The Commuting Patterns of Older Workers:

2013–2017

American Community Survey Reports

By Michael Burrows, Charlynn Burd, Adam Smith, Wan He, and Brian McKenzie 

Issued November 2020

ACS-45

U.S. Department of Commerce

U.S. CENSUS BUREAU

census.gov

U.S. Department of Health and Human Services

National Institutes of Health

NATIONAL INSTITUTE ON AGING
Acknowledgments This report was prepared by Michael Burrows, Charlynn Burd, Adam 

Smith, Wan He, and Brian McKenzie, under the direction of Oliver 

Fischer, Assistant Division Chief for International Programs, Population 

Division (POP). Karen Battle, Chief of POP provided overall direction. Additional direction was provided by Stephanie Galvin, Assistant 

Division Chief for Social Characteristics, Social, Economic & Housing 

Statistics Division (SEHSD).

Research for and production of this report were partly supported under 

an interagency agreement with the Division of Behavioral and Social 

Research (BSR), National Institute on Aging (NIA), Dana Plude, Deputy 

Director.

The authors are grateful to Benjamin Bolender, POP, Matthew 

Marlay, James Kent Pugh, and Amy Steinweg, SESHD, for their thorough review, data verification, and other general report preparation. 

Reviewers from NIA provided valuable comments and constructive 

suggestions: Lisa J. Molnar, University of Michigan; and an anonymous 

reviewer. Michael D. Starsinic, Decennial Statistical Studies Division, 

provided the statistical review. 

Steven A. Brown and Andrew Quach provided publication management, graphics design and composition, and editorial review for print 

and electronic media under the direction of Janet Sweeney, Chief of the 

Graphic and Editorial Services Branch, Public Information Office. The 

Census Bureau’s Administrative and Customer Services Division provided printing management.
The Commuting Patterns of Older

 Workers: 2013–2017

American Community Survey Reports

Issued November 2020

ACS-45

U.S. Department of Commerce 

Wilbur Ross,

Secretary

Karen Dunn Kelley,

Deputy Secretary

U.S. CENSUS BUREAU

Steven Dillingham,

Director
Suggested Citation

Michael Burrows, Charlynn Burd, 

Adam Smith, Wan He, and 

Brian McKenzie

U.S. Census Bureau,

 American Community 

Survey Reports, 

ACS-45,

The Commuting Patterns of Older 

Workers: 2013-2017,

U.S. Government Printing Office, 

Washington, DC, 

November 2020.

U.S. CENSUS BUREAU

Steven Dillingham,

Director

Ron S. Jarmin,

Deputy Director and 

Chief Operating Officer

Victoria A. Velkoff, 

Associate Director 

for Demographic Programs

Karen Battle,

Chief, Population Division
U.S. Census Bureau v

Contents Introduction  .

Workforce Composition  

Age and Commuting. .

Commuting Burden  

Geographic Variation. 

Disability Status  

Earnings  

Race and Hispanic Origin. .

Summary and Discussion  .

Source of the Estimates  .

Accuracy of the Estimates  .

References  .

Appendix Tables  .
This page is intentionally blank.
U.S. Census Bureau 1

INTRODUCTION

The population in the United 

States is aging rapidly. From 2008 

to 2017, the U.S. population aged 

65 and older grew by 31 percent, 

from 38.8 million in 2008 to 

50.8 million in 2017 (U.S. Census 

Bureau, 2019). In contrast, the 

total population grew 6.9 percent 

during the same time period. The 

disproportionate increase of the 

older population is in part associated with the generation of Baby 

Boomers, who began turning age 

65 in 2011.1

Baby Boomers’ impact on the 

U.S. population age structure is 

also reflected in the changing 

age composition of the nation’s 

workforce. In 2017, Baby Boomers 

were between 53 and 71 years 

of age. In contrast to declining 

labor force participation among 

the population aged 16 and older 

between 2008 and 2017, labor 

force participation rates increased 

for the older population (Table 1). 

Coupled with the flooding of Baby 

Boomers into the ranks of the 

older population, the labor force 

aged 55 and older as a share of 

all workers grew from 17.7 percent 

in 2008 to 22.1 percent in 2017 

(Table 1); this trend is projected 

to continue in the next several 

decades (Kromer and Howard, 

2013; Toossi, 2012, 2016).

1

 The Baby Boomers in the United States 

include people born from mid-1946 to 1964. 

This post World War II baby boom resulted 

in one of the largest generations in 

U.S. history.

DEFINITION OF OLDER WORKERS IN THIS REPORT

In this report, older workers are defined as those aged 55 and 

older who report to work. Age 55 is a commonly used threshold in labor market analyses and an age after which labor force 

participation begins to decline markedly. The analysis is further 

stratified to differentiate workers who are 65 years and older to 

account for workers who continue to work beyond traditional 

retirement ages. This more advanced age threshold is common 

in the transportation literature (for examples, see Alsnih and 

Hensher, 2003; Horner, Schleith, and Widener, 2015).

In the interest of presenting more detailed patterns within the 

oldest group of workers, limited additional statistics for workers aged 65–74 and 75 and older are also provided. In Tables 1, 2, 

A-1, and A-3, we look specifically at workers aged 75 and older, 

a group likely to experience a unique set of conditions meriting 

additional analysis. The report’s main analysis includes workers 

aged 16 and older. It also further separates the under 55 workforce into age groups of 16–24 and 25–54 to facilitate comparisons between older and younger workers.

Table 1. 

Labor Force Participation by Selected Age Group: 2008 to 2017

(For information on confidentiality protection, sampling error, nonsampling error, 

and definitions, see <www.census.gov/acs/>)

Year 16 and 

older

55 and 

older 55 to 64 65 to 74

75 and 

older

Percentage in Labor Force

2008. . . . . . . . . . . . 

2009. . . . . . . . . . . . 

2010. . . . . . . . . . . . 

2011. . . . . . . . . . . . 

2012. . . . . . . . . . . . 

2013. . . . . . . . . . . . 

2014. . . . . . . . . . . . 

2015. . . . . . . . . . . . 

2016. . . . . . . . . . . . 

2017. . . . . . . . . . . . 

Share of Total Labor Force

2008. . . . . . . . . . . . 

2009. . . . . . . . . . . . 

2010. . . . . . . . . . . . 

2011. . . . . . . . . . . . 

2012. . . . . . . . . . . . 

2013. . . . . . . . . . . . 

2014. . . . . . . . . . . . 

2015. . . . . . . . . . . . 

2016. . . . . . . . . . . . 

2017. . . . . . . . . . . . 

Notes: Labor force participation=“in labor force,” including those currently not at work 

or unemployed. Shares of “55 to 64,” “65 to 74,” and “75 and older” may not sum to the percentages in “55 and older” due to rounding.

Corresponding margins of error are presented in Appendix Table 1.

Source: U.S. Census Bureau, 2008 to 2017 American Community Survey 1-Year Estimates.
2 U.S. Census Bureau

Officials, 2015; McGuckin and 

Fucci, 2018). Recent surveys 

suggest that travel patterns are 

different among older people. 

Although the average number of 

trips taken by people declined 

overall between 2009 and 2017, 

the average number of trips was 

unchanged for people 65 years 

and older over the same period 

of time (McGuckin and Fucci, 

2018). The increasing share of 

older workers in the workforce 

means that this subpopulation has 

a growing capacity to influence 

overall commuting trends, and 

is of ever greater interest to the 

transportation community.

This report covers work-related 

travel trends and patterns, with a 

focus on older workers. It presents an overview of commuting patterns of older workers 

and a comparison with those of 

younger workers, primarily using 

data from American Community 

Survey (ACS) 5-year estimates 

collected between 2013 and 2017.3

The report begins with a review 

of employment trends using 10 

years of ACS 1-year data, while the 

larger ACS 5-year sample allows 

for analyses of specific population 

subgroups for the entire United 

3 The U.S. Census Bureau reviewed this 

data product for unauthorized disclosure of 

confidential information and approved the 

disclosure avoidance practices applied to 

this release. CBDRB-FY20-POP001-0056.

The increased participation of 

older people in America’s workforce raises questions about this 

subpopulation’s commuting patterns and how they differ from 

their younger counterparts. Do 

older workers, like the rest of the 

American workforce, mostly drive 

alone to work? Is the average 

commute time of older workers longer or shorter than that of 

younger workers?2 What other 

means of transportation do older 

workers use, especially those 

with a disability? Among older 

workers, does commuting differ 

by socioeconomic-demographic 

characteristics such as race and 

ethnicity, or income? Research 

shows that commuting, especially 

having a long commute, is associated with stress and other negative subjective well-being outcomes (Crabtree, 2010; Stone and 

Schneider, 2016; Chatterjee et al., 

2020). Answers to these questions 

will shed light on older workers’ 

well-being. Understanding the 

needs and constraints of older 

workers also informs local transportation planning and policy 

decisions.

Work-related transportation 

makes up around one-third of 

weekday trips in the United States 

and roughly one-fifth of all trips 

taken (American Association of 

State Highway and Transportation 

2 In this report, “average travel 

time” and “mean travel time” are used 

interchangeably.

States as well as some smaller 

geographic subdivisions.4, 5

The report begins with an examination of the age composition 

of the workforce and moves on 

to investigate age differences in 

commuting behaviors, including 

means of transportation to work 

and several measures of commuting burden for workers. The report 

also analyzes geographic variation 

in commuting behaviors by comparing patterns across community 

types.6 Next, the report considers commuting patterns among 

workers with a disability. Lastly, 

the report analyzes variation in 

commuting patterns by levels of 

earnings and by racial and ethnic 

groups, two important factors 

in labor force composition that 

change between age groups.

All comparative statements in this 

report have undergone statistical 

testing. In accordance with most 

Census Bureau data products, 

comparisons indicate differences 

statistically significant at the 90 

percent level unless otherwise 

noted.

4 Estimates for Puerto Rico are not 

included in this report. 5 See <www.census.gov/programs

-survey/acs/guidance/estimates.html> for 

more detail on the differences between 

American Community Survey 1-year and 

5-year estimates. 6 The community types in this analysis 

include principal cities of metropolitan 

(metro) areas, within metro areas outside of 

principal cities, and outside of metro areas. 

“Outside of metro areas” includes micropolitan and nonmetropolitan areas.
U.S. Census Bureau 3

WORKFORCE COMPOSITION

Over the past decade, older workers have made up an increasingly 

large proportion of the overall 

workforce. According to ACS 

1-year estimates, the share of 

workers aged 55 and older among 

the total labor force increased 

from 17.7 percent in 2008 to 22.1 

percent in 2017 (Figure 1). This 

increase coincides with an aging 

population and rising percentages 

of the older population remaining 

in the labor force. Of the population aged 55 to 64, 61.3 percent 

were at work in 2017, up from 60.4 

percent in 2008 (Appendix Table 

1). Of the population aged 65 to 

74, the percentage at work rose 

from 23.0 to 24.4 percent over the 

same time period, and from 5.3 to 

6.3 percent for those aged 75 and 

older.

While 10-year trends convey 

broad changes in the age composition of the workforce, certain 

selected characteristics can be 

presented in more detail using 

ACS 5-year estimates collected 

from 2013 to 2017. During this survey period, a larger share of older 

men than older women were at 

work. For example, 65.1 percent of 

men aged 55 to 64 were at work 

during this period, over 9 percentage points higher than the 55.9 

percent observed among women 

(Appendix Table 2). Among workers 65 and older, 20.4 percent of 

men were at work compared to 

13.1 percent of women.

In addition to sex, other aspects 

of the workforce also changed 

with age, including the racial and 

ethnic composition. Non-Hispanic 

White workers accounted for 61.6 

percent of the workforce aged 25 

to 54, but 74.0 percent of workers 

55 to 64 and 79.4 percent of the 

workforce 65 and older (Appendix 

Table 7a).7,8 In the sense that they 

represent an increasingly large 

proportion of older workers, nonHispanic White workers predominate the older workforce.

7 In this report, the race group of White 

alone, not Hispanic or Latino is referred to 

as non-Hispanic White; Black or African 

American alone, not Hispanic or Latino is 

referred to as non-Hispanic Black; Asian 

alone, not Hispanic or Latino is referred to 

as non-Hispanic Asian. 8 For the total population during the 

same period of 2013–2017, regardless of 

labor force participation status, the nonHispanic White alone population accounted 

for 54.3 percent of those aged 16 to 24, 

59.7 percent of those aged 25–54, 72.6 percent of those aged 55–64, and 77.7 percent 

of those aged 65 and older (U.S. Census 

Bureau, American Community Survey, 

2013–2017).

Educational attainment is positively associated with older 

people’s workforce participation (Appendix Table 2). Among 

people 55 to 64 years of age, 70.9 

percent of those with a bachelor’s degree or higher were at 

work during the 2013–2017 survey period, compared with 42.1 

percent of people in the same 

age group without a high school 

degree. Among those 65 years 

and older, almost a quarter (24.1 

percent) of those with a bachelor’s degree or higher were still 

at work, compared to fewer than 

about 1 in 10 (8.5 percent) without 

a high school degree.

Figure 1.

Percentage Aged 55 and Older of Labor Force by Age: 

2008 to 2017

Note: All members of the labor force are aged 16 and older.

Source: U.S. Census Bureau, American Community Survey 1-Year Estimates, 2008 to 2017.

8

14

17

55–64

2008

(For information on confidentiality protection, sampling error, nonsampling 

error, and definitions, see <www.census.gov/acs/>)

Percent

0

5

10

15

20

25

2009 2010 2011 2012 2013 2014 2015 2016 2017

65–74

75+
4 U.S. Census Bureau

AGE AND COMMUTING

The ACS asks respondents several 

questions about work and workrelated travel, including a question 

about how respondents get to 

work (Figure 2).9 People who use 

different means of transportation 

on different days of the week are 

asked to specify the one mode 

of transportation they used most 

often. People who use more than 

one mode of transportation to 

get to work each day are asked 

to report the one used for the 

longest distance during the work 

trip.10

The majority of U.S. workers drive 

to work alone, and survey data 

in recent years have suggested 

small but statistically detectable 

shifts in commuting behavior by 

age (McKenzie, 2015). During the 

2013–2017 period, 76.4 percent of 

all workers drove to work alone 

(Table 2). Among the youngest 

group of workers (aged 16 to 24), 

70.5 percent drove alone, compared with 76.9 percent of those 

aged 25 to 54, and 79.4 percent 

of workers 55 to 64 years of age.11

Workers aged 65 and older (76.5 

percent) were less likely to drive 

9 Commutes may involve multiple transportation modes, but ACS respondents are 

restricted to indicating the single mode 

used for the longest distance. 10 Some means of transportation are 

uncommonly reported. For the purposes of 

this report, several logically similar or less 

common categories have been combined. 

For example, bus or trolley bus, streetcar 

or trolley car, subway or elevated, railroad, 

and ferryboat responses in the ACS have 

been combined to form the group, “Public 

Transportation.” Responses of taxicab, 

motorcycle, and other method have 

been combined to form the group “Other 

means.” 11 Due to sample size considerations, 

the remainder of this report’s analysis will 

aggregate workers aged 65–74 and 75 and 

older into a single age group of 65 and 

older.

alone to work than workers aged 

55 to 64, and workers 75 years 

and older even less so (73.4 percent). Patterns of vehicle access 

correspond to patterns of driving 

alone to work. Workers aged 75 

and older had the highest rate of 

access to a single vehicle.12, 13

During the 2013–2017 period, 9.2 

percent of workers commuted to 

work by carpool, making it the 

second most common commuting 

mode. Carpooling rates generally declined with age (Table 2). 

Of workers aged 25 to 54, 9.3 

12 Vehicle access is defined as the number of vehicles available and is measured 

for the household. Other measures in this 

report are measured for the individual. 13 Some workers report driving to work 

alone and living in households with no 

vehicle availability (McKenzie, 2015).

percent commuted by carpool, 

compared with 7.0 percent of 

workers aged 55 to 64 and 6.1 

percent of workers aged 65 to 

74. Among workers 75 years and 

older, 6.9 percent traveled by carpool, a reversal of the downward 

trend among older ages (though 

not significantly different from the 

7.0 percent of workers aged 55 to 

64).

Public transit was the next most 

common mode, varying from 5.6 

percent of workers aged 16 to 24 

to 3.2 percent of those 75 years 

and older. Patterns for several 

less-common travel modes—

biking, walking, and a collection 

of other means of transportation—were less distinct. As shown 

Figure 2.

Question on Travel Mode From the 2017 

American Community Survey

Note: People who report traveling by car, truck, or van also provide information about 

number of riders, which determines whether they are treated as "drove alone" or 

"carpooled." For the purposes of this report, the category "public transportation" is used 

for people who report traveling by bus or trolley bus, streetcar or trolley car, subway or 

elevated, railroad, or ferryboat. The category "other means" includes those who report 

traveling by taxicab, motorcycle, or other method.

5

8

14

17
U.S. Census Bureau 5

in Figure 3, workers aged 55 to 

64 reported using these means of 

transportation (bicycle, walk, and 

other means) less than any other 

age group. Table 2 presents these 

means of transportation in more 

detail. Rates of bicycling to work 

declined steadily with age, but 

workers 75 and older (3.1 percent) 

walked to work more than any 

other age group except for those 

aged 16 to 24.

A growing number of workers 

work from home in lieu of commuting to a different location 

(Mateyka, Rapino, and Landiva, 

2012). During the 2013–2017 

period, working from home was 

reported by 4.7 percent of all 

workers, and was more common among older workers (Table 

2). Of workers aged 25 to 54, 

4.5 percent reported working at 

home, compared with 6.0 percent of workers aged 55 to 64, 

9.2 percent of workers aged 65 to 

74, and 11.8 percent of workers 75 

years and older. In contrast to the 

pattern for workers younger than 

65, where carpooling rates exceed 

rates of working from home, working from home is more common 

than carpooling among workers 

aged 65 and older.

COMMUTING BURDEN

Several ACS questions help 

describe characteristics of a 

commute that could be considered burdensome.14 One of these 

measures is the amount of time it 

takes to get to work. The difference in average travel time to 

work between workers aged 25 

to 54 (27.3 minutes) and aged 55 

to 64 (27.0 minutes) was small, 

but average travel time declined 

14 The ACS questions used to help 

describe commuting burden in this analysis 

include: (1) What time did this person usually leave home to go to work LAST WEEK, 

(2) How many minutes did it usually take 

this person to get from home to work LAST 

WEEK, and (3) At what location did this 

person work LAST WEEK?

Table 2. 

Selected Commuting Characteristics for Workers Aged 16 and Older by Sex and Age: 2013–2017

(In percent. For information on confidentiality protection, sampling error, nonsampling error, and definitions, see 

<www.census.gov/acs/>)

Characteristic All workers 

(numbers in 

thousands)

Sex Age

Men Women

16 to 

24

25 to 

54 

55 to 

64 

65 to 

74

65 

and 

older

75 

and 

older

   Total .......................... 148,400 100.0 53.0 47.0 13.1 65.1 16.6 4.4 5.3 0.8

Share by Means of Transportation

Drove alone ........................... 113,500 76.4 76.4 76.5 70.5 76.9 79.4 77.1 76.5 73.4

Carpooled ............................. 13,590 9.2 9.3 9.0 12.3 9.3 7.0 6.1 6.2 6.9

Public transportation ................... 7,608 5.1 4.8 5.4 5.6 5.4 4.2 3.7 3.7 3.2

Other means .......................... 1,822 1.2 1.5 1.0 1.6 1.2 1.1 1.1 1.2 1.4

Bicycle ................................ 872 0.6 0.8 0.3 1.0 0.6 0.4 0.3 0.3 0.2

Walked ................................ 4,049 2.7 2.8 2.7 6.5 2.2 2.0 2.4 2.5 3.1

Worked at home ....................... 7,027 4.7 4.5 5.0 2.5 4.5 6.0 9.2 9.6 11.8

Commuting Burden

Mean travel time to work in minutes ..... 141,400 26.4 27.8 24.7 21.8 27.3 27.0 25.1 24.7 23.0

“Peak” departure time .................. 88,000 62.2 59.6 65.2 45.3 65.0 65.2 62.1 61.6 58.3

60 or more minutes travel time to work .. 12,580 8.9 10.3 7.3 5.8 9.5 9.2 8.0 7.8 6.6

Worked outside county of residence ..... 41,010 27.6 30.0 24.9 21.3 29.1 28.2 23.6 22.9 19.2

Share by Vehicle Availability

No vehicles available ................... 6,418 4.4 4.2 4.5 5.2 4.5 3.4 3.4 3.7 5.0

1 vehicle available ...................... 30,680 20.9 18.7 23.3 17.3 21.2 20.3 25.6 26.9 34.2

2 or more vehicles available ............. 109,900 74.8 77.0 72.2 77.6 74.3 76.3 71.0 69.4 60.8

Notes: Estimates express percentage of workers for all variables except mean travel time; mean travel time to work estimate represents minutes. 

Commuting burden refers to multiple measures of the effort and time spent getting to a place of work. 

Peak departure time refers to departure for place of work from 6 to 8:59 a.m.

Universe for vehicle availability is restricted to workers living in households. 

Shares may not sum to 100.0 due to rounding. 

Corresponding margins of error are presented in Appendix Table 3.

Source: U.S. Census Bureau, 2013–2017 American Community Survey 5-Year Estimates.
6 U.S. Census Bureau

to 25.1 minutes for workers aged 

65 to 74, and to 23.0 minutes for 

workers 75 years and older (Table 

2). Figure 4 presents this general 

pattern by age and sex. Workers 

65 years and older reported 

shorter average travel times than 

those aged 25 to 54 or 55 to 64. 

Within every age group, women 

reported shorter average travel 

times than men.

In addition to average travel time 

to work, several other measures 

help describe commuting burden. 

These measures include departure to the workplace during peak 

hours (6 to 8:59 a.m.), a one-way 

travel time of 60 minutes or more, 

and commuting into a county 

other than the county of residence. Table 2 shows that 65.0 

percent of workers aged 25 to 54 

and 65.2 percent of workers aged 

Figure 4.

Mean Travel Time to Work in Minutes for Workers 

Aged 16 and Older by Age and Sex: 2013–2017

Note: All workers are aged 16 and older.

Source: U.S. Census Bureau, 2013-2017 American Community Survey 5-Year Estimates.

(For information on confidentiality protection, sampling error, nonsampling 

error, and definitions, see <www.census.gov/acs/>)

Age group

Travel time in minutes

Women

16–24

Men

0 5 10 15 20 25 30

25–54

55–64

65+

Figure 3.

Percent Distribution for Means of Transportation for Workers Aged 16 and Older by Age: 

2013–2017

Note: Additional detail regarding workers aged 75 and older is presented in Table 2. All workers are aged 16 or older. 

Source: U.S. Census Bureau, 2013-2017 American Community Survey 5-Year Estimates. 

(For information on confidentiality protection, sampling error, nonsampling error, and definitions, 

see <www.census.gov/acs/>)

0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100

16–24

25–54

55–64

65+

Drove alone Carpooled Public transportation Bicycle/walked/other means Worked at home

Percent

Age group
U.S. Census Bureau 7

55 to 64 commuted during peak 

hours (not significantly different). 

A lower percentage of workers 

aged 65 and older traveled during 

peak hours (61.6 percent). The 

percentage of workers commuting 60 minutes or more declined 

from 9.5 percent of workers 

aged 25 to 54, to 9.2 percent of 

workers aged 55 to 64, and to 

7.8 percent of workers 65 years 

and older. Reflecting the same 

pattern of declining commuter 

burden among older workers, a 

smaller share of workers aged 55 

to 64 (28.2 percent) or 65 years 

and older (22.9 percent) than 

those aged 25 to 54 (29.1 percent) 

reported working outside their 

county of residence.

GEOGRAPHIC VARIATION

Transportation infrastructure, 

population density, and workplace 

proximity are some of the many 

geographic factors that could 

influence commuting patterns. 

For the purposes of this report, 

the community types representing

certain aspects of this geographic 

variation include the principal cities of metropolitan (metro) areas, 

the remainder of metro areas outside of principal cities, and outside

of metro areas.15

Driving alone was the most common mode of transportation 

for all age groups in every type 

of community, with the lowest 

rates of driving alone within the 

principal cities of metro areas 

15 Metropolitan statistical areas have at 

least one urbanized area of 50,000 or more 

inhabitants. Micropolitan statistical areas 

have at least one urban cluster of at least 

10,000 but less than 50,000 population. 

The largest city in each metropolitan or 

micropolitan statistical area is designated 

a “principal city.” “Outside of metro areas” 

includes micropolitan and nonmetropolitan 

areas. For more information about metropolitan and micropolitan statistical areas, 

see <www.census.gov/programs-surveys/

metro-micro/about.html>.

(Appendix Table 4). Commuting 

by public transportation was more 

common in principal cities of 

metro areas than anywhere else. 

This report does not differentiate between the multiple forms 

of public transportation, but prior 

analysis has shown that commuting by subway or elevated rail 

captures high shares of commuters in only a few large metro areas 

(McKenzie, 2015). Within principal 

cities of metro areas, older workers were less likely to use public 

transportation than their younger 

counterparts (10.8 percent of 

workers aged 25 to 54 used public 

transportation, compared to 9.0 

percent of workers aged 55 to 64 

and 7.9 percent of those aged 65 

and older).

Rates of working from home were 

highest among the oldest workers 

in every type of community, at 9.4 

percent of workers aged 65 and 

older in principal cities of metro 

areas, 9.7 percent outside of 

principal cities in metro areas, and 

9.7 percent outside of metro areas 

(Appendix Table 4). The youngest 

workers were more likely to walk 

to work than all older age groups 

in all community types, but the 

percentage of workers who 

reported bicycling or taking other 

means of transportation to work 

varied without a clear pattern by 

age.

Measures of commuting burden 

were generally higher for workers living in metro areas outside 

of principal cities (Appendix Table 

4). Average travel time was longest in these types of communities for every age group, and was 

shortest in communities outside 

of metro areas. In each community type, average travel time was 

longest among workers aged 25 

to 54, and then declined with age. 

Differences in average travel time 

between workers aged 25 to 54 

and those 65 years and older were 

less in principal cities of metro 

areas compared with metros outside of principal cities or outside 

of metro areas. In metro areas 

outside of principal cities, 10.4 

percent of workers aged 25 to 54 

spent 60 minutes or more on their 

daily commute, compared with 9.9 

percent of workers aged 55 to 64 

and 8.3 percent of workers aged 

65 and older. In each of these 

three types of communities, workers aged 65 and older were less 

likely to work outside their county 

of residence than workers aged 25 

to 54 or 55 to 64.

DISABILITY STATUS

Having one or more types of disabilities is a common feature of 

aging (He and Larsen, 2014). The 

ACS defines disability as a mental or physical impairment that 

substantially limits at least one 

major life activity, and measures 

this concept using a standardized 

set of six questions. These questions capture a respondent’s serious difficulty with hearing, vision, 

concentration/memory, dressing/

bathing, doing errands alone, and 

walking/climbing stairs.16 This 

report considers commuting patterns among workers with any disability by age, and takes a closer 

look at ambulatory difficulties that 

might contribute to specific transportation challenges.

Among the population aged 16 

and older, people with disabilities 

are typically less than half as likely 

to work as people without disabilities. For example, among the population aged 25 to 54 years of age, 

36.0 percent of the population 

16 For this report, we refer to difficulty 

walking/climbing stairs as ambulatory 

difficulty.
8 U.S. Census Bureau

with a disability reported being at 

work, compared with 79.5 percent of the population without a 

disability (Table 3). Workers aged 

65 and older are more than three 

times as likely as workers aged 

25 to 54 to report some type of 

disability (16.5 percent relative to 

4.3 percent; Appendix Table 5). 

Figure 5 displays the percentagepoint difference between workers 

with and without a disability using 

each travel mode, by age group.17

Workers with disabilities were 

less likely than workers without 

disabilities to drive to work alone, 

but the difference between the 

two groups was smaller among 

older workers. The rate of workers aged 16 to 24 with disabilities 

driving alone was 12.7 percentage points lower than that of their 

counterparts without disabilities. 

17 Appendix Table 5 contains the 

detailed statistics underlying Figure 5.

Table 3. 

Percentage at Work for Population Aged 16 and Older by 

Disability Status: 2013–2017

(For information on confidentiality protection, sampling error, nonsampling error, 

and definitions, see <www.census.gov/acs/>)

Characteristic 16 to 24 25 to 54 55 to 64

65 and 

older

Percentage at work .....................

Percentage at Work by Disability Status

49.2 75.6 60.3 16.3

No disability .............................. 50.5 79.5 68.2 21.7

With a disability .......................... 29.3 36.0 26.8 7.3

 With an ambulatory difficulty ............

Share of Workers by Disability Status

21.2 24.2 18.9 5.0

No disability .............................. 96.4 95.7 91.5 83.5

With a disability .......................... 3.6 4.3 8.5 16.5

 With an ambulatory difficulty ............ 0.4 1.3 3.8 7.5

Notes: At work=Employed, at work or Armed Forces, at work. “With a disability” includes 

any difficulty in hearing, vision, cognition, walking/climbing stairs, self-care, or independent 

living. “With an ambulatory disability” is a subset of the population “with a disability.”

Shares may not sum to 100.0 due to rounding.

Corresponding margins of error are presented in Appendix Table 2.

Source: U.S. Census Bureau, 2013–2017 American Community Survey 5-Year Estimates.

Figure 5.

Percentage-Point Dierences in Means of Transportation Between Workers With and 

Without A Disability by Age: 2013–2017

Notes: Estimates are calculated as the percentage using a means of transportation among workers with a disability, minus that 

percentage among workers without a disability. All workers are aged 16 and older. 

Source: U.S. Census Bureau, 2013-2017 American Community Survey 5-Year Estimates.

(For information on confidentiality protection, sampling error, nonsampling error, and definitions, 

see <www.census.gov/acs/>)

-15

-10

-5

0

5

10

Drove alone Carpooled Public 

transportation

25–54 55–64 65+

Bicycle/walked/

other means

Worked at

home

16–24
U.S. Census Bureau 9

The difference between workers aged 65 and older was much 

smaller, at just 3.7 percentage 

points.

The decreased rate of driving alone 

was accompanied by increased 

rates of carpooling, public transportation, and other means of 

transportation (including taxicab 

and motorcycle, as well as other 

assorted methods not captured 

by the survey instrument). Among 

workers older than 65, those with 

any disability—and those with an 

ambulatory disability in particular—were more likely to work from 

home than workers without a disability (10.2 percent, 10.9 percent, 

and 9.5 percent, respectively; 

Appendix Table 5).

Commuting during peak hours was 

less common among workers with 

a disability. Workers aged 25 to 

54 without disabilities were nearly 

3 percentage points more likely 

to work outside their county of 

residence than workers the same 

age with a disability (29.3 percent 

and 26.4 percent, respectively; 

Appendix Table 5). The difference 

declines to around 2 percentage 

points among workers aged 55 to 

64 (28.4 and 26.5 percent18) and 

1.5 percentage points among workers aged 65 and older (23.2 and 

21.7 percent).

EARNINGS

The observed differences in commuting behaviors between age 

groups was also considered in the 

context of the changing socioeconomic composition of the workforce, specifically along levels of 

earnings. During the 2013–2017 

18 The 26.5 percent of workers aged 55 

to 64 with disabilities who report commuting during peak hours is not statistically 

different from the 26.4 percent of workers 

aged 25 to 54 with disabilities who report 

commuting during peak hours.

survey period, the distribution of 

earnings was notably different 

between age groups.19 As displayed in Appendix Table 6, over 

25 percent of workers aged 55 to 

64 earned $75,000 or more annually, a higher proportion than in any 

other age group. Conversely, the 

proportion of workers earning less 

than $25,000 increases from 25.2 

percent of workers aged 55 to 64 

to 45.1 percent of workers 65 years 

and older. Only workers aged 16 

to 24, of whom nearly 80 percent 

earned less than $25,000 annually, 

were more concentrated in this 

group of lowest earners. This age 

and earnings profile is comparable 

to that of other data sources, such 

as the Current Population Survey 

19 The ACS asks several questions about 

earnings and income. This report compares 

CPI-adjusted personal earnings, which are 

the sum of wage and salary income and 

self-employment income, and are often a 

large part of overall income.

(U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics, 

2018).

Among workers younger than 

65 years old, driving alone was 

generally more common among 

those closer to the middle of the 

earnings distribution; about 80 

percent of workers aged 16 to 64 

earning $25,000 to $49,999 and 

$50,000 to $74,999 drove alone 

(Table 4). Among workers earning 

less than $25,000, workers aged 

65 and older (75.2 percent) were 

more likely to drive alone to work 

than all younger age groups. Use 

of public transportation was most 

common among workers aged 16 

to 24 years of age earning $75,000 

or more annually, and least common among workers aged 65 and 

older earning less than $25,000. 

Carpooling was less common 

among older workers regardless of 

earnings, and for all workers aged 

Table 4.

Selected Means of Transportation for Workers Aged 16 and 

Older by Age and Earnings: 2013–2017

(In percent. For information on confidentiality protection, sampling error, nonsampling error, and definitions, see <www.census.gov/acs/>)

Means of transportation and earnings 16 to 24 25 to 54 55 to 64

65 and 

older

Drove Alone

Less than $25,000 .................... 68.9 70.4 73.3 75.2

$25,000–$49,999 ..................... 77.7 80.0 81.8 78.2

$50,000–$74,999 ..................... 75.8 81.1 83.5 78.6

$75,000 or more ..................... 65.2 76.5 79.3 76.2

Carpooled

Less than $25,000 .................... 12.8 12.5 9.0 6.9

$25,000–$49,999 ..................... 10.5 9.5 7.4 6.5

$50,000–$74,999 ..................... 8.0 7.8 6.1 5.5

$75,000 or more ..................... 9.5 6.2 5.3 4.9

Worked at Home

Less than $25,000 .................... 2.6 4.9 7.8 10.4

$25,000–$49,999 ..................... 1.9 3.2 4.4 8.2

$50,000–$74,999 ..................... 2.2 3.8 4.6 8.6

$75,000 or more ..................... 3.9 6.6 7.4 10.4

Public Transportation

Less than $25,000 .................... 5.6 6.2 4.9 3.1

$25,000–$49,999 ..................... 5.1 4.1 3.5 3.7

$50,000–$74,999 ..................... 8.7 4.6 3.3 4.0

$75,000 or more ..................... 12.5 7.1 4.9 4.7

Note: Corresponding margins of error are presented in Appendix Table 6.

Source: U.S. Census Bureau, 2013–2017 American Community Survey 5-Year Estimates.
10 U.S. Census Bureau

25 and older, the likelihood of commuting by carpool was inversely 

related to earnings. Though the 

overall rates of working from home 

increased uniformly with age, the 

lowest or highest earnings groups 

were more likely than the middle 

two earnings groups to work from 

home regardless of age.

Average travel time to work was 

highest for workers aged 25 to 

54 earning $75,000 or more (31.8 

minutes), and was shorter among 

older workers. On average, workers of the same age group earning 

less money reported shorter average travel times (Appendix Table 

6). With some exceptions among 

workers aged 16 to 24, the highestearning workers of each age group 

reported traveling at peak times, 

commuting 60 minutes or more, 

and living and working in different 

counties at higher proportions than 

workers in lower earnings categories, but differences by earnings 

were generally less among those 

aged 65 and older.

RACE AND HISPANIC ORIGIN

As noted in the introduction, the 

older workforce is disproportionately composed of non-Hispanic 

White workers. Non-Hispanic 

White workers comprise 61.6 

percent of workers aged 25 to 54, 

compared to 74.0 percent of workers aged 55 to 64 and 79.4 percent of workers aged 65 and older 

(Appendix Table 7a). Commuting 

patterns vary by race and ethnicity, 

and the variation by age is likely to 

play a role in observed differences 

in commuting patterns. The percentage of workers driving alone 

differed significantly by race and 

ethnicity, notably between workers 

who are non-Hispanic White (79.7 

percent) and workers who are nonHispanic Black (72.7 percent) or 

non-Hispanic Asian (66.4 percent; 

Table 5). Non-Hispanic White 

workers were the least likely of any 

racial and ethnic group to travel by 

carpool (7.5 percent), and workers of Hispanic or Latino origin (of 

any race) were the most likely to 

do so (14.1 percent). More than 10 

percent of non-Hispanic Black and 

non-Hispanic Asian workers commuted via public transportation, 

compared with 3.1 percent of nonHispanic White workers. Working 

at home was most common among 

non-Hispanic White workers (5.5 

percent) and least common among 

non-Hispanic Black workers (2.9 

percent).

Rates of working from home 

increased with age, but the extent 

of change across age groups was 

not uniform by race and ethnicity 

(Appendix Table 7a). The difference between non-Hispanic White 

workers and non-Hispanic Black 

workers is notable, with the former 

working at home at higher percentages within every age group. 

The share of the non-Hispanic 

White population working from 

home increased from 5.2 percent 

of workers aged 25 to 54 to 10.6 

percent of workers aged 65 and 

older, while non-Hispanic Black 

workers demonstrated a smaller 

increase across the same two age 

groups, rising from 2.9 percent to 

4.6 percent.

Commuting burden was also 

uneven across race and ethnicity 

(Appendix Table 7a). Non-Hispanic 

White workers reported the shortest average travel time and the 

lowest percentages of one-way 

travel times of 60 minutes or more. 

For each race and ethnicity group, 

average travel time was lower 

among workers aged 65 and older 

than among workers aged 25 to 

54 or 55 to 64. Within every age 

group, Hispanic or Latino workers 

(of any race) were the least likely 

to work outside their county of 

residence. Among the population 

aged 55 years and older, nonHispanic Asian workers were the 

most likely to experience a commute time of 60 minutes or more.

Table 5. 

Means of Transportation for Workers Aged 16 and Older by 

Race and Hispanic or Latino Origin: 2013–2017

(In percent. For information on confidentiality protection, sampling error, nonsampling error, and definitions, see <www.census.gov/acs/>)

Means of transportation

Total

Not Hispanic or Latino origin Hispanic 

or Latino 

origin 

(of any 

race)

White 

alone

Black or 

African 

American 

alone

Asian 

alone

   Total ..................... 100.0 64.2 11.1 5.6 16.5

Share by Means of Transportation

Drove alone ..................... 76.4 79.7 72.7 66.4 70.3

Carpooled ....................... 9.2 7.5 9.3 12.7 14.1

Public transportation ............. 5.1 3.1 10.5 10.9 7.2

Other means .................... 1.2 1.0 1.5 1.2 1.7

Bicycled ......................... 0.6 0.6 0.3 0.6 0.6

Walked. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.7 2.5 2.7 3.9 3.0

Worked at home ................. 4.7 5.5 2.9 4.3 3.1

Notes: American Indian or Alaska Native alone, not Hispanic or Latino; Native Hawaiian or 

Other Pacific Islander alone, not Hispanic or Latino; Some other race, not Hispanic or Latino; 

or Two or More Races, not Hispanic or Latino are not included in this table due to their small 

sample size.

Corresponding margins of error are presented in Appendix Table 7b.

Shares may not sum to 100.0 due to rounding.

Source: U.S. Census Bureau, 2013–2017 American Community Survey 5-Year Estimates.
U.S. Census Bureau 11

SUMMARY AND DISCUSSION

In 2017, more than 20 percent 

of the U.S. workforce were aged 

55 and older. As Baby Boomers 

continue to age into this group, 

the relative prominence of older 

workers in the workforce at large 

will continue to grow. The different transportation needs of older 

workers underline the importance 

of understanding the commuting patterns of this group, as they 

are increasingly likely to influence 

broader commuting and transportation trends.

This report characterized the way 

older commuters get to work and 

compared them with younger 

workers. During 2013–2017, driving alone was the most common 

mode of commuting, capturing 

over 75 percent of all workers. 

Workers aged 55 to 64 drove to 

work alone at higher rates than 

workers aged 25 to 54, but the 

proportion driving alone declined 

among workers aged 75 and older.

This reflects the impact of aging 

on commuting. Working at home 

was more common among older 

than younger workers. Nearly 

12 percent of workers aged 75 

and older reported working from 

home, compared with 4.5 percent 

of workers aged 25 to 54. Being 

able to work from home would 

be especially beneficial for older 

workers as this commute mode 

may enable them to be better 

positioned to continue working 

later in life.

This study found that in general, commuting burden is less 

for older workers than for their 

younger counterparts. Workers 

aged 65 and older reported 

shorter average travel times to 

work than workers aged 25 to 

54 or 55 to 64. Other measures 

of commuting burden, including 

travel during peak hours, travel 

time of 60 minutes or more, and 

working outside one’s county of 

residence, were also generally 

lower among workers aged 65 

and older. Further investigation is 

needed to determine whether this 

is a selection effect, e.g., if older 

workers tend to remain in or find 

jobs near home with shorter travel 

times.

Community type is an important 

predictor of commuting patterns. 

Within each age group, workers in metropolitan areas outside 

of principal cities reported the 

longest average travel time to 

work, and workers living outside 

of metropolitan areas reported the 

shortest. Within the principal cities 

of metropolitan areas, however, 

older workers were significantly 

less likely than younger workers to travel to work using public 

transportation.

Older workers were more likely 

than younger workers to report 

disabilities, and disability status appears to be an important 

predictor of commuting behavior. 

Workers with disabilities were less 

likely than workers without disabilities to drive alone and more 

likely to carpool, take public transportation, or walk. As functional 

limitations rise with age, older 

workers face additional challenges 

in commuting compared with 

younger workers. There remains 

much to learn about the impact of 

disability on commuting experiences of older workers, including 

more specific limitations than the 

generalized definition of disability 

included in this report.

Commuting patterns varied by 

earnings more for younger workers and less for older workers. 

The most pronounced relationships for younger workers such as 

higher rates of carpooling among 

lower-earning workers are somewhat muted among older workers. 

Younger, higher-earning workers 

were more likely to report long 

travel times and travel during 

peak times, but earnings were 

less associated with commuting 

behaviors among older workers, 

despite the higher share of lowerearning workers in the workforce 

aged 65 and over. Overall commuting trends may suggest that 

this larger share of lower-earning 

workers would lead to a lower 

level of commuters driving alone 

to work; however, the disproportionately high share of nonHispanic White workers in the 

older workforce who tend to drive 

alone may help explain fairly high 

rates of workers aged 65 and 

older driving to work alone.

Other notable differences in commuting patterns were also evident 

along race and ethnicity. A more 

comprehensive analysis might 

better isolate the effect of age 

from these and other prominent 

demographic and socioeconomic 

patterns. The changing nature of 

work among older workers, such 

as the reduction of working hours 

or transition into more accommodating industries and occupations, 

may also play a role, but are not 

considered in this report.

Travel surveys have a limited 

capacity to capture transportation 

trends, and the ACS is no exception. The introduction and expansion of new travel options (such 

as ride-hailing, electric scooters, 

and short-term private car rental) 

are not as straightforward to 

capture in the existing questionnaire, although recent modifications aim to mitigate this potential 
12 U.S. Census Bureau

s 

shortcoming.20 Many commuters 

may utilize multiple transportation 

modes, but ACS respondents are 

restricted to indicating the single 

mode used for the longest distance. The ACS reference frame 

may also present some challenges 

to interpretation, with respondents reporting on their travel in 

the last week, rather than general 

patterns. Although work-related 

trips play an important role in 

determining peak travel demand 

across transportation systems, 

work-related trips make up less 

than 20 percent of all trips taken 

(American Association of State 

Highway and Transportation 

Officials, 2015). As workforce 

composition and travel patterns continue to change, further 

research is needed to investigate 

how population aging continues to 

influence U.S. workers’ commuting 

patterns, transportation planning, 

and policymaking.

SOURCE OF THE ESTIMATES

The American Community Survey 

(ACS) is a nationwide survey 

designed to provide communities 

with reliable and timely demographic, social, economic, and 

20 In 2019, the ACS modified public 

transportation categories to better reflect 

contemporary modes, and updated terminology from “Worked at home” to “Worked 

from home.” At time of writing, content 

testing is underway for adding terminology 

on ride-hailing and electric cars.

housing data for congressional 

districts, counties, places, and 

other localities every year. It has 

an annual sample size of about 

3.5 million addresses across the 

United States and Puerto Rico and

includes both housing units and 

group quarters. The ACS is conducted in every county throughout the nation, and every municipio in Puerto Rico, where it is 

called the Puerto Rico Community

Survey. Beginning in 2006, ACS 

data for 2005 were released for 

geographic areas with population

of 65,000 and greater. For information on the ACS sample design 

and other topics, visit 

<www.census.gov/acs/www>.

ACCURACY OF THE 

ESTIMATES

The estimates presented in this 

report are primarily based on the 

ACS sample interviewed during 2013–2017. The report also 

includes single-year estimates 

from 2008 to 2017. The estimates based on these samples 

approximate the actual values and

represent the entire U.S. resident 

household and group quarters 

populations. Sampling error is 

the difference between an estimate based on a sample and the 

corresponding value that would 

be obtained if the estimate were 

based on the entire population 

(as from a census). Measures of 

the sampling error are provided in 

the form of margins of error for all 

estimates included in this report. 

All comparative statements in this 

report have undergone statistical testing, and comparisons 

are significant at the 90 percent 

level, unless otherwise noted. In 

addition to sampling error, nonsampling error may be introduced 

during any of the operations used 

to collect and process survey 

data such as editing, reviewing, 

or keying data from questionnaires. For more information on 

sampling and estimation methods, 

confidentiality protection, and 

sampling and nonsampling errors, 

please see the 2017 ACS Accuracy 

of the Data document located at 

<https://www2.census.gov

/programs-surveys/acs/tech

_docs/accuracy/ACS_Accuracy

_of_Data_2017.pdf>.

For more reports related to the 

commuting patterns of U.S. workers, go to the U.S. Census Bureau’s 

Journey to Work and Migration 

Statistics Web site at 

<www.census.gov/topics

/employment/commuting.html>, 

or contact the Journey to Work 

and Migration Statistics Branch at 

301-763-2454.
U.S. Census Bureau 13

REFERENCES

Alsnih, Rahaf, and David A. 

Hensher, “The mobility and 

accessibility expectations of 

seniors in an aging population,” 

Transportation Research Part 

A, 37, 2003, 903–916, 

<www.sciencedirect.com 

/science/article/abs/pii

/S0965856403000739>.

American Association of State 

Highway and Transportation 

Officials, “Commuting Trends 

in America 2013: Brief 12 Auto 

Commuting 2013,” Washington, 

DC, 2015, <https://traveltrends

.transportation.org>.

Chatterjee, Kiron, Samuel Chng, 

Ben Clark, Adrian Davis, Jonas 

De Vos, Dick Ettema, Susan 

Handy, Adam Martin, and 

Louise Reardon, “Commuting 

and Wellbeing: A Critical 

Overview of the Literature With 

Implications for Policy and 

Future Research,” Transport 

Reviews, 40:1, 5–34, 2020, 

<https://doi.org/10.1080

/01441647.2019.1649317>.

Crabtree, Steve, “Wellbeing Lower 

Among Workers With Long 

Commutes: Back Pain, Fatigue, 

Worry all Increase With Time 

Spent Commuting,” Gallop, 

August 13, 2010.

He, Wan and Luke J. Larsen, Older 

Americans With a Disability: 

2008–2012, American 

Community Survey Reports, 

ACS-29, U.S. Census Bureau, 

Washington, DC, 2014, 

<https://www2.census.gov

/library/publications/2014

/acs/acs-29.pdf>.

Horner, Mark W., Daniel K. 

Schleith, and Michael J. 

Widener, “An Analysis of the 

Commuting and Jobs-Housing 

Patterns of Older Adult 

Workers,” The Professional 

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2015, <https://doi.org/10.1080

/00330124.2015.1054018>.

Kromer, Braedyn and David 

Howard, Labor Force 

Participation and Work Status 

of People 65 Years and Older, 

American Community Survey 

Briefs, ACSBR/11–09, 

U.S. Census Bureau, 2013.

Mateyka, Peter J., Melanie A. 

Rapino, and Liana Christin 

Landivar, P70-132, Home-Based 

Workers in the United States: 

2010, Current Population 

Reports, U.S. Census Bureau, 

Washington, DC, 2012.

McGuckin, M. and A. 

Fucci, Federal Highway 

Administration, 

FHWA-PL-18-019, Summary of 

Travel Trends: 2017 National 

Household Travel Survey, 

Department of Transportation, 

2018, <https://nhts.ornl.gov

/assets/2017_nhts_summary

_travel_trends.pdf>.

McKenzie, Brian, Who Drives 

to Work? Commuting by 

Automobile in the United 

States, 2013, American 

Community Survey Reports, 

ACS-32, U.S. Census Bureau, 

Washington, DC, 2015, 

<www.census.gov/library

/publications/2015/acs

/acs-32.html>.

Stone, Arthur A. and Stefan 

Schneider, “Commuting 

Episodes in the United 

States: Their Correlates With 

Experiential Wellbeing From 

the American Time Use Survey,” 

Transportation Research Part 

F: Traffic Psychology and 

Behaviour, Vol. 42, Part 1: 

117–124, <https://doi.org/10.1016

/j.trf.2016.07.004>.

Toossi, Mitra, “Labor Force 

Projections to 2020: A More 

Slowly Growing Workforce,” 

Monthly Labor Review, 135:43, 

2012, <www.bls.gov/opub 

/mlr/2012/01/art3full.pdf>.

Toossi, Mitra, “A Look at the 

Future of the U.S. Labor 

Force to 2060,” Spotlight on 

Statistics, U.S. Bureau of Labor 

Statistics, September 2016, 

<www.bls.gov/spotlight/2016

/a-look-at-the-future-of-the

-us-labor-force-to-2060/pdf

/a-look-at-the-future-of-the-us

-labor-force-to-2060.pdf>.

U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics, 

Highlights of Women’s Earnings 

in 2017, BLS Reports, August 

2018, <www.bls.gov/opub 

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Bureau, Washington, DC, 2019.
14 U.S. Census Bureau

Appendix Table 1.

Selected Characteristics of Labor Force Aged 16 and Older by Age: 2008 to 2017

(For information on confidentiality protection, sampling error, nonsampling error, and definitions, see 

<www.census.gov/acs/>)

Characteristic

16 and older 16 to 24 25 to 54 55 to 64 65 to 74 75 and older

 Estimate 

Margin of 

error 

(±)

 Estimate 

Margin of 

error 

(±)

 Estimate 

Margin of 

error 

(±)

 Estimate 

Margin of 

error 

(±)

 Estimate 

Margin of 

error 

(±)

 Estimate 

Margin of 

error 

(±)

Percentage In Labor Force

2008 ..................... 65.8 0.1 61.4 0.2 82.8 0.1 64.6 0.1 24.6 0.2 5.7 0.1

2009 ..................... 65.3 <0.1 59.5 0.1 82.6 0.1 64.6 0.1 24.8 0.2 5.6 0.1

2010 ..................... 64.4 0.1 57.3 0.2 82.0 0.1 64.3 0.1 24.8 0.1 5.7 0.1

2011 ..................... 64.0 <0.1 57.2 0.2 81.6 0.1 64.0 0.1 24.9 0.2 5.8 0.1

2012 ..................... 63.8 <0.1 57.8 0.1 81.6 <0.1 64.1 0.1 25.5 0.1 5.9 0.1

2013 ..................... 63.6 <0.1 58.2 0.1 81.4 0.1 64.2 0.1 25.6 0.1 6.3 0.1

2014 ..................... 63.3 <0.1 58.4 0.1 81.3 0.1 64.2 0.1 25.3 0.1 6.3 0.1

2015 ..................... 63.1 <0.1 58.4 0.1 81.4 0.1 64.1 0.1 25.3 0.1 6.3 0.1

2016 ..................... 63.1 <0.1 58.9 0.1 81.6 0.1 64.3 0.1 25.5 0.1 6.5 0.1

2017 ..................... 63.2 <0.1 58.7 0.1 82.0 0.1 64.9 0.1 25.8 0.1 6.8 0.1

Share of Total Labor Force

2008 ..................... 100.0 X 15.1 <0.1 67.2 <0.1 13.9 <0.1 3.2 <0.1 0.7 <0.1

2009 ..................... 100.0 X 14.8 <0.1 67.0 <0.1 14.3 <0.1 3.3 <0.1 0.7 <0.1

2010 ..................... 100.0 X 14.4 <0.1 66.4 <0.1 15.1 <0.1 3.5 <0.1 0.7 <0.1

2011 ..................... 100.0 X 14.4 <0.1 65.8 <0.1 15.5 <0.1 3.6 <0.1 0.7 <0.1

2012 ..................... 100.0 X 14.5 <0.1 65.3 <0.1 15.6 <0.1 3.9 <0.1 0.7 <0.1

2013 ..................... 100.0 X 14.6 <0.1 64.8 <0.1 15.8 <0.1 4.1 <0.1 0.8 <0.1

2014 ..................... 100.0 X 14.5 <0.1 64.5 <0.1 16.0 <0.1 4.2 <0.1 0.8 <0.1

2015 ..................... 100.0 X 14.4 <0.1 64.3 <0.1 16.2 <0.1 4.3 <0.1 0.8 <0.1

2016 ..................... 100.0 X 14.3 <0.1 64.1 <0.1 16.4 <0.1 4.5 <0.1 0.8 <0.1

2017 ..................... 100.0 X 14.0 <0.1 63.9 <0.1 16.6 <0.1 4.7 <0.1 0.9 <0.1

Percentage at Work

2008 ..................... 60.2 0.1 51.6 0.2 76.7 0.1 60.4 0.1 23.0 0.1 5.3 0.1

2009 ..................... 57.5 0.1 47.0 0.2 73.8 0.1 58.5 0.1 22.5 0.1 5.1 0.1

2010 ..................... 56.2 0.1 44.6 0.2 72.6 0.1 57.7 0.1 22.2 0.1 5.1 0.1

2011 ..................... 56.2 0.1 44.7 0.2 72.8 0.1 57.8 0.1 22.3 0.1 5.2 0.1

2012 ..................... 56.7 <0.1 45.9 0.1 73.5 0.1 58.4 0.1 23.2 0.1 5.4 0.1

2013 ..................... 57.0 <0.1 46.9 0.1 74.0 0.1 59.1 0.1 23.6 0.1 5.7 0.1

2014 ..................... 57.5 <0.1 48.3 0.1 74.8 0.1 59.7 0.1 23.6 0.1 5.8 0.1

2015 ..................... 57.9 <0.1 49.5 0.1 75.4 0.1 60.1 0.1 23.7 0.1 5.9 0.1

2016 ..................... 58.3 0.1 50.4 0.1 76.1 0.1 60.5 0.1 24.1 0.1 6.1 0.1

2017 ..................... 58.6 0.1 50.7 0.1 76.7 0.1 61.3 0.1 24.4 0.1 6.3 0.1

X Not applicable.

Note: Labor force participation=in labor force, including those currently not at work or unemployed. At work=Employed, at work or 

Armed Forces, at work.

Shares may not sum to 100.0 due to rounding.

Source: U.S. Census Bureau, 2008 to 2017 American Community Survey 1-Year Estimates.
U.S. Census Bureau 15 Appendix Table 2. Total Population (In Thousands) and Percentage at Work for Population Aged 16 and Older by Age and Selected Characteristics: 2013–2017 (For information on confidentiality protection, sampling error, nonsampling error, and definitions, see <www.census.gov/acs/>) Characteristic 16 to 24 25 to 54 55 to 64 65 and older Total popula- tion Mar- gin of error (±) Per- cent Mar- gin of error (±) Total popula- tion Mar- gin of error (±) Per- cent Mar- gin of error (±) Total popula- tion Mar- gin of error (±) Per- cent Mar- gin of error (±) Total popula- tion Mar- gin of error (±) Per- cent Mar- gin of error (±)    Total. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39,530 15 49.2 0.1 127,800 11 75.6 0.1 40,750 5 60.3 0.1 47,730 5 16.3 <0.1 Sex Men. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .  20,270 10 48.9 0.1 63,740 8 81.0 0.1 19,640 3 65.1 0.1 21,060 3 20.4 0.1 Women. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .  19,260 11 49.6 0.1 64,050 5 70.2 0.1 21,100 3 55.9 0.1 26,680 3 13.1 <0.1 Race and Hispanic or Lato Origin White alone, not Hispanic or   Latino. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .  21,480 8 53.3 0.1 76,270 58.0 0.1 29,190 2 62.3 0.1 37,100 2 16.7 <0.1 Black or African American alone,   not Hispanic or Latino. . . . . . . . . .  5,709 11 41.5 0.2 16,180 10 68.6 0.1 4,575 3 51.2 0.2 4,192 3 14.6 0.1 Asian alone, not Hispanic or   Latino. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .  2,044 7 37.1 0.2 8,036 8 75.8 0.1 1,902 3 62.4 3 1,982 3 16.4 0.2 Hispanic or Lino origin (of any   race). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .  8,558 8 48.0 0.1 23,650 4 73.3 0.1 4,267 2 57.6 0.2 3,755 2 14.9 0.1 Education Less than high school graduate. . . .  12,210 23 24.0 0.1 14,510 82 56.6 0.1 4,722 26 42.1 0.2 8,207 28 8.5 0.1 High school graduate (includes   equivalency) or some college or   associate degree. . . . . . . . . . . . . . .  24,060 23 58.4 0.1 70,710 160 73.7 0.1 24,080 28 58.7 0.1 27,160 19 15.2 <0.1 Bachelor’s degree or higher. . . . . . . .  3,259 23 75.7 0.2 42,580 242 85.2 <0.1 11,940 48 70.9 0.1 12,370 28 24.1 0.1 Disability Status No disability. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .  ,100 20 50.5 0.1 116,400 42 79.5 0.1 32,970 25 68.2 0.1 30,030 29 21.7 <0.1 With any disability. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .  2,422 12 29.3 0.2 11,440 34 36.0 0.1 7,778 24 26.8 0.1 17,710 26 7.3 <0.1 With an ambulatory difficulty. . . . . .  372 4 21.2 0.6 5,085 30 24.2 0.1 4,936 20 18.9 0.1 11,590 25 5.0 <0.1 Geography Metropolitan area, principal city. . . .  14,460 19 48.5 0.1 43,960 17 75.3 0.1 11,840 14 59.1 0.1 13,430 12 16.7 0.1 Metropolitan area, outside principal   city. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .  19,590 20 50.0 0.1 67,140 18 76.9 0.1 22,420 13 62.3 0.1 25,980 12 16.7 <0.1 Outside metropolitan area. . . . . . . . .  5,476 7 48.8 0.2 16,680 7 70.9 0.1 6,492 3 55.7 0.1 8,330 3 14.7 0.1 Notes: At work=Employed, at work or Armed Forces, at work. “With a disability” includes any difficulty in hearing, vision, cognition, walking, self-care, or independent l
16 U.S. Census Bureau

Appendix Table 3.

Margins of Error of Commuting Characteristics for Workers Aged 16 and Older by Sex and Age: 

2013–2017

(In percent. For information on confidentiality protection, sampling error, nonsampling error, and definitions, see 

<www.census.gov/acs/>)

Characteristic

All workers 

(numbers in 

thousands)

Sex Age

Men Women

16 to 

24

25 to 

54 

55 to 

64 

65 to 

74 

65 and 

older

75 and 

older

   Total. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 

Share by Means of Transportation

Drove alone. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 

Carpooled. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Public transportation. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .  20 <0.1 <0

Other means. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Bicycle. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Walked. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Worked at home. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .  

Commuting Burden

Mean travel time to work in minutes. . . .  164 <0.1 <0.1 <0.1 <0.1 <0.1 <0.1 0.1 

“Peak” departure time. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .  175 0

60 or more minutes travel time to work.  37 <0.1 <0.1 <0.1 <0.1 <0.1 <0.1 0.1 0.1 0

Worked outside county of residence. . . .  85 <0.1 <0.1 <0.1 0.1 <0.1 0.1 0.1

Share by Vehicle Availability

No vehicles available. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .  22 <0.1 <0

1 vehicle available. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

2 or more vehicles available. . . . . . . . . . . .  222 0.1 0.1 0.1

Notes: Vehicle availability is collected at the household level. All other variables are collected at the individual level.

Mean travel time to work estimate represents minutes.

Commuting burden refers to multiple measures of the effort and time spent getting to a place of work.

Peak departure time refers to departure for place of work from 6 to 8:59 a.m.

Universe for vehicle availability is restricted to workers living in households.

Source: U.S. Census Bureau, 2013–2017 American Community Survey 5-Year Estimates.
U.S. Census Bureau 17

Appendix Table 4.

Commuting Characteristics for Workers Aged 16 and Older by Age and Metropolitan 

Area/Principal City: 2013–2017

(For information on confidentiality protection, sampling error, nonsampling error, and definitions, see <www.census.gov/acs/>)

Characteristic

Total (in thousands)

Age

16 to 24 25 to 54 55 to 64 65 and older

Workers 

Margin 

of 

error 

(±) Percent 

Margin 

of 

error 

(±) Percent 

Margin 

of 

error 

(±) Percent 

Margin 

of 

error 

(±) Percent 

Margin 

of 

error 

(±)

METROPOLITAN AREA, PRINCIPAL CITY

   Total. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Share by Means of Transportation

Drove alone. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 

Carpooled. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 

Public transportation. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .  5,139

Other means. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Bicycle. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 

Walked. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Worked at home. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Commuting Burden

Mean travel time to work in minutes. . . . .  47,100 52 21.8 0.1 26.3 <0.1 26.1 0.

“Peak” departure time. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .  28,830 56

60 or more minutes travel time to work. .  3,936 16 6.2 0.1 8.8 <0.1 8.7 0.1 7.7

Worked outside county of residence. . . . .  9,385 25 14.5 0.1 20.2 0.1 19.0 0.

METROPOLITAN AREA, OUTSIDE 

 PRINCIPAL CITY

   Total. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 

Share by Means of Transportation

Drove alone. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Carpooled. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Public transportation. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .  2,363 

Other means. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 

Bicycle. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 

Walked. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 

Worked at home. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Commuting Burden

Mean travel time to work in minutes. . . . .  75,810 92 22.5 0.1 28.9 <0.1 28.5 <0.

“Peak” departure time. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .  47,870 

60 or more minutes travel time to work. .  7,320 27 5.9 0.1 10.4 <0.1 9.9 0.1 8.3

Worked outside county of residence. . . . .  26,060 56 25.2 0.1 34.5 0.1 32.9 0.

OUTSIDE METROPOLITAN AREA

   Total. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Share by Means of Transportation

Drove alone. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 

Carpooled. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Public transportation. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .  10

Other means. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 

Bicycle. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Walked. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 

Worked at home. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Commuting Burden

Mean travel time to work in minutes. . . . .  18,490 38 19.0 0.1 23.2 0.1 22.9 0.

“Peak” departure time. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .  11,290 39

60 or more minutes travel time to work. .  1,323 9 4.8 0.1 7.7 0.1 7.5 0.1 5.8

Worked outside county of residence. . . . .  5,570 17 24.6 0.2 30.8 0.1 28.2 0.

Notes: Mean travel time to work estimate represents minutes.

Commuting burden refers to multiple measures of the effort and time spent getting to a place of work.

Peak departure time refers to departure for place of work from 6 to 8:59 a.m.

Shares may not sum to 100.0 due to rounding.

Source: U.S. Census Bureau, 2013–2017 American Community Survey 5-Year Estimates.
18 U.S. Census Bureau

Appendix Table 5.

Commuting Characteristics for Workers Aged 16 and Older by Age and Disability Status: 

2013–2017

(For information on confidentiality protection, sampling error, nonsampling error, and definitions, see <www.census.gov/acs/>)

Characteristic

Total 

(in thousands)

Age

16 to 24 25 to 54 55 to 64 65 and older

Workers 

Margin 

of 

error 

(±) Percent 

Margin 

of 

error 

(±) Percent 

Margin 

of 

error 

(±) Percent 

Margin 

of 

error 

(±) Percent 

Margin 

of 

error 

(±)

NO DISABILITY

   Total. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 140

Share by Means of Transportation

Drove alone. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .  

Carpooled. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Public transportation. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .  7,147 19 5.6

Other means. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Bicycle. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 

Walked. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Worked at home. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .  6,5

Commuting Burden

Mean travel time to work in minutes. .  133,700 155 21.8 <0.1 27.3 <0.1 27.0 <0.1 24.8

“Peak” departure time. . . . . . . . . . . . . . .  83,580 166 45.4 

60 or more minutes travel time to 

 work. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Worked outside county of residence. .  38,960 81 21.3 0.1 29.3 <0.1 28.4 0.1 23.2

WITH A DISABILITY

   Total. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Share by Means of Transportation

Drove alone. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Carpooled. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 

Public transportation. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .  461 5

Other means. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 

Bicycle. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 

Walked. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 

Worked at home. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Commuting Burden

Mean travel time to work in minutes. .  7,727 22 22.2 0.2 27.3 0.1 27.1 0.1 24.6

“Peak” departure time. . . . . . . . . . . . . . .  4,420 16 41.7 

60 or more minutes travel time to 

 work. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Worked outside county of residence. .  2,054 11 19.2 0.4 26.4 0.1 26.5 0.2 21.7

WITH AN AMBULATORY DIFFICULTY

   Total. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 

Share by Means of Transportation

Drove alone. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Carpooled. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 

Public transportation. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .  154 3

Other means. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Bicycle. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 

Walked. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Worked at home. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Commuting Burden

Mean travel time to work in minutes. .  2,632 12 23.1 0.6 27.0 0.2 26.6 0.2 24.6

“Peak” departure time. . . . . . . . . . . . . . .  1,517 8 45.3 

60 or more minutes travel time to 

 work. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Worked outside county of residence. .  86  6 19.7 1.3 25.6 0.3 25.1 0.3 20.8

Notes: Mean travel time to work estimate represents minutes.

Commuting burden refers to multiple measures of the effort and time spent getting to jobs.

Peak departure time refers to departure for place of work from 6 to 8:59 a.m.

Shares may not sum to 100.0 due to rounding.

Source: U.S. Census Bureau, 2013–2017 American Community Survey 5-Year Estimates.
U.S. Census Bureau 19

Appendix Table 6.

Commuting Characteristics for Workers Aged 16 and Older by Age and Annual Earnings: 

2013–2017—Con.

(For information on confidentiality protection, sampling error, nonsampling error, and definitions, see <www.census.gov/acs/>)

Characteristic

Total 

(in thousands)

Age

16 to 24 25 to 54 55 to 64 65 and older

Workers 

Margin 

of error 

(±)

Percent 

Margin 

of error 

(±)

Percent 

Margin 

of error 

(±)

Percent 

Margin 

of error 

(±)

Percent 

Margin 

of error 

(±)

LESS THAN $25,000

   Total. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 

Share by Means of Transportation

Drove alone. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 

Carpooled. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Public transportation. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .  2,932 

Other means. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 

Bicycle. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 

Walked. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Worked at home. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 

Commuting Burden

Mean travel time to work in minutes. . . .  49,160 51 20.8 <0.1 24.4 <0.1 23.5 0.1 

“Peak” departure time. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .  25,410 34 4

60 or more minutes travel time to work.  3,274 11 5.2 <0.1 7.6 <0.1 6.9 0.1 5.7 0

Worked outside county of residence. . . .  10,380 23 19.3 0.1 20.9 0.1 19.5 0.1 

$25,000 TO $49,999

   Total. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 

Share by Means of Transportation

Drove alone. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 

Carpooled. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 

Public transportation. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .  1,798 

Other means. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 

Bicycle. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 

Walked. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 

Worked at home. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 

Commuting Burden

Mean travel time to work in minutes. . . .  42,800 48 25.0 0.1 26.2 <0.1 25.6 0.1 

“Peak” departure time. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .  27,550 38 5

60 or more minutes travel time to work.  3,446 14 7.6 0.1 8.2 <0.1 7.7 0.1 7.8 0

Worked outside county of residence. . . .  12,270 22 28.1 0.2 28.2 0.1 26.4 0.1 

$50,000 TO $74,999

   Total. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 

Share by Means of Transportation

Drove alone. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 

Carpooled. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Public transportation. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .  1,10

Other means. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 

Bicycle. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Walked. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 

Worked at home. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Commuting Burden

Mean travel time to work in minutes. . . .  24,060 82 28.6 0.2 28.7 <0.1 28.2 0.1 

“Peak” departure time. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .  16,480 67 6

60 or more minutes travel time to work.  2,475 14 10.7 0.3 10.4 0.1 9.8 0.1 9.7 0

Worked outside county of residence. . . .  8,385 31 34.7 0.5 34.0 0.1 32.4 0.1 

See footnotes at end of table.
20 U.S. Census Bureau

Appendix Table 6.

Commuting Characteristics for Workers Aged 16 and Older by Age and Annual Earnings: 

2013–2017—Con.

(For information on confidentiality protection, sampling error, nonsampling error, and definitions, see <www.census.gov/acs/>)

Characteristic

Total 

(in thousands)

Age

16 to 24 25 to 54 55 to 64 65 and older

Workers 

Margin 

of error 

(±)

Percent 

Margin 

of error 

(±)

Percent 

Margin 

of error 

(±)

Percent 

Margin 

of error 

(±)

Percent 

Margin 

of error 

(±)

$75,000 OR MORE

   Total. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Share by Means of Transportation

Drove alone. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Carpooled. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Public transportation. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .  1,774 1

Other means. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 

Bicycle. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Walked. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 

Worked at home. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Commuting Burden

Mean travel time to work in minutes. . . .  25,380 128 29.4 0.4 31.8 <0.1 31.2 0.1 

“Peak” departure time. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .  18,560 106 5

60 or more minutes travel time to work.  3,385 22 12.1 0.6 13.6 0.1 13.0 0.1 11.4 0

Worked outside county of residence. . . .  9,974 57 31.7 0.8 37.3 0.1 35.9 0.1 

Notes: Mean travel time to work estimate represents minutes.

Commuting burden refers to multiple measures of the effort and time spent getting to a place of work.

Peak departure time refers to departure for place of work from 6 to 8:59 a.m.

Shares may not sum to 100.0 due to rounding.

Source: U.S. Census Bureau, 2013–2017 American Community Survey 5-Year Estimates.
U.S. Census Bureau 21

Appendix Table 7a.

Commuting Characteristics for Workers Aged 16 and Older by Age, Race and Hispanic/Latino 

Origin: 2013–2017—Con.

(For information on confidentiality protection, sampling error, nonsampling error, and definitions, see <www.census.gov/acs/>)

Characteristic

Total 

(in thousands)

Age

16 to 24 25 to 54 55 to 64 65 and older

Workers 

Margin 

of error 

(±)

Percent 

Margin 

of error 

(±)

Percent 

Margin 

of error 

(±)

Percent 

Margin 

of error 

(±)

Percent 

Margin 

of error 

(±)

WHITE ALONE, NOT HISPANIC OR 

LATINO ORIGIN

   Total. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Share by Means of Transportation

Drove alone. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Carpooled. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 

Public transportation. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .  2,970 11

Other means. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 

Bicycle. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 

Walked. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 

Worked at home. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .  

Commuting Burden

Mean travel time to work in minutes. . . .  90,070 121 20.4 <0.1 26.4 <0.1 26.2 <0.1 2

“Peak” departure time. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .  58,340 132 4

60 or more minutes travel time to work.  7,119 23 4.6 <0.1 8.5 <0.1 8.4 <0.1 7.0 0

Worked outside county of residence. . . .  27,880 54 22.9 0.1 31.1 <0.1 29.2 0.1 

BLACK OR AFRICAN AMERICAN 

ALONE, NOT HISPANIC OR 

LATINO ORIGIN

   Total. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Share by Means of Transportation

Drove alone. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 

Carpooled. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 

Public transportation. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .  1,729 1

Other means. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Bicycle. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Walked. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Worked at home. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Commuting Burden

Mean travel time to work in minutes. . . .  15,950 23 24.6 0.1 28.9 0.1 29.7 0.1 

“Peak” departure time. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .  8,923 22 4

60 or more minutes travel time to work.  1,745 11 8.6 0.2 11.3 0.1 11.8 0.1 10.4 0

Worked outside county of residence. . . .  4,730 17 22.0 0.2 30.3 0.1 29.3 0.2 

ASIAN ALONE, NOT HISPANIC OR 

LATINO ORIGIN

   Total. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Share by Means of Transportation

Drove alone. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Carpooled. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 

Public transportation. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .  9

Other means. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Bicycle. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Walked. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Worked at home. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 

Commuting Burden

Mean travel time to work in minutes. . . . 8,001  14 24.1 0.2 30.2 0.1 30.4 0.1 

“Peak” departure time. . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . .  4,769  14 4

60 or more minutes travel time to work.  96  8 8.0 0.2 12.5 0.1 12.4 0.2 11.9 0

Worked outside county of residence. . . . 2,379  10 21.1 0.3 29.8 0.1 27.5 0.3 

See footnotes at end of table.
22 U.S. Census Bureau

Appendix Table 7a.

Commuting Characteristics for Workers Aged 16 and Older by Age, Race and Hispanic/Latino 

Origin: 2013–2017—Con.

(For information on confidentiality protection, sampling error, nonsampling error, and definitions, see <www.census.gov/acs/>)

Characteristic

Total 

(in thousands)

Age

16 to 24 25 to 54 55 to 64 65 and older

Workers 

Margin 

of error 

(±)

Percent 

Margin 

of error 

(±)

Percent 

Margin 

of error 

(±)

Percent 

Margin 

of error 

(±)

Percent 

Margin 

of error 

(±)

HISPANIC OR LATINO ORIGIN 

(OF ANY RACE)

   Total. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 

Share by Means of Transportation

Drove alone. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 

Carpooled. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Public transportation. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .  1,7

Other means. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Bicycle. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Walked. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 

Worked at home. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Commuting Burden

Mean travel time to work in minutes. . . .  23,710 26 23.5 0.1 28.2 0.1 28.4 0.1 

“Peak” departure time. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .  13,860 27 4

60 or more minutes travel time to work.  2,409 14 7.2 0.1 10.8 0.1 10.9 0.1 10.3 0

Worked outside county of residence. . . .  5,106 22 16.8 0.2 21.9 0.1 21.0 0.2 

Notes: Mean travel time to work estimate represents minutes. 

Commuting burden refers to multiple measures of the effort and time spent getting to a place of work. 

Peak departure time refers to departure origin for place of work from 6 to 8:59 a.m.

Shares may not sum to 100.0 due to rounding.

American Indian or Alaska Native alone, not Hispanic or Latino; Native Hawaiian or Other Pacific Islander alone, not Hispanic or Latino; 

Some other race, not Hispanic or Latino; or Two or More Races, not Hispanic or Latino are not included in this table due to their small sample 

size.

Source: U.S. Census Bureau, 2013–2017 American Community Survey 5-Year Estimates.
U.S. Census Bureau 23

Appendix Table 7b.

Margins of Error of Means of Transportation for Workers Aged 16 and Older by Race and Hispanic 

or Latino Origin: 2013–2017

(In percent. For information on confidentiality protection, sampling error, nonsampling error, and definitions, see 

<www.census.gov/acs/>)

Means of transportation

Race and Hispanic or Latino Origin

Total

Not Hispanic or Latino

Hispanic or 

Latino origin (of 

White alone any race)

Black or African 

American alone Asian alone

   Total ..................... 0.0 <0.1 <0.1 <0.1 <0.1

Share by Means of Transportation

Drove alone ....................... <0.1 <0.1 0.1 0.1 0.1

Carpooled ........................ <0.1 <0.1 0.1 0.1 0.1

Public transportation .............. <0.1 <0.1 0.1 0.1 <0.1

Other means ...................... <0.1 <0.1 <0.1 <0.1 <0.1

Bicycled .......................... <0.1 <0.1 <0.1 <0.1 <0.1

Walked ........................... <0.1 <0.1 <0.1 0.1 <0.1

Worked at home .................. <0.1 <0.1 <0.1 0.1 <0.1

Note: American Indian or Alaska Native alone, not Hispanic or Latino; Native Hawaiian or Other Pacific Islander alone, not Hispanic or 

Latino; Some other race, not Hispanic or Latino; or Two or More Races, not Hispanic or Latino are not included in this table due to their small 

sample size.

Source: U.S. Census Bureau, 2013-2017 American Community Survey 5-Year Estimates.