1990s college attendees, we find that in the 1970s HBCU matriculation was

associated with higher wages and an increased probability of graduation, relative to attending a

Traditionally White Institution (TWI). By the 1990s, however, there is a wage penalty, resulting in a

20% decline in the relative wages of HBCU graduates between the two decades. We also analyze

the College and Beyond's 1976 and 1989 samples of matriculates which allows us to focus on

two of the most elite HBCUs. Between the 1970s and 1990s, HBCU students report statistically

significant declines in the proportion that would choose the same college again, preparation for

getting along with other racial groups, and development of leadership skills, relative to black students

in TWIs. On the positive side, HBCU attendees became relatively more likely to be engaged in

social, political, and philanthropic activities. The data provide modest support for the possibility

that HBCUs' relative decline in wages is partially due to improvements in TWIs' effectiveness at

educating blacks. The data contradict a number of other intuitive explanations, including relative

decline in pre-college credentials (e.g., SAT scores) of students attending HBCUs and

expenditures per student at HBCUs.

Introduction

Historically Black Colleges and Universities (HBCUs) have a proud and storied role in

the education and progress of Blacks in America. For nearly a century, Historically Black

Colleges and Universities (HBCUs) were practically the only institutions of higher learning

open to Blacks in the US. Today, roughly 20% of all college going Blacks chooses to attend

one of the 103 HBCUs and these institutions are responsible for 22% of current bachelor’s
The Causes and Consequences of Attending Historically Black Colleges and Universities 103

degrees granted to Blacks. W.E.B. Dubois (Wilberforce), Ralph Ellison (Tuskegee),

Martin Luther King, Jr. (Morehouse), Thurgood Marshall (Lincoln), Ruth Simmons

(Dillard), and Oprah Winfrey (Tennessee State) headline a long list of famous HBCU

alumni. Among Blacks, 40% of all congressmen, 12.5% of CEOs, 50% of professors at

non HBCUs, 50% of lawyers, and 80% of judges are HBCU graduates.244

HBCUs’ successes are in no small part due to their substantial financial support from

federal, state, and to a lesser degree, local governments. Between 1977 and 2001, 61% to

73% of public HBCUs revenues came from public funds. While numbers are smaller for

private HBCUs, public support still accounts for nearly a third of total revenues. In the

years 1999-2001, annual total public support of HBCUs averaged roughly $2.65 billion

(2005$) (Provasnik et al. 2004).

Despite their past successes and historical importance, HBCUs are at a crossroads today.

In U.S. v. Fordice (505 U.S. 717 (1992)), the Supreme Court instructed state legislatures to

find “educational justification” for the existence of HBCUs or integrate them; the latter

would completely alter their mission. In response, some HBCUs experienced declines in

enrollment, others have pursued dramatic increases in the fraction of non-Black students,

and a number of HBCUs have seen important declines in their financial positions.245

The Supreme Court’s call for an “educational justification” is surely related to the absence

of convincing evidence on the causes and consequences of attending an HBCU for

Blacks. HBCU proponents claim that they provide an idyllic learning environment that is

free from the pressures of discrimination and racism. It is also argued that HBCUs help to

build important social capital for Blacks by engendering a strong sense of communal

responsibility and civic consciousness and providing networking opportunities for high

achieving Blacks (Drewry and Doermann 2001). If these arguments are correct, then

HBCUs offer unique opportunities for educational and social development of Black

students and the argument for remaining segregated seems justified.

On the other hand, it is possible that HBCUs are inferior to Traditionally White

Institutions (TWIs) in preparing Blacks for post-college life. If students are taking less

challenging courses from less distinguished faculty, have access to poor resources, or are not

investing in the social skills necessary to interact with diverse sets of people, then

graduates will perform poorly in the labor market and have inferior non-labor market

outcomes. In this scenario, the case for supporting HBCUs with public resources appears

weak.

This paper empirically assesses the causes and consequences of HBCU attendance so that

the future decisions by governments, students, and parents are based on evidence, rather

244 The data sources are Congressional Black Caucus (congressmen), Black Enterprise (CEOs), US Department

of Education, Office of Civil Rights (professors), and Ehrenberg (1996) (Lawyers and Judges).

245 The ruling had an adverse effect on many HBCUs. Alcorn State experienced a 9.9% decrease in enrollment

and Mississippi Valley State a 20.1% decrease. Other HBCUs, especially in North Carolina, have shown

substantial increases in integration. Elizabeth City State increased from 11% white in 1980 to 23. 7% in 1998,

Fayetteville State from 11.9 to 22.2, North Carolina Central from 4.1 to 13.4, and Winston Salem from 11.3 to

18.0. In other states, such as Florida, the ruling has been largely ignored; Florida A&M remains 90% black.
104 The Educational Effectiveness of Historically Black Colleges and Universities

than theories and historical anecdotes. We analyze three large data sets with adequate pre

and post college information for Blacks that identify the students’ choice of college and

whether it is an HBCU. The data sets are: the National Longitudinal Survey of the High

School Class of 1972 (NLS-72), Baccalaureate and Beyond (B&B), and the College and

Beyond database (C&B). The first two datasets provide a snapshot of a nationally

representative sample of HBCU students at two points in time: 1972 and 1992. The third

dataset contains four HBCUs, Howard, Morehouse, Spelman, and Xavier, allowing us to

take a focused look into the most elite HBCUs in 1976 and 1989. Although there are

important limitations with each of these data sets, together they provide a rich portrait of the

causes and labor market and non-labor market consequences of HBCU attendance.

Importantly, these data sets sample college matriculates in the 1970s and 1990s so it is

possible to assess how these causes and consequences changed during these two decades

of dramatic social change.

The analysis uses four separate statistical approaches to adjust for pre-college

differences between HBCU and TWI attendees. We begin by using the rich set of

covariates on family background and high school academic achievement (including SAT

scores) to fit least squares models. We then use the same pre-college covariates to

implement a propensity-score matching estimator to assess the robustness of the results to

functional form assumptions about the observables. These approaches are supplemented by

methods that are designed to account for selection bias due to missing outcome

observations (Heckman 1979) and bias which emerges when colleges admit students based

partly on characteristics unobserved in our data that are positively correlated with future

outcomes (Dale and Krueger 2002).

The results are robust across these four methods. However, lacking a randomized experiment

or credible quasi-experiment, thorny issues of selection may remain. Consequently, we

urge caution in interpreting the results as causal.

Together the nationally representative NLS and B&B reveal an important change in the

returns to HBCU attendance. In the 1970s, HBCU matriculation was associated with higher

wages and an increased probability of graduation, relative to attending a TWI. By the 1990s,

however, there is a substantial wage penalty. Overall, there is a 20% decline in the relative

wages of HBCU graduates in just two decades. Interestingly, relative pre-college measures of

student quality (SAT scores, e.g.) improved among HBCU attendees during this period, so

higher achieving students were increasingly choosing these schools at the same time that the

returns for attending these schools were falling behind.

The underlying source of the decline in HBCU performance is unlikely to be important for

policy reasons, given the high court’s stance. Nevertheless, understanding it would be of

considerable interest to researchers and educational practitioners. The data fail to contradict,

and in at least one specification support, the possibility that HBCUs’ relative decline is

partially due to improvements in TWIs’ effectiveness at educating blacks. In contrast, the

data contradict a number of intuitive explanations for the decline in outcomes among

HBCU attendees—for example, educational expenditures per student increased more at

HBCUs than at TWIs between the 1970s and 1990s.
The Causes and Consequences of Attending Historically Black Colleges and Universities 105

The C&B provides a rare opportunity to assess the most elite colleges. Here too, there

is evidence of a wage decline between the 1976 and 1989 cohorts but it should only be

considered suggestive because these estimates are imprecise. There is stronger evidence

that the later HBCU matriculates were less satisfied with their choice of college and selfreported developing fewer leadership and social skills that are valuable in post-college

life, relative to TWI students. On the other hand, the later cohort was significantly more

likely to be involved in political, social, and philanthropic activities.

The paper proceeds as follows. Section II provides a brief history of HBCUS and their

important role in the education of blacks in America. Section III reviews some theoretical

explanations for why blacks might benefit (or be harmed) by attending a historically black

college or university. Section IV presents the data and summary statistics. Sections V and

VI report results on the causes and consequences of HBCU attendance. Section VII

summarizes the differences between the results from the 1970s and 1990s and assesses

alternative explanations for these differences. Lastly, Section VIII concludes. A data

appendix describes the details of our sample construction.

II. A Brief History of Historically Black Colleges and Universities

A. Ante-Bellum Period

The 1860 Census counted 4.4 million Black people in the United States, most of whom

lived in the Southern states and were held as slaves. Prior to the end of the Civil War,

teaching slaves to read or write was prohibited by law (or social custom) in many areas of

the South. Still, there were three Black colleges founded before the Civil War: the

Institute for Colored Youth (now known as Cheney University) was founded in

Pennsylvania in 1837; Lincoln College in Pennsylvania, 1854, and Wilberforce College

in Ohio, 1856. All of these universities served secondary and post-secondary students.

Formal education for most blacks would not become available until after the Civil War,

when the Freedmen’s Bureau, black communities and their churches, and private

philanthropists organized schools for Blacks (Donohue, Heckman, and Todd 2002).

B. Post-Civil War and the Second Morrill Land Grant

During the period immediately following the Civil War, there was a dramatic increase in

the number of educational institutions geared toward blacks, funded primarily through

groups like the American Missionary Association, the Freedmen’s Bureaus, and southern

state governments, especially during the Reconstruction period. Between 1865 and 1890,

over two hundred private black institutions were founded in the south. Very few of these

early institutions awarded bachelor’s degrees. The American Missionary Association, the

Freedmen’s Bureaus, and other groups that were active in the early education of freed blacks

played a large role in establishing some standard of education—most notably literacy—that

would be important when degree granting institutions for Blacks opened en masse in the

1890s.

Most public HBCUs trace their history to the second Morrill Act, passed in August 1890.

In the next decade, 16 HBCUs opened their doors. The Morrill Act allowed for the creation

of a two-tier system of land grant universities, with southern and border states creating
106 The Educational Effectiveness of Historically Black Colleges and Universities

HBCUs principally to gain access to federal funds to develop white land grant colleges.

These HBCUs were largely limited to vocational training; well-known agricultural,

mechanical, and technical institutions such as North Carolina A&T and Florida A&M were

founded during this period.

By 1895, public HBCUs had awarded 1,100 college diplomas to black students. Yet, liberal

arts education, as was offered at many public white institutions, remained unavailable to

black students. During the Jim Crow era in the south that followed Reconstruction,

educational opportunities for white students expanded and blacks were almost completely

excluded from white institutions.

In the 1896 decision, Plessy v. Ferguson (163 U.S. 537 (1896)), the two-tier system of

higher education, based on the incentive structure in the Second Morrill Act, became

more firmly set. As a result, HBCUs began to become institutions that primarily trained

teachers to teach in segregated public schools. The rapid expansion of black high schools

in southern urban areas set in motion a supply-demand chain in which availability of

teaching positions, supported by state treasuries, drew more black students into HBCUs to

qualify themselves for teaching positions (Roebuck and Murty 1993). There became an

interdependence between the public school system and HBCUs.

C. World War II and the Higher Education Act of 1965

HBCUs, as well as other institutions of higher learning, faced a funding crisis in the 1940s

due to the budget cuts in educational funding associated with WWII. In 1944, the United

Negro College Fund was established, raising $765,000 for HBCUs in its first funding

campaign; three times as much as had been raised by the individual colleges in the

previous three years.

The landmark decision in Brown v. Board of Education (349 U.S. 294 (1955)) and the

legislation developed to implement it improved the plight of many HBCUs. Title III of the

Higher Education Act of 1965, which was devoted to “Strengthening Developing

Institutions” was interpreted as primarily referring to HBCUs. As a result many HBCUs

benefited greatly from the federal funds provided under Title III, funds that could be used

for faculty and student exchanges, faculty improvement programs, curriculum

improvements, student services, visiting scholars programs, and administrative

improvements.

Despite the material gains to the HBCUs arising under the Higher Education Act, the

NAACP continued a legal strategy of attacking the two-tier educational system, asking the

U.S. Department of Health, Education, and Welfare to enforce the Civil Rights Act of 1964

and prohibit southern states from operating a segregated higher education system. In the

1973 case of Adams v. Richardson (356 F. Supp. 92 (D.D.C.), modified and aff'd, 480 F.2d

1159 (D.C. Cir. 1973)), the NAACP won, requiring that states develop desegregation

strategies that would allow for a better racial mix of students, faculty, and staff in public

colleges, and increase the access and retention of minorities at all levels of higher

education. The ruling was primarily aimed at non- HBCUs, however, and the court made it
The Causes and Consequences of Attending Historically Black Colleges and Universities 107

clear that fulfilling the ruling’s mandate should not be accomplished at the expense of or

detriment to traditionally black colleges

The Adams decision increased funding for HBCUs because the decision stated that states

could not meet their mandates by closing HBCUs and that they must instead include

“yardsticks” to measure the improvement of black colleges’ facilities as well as their

academic programs. The court’s reasoning was that this was the only way possible to ensure

that HBCUs would become desirable institutions for white students.

D. The Unintended Consequences of U.S. v. Fordice

On June 26, 1992, the Supreme Court decided U.S. v. Fordice, a decision brought by a

black litigant with the chief aim of removing structural differences between HBCUs and

traditionally white institutions. The plaintiff, represented by the NAACP, brought the suit

because of the disparity in the number and quality of the academic programs, instructional

staff, and physical plant facilities, arguing that this resulted from the “historically

operated racially segregated dual systems of higher education.” The court ruled that it

would be wasteful to maintain the two-tier system that had been erected during an era of

de jure segregation, noting that Mississippi had eight institutions, five white and three

black, and that four of them (two white and two black) were within 25 miles of one

another. The decision was a victory for civil rights lawyers, ordering Mississippi and 18

other southern states to do more to integrate its HBCUs and traditionally white institutions.

However, the ruling had an adverse effect on HBCUs because the court ordered state

legislatures to find “educational justification for the continued existence” of the two parallel

education systems. The consequences of this ruling for the future of HBCUs is unclear at

this point, but at least three outcomes seem possible: 1) a decision that HBCUs are

indispensable for the education of Blacks and an increase in public funding; 2) increased

recruitment and matriculation of white students, which has the potential to undermine the

unique mission and culture of these institutions; and 3) a decision that they no longer are

necessary (or as necessary) and a commensurate reduction in public financial support.

The remainder of the paper assesses empirically the causes and consequences of

attending HBCUs, which will help determine their “educational justification.”

III. Conceptual Framework

There are at least three theories for why blacks would benefit from racial segregation of

institutions of higher education. First, Tatum (1997) argues that racial grouping is a

developmental process in response to racism. This argument goes that segregation by race

is a positive coping strategy that allows individuals to gather support through shared

experiences and mutual understanding. Second, Wilson’s (1987) pioneering study of the

South Side of Chicago argues that the migration of talented blacks from black

neighborhoods had adverse effects on the individuals left behind. A similar

phenomenon may exist for segregation across schools – low ability blacks may benefit from

segregation through more intensive interactions with their high ability peers. Third,

segregated social connections within schools may also reduce adverse peer interactions
108 The Educational Effectiveness of Historically Black Colleges and Universities

resulting from interracial contact. Fryer with Torelli (2006) shows that racial differences in

the social price for academic achievement are exacerbated in environments with more

interracial contact.

There are also several theories for why racial segregation across colleges and universities

may harm blacks. A well developed literature emphasizes the importance of peer groups

(Coleman 1966), social interactions (Case and Katz 1991, Cutler and Glaeser 1997), and

network externalities (Borjas 1995, Lazear 1999), especially for youths. Many argue that

these effects are important in the formation of skill and values and the development of

human and social capital. Moreover, segregation across schools may lead to the

development of an “oppositional culture” and the enforcement of other negative

behavioral norms (Ogbu 1989). Additionally, segregation across schools can prevent

positive spillovers between racially defined peer groups (Lazear 1999).

A final disadvantage of the separation of racial groups across universities concerns the

importance of interracial contact in mediating stereotypes and promoting understanding and

tolerance. Interracial interaction generally leads to positive sentiment (Homans 1950), and

fosters the creation of “bonding” and “bridging” capital (Granovetter 1973, Putnam 2000)

It is impossible to identify the separate impact of each of these channels on segregated

Blacks’ well being with the available data sets. Instead, this paper’s goal is to produce

reliable estimates of the net impact of HBCU attendance. The resulting “reduced form”

estimates will likely reflect a number of the channels specified in this section.

IV. Data Sources and Summary Statistics

We analyze three large datasets: The National Longitudinal Study of the High School

Class of 1972 (NLS-72), Baccalaureate and Beyond Longitudinal Study (B&B), and the

College and Beyond (C&B) database. These data sets have been chosen because of the

enormous amount of information each contains on pre-college academic performance, family

background, college entry decisions, performance while in college, and later life outcomes.246

Throughout the analysis, the rich set of pre-college and family background variables are used

as conditioning variables to adjust for observable differences between HBCU and nonHBCU matriculates in equations for the other variables. We discuss each of these sources

and present summary statistics from them.

Before proceeding to this material, Appendix Table 1 provides some summary statistics on

the 89 4-year historically black colleges and universities in the United States. Forty-nine of

them are private institutions. They are predominantly located in the South. Together their

undergraduate enrollment in the Fall of 2005 was 238,911 and there were an additional

37,151 graduate students enrolled. The fourteen historically black 2-year colleges are not

included in this table.

246 Two other data sets collected by the National Center for Education Statistics, the National Educational

Longitudinal Study 2000 (NELS) and the Beginning Postsecondary Study (BPS), are equipped to answer some

of the questions posed here. Unfortunately, however, these data sets do not track individuals long enough after

college completion to be useful for understanding later life outcomes.
The Causes and Consequences of Attending Historically Black Colleges and Universities 109

A. The National Longitudinal Survey of the High School Class of 1972

The National Longitudinal Survey of the High School Class of 1972 (NLS-72) is a

nationally representative sample of 23,451 high school seniors in 1972. Participants in the

sample were selected in the Spring of 1972, and in a supplementary sample drawn in 1973.

The data include a base year survey, and follow-up surveys in 1973, 1974, 1976, 1979, and

1986. Roughly 1,300 high schools are included in the sample, with an average of 18

students per school in the study.

A wide range of data is gathered on the students in the study, as described in detail at the

NLS-72 website (http://nces.ed.gov/surveys/nls72). There is detailed information on each

student’s family environment, parent’s education and occupation, socio-economic

status, and the pre-college characteristics of each student (i.e. high school grades,

college admission scores, and so on). There are also detailed records from postsecondary transcripts, collected in 1984, and high school records. Important for our

purposes, a six digit identification number was assigned to educational institutions by the

Federal Interagency Committee on Education (FICE) to, historically, distinguish

postsecondary schools that qualified as institutions of higher learning from those that did not.

These codes are crucial in defining HBCUs and ensuring that this definition is consistent

across data sets.

B. Baccalaureate and Beyond

The Baccalaureate and Beyond Longitudinal Study (B&B) is a nationally representative

sample of 11,192 degree completers from 648 American colleges and universities in the

1992-1993 academic year. To identify a random sample of degree completers, B&B uses

the National Postsecondary Student Aid Study as a basis. The National Postsecondary

Student Aid Study is a large nationally representative sample of colleges and universities,

students, and parents.

A considerable amount of data is gathered on the students in the study, as described in

detail at the B&B website http://nces.ed.gov/surveys/b&b. It contains detailed information

on pre-college characteristics of each student, information about their parents and home

environment, and financial aid information. Follow-up surveys were administered in 1994,

1997, and 2003. These follow-up surveys include information on employment and entry

into graduate school. We focus on the responses to the 1997 survey, which takes place

after most students are in the workplace. We had hoped to use the 2003 data more

extensively, but we found it to be of generally poor quality on the dimensions we cared

most about. For example, 25% of the original black respondents attrited from the 2003

sample, compared to just 6% in the 1997 sample. And, this attrition was largely from black

students in TWIs.

There is one important difference between the B&B and the other data sets we employ. The

NLS and C&B begin with samples of students that enrolled their freshman year. The B&B

samples degree completers, which can introduce bias if graduation rates between HBCUs

and non-HBCUs differ substantially. Whenever the results from this survey differ with

our other data, we will be clear about whether this difference can be accounted for by
110 The Educational Effectiveness of Historically Black Colleges and Universities

differences in samples. A convenient way to handle this is to restrict the sample in our other

data sets to be of degree completers, which we do throughout.

C. The College and Beyond Database

The College and Beyond Database contains student level administrative data on 93,660

full-time students who entered (but did not necessarily graduate from) thirty-four colleges

and universities in the fall of 1951, 1976, and 1989. These institutional records were linked

to an extensive survey conducted by the Andrew W. Mellon Foundation between 1995 and

1997 and to files provided by the College Entrance Examination Board and the Higher

Education Research Institute. There are four HBCUs in the database: Xavier, Morehouse,

Spellman, and Howard – the most elite HBCUs. The 1976 cohort contains data on all four

black colleges; the 1989 cohort only includes Morehouse and Xavier.247 The final data set

consists of black students from 34 colleges and universities including the four elite HBCUs;

the sample consists of 2,125 students in 1976 and 1,785 in 1989.

The C&B data are remarkably rich, containing information drawn from students’ applications

and transcripts, Scholastic Aptitude Test (SAT) and American College Test (ACT)

scores, as well as information on family demographic and socioeconomic status. This

information was attained by linking the institutional files of the thirty-four colleges and

universities with data provided by the College Entrance Examination Board and the Higher

Education Research Institute. Importantly, the C&B survey includes the responses to a

questionnaire administered to all three cohorts in 1996 that provides detailed information on

post-college labor market, life satisfaction, and other outcomes. The response rate to the

1996 questionnaire was approximately 80%. The College and Beyond Survey is

described in greater detail in Bowen and Bok (1998).

D. Summary Statistics

Summary statistics for the variables in our core specification are displayed in Table 1 for

black students in the three datasets described above, according to whether or not they attend a

HBCU or TWI. Students who are missing data on race or which college they attended are

dropped from the sample.

Table 1 consists of five sets of columns. The first column provides summary statistics for

students in the NLS-72 whose first college was an HBCU versus TWI, where first college is

defined as the first 4- year college a student attends. An individual who attends a junior

college, technical school, or the like and then attends an HBCU will be counted as having

his first college as an HBCU. The second column restricts the sample to those who

completed a bachelor’s degree, allowing one to make direct comparisons with B&B whose

descriptive statistics are displayed in column 3. Columns 4 and 5 provide means of the

variables for students in the C&B database for the 1976 and 1989 cohorts, respectively.248

Across all our datasets, blacks attending TWIs tend to have substantially higher

academic credentials. In the NLS-72, SAT and ACT scores of Blacks in TWIs are roughly

247 All forthcoming results have been run by restricting the 1976 cohort to Morehouse and Xavier to ensure that

any differences which emerge cannot be explained by different samples in the two cohorts.

248 The C&B 1976 data used to construct the summary statistics in Table 1 contains all 4 HBCUs available.
The Causes and Consequences of Attending Historically Black Colleges and Universities 111

1 standard deviation higher. Yet, Blacks attending HBCUs have slightly higher GPAs than

their peers who attend TWIs (2.86 compared to 2.83), suggesting that these students attend

less academically challenging high schools. Students in HBCUs are more likely to attend

private high schools. Similar trends are apparent in the B&B, though the differences in

academic credentials between HBCU students and non-HBCU students are less

pronounced. A portion of the difference between the NLS-72 and B&B can be explained

by the different sample restrictions.

In the 1976 and 1989 cohorts of C&B, the GPAs of Black students in HBCUs are .73 and

.5 standard deviations less, respectively. SAT and ACT scores of HBCU students are more

than 1 standard deviation behind Black students in non-HBCUs. In these data, students who

attend HBCUs are less likely to have attended a private high school.

The “Pre-College Personal and Family Background” variables provide measures for the

home environments that students were reared in. These variables include family income

(measured in 1972 dollars), parental education, or whether or not a student attended high

school in a rural area or the southern portion of the US. The definition of income differs

slightly between data sets. In NLS-72, students were asked, “What is the approximate

income before taxes of your parents (or guardian)? Include taxable and non-taxable income

from all sources.” For B&B, we used family income in 1991 for students that were

dependents of their parents and the student’s own taxed and untaxed income for students

that were not dependents.249 For C&B, family income is derived from the HERI student

survey. The CPI-U was used to convert all income measures to 1982-84 dollars.

It is apparent that there are important observable differences between blacks who attend

HBCUs and TWIs. The subsequent analysis uses a variety of statistical approaches to adjust

for these differences.

The third panel reports on many of the outcome variables. These include wages, major

choice, whether or not a student received their bachelor’s degree, attended graduate

school, or obtained a graduate degree, and variables designed to measure college

experiences and job and life satisfaction. In the raw data, blacks who attend HBCUs tend to

make less money than blacks who attend TWIs, with one exception; NLS-72.250 They are also

less likely to be employed full-time and more likely to be dissatisfied with life. HBCU

students are more likely to major in physical sciences.

249 For students who were their parents’ dependents in 1991, total family taxed and untaxed income was

obtained, in order of priority, from the student’s financial aid application, a telephone interview of parents, a

telephone interview of the student, the student’s Pell grant file, or the student loan file. For students that were

not their parents’ dependent, the information was obtained, in order of priority, from the financial aid

application, the student’s phone interview, the student’s Pell grant file, or the student loan file.

250 In the NLS-72, the average hourly wage is $12.82 ($14.46) for HBCU attendees (graduates) and $10.55

($11.38) for TWI attendees (graduates). The mean of the natural logarithm of hourly wages is about 5% (12%)

higher for TWI attendees (graduates). The difference in the rank of wages across HBCUs and TWIs is due to a

single HBCU respondent with an average hourly wage of $494. The influence of this observation on the Table 1

entries is also evident in the larger standard deviation of wages among HBCU attendees and graduates. See the

Data Appendix for details on the sample selection rules.
112 The Educational Effectiveness of Historically Black Colleges and Universities

In the two nationally representative samples, black students at HBCUs are more likely to

receive a bachelor’s degree and attend graduate school (though they are less likely to

graduate). Black students in the elite HBCUs are more likely to major in biological sciences

(this is driven in large part by Xavier who has a storied reputation for pre-medical studies),

business, less likely to receive a bachelor’s degree or attend graduate school, and, in the

1989 cohort, less likely to report that their college experience helped develop an ability to

get along with individuals of other races.

The final panel in Table 1 provides the total number of HBCU and TWI observations in

each sample. It also provides some details on the incomplete observations. As a solution

to the large number of observations with at least one missing variable, we turn all of the

explanatory variables into a series of indicator variables based on ranges of the values of

these variables and include separate indicators for missing responses to each variable. The

bottom panel also reports on the number of observations with missing wage information.

The subsequent analysis implements a standard selection correction approach to account for

these cases (Heckman 1979).

V. The Causes and Consequences of Attending HBCUs in the NLS and B&B Data Files

A. The Causes of Attending HBCUs

Table 2 presents a series of estimates of the determinants of HBCU attendance. The

specifications estimated are of the form:

(1) HBCUi = α + βXi

home + γXipre-college + εi

,

where HBCU is a dichotomous variable that equals one if the student attends an HBCU

and zero if not, Xi

home denotes an array of variables which proxy for a student’s

home environment, and Xi

pre-college denotes pre-college characteristics of each

student. In all instances, weighted probit regressions are used and the

coefficients reported are marginal effects evaluated at the sample mean. The

weights are the sample weights in the relevant data file. The interpretation of any

coefficient is the effect of that coefficient relative to the omitted category when all other

variables are held at their sample mean.

The home environment variables that we include are family income, mother and

father’s education, and whether or not a student lives in the South. Family income,

measured in 1972 dollars, is divided into 4 categories: <$3,000, $3000 – $6000, $6000-$9000,

and $9000+ based on a survey question described in the previous section. Parental education

(mother and father, independently) is partitioned into three categorical variables: less than a

Bachelor’s degree, a Bachelor’s degree, and greater. Whether or not a student lives in the

South is a dummy variable that takes on the variable of one if the answer is yes. Pre-college

characteristics include SAT and ACT scores, high school GPA, and whether or not a student

attended a private high school. Combined SAT scores are divided into less than 600,

between 600-800, and greater than 800. ACT scores are divided up similarly, less than 11,

between 11 and 15, and greater than 15. High school GPA is measured on a four point

scale and is divided into less than 2.5, 2.5 to 3.5, and greater than 3.5. We also include an

indicator for whether the respondent is female.
The Causes and Consequences of Attending Historically Black Colleges and Universities 113

In 1972, students who attend HBCUs have lower SAT and ACT scores and are more

likely to attend high school in the South. Moving from an SAT score below 600 to a score

above 800 reduces the probability of attending an HBCU by 32%. Similarly, moving from

an ACT score of less than 11 to a score of more than 15 reduces the likelihood of attending

an HBCU by 21%. Students who live in the South are 43% more likely to attend HBCUs,

holding all else constant. Family income and parental education are not statistically

related to HBCU attendance once our other covariates are taken into account.

In the 1990s, things change. Standardized test scores are no longer such a powerful predictor

of HBCU attendance. Parents with more education are more likely to have children who

attend HBCUs. All else equal, a student whose mother has more than a bachelor’s degree is

28% more likely to attend an HBCU. This is not surprising, as these institutions have a

long history of loyal alumni and familial legacies (Drewry and Doermann 2001). Residing

in the South continues to be an important determinant of college choice, though the

magnitude of the coefficient is roughly a fourth of the magnitude in the seventies. Private

high school is negatively correlated with HBCU attendance.

There are marked differences between the determinants of HBCU attendance in the 1970s

and 1990s. The most obvious explanation of these differences is that conditioning on

degree completion selects for high ability students and among this set, differences between

the two periods will disappear. Comparing columns 2 and 3 in table 2 we can make direct

comparisons between the 70s and the 90s; each sample consists only of degree completers.

Intuition suggests that as resistance to black attendance at TWIs faded and the need for

segregated schooling declines, those with the highest opportunity cost of such schooling will

opt out and choose more traditional universities. In other words, it might be reasonable to

expect a “brain drain” from HBCUs. Yet, the data show the opposite to be true. Lower

academic credentials are not as highly predictive of HBCU attendance in the 1990s as the

1970s. Students with higher educated parents are more likely to attend HBCUs in the 1990s

and higher academic credentials are not as strong a predictor of nonHBCU attendance. This

provides evidence of a selection of talented Black students into HBCUs in recent years.

B. Econometric Approach to Estimating the Consequences of Attending HBCUs

In the absence of a randomized experiment or a credible instrumental variable for HBCU

attendance, we implement four statistical approaches to adjust for pre-college differences

between HBCU and TWI attendees. This subsection details these strategies.

The first and simplest model we estimate is a linear specification of the form:

(2) outcomei = β 0 + β X i

parents + α X ipre-college + δHBCU + ε i

.

In all instances, the estimation is done using weighted least squares, with weights

corresponding to the sample weights provided in the data. Equation (2) is a simple and

easily interpretable way to obtain estimates of the effect of HBCU attendance on

outcomes, but it relies on a linear model to control for the covariates Xi

parentsand Xipre-college

.

This may be unappealing since their true functional form is unknown.
114 The Educational Effectiveness of Historically Black Colleges and Universities

As a solution, we match HBCU and TWI students with similar predicted probabilities

or propensity scores (p-scores) of HBCU attendance (Rosenbaum and Rubin 1983).251 The

estimated p-scores compress the multi-dimensional vector of covariates into an index. The

advantages of the propensity score approach are twofold. First, it is a feasible method to

control for observables in a more flexible manner than is possible with linear regression.

Second, it provides an opportunity to focus the comparisons of outcomes between the

HBCU and TWI attendees among those with similar distributions of the observables.

Since we model all of the covariates with indicator variables the former advantage is not

so compelling in this setting, but the latter is a real asset here. Finally, it is important to

emphasize that just as with linear regression, the identifying assumption is that

assignment to the treatment (i.e., HBCU attendance) is associated only with observable

pre-period variables. This is often called the ignorable treatment assignment assumption or

selection on observables.

We implement the p-score matching strategy in three steps. First, the estimated p-scores are

obtained by fitting probit regressions for HBCU attendance (identical to equation 1 above),

using Xi

parentsand X ipre-college as explanatory variables. In other words, we try to replicate the

average student’s selection rule with the observed covariates. We then conduct two tests to

ensure that the p-scores are suitable. For both tests, we divide the sample into quintiles based

on their p-scores. In the first test, we assess whether the estimated p-scores are equal across

the HBCU and TWI students within quintiles. In the second test, we examine whether the

means of the covariates are equal for the two sets of students within each quintile. If the null

hypothesis of equality is rejected for either test, we divide the quintiles and /or estimate a

richer probit model by including higher order terms and interactions.252 Once the null is

accepted for both tests, we proceed to the next step.

Second, the “treatment effect” for a given outcome is calculated by comparing the

difference in the outcome between HBCU and TWI students with similar or “matched”

values of the p-score. We do this in two ways. The first calculates a treatment effect for

each HBCU student for which there is at least one TWI student with an estimated p-score

within 0.10 of the HBCU student’s p-score. In cases where multiple students have p-scores

within 0.10, we take the simple average of outcome across all of these students. Further,

this matching is done with replacement so that individual TWI students can be used as

controls for multiple HBCU students.253 The second matching approach uses all of the

TWI students to form a control for each HBCU student but in calculating the average

among them we use a kernel weighted average, where the weight is inversely proportional

to the distance to the HBCU student’s p-score. We use a Gaussian kernel with a bandwidth

of 0.10.

Third, a single treatment effect is estimated by averaging the treatment effects across all

HBCU students for which there was at least one suitable match. This approach has the

251 An alternative is to match on a single (or possibly a few) crucial covariate(s). See Angrist and Lavy (1998)

or Rubin (1977) for applications.

252 See Dehejia and Wahba (2002) and Rosenbaum (1984) for more details on how to implement the propensity

score method.

253 See Dehejia and Wahba (2002) and Heckman, Ichimura, and Todd (1998) on propensity score algorithms.
The Causes and Consequences of Attending Historically Black Colleges and Universities 115

desirable property that it focuses the comparisons where there is overlap in the distribution

of propensity scores among the HBCU and TWI students so these students are “similar.”254

We also implement two other econometric approaches to account for potential selection

issues. First, we estimate probits for whether the wage variable is missing on the sample of

observations with missing and non-missing wage values. We then include the inverse

Mill’s ratio from these probits in equation (2) to account for the possibility that wages are

not missing at random (Heckman 1979). This procedure is identified from a functional form

assumption, since we are unaware of a valid exclusion restriction in this setting.

Second, the available data sets may not include measures of some attributes (e.g., strength

of essay, motivation, and teacher recommendations) that persuade admissions committees to

select certain applicants for admission that are also rewarded in the labor market. Further,

these attributes may differ across HBCU and TWI students. The least squares and propensity

score approaches rely on “selection on observables” assumptions and will produce biased

estimates in this case.

To confront this source of misspecification, we implement a variant of the method

pioneered by Dale and Krueger (2002) that matches students based on the colleges where

they were accepted. This approach can only be implemented with the NLS data file, as

B&B does not contain information on the sets of colleges to which individuals are admitted.

We operationalize the Dale and Krueger approach by determining the identity of the colleges

that accepted each student. Among the colleges where they were accepted, we find the

midpoint of the 25th-75th percentile SAT range reported in US News & World Report

(2006). We use current SAT scores since scores from 1972 are unavailable. For colleges

that report only ACT scores, we use an equivalence scale to convert to SAT scores.

For each student, we record the highest midpoint SAT score of any college that accepted

the student. We divide the students into four groups by quartiles of the school with the

highest midpoint SAT among the schools where they were admitted. We then include

separate indicators for each of these groups in equation (2). This approach mitigates the

impact of any confounding due to characteristics observable to admissions officers that

are not measured in the data set. Specifically, the identifying assumption is that after

adjustment for the available covariates, the decision to attend a HBCU versus a nonHBCU within a quartile is “ignorable” or orthogonal to unobserved determinants of

outcomes. See Dale and Krueger (2002) for a more detailed discussion of this approach.

Finally, we note that we considered a number of candidate instrumental variables, such

as distance to a student’s nearest HBCU, residing in the South, or the closing of HBCUs, but

in all cases we were unconvinced that the exclusion restriction was valid or the

instruments were not powerful enough for the relatively small samples in the available

data files. With approximately 300 observations, it is very difficult to construct an

instrument with a powerful first stage. Consequently, thorny issues of selection may still

remain.

254 If there are heterogeneous treatment effects, this strategy produces an estimate of the average effect of the

“treatment on the treated.”
116 The Educational Effectiveness of Historically Black Colleges and Universities

C. Estimates of the Consequences of Attending HBCUs

Distribution of Estimated P-Scores. Figures 1 and 2 present separate kernel density plots of

the estimated propensity scores for black students that received degrees from HBCUs and

TWIs with the NLS and B&B data files, respectively. To obtain these figures, weighted

probits were estimated on the set of students who completed their bachelor’s degree at an

HBCU or TWI. In Figure 1, which is based on the NLS data, it is evident that the mean

propensity score differs across the populations, but there is substantial overlap in the

distributions, except at p-scores exceeding roughly 0.9. The distributions of p-scores in the

B&B are more similar throughout a broader range of the p-score. However, there aren’t any

TWI students with p-scores greater than about 0.8. Thus, it will be difficult to obtain

meaningful comparisons for the relatively small subset of HBCU students with p-scores in

this range.

Wage Outcomes. Table 3 presents results of the effect of attending a HBCU on the

natural logarithm of wages from the four approaches in the six columns. The estimated

standard errors are reported in parentheses below the point estimate for the HBCU

indicator. In the NLS entries in Panels A and B, the standard errors allow for clustering

among observations from students that attended the same high school (except in column

5). In Panel A, the treatment is matriculation at a HBCU, while it is graduation from a

HBCU in Panel B. For the B&B entries in Panel C, we report standard errors that allow

for unspecified heteroskedasticity in the variance-covariance matrix. Underneath the

standard errors, we report the R-squared statistic, as well as the number of students in

HBCUs and TWIs in the relevant sample. For the NLS, wages are measured in 1986 –

fourteen years after high school graduation and roughly 10 years after obtaining a bachelor’s

degree. In the B&B, wages are in 1997, five years after completion of the bachelor’s degree.

Column 1 reports the mean difference in labor market wages for individuals who attend

HBCUs, without adjustment for any controls. In the NLS, HBCU students earn

roughly 5% less when the treatment is the first college attended and 11.5% when it is

receipt of a bachelor’s degree. Neither of these estimates is statistically different from

zero at conventional levels. The B&B estimate from the 1990s indicates that HBCU

graduates earn 16.6% less than TWI graduates. Recall, Table 1 demonstrated that on

observable dimensions HBCU students have lesser academic credentials than their

TWI counterparts (especially in the NLS), so these raw gaps are likely downward biased.

Column 2 reports the results from estimating equation (2). The adjustment for the academic

and home environment controls changes the results in the NLS dramatically.255 The wage

benefit of attending a HBCU in the 1970s is 11.1% when HBCU status is based on the first

college attended and 6.0% when it is defined as receiving a bachelor’s degree. The former

estimate is marginally significant, while the latter has an associated t-statistic less than 1.256

255 A similar result was found in Constantine (1995).

256 Results are similar if one implements a “fraction method,” using individual transcripts to calculate the

fraction of a student’s college experience that was spent at an HBCU.
The Causes and Consequences of Attending Historically Black Colleges and Universities 117

In the B&B, however, the wage effect for attending HBCUs is -13.8% and the null of zero

would be rejected with conventional criterion.257

The next two columns report on the implementation of the p-score method to test the

sensitivity of these results to the linear model. Column 3 uses kernel matching, while

column 4 relies on radius matching.258 Standard errors for both matching estimates were

bootstrapped (200 iterations), with propensity scores recomputed for each bootstrap sample.

Further, the p-score matching estimates are not weighted with the sample weights.

The p-score estimates are remarkably similar to those from the linear regression in

column 2. This finding shouldn’t be terribly surprising because equation (2) models the

covariates flexibly, nevertheless it is reassuring that functional form issues don’t appear

important in this setting.

Column 5 presents estimates that are selection corrected for missing wages and adjusted

for the full set of covariates. It seems plausible that HBCU attendance is correlated with

selective withdrawal from the labor force. This possibility is not supported by the data as

this approach produces unimportant change in the estimated impact of HBCUs on wages.259

Column 6 implements the column 2 specification but adds controls for the “best” school that

the student was admitted to in order to account for the richer data available to admissions

committees (Dale and Krueger 2002). Specifically, we include indicators for the three

highest quartiles of SAT scores of the best school that the student was admitted to, leaving

the lowest quartile as the excluded group. This method is only possible in the NLS data and

in this sample it doubles estimated impact of attending a HBCU to 22.5%. Specifically,

this approach suggests that the gains from HBCU attendance may be larger than

indicated by the other methods. However, the estimate’s imprecision makes definitive

conclusions unwarranted.

Additionally, we conducted a number of tests for whether there was heterogeneity in the

returns to attending a HBCU, which are reported in Appendix Table 2. We assessed

whether returns differed with students’ home region (i.e., South versus North), their

257 In the most recent wave of the B&B (B&B 2003) there is no wage gap between HBCU students and nonHBCU students. Unfortunately, 53% of the HBCU sample does not have valid wages in the later survey (some

are in the survey and unemployed while others were dropped completely). HBCU graduates have a 9.6% higher

unemployment rate, and median regression techniques provide identical results to the 1997 wave. Thus, we

concentrate on the earlier wave with more complete data.

258 Observations with estimated p-scores that are not strictly between 0 and 1 are dropped. Further, we lose 7

observations in the NLS when the treatment is first college attended and 21 when the treatment is degree

college, and 21 observations in the B&B when implementing the radius matching estimators due to outliers that

did not have matches in the relevant range.

259 We also assessed the impact of labor market dropouts on our estimates with a simple re-weighted linear

regression and median regression. In the first approach, we estimate a probit of whether or not we have valid

wages on all of the covariates in Table 2. We then multiplied the sampling weight by the inverse of the

predicted probability in the probit to get new weights. Linear regressions are then estimated with these new

weights. This approach led to remarkably similar conclusions as the selection correction approach. Median

regressions were estimated by inputting zeros to all missing wage observations. Qualitative conclusions were

the same, though the coefficients were smaller as expected.
118 The Educational Effectiveness of Historically Black Colleges and Universities

estimated propensity score, SAT Score, parental education, and gender. In general, there

isn’t substantial evidence of heterogeneity across these subsamples of students. The lone

exception is that the returns to attending a HBCU appear higher for black women than for

black men in the NLS sample. It is also immediately evident that subdividing the sample is

too demanding of the data as the standard errors in the subsamples are much larger.

Overall, these results suggest that attending an HBCU conferred remarkable advantages on

its students in the 1970s. Conventional estimates of the average return to college are

10% per year (Heckman, Lochner and Todd 2003). Attending a HBCU versus a TWI in

the 1970s was roughly equivalent to one more year of schooling. In contrast, more

recent HBCU attendees appear to be suffering a wage penalty. If the point estimates are

taken literally, there is nearly a -25% swing in the relative return of HBCU attendance in

just two decades.

Non-wage outcomes. Thus far we have concentrated on the effect of attending a HBCU

on a single outcome: labor market wages. The value of attending HBCUs, however, likely

extends well past labor market considerations. The conventional wisdom is that these

institutions instill confidence in their students, a sense of responsibility, and provide

environments free of racism and discrimination that allow for greater personal

development. Such environments are likely to have many benefits beyond those captured

in wages.

Table 4 explores the effect of attending HBCUS on a number of outcomes, including

the probability of full-time employment, measures of life satisfaction, and a series of

academic outcomes. These wide ranging outcomes were chosen because of their economic and

social relevance as well as their comparability across datasets. The academic outcomes

index is the first principal component of the dummy variables for majoring in business,

majoring in physical science/mathematics/computer science/engineering, majoring in

biological science/health, receiving a bachelor’s degree, attending graduate school, and

receiving a graduate degree. The coefficients reported in the table are from kernel matching

estimates and their associated bootstrapped standard errors. In all cases, weighted least

squares confirm these results.

The most striking finding from these outcomes is that HBCU matriculation is associated

with a nearly 10% increase in the probability of receiving a bachelor’s degree. It is evident

that part of the wage gain in the 1970s is due to the increased probability of graduating

from college. There is some evidence that students who attend HBCUS are modestly more

likely to major in physical sciences. Interestingly, HBCU and TWI matriculates report

similar degrees of life satisfaction. There are negligible effects on all other outcomes.

VI. A Focused Look at the Most Elite HBCUs

There is substantial quality variation among the set of 89 4-year HBCUs, as well as among

the TWIs. To this point, we have analyzed the NLS and B&B, which are nationally

representative data files that include the full spectrum of HBCUs and TWIs from the quality

continuum. In this section, we take a more focused look at four of the most elite HBCUs:

Morehouse, Xavier, Spellman, and Howard. (Importantly, the 1989 data set does not
The Causes and Consequences of Attending Historically Black Colleges and Universities 119

include information on Spellman and Howard students.) One limitation of this exercise is

that due to the C&B’s sampling approach, these four HBCUs can only be compared to the

thirty selective TWIs in the sample.

Table 5 reports on the determinants of attendance for elite HBCUs for the 1976 and 1989

cohorts of C&B from estimating equations identical to those in Table 2.260 Column (1) is a

sample of individuals in all 4 HBCUs, column (2) drops Howard and Spelman so that we

can make direct comparisons with the 1989 cohort which is displayed in column (3). The

patterns across the columns are quite similar. The parameters on the standardized test scores

are the most notable results. Evaluated at the sample mean, the difference between a SAT

score of less than 600 and a SAT score above 800 implies a 40.1% decrease (column 2) in

the likelihood of attending an elite HBCU in the 1976 cohort and a 63.1% decrease (column

3) in the 1989 cohort. ACT scores have a similar effect on HBCU attendance. Mother’s

education is positively associated with HBCU attendance in 1989. After adjustment for the

academic characteristics, the income variables are not reliable predictors of elite HBCU

attendance. Residing in the southern portion of the United States continues to be a strong

predictor of HBCU attendance; increasing the probability of attendance by roughly 40%.261

Figures 3 and 4 plot the distributions of the estimated propensity scores for the HBCU and

TWI attendees from the 1976 and 1989 C&B classes, respectively. Howard and Spelman

were dropped from this analysis to make the samples consistent. It is apparent that there

isn’t substantial overlap across the two distributions in either year, especially in 1989. This

finding confirms the impression from the probit results that the academic credentials of these

students differ in important ways.

The poor overlap of the distributions poses challenges for the outcomes analysis. For

example, in the propensity score exercise where we require the TWI students to have p-scores

within 0.1 of the HBCU student, it is apparent that we will rely on a small subset of the

data. In this subset of the data, the selection on observables assumption may be especially

unlikely to be valid. On the other hand, we can use least squares functional form

assumptions to infer counterfactuals in parts of the distribution where there is little

support. Neither approach is especially appealing, which underscores the difficulties of

inferring the impact of HBCU matriculation in this sample. Consequently, the forthcoming

results should be interpreted with these important caveats in mind.

We now turn to an exploration of the effect of attending elite HBCUs on labor market

outcomes, measures of life satisfaction, and academic outcomes from the 1976 and 1989

C&B. One major benefit of the C&B database is the availability of detailed questions

about life outcomes, beliefs, college experiences, labor market outcomes and

experiences, political and civic engagement, and more. These rich questions can help to

260 Throughout the C&B analysis, the treatment is defined as enrollment at a HBCU, not graduation from one.

For consistency with the other tables, we refer to the treatment as “first college”, although due to the C&B’s

sampling scheme it is possible (but unlikely) that a respondent was initially enrolled at a different college or

university.

261 The large negative coefficient on female in 1989 is related to the fact that the women’s college Spellman is

not in the 1989 sample.
120 The Educational Effectiveness of Historically Black Colleges and Universities

shed light on the overall experience of students attending HBCUs and non-HBCUs. For

both cohorts, data on the majority of outcomes was obtained in 1995, 15 years after

graduation for the early cohort and 2 years after graduation for the later cohort, though some

data such as wages in the 1989 cohort were collected in 1996. Individuals without valid

wage observations are dropped from the sample.

Because the number of potential dependent variables in C&B is so numerous, we construct

five indices to better understand the experiences of HBCU students along the following

dimensions: objective academic, subjective academic, labor market, leadership and lifestyle,

and social interactions. The data appendix describes the specific questions used to make up

these indices. Each index is obtained by taking the first principal component of the set of

variables described. This approach has two main advantages. First, principal components

analysis reduces the dimensionality of problems by extracting the portion of a set of

variables that explain the most variance within the set. Second, it ensures that all variables

are measured on the same scale. The cost is that the result’s meaning isn’t transparent and

cannot easily be applied to different settings.

Table 6 reports the results of estimating the effect of HBCU attendance on our set of wage

and non-wage outcomes from kernel matching, which can be compared to the results in

column 3 of Tables 3 and 4. Column 1 includes all four HBCUs in the 1976 sample.

Column 2 also reports results from the 1976 sample but only includes students who

attended Morehouse and Xavier to facilitate comparisons with the 1989 cohort, whose

results are reported in column 3.

In the 1976 cohort, HBCUs graduates were 9% more likely to major in the biological

sciences and 11.1% more likely to major in business, but 10% less likely to attend graduate

school and, conditional on attending, 13.6% less likely to receive a degree. On objective

academic outcomes, HBCU students are significantly negative, though their subjective

view of the academic experience is quite positive. Leadership and lifestyle components of

the HBCU experience are large, which is consistent with much that has been written on

these institutions (Drewey and Doerman 2001). Social interactions are also statistically

significant and substantively large. The labor market experiences are positive, but negligible.

Students do not seem to possess a particular taste for segregation, as HBCU graduates are

no more likely to live in more racially homogenous zip codes. And, HBCU graduates are no

more likely to be engaged in political, religious, civil rights, social service, or philanthropic

activities. The clearest evidence of the importance of HBCUs is that, controlling for all

other factors, HBCU students are 18% more likely to report they would choose the same

college again.

The 1989 cohort reports different experiences. Students are more likely to major in physical

and biological sciences and business. Students continue to benefit from leadership and

lifestyle components of HBCUs, but the magnitudes of these effects are less than one-fourth

of their previous levels. Many of the other positive elements turn negative in the more recent

cohort. The objective and subjective academic outcomes are negative and HBCU

matriculates are 10% less likely to receive a bachelor’s degree. The social interactions

index, which was positive in the 1976 cohort, turns sharply negative in the 1989 cohort.
The Causes and Consequences of Attending Historically Black Colleges and Universities 121

The table demonstrates that this decline is also substantial in three of the variables that are

used to construct the index in 1976 and 1989. The labor market experiences of the later

cohort are even more negative, and they seem to have a taste for segregation. HBCU

attendance is associated with living in a zip code that has a 16% higher fraction of blacks.

Most telling, HBCU students are less likely than non-HBCU students to report they would

choose the same college again, although the difference isn’t statistically significant.

Interestingly, HBCU students in the later cohort are significantly more likely to be engaged

in activities which are associated with civic consciousness. This may partly explain the

divergence in wages.262

VII. Reconciling the Differences between the 1970s and 1990s

A. Assessing the Difference between the 1970s and 1990s Results

Panel A of Table 7 summarizes the difference in the results between the 1970s and 1990s.

It reports regression results for five of the key dependent variables examined above. The

difference is that we use the stacked 1970 and 1990 data sets to estimate the following

equation:

(3) outcomeit = β0 + γt Xit

parents + αt Xitpre-college + λ 1(HBCUit) + δ 1(1990it)

+ θ 1(HBCUit)·1(1990it) + εit,

where the i subscript indexes an individual and the t subscript reveals whether the

observation is from a 1970s or 1990s college student. The parameter vectors γ and α have t

subscripts indicating that they are allowed to differ for 1970s and 1990s college attendees.

The equation also includes separate intercepts for attending a HBCU and whether the

observation is from a 1990s college attendee. The parameter of interest is θ, which is

associated with the interaction between the HBCU indicator and the indicator for an

observation from the 1990s. This parameter is a difference in differences (DD) estimate

of HBCU attendance and is equal to the difference of the cross-sectional HBCU estimates

(e.g., column 2 in Table 3).263

In column (1), the dependent variable is the natural logarithm of wages. For this regression,

the nationally representative NLS and B&B data files are used. The other seven

dependent variables are taken from the 1976 and 1989 C&B samples, which focused on a

subset of elite HBCUs and TWIs. Howard and Spellman attendees are dropped from the

sample, just as in column (2) of Table 6.

The results summarize the change in the relative returns to HBCU attendance over the

two decades. The first four “objective” outcomes (i.e., those where a higher value of the

dependent variable would be considered a positive) suggest that the returns to HBCU

attendance have declined. Specifically, the point estimates suggest a 20% decline in wages,

a 13% decline in the fraction of students who would attend the same college again, and

substantial declines in the leadership and social interactions indices. The other three

262 We are grateful to Lani Gunier for pointing out this possibility.

263 The C&B results are not identical to the difference between the 1989 and 1976 results in Table 6 because

that table reports on the kernel matching results, while Table 7 relies on least squares adjustment for the

covariates.
122 The Educational Effectiveness of Historically Black Colleges and Universities

“objective” outcomes, which measure political participation, social/civic service, and

donations to national charities, all show an increase between the two C&B classes. The

non-objective measure indicates that HBCU attendees became less likely to live in

integrated neighborhoods. It is noteworthy that all of these estimates are economically and

statistically significant.

B. Robustness of the Result that HBCUs’ Performance Worsened between the 1970s and

1990s

This subsection reports on some checks that aim to explore the robustness of the basic

result that the economic returns to attending a HBCU declined. Many obvious

explanations fail to explain the differences. We have ensured, through the use of Federal

Interagency Committee on Education codes, that the definition of HBCUs is consistent

across data sets and over time. Moreover, the addition of more control variables, such as

occupational choice indicators or a richer set of academic variables, fails to explain the

differences. Further, differential labor market dropout rates cannot explain the change.

Selection of students into (or by) colleges is a potential explanation with some intuitive

appeal, but the available data fail to support it. For example, Table 2 demonstrates that, if

anything, selection on observables appears to work in the opposite direction. Students with

higher scores on aptitude tests and better home environments are more likely to attend

HBCUs in the 1990s, relative to the 1970s.

Nevertheless, we further explored the role of selection on observables. Specifically, we

stacked the observations with non-missing wages from the NLS and B&B and estimated a

weighted probit for whether the observation was from the NLS (i.e., the 1970s).264 We

then calculated the predicted probabilities that the B&B (i.e., 1990s) observations are from

the NLS. These predicted probabilities are multiplied by the sampling weight and this

product is used as a weight in the fitting of the Table 3 column 2 OLS specification. This

weighting scheme aims to ensure that the distribution of observables is similar across the

NLS and B&B.265

The result of this procedure is that the estimated impact of HBCU attendance on wages in

the B&B declines from -13.8% (standard error of 0.050) to -18.7% (standard error of

0.056). It is evident that this approach only increases the relative worsening of HBCU

attendees’ labor market performance between the 1970s and 1990s. Although we cannot

rule out selection on unobservables, it seems reasonable to conclude that the results aren’t

due to differences in observable characteristics.

Another possibility is that due to the relatively small sample sizes, the quality of the HBCUs

and TWIs represented in the NLS and B&B differed. To explore this, we used US News

and World Report (2006) to obtain the current midpoint of the 25th-75th percentile SAT range

for all the HBCUs and TWIs represented by the valid observations in the data files. This

264 The weights are adjusted sampling weights, where the adjustment ensures that they sum to 1 within the NLS

observations and within the B&B observations. The covariates in the probit are the standard controls used

throughout the paper (e.g., in column (2) of Table 3).

265 This method is a variant of Dinardo, Fortin, and Lemieux (1996).
The Causes and Consequences of Attending Historically Black Colleges and Universities 123

information is only available for a subset of the observations.266 Nevertheless, these data

indicate that the gap in average SAT scores between the HBCUs and TWIs chosen by the

respondents in our analysis decreased between the two decades. Among the colleges and

universities in our sample, SAT scores in TWIs were 236.1 points higher than HBCUs in the

1970s and 226.2 higher in the 1990s. Thus, the available evidence suggests that the results

are not due to a change in the composition of HBCUs and TWIs between the NLS and

B&B.

C. Did HBCUs Decline or Did TWIs Improve?

If the estimated decline is causal, the source of the relative decline in HBCUs’ performance

is unlikely to be important for public policy purposes. Nevertheless, it would be of

considerable interest to researchers and educational practitioners to understand whether it is

due to a decline in the performance of HBCUs or an improvement in TWIs. An answer to

this question could lead to the design of more effective educational programs for blacks.

One potential explanation is that HBCUs’ financial position weakened between the 1970s

and 1990s leading to a decline in the quality of the educational environment at HBCUs. This

explanation has some intuitive appeal, because HBCUs experienced enrollment declines in

this period and Hoxby (2000) suggests that the nationalization of the higher education market

has hurt smaller colleges and universities. However, the data don’t appear to support this

explanation. Specifically on a host of input measures, including financial information,

faculty compensation, research grants received, and composition of faculty with various

degrees, there is little evidence that the relative quality of HBCUs has declined in substantial

ways (Provasnik, Shafer, and Snyder 2004).

Expenditures per student are perhaps the best measure of the quality of the education that

these schools provided. Data on educational expenditures at HBCU and non-HBCU

schools is available from the Higher Education General Information Survey from 1970-

1984 and the Integrated Postsecondary Education Data System from 1985-2004 through

the ICPSR web site. In 2000 dollars, educational expenditures per student increased from

$9,423 to $11,996 between 1974 and 1991 at HBCUs and $8,468 to $10,560 at TWIs.267

(The years 1974 and 1991 are chosen, because they are roughly in the middle of the prime

college attendance years of the students in the NLS and B&B, respectively.) Put another way,

real educational expenditures per student increased by 27.3% at HBCUs between 1974 and

1991, compared to 24.7% at TWIs. It is evident that data reject the hypothesis that the

decline in returns to HBCU attendance is due to a decline in their quality as measured by

expenditures. It is also notable that the level of education expenditures per student was

greater at HBCUs in both the 1970s and 1990s.

266 We matched 92.3% of the HBCUs and 84.0% of the TWIs represented in the NLS. For the B&B, these

numbers were 88.9% and 82.7%, respectively. Unfortunately, many of the colleges represented in these data

files do not report SAT information in US News and World Report (2006). Specifically, we obtained SAT

information for 29.2% of the HBCU attendees and 49.0% of the TWI attendees in the NLS and for 33.0% of

HBCU attendees and 49.2% TWI attendees in the B&B.

267 Educational expenditures is the sum of expenditures made from the current funds that relate to the functions

of instruction, research, public service, academic support, student services, institutional support, operation and

maintenance.
124 The Educational Effectiveness of Historically Black Colleges and Universities

An alternative explanation is that TWIs became more effective at educating blacks between

the 1970s and 1990s in ways that aren’t reflected in spending. After all, the 1970s are not

far removed from the civil rights struggle, campus sit-ins and boycotts, and battles over

even allowing black students to enroll in many Southern TWIs. Further, it has been noted

that many TWIs were not convivial places for black students in the 1970s (Patton 2005). A

related theory that is empirically indistinguishable is that society has changed so that there

is a greater premium on cross-racial connections.

To explore this possibility credibly, it is essential to have a counterfactual for blacks’

changing experiences at TWIs. After all, it is possible that TWIs became more effective

educational institutions for all students between the 1970s and 1990s. We use whites’

experiences at TWIs as a counterfactual in the following equation:

(4) outcomeit = β0 + γrt Xit

parents + αrt Xitpre-college + λ 1(Blackit) + δ 1(1990it)

+ θ 1(Blackit) ·1(1990it) + εit,

where (again) the i subscript indexes an individual, the t subscript reveals whether the

observation is from a 1970s or 1990s college student, and r references race. The vectors

γ and α have “rt” subscripts, indicating that they may vary by race, time period, or both.

The equation also includes separate intercepts for black students and whether the

observation is from a 1990 college attendee. The parameter of interest is θ, which is

associated with the interaction between the Black indicator and the indicator for an

observation from the 1990s attendees. This parameter is a difference in differences (DD)

estimator and reports on whether the returns for TWI attendance increased between the

1970s and 1990s for blacks, relative to whites. All HBCU attendees are dropped from the

estimating samples in all specifications.

Panel B of Table 7 reports on the estimation of equation (4) for the natural logarithm of

wages only, since this is the variable of interest available in the nationally representative

data files. The column (1) specification constrains the γ and α vectors to be constant

across races and periods. The column (2) one allows them to differ across decades but

holds them constant across whites and blacks within a decade (i.e., in the same survey). In

column (3), they are allowed to vary across races but are restricted to be constant across

decades.

The column (3) specification suggests that among TWI attendees, the wages of blacks

increased by 13.4% more than wages of whites between 1970 and 1990. This estimate is

statistically significant and would account for roughly two-thirds of the relative decline in

the wages of black HBCU attendees in Panel A. The point estimates are also positive in the

other two specifications, but they are smaller and statistically indistinguishable from zero.

The difference in the results across the three specifications is due to the choices about the y

and a parameter vectors. It is important to note that F-tests lead to rejections of the

hypotheses that the parameter vectors are equal across decades (column 2) and race

(column 3), so the column (1) specification is just too parsimonious. The R-squared

statistic is largest in the column (2) specification but so is the standard error on the parameter

of interest. We also experimented with a model that allowed the parameter vectors to vary
The Causes and Consequences of Attending Historically Black Colleges and Universities 125

with indicators for the interaction of decade and race, but the resulting estimates had little

empirical content.268

We are unaware of good reasons to favor either the column (2) or column (3)

specifications, so we are left with two specifications that appear to have equal standing.

One suggests that roughly two-thirds of the decline in the relative wages of HBCU attendees

is due to improvements in TWIs’ efficacy at educating Blacks. The other produces an

imprecise estimate that if taken literally implies that this explanation has little empirical

backing. Both have confidence intervals with significant overlap. The sober conclusion is

that the data fail to reject the possibility that TWIs became more effective at educating blacks

between the 1970s and 1990s, but they also fail to provide decisive evidence in favor of

this possibility.

VIII. Conclusion

Historically Black Colleges and Universities are an integral and proud part of Black history

and culture. For generations, these institutions have educated Blacks and produced leaders

in government, business, entertainment, and the academy. Yet, their reliance on public

funding and the Fordice decision mean that it is more important than ever to understand the

causes and consequences of matriculation at HBCUs.

Existing evidence on the effects of attending Historically Black Colleges and Universities

has typically concentrated on either degree attainment or future wages. In this paper, we take

a more holistic approach – analyzing three large data sets with adequate pre and post

college information, a student’s choice of college, and myriad social and economic

outcomes to paint a rich portrait of the experiences of black students at Historically Black

Colleges and Universities, relative to their counterparts who choose to attend non-HBCUs

now and over time. Consistent with the charge from the high court, we search for “educational

justification.”

Several important results from this search have emerged. The nationally representative

datasets reveal an important change in the returns to HBCU attendance. In the 1970s HBCU

matriculation was associated with higher wages and an increased probability of graduation,

relative to attending a TWI. By the 1990s, however, there is a substantial wage penalty. In

fact, there is a statistically significant 20% decline in the relative wages of HBCU graduates

between the two decades. Notably, relative measures of student quality (e.g., SAT scores)

improved among HBCU attendees during this period, so higher achieving students were

increasingly choosing these schools at the same time that the schools appear to have fallen

behind. Finally, there is also some evidence of a relative decline in the performance of elite

HBCUs from the College and Beyond.

The analysis has unearthed some important clues as to why HBCUs’ relative

performance declined in this period. The data provide some support for the possibility that

268 This model is too demanding of the data. Recall, all of our controls are indicator variables so issues of

multicollinearity are an especial concern. As a measure of this problem, the standard error on the parameter of

interest (θ) is more than 9 times larger than the one in column (1).
126 The Educational Effectiveness of Historically Black Colleges and Universities

HBCUs’ relative decline is partially due to improvements in TWIs’ efficacy in educating

Blacks, but this evidence certainly isn’t decisive. In contrast, the data reject a number of

seemingly intuitive explanations, including relative declines in the pre-college credentials

of students attending HBCUs and in educational expenditures per student at HBCUs. This

question of why HBCUs’ performance declined merits further research, although the

identification of the exact channel is unlikely to be important for policy purposes.

In summary, the evidence presented in this paper suggests that relative to TWIs, HBCUs

may have provided unique educational services for blacks in the 1970s. However by the

1990s, this advantage seems to have disappeared on many dimensions and by some

measures HBCU attendance appears to retard black progress.

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Appendix: Data Description

General structure of dummy variables used on right-hand side of regressions

 Family income

Five dummy variables: family income in 1972 dollars less than $3,000, $3,000 to $5,999,

$6,000 to $8,999, greater than or equal to $9,000, and missing. We omitted the less than

$3,000 category.

 Parents’ education

For each parent, four dummy variables: less than bachelor’s degree, bachelor’s degree, more

than bachelor’s degree, and missing. We omitted the less than bachelor’s degree category.

 Test scores

For combined SAT scores, four dummy variables: less than 600, 600 to 800, greater than

800, and missing. For composite ACT scores, four dummy variables: less than 11, 11 to 15,

greater than 15, and missing. We omitted the lowest category in each case.

 High school grades

Four dummy variables: GPA on a four-point scale less than 2.5, from 2.5 to 3.5, greater than

3.5, and missing. We omitted the lowest category.

 Binary variables (sex, rural, South, private high school) Three dummy variables:

each of the binary possibilities, and missing.

NLS 1972

 Race

The dataset contains numerous race variables collected in different years. In 29 cases, these

variables are not mutually consistent. We identified black and white students using the

composite race variable in the 1974 data, because this variable is missing in the fewest

cases.

 Sex

The dataset contains several sex variables collected in different years. In 22 cases among

the students whom we identified as black, these variables are not mutually consistent. We

identified students as male or female according to the composite sex variable in the 1974

data.

 HBCU attendance

We investigated the effect of a student's first college being a historically black institution. In

each wave of the survey, students were asked whether they had attended any institution of

higher education since the previous wave. If they had, they reported the name of the

institution; whether it was a vocational school, a two-year college, or a four-year college; and

the first date on which they attended this school. We compared the dates of attendance at all

four-year colleges reported to find the first four-year college attended, if any. The survey

includes a unique numerical code for each college; we used these codes to determine whether

the first college was historically black. We restricted our sample to students who reported

attending at least one four-year college. We did not use the transcript data in the NLS to

determine whether a student went to college and, if so, what college the student attended first

because transcripts are sometimes missing.

 Wages and employment status

We computed hourly wages only for full-time workers, whom we defined as individuals who

worked at least 30 hours per week. Respondents were asked in 1986 to report their salary in
The Causes and Consequences of Attending Historically Black Colleges and Universities 129

their current or most recent job. The wage could be reported in hourly, weekly, bi-weekly,

monthly or yearly increments. Respondents also said how many hours they worked per week

in this job. For full-time workers who reported a weekly salary, we converted to an

hourly wage by dividing the salary by hours worked per week. We divided biweekly

salaries by two times the hours worked per week, monthly salaries by (52/12) times the hours

worked per week, and yearly salaries by 52 times the hours worked per week. We did not

create the wage variable for individuals whose calculated wages were extremely low or high

wages. We considered a calculated wage to be too low if it was less than half the federal

minimum wage in 1986 ($3.35). We also rejected as an outlier one individual whose

calculated wage was more than $14,000 per hour; all other calculated wages were less than

$1,000 per hour. We converted wages to 1982-1984 dollars by dividing by the 1986 CPI-U.

 Family income

In 1972, students were asked, “What is the approximate income before taxes of your parents (or

guardian)? Include taxable and non-taxable from all sources.”

 Parents’ education

We used the composite father’s education and composite mother’s education variables in the

1974 data.

 Test scores

The combined SAT score is the sum of the reported SAT math and verbal scores. The data

include the composite ACT score.

 High school grades

In 1972, students were asked, “Which of the following best describes your grades so far in

high school?” The options were: 1) mostly A, 2) about half A and half B, 3) mostly B, and

so on up to 7) mostly D, and 8) mostly below D. Call the reported number X. We

approximated the student’s grade point average on a four-point scale by (9-X)/2, which

works out to 4.0 for students reporting mostly A’s, 3.0 for students reporting mostly B’s,

and so on.

 Rural The variable is one if the student reported living in a rural or farming community.

 South

The variable is one if the student’s reported region of residence in high school was in the

South.

 Private high school

The variable is one if the student’s high school principal or counselor described the school as

private or Catholic.

 Post-secondary education

Respondents were asked, “As of the first week of February 1986, what was your highest

level of education?” In addition, the data include transcripts from most post-secondary

institutions that respondents attended. We considered a respondent to have a bachelor’s

degree if the person reported completing college or receiving a master’s degree, doctorate or

advanced professional degree, or if any of the transcripts showed a bachelor’s degree. We

considered a person to have received a graduate degree if the person reported receiving a

master’s degree, doctorate or advanced professional degree, or if any of the transcripts

showed such a degree.

To determine whether a person had attended graduate school, we began with the selfreported information on post-secondary attendance that we had used to identify the first

college attended. Respondents were asked, “What kind of certificate, license, diploma, or
130 The Causes and Consequences of Attending Historically Black Colleges and Universities

degree were you studying for?” We considered the respondent to have attended graduate

school if, at any time, he or she reported studying for a master’s degree, a doctorate or an

advanced professional degree. In addition, any respondent who never reported studying for a

graduate degree, but whose transcripts showed such a degree, was coded as having attended

graduate school.

 College majors

We considered the student’s major for the first bachelor’s degree received, based on the

dates shown on the student’s transcripts. The data include 661 six-digit codes for college

majors. We categorized any of the 74 codes beginning with 06, 07 and 08 as a business

major; any of the 53 codes beginning with 11, 14, 27 and 40 as a major in computer

science, mathematics, physical science or engineering; and any of the 108 codes beginning

with 17, 18 and 26, plus code 190503, as a major in health or biological science.

The categorization was chosen to match as nearly as possible the much less specific categories

used in the Baccalaureate and Beyond data. If a student received two bachelor’s degrees

on the same date, we counted the student as having a major in a particular field if either

degree showed a major in that field.

 Utility measures

In 1986, respondents were asked “how do you feel about” the following statements: “I take

a positive attitude toward myself”; “I feel I am a person of worth, on an equal plane with

others”; and “I am able to do things as well as most other people.” Respondents could say

they agreed strongly, agreed, disagreed, disagreed strongly, or had no opinion. We converted

these questions to binary variables by coding “agree strongly” and “agree” as a positive

response, “disagree” and “disagree strongly” as a negative response, and “no opinion” as

missing.

 Weights

We used the nonresponse-adjusted weight for participants in the 1986 fifth follow-up

survey.

B&B 1997

 Race

Respondents were asked their race in the 1993 survey; they were then asked to confirm or

correct this selection in the 1994 survey. We limited the sample to students who identified

themselves as black in the 1994 survey.

 Sex

Respondents were asked their gender when it was not obvious to the interviewer.

 HBCU attendance

We investigated the effect of receiving a bachelor’s degree from a HBCU. The data contain

a variable indicating whether the student received a bachelor’s degree from a HBCU,

transferred from a HBCU to the degree institution, or both. The variable is missing either

if the student is known never to have attended a HBCU or if there is no information on

whether the student ever attended a HBCU. We checked this variable by merging the school

codes for bachelor’s degree institutions to our list of HBCUs. Among black students, the

only discrepancies were in 10 cases where the HBCU variable in the data was missing but
The Causes and Consequences of Attending Historically Black Colleges and Universities 131

our list showed that the school was a HBCU. We used the results from merging the school

codes to our list.

 Wages and employment status

We divided the annual salary recorded for the respondent’s April 1997 job by 52 times

the average number of hours worked per week. The data define full-time workers as nonteachers who worked at least 30 hours per week and teachers who described themselves as

working full time. We rejected as outliers three cases where the calculated hourly wage

was less than half the federal minimum wage in 1997 ($5.15). We found no implausibly

high wages. We converted wages to 1982-1984 dollars by dividing by the 1997 CPI-U.

 Family income

We used family income in 1991 and converted to 1972 dollars by dividing by the annual CPIU. For students who were their parents’ dependents in 1991, total family taxed and untaxed

income was obtained, in order of priority, from the student’s financial aid application, a

telephone interview of parents, a telephone interview of the student, the student’s Pell grant

file, or the student loan file. For students who were not their parents’ dependents, the variable

is the student’s own taxed and untaxed income. This was obtained, in order of priority, from

the financial aid application, the student’s phone interview, the student’s Pell grant file, or the

student loan file.

 Parents’ education

The data contain variables from 1994 and 1997 indicating each parent’s highest level of

education. The only cases in which these variables disagree are where one of them is

missing. We combined them.

 Test scores

The data list combined SAT scores and composite ACT scores.

 South

The variable is one if the parents’ state of legal residence was Alabama, Arkansas,

Delaware, the District of Columbia, Florida, Georgia, Kentucky, Louisiana, Maryland,

Mississippi, North Carolina, Oklahoma, South Carolina, Tennessee, Texas, Virginia or West

Virginia.

 Private high school

The variable is one if the student said he or she graduated from a Catholic, other religious, or

nonreligious private high school.

 Post-secondary education

All students in this dataset received a bachelor’s degree. The data contains variables listing

the highest degree a student reported receiving after the bachelor’s and the highest-level

degree program in which the student enrolled after receiving the bachelor’s. The degrees

that can be listed in these variables are: doctorate, first professional, post-master’s

certificate, MBA, master’s, bachelor’s, associate’s, and other certificate or license. We

classify the student as having received a graduate degree or attended a graduate program if

the variable lists a doctorate, first professional degree, post-master’s certificate, MBA or

master’s. We verified that all students who received graduate degrees are listed as having

attended a graduate program.

 College majors

The dataset contains a composite variable indicating the student’s major that was compiled

from student surveys, transcripts and financial aid records. This variable lists 12 broad
132 The Causes and Consequences of Attending Historically Black Colleges and Universities

categories of majors. We record a physical science major if this variable lists the major as

engineering or “mathematics and other sciences,” which consist of computer science and

physical sciences. We record a health and biological science major when the variable

indicates a major in either “health professions” or “biological science.” We record a

business major when the variable indicates “business and management.”

 Weights

We weighted by the nonresponse-adjusted weight for respondents to the 1997 survey.

College and Beyond

 Race

The institutional data files contain two variables indicating the student’s ethnicity. We

limited the sample to students listed as black in either of these variables.

 Sex

From the institutional data.

 HBCU attendance

The four HBCUs in the College and Beyond sample are Howard University, Morehouse

College, Spelman College and Xavier University of Louisiana.

 Wages and employment status

Respondents reported their annual pre-tax earned income, including income from jobs; net

income from businesses, farms or rent; pensions; and Social Security. They were instructed not

to include income from dividends and interest and not to count the income of other family

members. They reported income in 10 categories. We take the midpoint of each bracket

except the top bracket, which is $200,000 or more. For the top bracket, we follow Dale

and Krueger (2002) and use the average income shown in the 1990 census for college

graduates in the appropriate cohort who earned more than $200,000 per year. We

included all individuals with reported income in our regressions.

We also considered full-time employment as an outcome. Respondents were asked, “Are

you currently working for pay or profit?” If they answered yes, they were asked whether

they were working “only or mostly full-time,” “some full-time and some part-time,” or

“only or mostly part-time.” We coded only the first of these categories as full-time

employment.

 Family income

We used the family income variable from the HERI student survey; this is a categorical

variable. We converted to 1972 dollars using the CPI-U.

 Parents’ education

When a parent’s education is listed as “attended or graduated from college (can’t tell)”, we

categorized the parent as having less than a bachelor’s degree.

 Test scores

We used SAT scores from the Educational Testing Service file and ACT scores from the

institutional data.

 High school grades

We obtained high school grades from the HERI student survey. This variable lists the

student’s average high school grade as either D, C, C+, B-, B, B+, A-, and A or A+. We

treat D as a GPA of 1, C as a GPA of 2, C+ as a GPA of 2.33, B- as a GPA of 2.67, B as a

GPA of 3, B+ as a GPA of 3.33, A- as a GPA of 3.67, and A or A+ as a GPA of 4.
The Causes and Consequences of Attending Historically Black Colleges and Universities 133

 South

The variable is one if, when he or she applied to college, the student lived in Alabama,

Arkansas, Delaware, the District of Columbia, Florida, Georgia, Kentucky, Louisiana,

Maryland, Mississippi, North

Carolina, Oklahoma, South Carolina, Tennessee, Texas, Virginia or West Virginia.

 Private high school

The variable is one if the student attended a parochial or private high school.

 Post-secondary education

Respondents were asked in the follow-up survey whether they had received a bachelor’s

degree. For each of more than 20 kinds of graduate and professional degrees, respondents

were asked whether they had studied for the degree and whether they had actually received it.

We combined these responses into binary variables indicating whether the respondent studied

for or received any graduate degree.

 College majors

The data list up to two majors for each student. We recorded a major in physical science if

either major was engineering, computer and information sciences, mathematics,

astronomy/atmospheric sciences, chemistry, geological sciences, physics, or other physical

sciences. We recorded a major in health or biological sciences if either major was biological

sciences, pre-med, nursing, dentistry, or health sciences. We recorded a major in business if

either major was business and management.

In 1989, five major codes – 345, 734, 905, 920 and 980 – appear in the data but not in the

codebook. A total of 17 black students have one of these codes. We assumed none of these

codes represented a physical science, a health or biological science, or a business field.

 Development as an undergraduate

Respondents indicated on a one-to-five scale, where five represented “a great deal” and one

represented “not at all,” how much their undergraduate experiences helped them develop in

each of 15 areas. We kept these variables in continuous form.

 Job satisfaction

Respondents were asked about 13 aspects of job satisfaction. In each category, they could

indicate they were “very satisfied,” “somewhat satisfied,” or “not satisfied.” We converted

these variables to binary form by coding “very satisfied” as one and “somewhat” or “not

satisfied” as zero. We examined each of the 13 binary variables separately. We also

computed the first principal component of the 13 binary variables and examined the

resulting continuous variable.

 Utility measures

Respondents were asked: “In general, how satisfied would you say you are with your life

right now?”and “Overall, how satisfied have you been with the undergraduate education you

received at the school at which you first enrolled?” The possible responses were “very

satisfied,” “somewhat satisfied,” “neither satisfied nor dissatisfied,” “somewhat dissatisfied,”

and “very dissatisfied.” We converted these to binary variables by coding “very” and

“somewhat satisfied” as one and the remaining categories as zero.

Respondents were also asked, “Imagine that you had your life to live over again and were

graduating from high school. Knowing what you do now, how likely is it that you would

choose the same undergraduate school?” Possible responses were “very likely,” “somewhat
134 The Causes and Consequences of Attending Historically Black Colleges and Universities

likely,” and “not likely. We converted this to a binary variable by coding “very” and

“somewhat likely” as one and “not likely” as zero.

 Academic outcomes index

The first principal component of the dummy variables for majoring in business, majoring in

physical science/mathematics/computer science/engineering, majoring in biological

science/health, receiving a bachelor’s degree, attending graduate school, and receiving a

graduate degree.

 Subjective academic index

The first principal component of the dummy variable for being satisfied with the

undergraduate education; the dummy variable for being likely to choose the same

undergraduate school again; the dummy variable for reporting that anyone took a special

interest in one’s work at the undergraduate school; a variable that rates on a one-to-five scale

how much the undergraduate education helped develop analytical and problem-solving skills;

and a variable that rates on a one-to-five scale how much the undergraduate education

helped develop knowledge of a particular field.

 Subjective labor market index

The first principal component of dummy variables for whether the person reported being

very satisfied with the following characteristics of the current job: intellectual challenge,

flexible schedule, high level of responsibility, low stress, working environment, job

security, employer-supported child care, fair treatment of women and minorities, high

income, good benefits, promotion opportunities, and service to society.

 Leadership/lifestyle index

The first principal component of variables rating, on a one-to-five scale, how much the

undergraduate education helped develop each of the following: leadership abilities, interest

in community service, religious values, ability to communicate orally, competitiveness,

ability to work cooperatively, ability to relax or enjoy leisure, ability to write clearly and

effectively, and ability to adapt to change.

 Social interactions index

The first principal component of variables rating, on a one-to-five scale, how much the

undergraduate education helped develop each of the following: ability to form and retain

friendships, ability to have rapport with people of different beliefs, and ability to work and

get along with people of different races.

 Other outcome variables

The other outcome variables we studied are binary in the data.

 Weights

Because the College and Beyond surveys included 100% of minority students at the sample

schools, there is no need to use weights.
The Educational Effectiveness of Historically Black Colleges and Universities 135

Table 1: Summary Statistics of Black Students Data Files

definition of HBCU

HBCU TWI HBCU TWI HBCU TWI HBCU TWI HBCU TWI

Pre-College Academic Background

SAT combined 661.77 (114.84) 788.85 (172.68) 677.78 (120.23) 805.60 (198.57) 768.62 (197.61) 832.14 (183.37) 795.50 (161.29) 973.11 (171.39) 891.58 (154.94) 1043.18 (164.37)

ACT composite 12.60 (4.09) 15.13 (4.80) 13.43 (4.90) 15.93 (4.84) 16.52 (4.37) 18.87 (5.39) 12.64 (4.21) 21.17 (4.74) 18.73 (4.55) 22.30 (3.72)

high school GPA 2.86 (0.58) 2.83 (0.65) 2.98 (0.55) 2.88 (0.64) 3.03 (0.51) 3.40 (0.44) 3.15 (0.54) 3.42 (0.41)

private high school 0.158 0.073 0.238 0.082 0.062 0.207 0.214 0.312 0.248 0.300

Pre-College Personal and Family Background

female

family income (1972 $): <$3000 0.198 0.233 0.187 0.116 0.256 0.236 0.132 0.086 0.098 0.071

family income (1972 $): $3000-$5999 0.215 0.183 0.221 0.159 0.174 0.133 0.182 0.149 0.148 0.101

family income (1972 $): $6000-$8999 0.325 0.261 0.376 0.339 0.185 0.146 0.202 0.230 0.082 0.092

family income (1972 $): >=$9000 0.262 0.323 0.215 0.386 0.385 0.485 0.484 0.535 0.672 0.735

father’s education < bachelor’s 0.950 0.867 0.972 0.793 0.572 0.742 0.708 0.606 0.443 0.565

father’s education = bachelor’s 0.033 0.080 0.026 0.140 0.247 0.141 0.197 0.265 0.317 0.240

father’s education > bachelor’s 0.017 0.053 0.002 0.067 0.181 0.117 0.095 0.129 0.240 0.194

mother’s education < bachelor’s 0.925 0.914 0.939 0.886 0.573 0.740 0.670 0.611 0.376 0.554

mother’s education = bachelor’s 0.038 0.052 0.045 0.067 0.192 0.134 0.234 0.273 0.333 0.298

mother’s education > bachelor’s 0.037 0.034 0.016 0.047 0.235 0.126 0.096 0.116 0.290 0.149

south 0.866 0.389 0.873 0.340 0.709 0.494 0.622 0.236 0.676 0.237

rural 0.162 0.089 0.167 0.078 - - - - - -

Post-High School Outcomes

income 12.82 (35.70) 10.55 (8.59) 14.46 (45.52) 11.38 (7.70) 7.68 (3.06) 9.12 (3.88) 33145 (26288) 39768 (32222) 16247 (11460) 18634 (17450)

ln (income) 2.16 (0.61) 2.21 (0.52) 2.20 (0.62) 2.32 (0.46) 1.97 (0.37) 2.14 (0.38) 10.11 (0.93) 10.26 (1.01) 9.28 (1.20) 9.42 (1.17)

physical science major 0.074 0.025 0.051 0.040 0.139 0.083 0.147 0.127 0.268 0.146

biological science major 0.075 0.103 0.077 0.101 0.075 0.146 0.212 0.144 0.284 0.107

business major 0.183 0.333 0.191 0.324 0.317 0.245 0.185 0.078 0.263 0.085

attended graduate school 0.321 0.197 0.492 0.347 0.361 0.299 0.538 0.648 0.482 0.522

received graduate degree 0.104 0.128 0.183 0.220 0.096 0.097 0.314 0.482 0.404 0.440

received bachelor’s degree 0.648 0.560 1.000 1.000 1.000 1.000 0.782 0.896 0.815 0.913

treated unfairly in job because of race 0.211 0.212 0.214 0.159 - - - - - -

employed full time 0.823 0.946 0.762 0.937 0.914 0.954 0.571 0.669 0.580 0.574

satisfied with life 0.735 0.815 0.660 0.924 - - 0.829 0.829 0.810 0.791

would choose same college again - - - - - - 0.670 0.543 0.653 0.657

college developed ability to get along with other races (1-5 scale) - - - - - - 3.608 (1.262) 3.561 (1.288) 3.468 (1.372) 3.947 (1.197)

fraction black in zip code - - - - - - 0.597 0.565 0.532 0.345

participates in political activities - - - - - - 0.335 0.317 0.634 0.465

participates in religious activities - - - - - - 0.641 0.561 0.727 0.605

participates in civil rights activities - - - - - - 0.533 0.529 0.711 0.614

participates in social service activities - - - - - - 0.255 0.299 0.613 0.500

participates in alumni activities - - - - - - 0.372 0.374 0.668 0.579

Sample Size Details

Observations 260 364 164 224 172 415 983 1142 623 1162

Number with Missing Values for at least 1 Variable 259 360 164 219 172 415 983 1142 623 1162

Number with Missing Values for Wages 57 71 32 48 48 113 20 123 12 14

0.615

Notes: The entries report the means of variables listed in the row headings. For SAT combined, ACT composite, high school GPA, income, and "college developed ability to get along with races" we also report the standard deviation in parentheses. The NLS

and BB income variables are hourly wages reported in 1986 and 1997, respectively. The C&B income variables are annual income reported in 1995 for the 1976 sample, and in 1996 for the 1989 sample. The income and ln (income) variables are reported in

1982-1984 dollars, using the CPI-Urban.

C&B (1989)

first college

0.707 0.630 0.737 0.587 0.721 0.639 0.566 0.602 0.390

NLS (1972)

first college

NLS (1972)

bachelor’s degree college

B&B (1997)

bachelor’s degree college

C&B (1976)

first college
136 The Causes and Consequences of Attending Historically Black Colleges and Universities

Table 2: Determinants of HBCU Attendance Among Blacks in NLS and BB

Dataset NLS (1972) NLS (1972) BB (1997)

HBCU Definition first college bachelor's degree college bachelor's degree college

(1) (2) (3)

SAT: 600-800 -0.170 -0.012 -0.032

(0.072) (0.112) (0.128)

SAT: >800 -0.320 -0.226 -0.067

(0.049) (0.081) (0.120)

ACT: 11-15 -0.116 -0.306 0.130

(0.112) (0.058) (0.200)

ACT: >15 -0.213 -0.296 -0.167

(0.083) (0.062) (0.109)

family income: $3000-$5999 0.018 0.010 0.064

(0.079) (0.117) (0.089)

family income: $6000-$8999 -0.069 -0.174 0.073

(0.077) (0.092) (0.099)

family income: >=$9000 0.062 -0.014 -0.058

(0.088) (0.113) (0.063)

father's education: bachelor's -0.031 -0.154 0.165

(0.144) (0.130) (0.087)

father's education: >bachelor's -0.130 -0.318 0.127

(0.112) (0.036) (0.110)

mother's education: bachelor's 0.097 0.230 0.144

(0.145) (0.182) (0.086)

mother's education: >bachelor's 0.082 0.035 0.280

(0.133) (0.156) (0.115)

south 0.429 0.473 0.126

(0.049) (0.060) (0.054)

private high school -0.065 0.099 -0.139

(0.132) (0.153) (0.059)

female 0.033 0.024 0.047

(0.053) (0.069) (0.057)

Observations 496 308 424

pseudo R-squared 0.24 0.31 0.15

Notes: The table reports the results from the estimation of probits for the probability of enrolling at a HBCU

(column 1) and graduating from a HBCU (columns 2 and 3). All of the explanatory variables noted in the row

headings are indicators, so the entries report the discrete change in the probability associated with a change in

value from zero to one and the associated heteroskedastic-consistent standard error. (The standard errors in

the columns (1) and (2) are clustered by high school.) The omitted categories are SAT<600, ACT<11, family

income <$3000, father’s education <bachelor’s, mother’s education <bachelor’s. The models also include

dummy variables for each category whose value is one when the categorical variable is missing. The samples

are limited to blacks with measured 1986 wages (NLS) or measured 1997 wages (B&B). In the B&B, two

observations were dropped because a regressor perfectly predicted the outcome. See the text for further details.
The Educational Effectiveness of Historically Black Colleges and Universities 137

Table 3: Effect of HBCU Attendance on Wages in NLS and BB

Linear Regression

without Controls

Linear Regression

with Controls

Propensity Score

Kernel Matching

Propensity Score

Radius Matching

Selection Correction

for Missing Wages

Dale-Krueger

with Controls

(1) (2) (3) (4) (5) (6)

A.National Longitudinal Survey: log (1986 hourly wage); treatment: first college was HBCU

HBCU coefficient -0.051 0.111 0.129 0.134 0.123 .225

(0.078) (0.066) (0.065) (0.066) (0.103) (.094)

R-squared 0.002 0.154

Number HBCU 203 203 203 203 260 98

Number TWI 293 293 293 286 364 151

B.National Longitudinal Survey: log (1986 hourly wage); treatment: bachelor's degree from HBCU

HBCU coefficient -0.115 0.060 0.055 0.062 0.111 -

(0.090) (0.083) (0.085) (0.073) (0.071) -

R-squared 0.011 0.150

Number HBCU 132 132 132 132 164 -

Number TWI 176 176 155 155 224 -

C.Baccalaureate and Beyond: log (1997 hourly wage); treatment: bachelor's degree from HBCU

HBCU coefficient -0.166 -0.138 -0.144 -0.142 -0.121 -

(0.051) (0.050) (0.044) (0.041) (0.043) -

R-squared 0.037 0.107

Number HBCU 124 124 124 124 172 -

Number TWI 300 300 278 278 415 -

Notes: The entries in columns (1), (2), (5), and (6) are from least squares regression. In all cases, the coefficient associated with the

HBCU indicator is reported, along with its standard error. The variance-covariance matrix allows for unspecifed heteroskedasticity in

these columns and in the NLS samples we allow for clustering at the high school level. These equations are weighted by the NLS and

B&B sampling weights, respectively. The column (1) estimate is not adjusted for any covariates, while column (2) adds the full set of

independent variables used in the probit in Table 2. Column (5) includes the inverse Mill's ratio that is derived from the estimation of an

equation for missing wages, as well as the column (2) controls. These standard errors fail to account for heteroskedasticity or

clustering. Column (6) adds indicators based on quartiles of the median SAT score at the school with the highest SAT score among the

schools where the student was admitted. All observations with missing or zero wages are dropped.

Columns (3) and (4) report on the propensity score matching results. The former uses a gaussian kernel with a bandwidth of 0.1, while

the latter uses radius matching with a bandwidth of 0.1 and with replacement. The STATA code is available at available at

http://www.lrz-muenchen.de/~sobecker/pscore.html. Standard errors for matching estimates are computed by bootstrapping, with

propensity scores recomputed for each bootstrap sample. The matching estimates are unweighted. Observations are dropped if wages

are missing or zero or propensity score is not strictly between 0 and 1. See the text for more details.
138 The Causes and Consequences of Attending Historically Black Colleges and Universities

Table 4: Effects of HBCU Attendance on Non-Wage Outcomes in NLS and BB

Dataset NLS (1972) NLS (1972) BB (1997)

HBCU Definition first college bachelor's degree college bachelor's degree college

(1) (2) (3)

Employment

employed full time -0.018 0.045 -0.023

(0.021) (0.040) (0.025)

Life Satisfaction

satisfied with life -0.004 -0.078 -

(0.038) (0.049) -

treated unfairly in job -0.027 0.041 -

because of race (0.046) (0.055) -

Academic Outcomes

received bachelor's degree 0.098 - -

(0.049) - -

attended graduate school 0.033 0.025 0.087

(0.042) (0.061) (0.041)

received graduate degree 0.016 0.063 0.016

(0.030) (0.049) (0.036)

physical science major 0.056 0.035 0.072

(0.034) (0.028) (0.029)

biological science major -0.003 0.050 -0.036

(0.047) (0.032) 0.033

business major 0.024 0.026 -0.001

(0.075) (0.073) (0.038)

Notes: The entries report the results from propensity score matching routines. The row headings report the

dependent variables. The samples and treatment are noted in the column headings. The entries report the impact

of HBCU matriculation (graduation), relative to TWI matriculation (graduation). The propensity score is estimated

with a probit and all of the covariates used in Table 2 are included as explanatory variables. The matching method

uses a gaussian kernel with a bandwidth of 0.1. The standard errors (reported in parentheses) are computed by

bootstrapping, with propensity scores recomputed for each bootstrap sample. The estimates are unweighted. For

each outcome, all observations with data on that outcome are used. Observations are dropped if the propensity

score is not strictly between 0 and 1. See the text and notes to Table 3 for more details.
The Educational Effectiveness of Historically Black Colleges and Universities 139

Table 5: Determinants of HBCU Attendance Among Blacks in C&B

Dataset C&B (1976) C&B (1976) C&B (1989)

HBCU Definition first college first college first college

Include Howard, Spelman? yes no no

(1) (2) (3)

SAT: 600-800 -0.212 -0.138 0.620

(0.074) (0.035) (0.021)

SAT: >800 -0.584 -0.512 -0.998

(0.056) (0.075) (0.001)

ACT: 11-15 -0.315 -0.099 -0.124

(0.124) (0.052) (0.180)

ACT: >15 -0.489 -0.167 -0.336

(0.039) (0.025) (0.108)

family income: $3000-$5999 0.005 -0.013 -0.089

(0.067) (0.056) (0.106)

family income: $6000-$8999 -0.059 -0.091 -0.264

(0.064) (0.035) (0.068)

family income: >=$9000 -0.033 -0.105 -0.271

(0.060) (0.042) (0.073)

father's education: bachelor's -0.064 0.152 0.011

(0.053) (0.062) (0.063)

father's education: >bachelor's -0.042 -0.085 -0.065

(0.068) (0.046) (0.070)

mother's education: bachelor's 0.034 0.097 0.144

(0.052) (0.055) (0.068)

mother's education: >bachelor's 0.101 -0.113 0.316

(0.068) (0.039) (0.070)

south 0.350 0.357 0.327

(0.027) (0.035) (0.034)

private high school -0.051 0.093 -0.031

(0.032) (0.033) (0.039)

female -0.077 -0.337 -0.343

(0.028) (0.034) (0.034)

Observations 1982 1152 1414

pseudo R-squared 0.33 0.55 0.48

Notes: The tables reports the results from the estimation of probits for the probability of

enrolling at a HBCU among the C&B 1976 (columns 1 and 2) and C&B 1989 (column 3)

samples of Blacks. All of the explanatory variables (noted in the row headings) are

indicators, so the entries report the discrete change in the probability associated with a

change in value from zero to one and the associated heteroskedastic-consistent standard

error. The omitted categories are: SAT<600, ACT<11, family income <$3000, father's

education < bachelor's, mother's education < bachelor's. The models also include dummy

variables for each category whose value is one when the categorical variable is missing.

The samples are limited to individuals with measured 1995 annual income (C&B 1976) or

measured 1996 annual income (C&B 1989). In the C&B 1976 sample without Howard and

Spelman colleges, 202 observations were dropped because the regressors perfectly

predicted the outcome. In C&B 1989, 345 observations were dropped because the

regressors perfectly predicted the outcome. See the text for further details.
140 The Causes and Consequences of Attending Historically Black Colleges and Universities

Table 6: Effects of HBCU Attendance on Labor Market and Other Outcomes in C&B

Dataset C&B (1976) C&B (1976) C&B (1989)

HBCU Definition first college first college first college

Include Howard, Spelman? yes no no

(1) (2) (3)

Labor Market Outcomes

Ln (Annual Income) -0.074 -0.032 -0.114

(0.069) (0.145) (0.160)

963/1019 335/468 611/711

employed full time 0.099 0.513 -0.181

(0.112) (0.363) (0.202)

110/123 24/10 100/109

subjective labor market index 0.059 0.104 0.032

(0.061) (0.164) (0.123)

972/1135 339/532 550/655

Life Satisfaction

satisfied with life -0.009 -0.046 -0.013

(0.026) (0.044) (0.044)

977/1137 341/536 621/716

college was first choice -0.084 -0.079 -0.063

(0.034) (0.079) (0.058)

932/1108 314/545 613/712

would choose same college 0.177 0.219 -0.048

again (0.035) (0.086) (0.054)

981/1132 340/534 622/717

leadership/lifestyle index 0.417 0.633 0.152

(0.069) (0.157) (0.109)

977/1132 341/530 618/717

social interactions index 0.220 0.357 -0.177

(0.071) (0.169) (0.123)

976/1131 341/530 619/715

college developed ability to 0.423 0.530 0.129

form and retain friendships (0.088) (0.142) (0.124)

966/1100 337/520 613/710

college developed ability to 0.254 0.386 --0.220

have rapport w/ people of different beliefs (0.088) (0.205) (0.116)

966/1121 337/526 614/709

college developed ability to 0.034 0.255 -0.445

get along with other races (0.093) (0.211) (0.170)

961/1124 334/525 613/713

Academic Outcomes

received bachelor's degree -0.105 -0.047 -0.105

(0.025) (0.068) (0.037)

978/1138 339/539 623/718

attended graduate school -0.101 -0.116 -0.019

(0.033) (0.086) (0.059)

983/1142 342/537 623/718

received graduate degree -0.136 -0.149 -0.007

(0.033) (0.082) (0.057)

983/1142 342/537 623/718

academic outcomes index -0.301 -0.296 -0.123

(0.066) (0.185) (0.110)

983/1142 342/537 623/718

subjective academic index 0.165 0.356 -0.201

(0.072) (0.204) (0.096)

982/1138 341/539 623/718

physical science major -0.027 -0.107 0.074

(0.028) (0.080) (0.042)

784/771 269/459 552/636
The Educational Effectiveness of Historically Black Colleges and Universities 141

biological science major 0.087 0.120 0.196

(0.026) (0.051) (0.040)

784/771 269/459 552/636

business major 0.111 0.234 0.214

(0.021) (0.030) (0.028)

784/771 269/459 552/636

Other

fraction black in zip code 0.022 0.081 0.156

(0.025) (0.074) (0.041)

902/669 315/350 602/593

Participation

political 0.019 -0.032 0.216

(0.032) (0.078) (0.065)

983/1142 342/537 623/718

religious 0.039 0.085 0.108

(0.036) (0.087) (0.062)

983/1142 342/537 623/718

civil rights 0.004 0.071 0.105

(0.035) (0.081) (0.063)

983/1142 342/537 623/718

social services -0.024 -0.059 0.116

(0.029) (0.069) (0.063)

983/1142 342/537 623/718

alumni -0.007 0.000 0.030

(0.036) (0.086) (0.056)

983/1142 342/537 623/718

national charity -0.098 -0.168 0.148

(0.038) (0.079) (0.062)

983/1142 342/537 623/718

every observation that has data on at least one variable in the set, by replacing any missing data

with the mean of the corresponding variable. Numbers underneath standard error are number of

HBCU and TWI students, respectively. Observations are dropped if the propensity score is not

strictly between 0 and 1. See the text and notes to Table 3 for more details.

Notes: The entries report the results from propensity score matching routines. The row headings

report the dependent variables. The samples and treatment are noted in the column headings. The

entries report the unweighted impact of HBCU matriculation (graduation), relative to TWI

matriculation (graduation). The propensity score is estimated with a probit and all of the covariates

of variables, normalized to have mean 0 and variance 1. In constructing each index, we include

used in Table 2 are included as explanatory variables. The matching method uses a gaussian

kernel with a bandwidth of 0.1. The standard errors (reported in parentheses) are computed by

bootstrapping, with propensity scores recomputed for each bootstrap sample. For each outcome,

all observations with data on that outcome are used. Indexes are first principal components of sets
142 The Causes and Consequences of Attending Historically Black Colleges and Universities

Table 7: Relative Changes Between the 1970s and 1990s

(1) (2) (3) (4) (5) (6) (7) (8)

A.Sample Restricted to Blacks

Dependent Variable: In (wage) Choose Pct. Black Leadership Social Political Social Service Charity

(NLS/BB) College Again in Zip Code Index Interactions Index

1(HBCU) * 1(1990s) -0.197 -0.133 0.135 -0.329 -0.429 0.138 0.133 0.259

(0.094) (0.055) (0.041) (0.130) (0.129) (0.055) (0.053) (0.056)

Observations 734 3255 2461 3252 3250 3269 3269 3269

R-squared 0.17 0.04 0.16 0.07 0.03 0.08 0.09 0.05

B.Sample Restricted to Blacks and Whites that Attended TWIs

Dependent Variable is ln (wage) from the NLS and BB

1(Black) * 1(1990s) 0.055 0.043 0.134 - - - - -

(0.071) (0.097) (0.065) - - - - -

Observations 9607 9607 9607 - - - - -

R-squared 0.11 0.13 0.11 - - - - -

Controls No Interactions Yes No No - - - - -

Controls Interacted with Decade Indicators No Yes No - - - - -

Controls Interacted with Race Indicators No No Yes - - - - -

Notes: The table reports on the results from fitting equation (3) in Panel A and equation (4) in Panel B. In Panel A, the samples are composed of

stacked data from the NLS and B&B in column (1) and the 1976 and 1989 C&B in columns (2)-(8) and the sample is limited to Blacks The dependent

variable is denoted in the first row of the panel. This Panel's entries report on the parameter estimate associated with the interaction of indicators for

HBCU attendance and for an observation from the 1990s cohort and its heteroskedastic standard error. In Panel B, the sample is comprised of Blacks

and Whites that graduated (colulmn 1) from TWIs. Here, the dependent variable is always ln (hourly wage). This Panel's entries report on the

parameter estimate associated with the interaction of indicators for Black and for an observation from the 1990s cohort and its heteroskedastic standard

error. The covariates are noted in the row headings at the bottom of the panel. In both panels, the sample weights associated with the NLS and B&B

are used with the normalization that the weights for each cohort sum to 1. (In the C&B, all obsevations are weighted equally.) Thus, the two cohorts in

each regression are equally weighted but some observations are counted more heavily than others within a cohort according to the sample weights.

See the text for further details.
The Educational Effectiveness of Historically Black Colleges and Universities 143

Appendix Table 1: Basic Summary Statistics on the Historically Black Colleges and Universities

College or University Location Undergraduate Total Type

Enrollment Enrollment

1 Alabama A&M University Normal, AL 5,047 6,182 Public

2 Alabama State University Montgomery, AL 4,485 5,469 Public

3 Albany State University Albany, GA 3,228 3,649 Public

4 Alcorn State University Alcorn State, MS 2,962 3,544 Public

5 Allen University Columbia, SC 624 624 Private

6 Arkansas Baptist College Little Rock, AR 287 287 Private

7 Benedict College Columbia, SC 2,552 2,552 Private

8 Bennett College Greensboro, NC 572 572 Private

9 Bethune-Cookman College Daytona Beach, FL 3,090 3,090 Private

10 Bluefield State College Bluefield, WV 1,708 1,708 Public

11 Bowie State University Bowie, MD 4,020 5,319 Public

12 Central State University Wilberforce, OH 1,617 1,623 Public

13 Cheyney University of Pennsylvania Cheyney, PA 1,401 1,560 Public

14 Claflin University Orangeburg, SC 1,678 1,728 Private

15 Clark Atlanta University Atlanta, GA 3,667 4,469 Private

16 Coppin State College Baltimore, MD 3,451 4,306 Public

17 Delaware State University Dover, DE 3,440 3,722 Public

18 Dillard University New Orleans, LA 1,993 1,993 Private

19 Edward Waters College Jacksonville, FL 839 839 Private

20 Elizabeth City State University Elizabeth City, NC 2,604 2,664 Public

21 Fayetteville State University Fayetteville, NC 5,029 6,072 Public

22 Fisk University Nashville, TN 864 920 Private

23 Florida A&M University Tallahassee, FL 10,552 12,154 Public

24 Florida Memorial University Miami Gardens, FL 1,945 2,004 Private

25 Fort Valley State University Fort Valley, GA 1,997 2,174 Public

26 Grambling State University Grambling, LA 4,573 5,164 Public

27 Hampton University Hampton, VA 5,325 6,309 Private

28 Harris-Stowe State University St. Louis, MO 1,662 1,662 Public

29 Howard University Washington, DC 7,164 10,930 Private

30 Huston-Tillotson College Auston, TX 675 706 Private

31 Interdenominational Theological Atlanta, GA - 447 Private

32 Jackson State University Jackson, MS 6,660 8,416 Public

33 Jarvis Christian College Hawkins, TX 572 572 Private

34 Johnson C. Smith University Charlotte, NC 1,404 1,404 Private

35 Kentucky State University Frankfort, KY 2,228 2,386 Public

36 Knoxville College Knoxville, TN 300 300 Private

37 Lane College Jackson, TN 1,213 1,213 Private

38 Langston University Langston, OK 3,001 3,151 Public

39 Lemoyne-Owen College Memphis, TN 809 809 Private

40 Lincoln University Jefferson City, MO 2,953 3,180 Public

41 Lincoln University Lincoln University, PA 1,714 2,278 Public

42 Livingstone College Salisbury, NC 895 895 Private

43 Meharry Medical College Nashville, TN - 707 Private

44 Miles College Fairfield, AL 1,758 1,758 Private

45 Mississippi Valley State University Itta Bena, MS 2,748 3,165 Public

46 Morehouse College Atlanta, GA 3,029 3,029 Private

47 Morehouse School of Medicine Atlanta, GA - 272 Private

48 Morgan State University Baltimore, MD 5,747 6,438 Public

49 Morris Brown College Georgia 66 66 Private

50 Morris College Sunter, SC 863 863 Private

51 Norfolk State University Norfolk, VA 5,337 6,096 Public

52 North Carolina A&T State University Greensboro, NC 9,735 11,103 Public

53 North Carolina Central University Durham, NC 6,353 8,219 Public

54 Oakwood College Huntsville, AL 1,751 1,751 Private

55 Paine College Augusta, GA 828 828 Private

56 Paul Quinn College Dallas, TX 790 790 Private

57 Philander Smith College Little Rock, AR 785 785 Private
144 The Causes and Consequences of Attending Historically Black Colleges and Universities

58 Prairie View A&M University Prairie View, TX 5,702 7,912 Public

59 Rust College Holly Springs, MS 970 970 Private

60 Saint Paul's College Lawrenceville, VA 717 717 Private

61 Savannah State University Savannah, GA 2,975 3,091 Public

62 Selma University Selma, AL 287 287 Private

63 Shaw University Raleigh, NC 2,565 2,762 Private

64 South Carolina State University Orangeburg, SC 3,888 4,446 Public

65 Southern University A&M College Baton Rouge, LA 8,969 10,364 Public

66 Southern University at New Orleans New Orleans, LA 2,824 3,647 Public

67 Southwestern Christian College Terrell, TX 251 251 Private

68 Spelman College Atlanta, GA 2,318 2,318 Private

69 St. Augustine's College Raleigh, NC 1,163 1,163 Private

70 Stillman College Tuscaloosa, AL 804 804 Private

71 Talladega College Talladega 368 368 Private

72 Tennessee State University Nashville, TN 7,036 8,880 Public

73 Texas College Tyler, TX 794 807 Private

74 Texas Southern University Houston, TX 9,760 11,903 Public

75 Tougaloo College Tougaloo, MS 933 933 Private

76 Tuskegee University Tuskegee, AL 2,510 2,880 Private

77 University of Arkansas at Pine Bluff Pine Bluff, AR 3,132 3,231 Public

78 University of Maryland Eastern Shore Princess Anne, MD 3,448 3,870 Public

79 University of the District of Columbia Washington, DC 5,169 5,363 Public

80 University of the Virgin Islands Charlotte Amalie, VI 2,185 2,392 Public

81 Virginia State University Petersburg, VA 4,332 5,055 Public

82 Virginia Union University Richmond, VA 1,344 1,700 Private

83 Virginia University of Lynchburg Lynchburg, VA 122 178 Private

84 Voorhees College Denmark, SC 709 709 Private

85 West Virginia State University Institute, WV 3,455 3,491 Public

86 Wilberforce University Wilberforce, OH 1,157 1,170 Private

87 Wiley College Marshall, TX 827 827 Private

88 Winston-Salem State University Winston-Salem, NC 5,264 5,566 Public

89 Xavier University New Orleans, LA 2,343 3,091 Private

Notes: The list of schools is taken from the US Department of Education's web site:

http://www.ed.gov/about/inits/list/whhbcu/edlite-list.html. The location data and enrollment information

(current as of Fall 2005) is from the National Center for Education Statistics's site: http://nces.ed.gov.
The Educational Effectiveness of Historically Black Colleges and Universities 145

Appendix Table 2: Is there Heterogeneity in the Impact of HBCU Attendance in the NLS and B&B?

(1) (2) (3) (4) (5) (6)

A. Propensity score range 0 to 0.5 0.5 to 1.0 0 to 0.5 0.5 to 1.0 0 to 0.5 0.5 to 1.0

Kernel matching 0.141 0.093 0.102 0.043 -0.118 -0.157

(0.077) (0.072) (0.114) (0.098) (0.050) (0.100)

Number HBCU 99 104 44 88 88 36

Number TWI 236 49 116 44 251 18

B. North vs. south North South North South North South

Kernel matching -0.063 0.144 0.091 0.076 -0.125 -0.174

(0.150) (0.065) (0.279) (0.107) (0.141) (0.059)

Number HBCU 28 171 18 111 32 85

Number TWI 96 133 46 76 95 131

C. At least 1 parent has bachelor's No Yes No Yes No Yes

Kernel matching 0.149 -0.011 0.066 - -0.163 -0.117

(0.065) (0.283) (0.098) - (0.058) (0.095)

Number HBCU 177 22 118 11 67 55

Number TWI 240 23 124 0 185 48

D. SAT score Below median Above median Below median Above median Below median Above median

Kernel matching -0.011 0.087 -0.348 0.219 -0.161 0.045

(0.117) (0.166) (0.296) (0.242) (0.087) (0.114)

Number HBCU 58 28 35 18 42 24

Number TWI 37 52 31 23 57 64

E. Male vs. female Male Female Male Female Male Female

Kernel matching -0.078 0.185 -0.035 0.091 -0.291 -0.117

(0.100) (0.071) (0.136) (0.124) (0.109) (0.061)

Number HBCU 67 136 47 85 34 90

Number TWI 69 156 39 76 70 183

Notes: The entries report the results from propensity score matching routines. In all cases, the dependent variable is ln (hourly wage). The sample

and treatment are noted in the column headings. The entries report the impact of HBCU matriculation (graduation), relative to TWI matriculation

(graduation). Panels A-E test for heterogeneity in the impact of HBCU attendance by an estimated propensity score above or below 0.5 (Panel A),

attending high school in the North versus the South (Panel B), whether at least one parent has a bachelor's degree (Panel C), a SAT score above or

below the median in the sample (Panel D), and by gender (Panel E). The propensity score is estimated with a probit and all of the covariates used

in Table 2 are included as explanatory variables. The matching method uses a gaussian kernel with a bandwidth of 0.1. The standard errors

(reported in parentheses) are computed by bootstrapping, with propensity scores recomputed for each bootstrap sample. The estimates are

unweighted. Observations are dropped if wages are missing or zero or the propensity score in the full sample is not strictly between 0 and 1. See

the text and notes to Tables 3 and 4 for more details.

Dataset

HBCU Definition

NLS (1972) NLS (1972) BB (1997)

first college bachelor's degree college bachelor's degree college
146 The Causes and Consequences of Attending Historically Black Colleges and Universities
The Educational Effectiveness of Historically Black Colleges and Universities 147
148 The Causes and Consequences of Attending Historically Black Colleges and Universities
The Educational Effectiveness of Historically Black Colleges and Universities 149
150 The Educational Effectiveness of Historically Black Colleges and Universities

SPEAKER BIOGRAPHIES

LOUIS W. SULLIVAN is the founding Dean and first President of Morehouse School of

Medicine (MSM) in Atlanta, GA. With the exception of his tenure as Secretary of the U.S.

Department of Health and Human Services (HHS) from 1989 to 1993, Dr. Sullivan was

President of MSM for more than two decades. On July 1, 2002, he left the presidency, but

continues to assist in national fund-raising activities on behalf of the school and is an Adjunct

Professor of Medicine.

A native of Atlanta, Dr. Sullivan graduated magna cum laude from Morehouse College, and

earned his medical degree, cum laude, from Boston University School of Medicine. He is

certified in internal medicine and hematology.

Dr. Sullivan became the founding Dean and Director of the Medical Education Program at

Morehouse College in 1975. He left MSM in 1989 to join President George H.W. Bush’s

Cabinet as the Secretary of the U.S. Department of Health and Human Services (HHS). Dr.

Sullivan’s tenure (47 months) stands as one of the longest of any HHS secretary in U.S.

history.

As head of HHS, Dr. Sullivan managed the federal agency responsible for the major health,

welfare, food and drug safety, medical research, and income security programs that serve the

American people. During his time as Secretary, HHS undertook the most extensive food

labeling reform in the country’s history, initiated the Human Genome Project, implemented

major drug approval process reforms, including “parallel track,” and combined 65 separate

programs for children and families (and a supporting staff of 2,000) under a new, unified

operating division, the Administration for Children and Families.

In January 1993, he returned to MSM and resumed the office of president.

Dr. Sullivan is Chairman of the Board of the National Health Museum in Washington, D.C.

and is also Chairman of the Sullivan Commission on Diversity in the Healthcare Workforce

(funded by the Kellogg Foundation). He also serves as Chair of the President’s Board of

Advisors on Historically Black Colleges and Universities, a member of the U. S. Secretary of

Education’s Commission on the Future of Higher Education, and is Co-Chair of the

President’s Advisory Council on HIV and AIDS.

A member of numerous medical organizations, including the American Medical Association

and the National Medical Association, Dr. Sullivan was the founding President of the

Association of Minority Health Professions Schools. He is a former member of the Joint

Committee on Health Policy of the Association of American Universities and the national

Association of Land Grant Colleges and Universities.

EARL S. RICHARDSON was appointed the 11th president of Morgan State University on

November 1, 1984, after serving eight months as interim president. He took the helm of the

University at one of the most critical moments in its history, a period of declining enrollment,
Speaker Biographies 151

fiscal uncertainty, a deteriorating physical plant and considerable anxiety both within and

outside the institution about its future. The versatility and grace with which he has guided the

University and the course on which he has led it since that time have distinguished his

presidency as one of the great periods in the history of Morgan.

President Richardson joined the Morgan family as a 41-year old scholar holding the Bachelor

of Arts Degree in social science from the University of Maryland Eastern Shore (formerly

Maryland State College) and both the Master of Science Degree and Doctor of Education

Degree in education administration from the University of Pennsylvania. He came to Morgan

with a wealth of teaching and administrative experience extending over a 19 year period:

Assistant to the President, University of Maryland System and Executive Assistant to the

Chancellor, Director of Career Planning and Placement and acting Director of Admissions

and Registration at the University of Maryland Eastern Shore. This administrative experience

was buttressed by solution-oriented research as fellows for the Ford and Kellogg Foundations

and the publication of several articles on the implications of proposals to merge historically

Black colleges with white institutions and on inter-institutional cooperation in higher

education, all combining to make him a recognized authority on problems in higher

education relative to racial autonomy, desegregation and integration.

Since becoming president of Morgan State University, Dr. Richardson has fashioned an allencompassing strategy for strengthening the University: a growing inventory of graduate and

undergraduate programs aimed at new technology and the global community of the 21st

century; enhancement of the credentials and scholarly profile of the faculty; the

establishment of national centers of excellence in a number of critical fields; and a variety of

initiatives to increase minority representation in the professions and to ease the transition of

students from high school and community colleges into four-year universities; a rapidly

growing and greatly refurbished physical plant; burgeoning increases of over 75 percent in

student enrollment, coupled with dramatic increases in the quality of students; sweeping

improvements in external funding and government, corporate and foundation support. As a

result of his leadership, Morgan has experienced noteworthy growth and improvement over

the last two decades and is in the midst of the Renaissance that it is now celebrating.

Dr. Richardson is active in civic and community organizations. He is a member of the Boards

of Directors of LifeBridge, Good Samaritan Hospital, the Council for Higher Education on

Accreditation and the Goldseeker Foundation; serves on the advisory board or honorary

board of the Maryland Coalition Foundation, Baltimore Neighborhoods, Inc. and the Quality

Education for Minorities Network; and sits on the Board of Trustees of the Education Testing

Service.

Dr. Richardson is married to the former Sheila Bunting of Oklahoma City, Oklahoma, and

they have a son, Eric.

JAMIE P. MERISOTIS is the founding President of the Institute for Higher Education

Policy. Established in 1993 in Washington, DC, the Institute is regarded as one of the world’s

premier research and policy organizations concerned with higher education policy

development. As the Institute’s President, Mr. Merisotis has worked extensively on nearly
152 The Educational Effectiveness of Historically Black Colleges and Universities

every aspect of the Institute’s work. He is recognized as a leading authority on college and

university financing, particularly student financial aid, and has published major studies and

reports on topics ranging from higher education ranking systems to technology-based

learning. Mr. Merisotis also manages the Institute’s growing global portfolio, working to

further educational opportunity and access primarily in nations in transition, such as in

Southern Africa and the former Soviet Union.

A champion of the idea that higher education reaps rich rewards for both society and

individuals, Mr. Merisotis has focused much of his work on improving access to higher

education for low-income, minority, and other underrepresented populations. This

commitment to equality of opportunity was a major factor in the establishment of the

Alliance for Equity in Higher Education, an unprecedented coalition of national associations

that represent more than 350 minority-serving colleges and universities, including

Historically Black Colleges and Universities, American Indian Tribal Colleges, and

Hispanic-Serving Institutions. Founded in 1999, the Alliance serves as a leading voice for the

interests of minority-serving institutions (MSIs) and has become a model of collaboration,

unity, and innovation among communities of color. Mr. Merisotis serves as the coordinator

and facilitator of the Alliance and is director of the Kellogg MSI Leadership Fellows

Program, a year-long, intensive program designed to train the next generation of presidents at

MSIs.

Prior to founding the Institute, Mr. Merisotis served as Executive Director of the National

Commission on Responsibilities for Financing Postsecondary Education, a bipartisan

commission appointed by the President and the Congressional leadership. He is a member of

the Board of Trustees of Bates College in Lewiston, Maine, and is Trustee and Chair-Elect of

Scholarship America, the nation’s largest private sector scholarship and educational support

organization. Mr. Merisotis is the recipient of numerous awards and honors, including the

2002 Robert P. Huff Golden Quill Award from the National Association of Student Financial

Aid Administrators and the 2001 Community College Government Relations Award

presented by the American Association of Community Colleges and Association of

Community College Trustees. He was a 2005 finalist for the Brock International Prize in

Education, and in 1998 was named one of the top young leaders (under the age of 45) in

American higher education by Change magazine.

RAYMOND C. PIERCE was appointed Dean of North Carolina Central University School

of Law in July 2005. Prior to this appointment Pierce had a successful career with the

national law firm of Baker & Hostetler LLP. As a partner in the firm’s office in Cleveland,

Ohio, Dean Pierce’s legal practice concentrated in business transactions and public policy. In

addition, he served state governments in higher education and pension investment-related

matters and was also a member of the law firm’s Federal Policy Group based in Washington

D.C. where he assisted clients with government-related issues. Prior to joining Baker &

Hostetler, Dean Pierce was a candidate for mayor of Cleveland.

From 1993 to 2000, Pierce served as President Bill Clinton’s Deputy Assistant Secretary for

Civil Rights at the U.S. Department of Education. While deputy assistant secretary, Dean

Pierce managed the enforcement of federal civil rights laws in education and the
Speaker Biographies 153

development of federal civil rights education policy. Dean Pierce led the development of the

Clinton Administration’s federal education and civil rights policy in response to the 1992

U.S. Supreme Court decision in Ayers v Fordice, 505 U.S. 717 (1992), which addressed

equal protection in higher education opportunities for African-American students and the

impact of state policies on Historically Black Colleges and Universities (HBCUs). Following

the publishing of the Fordice Notice, Dean Pierce directed the Department of Education’s

national higher education desegregation docket and negotiated resolution agreements with six

states resulting in increased funding and enhanced educational programming for HBCUs.

Through these efforts, Dean Pierce was the commencement speaker at graduation ceremonies

for five HBCUs on behalf of the Clinton Administration. He also served on committees with

the White House Domestic Policy Council where he assisted in the development of federal

urban economic development initiatives. Under Dean Pierce’s leadership, his agency

received three Vice-President Awards for improving operations in the federal government.

During his service with the federal government, Dean Pierce was appointed by the U.S.

Secretary of Education to serve on three Senior Executive Service Appointment Boards.

Dean Pierce has lectured extensively on the subject of civil rights and education and served

on numerous panels and task forces.

Prior to joining the Clinton Administration, Dean Pierce was employed by the LTV

Corporation from 1986–993, beginning as a Labor Relations Counselor and later serving as

an attorney in that company’s Corporate Law Department. While in the Corporate Law

Department at LTV, Pierce was a commercial transactions attorney primarily involved with

the transportation section for railroads, waterways and trucking.

Dean Pierce began his legal career in 1984 as a civil rights attorney with the John W. Walker

Law Firm in Little Rock, Arkansas where he concentrated on class action employment

discrimination cases. He is also a past Chairman of the Education Committee of the

Cleveland Branch of the NAACP.

Dean Pierce is the recipient of numerous awards including the Thurgood Marshall

Scholarship Fund National Leadership Award, an NAACP National Service Award and the

Case Western Reserve University School of Law Distinguished Graduate Award.

Dean Pierce received his law degree from Case Western Research University School of Law

in 1983 and his bachelor’s degree in 1980 from Syracuse University, where he was admitted

into the Sigma Tau Delta English Honorary Society. He is admitted to practice in Ohio and

Arkansas.

MIKYONG MINSUN KIM (PhD, UCLA) is an Associate Professor of higher education

and the Director of the Virginia Campus Higher Education Administration Doctoral Program

of the George Washington University. Former posts include faculty positions at the

University of Arizona - Tucson and the University of Missouri - Columbia. She also served

as a grant panelist and consultant for the National Science Foundation.

She has been actively engaged in contributing to the field of higher education. Her teaching

and research interests include college impact, comparative higher education, finance, equity
154 The Educational Effectiveness of Historically Black Colleges and Universities

and opportunity issues, higher education policy, institutional analysis, special colleges for

special populations, organizational theory, and bridging K-12, higher education and work.

While she encompasses a wide range of interest areas, she has dedicated a great deal of her

focus on the impact and effectiveness of Historically Black Colleges and Universities on

African-American students. Currently she has an article scheduled to be released in June

2006, Research in Higher Education, entitled, “The Impact of Historically Black Colleges

and Universities on the Academic Success of African-American Students.” Contact:

kimmi@gwu.edu, (703) 726-3771, (202) 973-1510.
Commissioner Statements 155

COMMISSIONER STATEMENTS

Statement of Commissioner Abigail Thernstrom

HBCUs raise an obvious question: Half a century after Brown v. Board of Education, should

we still support institutions of higher education that are overwhelmingly black?

In 1992, the Supreme Court held in U.S. v. Fordice that racially identifiable institutions of

higher education in Mississippi were a holdover from the state's Jim Crow past. The plaintiffs

wanted more state funding for historically black schools (which are often in dire financial

straits), but the court turned them down, seeing the ghost of "separate but equal."

The district court, which then had to fashion a remedy for the dual system, proposed

eliminating all but one of the traditionally black colleges in the state. If only one of the

HBCUs in Mississippi remained, that would solve the problem of racially separate campuses,

since it would force almost all black students to attend schools that were majority white. The

proposal prompted the NAACP, in the summer of 1994, to organize a civil-rights march to

save Mississippi Valley State University. In a strange turn of events, the preservation of an

allegedly "segregated" institution became a black cause. "It's important . . . for blacks to hang

onto something and call it their own," one student explained to the Chronicle of Higher

Education.

Almost all of the HBCUs, which now number approximately 100, were created at a time

when Southern blacks were excluded from other schools. (Only four of the HBCUs are

outside the South.) They turned out doctors, lawyers, ministers and politicians. W.E.B. Du

Bois graduated from Fisk in 1888, Thurgood Marshall from Lincoln (Chester County, Pa.) in

1930, and Martin Luther King Jr. from Morehouse (Atlanta) in 1948. As recently as 1960,

these schools were the choice of almost two-thirds of black college students.

They are no longer exclusively for blacks. But they are racially identifiable—much more so

than most of the urban public schools that are routinely denounced as disastrously

"segregated." Well over 80 percent of the students, and more than six out of 10 faculty

members, are African-American. These institutions are defined by a commitment to a black

identity that, for many students, remains meaningful. Morehouse, for instance, proudly

advertises itself as "The Best College in the Nation for Educating African-Americans."

But overwhelmingly white institutions are also eager for a significant black presence. If all

educational doors are so wide open to black students and professors, should we really hope

that these financially struggling schools survive? At the height of the civil-rights movement,

some thoughtful observers expressed grave doubts. Research by Christopher Jencks and

David Riesman concluded that these "by-products of the Southern caste system" were usually

an "ill-financed, ill-staffed caricature of white higher education." The "great majority [stood]

near the end of the academic procession in terms of student aptitudes, faculty competence,

and intellectual ferment." And it seemed self-evident that the demise of Jim Crow would

make these schools even weaker by exposing them to new competition. Their best students
156 The Educational Effectiveness of Historically Black Colleges and Universities

and teachers would have choices denied earlier generations of African-Americans, and few

would choose even the better HBCUs like Howard over Harvard. In fact, while the

proportion of black students educated in HBCUs has fallen sharply with a significant rise in

the total number of blacks attending college, in absolute numbers enrollment in these schools

has grown substantially.

Perhaps they continue to thrive because they do an excellent job of making sure their

students actually get a diploma. Getting into college is not the great problem for blacks in

higher education today; staying and graduating is. The dropout rate at the HBCUs is high, but

considerably lower than at the typical majority-white school. Although only a 10th of all

African-Americans attend HBCUs, they award over a fifth of all bachelor's degrees earned by

blacks. And yet they do not attract students from unusually affluent and educated homes.

Admittedly, their academic standards may still be relatively low. They tend to take students,

as one advocate put it, who arrive academically “rough around the edges.” But the HBCUs

have an advantage over even the selective traditionally white colleges: There is no mismatch

between black student qualifications and the academic demands of the schools. No students

are preferentially admitted -- given a break in a system of racial double standards. And once

they enroll at an HBCU, they can feel free to major in more difficult subjects, knowing that

they will not be unprepared for the coursework.

In fact, a remarkable 40% of all African-Americans with a bachelor's degree in the physical

sciences, and 38% of those who majored in math or the biological sciences, attended

HBCUs. Moreover, among blacks who earned a Ph.D. in the late 1990s, 31% had done their

undergraduate work at HBCUs. Messrs. Jencks and Riesman, writing in the '60s, complained

that the schools were "traditional," rather than "progressive" and "harked back to an earlier

period of white academic history." But their academic conservatism may be the secret to their

success.

An impressive study by the economists Roland Fryer and Michael Greenstone suggests that

HBCUs are not what they used to be. In the 1970s, compared with black students at other

institutions, students at HBCUs went on to jobs that paid significantly higher wages. By the

1990s that labor-market advantage had disappeared. There was no "brain drain" into better

white schools; the measurable academic credentials of black students at HBCUs relative to

those at largely white schools had not changed. So what happened?

It is possible that the Fryer and Greenstone finding may reflect the special historical

circumstances of the 1970s, when employers first came under pressure to hire a more racially

diverse work force and found it most efficient to comply with affirmative-action mandates by

recruiting at schools in which most job applicants would be African-American. By the 1990s

these pressures may have eased, or employers may have developed other strategies for

dealing with them.

Whatever the true story (and the inadequacies of the data make a definitive judgment

difficult), the evidence does not indicate that HBCUs are "the best" schools for African-
Commissioner Statements 157

Americans across the board, as some enthusiasts claim. But they do seem to meet a real need,

serving their students well in important respects.

In a free society, many private and public institutions will have a distinctive demographic

profile. Group clustering is not necessarily unhealthy; indeed, it's an inescapable feature of a

multiethnic nation. No one worries that there are "too many" Jews at Yeshiva and Brandeis,

"too many" Catholics at Notre Dame and Holy Cross, "too many" Mormons at Brigham

Young. And so it should be with Howard, Fisk and Mississippi Valley State. That's what

democratic pluralism means.

This comment rests heavily on an op-ed of mine, co-authored with Stephan Thernstrom.

“Separation Anxiety,” The Wall Street Journal, November 30, 2007, W13.

Dissent of Commissioners Michael Yaki and Arlan D. Melendez

As has been necessary for us to do with regard to other recent Briefing Hearing Reports

approved and issued by the Commission’s conservative majority, we are compelled to voice

objection to the manner in which this Report was prepared. Further, we are able to support

neither its content nor any of its Findings and Recommendations.

This Report is shamefully tardy. The Briefing Hearing about which it seeks to illuminate the

concerned public took place in May, 2006, over four full years prior to the majority’s final

approval of its Findings and Recommendations. The delay was interposed by Commissioners

who wished, for reasons related to their own political purposes, to marry this Report to the

Commission’s Briefing Hearing Report entitled “Encouraging Minority Students to Pursue

Science, Technology, Engineering and Math Careers” which is being published

simultaneously with this Report. There is no valid reason that this HBCU Report could not

have been published during the more than two full years between the Briefing Hearing upon

which it is predicated and the STEM Briefing Hearing held in 2008.

Further, parts of this Report’s conclusions rest upon stale data, some of which was introduced

into the record long after the Briefing Hearing and was over a decade old at the time of its

initial consideration. This data is now almost 15 years old,269 nearly the same age as today’s

students whose post-secondary educational opportunities the majority wishes to impact via

its “advice” in Recommendation #1.

We are further concerned that Finding #6 and Recommendation #1 are included merely to

trumpet the notion that African-American students may suffer unduly due to “mismatch”

between their academic abilities and the willingness of highly selective and competitive

schools to admit them. This theory was not discussed at the Briefing Hearing, but rather was

grafted onto the Report thanks to an extraordinary reopening of the record.

269 Elliot, Rogers; Strenta, A. Christopher; Adair, Russell; Matier, Michael; and Scott, Jannah, “The Role of

Ethnicity in Choosing and Leaving Science in Highly Selective Institutions,” Research in Higher Education,

Vol. 37, No. 6 (1996), pp. 681-709.
158 The Educational Effectiveness of Historically Black Colleges and Universities

Rebuttal By Commissioner Gail Heriot

August 26, 2010

Commissioners Yaki and Melendez call this report “shamefully tardy.” “Shamefully”

is a strong word. Although I would much prefer to curl up with a good book and a nice cup

of tea this evening, it would be imprudent to let such an accusation go unanswered.

It was for good reason that this report was placed in the queue behind some of our

other work. Chairman Reynolds, who unquestionably has both the authority and duty to set

the agenda, made the judgment that it would get more readers and hence be more effective if

it were revamped and released at the same time as our report entitled “Encouraging Minority

Students to Pursue Science, Technology, Engineering and Math Careers.” I understand that

these two reports will indeed be published on the same day. That decision is not just

something I support. I suggested it (or, more precisely, I suggested something similar to the

course of action the Chairman ultimately took and happily supported his alternative course).

Revamping a draft report that otherwise could not have garnered majority support and

releasing it in conjunction with a related report is not just appropriate conduct. It would have

been inappropriate to issue the report in the condition that it came to us from the Commission

staff. And it would have been inappropriate to be indifferent to the increased readership the

report could have if released in conjunction with a related report. The Chairman’s decision in

no way prevented the Commission from accomplishing its business; it simply changed the

order of that business.270

270 In contrast, Commissioner Yaki’s practice of walking out of meetings when doing so will defeat a quorum

has indeed prevented the Commission from accomplishing its business on many occasions. As Commissioner

Yaki once put it, “if you can’t get your gang of five together, that’s not my problem.” See, e.g., Commission

Business Meeting of September 11, 2009 (quorum defeated by Commissioner Yaki); Commission Business

Meeting of July 11, 2008 (quorum defeated by Commissioner Yaki), Commission Business Meeting of August

16, 2006 (quorum defeated by Commissioner Yaki); Commission Telephone Meeting of October 30,

2009(quorum defeated by Commissioner Yaki); Commission Telephone Meeting of October 24, 2009 (quorum

defeated by Commissioner Yaki). Commissioner Melendez has sometimes joined him in this behavior.

The quoted statement was from the Commission Telephone Meeting of October 30, 2009. At that

conference, Commission Yaki suddenly announced “Commissioner Yaki is leaving the conference” directly

after Commissioner Taylor was called away to attend to his legal practice. Tr. at 37. The remaining four

commissioners remained on the line for an informational meeting on one of its projects for a few minutes, but

were unable to take any votes, given the lack of a quorum. After the discussion ended and the court reporter

retired, Commissioner Yaki mysteriously re-appeared on the call and, mistakenly believing the other

commissioners had left the call, began to speak to staff members. It was likely that he had never hung up, since

the tone that sounds when someone enters a call had never sounded. When asked about his conduct, he became

irate. His remarks were recorded by a special assistant shortly after hearing them.

On November 11, 2009, he made similar statements on the record, declaring that “should you [i.e.

Chairman Reynolds] choose to move forward with your agenda, which I disagree with, I presume that you will

have the foresight to ensure that the five members of your coalition are present in order to effectuate that vote.”

“I will not be a party,” he said, “to contributing to your ability to get things done.” Transcript 8-9.

And indeed he has not been. On other occasions, Commissioner Yaki has mysteriously joined

commission telephone meetings only after it has become apparent that the Commission has a quorum. See, e.g.,
Commissioner Rebuttals 159

The objections of Commissioners Yaki and Melendez—and this is by no means the

first time they have raised them--are perplexing. There is no requirement that the

Commission release reports in the order that the briefings were held, just as there is no

requirement that Congress legislate in the order that bills were introduced or in the order that

legislative hearings were conducted. Indeed, there is no requirement that the Commission

release a report following each briefing at all.271

I find it hard to believe that the Speaker of the House would do anything but laugh if

her appointee, Commissioner Yaki, were to apply the same argument to Congress that he has

been applying to the Commission. Of course, the Speaker and other Congressional leaders

make judgments about which bills need to be revamped. They supplement records when

appropriate. They take proposals in the order that they believe are best, all things considered,

rather than in the order that bills were introduced or that legislative hearings were held. And

yes, they consider the likely public response to Congressional activities in setting the agenda.

If they didn’t, they would be derelict in their duty.

Commission Telephone Meeting of September 3, 2009. Unlike most members of the Commission,

Commissioner Yaki is never willing to state that he will be able to make one of the Commission’s regularly

scheduled monthly telephone conferences, always reserving for himself the maneuvering room necessary to

defeat a quorum if the opportunity should present itself. This has led to the cancelling of meetings, because it is

clear that a quorum will not be available without Commissioner Yaki’s cooperation and that cooperation will

not be forthcoming. See, e.g., Commission Telephone Meeting of August 27, 2010.

His temper tantrums, which we all have become accustomed to, don’t help either. See, e.g.,

Commission Business Meeting of May 15, 2009 (Tr. at 80). Commissioner Heriot: “Let the record reflect that

Commissioner Yaki has been screaming, yelling, and is now storming out of the room.” Commissioner Yaki’s

reaction was to scream that he instead of “screaming” he was “raising his voice in utter disbelief”). See also

Commission Business Meeting of December 4, 2009 (Transcript at 116).

I would have more sympathy for Commissioner Yaki’s obstreperous conduct (1) if he did not then turn

around and complain that our reports are “shamefully tardy” and (2) if he abandoned only those meetings in

which some momentous decision is being made with which he disagrees. In fact, however, Commissioner Yaki

only rarely passes up a chance to defeat a quorum, even when the business on the Commission’s agenda is quite

mundane.

271 Although Commissioners Yaki and Melendez have to no standing to complain about the speed at which the

Commission gets its reports completed, see supra at n. 1, if an outsider to the Commission were to remark that

our briefing reports sometimes take longer to publish than is optimal, I would be inclined to agree. Part of the

problem is the peculiar procedure we employ. Our briefings generally consist of a panel of experts who “brief”

the Commission on a particular issue in civil rights. Witnesses are urged to submit their comments in writing

prior to the briefing. At the briefing itself, they are asked to summarize their remarks orally, and those oral

statements are recorded along with a question and answer period by a court reporter. The body of our briefing

report consists of a summary of the oral summary and of the question and answer period drafted by a staff

member. This “double summary” is make-work and ordinary takes about a year to produce. For many reports,

simply assembling the written statements of the witnesses and attaching to transcript of the briefing as an

appendix would require one tenth the work by the staff. Moreover, such a procedure would also result in a more

readable report. It would also allow greater time for the Commissioner’s Statements and Rebuttals, which tends

to be more useful than the “double summary,” and could be more useful still if Commissioners (who usually

work full-time at other jobs) had more than thirty days to produce them. Commissioner Taylor has suggested

this streamlined approach in the past and I certainly support it.
160 The Educational Effectiveness of Historically Black Colleges and Universities

Commissioners Yaki and Melendez do not appear to disagree with the Commission’s

majority that the initial draft of this report needed substantial re-direction.272 Nor have they

272 Although the original briefing took prior to my tenure, I was on the Commission when Commission staff

members produced a draft report a year later. The draft featured two recommendations for the President,

Congress and the American people:

(1) that “federal and state governments should vigorously support and appropriately fund HBCUs” and

(2) that “federal and state governments ... should take steps to avoid unnecessary duplication of HBCU

academic programs at geographically proximate traditionally white institutions.”

I was not inclined to vote for either of these recommendations and was confident that neither were a

majority of my colleagues. This is not to say that the staff members who produced the draft were not wellintentioned. Staff members seldom get as much time as I would like to confer with Commission members about

the kinds of recommendations Commission members want to make. In part this is a result of poorly-designed

internal procedures. Sometimes staff members end up making guesses, and sometimes those guesses turn out to

be incorrect. They learn. Ultimately, however, under the Commission’s statute, it is for the Commission--and

not the staff--to issue reports. As commissioners, we are responsible for ensuring their quality.

As for my reasons for opposing the specific recommendations in the draft report: Washington is full of

people who would like to testify that they are doing a great job and that their work should be “vigorously

supported.” This is true whether the testimony is being taken by Congress, by a federal commission, or by one

of the many advisory committees that meet in federal buildings every workday. Many of these witnesses are

sincere. Some are even correct that they are doing a great job. But there was no reason for the Commission to

weigh in on such a complex and multi-faceted issue. Indeed, it would be presumptuous for the Commission to

instruct the federal and state government on such a matter. A lot goes into a decision to “vigorously support”

and fund any particular institution. State and federal governments do not have unlimited funds. Money that is

spent funding HBCUs is money that governments cannot spend on funding for public school lunch programs,

agricultural subsidies, programs to protect forests or endangered species, highway or high speed rail

construction, or national defense– to name just a few programs that commonly vie for federal or state dollars.

We could not possibly address all of these competing priorities in any briefing, and many are not even within

our jurisdiction. Recommending that state government give HBCUs monopoly positions in some of their

programs struck me as narrower, which is good. But it also struck me as particularly unwise. Competition

among state-funded colleges and universities is a good thing in some situations and a bad thing in others. The

Commission was in no position to issue a blanket recommendation of this kind, given that it would almost

certainly be misconstrued in the future.

The easiest and perhaps even the best thing to do at the time might have been to kill the report. The

Commission has done this in the past when information-gathering briefings or hearings have, for one reason or

another, not lead to any useful findings or recommendations. An example that comes to mind is the

Commission Briefing on the School Districting Controversy in Omaha, Nebraska (September 8, 2006). This

does not necessarily mean that the information gathering would be all for naught. In some of those cases, the

Commission has published the briefing transcript, so that the sworn testimony contained in it can be available to

policymakers, journalists, scholars and ordinary citizens who might be interested in it.

That, however, would have been an unhappy state of affairs. Although I could not support the

recommendations in the draft and did not see any better recommendations that could be distilled from the report

as it stood, I knew that there is plenty of evidence in the academic literature that HBCUs were training more

than their proportionate share of the nation’s African-American scientists, engineers and physicians. This much

more limited claim I could support. I therefore told then-Staff Director Ken Marcus that while I did not favor a

general declaration that HBCUs should be “vigorously supported,” or that their programs should be given

monopoly status by state higher education authorities, I would be very happy to give credit where credit is due

to HBCUs—in their success in graduating a disproportionate number of the nation’s African-American science,

technology, engineering and mathematics majors. I furnished Mr. Marcus with one or two articles that

confirmed this fact and told him that I believed others could be easily found. My understanding is that he
Commissioner Rebuttals 161

argued that the report will have not more readers now that it is being released in conjunction

with “Encouraging Minority Students to Pursue Science, Technology, Engineering and Math

Careers.” Indeed, the possibility of that increased readership appears to be what has inflamed

them.

Commissioners Yaki and Melendez have all but admitted that they would prefer that

readers not know that a much larger proportion of African-American graduates of HBCUs

major in science and engineering than African-American graduates of mainstream colleges

and universities. But it is simply true that HBCUs do more than their share of producing

African-American scientists and engineers. These commissioners also appear to prefer that

readers not learn the reason that some scholars have found for this: As a result of raceconscious admissions policies, African-American students at mainstream colleges and

universities tend to have academic credentials that put them towards the bottom of their

college classes. These scholars have found that an aspiring science or engineering major who

attends a school where her entering academic credentials put her in the middle or the top of

her class is more likely to follow through with that ambition than an otherwise identical

student attending a more elite school where those same credentials place her towards the

bottom of the class. As a result, African-American students receiving a preference at an elite

mainstream institution are at a disadvantage when it comes to majoring in science and

engineering. This is not a problem at HBCUs and hence explains their superior performance

in this area.273

discussed this with the Chairman Reynolds and that the Chairman agreed. In later discussions with Mr. Marcus,

we talked about the desirability for further briefing from experts on the subject of encouraging minority students

to pursue careers in science, technology, engineering and mathematics. Such a panel of experts was later

assembled and the briefing held on September 12, 2008. Witnesses included Dr. Rogers Elliott, professor

emeritus of psychology at Dartmouth College, Dr. Thomas Fortmann, a member of the Massachusetts Board of

Elementary and Secondary Education and an electrical engineer, Dr. Richard Sander, professor of law at

UCLA, Dr. Richard Tapia, professor of mathematics at Rice University and Robin Willner, Vice President of

Global Community Initiatives at the IBM Corporation. President Hazel O’Leary of Fisk University, an HBCU,

was originally scheduled to testify. She cancelled hours before the briefing (and not long after the list of witness

participants was sent to the Commissioners and their special assistants).

I would have preferred to combine this report with the report on this second briefing. Chairman

Reynolds preferred to issue them as separate reports on the same day. So be it. Such internal housekeeping

issues are about as controversial as a paper clip to anyone except Commissioner Yaki and his allies. More time

had to be spent by the Commission defending the Chairman’s decision against the protests of Commissioner

Yaki and his allies than can be justified.

273 See Statement of Commissioner Gail Heriot, Encouraging Minority Students to Pursue Science, Technology,

Engineering and Math Careers, United States Commission on Civil Rights Briefing Report (November __,

2010)(issued contemporaneously with this report). See also Rogers Elliott, A. Christopher Strenta, Russell

Adair, Michael Matier & Jannah Scott, The Role of Ethnicity in Choosing and Leaving Science in Highly

Selective Institutions, 37 Res. Higher Ed. 681, 692-93 (1996); Frederick Smyth & John J. McArdle, Ethnic and

Gender Differences in Science Graduation at Selective Colleges with Implications for Admission Policy and

College Choice, 45 Res. Higher Ed. 353 (2004); Richard Sander & Roger Bolus, Do Credentials Gaps in

College Reduce the Number of Minority Science Graduates?, Working Paper (Draft July 2009).

Commissioners Yaki and Melendez have suggested that the evidence for mismatch in science and

engineering in the Elliott study is old (and apparently in their view stale). It is not clear what they have to say

about the Smyth & McArdle or the Sander & Bolus articles. It bears noting that most large empirical studies of
162 The Educational Effectiveness of Historically Black Colleges and Universities

At least one HBCU faculty member–Professor Walter Pattillo, Jr. of North Carolina

Central University–intuitively grasped the mismatch problem even before scholars were able

to demonstrate its existence empirically. As then-chairman of the biology department, he

vented his frustrations to Science in 1992: “The way we see it, the majority schools are

wasting large numbers of good students. They have black students with admission statistics

[that are] very high, tops. But these students wind up majoring in sociology or recreation or

get wiped out altogether.”274

Unlike some deliberative bodies, the Commission’s procedures permit members to

alter the agenda or to require measures be brought up for a vote even if it is not the

Chairman’s pleasure. But to do that, of course, they must have a majority of the Commission

behind them. Commissioners Yaki and Melendez did not. When a motion was made to

require that this report be released before its companion report could be prepared, it was

defeated. There is nothing “shameful” or even particularly unusual about the Commission’s

decision.

the kind cited above are based on large databases. Often these databases are assembled not by the scholars

themselves but by large research institutions attempting to facilitate research generally. The Smyth & McArdle

study, for example, was performed on the College & Beyond database collected by the Andrew W. Mellon

Foundation. These databases are massive undertakings. Just as the United States does not take a new census

every year, these databases are not re-created every year. There is not a lot of evidence to suggest, however, that

conditions have changed since then.

274 Elizabeth Culotta, Black Colleges Cultivate Scientists, 258 Science 1216, 1218 (November 13, 1992).
U.S. Commission on Civil Rights

The U.S. Commission on Civil Rights is an independent, 

bipartisan agency established by Congress in 1957. It is 

directed to:

• Investigate complaints alleging that citizens are being 

deprived of their right to vote by reason of their race, color, 

religion, sex, age, disability, or national origin, or by reason 

of fraudulent practices.

• Study and collect information relating to discrimination or a 

denial of equal protection of the laws under the Constitution 

because of race, color, religion, sex, age, disability, or 

national origin, or in the administration of justice.

• Appraise federal laws and policies with respect to discrimination or denial of equal protection of the laws because of 

race, color, religion, sex, age, disability, or national origin, 

or in the administration of justice.

• Serve as a national clearinghouse for information in respect 

to discrimination or denial of equal protection of the laws 

because of race, color, religion, sex, age, disability, or 

national origin.

• Submit reports, findings, and recommendations to the 

President and Congress.

• Issue public service announcements to discourage 

discrimination or denial of equal protection of the laws.

Members of the Commission

Gerald A. Reynolds, Chairman

Abigail Thernstrom, Vice Chair

Todd Gaziano

Gail Heriot

Peter N. Kirsanow

Arlan D. Melendez

Ashley L. Taylor, Jr.

Michael Yaki

Martin Dannenfelser, Staff Director

U.S. Commission on Civil Rights

624 Ninth Street, NW

Washington, DC 20425

(202) 376-8128 voice

(202) 376-8116 TTY

www.usccr.gov

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