NTIA Report 95-325 

Building Penetration Measurements 

From Low-height Base Stations 

 At 912, 1920, and 5990 MHz 

Lynette H. Loew 

Yeh Lo 

Michael G. Laflin 

Elizabeth E. Pol 

U.S. DEPARTMENT OF COMMERCE 

Ronald H. Brown, Secretary 

Larry Irving, Assistant Secretary 

for Communications and Information 

September 1995 

iii 

PRODUCT DISCLAIMER 

Certain commercial companies, equipment, instruments, and materials are identified in this paper 

to specify adequately the technical aspects of the reported results. In no case does such 

identification imply recommendation or endorsement by the National Telecommunications and 

Information Administration, nor does it imply that the material or equipment identified is 

necessarily the best available for the purpose. 

v 

CONTENTS 

Page 

PRODUCT DISCLAIMER ........................................................................................................... iii 

FIGURES...................................................................................................................................... vii 

TABLES ...................................................................................................................................... xiii 

GLOSSARY OF TERMS..............................................................................................................xv 

ABSTRACT .....................................................................................................................................1 

1. INTRODUCTION .....................................................................................................................1 

2. MEASUREMENT SYSTEM ....................................................................................................2 

 2.1 Equipment Description ........................................................................................................2 

 2.1.1 Transmitter..................................................................................................................3 

 2.1.2 Receiver ......................................................................................................................5 

 2.2 Calibration and Measurement Procedure.............................................................................7 

 2.3 Data Format .........................................................................................................................7 

3. MEASUREMENT LOCATIONS .............................................................................................8 

 3.1 Residential Building Information ........................................................................................8 

 3.2 High-rise Building Information .........................................................................................15 

4. DATA ANALYSIS..................................................................................................................20 

 4.1 Path Loss Calculations.......................................................................................................21 

 4.1.1 Breakpoint.................................................................................................................21 

 4.1.2 Difference in Received Signal Strength....................................................................24 

 4.2 Penetration Loss Calculations............................................................................................25 

 4.2.1 Penetration Loss into Basements ..............................................................................28 

 4.2.2 Effects of Building Materials....................................................................................29 

 4.2.3 Effects of Multistory Buildings ................................................................................31 

 4.2.4 Effects of Building Shadowing.................................................................................35 

 4.3 Slow Fading Analysis ........................................................................................................36 

 4.4 Fast Fading Analysis..........................................................................................................37 

 4.5 Correlation Analysis ..........................................................................................................38 

5. SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS ......................................................................................43 
vi 

CONTENTS (cont’d) 

Page 

6. ACKNOWLEDGMENTS .......................................................................................................46 

7. REFERENCES ........................................................................................................................47 

8. BIBLIOGRAPHY....................................................................................................................50 

APPENDIX A: MEAN PATH LOSSES AND BUILDING LAYOUTS 

 FOR RESIDENCES............................................................................................51 

APPENDIX B: MEAN PATH LOSSES FOR HIGH-RISE BUILDINGS .................................71 

APPENDIX C: PATH LOSS DISTRIBUTIONS ........................................................................77 

APPENDIX D: BUILDING PENETRATION LOSS DATA....................................................103 
vii 

FIGURES 

Page 

Figure 1. Photograph of van used to transport transmitter equipment .......................................3 

Figure 2. Block diagram of transmitter equipment ....................................................................4 

Figure 3. Photograph of receiver system....................................................................................5 

Figure 4. Block diagram of receiver equipment.........................................................................6 

Figure 5. Diagram of residence-1 neighborhood........................................................................8 

Figure 6. Diagram of residence-2 neighborhood........................................................................9 

Figure 7. Diagram of residence-3 neighborhood......................................................................10 

Figure 8. Diagram of residence-4 neighborhood......................................................................11 

Figure 9. Diagram of residence-5 neighborhood......................................................................12 

Figure 10. Diagram of residence-6 neighborhood......................................................................13 

Figure 11. Diagram of residence-7 neighborhood......................................................................14 

Figure 12. Area studied in Denver, Colorado ............................................................................15 

Figure 13. Photograph of high rise 1..........................................................................................16 

Figure 14. Photograph of high rise 2..........................................................................................17 

Figure 15. Photograph of high rise 3..........................................................................................18 

Figure 16. Photograph of high rise 4..........................................................................................19 

Figure 17. Characteristics of narrowband fading .......................................................................20 

Figure 18. Path loss versus distance at 912 MHz.......................................................................22 

Figure 19. Path loss versus distance at 1920 MHz.....................................................................22 

Figure 20. Path loss versus distance at 5990 MHz.....................................................................23 
viii 

FIGURES (cont’d) 

Page 

Figure 21. Cumulative probability distribution functions for NLOS residential 

 penetration loss .........................................................................................................27 

Figure 22. Cumulative probability density functions for NLOS high rise 

 penetration loss .........................................................................................................28 

Figure 23. Mean NLOS residential penetration losses...............................................................30 

Figure 24. Standard deviations for NLOS residential penetration losses...................................30 

Figure 25. Mean NLOS building penetration losses for high rise 1...........................................31 

Figure 26. Mean NLOS building penetration losses for high rise 2...........................................32 

Figure 27. Mean NLOS building penetration losses for high rise 3...........................................32 

Figure 28. Mean NLOS building penetration losses for high rise 4...........................................33 

Figure 29. Mean NLOS high rise penetration loss at 912 MHz.................................................33 

Figure 30. Mean NLOS high rise penetration loss at 1920 MHz...............................................34 

Figure 31. Mean NLOS high rise penetration loss at 5990 MHz...............................................34 

Figure 32. Example of raw data showing fast fading.................................................................37 

Figure 33. Cumulative probability functions for residential fast fading ....................................39 

Figure 34. Cumulative probability distributions for high rise fast fading..................................39 

Figure 35. Comparison between 912 and 1920 MHz mean NLOS residential 

 penetration losses......................................................................................................40 

Figure 36. Comparison between 1920 and 5990 MHz mean NLOS residential 

 penetration losses......................................................................................................40 

Figure 37. Comparison between 912 and 5990 MHz mean NLOS residential 

 penetration losses......................................................................................................41 
ix 

FIGURES (cont’d) 

Page 

Figure 38. Comparison between 912 and 1920 MHz mean NLOS high rise 

 penetration losses......................................................................................................41 

Figure 39. Comparison between 1920 and 5990 MHz mean NLOS high rise 

 penetration losses......................................................................................................42 

Figure 40. Comparison between 912 and 5990 MHz mean NLOS high rise 

 penetration losses......................................................................................................42 

Figure A-1. Residence-1 layout: median LOS path losses (dB) per room; 

 standard deviations are indicated in parentheses ......................................................52 

Figure A-2. Residence-1 layout: median NLOS path losses (dB) per room; standard 

 deviations are indicated in parentheses.....................................................................53 

Figure A-3. Residence-2 layout: and median LOS path losses (dB) per room; standard 

 deviations are indicated in parentheses.....................................................................54 

Figure A-4. Residence-2 layout: median NLOS path losses (dB) per room; standard 

 deviations are indicated in parentheses.....................................................................55 

Figure A-5. Residence-3 layout: median LOS path losses (dB) per room; standard 

 deviations are indicated in parentheses.....................................................................56 

Figure A-6. Residence-3 layout: median NLOS path losses (dB) per room; standard 

 deviations are indicated in parentheses.....................................................................57 

Figure A-7. Residence-4 layout: median LOS path losses (dB) per room; standard 

 deviations are indicated in parentheses.....................................................................58 

Figure A-8. Residence-4 layout: median NLOS path losses (dB) per room; standard 

 deviations are indicated in parentheses.....................................................................59 

Figure A-9. Residence-5 layout: median LOS path losses (dB) per room; standard 

 deviations are indicated in parentheses.....................................................................60 

Figure A-10. Residence-5 layout: median NLOS path losses (dB) per room; standard 

 deviations are indicated in parentheses.....................................................................61 
x 

FIGURES (cont’d) 

Page 

Figure A-11. Residence-6 layout: median LOS path losses (dB) per room; standard 

 deviations are indicated in parentheses.....................................................................62 

Figure A-12. Residence-6 layout: median NLOS path losses (dB) per room; standard 

 deviations are indicated in parentheses.....................................................................63 

Figure A-13. Residence-7 layout: median LOS path losses (dB) per room; standard 

 deviations are indicated in parentheses.....................................................................64 

Figure A-14. Residence-7 layout: median NLOS path losses (dB) per room; standard 

 deviations are indicated in parentheses.....................................................................65 

Figure C-1. Path loss distribution for residence 1, LOS ..............................................................77 

Figure C-2. Path loss distribution for residence 1, NLOS............................................................78 

Figure C-3. Path loss distribution for residence 2, LOS ..............................................................79 

Figure C-4. Path loss distribution for residence 2, NLOS............................................................80 

Figure C-5. Path loss distribution for residence 3, LOS ..............................................................81 

Figure C-6. Path loss distribution for residence 3, NLOS............................................................82 

Figure C-7. Path loss distribution for residence 5, LOS ..............................................................83 

Figure C-8. Path loss distribution for residence 5, NLOS............................................................84 

Figure C-9. Path loss distribution for residence 7, LOS ..............................................................85 

Figure C-10. Path loss distribution for residence 7, NLOS............................................................86 

Figure C-11. Path loss distribution for high rise 1, floor 1, LOS...................................................87 

Figure C-12. Path loss distribution for high rise 1, floor 1, NLOS................................................88 

Figure C-13. Path loss distribution for high rise 1, floor 9, LOS...................................................89 

Figure C-14. Path loss distribution for high rise 1, floor 9, NLOS................................................90 
xi 

FIGURES (cont’d) 

Page 

Figure C-15. Path loss distribution for high rise 2, floor 1, LOS...................................................91 

Figure C-16. Path loss distribution for high rise 2, floor 1, NLOS................................................92 

Figure C-17. Path loss distribution for high rise 2, floor 11, LOS.................................................93 

Figure C-18. Path loss distribution for high rise 2, floor 11, NLOS..............................................94 

Figure C-19. Path loss distribution for high rise 3, floor 1, LOS...................................................95 

Figure C-20. Path loss distribution for high rise 3, floor 1, NLOS................................................96 

Figure C-21. Path loss distribution for high rise 3, floor 11, LOS.................................................97 

Figure C-22. Path loss distribution for high rise 3, floor 11, NLOS..............................................98 

Figure C-23. Path loss distribution for high rise 4, floor 3, LOS...................................................99 

Figure C-24. Path loss distribution for high rise 4, floor 3, NLOS..............................................100 

Figure C-25. Path loss distribution for high rise 4, floor 15, LOS...............................................101 

Figure C-26. Path loss distribution for high rise 4, floor 15, NLOS............................................102 

xiii 

TABLES 

Page 

Table 1. Expected Breakpoint Radii .......................................................................................24 

Table 2. Received Signal Strength Differences Between Frequencies...................................25 

Table 3. Mean NLOS Penetration Losses...............................................................................26 

Table 4. Mean Penetration Losses for Both Transmission Paths............................................26 

Table 5. Differences Between Mean Ground Floor and Mean Basement 

 LOS Penetration Loss ...............................................................................................29 

Table 6. Slope and First Floor Intercept of “Least Squares” Line Fit 

 to Mean Floor Penetration ........................................................................................35 

Table 7. Building Shadowing Losses......................................................................................35 

Table 8. Standard Deviation of LOS Data about the Path Loss Slope....................................36 

Table 9. Correlation Coefficients of Linear Regression Between Frequencies......................38 

Table A-1. Mean Path Losses for Each Residence .....................................................................66 

Table A-2. Mean Path Losses for All Residences.......................................................................68 

Table A-3. Mean LOS Floor Path Loss for Residences..............................................................69 

Table B-1. Mean Path Losses by Floor for High Rise 1.............................................................71 

Table B-2. Mean Path Losses by Floor for High Rise 2.............................................................72 

Table B-3. Mean Path Losses by Floor for High Rise 3.............................................................73 

Table B-4. Mean Path Losses by Floor for High Rise 4.............................................................74 

Table B-5. Mean Path Losses for Each High-rise Building........................................................75 

Table B-6. Mean Path Losses for All High-rise Buildings.........................................................76 
xiv 

TABLES (cont’d) 

Page 

Table D-1. Mean LOS Penetration Losses for Each Residence................................................103 

Table D-2. Mean NLOS Penetration Losses for Each Residence.............................................104 

Table D-3. Mean Penetration Losses for All Residences..........................................................105 

Table D-4. Mean LOS Penetration Losses per Floor for Each Residence................................106 

Table D-5. Mean Penetration Losses for Each High Rise.........................................................107 

Table D-6. Mean Penetration Losses for All High-rise Buildings............................................108 
xv 

GLOSSARY OF TERMS 

The following terms are described in order to avoid confusion and make clear the procedures 

employed during the gathering and analysis of the data presented in this report. They are not 

necessarily identical to the complete, rigorous or mathematical definitions of the terms. 

building penetration loss 

The ratio in median signal strength between the measurement obtained inside the building and 

the reference signal level measured outside the building at street level. This interpretation of 

building penetration is similar to that given by the International Telecommunication UnionRadiocommunications (ITU-R), formerly CCIR [1]. 

high-rise building 

A multistory office building in an urban environment. 

line-of-sight transmission path 

A straight line path between the transmitter and building under test which is not obstructed by 

any buildings. 

median value 

The median value of the path loss measurements in one area, such as one room within a building 

or one corner of a high-rise building. 

mean value 

The average value of the medians calculated for all rooms in a residence and all corners for each 

level of a high-rise building. 

non-line-of-sight transmission path 

A straight line path between the transmitter and building under test that is obstructed by at least 

one building. 

path loss 

Attenuation undergone by an electromagnetic wave in transit between a transmitter and receiver. 

In this report, path loss refers to the median loss experienced, calculated from the received signal 

level. 

reference signal level 

The median of the line-of-sight field intensity measured at street level outside the wall of the 

building under test closest to the transmitter. If the transmitter is nearest to a corner of the 

building under test, we use the average value of the measurement of the two walls that make up 

that corner. 

residential building 

A single family house in a suburban area. 

BUILDING PENETRATION MEASUREMENTS FROM LOW-HEIGHT BASE 

STATIONS AT 912, 1920, AND 5990 MHz 

Lynette H. Loew1

, Yeh Lo1, Michael G. Laflin1, and Elizabeth E. Pol2

Building penetration measurements were taken simultaneously at three potential 

Personal Communications Services (PCS) frequencies: 912, 1920, and 5990 

MHz. The continuous wave (CW) measurement system employed a fixed outdoor 

transmitter and a mobile indoor receiver. The goal was to quantify building 

penetration losses at these frequencies to determine the viability of indoor 

coverage using street microcells and base antenna heights below the roof level of 

surrounding buildings. Eleven different buildings representing typical residential 

and high-rise office building environments were used for the measurements. 

Vertically polarized transmit and receive antennas were used for all 

measurements. Statistical analyses of the data include mean building attenuation 

losses, standard deviations, cumulative probability distribution functions, and 

correlation coefficients. The analyses were used to characterize propagation 

effects and provide a comparison between three frequencies, two cell 

environments, and two transmission paths. 

Key Words: attenuation; building attenuation; building penetration; measurements; personal 

communications services; PCS; penetration characteristics; penetration loss; 

radio propagation 

1. INTRODUCTION 

The mobile communications community has great interest in improving cellular system 

performance and developing new telecommunication services such as Personal Communications 

Services (PCS) and advanced cellular mobile systems. A significant system improvement would 

be the ability to use one mobile communication system in an uninterrupted manner both inside 

and outside buildings. If an outdoor microcell could provide coverage to indoor subscribers, it 

would be unnecessary to place base stations inside each building requiring coverage. This would 

eliminate the problems of handoff from the outdoor to the indoor transmitter, and reduce the 

costs of the system. Indoor picocell design would no longer be required. Locating the outdoor 

base station on an existing structure, such as a street or traffic light, would be particularly 

advantageous. To determine the viability of indoor coverage from an outdoor base station at

 1

The authors are with the Institute for Telecommunication Sciences, National 

Telecommunications and Information Administration, U.S. Department of Commerce, Boulder 

CO 80303. 

2

 The author is no longer employed with the Institute for Telecommunications Sciences. 
2

traffic-light height, this paper presents the results of narrowband building penetration 

measurements (see Glossary of Terms) made in Boulder and Denver, Colorado, in the spring of 

1993. The geometry of the test configurations suggests that the radio signals penetrated the 

buildings mainly via walls and windows, due to the low base antenna height (5 m). 

The measurements were taken in residential and high-rise buildings (see Glossary of Terms) at 

912, 1920, and 5990 MHz. Included in the measurements were all levels of the residences 

(including basements), and seven or eight nonconsecutive levels of the high rises, up to a 

maximum of the fifteenth level. The building penetration measurement system consisted of a 

three-frequency fixed transmitter positioned 25 to 200 m from the receiver. The transmitter was 

set at a height of 5 m to simulate the height of a street or traffic light. The receiver was held at a 

height of 1.9 m to simulate the height of a person using a phone. Path loss (see Glossary of 

Terms) data at 912, 1920, 5990 MHz were collected simultaneously as the receiver was moved 

inside the building under test. Data were recorded at 16-ms sampling intervals for a 50-s period 

while the receiver moved at an approximate speed of 0.75 m/s. At this speed/sampling interval 

we captured at least eight samples per wavelength, to ensure that we collected data during the 

deep fades which can be encountered every half-wavelength due to multipath. We recorded fades 

of up to 30 dB even at the highest frequency (see Figure 32). 

The path loss data were analyzed to provide building attenuation statistics. The results of this 

data analysis provide a comparison between the three frequencies, two cell types, two 

transmission paths, and various floor heights of high-rise buildings. 

2. MEASUREMENT SYSTEM 

The measurement system configuration selected was advantageous because it allowed 

simultaneous measurement of received signal levels at multiple frequencies using a single 

communication channel. Using this method, we were ensured of obtaining signals at all 

frequencies which have been transmitted through exactly the same obstructions at exactly the 

same time. Thus, the analysis of building penetration loss as a function of frequency was 

expected to be more reliable than could be achieved using other testing configurations. 

2.1 Equipment Description 

The system consisted of a fixed transmitter and a mobile receiver. The transmitter was located on 

the street near the building under test, emulating a microcell base station. The receiver was 

carried manually throughout the building under test. The maximum distance from transmitter to 

receiver was restricted to 300 m in order to keep the received signal strength within the dynamic 

range of the low-power test equipment. 
3

2.1.1 Transmitter 

A vertically polarized, omnidirectional antenna was used to transmit three frequencies 

simultaneously. The antenna was positioned at a height of 5 m by means of a telescoping mast. 

This height was selected to emulate typical street microcell base stations mounted on existing 

structures such as street or traffic lights. The antenna had an omnidirectional azimuthal pattern, 

and a 60-, 35-, and 20-degree-elevation beamwidth for 912, 1920, and 5990 MHz, respectively. 

A van was used to house and transport the transmitter equipment (Figure 1). Although the 

transmitter could be moved, it remained in a fixed location for the duration of the line-of-sight 

(LOS) and non-line-of-sight (NLOS) experiments (see Glossary of Terms) at each building. In 

order to ensure valid comparisons among the data collected, all data for each transmission path 

was collected in a single day while the transmitter remained in a fixed location. The transmitter 

was powered by a diesel generator which was towed behind the van. Three unmodulated waves 

at 912, 1920 and 5990 MHz were radiated simultaneously by one antenna. Two transmission 

paths were measured for each building: one for LOS and one for NLOS data collection. For 

Figure 1. Photograph of van used to transport transmitter equipment. 
4

the high-rise building measurements, the transmitting antenna was tilted to an angle of 24 

degrees from horizontal. This allowed the main beam of the antenna to illuminate more floors of 

the building, and reduced the impact of the narrow-beamwidth antenna elevation patterns. 

The three transmitted signals were generated by three frequency synthesizers. The signals were 

amplified and filtered separately to avoid intermodulation distortions, and combined by a 

quadruplexer with the unused input loaded. The combined signal was fed through a low-loss 

cable to the wideband, omnidirectional vertically polarized antenna. Figure 2 shows the block 

diagram of the transmitting equipment. 

The measured input to the antenna was 15 dBm. The antenna gain was 0, 2.6, and 3.6 dBi at 912, 

1920, and 5990 MHz, respectively. The effective isotropic radiated power (EIRP) from the 

transmitter is the sum of the input and the gain, or 15, 17.6, and 18.6 dBm at 912, 1920, and 

5990 MHz, respectively. 

Figure 2. Block diagram of transmitter equipment. 
5

2.1.2 Receiver 

The receiver equipment, shown in Figure 3, consisted of an omnidirectional, vertically polarized 

antenna, identical to the transmitting antenna. The receiving antenna was manually carried 

through the buildings, supported by a special harness. This kept the antenna vertical, kept the 

antenna height constant (1.9 m), and avoided head shadowing. The received signal was divided 

by a quadruplexer with the unused output terminated. The active outputs of the quadruplexer 

were individually filtered and amplified. To decrease the noise figure of the system, the 

quadruplexer, filters, and low-noise amplifiers were secured to the antenna and fed through short, 

low-loss cables. To allow for mobility of the antenna, the signal was passed through 30 m of 

low-loss coaxial cables before entering three spectrum analyzers. The 5990-MHz channel 

included a second low-noise amplifier inserted at the input to the spectrum analyzer to 

Figure 3. Photograph of receiver system. 
6

make up for the relatively higher loss of the long coaxial cable at the higher frequency. The 

spectrum analyzers were controlled and the data collected automatically over a general purpose 

interface bus (GPIB) by a personal computer (PC). A functional block diagram of the receiver 

equipment is shown in Figure 4. 

The measured gain of the receiver amplifiers was 26, 26, and 37 dB at 912, 1920, and 5990 

MHz, respectively. The antenna gain was 0, 2.6, and 3.6 dBi at 912, 1920, and 5990 MHz, 

respectively. The calculated gain of the receiver relative to isotropic gain is the sum of the 

antenna gain and the receiver amplifier gain, or 26, 28.6, and 40.6 dB at 912, 1920, and 5990 

MHz, respectively. 

Figure 4. Block diagram of receiver equipment. 
7

2.2 Calibration and Measurement Procedure 

The transmitter was calibrated every morning (after allowing adequate time for the system to 

reach operating temperature) with a spectrum analyzer to ensure that all frequencies produced 15 

dBm at the input to the antenna. The receiver was calibrated with a noise diode every morning 

and every afternoon. All spectrum analyzers were self-calibrated before measurements were 

taken in each room. 

Although precise distance measurements were not required, a precision electronic distance meter 

(EDM) was used as the easiest means of gathering distance information. All distance 

measurements reported here are approximations within 10 m. 

Reference measurements (see Glossary of Terms) were made at ground level outside each 

building, one for each transmission path. To avoid the possibility of measuring a deep fade 

caused by multipath as the reference, a zig-zag pattern with a radius greater than the longest 

transmitted wavelength was traversed along outside walls of each building. A minimum sample 

of 100 wavelengths was collected for each reference. 

Within the buildings, the measurements were made by moving the receiving antenna in a zig-zag 

pattern through the area measured. This pattern was used to ensure that the entire area was 

covered, not just the perimeter. In the residential measurements, a zig-zag pattern was traversed 

across the full area of each room. Five representative rooms were measured to acquire an 

average for each residential building. For the high-rise building measurements, a zig-zag pattern 

was traversed across each of the four corners (except in instances where we were denied access 

to the area) on representative floors, covering an area of approximately 40 m2

 per corner. 

In each room measured, a zig-zag pattern with each leg greater than the maximum transmitted 

wavelength (0.66 m) was traversed. To avoid aliasing, we collected four samples per the shortest 

wavelength (0.05 m), or 80 samples per meter. A sampling rate of 60 Hz (601 samples in a 10-s 

sweep) was set by the spectrum analyzer, and the speed of the receiver was 0.75 m/s. Taking 

samples of at least 100 wavelengths per room gave us a minimum data collection time of 41 s. 

By collecting 5 sweeps of the spectrum analyzer, we collected a minimum of 3000 samples or 

750 wavelengths per room. Thus we could observe the fast and slow fading effects, and deep 

fades (30 dB) at the shortest wavelength. 

2.3 Data Format 

The data were stored in ASCII format on the hard disk of a PC, and downloaded to floppy disk 

daily. Since five 10-s sweeps were taken in each room or corner, five files were generated. Each 

file contained data from all three frequencies. The equipment was then moved to the next room 

or corner, and the process was repeated. Because the signals were received by spectrum 

analyzers, real-time data were viewed as they were collected. This allowed the measurements to 

be checked immediately and retaken if erroneous. 
8 

3. MEASUREMENT LOCATIONS 

3.1 Residential Building Information 

We took measurements at seven private residences in and around Boulder, Colorado. Data were 

taken on the main floor, as well as in the basements and on second floors, when present. 

Figures 5 through 11 show the LOS and NLOS paths, and neighborhood layouts for each 

residence. In these figures, "TX" refers to the transmitter locations, and "RX" refers to the 

receiver location. Appendix A contains path loss and building layout information for all 

residential measurements. 

Figure 5. Diagram of residence-1 neighborhood (not to scale). 

Residence 1 was a single-story brick, wire mesh, and plaster house. The closest street contained 

fewer then ten parked cars, and fewer than ten cars passed by per hour. The surrounding streets 

contained single-story houses, with approximately 800 m2

 of land each. In front of the house 

were two 15-m pine trees. The basement was completely underground with small window wells. 

For the LOS measurements, the transmitter was located 65 m northwest of the building. For the 

NLOS measurements, the transmitter was located 90 m southeast of the building. 
9 

Figure 6. Diagram of residence-2 neighborhood (not to scale). 

Residence 2 was a tri-level, brick veneer and wood building located on a street with fewer than 

ten cars passing per hour and no parked cars. The surrounding streets contained one- and twostory houses, with approximately 1200 m2

 of land per house. There were two 15-m tall pine 

trees located on the northwest side of the house. The basement was half underground and had 

large, above ground windows. For the LOS measurements, the transmitter was located 85 m 

northwest of the building. For the NLOS measurements, the transmitter was located 125 m 

southeast of the building. 
10 

Figure 7. Diagram of residence-3 neighborhood (not to scale). 

Residence 3 was a single-story, brick veneer building located on a street with fewer than ten 

passing cars per hour and no parked cars. The surrounding streets contained one- and two-story 

houses, with approximately 1200 m2

 of land per house. There was one 8-m tall bare tree and 

some 1-m tall evergreen shrubs around the house. The basement was completely underground 

and had small window wells. For the LOS measurements, the transmitter was located 75 m 

northwest of the building. For the NLOS measurements, the transmitter was located 50 m north 

of the building. 
11 

Figure 8. Diagram of residence-4 neighborhood (not to scale). 

Residence 4 was a tri-level, brick building located on a street with fewer than 20 cars passing per 

hour. There were more than ten cars parked along the street near the house. The streets 

contained one- and two-story houses, with approximately 800 m2 of land per house. The 

basement was half underground with large windows. For the LOS measurements, the transmitter 

was located 65 m northeast of the building. For the NLOS measurements, the transmitter was 

located 90 m northwest of the building. 
12 

Figure 9. Diagram of residence-5 neighborhood (not to scale). 

Residence 5 was a large, two-story, wood and brick veneer building with Thermoply® reflective 

insulation. It was located on a cul-de-sac with fewer than five cars passing per hour, and no cars 

parked on the street. The street contained large two-story houses, approximately 2000 m2 of land 

per house, and no vegetation. The basement was completely underground and had large window 

wells. For the LOS measurements, the transmitter was located 45 m southeast of the building. 

For the NLOS measurements, the transmitter was located 130 m east of the building. 
13 

Figure 10. Diagram of residence-6 neighborhood (not to scale). 

Residence 6 was a two-story, aluminum and brick veneer building located on a street with fewer 

than five cars passing per hour and fewer than five cars parked on the street. The street 

contained one- and two-story houses, with approximately 1000 m2 of land per house. The 

basement was completely underground and had small window wells. For the LOS 

measurements, the transmitter was located 100 m southwest of the building. For the NLOS 

measurements, the transmitter was located 140 m southwest of the building. 
14 

Figure 11. Diagram of residence-7 neighborhood (not to scale). 

Residence 7 was a two-story, wood and brick veneer building located on a street with fewer than 

ten cars passing per hour. The surrounding streets contained one- and two-story houses, with 

approximately 800 m2

 of land per house. The basement was completely underground and had 

large window wells. For the LOS measurements, the transmitter was located 80 m south of the 

building. For the NLOS measurements, the transmitter was located 100 m northwest of the 

building. 
15 

3.2 High-rise Building Information 

We took measurements in four high-rise buildings in downtown Denver, Colorado (Figures 13 

through 16). This area consisted of closely spaced buildings with heights typically ranging from 

3 to 30 stories. A diagram of the environment, with the total number of floors listed for each 

building, is shown in Figure 12. Due to logistical considerations, the transmitter was not parked 

under street lamps or traffic lights, but was parked to ensure appropriate transmission paths. For 

all high-rise buildings measured, the surrounding streets contained more than 20 parked cars, and 

more than 200 vehicles and 50 pedestrians passed per hour. The interiors of the high-rise 

buildings had an open-face layout with soft, low, cubicle-wall partitions. Appendix B contains 

the path loss data for each high-rise building measured. 

 Figure 12. Area studied in Denver, Colorado. (Numbers indicate the number of stories for 

 each building shown; not to scale.) 
16 

Figure 13. Photograph of high rise 1. 

High rise 1 was a new 19-story building constructed of concrete, with long walls of glass on each 

floor. There was a fire wall separating the southeast side of the building from the northwest side. 

There were five leafless deciduous trees planted south of the building. The first floor was 

approximately 6 m above ground level. There were four levels under ground level, including 

three areas for automobile parking. For the LOS measurements, the transmitter was located 

70 m southeast of the building. For the NLOS measurements, the transmitter was located 200 m 

southwest of the building. 
17 

Figure 14. Photograph of high rise 2. 

High rise 2 was a 65-year-old, 15-story, stone building with many windows evenly spaced 

throughout the building. There were two leafless deciduous trees to the northwest of the 

building. For the LOS measurements, the transmitter was located 50 m northwest of the 

building. Because of the layout of the city, only the west and south corners of the building were 

line-of-sight to the transmitter and were measured. For the NLOS measurements, the transmitter 

was located 100 m southeast of the building. 
18 

Figure 15. Photograph of high rise 3. 

High rise 3 was a 12-floor, stone building with a column of windows running down the center of 

two sides of the building. It comprised one quarter of the block. There was no surrounding 

foliage. For the LOS measurements, the transmitter was located 50 m east of the building. Due 

to the layout of this block, only the east and north corners were line-of-sight to the transmitter 

and were measured. For the NLOS measurements, the transmitter was located 100 m southeast 

of the building. 
19 

Figure 16. Photograph of high rise 4. 

High rise 4 was a new 50-story building, which varied in shape as the floor levels increased. It 

was constructed of concrete and had many windows evenly distributed throughout the building. 

There was no surrounding foliage. For the LOS measurements, the transmitter was located 

150 m northwest of the building. For the NLOS measurements, the transmitter was located 

210 m northwest of the building. 
20

4. DATA ANALYSIS 

For point-to-multipoint communication environments, narrowband propagation characteristics 

can be described as a combination of three components: path loss, slow fading, and fast fading. 

This is illustrated in Figure 17, where received signal strength is shown as a function of distance. 

Knowledge of these components helps determine the required distance between cell sites, 

handoff speed, and signal-to-noise ratio. 

Before initiating any path loss calculations, we corrected all raw data to subtract the gain 

introduced by the system hardware. The transmitter gain was 15, 17.2, and 18.6 dBi at 912, 

1920, and 5990 MHz, respectively. The receiver gain was 26, 28.6, and 40.6 dB at 912, 1920, 

and 5990 MHz, respectively. The correction factor was 41, 45.8, and 59.2 dB at 912, 1920, and 

5990 MHz, respectively. 

 Figure 17. Characteristics of narrowband fading [2]. This graph is intended for use in this 

report to illustrated fading characteristics. Some data points may have been 

omitted for clarity. 
21

4.1 Path Loss Calculations 

As the distance separating a transmitter and receiver increases, the received signal strength tends 

to decrease due to wave spreading. This type of attenuation is known as path loss (see Glossary 

of Terms). Knowledge of the amount of path loss expected is critical in determining cell sizes 

for optimum performance of PCS systems. 

The theoretical path loss, LT, in decibels can be expressed mathematically as 

 LT = L + X log(d), (1)

where L is a loss constant which includes antenna gain, 

X is the attenuation factor (dB/decade), and 

d is the distance between transmitter and receiver. 

In free space, the attenuation factor is 20 dB/decade. We expect this value to be larger in 

building penetration measurements. 

The experimental median (see Glossary of Terms) path loss, LM, in decibels between the 

transmitter and receiver can be calculated from the measured data using the formula 

 LM = PRX - PRX_ideal, (2)

where PRX is the median measured power at the receiver (dBm), and 

PRX_ideal is the ideal received power (dBm). 

Median measured path loss for all residential and high-rise buildings is shown in Appendix A 

and Appendix B, respectively. Path loss versus distance plots are shown in Figures 18 through 

20. These plots include all buildings and transmission paths measured. Each data point 

represents the median path loss per building and the average horizontal distance between 

transmitter and receiver. 

Appendix C shows the path loss distribution for a selection of rooms in the residential buildings, 

and floors of the high-rise buildings. These histograms show uni-modal and bi-modal 

distributions. 

4.1.1 Breakpoint 

There is a phenomenon referred to as the path loss breakpoint [3,4,5]. It consists of a change in 

path loss slope at some radial distance from the transmitter. It is caused by the reflection of the 

transmitted signal by the ground. This multipath signal interferes with the direct path signal and 

usually occurs only in areas with clear LOS and ground reflection paths. Theoretically, the path 

loss should decrease 20 dB/decade close to the transmitter, and decrease 40 dB/decade after
22
23

Figure 20. Path loss versus distance at 5990 MHz. 

the path loss breakpoint occurs. (Note: this phenomenon helps to increase spectrum efficiency 

by allowing for increased frequency reuse at distances larger than the breakpoint.) 

The breakpoint radius from the transmitter, Rb, can be calculated using the formula 

λ

t r

b

h h

R

2 = , (3)

where ht is the height of the transmitting antenna, 

hr is the height of the receiving antenna, and 

λ is the wavelength, all in the same units [6]. 

The expected breakpoint radii for our data are given in Table 1. Since our measurements were 

taken for microcells, we do not have a wide range of distance data. This makes it more difficult 

to determine a breakpoint. Also, the more obstacles and terrain changes between the transmitter 

and receiver, the less likely it becomes that a breakpoint will be seen [6]. Since half of our data 

was non-line-of-sight, half of the data points are likely to show no breakpoint. For the 5990-

MHz data, we do not expect to see a breakpoint because all our measurements were taken at less 

than the calculated breakpoint radius of 400 m. For the data presented in this paper, no 

breakpoints were determined. 
24

Table 1. Expected Breakpoint Radii 

Frequency (MHz) Rb (m) 

912 60 

1920 130 

5990 400 

4.1.2 Difference in Received Signal Strength 

Received signal strength is an important parameter in telecommunications because it indicates 

the amount of transmitter power necessary to obtain coverage in an area. Received signal 

strength is calculated using the free space formula 

( )2

2

4 r

Pr PtGrGt

π

λ = , (4)

where Pr is the received power, 

Pt is the transmitted power, 

Gr is the gain of the receiving antenna, 

Gt is the gain of the receiving antenna, and 

r is the distance between transmitter and receiver. 

The antenna gains are calculated using the formula 

2

4

λ

π G = Ae , (5)

where Ae is the effective aperture of the antenna and 

G is the antenna gain. 

Since all variables except the frequency are held constant in our application, the theoretical 

change in received signal strength (power) due to the change in frequency transmitted is 

determined by 

20log( / ). 2 1 P f f ∆ r = , (6)
25

The expected and measured differences between the frequencies are given in Table 2. The 

measured differences vary from the calculated values quite significantly. This variance is wellestablished by our measurements, being observed in both urban and suburban environments. 

These findings concur with other research findings, where differences in received signal strength 

of up to 4 dB (1922/880 MHz) greater than theory were found [5,7,8,9]. 

Table 2. Received Signal Strength Differences Between Frequencies 

1920/912 MHz 

(dB) 

5990/1920 MHz 

(dB) 

Theoretical 6.5 9.9 

Measured 

Residential 7.4 12.7 

Measured 

High Rise 10.0 22.3 

4.2 Penetration Loss Calculations 

The difference in signal level between the received (corrected) signal level inside the building 

and the reference signal level (at ground level) is defined as the building penetration loss. The 

building penetration loss is calculated as 

 Pref - Prm/cnr, (7)

where Pref is the median reference signal strength, in dBm, and 

Prm/cnr is the median of the signal strength in a particular 

 room or corner of a building, in dBm. 

We calculated building penetration losses for each building, at each frequency, and for each 

transmission path separately. The total mean (see Glossary of Terms) building penetration loss 

was found by calculating the mean of all residential or high rise medians. Standard deviations, σ, 

were calculated using the formula 

( )

1

2

1 −

− = ∑= nx x i

n

i

σ , (8)
26

where xi is the ith data point, 

x is the room or corner mean, and 

n is the number of data points. 

Appendix D contains tables of penetration losses for each building individually. The mean 

NLOS residential and high-rise building penetration losses are summarized in Table 3. The 

mean building penetration values for both LOS and NLOS are summarized in Table 4, where 

"All buildings" refers to the average of the high rise and residential measurements. 

Table 3. Mean NLOS Penetration Losses 

Building 912 MHz 

(dB) 

1920 MHz 

(dB) 

5990 MHz 

(dB) 

Residential 7.7 11.6 16.1 

High Rise 12.5 15.5 20.0 

Table 4. Mean Penetration Losses for Both Transmission Paths 

Frequency Building 

Loss 

(dB) 

Residential 6.4 

912 MHz High Rise 11.2 

All Buildings 8.2 

Residential 8.4 

1920 MHz High Rise 11.9 

All Buildings 9.8 

Residential 11.7 

5990 MHz High Rise 20.0 

All Buildings 14.1 
27

We took NLOS and LOS measurements in each high-rise building. Time and accessibility 

restrictions made it impossible to measure all floors of all buildings. Receiver field strength 

deterioration at higher floor levels (due to distance and antenna pattern restrictions) made it 

impossible for us to measure floors above the fifteenth. Efforts were made to measure the same 

floors in each high-rise building in order to accommodate comparisons between the buildings. 

The cumulative probability distribution/function (CDF) shows the probability that penetration 

loss is less than or equal to the value of the penetration loss shown on the abscissa of the same 

graph. Figures 21 and 22 illustrate the CDFs for all seven residences and four high rises, 

respectively. Comparing the CDF’s from all three frequencies, we see that, for both 

environments, the higher frequencies suffer greater penetration loss for NLOS paths. This is true 

consistently except in the high-rise buildings where the 1920-MHz probability is greater than the 

912-MHz probability at small penetration losses (less than 12 dB) and less than the 5990-MHz 

probability at large penetration losses (greater than 40 dB). 

 Figure 21. Cumulative probability distribution functions for NLOS residential 

 penetration loss. 
28

 Figure 22. Cumulative probability density functions for NLOS high rise 

 penetration loss. 

4.2.1 Penetration Loss into Basements 

The LOS building measurements showed greater penetration loss into basements than rooms at 

ground level. The difference is significant, as illustrated in Table 5. In fact, Cox, et al., 

recommend that "Because of the large average attenuation into the basement of the house, it does 

not appear reasonable to combine the basement attenuation statistics with the statistics for the 

rooms above ground level ([10])." It is, however, essential to incorporate a separate allowance 

for underground areas in the power requirement equation since PCS users may desire to operate 

their systems in basements and underground carparks. 

Received signal strengths were so low in the underground NLOS high-rise measurements that we 

could not detect the deep fades at all frequencies. Therefore, the median value of the signal 

strength in these locations would have been optimistic and not valid for use in comparisons. For 

this reason, the NLOS underground penetration statistics are not included in this report. 
29

 Table 5. Differences Between Mean Ground Floor and Mean Basement 

 LOS Penetration Loss 

Frequency 

(MHz) 

Residential 

(dB) 

High Rise 

(dB) 

912 8.7 20.8 

1920 17.6 28.8 

5990 19.9 34.8 

4.2.2 Effects of Building Materials 

Histograms of the mean NLOS residential building penetration losses and standard deviations are 

shown in Figures 23 and 24, respectively.3

 In Figure 24, the standard deviations are high. This 

is due to the fact that basement measurements have been included in the residential average. 

Basement penetration loss is significantly higher than the loss in all other rooms (see Table 5) 

and so causes the standard deviation to be larger. 

Residence 1 was brick with wire mesh and plaster. Residence 2 was a tri-level with brick on the 

first floor and wood on the second. Residence 3 was all brick. Residence 4 was an all brick trilevel. Residence 5 was a two-story house with brick on the first floor, wood on the second floor, 

a full basement, and the entire house was wrapped with a metallic vapor barrier known as 

Thermoply®. Residence 6 was a two-story house with brick on the first floor, aluminum siding 

on the second, and a full basement. Residence 7 was a two-story house with brick on the first 

floor, wood on the second floor, and a full basement. 

Based on the differences in residential building penetration between the three frequencies shown 

in Figure 23, building walls are frequency selective. This is reasonable because a building wall 

consists of a dielectric substance containing conducting objects. Such a structure may exhibit 

frequency-selective behavior, as has been documented by other researchers [1,11]. We also see 

that lower frequencies penetrate better than higher frequencies. Residence 3 has the highest 

penetration loss by 5 dB at 5990 MHz; the highest penetration loss by 0.5 dB at 1920 MHz; and 

the second to lowest penetration loss at 912 MHz. Residence 5 had the highest penetration loss 

by 3.2 dB at 912 MHz; and the 1920 and 5990 MHz penetration loss for this residence was less 

than 1.5 dB greater. Residence 2 had relatively low loss at 912 and 1920 MHz; yet "average" 

loss at 5990 MHz. 

 3

 Figures 23 and 24 include basement measurements. 
30
31

4.2.3 Effects of Multistory Buildings 

Mean high-rise building penetration loss per floor is shown in Figures 25 through 28. High rises 

1 and 4 have lower, more linear penetration losses than high rises 2 and 3. High rises 1 and 4 

differ from high rises 2 and 3 in that they span entire city blocks, are newer construction, and 

contain large walls of glass. Walker reports that windows decrease penetration loss by 6 dB 

[12]. High rises 2 and 3 are of much older construction, are more closely surrounded by other 

buildings, have fewer windows, and have much more erratic penetration loss curves. High rise 2 

has more windows and lower penetration loss than high rise 3. Figures 29 through 31 show 

penetration loss at 912, 1920 and 5990 MHz, respectively, for all high-rise buildings measured. 

The mean values for all data on each floor are indicated by "X’s." The "least squares" straight 

line fit to these means, as calculated by GRAFTOOLTM, is also shown on each plot. The slope 

and first-floor intercept of these lines are given in Table 6. 

Figure 25. Mean NLOS building penetration losses for high rise 1. 
32
33
34
35

Table 6. Slope and First Floor Intercept of "Least Squares" Line Fit to Mean Floor Penetration 

 912 MHz 1920 MHz 5990 MHz 

Slope -0.66 dB/floor -1.04 dB/floor -0.62 dB/floor 

Intercept 16.4 dB 19.6 dB 24.5 dB 

4.2.4 Effects of Building Shadowing 

Shadow loss is the attenuation of a signal due to diffraction around buildings. To calculate 

building shadowing, outdoor data were collected behind the buildings and subtracted from that 

collected in front of the buildings (LOS only). Average shadowing loss for each building is given 

in Table 7. If the building under test were the only building in the vicinity, we would expect the 

shadowing loss to increase with increasing building height and width, and with increasing 

frequency. The mean high-rise building shadowing loss is greater than the residential mean and 

the mean shadowing losses increase with increasing frequency. However, not all highrise 

buildings have greater shadowing loss than all residences at the same frequency, and shadowing 

loss does not always increase with frequency even for the same building. 

Table 7. Building Shadowing Losses 

Site 912 MHz (dB) 1920 MHz (dB) 5990 MHz (dB) 

Residence 1 7 4 1 

Residence 2 9 10 8 

Residence 3 9 19 26 

Residence 6 15 19 21 

Residence 7 15 17 23 

High Rise 1 23 28 25 

High Rise 2 35 41 46 

High Rise 3 15 14 15 

Residential Mean 11 14 16 

High-Rise Mean 24 28 29 

Building Mean 16 19 21 
36

4.3 Slow Fading Analysis 

The variation of the median signal strength about the path loss slope shown in Figure 17 is 

known as slow fading (also referred to as long-term fading or large-scale variations). Slow 

fading is typically caused by relatively small-scale variations in topography along the 

propagation path (i.e., construction materials used in the walls of buildings under test, and 

shadowing caused by buildings, trees or geographical variations). Knowledge of slow fading 

characteristics is critical in determining parameters such as required handoff speed and number 

of handoff requests. Slow fading effects are of particular concern because they generally cannot 

be eliminated using signal processing techniques such as equalization and coding. 

Table 8 shows the standard deviation of the LOS data about the path loss slope. For the 

residences, standard deviation tends to increase with increasing frequency, whereas for the high 

rises, there is no increase between 1920 and 5990 MHz. The high-rise buildings show greater 

standard deviations than the residential buildings at 912 MHz, but this is not true for all 

buildings at 1920 and 5990 MHz. Some of the residences show higher standard deviations than 

high rise 1 at 1920, and most of the residences show higher standard deviation than high rise 

1 at 5990 MHz. Referring to the environment around the buildings, high rise 1 is located in a 

relatively open area, with no vegetation in the propagation path. This indicates that any 

Table 8. Standard Deviation of LOS Data about the Path Loss Slope 

Standard Deviation (dB) 

912. MHz 1920 MHz 5990 MHz 

Residence 1 6.3 7.4 7.7 

Residence 2 6.6 7.5 7.1 

Residence 3 7.1 8.9 10.3 

Residence 4 6.6 7.9 9.1 

Residence 5 7.4 9.8 10.4 

Residence 6 7.2 10.2 10.8 

Residence 7 7.6 8.7 9.9 

High Rise 1 8.8 9.6 9.4 

High Rise 2 9.4 11.1 11.0 

High Rise 3 12.5 14.5 14.5 

High Rise 4 12.1 14.3 13.0 
37

obstruction between the transmitter and receiver is a factor in slow fading. High-rise building 

shadowing may be a significant factor in long-term fading at these frequencies, but is extremely 

area-dependent. 

4.4 Fast Fading Analysis 

The distribution of the fading about the local median is known as fast fading (also referred to as 

short-term fading or small-scale variations). It is caused by multipath reflections from 

surrounding objects. This type of fading is extremely rapid, with the possibility of very deep 

fades every half-wavelength. Figure 32 shows an example of our raw data. This figure shows 

fading measured with respect to time. The time elapsed for this sample was 10 s and the distance 

travelled was approximately 8 m. As seen here, fast fades occur more often, but for a shorter 

duration, at the higher frequency. Knowledge of fast fading characteristics is critical in 

determining adequate signal-to-noise ratios, and in designing optimum error-correction 

algorithms. 

To calculate the fast fading distributions from the measured data, we subtracted each raw 

measured value from the mean of the room or corner. This removed the slow-fading component 

from the data, leaving only the fast-fading component for processing. 

Figure 32. Example of raw data showing fast fading. 
38

Figures 33 and 34 show fast fading cumulative probability distribution functions for residence 7, 

LOS, and high rise 3, NLOS, respectively. For both buildings, all three frequencies tend towards 

the same distribution shape. Fast fading is generally accepted to be Rayleigh distributed at 

distances of greater than 2 km, becoming less so and tending toward Rician distribution at closer 

proximities [13]. 

4.5 Correlation Analysis 

Making simultaneous measurements at three frequencies allows a meaningful comparison of the 

three received signals. If a large correlation (i.e., close to 1.0) exists between any of these 

frequencies, then future measurements need only be collected at one frequency, and results could 

be extrapolated to another frequency or frequencies. 

Figures 35, 36, and 37 compare the mean residential NLOS penetration losses between 912 and 

1920 MHz, between 1920 and 5990 MHz, and between 912 and 5990 MHz, respectively. The 

graphs use one point per room and combine the results of seven houses. Figures 38, 39, and 40 

compare the same parameters for the high-rise buildings, using one point per floor to combine 

the results of all four NLOS high-rise measurements. The regression line shown on the above 

graphs is the regression line as calculated by GRAFTOOLTM such that the deviation of the raw 

data points from the function is minimized. The correlation coefficients of the mean NLOS 

residential and high-rise building penetration losses are shown in Table 9. 

Table 9. Correlation Coefficients of Linear Regression Between Frequencies 

Frequencies (MHz) Residential High Rise 

912 and 1920 .919 .928 

912 and 5990 .763 .783 

1920 and 5990 .942 .932 
39
40
41
42
43

5. SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS 

This report describes building penetration measurements conducted simultaneously at 912, 1920, 

and 5990 MHz. Eleven environments were measured, representing typical residential and highrise buildings. Measurements were taken on all levels of the residential buildings, and seven or 

eight nonsequential levels of the high-rise buildings, up to a maximum of the fifteenth level. The 

measurement system consisted of a narrowband, fixed, outdoor transmitter and a mobile indoor 

receiver. The transmit and receive antennas were identical biconical, vertically polarized, 

omnidirectional antennas. From the data collected, we analyzed path loss distributions, 

penetration losses, building shadowing loss, loss into basements, slow fading, fast fading, and 

variations in loss due to frequency, building height, and building construction materials. A 

relationship between the data from the three frequencies was shown by way of correlation 

coefficients. 

Path loss distributions 

Although other researchers have described path loss into buildings as following a log-normal 

distribution [14, 15, 16], our data (see Appendix C) show no clear, consistent distribution. 

Although some of the distributions tend toward Gaussian or Rayleigh, many are bi-modal. The 

bi-modal distributions in the residences are caused by the fact that the basement path loss was 

significantly higher than the loss measured in the rest of the building. The bi-modal distributions 

seen in the high rise 2 and 3 LOS measurements are caused by the fact that only two corners of 

the building could be LOS to the transmitter, and therefore measurements were made in only 

these two corners. 

Penetration loss 

Penetration losses were calculated for each building from the path loss data collected. 

Penetration loss was found to vary with building location, construction material, frequency, and 

building level measured. The average penetration losses for all buildings was 8.2, 9.8, and 14.1 

dB at 912, 1920, and 5990 MHz, respectively. 

Penetration into basements 

Signal penetration into basements was measured to be 8.7, 17.6, and 19.9 dB lower than 

penetration into the ground floor of the residences at 912, 1920, and 5990 MHz, respectively. 

LOS penetration into high-rise building basements was 20.8, 28.8, and 34.8 dB less than 

penetration at 912, 1920, and 5990 MHz, respectively. It is essential to incorporate a separate 

allowance for basements in the power requirement budget or to position additional transmitters 

in these areas if there is a desire to use PCS systems in basements and underground carparks. 

Building construction variations 

The high-rise building measurements consistently showed greater building penetration loss than 

the residential buildings. Presumably this is due to the use of steel frames and thicker walls of 

masonry or concrete in the high-rise buildings. We found the difference in median penetration 

loss at 912, 1920, and 5990 MHz to be 4.8, 3.5, and 8.3 dB greater, respectively, in the high-rise 

environment than in the residential environment. 
44

Base antenna height considerations 

The low base antenna height used for these measurements affected the path loss distribution and 

the frequency dependency of the penetration loss. When the base antenna height is low, 

penetration is mainly via walls and windows, and therefore the construction material of the 

building becomes more significant. This can create more variation in penetration loss at 

different frequencies, as the building materials can be frequency selective. The low base antenna 

height also leads to an increase in building shadowing, depending on the surrounding environs. 

This can create more variation in received signal level, but only affects penetration losses when 

the reference signal (ground level) experiences shadowing effects and the upper floors of the 

building under test do not. With a low base antenna height, the upper floors experienced similar 

shadowing effects, and so our measured penetration loss slopes (Figures 29-31) were less steep 

(see summary of building height dependency), and did not change after the fifth floor as found 

by other researchers. The low base antenna height does lead to increased shadowing effects and 

hence reduced signal levels inside the building, which will require either more base stations per 

city or increased transmitter power at each one. 

Frequency dependency 

The frequency variation of penetration loss appears to be largely dependent on building 

construction. For residential buildings, mean penetration losses increased as frequency 

increased, as found in [17]. However, not all the high-rise buildings followed this pattern. For 

most floors of high-rise buildings 1 and 4 (which had primarily glass walls), the 1920-MHz 

signal encountered less penetration loss than the 912-MHz signal. Tanis [18], and Davidson and 

Marturano [19] measured commercial building penetration losses that decreased as the frequency 

increased. Davidson and Marturano explained this apparent contradiction as a difference in 

building materials. Penetration into residences is primarily through the windows, walls and roof. 

Loss through these materials is relatively low and increases with increasing frequency. Both 

Tanis and Davidson and Marturano measured industrial buildings of reinforced concrete where 

the dominant penetration was through slots (windows and cracks). Loss through these materials 

decreases with increasing frequency. Allen, et al. [20] also found decreasing loss with increasing 

frequency for penetration through a metal building. Here, also, the dominant penetration is 

through slots (small windows, ducts and holes). 

Building height dependency 

For the high-rise buildings, NLOS penetration loss decreased 0.6 to 1 dB per floor as building 

floor level increased. Note that for all floors measured, the reference was always at street level. 

Most researchers [21, 22, 23, 24, 25, 26, 27, 28, 29] have observed that building penetration 

losses decrease 1 to 3 dB per floor for the first five or six floors of high-rise buildings. This 

difference in slope is probably due to the low transmitter height we used, causing the 

obstructions between transmitter and receiver to be more consistent, and the slope less steep. 

Transmitters placed on rooftops may have fewer obstructions to the upper floors of buildings 

than to the lower floors. Decreases in penetration loss are seen on the upper floors of high-rise 

buildings in urban environments [23], as opposed to high-rise buildings in suburban 

environments [12]. The penetration characteristics of buildings in urban areas depend highly on 

the surrounding structures, and are much harder to predict than for high-rise buildings in
45

suburban environments. A couple of authors even noted penetration loss that increases at higher 

floor levels [11,12]. It is interesting to note that no matter what the pattern of the penetration 

loss versus floor level, all frequencies exhibit the same overall variation (Figures 25-28). 

Building shadowing 

The mean high-rise building shadowing loss is greater than the residential mean and the mean 

shadowing losses increase with increasing frequency. However, not all high-rise buildings have 

greater shadowing loss than all residences at the same frequency, and shadowing loss does not 

always increase with frequency even for the same building. This is due to the effects of 

multipath from the surrounding reflectors, such as buildings, geographical structures, vehicles, 

and vegetation; as well as the construction materials and contents of the building. Building 

shadowing loss is as dependent on the features of the area surrounding the building as it is on the 

building itself. 

Slow fading analysis 

Slow fading analysis reveals that any obstruction in the propagation path is a factor in long-term 

fading. Slow fading is frequency dependent and increases with increasing frequency in the 

residential building environment. In the high-rise environment, long-term fading is more 

difficult to analyze. Building shadowing loss may be a significant factor at these frequencies, 

but is extremely area-dependent. 

Fast fading analysis 

The fast fading characteristics of building penetration shows a tendency for all frequencies to 

have the same distribution shape, especially in the residential building. Deep fades occur more 

frequently as the frequency increases, but for a shorter duration. 

Regression analysis 

We observed strong linear correlations, greater than 0.90, between the penetration losses at 912 

and 1920 MHz, and between 1920 and 5990 MHz. This opens the possibility of measuring 

building penetration loss at one frequency and extrapolating to find the penetration loss at other 

frequencies. The correlation between 912 and 5990 MHz, however, was less than 0.80, and so 

extrapolation between these two frequencies is not expected to be as accurate. 

Implications of measurements 

The ability to use the same mobile communications system in an uninterrupted manner both 

inside and outside buildings would be advantageous to PCS subscribers. If outdoor base stations 

can provide coverage to indoor users, handoff and its related difficulties are eliminated. 

Locating base stations on existing structures such as street or traffic lights has obvious economic 

advantages. The penetration loss measurements presented can be used to determine the 

feasibility of outdoor-to-indoor personal communication links. The cumulative distribution 

functions can provide link margin information to PCS designers. If building penetration losses 

of the magnitude presented in this paper can be tolerated by a PCS system, then there exists the 

possibility of using low-height base stations for transmission to indoor subscribers. 
46

6. ACKNOWLEDGMENTS 

The sponsorship, support, and useful insight in the reduction of the data provided by Sergio 

Aguirre of US WEST Technologies, Inc., and the technical assistance provided by Ken Allen 

(NTIA/ITS) are greatly appreciated. We extend much appreciation to Jim Washburn, Mike 

Cotton, Eric Loew, Hans Liebe, Frank Sanders, Ken Allen, Tom Brawley, and Richmond 

Homes, Inc. for permitting the residential measurements reported in this paper to be made in 

their homes. We also thank Judy Richardson, Fred Gurule, and Ron Minks for graciously 

allowing us access to the high-rise buildings, and Ed Potter, Eric Potter, and Louie Ruiz for 

reserving specific parking spaces for us in their parking lots. The measurements were funded by 

US WEST Technologies, Inc., under a Cooperative Research and Development Agreement. 
47

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transmission into buildings with metallic walls," Bell Sys. Tech J., vol. 62, No.9, pp. 

2695-2717, Nov. 1983. 

[11] A.F. deToledo and A.M.D. Turkmani, "Propagation into and within buildings at 900, 

1800 and 2300 MHz," in IEEE Veh. Tech. Conf. Digest, May 1992, pp. 633-636. 

[12] E.H. Walker, "Penetration of radio signals into buildings in the cellular radio 

environment, "Bell Sys. Tech. J., Vol. 62, No.9, pp. 2719-2734, Nov. 1983. 

[13] W.J. Tanis II, "Bell Atlantic Mobile Systems PCS Propagation Research," Fifth Quarterly 

Report to the FCC, pp. 29-31, Feb. 1993. 
48

[14] R. Bownds, "Measurements of propagation from street microcells into buildings at 900 

and 1700 MHz," Ericsson Report S/DT 92:138, Sweden, Aug. 1992. 

[15] L.P. Rice, "Radio Transmission into Buildings at 35 and 150 MHz," Bell Sys. Tech. J., 

Vol. 38, p. 199, Jan. 1959. 

[16] D.C. Cox, R. Murray, and A.W. Norris, "800 MHz attenuation measured in and around 

suburban houses," AT&T Bell Labs Tech. J., Vol. 63, No. 6, pp. 921-954, July/Aug. 1984. 

[17] P.I. Wells, "The Attenuation of UHF Radio Signals by Houses," IEEE Trans. on Veh~ 

Tech., Vol. VT-26, No.4, pp. 358-362, Nov. 1977. 

[18] W.J. Tanis II, "Bell Atlantic Mobile Systems PCS Propagation Research," Fifth Quarterly 

Report to the FCC, p. 7, Feb. 1993. 

[19] A. Davidson and L. Marturano, "Impact of Digital Techniques on Future LM Spectrum 

Requirements," IEEE Veh. Tech. News, Vol. 40, No.2, pp. 14-30, May 1993. 

[20] K.C. Allen, N. DeMinco, J.R. Hoffman, Y. Lo, and P.B. Papazian, "Building penetration 

loss measurements at 900 MHz, 1.4 GHz, and 28.8 GHz," NTIA Report 94-306, May 

1994 (NTIS Order No. PB 94204781). 

[21] D.C. Cox, R. Murray, and A.W. Norris, "Antenna height dependence of 800 MHz 

attenuation measured in houses," IEEE Trans. on Veh. Tech., VT-34, pp. 108-115, May 

1985. 

[22] R.C.V. Macario, "How Building Penetration Loss Varies with Frequency," IEEE Veh. 

Tech. News, Vol. 40, No. 6, pp. 26-27, Nov. 1993. 

[23] W.J. Tanis II, "Bell Atlantic Mobile Systems PCS Propagation Research," Fifth Quarterly 

Report to the FCC, p. 9-10, Feb. 1993. 

[24] W.C.Y. Lee, Mobile Cellular Telecommunications Systems, New York: McGraw-Hill 

Book Co., 1989, pp. 104-105. 

[25] P.J. Barry and A.G. Williamson, "Statistical model for UHF radio-wave signals within 

externally illuminated multistory buildings," IEE Proceedings, vol. 138, No. 4, Aug. 

1991. 

[26] B. Benzair, V.S.M. Renduchintala, H. Smith, and D.H. Williams, "Satellite paging 

experiments into buildings," in Proc. of IEE Colloquium on University Research into 

Mobile Radio, London, UK, 1990. 
49

[27] S. Mockford and A. Turkmani, "Penetration loss into buildings at 900 MHz," in Proc. of 

IEE Colloquium on Propagation Factors and Interference Modeling for Mobile Radio 

Systems, London, UK, 1988. 

[28] A.F. deToledo, D.G. Lewis, and A.M.D. Turkmani, "Radio propagation into buildings at 

1.8 GHz," in Proc. of IEE Colloquium on University Research in Mobile Radio, London, 

UK, 1990. 

[29] A.M.D. Turkmani and A.F. deToledo, "Radio transmission at 1800 MHz into, and within, 

multistory buildings," IEE Proceedings, vol. 138, No. 6, Dec. 1991. 
50

8. BIBLIOGRAPHY 

[1] European Cooperation in the Field of Scientific and Technical Research, Technical 

Document 231, "Building penetration losses," "Propagation models" Subgroup, COST 

231 TD (90) 116 Rev. 1, Florence, Jan. 1991. 

[2] S. T. Chia, "1700 MHz urban microcells and their coverage into buildings," in Proc. of 

IEE 7th International Conference on Antennas and Propagation, ICAP 91, London, UK, 

Apr. 1991. 

[3] R.V. Hogg and E.A. Tanis, Probability and Statistical Inference, New York: Macmillan 

Publishing Co., Inc., 1977. 

[4] D. Molkdar, "Review on radio propagation into and within buildings," IEE ProceedingsH, Vol. 138, No. 1, Feb. 1991. 
51

APPENDIX A: MEAN PATH LOSSES AND BUILDING LAYOUTS 

FOR RESIDENCES 

Figures A-1 through A-14 show residential layouts, with median path losses (dB) by room and 

standard deviations (dB) in parentheses. In the figures, measured losses are displayed by room 

in order of increasing frequency, i.e., 912 MHz (top number in each room), 1920 MHz (middle 

number), and 5990 MHz (bottom number). Reference path loss and standard deviation are 

indicated on the outside of the building. The direction of the arrow by the reference 

measurements indicates the direction in which the receiver was moving while the measurements 

were taken. In cases where the transmitter was facing a corner of the building, reference 

measurements were taken on both walls that made up that corner. Approximate building 

dimensions are indicated within the double-headed arrows. The direction in which the transmitter 

was located is indicated by the large arrow. 

Table A-1 shows the mean building path losses and standard deviations for each residence. 

Table A-2 shows the mean path loss for all residences combined. Table A-3 shows the path 

losses for the basements, first floors, and second floors of the residences separately. All path 

losses and standard deviations are given in decibels. 
52
53
54
55
56
57
58
59
60
61
62
63
64
65
66

Table A-1. Mean Path Losses for Each Residence 

Residence Path Frequency (MHz) Mean Path 

Loss (dB) σ (dB) 

LOS 85.0 6.3 

NLOS 86.4 6.1 

Both* 

912 

85.7 6.2 

LOS 95.8 7.4 

NLOS 96.1 6.9 

Both 

1920 

95.9 7.2 

LOS 100.2 7.7 

NLOS 114.6 7.4 

1 

Both 

5990 

103.2 7.6 

LOS 82.0 6.6 

NLOS 98.4 6.0 

Both 

912 

85.0 10.2 

LOS 90.0 7.5 

NLOS 101.4 8.1 

Both 

1920 

92.7 9.9 

LOS 107.6 7.2 

NLOS 120.0 9.0 

2 

Both 

5990 

110.5 11.2 

LOS 103.5 7.1 

NLOS 108.7 6.6 

Both 

912 

105.4 7.3 

LOS 106.1 8.9 

NLOS 116.5 8.6 

Both 

1920 

108.7 10.0 

LOS 112.9 10.3 

NLOS 125.7 9.4 

3 

Both 

5990 

115.7 11.3 

 * Both refers to the mean value of the LOS and NLOS paths. 
67

Table A-1. Mean Path Losses for Each Residence (cont.) 

Residence Path Frequency (MHz) 

Mean 

Path Loss 

(dB) 

σ (dB) 

LOS 79.7 6.6 

NLOS 92.2 6.3 

Both 

912 

82.5 8.7 

LOS 87.5 8.0 

NLOS 102.0 6.4 

Both 

1920 

90.4 10.6 

LOS 102.2 9.1 

NLOS 114.7 7.5 

4 

Both 

5990 

105.0 10.2 

LOS 76.1 7.4 

NLOS 95.3 7.6 

Both 

912 

79.1 11.6 

LOS 80.8 9.8 

NLOS 98.1 10.5 

Both 

1920 

83.7 13.4 

LOS 97.6 10.4 

NLOS 117.3 11.0 

5 

Both 

5990 

100.6 14.6 

LOS 84.4 7.2 

NLOS 97.4 7.3 

Both 

912 

87.2 9.7 

LOS 90.2 10.3 

NLOS 109.4 8.7 

Both 

1920 

93.2 12.9 

LOS 103.3 10.8 

NLOS 124.3 9.3 

6 

Both 

5990 

106.3 13.9 
68

Table A-1. Mean Path Losses for Each Residence (cont.) 

Residence Path Frequency (MHz) 

Mean 

Path Loss 

(dB) 

σ (dB) 

LOS 79.0 7.6 

NLOS 93.3 6.3 

Both 

912 

81.8 9.4 

LOS 90.5 8.7 

NLOS 105.4 7.5 

Both 

1920 

93.4 10.5 

LOS 104.5 9.9 

NLOS 123.0 8.5 

7 

Both 

5990 

107.5 12.6 

Table A-2. Mean Path Losses for All Residences (Calculated From Table A-1) 

Path Frequency (MHz) Mean Path Loss (dB) 

LOS 80.6 

NLOS 92.4 

Both 

912 

83.4 

LOS 87.2 

NLOS 100.8 

Both 

1920 

90.0 

LOS 102.1 

NLOS 118.1 

Both 

5990 

105.0 
69

Table A-3. Mean LOS Floor Path Loss for Residences 

Mean Path Loss (dB) 

Residence 

Frequency 

(MHz) Main Floor Second Floor Basement 

912 84.4 91.6 

1 1920 94.7 106.6 

5990 115.3 

N/A* 

127.5 

912 80.9 84.3 

2 1920 88.3 95.0 

5990 106.1 112.0 

N/A 

912 102.4 110.6 

3 1920 104.8 121.2 

5990 111.6 

N/A 

131.0 

912 80.7 

4 1920 87.5 

5990 104.3 

N/A N/A 

912 75.0 76.1 86.8 

5 1620 80.6 79.2 100.3 

5990 98.6 95.0 119.9 

912 82.6 84.9 93.5 

6 1920 88.1 90.8 109.4 

5990 102.9 101.8 125.4 

912 77.7 78.5 89.5 

7 1920 89.1 90.1 106.1 

5990 103.8 103.3 124.1 

 * N/A means that the measurement does not apply to this building. 

71

APPENDIX B: MEAN PATH LOSSES FOR HIGH-RISE BUILDINGS 

Tables B-1 through B-4 show the path losses measured on each floor of the high-rise buildings. 

It was not possible to measure on all floors of the high-rise buildings, nor was it possible to 

collect data for each transmission path on each floor. These situations are denoted in the tables 

by blank spaces. For each frequency, the first number is the LOS path loss, the second number is 

the NLOS path loss. Table B-5 shows the mean path losses and standard deviations for each 

high-rise building at each frequency measured. Table B-6 shows the mean path losses for all 

high-rise buildings at each frequency measured. 

Table B-1. Mean Path Losses by Floor for High Rise 1 

912 MHz 1920 MHz 5990 MHz Floor 

LOS NLOS LOS NLOS LOS NLOS 

12 93* 98 116 

11 

10 

9 93 108 99 119 115 135 

8 

7 93 109 98 116 114 136 

6 

5 91 109 95 114 113 136 

4 91 110 96 116 112 137 

3 91 110 95 116 114 137 

2 113 120 135 

1 97 114 100 125 113 138 

Ground 89 114 96 121 106 137 

Basement 135 147 153 

 * All data are given in decibels. 
72

Table B-2. Mean Path Losses by Floor for High Rise 2 

Floor 912 MHz 1920 MHz 5990 MHz 

 LOS NLOS LOS NLOS LOS NLOS 

11 82 115 97 125 114 140 

10 

9 93 121 105 134 119 145 

8 

7 81 115 92 130 106 146 

6 

5 83 92 109 

4 77 117 88 134 103 148 

3 75 110 85 124 100 141 

2 83 116 101 132 112 152 

1 79 121 92 138 107 149 

Basement 99 124 142 

Sub-Basement 132 146 154 
73

Table B-3. Mean Path Losses by Floor for High Rise 3 

Floor 912 MHz 1920 MHz 5990 MHz 

 LOS NLOS LOS NLOS LOS NLOS 

11 92 107 108 121 129 141 

10 

9 90 110 104 125 122 146 

8 

7 81 103 89 115 108 130 

6 

5 94 116 110 132 124 150 

4 92 117 108 133 125 150 

3 94 115 110 132 128 149 

2 94 117 112 132 128 148 

1 77 104 87 112 104 133 

Basement 106 129 117 135 139 153 
74

Table B-4. Mean Path Losses by Floor for High Rise 4 

Floor 912 MHz 1920 MHz 5990 MHz 

 LOS NLOS LOS NLOS LOS NLOS 

15 98 99 106 107 128 128 

14 

13 

12 88 94 93 106 116 125 

11 

10 88 100 92 108 114 128 

9 

8 96 103 103 106 123 130 

7 

6 88 100 96 105 115 127 

5 86 100 96 111 114 120 

4 87 101 92 103 115 128 

3 89 100 93 109 113 127 

2 

1 

Basement 
75

Table B-5. Mean Path Losses for Each High-rise Building 

Transmission 

Path 

Frequency 

(MHz) High Rise Mean Path Loss (dB) σ (dB)

1 91.8 8.8 

2 79.7 9.4 

3 84.1 12.5 

912 

4 88.7 12.1 

1 96.8 9.6 

2 90.7 11.1 

3 93.8 14.5 

1920 

4 94.5 14.3 

1 112.5 9.4 

2 105.8 11.0 

3 111.7 14.5 

LOS 

5990 

4 115.5 13.0 

1 109.7 7.5 

2 114.3 6.3 

3 107.9 9.5 

912 

4 98.8 10.7 

1 116.7 8.2 

2 128.1 7.7 

3 118.7 10.9 

1920 

4 106.8 10.8 

1 136.3 7.2 

2 143.8 7.0 

3 136.7 9.3 

NLOS 

5990 

4 127.5 8.8 
76

Table B-6. Mean Path Losses for All High-rise Buildings (Calculated From Table B-5) 

Path Frequency Mean 

 (MHz) Path Loss (dB) 

LOS 83.8 

NLOS 103.9 

Both 

912 

86.8 

LOS 93.4 

NLOS 112.1 

Both 

1920 

96.3 

LOS 109.8 

NLOS 132.5 

Both 

5990 

112.8 


























103

APPENDIX D: BUILDING PENETRATION LOSS DATA 

The following tables show the calculated penetration losses for the residential and high-rise 

buildings measured. 

Table D-1. Mean LOS Penetration Losses for Each Residence 

Frequency Residence Mean σ (dB) 

(MHz) Loss (dB) 

1 6.3 6.3 

2 4.9 6.6 

3 8.1 7.1 

4 4.6 6.6 

5 9.2 7.4 

6 9.0 7.2 

912 

7 9.1 7.6 

1 7.0 7.4 

2 8.3 7.5 

3 12.4 8.9 

4 6.7 7.9 

5 11.1 9.8 

6 9.9 10.2 

1920 

7 12.5 8.7 

1 10.7 7.7 

2 9.3 7.1 

3 18.5 10.3 

4 14.1 9.1 

5 16.6 10.4 

6 13.2 10.8 

5990 

7 17.9 9.9 
104

Table D-2. Mean NLOS Penetration Losses for Each Residence 

Frequency Residence Mean σ (dB) 

(MHz) Loss (dB) 

1 6.1 6.1 

2 2.9 6.0 

3 5.8 6.6 

4 6.4 6.2 

5 10.5 7.6 

6 7.3 7.3 

912 

7 6.5 6.3 

1 8.4 6.9 

2 3.6 8.0 

3 12.3 8.6 

4 9.8 6.4 

5 11.8 10.5 

6 8.9 8.7 

1920 

7 11.6 7.5 

1 10.2 7.4 

2 11.5 9.0 

3 18.5 9.4 

4 12.5 7.5 

5 11.8 11.0 

6 13.4 9.3 

5990 

7 13.6 8.5 
105

Table D-3. Mean Penetration Losses for All Residences (Calculated From Tables D-1 and D-2) 

Path Frequency (MHz) Mean Loss (dB) 

LOS 6.9 

NLOS 6.0 

Both 

912 

6.4 

LOS 8.3 

NLOS 8.4 

Both 

1920 

8.4 

LOS 11.1 

NLOS 12.5 

Both 

5990 

11.7 
106

Table D-4. Mean LOS Penetration Losses per Floor for Each Residence 

Residence Frequency Mean Loss (dB) 

 (MHz) Ground Floor Second Floor Basement 

 912 5.7 12.9 

1 1920 6.0 N/A 17.8 

 5990 9.5 21.8 

 912 3.8 7.2 

2 1920 6.7 13.4 N/A 

 5990 7.8 13.7 

 912 7.1 15.3 

3 1920 11.2 N/A 27.5 

 5990 17.3 36.7 

 912 5.5 

4 1920 6.7 N/A N/A 

 5990 16.2 

 912 8.1 9.2 19.9 

5 1920 10.9 9.5 30.6 

 5990 17.6 14.0 38.8 

 912 7.2 9.5 18.1 

6 1920 7.8 10.5 29.1 

 5990 12.8 11.7 35.3 

 912 7.8 8.6 19.6 

7 1920 11.1 10.1 26.2 

 5990 17.2 16.7 37.5 

 912 6.5 8.6 15.2 

Mean 1920 8.6 10.9 26.2 

 5990 14.1 14.0 34.0 
107

Table D-5. Mean Penetration Losses for Each High Rise 

Path Frequency (MHz) High Rise Mean Loss (dB) CJ (dB) 

1 17.5 8.8 

2 11.2 9.4 

3 14.4 12.5 

912 

4 7.4 12.1 

1 18.9 9.6 

2 15.4 11.1 

3 16.6 14.5 

1920 

4 10.0 14.3 

1 22.7 9.4 

2 19.4 11.0 

3 23.2 14.5 

LOS 

5990 

4 19.0 13.0 

1 14.0 2.2 

2 11.7 4.0 

3 13.9 6.3 

912 

4 8.0 2.5 

1 12.4 3.8 

2 14.8 5.1 

3 20.1 9.0 

1920 

4 5.9 1.8 

1 20.9 1.3 

2 19.2 4.3 

3 25.5 8.5 

NLOS 

5990 

4 16.4 1.4 
108

Table D-6. Mean Penetration Losses for All High-rise Buildings (Calculated From Table D-4) 

Path Frequency (MHz) Mean Loss (dB) 

LOS 11.1 

NLOS 912 11.2 

Both 11.2 

LOS 13.9 

NLOS 1920 10.5 

Both 11.9 

LOS 20.7 

NLOS 5990 19.4 

Both 20.0