Panama Eco-Park:

A Protected Urban Forest

Peter L. Weaver

United States

Department of

Agriculture

Forest Service

International Institute 

of Tropical Forestry

General Technical

Report IITF-41
Front cover

Top: Field trip to one of the many bunkers at Eco-Park; 

bottom left: gato solo (white nosed coati) feeding along the 

roadside; bottom right: butterfly of the Heliconidae group. 

(Photos by Néstor Correa and Peter L. Weaver)
August 2009

International Institute of Tropical Forestry

Jardín Botánico Sur

1201 Calle Ceiba

San Juan, PR 00926-1119

Panama Eco-Park:

A Protected Urban Forest

Peter L. Weaver

iii

Contents

 Page

Abstract ................................................................................................................................ iv

List of figures ...................................................................................................................... v

List of tables ........................................................................................................................ v

Introduction ........................................................................................................................ 1

Location of Eco-Park .......................................................................................................... 1

Eco-Park Forest .................................................................................................................. 3

Eco-Park Wildlife ............................................................................................................... 3

Eco-Park Diversity .............................................................................................................. 3

Eco-Park Conservation ....................................................................................................... 4

Eco-Park in photos ............................................................................................................ 4

1-7 Introduction and Environmental Setting ................................................................. 4

8-22 Historical setting – places and people ..................................................................... 11

23-31 Panama’s flora—a diverse botanical heritage ......................................................... 26

32-46 Fauna—among the most conspicuous in Eco-Park ................................................. 35

47-62 Conservation – Protection, Research, and Education ............................................. 45

Acknowledgments ............................................................................................................. 58

Literature Cited .................................................................................................................. 58

Appendix Tables ................................................................................................................ 63

Appendix A—Chronology of events associated with Eco-Park and surrounding 

areas in Panama ...................................................................................................................... 63

Appendix B—Various groups associated with Eco-Park in Panama ..................................... 66
iv

Abstract

Eco-Park and surrounding areas located near the Pacific or southern entrance to the 

Panama Canal have a long history involving pre-Columbian inhabitants, Spanish 

conquistadors, pirates, and Panamanian natives and immigrants associated with 

the construction and operation of the Panama Railroad and Canal. Some major 

20th century events included Panamanian independence from Colombia, building 

of the Balboa Naval Station (later called Rodman Naval Station), construction of 

the Bridge of the Americas (formerly Thatcher Bridge), the Torrijos-Carter Treaty 

and, subsequently, the U.S. departure from Panama. Eco-Park is dominated by 

a semideciduous seasonal mixed forest. A plant survey carried out in that forest 

type for Eco-Park and nearby military bases (i.e., Howard, Rodman, and Kobbe 

together called HOROKO) revealed 378 species, 97 genera, and 82 families. An 

animal survey carried out in the same forest type disclosed 260 species, including 

40 mammals, 19 reptiles, 13 amphibians, and 188 birds (39 migratory and 149 

residents). In summary, Eco-Park and surrounding areas have a fascinating history 

and a diverse flora and fauna. Moreover, being situated near Panama City and along 

the Canal route, Eco-Park and surrounding areas offer numerous outdoor recreational 

opportunities for Panamanian residents and Canal Area visitors. Eco-Park, beginning 

as a fascinating idea, was made into reality through the dedicated efforts of both local 

and international groups. 

Keywords: Eco-Park, education, fauna, flora, historical chronology, Panama Canal. 
v

List of Figures 

Figure 1—Map of place names in and around Eco-Park.................................................... 2

Figure 2—Mean monthly rainfall at Eco-Park ................................................................... 3

List of Tables

Table 1—Diversity of flora and fauna in Eco-Park ............................................................ 4

Appendix A—Chronology of events associated with Eco-Park (formerly Rodman 

Ammunition Supply Point) and surrounding areas in Panama ............................................ 63

Appendix B—Various groups associated with Eco-Park in Panama ................................ 66

Introduction

Eco-Park was once part of the Rodman Naval 

Station or, more specifically, the Rodman Ammunition 

Supply Point (RASP) where munitions were stored. 

Eco-Park and surrounding areas are located near 

the Pacific entrance to the Panama Canal and have 

a long and interesting history (appendix table 1; 

fig. 1). Pre-Columbian inhabitants occupied nearby 

Venado Beach and Punta Brujas leaving artifacts that 

were uncovered during the construction of military 

facilities. In 1513, after discovery of the Americas by 

European explorers, Balboa claimed the Pacific Ocean 

for Spain, possibly from Punta Brujas. Subsequently, 

residents of Panama City and the isthmus experienced 

visits from pirates like Henry Morgan in 1671, 

activities associated with railroad construction 

in the 1850s, and French attempts at building the 

Panama Canal during the 1880s. Events during the 

20th century included Panama’s successful quest for 

independence from Colombia in 1903, completion of 

the Panama Canal in 1914, and construction of Balboa 

Naval Station between 1932 and 1937 (the Balboa 

Naval Station was renamed the Rodman Naval Station 

in 1950). In 1962, Thatcher Bridge (later renamed 

Bridge of the Americas) was built over the Canal 

completing another critical link in the PanAmerican 

highway between Alaska and Patagonia. In 1977, the 

Torrijos-Carter Treaty outlined the “reversion” of the 

Canal Zone (today called Canal Area) with all military 

and civilian buildings to Panama. In 1999, the U.S. 

Navy officially departed from Rodman Naval Station. 

Historical events within the region also have involved 

the Gulf of Panama, proposed canal routes through 

Central America, and famous naturalists who worked 

in or wrote about the area. 

With the arrival of a new millennium, international 

concerns and forward-thinking Panamanians began 

to set aside and develop an ecological Park for the 

benefit of residents and visitors to the Canal Area. 

All those who participated considered protection, 

research, monitoring, recreation, ecotourism, 

and education to be important themes. Local and 

international groups promoted the design and purpose 

of the Park (appendix table 2). This report has 

been written to familiarize visitors with the Park’s 

natural and cultural resources. Moreover, many 

outdoor recreational and sightseeing opportunities 

in and around the Park have been highlighted using 

photographs and expository descriptions. 

Location of Eco-Park 

Eco-Park is bordered on the north and west by 

the Empire Range, on the south by the PanAmerican 

Highway, the Arraijan Tank Farm, and Howard Air 

Force Base, and on the east by Cocolí, the Tucán 

Resort, and the former Rodman Naval Station (fig. 

1). Fort Kobbe and Farfan lie south of Rodman 

(Autoridad de la Región Interoceánica 1999).

Fort Kobbe, formerly Brujas Point Military 

Reservation, was established on 730 ha for use as a 

small defensive position on the Bay of Panama in 

1928. In 1932, it was renamed Fort Kobbe to honor 

Major General William A. Kobbe, who served during 

the Spanish-American War (Johnson and Houle, 

n.d.). In 1940, Fort Kobbe was expanded to 1,600 ha; 

subsequent changes in 1952 resulted in reassigning 

Howard Field within Kobbe as part of Howard Air 

Force Base. Kobbe contains more than 250 housing 

units, a school, warehouses, and batteries built in the 

late 1920s. The batteries, named in honor of members 

of the original Joint Army-Navy Panama Canal 

fortifications survey group of 1910, were considered 

obsolete and were scrapped after World War II. 

Howard Air Force Base occupies about 1,500 

ha. Built in 1939 and opened in 1942, Howard was 

formerly part of the Bruja Point Military Reservation, 

but was renamed to honor Maj. Charles H. Howard 

who flew in Panama during the late 1920s. The nearly 

2,600-m landing strip hosted fighter and bomber 

aircraft during World War II; and the base was the 

Southcom component responsible for air operations 

in Latin America and the Caribbean. Howard is large 

enough to be used as a major transport center to 

accommodate international cargo aircraft. 

The U.S. Naval Radio Station at Farfan was 

constructed in 1941–42 on a 330-ha parcel during a 

period when naval holdings in the Canal Zone were 

increasing (Johnson and Houle, n.d.). Between 1947 

and 1948, family housing units were built at Farfan, 

and it was made an annex of Balboa Naval Station. 

The Cocoli housing community and related 

facilities began as part of the proposed project to 

construct a third set of locks in the Panama Canal in 

1939. The project was initiated along with housing 

construction at Cocoli, but when the U.S. entered 

World War II, the lock project was abandoned 
2

Figure 1— Map of place names in and around Eco-Park.

r 1 Arraijan Tank Farm

r 2 Balboa Heights Station

r 3 Bridge of The Americas

r 4 Brujas Road

r 5 Buccaneers Trail

r 6 City of Knowledge (Fort Clayton)

r 7 Cocoli

r 8 Corozal Cemetery

r 9 Empire Range

r 10 Farfán

r 11 Farfán Beach

r 12 Fort Kobbe

r 13 Gulf of Panama

r 14 Howard Air Force Base

r 15 Lacona Housing

r 16 Miraflores Locks

r 17 Panama Canal (Río Grande)

r 18 Panama Train Track

r 19 Pan American Highway

r 20 Punta Brujas

r 21 Quebrada Victoria

r 22 Río Velásquez

r 23 Rodman Naval Station

r 24 Tucán Resort

r 25 Venado Beach

r

r

r

r

r

r

r

r r

r

r

r

r r

r

r

r

r

r

r

r

r

r

r

r

r

r

r

4

5

5

9

1

7

3

6

8

2

15

11

18

18 24

17

10

16

21

22

19

19

20

25

14

13

12

23

Rivers of interest

Roads

Eco–Park

Panama Coastline

Bucaneers Trail

Panama Train Track 0

km

3
3

Figure 2—Mean monthly rainfall at Eco-Park. 

Mean monthly rainfall at Eco-Park

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12

300

250

200

150

100

50

0

Rainfall (mm)

Months

(Johnson and Houle, n.d.). In 1951, the Panama Canal 

Company released Cocoli to the Navy, which in 1965 

turned it over to the Army. 

The Arraijan Fuel Tank Farm and the Empire 

Range are the other military facilities on the Canal’s 

west bank. The Empire Range occupies about 2,270 

ha and was used as a firing range dating back to World 

War II. The Tucán Resort, comprising a golf course, 

villas, condos, and a clubhouse, occupies the old 

HOROKO (i.e., Howard, Rodman, and Kobbe military 

bases) golf course. In accordance with the 1977 treaty 

signed by Panamanian General Omar Torrijos and 

President Jimmy Carter, all military facilities reverted 

to Panama by the end of 1999.

Eco-Park Forest

In anticipation of the Canal transfer, ecologists 

carried out a survey of HOROKO to identify its flora 

and fauna (ANCON and TNC 1996; fig. 1). The 

region is hilly and receives an average of 1,800 mm of 

rainfall per year (fig. 2). Numerous corridors (streams, 

drainages, roads, and trails) run through the area. 

The semideciduous seasonal mixed forest occupies 

about 35 percent of HOROKO and is the dominant 

forest type in Eco-Park (ANCON and TNC 1996). 

During the plant survey, 378 species of plants, 97 

genera, and 82 families (67 dicotyledons and 15 

monocotyledons) were recognized within the forest 

type. Of these, 360 species were identified at least to 

the level of genus. Two families, Leguminosae and 

Rubiaceae, accounted for nearly 20 percent of the 

total number of species. 

Eco-Park Wildlife

During the animal survey in the semideciduous 

seasonal mixed forest, ecologists recorded 192 

species, including 33 mammals, 13 reptiles, 13 

amphibians, and 114 birds (ANCON and TNC 

1996). Eighteen species of bats were the most 

common mammals. Species such as white-tailed 

deer, jaguarondi, coati, opossum, armadillo, rabbit, 

monkeys, rodents, and sloth were also recorded. 

Frogs (Leptodactylidae) were the most common 

amphibians, iguanas (Iguanidae) the most common 

reptiles. Tyrant flycatchers (Tyrannidae) accounted 

for 22 of the recorded birds species. Also common 

were wood warblers (Parulinae)—11 species, 

tanagers (Thraupinae)—9 species, and hummingbirds 

(Trochilidae)—8 species. These data on flora and 

fauna were based on a rapid ecological assessment 

(i.e., an intensive, short-term field survey) and 

represent one forest type (i.e., semideciduous seasonal 

mixed forest). Further monitoring in the Park will 

disclose additional plant and animal species. 

Eco-Park Diversity

Eco-Park occupies 375 ha and is bordered by 

numerous properties that are used for other purposes, 

many of which are associated with operation of the 

canal and past military activities (fig. 1). Despite the 

array of surrounding developments, the flora and 

fauna are relatively diverse (table 1). The survival 

of secondary forest, except to the east, partially 

accounts for this diversity. However, major roads 

along the border—the PanAmerican Highway to the 
4

south and the Brujas Road to the east (along with 

the Canal)—present major barriers for some species. 

Several plant and animal species found in the Park are 

considered threatened and are currently protected by 

Panamanian laws, or are designated in special classes 

by conservation organizations. The Canal Area west 

of the Panama Canal and south of Lake Gatún, which 

includes Eco-Park, has been listed as an important 

bird area (Angehr 2003). 

Eco-Park Conservation

Mesoamerica, as a land bridge since the midto-late Pleistocene, permitted the dispersal of flora 

and fauna between the hemispheres and within the 

region (Bennett 1968). During the past 10,000 years 

or longer, humans have been a party to that dispersal. 

Panama was passed through and lived in hundreds 

of years before crops were grown. Estimated dates 

for the appearance of agriculture range between 250 

and 5000 years B.C. At the time of the Europeans’ 

arrival, Panama’s fertile land, abundant water supply, 

and wildlife provided subsistence resources for at 

least 60 Indian chiefdoms (Helms 1979). Nombre de 

Dios, established by Christopher Columbus in 1502, 

was the earliest Spanish settlement. In 1519, Panama 

City was founded, and settlements on the Caribbean 

and Pacific coasts were connected by road and river. 

Panama had now established itself as the crossroads of 

the Americas—not only east and west, but also north 

and south. 

At the beginning of the 20th century, 80 percent 

of Panama was still forested (Zon and Sparhawk 

1923); however, no sawmills existed before work 

began on the Panama Canal (Cummings 1955). 

During the Canal’s construction, big-leaf mahogany 

and Spanish-cedar were cleared locally and used for 

making cabinets, interior trim, railroad coaches, and 

furniture on ships (Braddy 1920a, 1920b). In 1947, 70 

percent of the country remained forested; subsequent 

estimates of forest cover were 68 percent in 1950, 

58 percent in 1960, 53 percent in 1970, 50 percent in 

1974, 47 percent in 1980, 40 percent in 1990, and 37 

percent in 1998 (Weaver and Bauer 2003). 

About 65 years ago, Panama’s foresters called 

attention to forest destruction and the need for 

conservation measures and management programs 

(Moral 1944). Forty years later, it was shown that 

the effects of accelerated forest destruction and 

colonization were causing the country serious social 

and environmental problems (Heckadon-Moreno 

and McKay 1984). Today, the call for conservation 

of Panama’s forest resources continues, notably with 

regard to protection of the Canal’s watershed (Condit 

and others 2001). The Park’s development is one 

effort helping to protect the Canal while offering the 

people of Panama recreational opportunities and direct 

economic benefits. 

Table 1—Diversity of flora 

and fauna in Eco-Park1

Flora 

Semideciduous seasonal mixed forest

— 82 families

— 97 genera

— 378 species 

Fauna

— Mammals

 — 19 families

 — 33 species (18 bat species)

— Reptiles 

 — 6 families

 —13 species

— Amphibians

 — 4 families

 — 13 species 

— Birds

 — 29 families

 — 114 species

 1ANCON and TNC 1996.
5

Eco-Park in Photos

Introduction and 

Environmental Setting

1. Overview

This program of 62 photos is designed to 

familiarize visitors with the natural and cultural 

resources of the Eco-Park situated near the southern, 

or Pacific, entrance to the Panama Canal. The visual 

tour highlights the following themes:

•	 Panama as the crossroads of the Americas

•	 Cultural and historic background of Eco-Park and

surrounding areas

•	 Fauna and flora in their natural habitat

•	 Famous persons and their relation to the park

or Canal

•	 Legacy of the Canal and the importance of

its protection

•	 Outdoor recreational and site-seeing opportunities

located at Eco-Park

•	 Future plans for Eco-Park

•	 The role of collaborating agencies and groups

in furthering conservation and environmental 

education in Panama

Eco-Park insigne. (Photo by Néstor Correa)

2. The Mesoamerican corridor—

importance of Eco-Park

The Mesoamerican corridor (previously, Paseo 

Pantera), conceived in 1990, is an ambitious project 

designed to join protected areas throughout Central 

America by ecological corridors, or land bridges, 

so that the habitat necessary for migration of the 

region’s wildlife can be protected. In June 1992, the 

convention for the conservation of biodiversity and 

protection of priority wildlife areas in Central America 

was created; it established a regional council on 

protected areas that range from the Yucatan peninsula 

in Mexico to the Darién in Panama (Colombian 

border). Goals of the international program are to 

promote regional peace and maintain biological 

diversity through sustainable economic activities such 

as ecotourism and agroforestry. All Central American 

countries agreed to protect their national heritage, 

adopt sustainable development programs, use natural 

resources optimally, control pollution, and reestablish 

ecological equilibrium. 

Eco-Park, with its location on the Pacific side 

of the isthmus, where only 30 percent of Panama’s 

remaining forests are found, would represent an 

important addition to the Mesoamerican corridor. The 

proximity of Eco-Park to Panama City and nearby 

suburban areas where more than one-quarter of the 

nation’s population resides, makes it an ideal site to 

introduce the concept of sustainable management to 

residents and their children. Visitors to Panama would 

also benefit from an excursion to Eco-Park.
6

Guatemala

Honduras

Mexico

Maya Biosphere

Reserve

Bay Islands

Belize Barrier

Reef

Rio Platano

Biosphere Reserve

Miskito Cays

Marine and Coastal 

Reserve

Tortuguero 

National Park

Bastimentos Marine 

National Park

El Salvador Nicaragua

Costa Rica

Paseo Pantera

Caribbean 

Sea

Pacific 

Ocean

Paseo Pantera

protected areas

Desired green

connections

Key

Miles

0 60 Panama

Belize

3. Eco-Park—formerly Rodman 

Ammunition Supply Point (RASP)

In May 1932, the U.S. government granted a 

license for construction of the Balboa Naval Station 

(renamed Rodman in 1950), which was built between 

1933 and 1937 (fig. 1). Originally located in a tidal 

marsh, the base was completed about 1937 to provide 

fuel, provisions, and other support to military ships 

passing through the Panama Canal (Enscore and 

Webster 1997, Johnson and Houle, n.d.). The naval 

station includes a deep draft port facility, housing 

units, warehouses, munitions bunkers, and other 

buildings. Balboa Naval Station expanded and 

contracted over the years to encompass other naval 

holdings, which included an Ordnance Department, 

Marine Barracks, Camp Rousseau, and the nearby 

Lacona and Cocoli housing communities. Additional 

housing was constructed in 1941 as part of a military 

build-up in preparation for World War II. Over the 

years, the Bruja Road was modified from a gravel road 

to a paved thoroughfare with a cloverleaf intersection 

at the southeast corner of the property. 

Rodman Naval Station was at its peak in the 1960s 

when hundreds of sailors were stationed there, and 

it was used as a layover for U.S. ships transiting the 

Canal. Rodman hosted the Southern Detachment 

of the Atlantic Fleet (CINCLANTFLT Detachment 

South), the naval component of the U.S. Southern 

Command responsible for Southcom naval exercises. 

From 1963 to 1999, Rodman hosted nearly 5,400 

graduates in the Navy Small Craft Instruction and 

Technical Training School (NAVSCIATTS). The 

program was mainly in Spanish for naval and coast 

guard personnel throughout Latin America and the 

Caribbean (Lindsay-Poland 2003, Nyrop 1980). 

Instruction included diesel motor repairs, mechanics, 

and navigation, among other subjects. Proposed uses 

for the various parts of the Rodman property after 

2000 include a fuel-bunkering terminal, a third set of 

canal locks, and Eco-Park. 

Néstor Correa Mesoamerican corridor. (Paseo Pantera Project)
7

4. Geology, physiography, and soils 

Virtually all of Eco-Park is underlain by intrusive 

and extrusive basalt dating to the middle and late 

Miocene about 15 million years ago (Stewart and 

others 1980, Woodring 1957). The La Boca formation, 

comprised of siltstone, sandstone, tuff, and limestone 

dating to the early Miocene, occupies less than 

1 percent of the southeastern corner of the Park. 

“Although the canal zone has the lowest elevation 

on the isthmus of Panama, it is one of the most hilly 

parts of Central America” (Bennett 1929, page 6). 

This hilliness is evident within Eco-Park. The Park 

occupies about 375 ha and ranges in elevation from 

10 m along the drainage in the east-central part of the 

property to about 165 m at the central summit (Díaz 

2005, U.S. Army 1989). Six highpoints reach more 

than 100 m in elevation. 

The alluvial soils bordering the larger streams and 

drainages in and around Eco-Park are deeper than 

those on hilltops. Nearly 75 years ago, the generally 

deep, red-clay soils in the vicinity were reported to 

show a remarkable resistance to erosion, even along 

old trails and in areas where the land had been cleared 

for pasture (Bennett 1929). During the survey, the 

alluvial areas and the rolling lower portions of hills 

with gentle slopes were considered well-suited 

to agriculture. 

Old building at entrance. (Photo by Néstor Correa)
8

5. Climate—rainfall and drought

Estimates of rainfall for Eco-Park are available 

from Balboa Heights station (Type A, No. 142-004, 

N8°30’, W79°33”, 30 m elevation) located about 5 km 

across the Panama Canal to the east. Measurements 

began at Balboa Heights during construction of the 

Canal in 1905; the record is continuous except for 

the years 1974–1976 (Smithsonian Web site). The 93 

years of complete annual data indicate that the mean 

and median rainfalls are both 1,800 mm/yr. Rainfall is 

seasonal: 85 percent falls during the May–November 

wet season, and 15 percent during the December–

April dry season. The January–March period is very 

dry, bringing less than 4 percent of the annual rainfall. 

About 56 percent of the years for which records are 

available receive between 1,600 and 2,000 mm of 

rainfall; about 22 percent of the years receive less than 

1,600 mm; the remaining 22 percent more than 2,000 

mm. The least amount of annual rainfall, 1,288 mm, 

was recorded in 1980. The greatest amount of annual 

rainfall was recorded the following year (1981) at 

2,525 mm. Mean monthly temperatures between the 

warmest and coolest months vary by slightly more 

than 1 °C (Thompson 1959). Both relative humidity 

and cloudiness are greatest during the wet season. 

Pronounced droughts like the El Niño event in 

1983 have a major impact on the Canal watershed 

vegetation, apparently more so in secondary growth 

than in mature forest (Leigh and others 1990). 

Moreover, mortality appeared more common for some 

Rolling hills near Miraflores Locks. (Photo by Peter L. Weaver)

Rainstorm. (Photo by Néstor Correa)
9

tree species and size classes than others, for trees 

on shallow soils as opposed to deeper ones, and for 

plants growing on seasonally wetter sites (i.e., along 

streams, drainages, and in swamps) than drier ones. 

Also, greater numbers of plants appeared to succumb 

in areas situated in clearings as opposed to those 

shaded by a tall forest canopy. Occasional convective 

thunderstorms cause local winds strong enough to 

topple individual trees or small patches of forest. 

6. Hydrological system—ephemeral 

streams and drainages 

Several corridors (streams, drainages, roads, 

and trails) run through Eco-Park. Río Velásquez, 

Eco-Park’s only permanent waterway, parallels the 

southern edge of the property. Quebrada Victoria, 

within Eco-Park, is near the northeastern boundary. 

Both were tributaries of the Río Grande, which 

was later excavated to form the canal. In addition, 

numerous drainages intermittently carry runoff, 

the largest of these descending gently to the east 

and north. Isolated pools of water may remain 

in the drainages for extended periods after heavy 

rainfall. Most amphibians depend on both aquatic 

and terrestrial habitats to survive (Semlitsch 2003). 

The drainage of wetlands associated with Canal 

construction and related projects had a negative 

impact on all wildlife, notably at the Pacific terminus. 

The future construction of a small pond within EcoPark might partially alleviate these negative impacts 

and help conserve animal diversity as surrounding 

areas continue to experience change. In addition, it 

could serve as a center for recreational activities and 

educational programs. 

Large trees in drainage. (Photo by Yiscel S. Yángüez)
10

7. Scenic views—Panama City skyline

The Panama City skyline, visible from a local 

highpoint, is a constant reminder that Eco-Park 

lies just outside of the country’s largest city and 

is essentially a large urban park. Panama is often 

described as three cities in one—a modern capitol 

with skyscrapers and a business district; the Casco 

Viejo district with numerous buildings dating from 

the 17th–19th centuries; and Panama Viejo, containing 

the ruins of the original 16th century city. The 265-ha 

Metropolitan Park, which is home to numerous bird 

and mammal species, lies just to the north. The park 

also has four nature trails and a lookout point to the 

city and Canal. 

Panama City, originally an Indian village and 

now the oldest surviving European City on the 

American mainland, was founded in 1519 by Pedro 

Arias Dávila, Vasco Nuñez de Balboa’s successor 

(Panama Canal 1939). For 200 years, the city was a 

terminus in the transshipment route over the isthmus 

for Spanish colonists moving to the west coasts of 

Central and South America, and part of the “Camino 

Real,” a military and treasure road, for the transfer 

of Peruvian gold across the isthmus, and ultimately 

across the Atlantic Ocean to Spain. In 1671, the 

buccaneer Henry Morgan sacked and burned Panama 

City. In 1751, Peruvian traders began to favor the 

route around Cape Horn and the city became a quiet, 

isolated appendage of New Granada (i.e., Colombia 

and Venezuela). In 1855, the Panama Railroad was 

completed across the isthmus, and the city once again 

became a Pacific coast terminal for travelers, most 

bound for California during the era of the “gold rush.” 

In 1903, the city’s leaders declared independence from 

Colombia and signed the Hay-Bunau-Varilla Treaty 

Panama City. (Photo by Néstor Correa)
11

with the United States to build the Panama Canal. In 

1914, the steamship Ancón made the first commercial 

passage from Cristóbal to Panama City, initiating 

cargo shipments and passenger service via the Canal, 

and establishing the city as a major transshipment 

route for all nations. 

Historical Setting—Places and People

8. Eco-Park in the past

Rodman Naval Station reverted to Panama with the 

March 12, 1999, headline “Bandera Panameña ondea 

en Rodman” (Panama’s flag waves over Rodman) 

(Delgado 1999, p. 29A). U.S. Mobil Corporation 

subsequently plans to use the facilities along 

the Canal as a fuel bunkering terminal. However, 

what is the history of the land today occupied by 

Eco-Park? Once pristine tropical forest, the land was 

first logged and used for agricultural production and 

grazing. After Panama declared its independence 

from Colombia, all land within 8 km of the Canal 

(i.e., the old Canal Zone) was granted to the United 

States to build and operate the Panama Canal (Gold 

1999). The “Depopulation Order” of December 1912 

removed all persons from the Canal Zone, paying 

those with valid titles. Presumably, agricultural 

activities in the vicinity of today’s Eco-Park ceased 

at that time. Subsequently, secondary forest began 

to regenerate. Beginning in the mid-1930s, roads 

were developed into the area for the construction of 

munitions bunkers and associated facilities, including 

administration and storage buildings, guard posts, and 

parking areas. Cyclone fencing around the property 

was added as a security measure.

West shore before Navy Station. (Photo: ACP Archives)
12

9. U.S. Naval Station Panama 

Canal—60 years of service 

The U.S. Naval Station Panama Canal–Marine 

Barracks began as the Naval Ammunition Depot 

(NAD) at Balboa, but was soon moved to its final 

location across the Canal. Construction began in 

December 1935, and Balboa was commissioned in 

September 1937, when marines and sailors were 

on post (Enscore and Webster 1997). By 1939, 

the complex had about 40 buildings and structures 

including officers’ quarters, barracks, magazines, 

mine storage and assembly buildings, an oil house, 

and an equipment building. Because of its isolation, 

recreational facilities were provided including 

an athletic field, swimming pool, bowling alleys, 

tennis and handball courts, movie and pool rooms, 

and the Canal Zone’s first exchange. In September 

1940, the Navy built a road to the munitions depot 

and additional quarters. Between 1941 and 1943, 

additional roads, sentry stations, temporary barracks 

for marine guards, an ammunition overhaul and 

assembly building, and a temporary mine-anchor 

storage building were added; also, 47 new magazines 

were built, 34 for the storage of high explosives. 

During World War II, marines at the Naval Station 

served as transit guards to ensure safety, and to 

prevent shipboard sabotage and the gathering of 

intelligence. After the War, Navy troop strength was 

reduced significantly. The Naval Base returned to 

higher levels of activity during the Korean Conflict 

of the early 1950s, the Cuban Missile Crisis of 1962, 

and international incidents like the terrorist bombing 

in Beirut, Lebanon, and the U.S. invasion of Grenada 

in the 1980s. During “Operation Just Cause” in 

1989, Navy Seals crossed the Canal from Rodman to 

Balboa Harbor to disable Manuel Noriega’s yacht, the 

“Presidente Porras” (Flanigan 1993). 

10. Rodman Ammunition Supply 

Point (RASP)—today, Eco-Park

The Rodman Ammunition Supply Point (RASP)

was designed and constructed to store munitions 

between 1933 and 1937. In 1942, the supply point 

was upgraded to provide additional space for 

materials associated with World War II. Originally, 

the munitions supply point was part of the Balboa 

Naval Complex. In 1956 it was transferred to the U.S. 

Air Force, and in 1976 to the U.S. Army. Today, the 

former RASP is Eco-Park. 

Rodman across Canal. (Photo by Gerald P. Bauer)
13

13803

13012

13406

13812

13809

13810

13811

13103

13806

13137

13101

13130

13128

13105

13123

13104

13122

13127

13106

13128

13140

13141

13108

13107

13139 13143

13144

13142

Drainage

Elevation curves

Bunkers

Roads

Eco- Park

0.5

km

Quebrada Victoria

PanAmerican Highway

Las

Brujas

Ro

ad

CocolÌ

RÌo Vel· squez

The structures on the Eco-Park property 

included 13 buildings that were used as offices, 

dormitories, maintenance shops, or warehouses (to 

store transformers, flammable materials, paints, 

and other items). The 87 ammunition storage 

magazines (bunkers) were used to store different 

types of ordnance, equipment, or furniture. They were 

designed in 14 different sizes; six were aboveground 

and the remainder earth-covered. The most common 

dimensions are: 21 bunkers measure 24.4 by 7.3 m 

(80 by 24 feet), 16 measure 15.2 by 7.3 m (50 by 24 

feet), and 14 measure 24.4 by 6.7 m (80 by 25 feet). 

The remaining 38 magazines range from 2.1 by 1.8 m 

(7 by 6 feet) to 29.9 by 14.6 m (98 by 48 feet). Four 

large metal cages were also built: two 15.2 by 12.2 

m (50 by 40 feet), one 14.6 by 7.3 m (48 by 24 feet), 

and one 12.2 by 9.1 m (40 by 30 feet). The buildings 

and bunkers were mostly in good to fair condition 

when last surveyed; some small wooden structures 

and abandoned magazines, however, were in poor 

condition. Eco-Park also has a helipad about 500 m 

inside its eastern boundary. 

Eco-Park map. (Peter L. Weaver)
14

!

!

! ! ! !

! ! !

! ! ! !

.

Punta Mala

.

Punta

Brujas

Punta Jaqué

Pearl Islands

.

Panama

City

.

Panama

Canal

Gulf of

San Miguel 

Gulf of

Panama

50

km

Wafer

!

Dampier

!

Pizarro

Oxenham

Dampier

Pirate routes

Dampier

Oxenham

Pizarro

Wafer

r

r

r

r

r

.

rrrr

r r r r

r r r r

r r r r r r r r r r r r r r r r r r r r r

11. Gulf of Panama—configuration, 

importance, and history

 The Gulf of Panama, sharing the continental shelf 

with the isthmus, has a coastal perimeter of nearly 

670 km between Punta Mala and Punta Jaqué (Rubio 

1959). The Gulf, measuring 195 km at the mouth 

and extending 165 km to the mainland, occupies 

about 30,000 km2, and contains 257 continental 

islands; centrally located along the coast is Panama 

City. With substantial tides reaching 6 m, the Gulf is 

shallow, rarely exceeding 60 m in depth. Realizing the 

existing and potential of the Gulf’s natural resources, 

Panama, in 1946, was the first nation to incorporate 

the doctrine of continental shelf in its constitution by 

declaring the area part of the national territory.

The rich history of the Gulf of Panama began 

before the Spanish conquest of the native Indian 

populations, who had long before occupied its shores. 

In 1513, Balboa first sighted the Pacific Ocean 

(Gulf of Panama) from a peak in the Darién. After 

Pizarro’s conquest of Peru, Panama became the 

portage between two oceans. From 1530 through the 

late 1600s, Gulf waters were frequented by Spanish 

vessels and pirate ships that preyed on them. Among 

the best known were John Oxenham in 1575, Lionel 

Wafer in 1681, and William Dampier in 1685 (Pereira 

Jiménez 1964). Oxenham, along with escaped 

African slaves known as Cimarrones, attacked the 

Pearl Islands in a vessel they had built. Wafer, a good 

friend of Dampier, was both a surgeon and chronicler 

who had served on different ships. Dampier was 

an extraordinary buccaneer who sailed around the 

Gulf of Panama. (Pereira Jiménez)
15

world three times, once as part of a crew that attacked 

ships in Panama Bay. However, he is best known 

as the author of three books that describe, among 

other topics, perceptive accounts of the Galapagos 

Islands, trade winds and currents, and Australia—all 

of which were highly regarded. During his third 

circumnavigation, his ship stopped at Juan Fernandez 

Island where he encountered a marooned sailor 

named Alexander Selkirk. This adventure later served 

as the theme for Daniel Defoe’s story of Robinson 

Crusoe. After the attack on Pearl Harbor, Panama 

signed defense agreements with the United States, 

which included regular patrols in the Pacific Ocean, 

including the Gulf of Panama (Morris Brooks 2003). 

12. Punta Brujas, Farfan, and Venado Beach 

Indians occupied the area around Punta Brujas, 

Farfan beach, and Venado beach for more than a 

millennium, and numbered about 1 million throughout 

Panama at the time of the Europeans’ discovery 

(Aráuz 1977). Moreover, in 1513, one of Balboa’s 

three claims of the South Sea (Pacific Ocean) for the 

Spanish Crown may have occurred at Punta Brujas 

(Sauer 1966). 

In the early 1940s, the U.S. military uncovered 

artifacts at Farfan Beach while engaged in warhastened construction (Marshall 1949). Among the 

finds was a midden that contained ceramics, including 

dishes, bowls, and bottles. Burial sites and burial 

urns also were found. Later in 1948, while bulldozing 

near Venado Beach, the U.S. Navy discovered 

archaeological remains (Lothrop 1956). Soon after, 

groups from the Peabody Museum of Harvard and 

elsewhere unearthed about 370 skeletal remains that 

were in comparatively good condition because of 

unusual soil conditions. 

Excavations at Venado Beach have provided a look 

into a past culture that occupied the site. The oldest 

ceramics with painted motifs from western Panama 

consist of black-line geometric ware (Santa Maria 

Polychrome) which began shortly before A.D. 300 

(Stone 1972). Black line ceramics found at Venado 

Beach were radiocarbon dated at A.D. 227, and gold 

figures at about A.D. 250 (Stone 1972). The area in 

and around the four burial sites uncovered at Venado 

Beach contained other discoveries including (Bull 

1958, Lothrop 1954, Sander and others 1958, Sander 

and Mitchell 1960, Torres de Araúz 1972): 

•	 A single piece of worked carnelian agate without

drill holes.

•	 Shards apparently from a large urn.

Punta Brujas. (Photo by Peter L. Weaver)
16

Henry Morgan. (Photo by Peter L. Weaver)

•	 Badly decomposed skeletal remains without

cranium fragments or other large bones, and a few 

human teeth.

•	 Evidence of ordinary burials along with human

sacrifice, body mutilation, and live burials.

•	 Forty-eight dog teeth and three pink-lipped

alligator effigies, all drilled for use as necklaces, 

and seven pink-conch spacer beads.

•	 A highly polished, crudely fashioned celt (stone

tool) and three shell scrapers.

•	 A miniature tumbaga figurine (or stylized effigy of

an alligator or jaguar), along with attached pieces 

of fabric and cord.

Although they were advanced with regard to metal 

work, not a great deal is known about the people who 

lived at Venado Beach. The unity of style in shell 

fragments, pottery, and metal along with the shift from 

single-line patterns to a full polychrome technique in 

the production of wares may indicate a long presence 

(Lothrop 1966). The attached fabric appeared to be 

the oldest known from the wet tropics at that time, 

and suggested that the inhabitants also weaved cotton 

cloth. Today, Venado Beach, about 5 km distant from 

Eco-Park, is a pleasant area to walk while watching 

ships enter and depart from the Canal. 

13. Buccaneers trail—Henry Morgan 

and the sacking of old Panama 

The buccaneers trail, apparently just east of EcoPark, was used in Morgan’s 17th century attack on 

Panama City (Forbes 1948, Hussey 1960). Henry 

Morgan, born in Wales around 1635, first arrived in 

Barbados, later joining other buccaneers in Jamaica. 

After several ventures, Morgan acquired a ship 

and, among his exploits, raided Portobelo along the 

northern coast. In 1671, the buccaneers conquered 

San Lorenzo and then set out on a 10-day march to 

Panama City with few provisions and under constant 

harassment by the Spaniards and Indians. Old 

Panama, the first settlement on the Pacific shore by 

Europeans, was one of the largest and wealthiest in 

the Americas (Anderson 1914). Gold from Peru along 

with pearls from offshore made Panama the greatest 

gold and silver mart in the world. In the turmoil that 

followed Morgan’s attack, old Panama was set on 

fire and continued to burn for days. After sacking 

Panama City, the buccaneers crossed into the Chagres 

River watershed, later dividing the spoils at Fort San 

Lorenzo, much to Morgan’s favor. With discontent 

growing among his mutinous crew, Morgan and a 

select few sailed at night with the booty to Port Royal, 

Jamaica. Since Morgan’s raid postdated the 1670 

Treaty of the Americas ending hostilities between 

Great Britain and Spain, he was later arrested, taken to 

London, and imprisoned. His confinement, however, 

was of short duration, and he later emerged a hero 

for his conquests. Ultimately, Morgan was named 

Lieutenant-Governor of Jamaica where he died in 

1688. One observer of Morgan’s nefarious life labeled 

him as a great rogue and with little respect for the 

old proverb regarding honor among thieves. In 1831, 

George Peacock anchored the corvette Hyacinth 

off the Chagres River and journeyed to Panama 

City (Mack 1974). Based on his field observations, 

Peacock traced on a map a proposed canal route that 

is remarkably similar to the current waterway. The 

trace also appears to parallel the eastern boundary of 

Eco-Park.
17

Possible Canal Routes

Mexico

 1 Isthmus Tehuantepec

Nicaragua

 2 San Juan River - Gulf of Fonseca

 3 San Juan River - Corinto

 4 San Juan River - Tamarindo

 5 San Juan River - Rivas

 6 San Juan River - Salinas

Panama

 7 Chiriquí

 8 Chagres River

 9 Gulf of San Blas

10 Sasardi-Morti

Colombia and Panama

11 Atrato-Touri (2 countries)

Colombia

12 Atrato-Truandú River

13 Atrato to Cupica Bay

14 Atrato to Patú and Bandú Rivers

15 Atrato to San Juan

Canal routes

Lakes

km

600

1

2

3

4

5

6

7

13

14

15

12

8 9

10

11

14. Proposed Canal—alternative 

routes through the Americas

Columbus’ fourth voyage in 1502 was in quest 

of a passage from the Atlantic to the Indian Ocean 

(Bennett 1915). In 1506, Vicente Yañez Pinzon looked 

for a straight in the Gulf of Honduras and Yucatan, 

and again in 1508, as far as 40° south latitude. 

Magellan, in 1520, finally discovered a straight that 

bears his name at 53° south latitude, at the southern 

tip of South America. However, it was considered too 

distant. In 1525, Esteven Gomez, who had sailed with 

Magellan, searched for a passage between Florida 

and Newfoundland. During the 1520s, searches were 

also made along the Pacific coast by the Spanish, but 

to no avail. Man would have to supply what nature 

had failed to provide (Bennett 1915). Between 1517 

and 1529, Álvaro de Saavedra Ceron, a follower of 

Balboa, made surveys and proposed four routes for 

a ship canal through the Central American isthmus: 

from the Gulf of San Miguel (Gulf of Panama) to 

the Gulf of Urubá; from Panama City to Nombre de 

Dios in Panama; through Lake Nicaragua; and finally 

Proposed canal sites. (Peter L. Weaver)
18

across Tehuantepec in Mexico. Between the 1530s 

and the early 19th century, several additional surveys 

and proposals were forwarded, including the ideas of 

von Humboldt. 

Several events through the centuries, however, 

would favor the Panama route. In 1534, the Chagres 

River was navigable to Cruces, about two-thirds of 

the way across the isthmus. In 1826, President Bolivar 

of New Granada believed that at least a railway, and 

possibly a canal, were feasible between the Chagres 

and Panama City. That route was virtually the same 

as was used by the Panama Railroad in the 1850s. In 

1838, a French company obtained a concession from 

New Granada for the construction of a canal across 

Panama, an effort attempted in the 1880s without 

success. Finally, in 1914, the United States completed 

the canal. In summary, at one time or another, six 

countries—Spain (1506 to 1820), New Granada 

(1826), Holland (1829), Great Britain (1838), France 

(1838), and the United States (as early as 1835)—

showed an interest in building an interoceanic canal. 

Moreover, no fewer than 15 major routes ranging 

from Tehuantepec, Mexico to the Atrato River in 

Colombia (e.g., 1 in Mexico, 5 in Nicaragua, 4 each 

in Panama and Colombia, and 1 shared by Panama 

and Colombia), had been proposed to link the Atlantic 

and the Pacific oceans (Rubio 1964). Considering all 

minor variations, the number of possible routes rises 

to 30 (Storey and others 1970).

15. The Panama Canal—a few names and dates 

Of the many names and dates associated with the 

Panama Canal over the past 125 years, a few stand 

out as memorable. On January 1, 1880, a French 

company headed by Ferdinand de Lesseps (famous 

for his involvement with the Suez Canal) began 

activities on a sea-level canal in Panama, completing 

Theodore Roosevelt. (Photo: ACP Archives)
19

Miraflores Locks. (Photo by Peter L. Weaver)

about 40 percent of the required excavation before 

he declared bankruptcy on January 1, 1889. Later, 

during the 1898 Spanish-American War, Theodore 

Roosevelt recognized the need for a canal in the 

western hemisphere and in 1901, as President, sought 

an agreement with Colombia. When this attempt 

failed, the United States supported the Panamanian 

separatist movement under Manual Armador 

Guererro, who declared Panama’s independence on 

November 3, 1903. Three days later, the Republic of 

Panama was recognized by the United States. The 

hastily developed Canal Treaty (Hay-Bunau-Varilla 

Treaty) granted “in perpetuity the use, occupation, 

and control” of a 16-km wide strip of land across 

the isthmus of Panama for building, maintaining, 

operating, and protecting the Canal (Enscore and 

Webster 1997, page 12). Panama ratified the treaty 

on December 2, 1903, and it was approved by the 

U.S. Senate on February 23, 1904; however, it would 

always be a source of contention. Some 60 years 

later, the flag riots of January 1964 involved the 

sensitive issue of flying Panamanian flags within the 

Canal Zone. 

On September 7, 1977, Omar Torrijos and Jimmy 

Carter met in Washington to sign Canal treaties in 

a ceremony attended by 26 nations of the Western 

Hemisphere. The major issues were the reversion 

of the Canal to Panama, and ensuring its future 

neutrality, operation, management, protection, and 

defense. In 1989, tensions between General Manual 

Noreiga and the U.S. government culminated in a 

December 20 invasion by U.S. military forces during 

an operation named “Just Cause.” A decade later, at 

noon on December 31, 1999, after a century of living 

in a divided country, a united Panama assumed control 

and responsibility for its Canal. 

16. Miraflores Locks—most visited 

tourist site in Panama

The 80-km venture through the Panama Canal, 

beginning from the south, takes place in eight stages: 

entrance through the Pacific channel and anchorage; 

Miraflores locks; Miraflores Lake; Pedro Miguel 

Locks; Gaillard Cut; Gatún Lake; Gatún locks; and 

departure through the Atlantic anchorage and channel. 
20

The Miraflores locks reach 25 m and are taller 

than the other locks due to the high Pacific 

tides in Panama Bay. The Miraflores and Pedro 

Miguel locks raise ships from sea level to 

about 26 m, the level of Gatún Lake, allowing 

them to travel over the continental divide; the 

Gatún locks then lower them into the Atlantic. 

Although the Canal is not straight, navigating 

through the canal is done in a series of straight 

sections called reaches connected by abrupt 

turns (Rowlett 2005). More than 100 range 

lights have been mounted at the ends of reaches 

to help guide ships. In 1914, 35 lighthouses 

were built at the ends of longer reaches. Of 

the 28 that remain operational today, two are 

located in the vicinity of Miraflores—the 

Balboa Northbound Front Light and the Balboa 

Northbound Rear Light. 

Miraflores Locks are the most frequently 

visited tourist site in Panama. The Miraflores 

visitor center has a museum, theater, restaurant, 

snack bars, small souvenir shop, and an 

observation deck. The museum has four halls. 

The first covers the technological innovations 

and sanitary efforts that accompanied the 

construction of the Canal. The second deals with the 

importance of water and conservation of the Canal’s 

natural resources. The third has a simulator that allows 

observers to transverse the Canal and pass through 

the locks. Finally, the fourth hall highlights the 

importance of the Canal in world commerce. 

17. Corozal American Cemetery—

a tribute to the past

The Corozal American Cemetery, about 5 km north 

of Panama City near the Miraflores Locks, is the final 

resting place for more than 5,300 American veterans, 

as well as numerous other persons representing 71 

nationalities who contributed to the construction, 

operation, and security of the Panama Canal. Interred 

there are veterans of the American Civil War, the 

Spanish-American War, World War I, World War 

II, the Korean War, the Vietnam War, and military 

activities including Lebanon, Desert Storm, and Iraq. 

The cemetery is one of 24 commemorative military 

cemeteries maintained by the American Battle 

Monuments Commission (ABMC) in 10 foreign 

countries (American Battle Monuments Commission 

Corozal Cemetery. (Photo by Peter L. Weaver)
21

2004, Nicolaisen 1999). The ABMC has two primary 

functions—to commemorate the sacrifices and 

achievements of the Armed Forces since 1917, and to 

design, construct, and operate permanent American 

cemeteries for war dead in foreign countries. 

The Corozal Cemetery, named after a grove of 

palm trees that once grew on the site, has an entailed 

history. In 1914, the Isthmian Canal Commission 

reserved land within the Corozal farm where local 

residents had interred the dead for about 5 years. 

Its administration and care were assigned to the 

superintendent of Ancón Hospital. The cemetery 

was initially maintained by disabled laborers, many 

of whom had lost a limb. Later, the Isthmian Canal 

Commission became the Panama Canal Company 

and management was assigned to its Grounds 

Maintenance Division. In 1979, the Panama Canal 

Company transferred the Corozal cemetery to the 

U.S. Army. The cemetery was then separated into 

two parts—the Corozal cemetery and the Corozal 

American cemetery, a 7-ha plot of land. In 1982, 

the U.S. Army transferred the Corozal American 

Cemetery to the ABMC who, in agreement with 

Panama, is responsible for the administration and 

maintenance of the grounds in perpetuity.

18. Panama Train—first transcontinental railroad in 1855

As early as 1829, a survey of the isthmus requested 

by Colombian President Simón Bolivar showed that 

a railroad was feasible (Bennett 1915). At that time, 

traversing Panama took 4 or 5 days and involved 

travel by both water and land: riding dugout canoes 

between the port of Chagres on the Caribbean coast 

and the inland town of Cruces; and walking or riding 

mules on an old, rugged road between Cruces and 

Panama City. During the late 1840s, several critical 

events occurred in rapid succession: 

•	 In 1846, Colombia gave the United States, by

treaty, a right-of-way across the isthmus of 

Panama, by any means, present or future.

•	 From 1846 to 1848, the United States acquired its

Pacific coastal states by treaties with Great Britain 

and Mexico, and sought a means of accessing 

those States from the eastern seaboard.

•	 In 1848, gold was discovered in California and the

gold rush began. 

Between May 1850 and January 1855, construction 

of the 75-km Panama Railroad was plagued by 

cholera, dysentery, malaria, yellow fever, and small 

Tunnel at Miraflores. (Photo by Gerald P. Bauer)
22

pox. Moreover, at least two other notable incidents 

occurred—the collapse of the wooden bridge spanning 

the Chagres River in 1852, and mass suicide of 

Chinese laborers, who purportedly were denied access 

to opium, in 1854. 

In 1909, the railroad line was relocated to higher 

ground during the construction of the Canal, where 

it served a critical role in moving laborers and 

equipment. In 1979, ownership was transferred to the 

Panamanian government as part of the Panama Canal 

Treaty. A 25-year concession allowed for the repair 

and operation of the railroad beginning in 2001. The 

railroad’s current priority is to transport containerized 

freight across the isthmus. However, daily service also 

allows passengers and commuters a chance to enjoy 

a ride through rain forest, and along the Canal and 

former military bases. 

19. Hugh Rodman—respected by his men 

Rodman Naval Station was named in honor of 

Rear Admiral Hugh Rodman. Rodman, born in 

Kentucky in 1859 and graduated from the U.S. Naval 

Academy in 1880, witnessed the transition of ships 

from wood to steel and from sail to steam. He also 

saw the U.S. Navy assume a role of world leadership 

(Brats 1999). In 1898, he fought in the Philippines 

during the Spanish-American War, where he played 

a prominent role in the Battle of Manila Bay. In 

1912, while in command of the U.S.S. Delaware, he 

convoyed President William Howard Taft from the 

U.S. to Panama to review construction of the Canal. In 

1914 and 1915, as Superintendent of Transportation 

(for both the Canal and the railroad) in the Canal 

Zone, and later as Marine Superintendent, he drafted 

the rules and regulations for vessels passing through 

the Canal. He was aboard the Ancón when it first 

traversed the Canal. When the U.S. entered World 

War I, Rodman commanded Division 3 of the Atlantic 

fleet where he successfully integrated war efforts with 

the British (Miller 1977). At the end of the war, he 

convoyed President Wilson from Portland, England, 

to Brest, France, for the peace conferences. Retired in 

1923, Rodman authored a book “Yarns of a Kentucky 

SS Ancón. (Photo: ACP Archives)
23

Admiral” in which he related many of his experiences 

including the transit of ships at the Culebra Cut 

and fishing for tarpon in the Chagres River below 

Gatún Dam (Rodman 1928). He received numerous 

decorations, many of them international, during 

his distinguished career and was always seen as a 

champion of Navy and Marine Corps personnel. The 

U.S.S. Rodman, a destroyer launched in 1941, was 

named in his honor; likewise, the name of the Balboa 

Naval Station was changed to Rodman Naval Station 

on February 19, 1950. 

20. Famous naturalists—

their relation to the Canal 

Friedrich Heinrich Alexander Baron von 

Humboldt (1769-1859), born in Berlin, Germany, 

was an explorer, artist, author, cartographer, botanist, 

zoologist, and sociologist. Between 1799 and 1804, at 

a time when travel was long and arduous, Humboldt 

and his colleague Aimé Bonpland mapped the Orinoco 

River in Venezuela and substantiated the existence 

of the Casiquiare Canal, a natural link between 

the Orinoco and the Negro River, a tributary of the 

Amazon (Wilcox 1977). He traveled nearly 10,000 

km through rain forests and mountain ranges, keeping 

a diary with geological, zoological, and botanical 

notes and sketches. Humboldt collected 60,000 plant 

specimens representing 6,000 species, more than onehalf new to science. He described experiences with 

the preparation of curare arrow poison, the cinchona 

plant which produces quinine used to cure malaria, 

and the electric eel. In Ecuador, he attempted to climb 

to the summit of the 6,270-m Mt. Chimborazo, and in 

Peru, he sketched Inca ruins and described the ocean 

current which bears his name. In 1804, on his return 

to Europe, Humboldt passed through the United States 

and discussed the issue of a canal with President 

Thomas Jefferson. When his travels were over, he 

lectured in Berlin and wrote everything he knew about 

the earth in a multi-volume book called “Cosmos.” 

Although he never visited Panama, Humboldt 

suggested the construction of an interoceanic canal 

across the Central American isthmus, mentioning 

possible sites in Mexico, Nicaragua, Colombia, and 

of course, Panama (Rubio 1964). Panama’s “high” 

mountains and Nicaragua’s abundant water supplies 

were the reasons that Humboldt favored a Nicaraguan 

route (Enscore and Webster 1997). Simon Bolivar 

was so impressed with Humboldt’s accomplishments 

that he once stated that “Baron Humboldt did more 

for the Americas than all of the conquistadors” (von 

Hagen 1948, page 145). Moreover, another source was 

quoted as saying that he was “the greatest man since 

Aristotle” (von Hagen 1948, page 145).

Two other renowned naturalists actually spent 

considerable time working in Panama and probably 

walked through the hills of Eco-Park at one time 

or another. Paul Carpenter Standley (1884-1963), a 

native of Missouri, entered Panama in 1923 to prepare 

a book on the vegetation along the Canal (HeckadonMoreno 1998). He collected 7,500 specimens of plants 

and wrote “The Flora of Barro Colorado Island” and 

“Flora of the Panama Canal Zone,” both published by 

the Smithsonian. After working in Panama, Standley 

studied the floras of the Yucatan (1930), Lancetilla 

Valley in Honduras (1931), British Honduras (1936), 

Costa Rica (1937-38), and Guatemala (1946). During 

his field activities in Central America and Mexico, he 

collected more than 130,000 plant specimens. 

Alexander Wetmore (1886-1978), born in 

Wisconsin, was one of the most famous ornithologists 

in the world (Heckadon-Moreno 1998). His initial 

studies were in Puerto Rico (1911). In 1920, he 

traveled to South America where he published a 

book on the birds of Argentina, Chile, Paraguay, 

Von Humboldt. (Photo: Wikipedia 2009)
24

and Uruguay (1926). He also worked Haiti and the 

Dominican Republic (1927), Guatemala (1936), 

and Venezuela (1937), and traveled through Mexico 

(1939), Costa Rica (1940), and Colombia (1941). 

From 1944 to 1966, Wetmore studied the avifauna 

of Panama. His work entitled “The Birds of the 

Republic of Panama” was published in four volumes 

dated 1965, 1968, 1972, and posthumously in 1984 

(Wetmore 1965-1984). During his travels, Wetmore 

collected more than 26,000 specimens of birds, 55 

percent of them during his long period of research 

throughout Panama. 

21. The PanAmerican Highway—

Alaska to Patagonia

The PanAmerican Highway stretches nearly 

48,000 km from Fairbanks, Alaska, to Quellón, Chile 

(some say Ushuaia, Argentina). Along its route, 

the highway traverses 14 countries—three in North 

America (Canada, the United States, and Mexico), 

six in Central America (Guatemala, El Salvador, 

Honduras, Nicaragua, Costa Rica, and Panama), and 

five in South America (Colombia, Ecuador, Peru, 

Chile, and Argentina). The highway passes through 

several regions with dramatically different climates 

including Alaska’s frozen north, the temperate 

latitudes, the tropics, and finally the cold, windswept 

cone of South America. To those who drive along that 

route numerous ecosystems are visible—ranging from 

snow-covered landscapes through majestic temperate 

rain forest, mid-latitude prairies, mountainous cloud 

forests, tropical lowland rain forest, savannas, and 

desert. Along the way, the road ascends high mountain 

passes and descends into seemingly endless coastal 

lowlands. The road is discontinuous at only one point, 

the Darién Gap in eastern Panama and northwestern 

Colombia, where dense lowland rainforest and 

swamp lands remain as an obstacle. Somewhere 

near the middle of its transcontinental length, this 

international network of roads—“the PanAmerican 

Highway, a system so vast, so incomplete, and so 

incomprehensible it is not so much a road as it is the 

idea of Pan-Americanism itself” (Silverstein 2006, 

page 70)—traverses the Panama Canal at the Bridge 

of the Americas (formerly Thatcher Bridge) and 

passes within 100 m of the south edge of Eco-Park. 

Some might say that the highway achieved Simón 

Bolívar’s dream to unite the Americas, at least to 

some extent. 

Pan-Am Highway. (Photo by Peter L. Weaver)
25

22. Bridge of the Americas (Thatcher Bridge)—

connecting the continents

The history of the “Bridge of the Americas” 

began in 1909 when bridges or tunnels were being 

considered to cross the Panama Canal at Empire, 

Culebra, Gold Hill, or Paraiso (Anonymous 1962). 

In 1942, the Miraflores swing bridge was completed. 

Although never intended as a substitute, its existence, 

along with the Canal ferry, delayed the building 

of a permanent structure. The bridge was a major 

stipulation in the 1955 Remón-Eisenhower Treaty, 

which also concerned annual payments for the Canal 

and proposed U.S. military uses of other lands in 

Panama. Construction began in December 1958 and 

was finished in time for inauguration on October 12, 

1962 (Columbus Day), thus completing another link 

in the PanAmerican Highway, which then extended 

from Alaska to Patagonia (Noriega 1987). Maurice 

H. Thatcher, a member of the original group of Canal 

administrators that included such well-known figures 

as Gaillard, Goethals, and Gorgas, among others, 

was present at the inauguration. After service in 

Panama, Thatcher, as a member of the U.S. House 

of Representatives, was instrumental in developing a 

ferry service across the Canal, and in building a road 

between the western terminal of the ferry and the 

town of Arraijan. Thatcher’s enthusiasm earned him 

the unofficial title as the “First Governor of the Canal 

Zone” (Anonymous 1962, page 3) and later tied his 

name to the ferry, highway, and bridge. 

At a maximum height of 117 m above sea level 

and 61 m clearance over water at mean high tide, 

the bridge stretches 1670 m over Panama Bay at the 

Pacific entrance to the Panama Canal (Stevens 1962). 

The main spans are a combination cantilever-tied 

arch, and the approaches are combination cantileversimple spans. In 1962, the bridge’s main span was less 

than two-thirds of the world’s largest cantilever bridge 

across the St. Lawrence River at Quebec, Canada. 

It’s height above high water, however, dictated by 

shipping requirements, ranked it among the highest in 

the world. 

Thatcher Bridge. (Photo by Peter L. Weaver)
26

Panama’s Flora—A Diverse 

Botanical Heritage

23. Flora of Panama, western 

Canal Area, and HOROKO

Panama has one of the most diverse floras in the 

world; in the early 1990s, the total number of plants 

(flowering plants, conifers, and ferns and fern-allies) 

within the country was estimated at nearly 9,400 

(Correa and Valdespino 1998, Hampshire 1989). 

Of the nearly 200 families that were identified, five 

contained nearly one-quarter of the total species: 

Orchidaceae, Leguminosae, Rubiaceae, Graminae, 

and Compositae (D’Arcy 1987, Woodson and Schery 

1943-80). A total of 571 plant species were found 

during the rapid survey carried out in the mid-1990s 

in the western Canal Area (i.e., HOROKO, composed 

of the Howard, Rodman, and Kobbe military bases, 

and the Empire Range and Balboa West Range) 

(ANCON and TNC 1996). The main vegetation types 

that characterize the 17,360 ha in the western Canal 

Area are: semideciduous seasonal mixed forest (36 

percent), semideciduous seasonal low forest (38 

percent), and grassland (15 percent). The remainder 

of the area is covered by five less common vegetation 

types (5 percent), and urban infrastructure, associated 

developments, and water (6 percent). The western 

Canal Area has been heavily disturbed by past human 

activities. Within the entire Canal Area, only 3,000 ha 

of old-growth forest remain (Ibañez and others 2002).

Eco-Park is at the drier end of a climatic gradient 

that extends across the Canal Area (Pyke and others 

2001). The vegetation in and around Eco-Park is 

classified as part of the Tropical dry forest life zone 

according to the ecological life zone system used 

widely throughout Latin America (Holdridge 1967, 

Tosi 1971). In the 4,900 ha that comprise HOROKO, 

the rapid survey of the vegetation identified eight 

vegetation types (ANCON and TNC 1996): 

•	 Deciduous forest, where virtually all of the canopy

trees lose their leaves during the dry season. 

•	 Semi-deciduous seasonal forest, where limited

water during the dry season (two months with 

less than 100 mm of rainfall) causes many of the 

trees to lose their leaves. Three forest types were 

recognized on the basis of age and height: tall 

forest, reaching 30–40 m; mixed forest, reaching 

25–35 m; and low forest, growing to heights 

between 10 and 20 m.

•	 Mangrove swamp forest, where trees grow in soils

that have a high salt content on lands that are 

periodically flooded by ocean waters. 

Seasonal mixed forest. (Photo by Peter L. Weaver)
27

Big-leaf mahogany. (Photo by Peter L. Weaver)

•	 Shrubland, where small trees and shrubs (3- to

10-m tall) cover about three-quarters of the 

surface area.

•	 Grassland, where the area is dominated by grass

with dispersed trees and shrubs.

•	 Marsh, where the soils are regularly subjected

to flooding.

The semideciduous seasonal mixed forest occupies 

about 35 percent of HOROKO, and is the dominant 

forest type at Eco-Park (ANCON and TNC 1996).

In general, this forest type is characterized by widecrown trees with a mixture of small-crown trees 

and three strata (vegetation levels within the forest). 

Underbrush is more common where the forest 

is lower. The forest type is disturbed, containing 

both mature and secondary tree species. The most 

prominent tree species in the mixed forest type are: 

yellow plum (Spondias mombin), guácimo colorado 

(Luehea seemannii), wild cashew (Anacardium 

excelsum), along with ear tree (Enterolobium 

cyclocarpum), West Indian locust (Hymenaea 

courbaril), Spanish-elm (Cordia alliodora), amarillo 

(Terminalia amazonica), cagajón (Zuelania guidonia), 

maquenque palm (Oenocarpus mapora), wild fig 

(Ficus insipida), and zorro (Astronium graveolens). 

Within the mixed forest type, the maximum canopy 

height is between 25 and 35 m. Tree species 

composition and structure (height and diameter), 

however, vary according to past use, time since 

agriculture or other disturbance was abandoned, 

and topography (for example, hilltops, side slopes, 

and drainages). 

Other vegetation types occur to a limited 

extent within Eco-Park. These include areas of 

semideciduous seasonal low forest, open fields 

covered by native grasses and herbs, roadside strips 

of grasses and herbs, and patches of wild sugarcane 

(Saccharum spontaneum). 

24. Big-leaf mahogany—virtually 

absent from Eco-Park’s landscape

Big-leaf mahogany (Swietenia macrophylla), the 

most valuable timber in the western hemisphere, has 

been heavily exploited throughout its natural range, 

which extends from southern Mexico through Central 

America including southern Panama, western South 

America, and the Brazilian Amazon, to Bolivia. The 

species is so highly prized that during the mid-1930s, 

nearly 200 tree species in 35 families were known as 

some type of mahogany (Weaver and Sabido 1997). 

During the 20th century, Panama’s forests were 

logged for valuable timbers and cleared for farming. 

The forests, which originally covered virtually all 

of Panama, declined to 86 percent of the country in 

1900, and to 37 percent in 1998 (Weaver and Bauer 

2003). With construction of the Canal, timber harvest 

resulted in a general decline, and often a local loss 

of valued construction and furniture timbers, among 

them big-leaf mahogany in and around Eco-Park. 

Panama was first used by the Indians as a bridge 

between the continents. Soon after European 

discovery, New World explorers recognized it as 
28

an important bridge between two oceans and two 

continents. Likewise, Panama is the natural bridge 

that connects northern and southern populations of 

big-leaf mahogany, a species of major concern to both 

timber-producing countries and conservation groups. 

Moreover, some big-leaf mahogany has been planted 

in the narrowest part of that natural bridge—Panama 

City, and areas surrounding Eco-Park. Recently, 

big-leaf mahogany was listed on Appendix II of the 

Convention on International Trade in Endangered 

Species of Wild Fauna and Flora (CITES), largely 

through the concern and efforts of countries that 

maintain native populations of the species (Grogan 

and Barreto 2005). 

25. Espavé, Cuipo, and Corotú—

three forest giants in Eco-Park

Espavé (Anacardium excelsum), a member of the 

mango or poison ivy family, is a large, deciduous tree 

that reaches a 45-m height and a 2-m diameter, often 

with a clear bole for 15 m or more (Angehr and others 

1985, Carrasquilla R. 2005, Chudnoff 1984, Janzen 

1983, Wong and Ventocilla 1995). The species flowers 

from January to June, and fruits ripen from March 

onward. Ranging from Guatemala to northern South 

America (Colombia, Venezuela, the Guianas, and 

Ecuador), espavé frequently grows on well-drained 

soils. It is common as a riparian tree in the Tropical 

dry forest life zone and occurs in other life zones, 

where it is found in coastal flood plains and gallery 

forests up to nearly 1000-m elevation. The fruits are 

eaten by bats, coatis, white-faced monkeys, and other 

animals. The raw seeds are highly toxic but may be 

consumed after roasting. The light-weight timber can 

be used for a variety of purposes including furniture, 

veneer, plywood, pulp and paper products, wood 

trays, wood frames for houses, and boxes. Indians and 

farmers used the trunks to make boats (cayucos). The 

well-known cashew (Anacardium occidentale) is a 

close relative. 

Cuipo (Cavanillesia platanifolia) reaches a 

45-m height and a 2-m diameter. The species is 

distinguished by its smooth bark and straight, 

unbranched, swollen trunks with rings that resemble 

belts. The crown is round on top and flat on the base, 

and extends above surrounding trees as an emergent 

(Carrasquilla 2005, International Science and 

Technology Institute 1980). Ranging from Mexico 

through Panama to Peru in humid to wet forests, cuipo 

is deciduous, losing its leaves during the dry season. 

The species flowers in March and April, with fruits 

beginning to ripen in April. The wood is very weak 

and light. The seeds, with a flavor similar to peanuts, 

are usually eaten after roasting. The species is fast 

growing and may invade open areas after logging. 

With no commercial value, some botanists have 

considered the cuipo to be “a giant vegetable.” Harpy 

eagles (Harpia harpyja) frequently select cuipo trees 

as nesting sites. 

Corotú (Enterolobium cyclocarpum), a large 

deciduous tree, losing its leaves during the dry season, 

reaches a 30-m height and a 2-m diameter (Angehr 

and others 1985, Carrasquilla 2005, Little and others 

Espavé. (Photo by Peter L. Weaver)
29

plant. Roots then descend to the ground where 

they proliferate in the soil to absorb water and 

nutrients. Other fig roots grow laterally around the 

trunk of the host tree, gradually grafting together 

into an intertwined lattice. Ultimately, the leaves 

and roots of the fig prove to be better competitors 

for light, water, and nutrients than those of the host 

tree, gradually strangling it. Each fig species is 

pollinated by a particular small wasp that crawls 

through an opening into the fruit. The flowers are 

clustered inside the fruit, a fact that led some to 

believe that fig trees did not form flowers. Tropical 

figs are considered a keystone species because they 

bear continuously, providing food for fruit-eating 

animals during periods of scarcity. 

1974). The species flowers from December to May 

with the fruits maturing during the following dry 

season. The trunk branches low and forms a broad, 

spreading crown. Native to savannas, Corotú ranges 

from Mexico through Central America south to 

Venezuela, Trinidad, Guyana, and Brazil. The tree 

grows rapidly in the open, perhaps as much as 1 m in 

trunk diameter in 60 years. The wood, generally light 

in weight, is used for furniture, veneer, carpentry, and 

construction. The seed-bearing pods are round and the 

seeds are apparently edible when roasted. In the past, 

Indians made dugout canoes from the large trunks. 

Today, the tree is planted for shade and ornament in 

large, open spaces and parks. 

26. Amate in Eco-Park—and figs in general 

The genus Ficus contains about 800 species 

of trees, shrubs, and vines that grow throughout 

the tropics with a few species native to the warm 

temperate zone (Carrasquilla 2005, Wikipedia 2006, 

Britannica Student Encyclopedia 2006). In general, 

figs are evergreen but those growing in the temperate 

zone or areas with long dry seasons are deciduous. 

Amate (Ficus obtusifolia), which grows in EcoPark, is one of the 150 American fig species, most 

of which are “stranglers.” It ranges from Mexico 

to Bolivia and is found in the Canal Area and EcoPark. The life cycle of figs typically begins when 

their sticky seeds are deposited by birds, bats, or 

possibly mammals high in the canopy of a host tree. 

The species grows initially as an epiphyte, deriving 

its nutrients from the rain and litter found on the host 

Corotú. (Photo by Néstor Correa)

Ficus sp. (Photo by Peter L. Weaver)
30

Some figs growing elsewhere are renowned. The 

common fig (Ficus carica) is sold commercially 

worldwide. Moreover, it may have been the first 

domesticated crop, because its use can be traced 

back about 10,000 years in the Middle-East. Another 

species, Ficus religiosa, is considered as sacred in 

Burma, Ceylon (Sri Lanka) and India. Apparently, 

Buddha was enlightened while contemplating in 

its shade. Yet another species, Ficus bengalensis, is 

reputed to have a specimen designated as the largest 

tree in the world—a tree in India with 1,000 prop 

roots that extend over an area of 1.6 ha.

27. Royal palm—palma corozo in Eco-Park

Although species of palm grow naturally between 

44 degrees north and south latitude (i.e., southern 

France to Chatam Island, New Zealand), about 

95 percent of the species are found in the tropics, 

predominantly in forested conditions. The palm 

family, with its 6 subfamilies, 200 genera, and about 

2,500 species, is one of the most useful in the world. 

Some species are harvested for their fruits (i.e., dates 

and coconuts), oil, or as vegetables (i.e., palm hearts). 

Rattan is the raw material for making furniture or 

baskets, and palm fiber is used to make brushes 

and rope. Palms are also planted as ornamentals; 

moreover, their leaves are harvested for thatch 

roofing, to make articles of clothing, and to use in 

floral arrangements or religious ceremonies (i.e., 

Palm Sunday).

Palma corozo (Attalea butyracea, formerly known 

as Sheelea zonensis) grows in Eco-Park. The species 

is widespread in Central America and also ranges 

from Venezuela and Colombia through the Amazon 

of Peru and western Brazil to northwestern Bolivia, 

where it attains a 20- to 30-m height and 50-cm 

diameter (Angehr and others 1985, Henderson and 

others 1995). Corozo grows in seasonal and humid 

forest areas, usually below 300 m, but occasionally 

reaches a 1,000-m elevation. It is common along 

rivers, open savannas, disturbed or secondary forests, 

and pastures. The red squirrel (Sciurus granatensis), 

also found in Eco-Park, commonly consumes 

the seeds. 

Palma corozo. (Photo by Peter L. Weaver)
31

28. Heliconias—Eco-Park’s popular 

garden plants growing wild

Heliconias (family Helicaoniaceae) are large 

upright herbs with banana-like leaves. Noted for 

their colorful inflorescenses, heliconias are native 

to the American tropics from Central Mexico to 

Brazil and Bolivia, and to some South Pacific Islands 

(Berry and Kress 1991, Janzen 1983). The group 

is common along forest streams, in small forest 

gaps, and in shady secondary vegetation. About 250 

species occur naturally, but with hybrids and varieties, 

the total number of recognizable heliconias may 

approach 500. Nectar-feeding hummingbirds are the 

only pollinators in the American tropics. The branch 

bracts of heliconias often contain water that supports 

numerous aquatic insects including larvae of beetles, 

flies, and mosquitoes. The fruit is fleshy (drupe) and 

is eaten by several species of birds with the seeds 

subsequently being dispersed. Heliconia leaves have 

been traditionally used by native peoples for thatching 

roofs and wrapping food. Currently, the bright colors 

and large size of heliconias make them popular as 

ornamentals throughout the tropics. Two species are 

common in Eco-Park: Heliconia latispatha and 

H. platystachys. 

29. Epiphytes, Climbing Plants, and Parasites 

Epiphytes include a host of different plants 

(lichens, fungi, bryophytes, ferns, orchids, bromeliads, 

vines, and seedlings of many forest trees, notably 

strangler figs) that commonly grow in the forest 

canopy. The death and decomposition of these aerial 

plants forms a soil-like substance that gradually 

accumulates on branches providing habitat and 

food for soil microorganisms, numerous insects, 

small amphibians and reptiles, birds, and mammals. 

Moreover, epiphytes affect the movement and 

chemistry of water in the canopy, and in the case 

of bromeliads, collect water in miniature reservoirs 

providing elevated breeding sites and refuges during 

dry periods. Among the plant families with the 

greatest number of climbing plants are milkweed 

(Asclepidaceae), morning glory (Convolvulaceae), 

sunflower (Compositae), aroid (Araceae), bigonia 

(Bignoniaceae), and legume (Leguminosae) (Gentry 

1991). Vines and lianas climb high into the canopy 

where they produce flowers and often shed leaves 

during the dry season. Both may compete with 

trees for light, water, and nutrients, and at times 

may contribute to tree mortality. At the same time, 

however, they provide food and shelter for many 

animals, including roosting sites and hiding places 

for different species of bats. Another group, the 

mistletoes (Loranthaceae), including Phoradendron

spp., grow as parasites on 42 different families of 

plants, ranging from primitive to advanced (Janzen 

1983). Mistletoes may be entirely parasitic or in 

some instances, partly parasitic (i.e., capable of 

photosynthesis to some extent). 

Heliconia sp. (Photo by Néstor Correa)
32

Climber. (Photo by Peter L. Weaver)
33

30. Wild sugarcane—an invasive species

Wild sugarcane (Saccharum spontaneum), a grass 

that grows naturally in eastern and northern Africa, 

the Middle East, India, China, Southeast Asia, and 

New Guinea, now occupies large areas in the Canal 

Area, including isolated patches within Eco-Park 

(Hammond 1999, Hooper and others 2005, Jones 

and others 2004). Some forms of the species can 

grow to heights of 8 m or more. Wild sugarcane 

was introduced into the Canal Zone but the date is 

uncertain. Some conjecture that the introduction was 

made in the mid-20th century to protect the Canal 

Zone from erosion and sedimentation; however, 

others say it was introduced accidentally in the1970s 

when a ship from Thailand traversed the canal during 

a rain storm and plant fragments were washed into 

the water. Since its arrival, the species has spread 

throughout the Canal Area and elsewhere in Panama 

from Costa Rica to Colombia, absent only from 

areas with dense forest cover. Adapted to hot, sunny 

environments, wild sugarcane can attain very high 

rates of photosynthesis, and reduce water loss during 

periods of low rainfall or drought. Rapid growth 

allows it to dominate other weedy species, eliminating 

competition through shading. Capable of reproduction 

by layering, vegetative growth, and seeding, wild 

sugarcane develops a dense root mat that competes 

intensively with other vegetation, allowing the species 

to control large areas and prevent the regeneration 

and growth of native species, including trees. In the 

Canal watershed, wild sugarcane dominates lands 

previously used in migratory agriculture. Of little use 

agriculturally or to native wildlife, the species poses 

serious problems for reclamation of the Canal Area. 

Cutting wild sugarcane and planting fast growing fruit 

or native timber species could alter sites sufficiently 

to favor recovery of native forest on areas currently 

dominated by these grasslands. 

Wild sugarcane. (Photo by Christian Ziegler)
34

31. Plant uses—medicine, fibers, dyes, and toxins 

Of the nearly 11,000 species of plants that exist in 

Panama, about 400 have popular uses (Sasaki 1996, 

Zapata 1998). Many of these species grow in the 

semi-deciduous seasonal mixed forest at Eco-Park. 

For example, the leaves of marañón (Anacardium 

occidentale) produce a tea that is used to alleviate 

stomach pains and diarrhea. Several other plants 

provide fibers for personal, home, or agricultural 

uses, including maquenca (Oenocarpus mapara), 

matumba (Desmoncus isthmius), and trema (Trema 

micanthra). Kapok (Ceiba pentandra) has short fibers 

that are used for stuffing in upholstry, mattresses, life 

preservers, and saddles. Pita (Aechmea magdalenae) 

is versatile and provides fibers to make hammocks, 

shoulder bags, and traveling gear, and cortezo (Apeiba 

tibourbou) is used for ropes and handbags. Balsa 

(Ochroma pyramidale) is a very light wood first used 

to make rafts and later insulation products. Today it 

is used to make carved novelties. Nance (Byrsonima 

crassifolia) and leaves of the liana (Arrabidaea chica) 

provide dyes to color hats and other articles. Certain 

indigenous groups also use the latter to paint their 

skin. Furthermore, nance is used in tanning hides 

and for various folk remedies, and its fruits are sold 

to make beverages (Janzen 1983). Boca de vieja 

(Posoqueria latifolia) is occasionally planted as 

an ornamental. 

Several species recorded at Eco-Park are 

recognized commercial timber species. At the time of 

Panama’s settlement and later during the construction 

of the Canal, caoba (Swietenia macrophylla) was 

the most famous. Today, cedro (Cedrela odorata), 

laurel (Cordia alliodora), and guayacan (Tabebuia 

guayacan) are among the most prized timber species. 

Also, the species guayabillo blanco (Terminalia 

oblonga) produces a heavy lumber with good physical 

and mechanical properties, which is renowned 

for flooring and paneling. Another tree is níspero 

(Manilkara zapota), a source of timber, fruit, and 

latex, the latter formerly used to make chewing 

gum before the age of synthetics. In addition to the 

aforementioned useful plants, several species in 

Panama’s flora are toxic or poisonous to humans and 

animals (Allen 1942, Escobar 1972). Indeed, there are 

numerous recognized uses of Panama’s flora, many 

handed down among the local folks for centuries. 

Kapok tree. (Photo by Peter L. Weaver)
35

Fauna—Among the Most 

Conspicuous in Eco-Park

32. Panamanian tamarin—titi monkey 

The titi monkey (Saguinus oedipus geoffroyi) is 

currently found almost entirely within the boundaries 

of Panama, notably in the vicinity of the Panama 

Canal and in the San Blas and Darien provenances. 

Historically its range extended to the Río Atrato 

region of northwestern Colombia and the Coto 

region of southern Costa Rica (Eisenberg 1989, 

Emmons and Feer 1997). The monkeys feed on 

insects, small lizards, flowers, fruits, and nectar. The 

fruits of Cecropia spp., guayava (Psidium guajava), 

mango (Mangifera indica), monkey’s apple (Annona 

spraguei), Yellow mombin (Spondias mombin), and 

the gums and resins of wild cashew (Anacardium 

excelsum), also appear to be favorite food items.

Titi monkeys roam in small groups averaging 

about 7 individuals and range within an area of forest 

that covers about 25–30 ha. Titi monkeys usually 

bear twins both of which rarely survive in the wild. 

Tending the young is predominantly an activity 

carried out by one adult male. Panamanian tamarins 

are territorial, visiting boundaries and marking trees 

with their scent glands. Interactions include chasing, 

flicking tongues, and fighting, particularly during 

the main breeding period from November through 

February. Sometimes combatants fall or are injured 

during the fights. Titi monkeys sleep in the trees, 

often using nests made by other animals, or formed 

by the accumulation of debris. “Sleeping trees” tend 

to be somewhat isolated from others and provide a 

viewpoint to detect approaching nocturnal predators. 

The most frequent predators apparently are raptors. 

Other potential predators are tayras (Eira barbara), 

ocelots (Leopardus pardalis), margays (Leopardus 

wiedii), jaguarundis (Herpailurus yagouroundi), 

coatimundis (Nasua narica), and large boas 

(Boa constrictor). 

The monkeys prefer secondary vegetation, 

suggesting they have lived in close association with 

humans for centuries. Alternatives for management 

of Eco-Park might consider the maintenance of some 

areas of secondary vegetation and the protection of 

favored fruit species to ensure their survival. Titi 

monkeys currently are listed as threatened by CITES.

33. Central American agouti—ñeque

The Central American agouti (Dasyprocta 

punctata) is orange-brown in color, with a rounded 

back and slender legs (Eisenberg 1989, Emmons 

and Feer 1997, Janzen 1983, Reid 1997). Agoutis 

are diurnal and terrestrial, often feeding on seeds 

and fruits in an upright position. When seeds are 

abundant, they will carry them off for burial at 

different sites. Because only a portion of seeds are 

recovered, many germinate and grow into trees 

or shrubs. At night, agoutis sleep in hollow logs, 

buttressed trees, vegetative debris, or burrows. Agoutis 

live permanently in stable pairs but are often seen 

individually in the field. The pairs are territorial, each 

defending an area. Adult males protect as large an area 

as possible; females, in turn, tolerate other agoutis 

when food is abundant. The areas, usually 2–3 ha in 

size, contain trails and sites used regularly to feed 

and sleep. When chased by predators, agoutis will 

run in circles but will not leave their relatively small 

territory—

a behavior that 

often leads to their 

demise. Females 

give birth to one 

or two young 

that are then led 

to a nest hole or 

Titi monkey. (Photo by Gerald P. Bauer)

Agouti. (Photo by Néstor Correa)
36

crevice, where they remain until called by the female 

for nursing. Later, as they grow, they move to another, 

slightly larger nest hole. Gradually they spend more 

time in the open, and after 4–5 months, become 

independent. Agoutis range from Mexico through 

Central America to Bolivia and Argentina where 

they are found in deciduous and evergreen forests, 

and plantations. Although common in parks and 

reserves, the species is heavily hunted for its meat; 

subsequently, populations have dwindled in many 

areas that have suitable habitat. In contrast, in areas 

where large predators have disappeared, the agouti 

may be abundant. 

34. White-nosed coati—gato solo 

The white-nosed coati (Nasua narica), ranging 

in color from dark to yellowish brown, is often seen 

with its head down and long tail, equal in length to 

the body, in an upright position (Eisenberg 1989, 

Emmons and Feer 1997, Janzen 1983, Reid 1997). 

Coatis range from the Southwestern United States and 

Mexico through Central America, including Panama, 

to northern Colombia where they are common 

in the lowlands up to 3000-m elevation. Coatis 

inhabit deciduous and evergreen forests, secondary 

vegetation, and arid scrub. Mainly diurnal, they are 

omnivorous, digging for invertebrates in leaf litter 

and in rotting logs, sometimes to 1-m deep. They 

also may climb into the tallest fruiting trees when 

production is abundant, remaining for days. At night, 

they climb into roost trees to sleep. Pregnant females 

also use trees to make nests where litters of two to 

five are born. Males are solitary except during the 

breeding season; females and the young, however, 

often roam in stable groups of 10–20 individuals. 

Mutual grooming among group members is common. 

In tropical forests, the groups have home ranges 

of 30–50 ha within which are territories of smaller 

size that are used constantly. Boas, raptors, cats, 

and humans are among the major predators of whitenosed coatis. 

Coati. (Photo by Néstor Correa)
37

35. Three-toed sloth—perico ligero 

Three-toed sloths (Bradypus variegates), perhaps 

best known for their “cute, smiling” face (Reid 

1997, page 58), are most frequently seen hanging 

below branches or curled-up sleeping in the canopy 

(Eisenberg 1989, Emmons and Feer 1997). Their 

legendary slow movements are accompanied by 

limited use of resources and low body temperatures, 

which vary from near ambient at night to near normal 

for mammals during the day. Sloths reach sexual 

maturity slowly for their body size, reproduce slowly, 

and live for a long time—possibly 20–30 years. The 

species is common in lowland evergreen forest and 

secondary vegetation, where it may be seen sunning 

itself in open-canopy trees like Cecropia. Adults 

occupy a home range of nearly 2 ha, are arboreal, 

solitary, rarely share trees with other individuals, and 

are most active at night. Several arthropods live as 

adults on their bodies. 

Sloths may feed on the leaves of about 50 trees, 

including 30 different species. They spend an average 

of 1.5 days in a tree before passing to an adjacent 

crown, often via lianas. Sloths accumulate feces and 

urine for about one week. Then they descend to the 

ground to relieve themselves, a process that takes 

about one-half an hour and exposes them to various 

predators. Sloths cannot support their weight on the 

ground but swim well. Females give birth to a single 

individual per year which is carried on the mother’s 

chest continuously for about 6 months. She then 

departs leaving the collage of feeding trees in her 

home range to the offspring. Mortality at this point is 

high for the young. The species ranges from Honduras 

south to eastern Peru and northwestern Argentina. 

Sloth populations in Panama’s forests are often high, 

averaging 5–8 per hectare. 

Sloth. (Photo by Néstor Correa)
38

36. Keel-billed Toucan—and associates

The toucans (Ramphastidae) have enlarged, 

multicolored bills, making them easy to recognize. 

Three species are common in Eco-Park, often 

seen traveling in groups and perching high in open 

canopies. Toucans nest in trees and are gregarious, 

often feeding as groups in fruiting trees. Their 

diet also includes large insects, small reptiles and 

amphibians, nestling birds, and the eggs of other bird 

species. In a rare photograph, the Keel-billed toucan 

(Ramphastos sulfuratus) is seen perched along with 

a White-necked puffbird (Bucco macrorhynchos). 

The Keel-billed toucan ranges from southern Mexico 

to northern Colombia and northwestern Venezuela 

(Ponce and Muschett 2006, Ridgely and Gwynne 

1989, Stiles and Skutch 1989). The remaining 

common toucan species are the Collared Aracari 

(Pteroglossus torquatus) and the Chestnut-mandibled 

toucan (Ramphastos swainsonii). The former ranges 

from southern Mexico to western Ecuador, and the 

latter from Honduras to western Ecuador. Toucans 

have decreased in recent years due to the loss of 

habitat and hunting. The White-necked puffbird, 

ranging from southern Mexico through western 

Ecuador to northeastern Argentina, occupies lowlands 

mainly below 600-m elevation. It frequents the forest 

canopy, often in second growth vegetation, where 

it perches for extended periods on high branches or 

snags. From this vantage point, the puffbird sallies to 

capture large insects or small lizards, carrying its prey 

back to the perch. 

Toucan and puffbird. (Photo by Néstor Correa)
39

Violet-bellied 

hummingbird. (Photo 

by Christian Ziegler)

37. Oropendula—swinging high in the treetops

The Chestnut-headed Oropendulas (Psarocolius 

wagleri) is a gregarious icterid that ranges from 

southeastern Mexico to western Ecuador. The species 

is resident in Panama’s lowland to mid-elevation 

(i.e., 1,200 to 1,700 m) forests, secondary growth, 

woodland borders, and open areas that have trees 

suitable for nesting (Janzen 1983, Ridgely and 

Gwynne 1989, Stiles and Skutch 1989, Wetmore 

1965-84). The species has been reported as 

particularly common in the Canal Area. The birds are 

often first seen near their globular pouches (nests) 

that hang down about 1 m from isolated trees. The 

nests are woven out of roots, tendrils, and fibers 

found within wooded areas or pilfered from other 

birds. The species often nests in colonies that number 

25–50 birds, although some may reach 100 birds. 

Colony sites are frequently used by the same birds in 

subsequent years. The species forages high in trees, 

frequently moving in noisy groups, where it feeds 

on small frogs and lizards, insects, fruits, seeds, and 

occasionally nectar from large flowers. Oropendulas 

are most notable during the breeding season from 

January through June. At other times, the birds 

disperse and wander in monospecific flocks searching 

for fruit in trees. Oropendulas are highly vocal with 

numerous calls described as croaks and gurgling 

notes. Giant cowbirds (Scaphindura oryzivora) 

sometimes deposit their eggs in oropendula nests. This 

relationship, known as brood parasitism, is actually 

beneficial, because cowbird chicks remove the eggs 

and larvae of botflies from their nest mates. 

38. Hummingbirds and 

parakeets—part of 

the diversity

Hummingbirds (Trochilidae) 

are confined to the Americas 

and reach their greatest diversity 

in northern South America. 

Panama has about 60 of the 

hemisphere’s 340 species. 

The birds are renowned for 

their small size, brilliant 

iridescent colors, and their 

unique capacity to hover and 

even move backwards in 

flight. With wing beats of some species averaging 

80 per minute, hummingbirds move rapidly and may 

change direction abruptly. In general, hummingbirds 

feed on nectar, small insects, and spiders. Nests are 

constructed of plant materials and spider webs and 

situated in branch forks, or underneath large leaves. 

The Violet-bellied hummingbird (Damophila julie), 

small and not very conspicuous, ranges from central 

Panama to western Ecuador where it is found along 

forest borders and secondary woodlands (Stiles and 

Skutch 1989). The species is common in the Canal 

Area and ranges locally into the foothills of Cerro 

Campana. In Eco-Park, it is frequently seen close to 

the ground along the numerous fence lines overgrown 

with flowering legumes, although it sometimes 

ventures into taller flowering trees. 

Another easily recognized resident is the Orangechinned Parakeet (Brotogeris jugalaris), which 

ranges in lowlands from southern Mexico to northern 

Colombia and Venezuela (Janzen 1983, Stiles and 

Skutch 1989). Common in the Canal Area, including 

Eco-Park, parakeets prefer forest edges and open 

areas with scattered trees. The birds breed during the 

dry season and frequently nest in woodpecker holes 

carved in dead trees or holes dug into termitaries. 

The parakeets often fly in large flocks except during 

the breeding season when pairs or small groups are 

common. The birds are often noisy in flight or when 

feeding on the fruits, seeds, flowers, and nectar of 

several tree species. Known as “pericos” in Panama, 

the parakeets are often kept in cages where they make 

affectionate pets, surviving well on assorted table 

leftovers and birdseed. 

Oropendula and nest. (Photo by Néstor Correa)
40

39. Migratory raptors—avian 

clouds soar over Eco-Park 

Broad-winged hawks (Buteo platypterus), 

Swainson’s hawks (Buteo swainsoni), and turkey 

vultures (Cathartes aura) pass through Panama in 

large flocks, many crossing the Canal in the vicinity 

of Eco-Park and Ancón Hill (Smith 1980). In 1972, 

nearly 960,000 of these three species were counted 

using photographs, and in 1973, slightly more than 

870,000—and these figures represent only a fraction 

of the total migratory population in each year. 

Fall migrations take place mainly in October and 

November, and return spring migrations in March and 

April. The fall migration begins in North America 

when broad-winged hawks cross the Gulf states flying 

to southeastern Texas and into the lowlands of Mexico 

where they are joined by Swainson’s hawks and 

turkey vultures from the western part of the continent. 

Once in the tropics, the birds use thermal soaring to 

fly much of the distance. Differential heating of the 

earth’s surface creates parcels of hot air which rise 

more rapidly than surrounding air. Migratory species 

use these air parcels to ascend through the thermal 

area, departing as the air cools and gliding downward 

Migratory raptors above Canal. (Photo by Gerald P. Bauer)

Green iguana. (Photo by Néstor Correa)

until they encounter the next ascending hot air parcel. 

Pilots departing from Howard Base reported that some 

birds may rise as high as 4,000 m on days of favorable 

thermal activity. Swainson’s hawks spend 4 months 

completing their 20,000 km round-trip migrations 

between Argentina and the Rocky Mountains of 

Canada and the United States. 

40. Green iguana (Iguana iguana)

Panama has 228 species of reptiles (10 percent 

endemic, or native to Panama alone) including 127 

species of snakes, 81 lizards or iguanas, 15 marine 

and freshwater turtles, 3 worm lizards, a crocodile, 

and a caiman. Of these, Eco-Park contains at least 26 

species, or 11 percent of Panama’s total. The green 

iguana, native to tropical America, is among the 

most conspicuous species to be seen in a variety of 

sites less than 1,000 m in elevation, where it favors 

wooded areas near water. The iguana, predominantly 

a vegetarian, may grow to 1.8-m long. Early in the dry 

season, the green iguana lays about 30 eggs. About 3 

months later, at the beginning of the wet season, the 

young emerge. Humans are the iguana’s major enemy, 

principally through habitat destruction, egg stealing, 

and hunting. Large felines, birds of prey, alligators, 

crocodiles, and snakes are also included among its 

predators. The iguana, favored in the diets of native 

peoples and rural populations of Panama, is also a 

popular animal in the pet trade. Historically it was 

transported by native groups during excursions; today, 

it is often discarded in alien habitats by unsatisfied 

owners. The dramatic decline of Panama’s iguana 

populations has been counteracted by legislation, 

educational programs, reforestation, and by breeding 

in captivity for later release.

40
41

Red-eyed tree frog. (Photo by Néstor Correa)

41. Brown vine snake (Oxybelis aenus)

Oxybelis aenus (Colubridae, Squamata), one of 

more than 2,500 known species of snakes, ranges in 

dry habitats from southern Arizona to central Bolivia 

and southeastern Brazil. Vine snakes are common in 

the lowlands, but occasionally occur at intermediate 

to relatively high elevations, giving them one of the 

largest distributions of any neotropical snake (Ibañez 

and Solis 1991, Janzen 1983, Keiser 1974). Mature 

individuals are slender, sometimes approaching 

2 m in length. Vine snakes are primarily diurnal and 

inject their prey with immobilizing venom. They 

feed largely on lizards, although frogs, small birds, 

and insects are also part of their diet. Vine snakes are 

good climbers and spend considerable time in trees 

and shrubs. Their elongate bodies allow them to crawl 

on small branches with relative ease. Resembling a 

vine, they are often difficult to see (i.e., camouflaged) 

when motionless. During the dry season vine snakes 

may remain quiet, occupying hollow trees and other 

moist sites. Snakes from northern localities reproduce 

during the late spring or early 

summer months, laying up to five 

eggs in an underground den. The 

species is relatively common in the 

secondary vegetation of the Canal 

Area, including Eco-Park. When 

disturbed, it will hold its mouth 

open, exposing the dark lining of 

its throat. 

42. Amphibians and fish 

Panama has 170 species of amphibians, including 

141 frogs and toads, 21 salamanders, and 8 cecilias. 

One of the most famous is shown here—the Redeyed tree frog (Agalychnis callidryas), a favorite 

among photographers. The frog has bright markings 

on its sides and limbs, and when moving presents 

a kaleidoscope of patterns and colors, helping to 

reduce predation. The species ranges from Colombia 

to Mexico along the Caribbean slopes, and from 

Colombia to Nicaragua along the Pacific slopes; 

it is absent from dry lowland sites (Guyer and 

Donnelly 2004, Janzen 1983). The frog is arboreal 

and nocturnal, moving in a hand-over-hand fashion, 

grasping thin twigs and vines with its opposable 

thumb. Breeding occurs during the rainy season, 

often after heavy downpours. Most eggs are laid 

and fertilized on the undersurface of leaves that 

overhang ponds or water bodies (Holland 2006). 

Subsequently, the eggs hatch in about 1 week and 

the tadpoles fall into water where they feed on 

plankton. Metamorphosis takes about 80 days. Mature 

frogs live in tree canopies, often spending daylight 

hours in bromeliads or affixed to leaves. Their diet 

is presumably composed of invertebrates (beetles, 

crickets, grasshoppers, flies, and moths) and other 

small frogs. Their major enemies are snakes that may 

consume entire egg clutches and wasps that carry off 

individual embryos. Interestingly, the embryos can 

respond to a threat by immediately hatching—up to 

two days prematurely—and falling into the safety of 

the water below. 

Without permanent streams or water bodies, 

Eco-Park cannot support a diverse population of fish 

throughout the year as in other parts of the Canal 

Area (Hildebrand 1938). Undoubtedly, some fish 

species survive in streams like the Río Velazquez 

just south of Eco-Park. The dry season leaves most 

of the ephemeral streams in 

Eco-Park without flowing water, 

although a few scattered pools are 

apparent in most years. A likely 

species to survive such conditions 

is the common guppy (Poecilia 

reticulata), a popular, live-bearing, 

freshwater aquarium fish. 

Vine snake. (Photo by Néstor Correa)
42

Kite swallowtail. (Photo by Peter L. Weaver)

43. Panama—the land of butterflies

One possible Indian meaning for 

the name Panama is the abundance 

of butterflies (Hedrick and Hedrick 

1970). Butterflies, numbering about 

18,000 species worldwide, are more 

abundant in the American tropics 

than anywhere else. Panama has at 

least 550 species (DeVries 1987). The 

butterfly life cycle includes four stages 

(metamorphosis): the egg, larva or 

caterpillar (growing stage), pupa or 

chrysalis (transformation stage), and 

adult butterfly (reproductive stage). The 

stages vary in length with caterpillars 

surviving months, pupa perhaps 15 

days, and butterflies from 2 weeks 

to more than 1 year for species that 

migrate like the monarch (Danaus 

plexippus). During the caterpillar stage, 

these insects eat plant materials (mostly leaves, but 

also seeds, pods, or flowers); during the adult stage, 

most sip nectar from flowers with their tongues. 

Butterflies vary in size with wingspans ranging 

from 1.5 cm for some small species to about 30 cm 

for the Queen Alexandra’s birdwing (Ornithoptera 

alexandrae) of New Guinea. 

Among Panama’s most attractive butterflies are the 

kite swallowtails (tribe Leptocircini) in swallowtail 

family (Papilionidae) and the longwings (subfamily 

Heliconiinae) of the brush-footed butterflies (family 

Nymphalidae). The swallowtails, renowned for their 

coloration, are found worldwide. In contrast, the 

longwings, known for their elongated forewing, are 

confined almost exclusively to the American tropics. 

Both kite swallowtail (Eurytides anaxilaus) and 

the crimson-patched longwing (Heliconius erato) 

are occasionally seen on flowering shrubs in the 

secondary forests at Eco-Park. Planting select shrubs 

like lantana (Lantana camara) and heliconias along 

roadsides would help attract both butterflies and 

hummingbirds to the attention of Eco-Park visitors 

(Tufts 1995). Lantana flowers bloom for long periods 

and provide a landing platform, which increases the 

visitation rate of many butterflies, notably the larger 

ones (Janzen 1983). In addition, the floral nectaries 

of the wild passion flower vine (Passiflora vitifolia) 

provide the larva and adults of Heliconiinae butterflies 

with a source of food. 

44. Beetles—30 million of them on the planet? 

The Smithsonian Tropical Research Institute has 

mounted cranes supporting a gondola in secondary 

dry forest at Metropolitan Park on the Pacific side 

of the Canal and in tropical rain forest in the San 

Lorenzo National Park on the Atlantic side. The 

cranes allow instant access to the most interesting part 

of the forest—the exposed branches and leaves in the 

canopy—through a cylindrical space 30-m high and 

70-m across (Joyce 1991). Among the major benefits 

is that researchers can return several times to the 

same position in the canopy without disturbing the 

trees. The crane allows a variety of studies dealing 

with climate, leaf production, photosynthesis, water 

movement, carbon dynamics, and plant (epiphytes 

and vines) and animal (invertebrates and vertebrates) 

species that live in or pass through the canopy. Many 

arthropods appear to be host-specific (i.e., feeding 

on a single plant species). One estimate placed 

their number at 30 million species, fewer than 

2 million of which have been described (Allen 1996). 

Another point of interest is the amount of vegetation 

that is consumed (herbivory) annually by insects, 

vertebrates, and pathogens. Most studies have based 

their estimates on portions of foliage eaten over a 

period of time and do not account for the complete 

loss of leaves. Differences in leaf consumption are 

apparent among species and between the canopy 

and understory of trees. Future investigations will 

explore these differences which may be related to 

canopy climate, defensive plant compounds, 
43

Cerambycid beatle. (Photo by Néstor Correa)

Nephila spider. (Photo by Néstor Correa)

predation on plant herbivores, or a combination of 

factors. Ptychodes niveisparsus (Cerambycidae), 

common in the understory of Eco-Park, is seen here 

on a leaf surface.

45. Spiders ... some walk, jump, swim, or fly

Spiders are animals in the phylum Arthropoda 

(class Arachnida) that have a fused head and thorax, 

an abdomen, eight legs (most have eight eyes as well), 

and spinnerets to make silk (Foelix 1996). There are 

about 37,000 known species of spiders grouped into 

about 100 families. Depending on their predatory 

habit and appearance, they have been labeled as web, 

wolf, crab, jumping, button, widow, or pirate spiders, 

among other names. They are voracious predators that 

digest their food by injecting enzymes into their prey. 

Most are solitary, active throughout the day, and feed 

on insects. Larger spiders, however, may consume 

small snakes, birds, and even mammals. Spiders are 

found worldwide in every type of ecosystem ranging 

from tundra through chilly alpine habitats to tropical 

rain forests and deserts. All spiders have venom but 

few are harmful to humans. All make silk but some 

have evolved distinct uses for it. Most use it to make 

egg sacs and webs. Others fabricate retreats for hiding, 

lassos and traps to capture prey, wraps to confine 

females during mating, bubbles to hold air while 

submerged under water, and strands or “balloons” of 

silk to migrate long distances in the wind. Sailors have 

often encountered small “flying spiders” far out to sea. 

Though feared by many, spiders benefit humans by 

controlling insect pests. Some estimates have placed 

their numbers at 100 per square meter, or 1 million 

spiders per hectare (Coleman and Crossley 1996). 

With regard to records, the Earth’s largest spider 

is the goliath bird-eating spider (Theraphosa biondi) 

that has a leg span of 28 cm and weighs around 170 g 

(Guinness World Records 2006). The species inhabits 

the coastal rain forests of French Guiana, Guyana, 

and Surinam (also recorded in Venezuela and Brazil) 

where it dwells underground and occasionally feeds 

on rodents and frogs. Another interesting fact is that 

the genus of jumping spiders called Portia has a 

cognitive ability used during hunting that has been 

described as “versatile and clever” (Russell-Robertson 

2004, page 6). Eco-Park has several species of 

interesting spiders, including Nephila clavipes

shown here.
44

46. Acacia trees and their ants— 

mutualism with a nasty bite

The total number of ants has been estimated at 10 

trillion and their total weight at approximately that of 

mankind itself (Wilson 2006). The 12,000 different 

ant species are major predators on invertebrates as 

well as scavengers of dead bodies; moreover, ants are 

found everywhere except on ice-covered mountain 

peaks and near the North and South Poles. Some 

Amazon tribes use soldier ants with their large 

mandibles to suture wounds by cutting off their bodies 

and leaving their heads in place. 

Elsewhere in the tropics, certain acacia trees 

lack chemical defenses to deter insects or browsing 

mammals. Over time, acacia ants (species in the 

subfamily Pseudomyrmecinae) evolved along 

with swollen-thorn acacia species in a symbiotic 

relationship (mutualism) that benefits both organisms 

(Holldobler and Wilson 1990, Janzen 1983). The 

acacia species (Acacia chiapensis, A. collinisii, A. 

cornigera, A. hindsii, and A. sphaerocephala) range 

from Mexico to South America and occupy different 

habitats in association with the ants. The acacias 

provide ants with “room and board” and the ants 

defend against intruders. The acacia “rooms” are the 

Acacia sp. with ants. (Photos by Peter L. Weaver)

hollow thorns located at the base of leaves where 

the ants bore holes to inhabit. The “board” includes 

two food sources that the ants harvest—the Beltian 

bodies (tiny structures on the leaf tips with proteins 

and lipids) and petiolar nectar at the leaf bases. The 

ants clear a circle around the base of the host acacia 

killing vegetation that touches it, including epiphytic 

vines. Sometimes they even extend their territories to 

adjacent acacias. When disturbed, the ants produce 

a substance (pheromone) which stimulates the 

remaining ants of the colony to attack or drive away 

the intruder. An earlier author suggested that the ants 

were “kept by the Acacia as a standing army” (Belt 

1874, Chapter 12). Eco-Park has both the Acacia ant 

Pseudomymex ferruginea and host Acacia collinsii. 

Caution should be taken when near the ant-Acacia 

trees. Alerted by the smell of approaching intruders, 

the “ant army” will quickly swarm over and sting 

unwary individuals should they touch the tree. Other 

social insects are also present at Eco-Park, including 

species of leaf cutter ants, bees, wasps, and termites.
45

many of the requirements associated with overseas 

ventures. Moreover, many activities benefited 

from tax incentives or exemptions, including the 

importation of equipment and supplies duty-free. The 

City of Knowledge became “an academic free-trade 

zone” where Panama provided the infrastructure 

and cooperators brought programs and resources. 

Most of the City’s income is derived from being 

the landlord for numerous international groups. In 

summary, the City of Knowledge is an international, 

multi-institutional, and multi-cultural environment 

whose occupants pursue research, development, 

management, and educational activities aimed at 

sustainable development. 

48. New facilities—the reception center

Currently, some perceptions of Eco-Park’s future 

lie on the architect’s table. Managers foresee a park 

highlighting activities oriented toward Panama’s 

youth, nearby residents, and tourists (Amend 

and others 2001, Botanic Gardens Conservation 

City of Knowledge from Miraflores. (Photo by Peter L. Weaver)

Conservation – Protection, 

Research, and Education

47. City of Knowledge—a Panamanian initiative 

The master plan for the Canal Area presented to 

Panama’s Interoceanic Authority (ARI) included 

provisions for both public and private ownership of 

the transferred lands, and assumed that a third set 

of locks would be constructed within 20 years. One 

of the most ambitious proposals was the “City of 

Knowledge,” an international university and research 

complex to be located at Fort Clayton, the U.S. Army 

unit responsible for defense of the Canal (DeMena 

1996, Woodard 1997). Fort Clayton had nearly 

1,400 family housing units, 1,750 dormitory spaces, 

and 500 offices along with libraries, auditoriums, 

swimming pools, and other facilities appropriate 

for a major university. In 1998, a private foundation 

was created to transform Fort Clayton into a center 

of excellence for science and technology (Jackson 

2003). The key components of the project included 

a 4-year liberal arts university, a community college 

campus (i.e., continuing education programs, worker 

training, and industrial contract services), branch 

campuses for several foreign universities, foreign and 

domestic research institutes, and an industrial park 

where private companies could conduct research and 

development activities. Cooperating international 

institutions were eligible for mission status easing 

Sketch of reception center. (Photo by Néstor Correa)
46

International 1994, Correa and Carver 2004). Among 

the many envisioned structures and facilities are: 

•	 A reception-interpretative center and resource

library. 

•	 An amphitheater.

•	 A botanical garden.

•	 A children’s science laboratory.

•	 An animal rescue service.

•	 A butterfly compound and garden.

•	 Picnic and camping areas.

•	 Numerous hiking and interpretative nature trails.

•	 Bicycle pathways.

•	 Permanent plots for study of the forest.

•	 A cable excursion through forest canopy.

•	 A plant nursery.

•	 A recreational lagoon.

Once completed, Eco-Park will mitigate the 

effects of Canal expansion, protect fauna and flora, 

and provide needed recreational and educational 

opportunities for residents and tourists alike. Direct 

economic benefits will include employment associated 

with the construction and maintenance of the area, as 

well as increased tourism.

49. Roads and trails—hiking and bicycling 

Eco-Park has about 16 km of roads. The largest 

road encircles the property for about 8 km. The 

interior road, extending from the western boundary 

to the middle of the property, climbs to about 120-m 

elevation. Eco-Park currently has four trails totaling 

about 2.75 km. They range in length between 0.25 and 

1.35 km. Two descend drainages, one in the north and 

the other in the east. Two ascend hilltops, one in the 

center of the property and the other in the southeastern 

corner. The future design and layout of trails will 

continue to highlight the park’s natural and cultural 

resources and will include stretches of varying length 

and difficulty.

There are plans to limit vehicular traffic to 

parking areas near the entrance in order to maintain 

an outdoor ambiance, reduce congestion, and protect 

wildlife. An open trolley will move visitors within the 

park. Bicycles will be allowed to traverse the roads 

and hikers will have free use of the roads and 

trails. Road signs will indicate special attractions—

facilities, scenic views, interpretative trails, and 

interesting vegetation. 

50. A fairy tale—the lily of the Indian princess

Once upon a time there was an Indian tribe that 

lived deep in the mountains of Veraguas where they 

worked happily and adored their gods (Aguilera 

1991). Their chief was old yet renowned for his 

capacity to overcome difficulties. His only daughter 

was young and pure as lilies of the field. Many 

warriors sought her but she would marry her lover 

within a few moons. The tribe prepared for the event 

unaware that pale faces with red hair had arrived 

from afar. Then one day a column of Spaniards 

marched into the village, conquering the helpless 

tribe. “What do you want?” said the chief. “Gold,” 

replied the haughty Spanish leader. Immediately, the 

tribe surrendered all of the gold. About to leave, the 

arrogant Spaniard leader saw the chief’s beautiful 

daughter and demanded that she accompany him, 

allowing her only a couple of days to consider his 

proposition and threatening mayhem if she refused. 

Perplexed, the young maiden sought help from her 

wise father. Listening to the Spaniard’s threat and 

Main road. (Photo by Peter L. Weaver)
47

on the fourth day, about to depart, their eyes fixed 

on a beautiful white lily of pleasant aroma that had 

opened its flower at the base of the maiden’s grave. 

The chief stared at it commenting that he had never 

before seen such a flower in the region. That must 

be my daughter—she has kept her promise to return 

to us. This fascinating tale and many others from 

Panamanian folklore may stimulate the younger 

generation to better appreciate the outdoors and 

its wildlife. 

knowing the brutal nature of the invaders, her father 

devised a plan to save all involved. The chief, his 

daughter, and her loved one would depart from the 

tribe’s settlement for a distant land where nobody 

would find them. The agonizing journey, however, 

would last weeks and was filled with hazards. Once 

underway, the maiden soon fell ill and realized that 

the gods were calling her. Placed in a tranquil spot 

near a small stream, she did not survive the night. 

In the early morning hours, her companions buried 

her. For three days they deeply grieved their loss and 

Grave site of Little Princess. (Photo by Peter L. Weaver)
48

51. Another tale—Johnny and 

his mahogany bureau 

Once upon a time there was a very young boy 

named Johnny who was left alone one day at home 

(Tejeira de Venegas 1995). While intently admiring 

a sturdy and attractive bureau, he exclaimed aloud 

if somebody might tell him the name of the wood 

and where it came from. It seemed that instantly 

the bureau replied telling Johnny that its life began 

as a seed that was plucked by a bird and dropped to 

the ground in a forest opening. Within a few days 

he emerged as a thin stem to first glimpse daylight. 

Seeing tall trees all around he soon realized that with 

force from mother earth, the sun, and rain, he would 

grow into a towering giant of the forest. Time passed 

and many years later on a pleasant December day, a 

bunch of men carrying tools approached what was 

now a magnificent mahogany tree shouting that they 

had found just what they needed. Using nearby trees 

to make a ladder, they climbed the great mahogany, 

cutting off its foliage and branches with sharp axes. 

The loggers soon felled the mahogany using a saw 

with big teeth. Once on the ground, they cut the trunk 

into logs, and then they sliced the logs into several 

boards. Finally, they carried the boards to a cabinet 

maker who transformed the wood into a beautiful, 

strong, and useful piece of furniture. Hearing the 

story, little Johnny told his friend (the bureau) that he 

was thrilled to own such a beautiful piece of furniture 

although his experience had been very painful. To 

express his appreciation, Johnny promised to plant 

mahogany trees with his father and teachers to assure 

that his friend’s lineage would live on. Little Johnny’s 

fascination with an attractive and sturdy bureau tells a 

story about the most valuable timber in the world and 

sustainable forest management. 

Little Johnny and bureau. (Julie Hernández)
49

52. Conservation issues—

poachers and management

Informed sources said that poaching began the 

moment that the military departed from Rodman. 

Among the principal species being shot are the whitetailed deer (Odocoiles virginianus) and the agouti 

(Dasyprocta punctata). Other wildlife species likely 

to be shot, whether for meat or sport, include virtually 

any of Eco-Park’s larger mammals or bird species. 

Commercial or sport hunting is illegal in Panama, 

but laws regarding subsistence hunting are confusing 

and contradictory (Ibáñez and others 2002). Some 

is allowed, even in national parks, by indigenous 

groups; however, despite the laws, many residents 

near national parks hunt in them. The unauthorized

exploitation of natural resources (e.g., wildlife, trees, 

or attractive plants) threatens the one major benefit 

that Eco-Park offers the residents of downtown 

Panama City—exposure to natural forest and typical 

wildlife just across the Bridge of the Americas. The 

main management concerns for Eco-Park are:

•	 Immediate law enforcement, boundary patrol,

trespass posting, and repair of damaged fences. 

•	 The development of a comprehensive management

plan dealing with natural and cultural resources 

and existing structures (mainly bunkers and roads). 

•	 Education of the surrounding communities

regarding the objectives and benefits of Eco-Park.

•	 Continuous monitoring to estimate wildlife

diversity and population sizes (applied research).

53. Monitoring—fauna and flora

Mounting cameras in the field provides an 

inexpensive and efficient method of observing wildlife 

without harming the animals. In December 2005, 

remote control cameras were installed at 22 sites in 

Eco-Park to monitor the movements and foraging 

of mammals both day and night (Díaz 2005). The 

monitoring program, operated by personnel from 

Eco-Park, the Institute for Neotropical Conservation, 

and four professors from the Forestry and Zoology 

Departments at Southern Illinois University, was 

carried out until early May 2006. The sites, visited 

every 2 weeks, were distributed throughout the Park 

and included areas near water and food as well as 

trails where evidence of animal use was apparent. 

The cameras, programmed to photograph each 

minute once activated by animals, were to permit 

an analysis of wildlife resource use and movements 

within Eco-Park. Among the early surprises was 

a photograph of an ocelot (Leopardis pardalis), a 

species not previously recorded at Eco-Park. Other 

species recorded during the first 4 months included 

Deer seen by remote camera. (Photo by Néstor Correa)

Remote camera. (Photo by Néstor Correa)
50

agouti (Dasyprocta punctata), coati (Nasua narica), 

collared peccary (Pecari tajacu), jaguaroundi 

(Herpailurus yaguarondi), nine-banded armadillo 

(Dasypus novemcinctus), northern tamandua anteater 

(Tamandua mexicana), paca (Agouti paca), Virginia 

opossum (Didelphis virginiana), and white-tailed 

deer (Odocoileus virginianus). Future monitoring is 

planned at other sites and during different seasons to 

learn more about the mammals at Eco-Park.

The staff of Eco-Park will also establish permanent 

plots within the forest to monitor vegetation and 

familiarize visitors with the field techniques. Plot 

monitoring will provide information on species 

composition, tree size, and spatial distributions, as 

well as forest dynamics, including tree growth and 

development, ingrowth, mortality, and changes in 

species composition over time. Forest responses to 

severe climatic events such as major windstorms 

or prolonged droughts will also be evident. Plot 

monitoring also provides the basis for specialized 

ecological studies such as tree life histories, and 

flowering and fruiting patterns. Sufficient data will 

allow researchers to model changes over time and 

compare the results with monitored forests elsewhere. 

54. Wild animal rescue service—

hawk-eagle and margay 

Until quite recently, Panama had no center for the 

rehabilitation of injured or abandoned wild animals. 

In December 2005, a wild animal rescue service was 

begun at Eco-Park, where limited facilities are now 

available for the temporary confinement and care of 

some wildlife. Among the first animals to be admitted 

were a titi monkey (Saguinus oedipus geoffroyi), a 

northern tamandua anteater (Tamandua mexicana), 

two-toed sloths (Choloepus didaytylis), a small boa 

Hawk-eagle rescue. (Photo by Peter L. Weaver)
51

constrictor (Boa constrictor), a black-and-white 

hawk-eagle (Spizastur melanoleucus), and a margay 

(Leopardus weidii). 

The hawk-eagle, ranging from Mexico to northern 

Bolivia, is still fairly common in secondary forests 

near the Canal, often seen flying high even at mid-day 

(Ridgely and Gwynne 1989). The margay, sometimes 

called “tree ocelot,” ranges from Mexico to east and 

central Brazil, and northern Argentina. Dwelling 

mainly in trees, their flexible ankle joints allow them 

to run head first down tree trunks. Future plans for 

the animal rescue program call for improved facilities 

and the regular assignment of a veterinarian. The main 

goal will be to prepare all animals for release back 

into the wild as soon as convenient. 

55. Bats and bunkers—a possible 

student adventure

Bats, comprising about 1,000 species worldwide, 

constitute nearly one quarter of all known mammals; 

moreover, tropical America has the greatest ecological 

diversity of bats and probably the greatest bat 

densities and biomass as well (Findley 1993). A few 

years ago, the white bat (Declidurus albus), a species 

that feeds in the forest canopy and has been found 

only seven times in Panama during the past 100 years, 

was reported at Eco-Park, (Tejera and others 1999). 

Bats forage at night using echolocation to find food. 

They are voracious predators of night flying insects 

as some examples will illustrate. A single little brown 

bat (Myotis luciferus), a species native to the state 

of Michigan in the United States, can catch as many 

as 600 mosquito-sized insects in an hour (Tuttle and 

Taylor 1994). In Arizona, a colony of 25 million 

Mexican free-tailed bats (Tadarinda brasiliensis) 

inhabiting caves consume between 100 and 200 tons 

of agricultural pests each night. Other bat species 

are believed to be important as pollinators and seed 

dispersers for as many as 60 species of agave plants. 

Recently it was discovered that the giant noctule 

bat (Nyctalus lasiopterus) not only feeds on insects 

but also birds that migrate across the Mediterranean 

Sea (Milius 2007). Hawks, owls, and snakes, prey 

on bats, often as they enter and leave their roosts. 

The Jamaican fruit-eating bat (Artibeus jamaicensis) 

and Seba’s short-tailed bat (Carollia perspicillata) 

are the most common species at Eco-Park (Fleming 

and others 1972). Bats would be inconspicuous to 

Eco-Park visitors during the day when they roost in 

hollow logs, on the undersurfaces of branches and 

leaves, or on the ceilings of the bunkers. This latter 

habit provides an opportunity for Eco-Park managers 

to convert one or more of the many bunkers into small 

observatories where bat colonies could be easily seen 

by visitors or students. 

56. Ecotourism—the master 

plan and Panama’s future

Historically, Panama’s tourist industry has not 

benefited from its greatest resource—the Panama 

Canal—a point vividly shown by the fact that as of 

2001, none of the cruise ships that annually traverse 

the Canal stop at Panamanian ports (Casado 2001). 

This lack of tourism has been due in part to the 

Nation’s heavy dependence on income generated 

directly or indirectly by an American presence. 

As part of the master plan for the development of 

tourism, the Panamanian government directed all 

entities to develop new attractions and destinations, 

and a new infrastructure and workforce to handle the 

anticipated demands. The nine new tourism areas 

range from La Amistad along the Costa Rican border 

to San Blas and the Daríen near the Colombian 

border. An area designated as “Metropolitana” will 

highlight attractions in Panama City and the Canal 

corridor. Eco-Park, with its location just across 

the Canal from Panama City, is an integral part of 

the plan, designed mainly to satisfy some of the 

Nation’s internal demand for tourism but also to 

attract foreign visitors. The park’s objectives are 

compatible with ecotourism that aims to promote 

conservation, enhance community development, and 

generate a national economic benefit (Lieberknecht 

and others 1999). The strategy includes determining Bunkers. (Photo by Néstor Correa)
52

Eco-Park’s carrying capacity, monitoring both 

the program and physical environment, using the 

existing infrastructure in innovative ways, working 

with the domestic workforce and local communities, 

reinvesting a portion of the profits in the park’s natural 

resources, and cooperating with interested entities 

(the government, NGOs, community organizations, 

academic institutions, and students).

57. Native handicrafts—baskets, 

wood carvings, molas, and taguas

Nearly 10 percent of Panama’s total population 

is composed of indigenous groups, some of whom 

are renowned as artisans. Perhaps the most famous 

artisans are the Emberá-Wounan of the Darién, a 

group once collectively known as Chocó, who make 

baskets, wood carvings, and taguas; and the Kuna 

along the Caribbean coast who produce molas. All 

of these handicrafts are prized worldwide for their 

intricate detail. 

Baskets. Hard and durable hand-woven baskets 

originated in the Darién province where they were 

apparently used for storing curative plants and objects 

of value. The baskets are fashioned using the fine 

fibers of the black palm (Astrocarpum standleyanum), 

which are sewn over coils of the palm-like Naguala 

(Carludovica palmata). Traditionally, the baskets 

contained little adornment. About 25 years ago, 

the artisans began using dyes to produce baskets 

with more elaborate and colorful designs that soon 

caught the attention of collectors in the United 

States and Europe. The weaving tradition, handed 

down from mother to daughter, has today made the 

Wounaan women famous as Panama’s most gifted 

basket weavers.

Carvings. Wood carvings, many depicting animal 

species, are fashioned from Rosewood (Dalbergia 

retusa), a tree species locally called Cocobolo. The 

wood is prized for its highly figured grain as well as 

Birdwatchers in Eco-Park. (Photo by Néstor Correa)
53

Baskets.

its rich, orange-red color which diminishes 

after exposure to air and sunlight. 

Rosewood’s natural oils help to waterproof 

the wood and give it a waxy appearance 

when rubbed. The species also provides 

dark dyes used in staining the fine fibers 

of the black palm for basket making.

Tagua. “Vegetable ivory” is another 

name for the palm seed known as tagua

(Phytelepus seemanii). Artisans carve the 

hard and durable seeds with hand tools into 

buttons and various figurines of plants and animals 

typical of the tropical forest. The figurines are often 

painted. Tagua harvests are sustainable because the 

seeds are easily collected at the base of the trees 

where they fall. 

Molas. A traditional costume of Kuna women, molas 

are cloth panels with complex designs that are made 

into clothing (blouses, scarves, or skirts), or sewn 

onto other fabrics, or perhaps even displayed as art. 

Handmade molas highlight animals, mountains, and 

traditional themes from Kuna legends and culture. 

An individual mola, mainly in black, orange, and red 

colors, may take up to 6 months to produce. 

(Photos by Gerald P. Bauer and Peter L. Weaver)

Tagua.

Mola.

Wood carvings.
54

58. Cruise ship tourists and 

the Panama Canal watershed

At the beginning of the 21st century, tourism 

worldwide represented about 6 percent of the global 

gross national product and employed more than 

130 million people (Thurau 2004). In addition to 

economic benefits, the tourism industry has helped 

increase environmental awareness, and promoted the 

conservation of forest and wildlife natural areas. The 

Panama Canal and its watershed encompass nearly 

290,000 ha, about one-half of which are protected in 

heavily-forested national parks. At the northwestern 

entrance is San Lorenzo National Park with its diverse 

flora and fauna, and legacy of Spanish conquest, 

fortune seekers, pirates, and building of the Panama 

Railroad and Canal (Weaver and Bauer 2004, Weaver 

and others 2003). At the southwestern entrance is EcoPark with its diverse flora and fauna, family-oriented 

outdoor activities, and proximity to much of Panama’s 

urban population. 

Cruise ship tourists passing through the Panama 

Canal recently indicated several key motivations for 

their travel—among them exposure to cultural and 

historical experiences, tours of historical sites, outdoor 

sports, wildlife viewing and bird watching, and 

security during family travel (Thurau 2004). Eco-Park 

with its past military history, and proposed facilities 

such as a visitors information center, butterfly garden, 

numerous trails for walking and bicycling, picnic 

and recreation areas, and animal rescue center, all 

surrounded by tropical forest, can be an adventurous 

stop for many of the Canal’s short-term visitors. 

59. Status of the Panama Canal 

watershed in the new millennium

The forests of the Panama Canal watershed are 

critical from the standpoint of the flora and fauna that 

they protect and the water resources that they provide. 

The canal watershed covers about 2,900 km2 (Condit 

and others 2001). In 1998, 54 percent of the total area 

was in forest and 43 percent in pasture or shrubs. The 

difference is important because the natural forests 

generally don’t burn, and degraded areas are subject 

to fires. Tree diversity along the Canal gradient from 

the dry Pacific shores to the humid Atlantic coast 

is as rich as any place in the world, and the Canal 

watershed—with 1,700 to 2,300 species—appears to 

contain about 60–70 percent of the total recorded for 

the entire country. Bird species in the Canal watershed 

total about 650, an amazing two-thirds of the entire 

Panamanian avifauna. The number was tallied in an 

area of only 1000 km2, making the Canal Area one of 

Cruise ship in Panama Canal. (Photo by Gerald P. Bauer)
55

the richest in the world (Robinson an others 2004). 

Moreover, 93 species of amphibians, or slightly 

more than one-half of the country’s total, have been 

reported in the Canal watershed. The total runoff from 

the Canal watershed is 4.4 billion cubic meters of 

water per year. About 60 percent of the total runoff is 

used annually to fill the locks as ships pass through 

the Canal—37 times each day, or about 13,500 times 

per year. An additional 27 percent is used to generate 

electricity, and about 0.6 percent is purified for 

drinking water. 

60. Major partners of Eco-Park—

domestic and international

Eco-Park has numerous friends and supporters 

interested in ensuring the protection and sustainable 

use of its natural and cultural resources. The National 

Environmental Authority (ANAM) is responsible 

for Panama’s system of protected areas through an 

inter-institutional agreement with the Interoceanic 

Regional Authority (ARI), the Panamanian Institute of 

Culture (INAC), and the Panamanian Tourist Institute 

(IPAT). The staff is working in cooperation with the 

Canal watershed poster. (STRI Files)
56

Panamanian Rotary Club (Northeast), whose mission 

is to serve the community through development of 

social programs and projects (Carver and others 

2007). Animal monitoring is carried out with the help 

of the Panamanian Association for Conservation and 

Southern Illinois University’s Institute for Neotropical 

Conservation. Other international cooperators include 

Spain’s Association GAIA for the Conservation 

and Management of Biodiversity, Southern Illinois 

University’s Forestry Geo-Spatial and Economic 

Analysis Lab, and the Forest Service, U.S. 

Department of Agriculture’s International Institute 

of Tropical Forestry in Puerto Rico. Cooperative 

activities with numerous local groups, including 

NGOs, the University of Panama, high schools, 

museums, and others, will be developed over time. 

61. Protecting the Canal—

every Panamanian’s job 

Statements made regarding the importance of forest 

conservation within the Canal watershed are poignant. 

The title of one article reads, “Deforestation: death 

to the Panama Canal” (Wadsworth 1978, page 22). 

Another article states that, “Panama is a small Central 

American country but it operates a big Canal and the 

world keeps an eye on developments there. Problems 

with the Canal or ecological disasters in its watershed 

would attract a lot of attention.” (Condit and others 

2001, page 389). Extensive forests are still found 

within the Canal watershed, largely because of past 

military and shipping interests; however, at the same 

time, the watershed is adjacent to a large and growing 

metropolitan area. The population of the Panama 

Canal watershed, 22,000 in 1950, grew to 77,000 in 

1980, and 113,000 in 1990 (Ibáñez and others 2002). 

Cooperators. (Photo by Néstor Correa)
57

Similarly, in 1980 there were 43 communities with 

1,100 residents living inside national parks; by 1990, 

that population had increased to 2,800, due in large 

part to immigration. 

Forest within the Canal watershed won’t be 

destroyed over night. Rather, the fear is that 

population pressures will remove the forest a few 

trees at a time—a clearing here, a road there, and 

buildings someplace else. The Canal watershed is not 

the place for agriculture or urban expansion. Such 

activities will have negative impacts within the Canal 

watershed by increasing sediment loads, reducing the 

water holding capacity of the soil and reservoirs, and 

altering the flow of water over time. These impacts 

would be noticeable during the dry season, and could 

become critical during periods of prolonged drought. 

Uncontrolled activity would also have a negative 

impact on Panama’s future options for management 

within the Canal watershed.

62. Future of Eco-Park and the Panama Canal

 The Canal is Panama’s treasure and every 

Panamanian benefits from it. Likewise, protecting the 

Canal watershed is a national concern (HeckadonMoreno and others 1999). 

Signing the Canal Treaty. (ACP Archives)

Sunset through branches. 

(Photo by Néstor Correa)
58

Acknowledgments

Several people provided valuable assistance in the 

development of this work, including scientists from 

the Smithsonian Tropical Research Institute (STRI), 

its library staff, and collaborators Annette Aiello, 

Angel Aguirre, Ricardo Beteta, Marcos Guerra, 

Apolinar Guerrero, Stanley Heckadon, Steve Paton, 

Elizabeth Sánchez, Neil Smith, Henry P. Stockwell, 

and Christian Ziegler (photographs 30 and 38); 

Technical Resources Center for the Panama Canal 

Authority (ACP) library staff members Rolando 

Cochez, Francia Herrera, and Gisela Lamments 

van Bueren; National Institute of Culture (INAC) 

investigator Adrian Mora; independent investigator 

Charlotte Elton; and knowledgeable Canal Zone 

historians Dolores de Mena, Charles Morris Brooks, 

and Julia L. Webster. Néstor Correa and Yiscel 

Yángüez of the Asociación Panamericana para la 

Conservación (APPA) provided assistance and many 

of the photos. Helpful reviews or comments were 

provided by Andrew Carver of Southern Illinois 

University, and Kathleen McGinley and Frank H. 

Wadsworth of the International Institute of Tropical 

Forestry. The text figures were completed by Maya 

Quiñones of the Landscape Ecology program at 

the International Institute of Tropical Forestry in 

Río Piedras, Puerto Rico. This work was done in 

cooperation with the University of Puerto Rico at 

Río Piedras. 

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63

Appendix A

Chronology of events associated with Eco-Park (formerly Rodman Ammunition 

Supply Point) and surrounding areas in Panama1

Year Event

300 Indians occupy nearby shoreline (Venado Beach, Far Fan, and Punta Brujas).

1492 Panama is occupied by 60 Indian groups totaling about 1 million. 

1513 Balboa claims the South Sea (Pacific Ocean) from a headland (possibly Punta Brujas) for Spain.

1514 Spanish settlers first arrived in Panama.

1518 Balboa discovers the Pearl Islands in the Gulf of Panama.

1519 First European settlement on the Pacific coast of the Americas is founded in 1519 at old Panama 

(Panama la Vieja).

1530s

Pizarro conquers Peru and Panama becomes the portage between the oceans. Las Cruces Trail 

from Panama City to the Chagres River and on to San Lorenzo is first established and its use 

continues through the days of the 1849 California gold rush.

1671 The buccaneer Henry Morgan sacks Panama City and returns to Fort San Lorenzo on a route 

just east of Eco-Park (formerly Rodman Munitions Depot).

1673 Panama City (Casco Antiguo) is rebuilt at a new site closer to the current canal and Eco-Park

1848 California “gold rush” attracts first isthmian transients between Chagres and Panama City

1849 Steamboat service begins from Panama City to San Francisco 

1855 The railroad across the isthmus of Panama, started in 1850, is completed.

1870s

Baron Godin de Lepinay proposes a lock canal for Panama, including dams on the Rio Chagres 

(Atlantic) and Rio Grande (Pacific), a scheme that would reduce excavation, construction costs, 

and time.

1880 Construction of Panama Canal begins under Ferdinand de Lesseps (French) but the effort is 

abandoned in 1889.

1898 Spanish-American War highlights the inability of the United States to move ships from the 

Pacific to the Atlantic rapidly.

1903 Panama declares independence from Colombia on November 3 and the United States recognizes 

the new Republic on November 6.

1904 In May, the United States begins to build the Panama Canal. 

1904 William Crawford Gorgas begins work as chief sanitary officer in the Canal Zone.

1905 John F. Stevens allows William C. Gorgas to implement a campaign to eradicate mosquitoes, 

known vectors in the transmission of yellow fever and malaria.

1906 On November 9, President Theodore Roosevelt visits Panama to inspect progress on the 

construction of the Panama Canal.

1909 Construction of bridge or tunnel across the Panama Canal is first considered, and the topic 

surfaces again in 1913, 1929, 1937, and between 1942 and 1954.

1914 On August 15, Admiral Hugh Rodman traverses the canal aboard the Ancon. 

1920 Construction on Fort Clayton (today called Cuidad del Saber) begins.

1920s Navy begins looking for land at the Pacific terminus of the Canal to build an operating base.

continued
64

Appendix A (continued)

Chronology of events associated with Eco-Park (formerly Rodman Ammunition 

Supply Point) and surrounding areas in Panama1

Year Event

1923 Paul Carpenter Standley collects plants in the Canal Zone, and in 1927 and 1928 publishes 

books on the flora of Barro Colorado Island and the Canal Zone.

1932 On May 19, license is granted to Navy Department for the construction of west bank navy 

facilities, work which is started in 1935 and is completed around 1937.

1932

Ferry service at Pedro Miguel locks is transferred to Balboa at the Pacific entrance of the canal, 

and a short stretch of road designated as Thatcher Highway is built from the western ferry slip 

(called Thatcher Ferry) to the western Canal Zone boundary, where it connects with Panama’s 

national highway.

1932 Isthmian Canal Commission reserves the Corozal cemetery for veterans and others associated 

with the construction and operation of the Panama Canal.

1939 A third set of canal locks is begun along with the development of large military installations 

(later part of Rodman) on the west bank of the Canal.

1940 Ferry service is initiated across Miraflores Lake and continues through mid-1942.

1942 The Miraflores swing bridge over the Canal opens and continues to serve until 1962. 

1943 Balboa Navy Base is built to provide fuel, provisions, and maintenance to military ships that 

traverse the Canal.

1944 Alexander Wetmore begins 22 years of studies on the avifauna of Panama resulting in the 

publication of four volumes on Panama’s bird species between 1965 and 1984.

1948 Navy bulldozers uncover archaeological remains at Venado Beach.

1950 In February, Balboa Navy Base is renamed Rodman to honor Admiral Hugh Rodman.

1955 The Remon-Eisenhower Treaty includes the construction of a bridge over the Canal.

1962 On October 12, the Thatcher Ferry Bridge (today, the Bridge of the Americas) is dedicated, 

replacing the Miraflores swing bridge. 

1962 In October, personnel at Rodman cooperate with the U.S. fleet during the Cuban missile crisis.

1977 Torrijos-Carter Treaty, signed on September 7, outlines reversion of the Canal Zone to Panama, 

including 7,000 military and civilian buildings.

1980s The government of Panama adopts numerous environmental measures to protect the Panama 

Canal watershed. 

1989 On December 20, “Operation Just Cause” is launched and frogmen depart from Rodman to 

cross the Panama Canal and incapacitate Noriega’s yacht.

1990 On January 31, 1990, “Just Cause” ends.

1992-3 The Bruja Road is widened and a cloverleaf intersection is built just west of the Bridge of the 

Americas.

1998 A law creates a private foundation to transform part of Fort Clayton into a center of excellence 

in science, technology, and innovation—the City of Knowledge. continued
65

Appendix A (continued)

Chronology of events associated with Eco-Park (formerly Rodman Ammunition 

Supply Point) and surrounding areas in Panama1

Year Event

1999 On March 11, the symbolic key to Rodman Base is given to Panamanian President Ernesto 

Perez Ballardes by Navy Fleet Admiral Paul Reason.

1999 In April, the U.S. Navy officially departs from Rodman.

2001 The Panama Canal Railway begins coast to coast service.

2004

Eco-Park is created by two resolutions of the Interoceanic Regional Authority (ARI); ARI 

selects the Rotary Club (Nordeste), a local civic organization, to serve as trustee of the land; 

the Rotary Club, in turn, enlists the PanAmerican Conservation Association (APPC), the 

International Institute of Tropical Forestry (IITF), and the Institute for Neotropical Conservation 

to assist in conservation land management.

2005 Eco-Park press releases inform the public regarding park objectives and activities. 

2006 From January to May, mounted remote cameras detect the presence of mammals previously 

unknown from Eco-Park.

2006 Panamanian public votes to enlarge the Panama Canal.

1

Sources: Chong 1984, Congressional Research Service Library of Congress 1997, Conte-Porras and Castillero L. 1998, 

Enscore and Webster 1997, Weaver and others 2003.
66

Appendix B

Various groups associated with Eco-Park in Panama

Groups from Panama 

Autoridad del Canal de Panamá (ACP) ... The Panama Canal Authority

Autoridad Maritima de Panamá (AMP) ... National Maritime Authority

Autoridad Nacional del Ambiente (ANAM) ... National Environmental Authority

Autoridad de la Región Interoceánica (ARI) ... Interoceanic Regional Authority 

Club Rotario Panamá Nordeste ... Panama Rotary Club (Northeast)

Fundación Natura ... Natura Foundation

Instituto Panameño de Turismo (IPAT) ... Panamanian Tourism Institute

La Asociación Panamericana para la Conservación ... Panamerican 

Conservation Association

Sociedad Audubón de Panama ... Panama Audubon Society 

Tucán Country Club

Groups from Spain

La Asociación GAIA para la Conservación y Gestión de la Biodiversidad

Groups from the United States

Institute for Neotropical Conservation (Southern Illinois University)

Smithsonian Tropical Research Institute (STRI)

U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, International Institute 

of Tropical Forestry (IITF)

U.S. Peace Corps


Weaver, Peter L. 2009. Panama Eco-Park: a protected urban forest. Gen. Tech.Rep. 

IITF-41. San Juan, PR: U.S. Department of Agriculture Forest Service, International 

Institute of Tropical Forestry. 66 p.

Eco-Park and surrounding areas located near the Pacific or southern entrance to the 

Panama Canal have a long history involving pre-Columbian inhabitants, Spanish 

conquistadors, pirates, and Panamanian natives and immigrants associated with 

the construction and operation of the Panama Railroad and Canal. Some major 

20th century events included Panamanian independence from Colombia, building 

of the Balboa Naval Station (later called Rodman Naval Station), construction of 

the Bridge of the Americas (formerly Thatcher Bridge), the Torrijos-Carter Treaty 

and, subsequently, the U.S. departure from Panama. Eco-Park is dominated by a 

semideciduous seasonal mixed forest. A plant survey carried out in that forest type for 

Eco-Park and nearby military bases (i.e., Howard, Rodman, and Kobbe together called 

HOROKO) revealed 378 species, 97 genera, and 82 families. An animal survey carried 

out in the same forest type disclosed 260 species, including 40 mammals, 19 reptiles, 

13 amphibians, and 188 birds (39 migratory and 149 residents). In summary, EcoPark and surrounding areas have a fascinating history and a diverse flora and fauna. 

Moreover, being situated near Panama City and along the Canal route, Eco-Park and 

surrounding areas offer numerous outdoor recreational opportunities for Panamanian 

residents and Canal Area visitors. Eco-Park, beginning as a fascinating idea, was made 

into reality through the dedicated efforts of both local and international groups. 

Keywords: Eco-Park, education, fauna, flora, historical chronology, Panama Canal. 
70

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