A111Q3 Dfl713E

NAFL INST OF STANDARDS & TECH R.I.C.

A1 1103087132

QCIOO .U57 NO.400-, 20, 1975 C.2 NBS-PUB IX DO SPECIAL PUBLICATION 400-20

U.S. DEPARTMENT OF COMMERCE / National Bureau of Standards

emiconductor Measurement Technology:

Optical and DimensionalMeasurement Problems With

Photomasking in Microelectronics
NATIONAL BUREAU OF STANDARDS

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OP ST/>

LIE": OCT 1 4 197S Semiconductor Measurement Technology:

Optical and Dimensional-Measurement Problems With

Fhotomaskingin Microelectronics ^

John M. Jerke

Optical Physics Division

Institute for Basic Standards

National Bureau of Standards

Washington, D.C. 20234

This activity was supported by

The Defense Advanced Research Projects Agency

1400 Wilson Boulevard

Arlington, Virginia 22209 under ARPA Order 2397, Program Code 4D10

I U.S. DEPARTMENT OF COMMERCE, Rogers C.B. Morton, Secretary

j James A. Baker, III, Under Secretary

|i Dr. Betsy Ancker-Johnson, Assistant Secretary for Science arid Technology

IS .NATIONAL BUREAU OF STANDARDS, Emest Ambler. Acting Director

Issued October 1975
Library of Congress Cataloging in Publication Data

Jerke, John M.

Optical and dimensional-measurement problems with photomasking in microelectrics. (Semiconductor Measurement Technology) (NBS Special Publication; 400-20)

Bibliography: p. Supt. of Docs. No.: C 13.10:400-20

1. Integrated circuits—Maska. 2. Photolithography. 3. Optical measurements. I. Title. II. Series. III. Series: United States. National Bureau of Standards. Special publication; 400-20. QC100.U57 No. 400-20 [TK7874] 389'.08s [621.38173] 75-619190

National Bureau of Standards Special Publication 400-20

Nat. Bur. Stand. (U.S.), Spec. Publ. 400-20, 42 pages (Oct. 1975) CODEN: XNBSAV

U.S. GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE

WASHINGTON: 1975

For sale by the Superintendent of Documents, U.S. Government Printing Office, Washington, D.C. 20402 (Order by SD Catalog No. C13.10:400-20). Price $1,00 . (Add 25 percent additional for other than U.S. mailing).
TABLE OF CONTENTS

PAGE

Preface iv

1. Introduction 1

2. Background 3

3. Approach 6

4. Results and Discuss'ion 7 4.1. Optics 7 4.2. Dimensional Measurements . . 8

4.2.1. Measurement of Small Dimensions 10

4.2.2. Edge Definition 14

4.2.3. Registration 17

5. Conclusions 20

5.1. Optics 20

5.2. Dimensional Measurements • . • 20

6. Recommendations

.

. . / 22

6.1. Optics 22

6.2. Dimensional Measurements 22

7. References • 23

Appendix A. Comparison of Dimensional Measurements Made with

Image-Shearing and Filar Eyepieces 27

Appendix B. Effects of Illumination Coherence on Apparent Edge

Position in Optical -Imaging Systems ... 29

Appendix C. Selected Bibliography of Photomask Publications 31

i i i
PREFACE

This study was carried out in the Optical Physics Division as a part of the Semiconductor Technology Program in the Electronic Technology Division at the National Bureau

of Standards. The Semiconductor Technology Program serves to focus NBS efforts to enhance

the performance, interchangeabil ity, and reliability of discrete semiconductor devices and

integrated circuits through improvements in measurement technology for use. in specifying

materials and devices in national and international commerce and for use by industry in

controlling device fabrication processes. The Program receives direct financial support

principally from three major sponsors: The Defense Advanced Research Projects Agency

(ARPAja The Defense Nuclear Agency (DNA) and the National Bureau of Standards. The

specific work reported herein was supported by ARPA.*

During the conduct of this study, particularly strong statements were received from

the integrated circuits industry emphasizing the critical need for the development of

NBS line width standards in. the 1-ym range to assist the industry in meeting the micrometrology requirements associated with high resolution photomasks. These statements included an emphasis both on the need for NBS traceability in this field by small mask

making establishments in their marketplace interactioiis with larger organizations and

Government and on internal needs of semiconductor device manufacturers in connection with

productivity problems. In response to the needs disclosed and defined in this study,

a two-year project, jointly funded by ARPA and NBS, was initiated to develop a 1-ym line

width standard through implementation of the recommendations of this study.

Special acknowledgement is gratefully made to Dr. Donald B. Novotny, Semiconductor

Processing Section, Electronic Technology Division, NBS, for his considerable assistance

in the study described in the present report. This assistance included, in part,

participation in the visits to photomask and IC facilities, gathering and analyzing

information from the open literature, participation in technical discussions with

representatives from the IC industry, and helpful suggestions in the preparation of this

report.

— . Through ARPA Order 2397, Program Code 4D10.

iv
OPTICAL AND DIMENSIONAL-MEASUREMENT PROBLEMS WITH

PHOTOMASKING IN MICROELECTRONICS

BY

JOHN M. JERKE

Abstraot : Photomasks are the basic artifacts for transferring

design geometry to the semiconductor wafer in integrated circuit (IC)

production. Currently, photolithographic techniques using optical

equipment are the primary means for both fabricating masks and using

masks to print patterns on wafers. The present study was to identify

the major optical and dimensional -measurement problems related to the

fabrication and use of masks.

The results show that the primary optical problems are those

related directly to the use of optical instruments for dimensional

measurements of IC pattern geometry. Furthermore, most suppliers

and users of optical equipment for mask fabrication do not conduct

sufficient optical testing to determine imaging performance. The

basic limitations derived from light diffraction and coherence

continue to limit the quality of masks and IC devices with submicrometre geometry, and acceptable units are produced generally

on a best-effort basis. The primary dimensional -measurement

problems are (1) accurate measurements below about 10 pm, (2) edge

definition or location of a physical edge for a line, and (3) mask

registration. Recommendations to improve the accuracy of dimensional

measurements are given.

A bibliography of publications related to the optical and micrometrological aspects of photomasks is included.

Key Words: Integrated circuits; microelectronics; mi cro- metrology; photolithography; photomask; semiconductor technology.

1. INTRODUCTION

Photomasks are fundamental to the processing of integrated circuit (IC) devices

since the mask serves as the basic pattern for transferring the design circuit geometry to the semiconductor wafer. A photomask is essentially a repeated array of

microphotographs of circuit patterns produced by photolithographic techniques onto

a glass substrate. Optical systems operating in the visible spectrum are presently

the primary means used to transfer both the design artwork to the mask and the re- sulting mask pattern to the semiconductor wafer. Estimated yearly sales of photomasks by independent U. S. suppliers are currently between $20 million and $25

1
INTRODUCTION

million; these figures do not include in-house production of photomasks by IC manufacturers, nor do they provide an indication of the immense importance of

photomasks to the electronics industry and its customers.

As reported widely in the technical literature [1-6], the IC industry has

continued to encounter significant measurement and optical problems related to the manufacture and use of photomasks in semiconductor processing. Many of

these measurement and optical problems have persisted since the early development

of IC's around 1960. These problems are becoming increasingly significant with

the present and future needs for higher density, more complex circuitries, larger

plate geometries, and devices requiring tight dimensional tolerances on line

widths in the micrometre region and below. A study concerned with major measurement problems in process and assembly control of IC devices II7I1 indicates that

existing dimensional measurement and optical problems related to photomask technology also appear to affect adversely device yield and reliability.

The primary objective of the present study was to identify the major measurement and optical problems related to the manufacture and use of photomasks in

semiconductor processing. This study included a preliminary technical investigation of selected photomask problems and drawing up recommendations for approaches to meeting the existing measurement and optical needs of the IC industry.

The study was a joint effort between the Optics and Micrometrology Section and

the Electronic Technology Division of the National Bureau of Standards and was supported by the Defense Advanced Research Projects Agency (ARPA) as part of the

major program on Advancement of Reliability, Processing, and Automation for

Integrated Circuits with the National Bureau of Standards (ARPA/IC/NBS) [7]. In addition, results relating to measurement and optical problems that were obtained

from a concurrent program conducted by the U. S. Atomic Energy Conmiss ion/Lawrence

Livermore Laboratory (LLL) [8] for ARPA/IC/NBS to study automated photomask-inspecti

procedures are selectively presented in this report. Under the present study, NBS

personnel were joined by LLL personnel in some of the field visits to photomask,

IC, and instrument manufacturers.

Appendix A by Fred W. Rosberry (NBS) presents experimental data from wirediameter measurements made with both filar and image-shearing eyepieces attached

to a microscope. These microscope eyepieces are widely used throughout the IC industry to make dimensional measurements on photomasks. Appendix B by Richard

E. Swing (NBS) discusses the effects of the degree of coherence of the illumination

source on the apparent position of physical edges in such instruments as microscopes

and microdensitometers. Measurements of line widths, oxide windows, and other

circuit geometries are routinely made by photomask suppliers and IC producers using

optical equipment under various degrees of illumination coherence. Appendix C

is a selected bibliography of photomask publications.
2. BACKGROUND

The basic approach to photomask fabrication is photolithography with optical

instruments operating in the visible spectrum. In addition, non-optical techniques

such as electron-beam [9] and X-ray lithography [10] are currently being used, on

a limited scale, for mask fabrication. A master mask with an array of primary

patterns is shown in figure 1. This mask includes a wide range of test, continuity,

and alignment patterns used during the fabrication process.

RESOLUTION PRIMARY CONTINUITY ALIGNMENT

TL ALLFNTOWN

Figure 1. An integrated-circuit photomask and its various patterns. (Reprinted with

permission from The Bell System Technical Journal. Copyright 1970, The American

Telephone and Telegraph Company.

1

3
BACKGROUND

The procedures used to manufacture photomasks are not widely standardized

throughout the IC industry, although there are basic steps common to mask fabrication for silicon devices. These steps are illustrated schematically in figure

2 and include the following: (1) pattern generation; (2) stepping the pattern over the photoplate; and (3) photoprinting the master onto the working mask.

The first step, pattern generation, is the transfer of the design information

to a glass plate or master reticle with a pattern size typically ten times that

to be printed on the silicon wafer. This transfer may be accomplished directly

by a computer-controlled pattern generator or, as shown in figure 2, by photographically reducing artwork that previously has been cut from plastic filpi. A photographic reduction of 20X to lOOX is generally used and for larger reductions

involves two or more reductions. In the second step, the master reticle is placed

in a step-and-repeat camera which produces multiple exposures of the same pattern

on another glass plate. The pattern reduction for this step is generally lOX and,

depending upon the size of the production wafer and- the chip area, several hundred

to several thousand repeat patterns may be printed on the resulting master photor

mask. In the third step, the master photomask is contact printed to form a submaster, and the sub-master, in turn, is contact printed to give a working mask.

All masters are generally inspected for defects, and for hard-surface masks, most

of the sub-masters and working masks are also inspected. In addition, critical

dimension measurements are made on several selected areas of the mask patterns;

all masters and from 10 to 25 percent of the working masks are measured.

The master photomask is usually photographic emulsion on glass. Although

emulsion on glass is also used frequently for the sub-master and working masks, the

use of hard-surface masks consisting of chromium on glass and iron oxide on glass

is increasing significantly. The working masks are commonly 6.3 cm x 6.3 cm

(2 1/2 in. X 2 1/2 in.) and 7.6 cm x 7.6 cm (3 in. x 3 in.); the use of masks

measuring 10 cm x 10 cm (4 in. x 4 in.) is increasing with adoption of the 7.6-cm

(3 in.) diameter silicon wafer.

The working masks are used as negatives, or stencils, to expose a thin layer

of photoresist previously coated on a semiconductor wafer. After a sequence of

development, chemical etching, and sometimes impurity diffusion, this entire procedure is repeated with as many as twenty different masks for the same wafer.

Therefore, each mask must 'register precisely with the wafer patterns produced by

the previous masks. The resulting wafer contains many repetitions of the desired

IC and Is subsequently diced.

4
BACKGROUND

1. PATTERN GENERATION

Artwork ^P^'^^

2. STEP AND REPEAT

Camera

o o

O O D

3. CONTACT PRINTING

Master i I i

Sub-Master \ 1

1 Sub-Master

kSNSSSSSWNI

Master

Working

Mask

Figure 2: Basic steps of photomask fabrication.

5
3. APPROACH

The major effort to identify the measurement and optical problems associated

with current photomask technology consisted of a literature search and field

visits to photomask, IC, and instrument manufacturers and research organizations.

The additional technical investigations of measurement and optical problems discussed in appendices A and B were selected on the basis of information gathered

during the early phase of the study. Attendance by NBS personnel at four meetings

of the American Society for the Testing of Materials (ASTM)/Committee F-1 on Electronics* afforded additional contact with the IC community and the opportunity

to participate in discussions 'of measurement and optical problems.

The sources for the literature survey included the NBS library and computeraided literature searches. The computerized searches were obtained from the

following organizations: (1) National Technical Information Service (NTIS),

Springfield, Va.; (2) Smithsonian Scientific Information Exchange (SSIE),

Washington, D. C.,; and (3) Defense Documentation Center (DDC), Alexandria, Va. Selected literature was obtained and reviewed. A bibliography of publications

pertinent to the present study is given in appendix C.

The field visits by NBS personnel included four photomask suppliers, three

research organizations, seven equipment manufacturers, and eight IC producers.

Most of the IC producers had in-house mask-making facilities. On-site technical

discussions were held with industry personnel. Generally, a plant tour of maskfabrication and mask-inspection facilities was included.

Meetings at Palo Alto, Ca. (Sept. 6, 1973), New Orleans, La. (Jan. 15-16, 1974),

Gaithersburg, Md. (June 12, 1974), and Scottsdale, Ariz. (Sept. 5, 1974).

6
4. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

The present study reveals that significant dimensional-measurement and optical

problems exist throughout the IC industry in the manufacture and use of photomasks.

The relative importance of these problems to the various segments of the IC community

depends primarily on the function and services of the particular facility, i.e.,

photomask supplier, IC producer, or instrument maker. The present discussion of

these problemsdoes not reflect any particular ordering of importance; this discussion treats in depth only those problems of widespread significance in the IC industry.

4.1. Optics

Although the present study includes the broad use of optics in photomask technology, the major optical problems were found to be unrelated directly to the

photolithographic processing of photomasks. Instead, these optical problems are related to the existing measurement problems through the optical systems used for

photomask measurements. Therefore, these optical problems will be discussed under

the following section on measurement problems.

Several current observations that may not be regarded specifically as major

optical problems do warrant a separate discussion in this section. First, the basic

limitations imposed by diffraction and partial coherence on the formation of optical

images have obviously not changed despite improvements in such areas as photolithographic process controls, photoresist resolution, and mechanical precision of optical

instruments. These limitations have been acknowledged repeatedly in the technical

literature by workers in the IC field L11-14II and were known to optical and microphotographic specialists prior to IC development [15-1811. A study of image formation by visible radiation passing through simple geometrical apertures, without

the additionally degrading effects of lenses, mirrors, and windows, will show the

following: photolithographic techniques cannot provide photomasks and IC devices

with good dimensional fidelity for geometrical elements comparable in size to the

wavelength of light (about 0.4 ym to 0.7 pm). Linewidths of these dimensions have

been produced with uv-visible radiation and deformable photomasks which apparently

reduce diffraction effects [19]; this processing technique is currently not adaptable to production methods. For geometry smaller than about 1 ym, the effects of

illumination coherence [20] on image formation become significant and must be con- sidered by users of optical instruments as discussed later. In any event, a technology using radiation of shorter wavelengths than visible radiation appears

necessary to provide high quality photomasks and IC devices with pattern dimensions

well below about 1 ym. Electron-beam and x-ray lithography are possible considerations that presently exist on a developmental basis.

7
RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS

Secondly, the purchase and use of optical equipment without either specific optical

test data furnished by the instrument manufacturer or optical acceptance tests by the user is common practice. Consequently, optical instruments are used for fabricating

small dimensional geometries on photomasks and IC devices without adequate information

about the performance capabilities of the optical system. The absence of optical

testing is not limited to the IC community; although, the large percentage of capital

investment in optical equipment and its extensive use by this industry dramatizes this

deficiency. One reason for this absence of test data is that optical components mounted

in photolithographic instruments do not usually lend themselves to isolated testing.

Optical performance is governed by such fundamental properties as the pupil function

(wavefront error), the optical transfer function (OTP), resolution, depth of focus, and

the presence of aberrations. These properties can be obtained by interferometric lens

testing [21, 22] prior to mounting the lens in the system. In the absence of such

testing, the quality of photomasks and IC devices is limited by an unknown factor of

optical performance.

Finally, it should be noted that some U.S. and foreign optical companies have

responded to the needs of the IC industry by providing optical systems specifically

designed for photomask and IC processing. Such systems include minimum image distortion over large fields, lens-aberration corrections for the wavelengths of the

light used to expose emulsions and photoresists, and materials which are dimensionally

stable within the operating environment. It should be noted that small -volume IC equipment manufacturers generally do not have the financial means to have these

special lenses designed and cannot guarantee a sufficient market to assure the lens

manufacturer the recovery of design and manufacturing cost. Therefore, optical components in some photomask and IC processing equipment are sometimes off-the-shelf

items that were designed for other purposes and constitute a strong compromise in

performance and cost.

4.2. Dimensional Measurements

Photomask and IC producers are generally operating within the same technology

for dimensional micromeasurements that has existed since the early development of

IC's around 1960. Basically, this approach is a human operator collecting visual

readings through a microscope fitted with a micrometer stage or measurement eyepiece. As photomask and IC patterns have approached l-ym line widths, these

optical measurements have involved larger discrepancies and errors. As in the past,

most photomask and IC producers have continued to rely on commercially available

8
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

instruments to satisfy their measurement requirements. Only a few IC facilities

with research and development capabilities have developed any in-depth programs

to address their own particular measurement needs.

Generally, the approach adopted by the instrument manufacturer to the increasing micromeasurement problem is to improve the mechanical repeatability, or precision, of the equipment and to replace visual observations and manual operations

with automation and electronics. This approach is necessary for improved measurement

precision, but is not sufficient to obtain the accuracy that is needed for measurements approaching 1 ym. However, it is important to note that existing optical

measurement equipment could be used satisfactorily for accurate measurements down

to about 1 ym under the following .conditions: (1) knowing the operation limitations

and error values with different types of illumination and samples; and (2)

calibrating the system with a material length standard, or artifact, that is directly

related to the standard unit of length.

One attitude adopted by some IC producers has been to assume that dimensionalmeasurement problems can be tolerated provided that the final IC device performs

satisfactorily. This approach may be costly and time consuming by requiring the producer to test each IC device and to select as acceptable only those devices meeting

performance specifications. Since the manufacture, inspection, and use'of photomasks

occur early in semiconductor processing, it appears far more desirable to detect defects,

including dimensional errors v/hich would lead to device failure, in these front-end

processes rather than at the final test station. With early inspection techniques,

the unit cost of the surviving devices can be much lower; moreover their re- liability will be improved, and the ultimate yield can be increased significantly

since the photomask is a pattern for many individual devices. Of course, photomask inspection is routinely performed in current IC processing in order to achieve

these desirable objectives. However, such inspection is of little value if existing

measurement difficulties or limitations lead to dimensional-measurement inaccuracies

and eventual device rejection or failure.

The major dimensional-measurement problems associated with photomask technology

in the IC industry can be grouped into the following categories: (1) measurement of

small dimensions in the micrometer and submicrometer range; (2) edge definition or location of a physical edge for a line; and (3) registration, or relative alignment,

of several photomasks used to form successive patterns on a single wafer. The common manifestation of these problems appears in the optical instruments used to fabricate,

inspect, and register photomasks. Therefore, as mentioned earlier, the following

discussion of these specific measurement problems will include the related optical

problems.

9
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

4.2.1. Measurement of Small Dimensions

As noted earlier, dimensional measurements are routinely made on photomasks

to determine if design dimensions have been held within tolerances during mask

processing. These measurements are generally line-width measurements made on several different parts of the circuit geometry. , Selection of these measurement

areas is made during preparation of the initial photomask artwork. It is only

necessary to make these measurements at specified locations over the entire mask

because measurement errors are essentially not randomly distributed. These measurements should be made on different line widths at different locations to account for

variations in optical quality over the exposure field "of the instruments used to print the mask.

Line-width or oxide-window measurements are a length measurement from one edge

of the. line or window to the otfier edge of the same line or window. This type of

measurement is clearly different from such linear measurements as scale calibrations Which are basically line-spacing measurements. To further illustrate

this difference, it is noted that the present NBS line standard interferometer

[23] for linear-scale calibration provides accurate measurements between centers of

adjacent lines or from the edge of one line to the corresponding edge of the adjacent

line, but not from one edge to the other edge of the same line. This important

measurement difference is generally recognized by the IC community even though

linear scales or other line-spacing artifacts, which have been calibrated from line

center to line center or from left (right) edge to left (right) edge, are used

routinely for line-width measurement calibrations.

Typical critical dimensions for photomask and IC device geometry using conventional photolithographic processing presently range from 2 ym +0.25 ym for lowvolume production to 5 ym + 0.25 ym for high-volume production. Special devices

such as microwave circuitry include 1 ym and submicrometer geometry. These devices

are generally produced on a best-effort basis, and the measurement inaccuracy is

either unknown, unquoted, or so large that it approaches the nominal dimensions of

the patterns. These measurement inaccuracies of +^0.25 ym are often desired values

rather than values that can be substantiated by relating the measurement to the

standard unit of length. Also, these measurement tolerances sometimes include

precision tolerances. Precision is usually defined [24] as a measure of the ability

to repeat a given measurement, while accuracy is a measure of the difference between

a given measurement and the actual or standard value.

It is often suggested that if all masks used to print a wafer are generated in the same system, the precision of mask measurements is all that is required; whereas,

if several systems are used, then accuracy, or at least dimensional correlation, is

required. As discussed earlier, this conclusion does not stand in view of the desi>"

10
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

of many IC producers to predict final device performance by comparing circuit dimensions with design specifications, For this comparison, measurement accuracy must be

known.

In another recent study supported by ARPA [25], it was reported that automatic

photomask systems commercially available in the U.S. provide the capability for

efficient production of photomasks with the levels of accuracy and precision needed

for highly reliable devices and yields. However, this report does not point out

that this accuracy is attributed to the equipment and not necessarily the generated

photomask. The report also does not mention that the equipment accuracy can be

assured only if the manufclcturer calibrates the instrument by techniques, such as interferometry , that relate to the standard unit of length. In any event, the equipment user is not guaranteed that the accuracy quoted by the equipment manufacturer

can be transferred directly to the photomask. Accurate dimensional measurements on the photomask must be provided by an independent method.

The majority of photomask suppliers and users rely chiefly on the optical microscope with the filar or image-shearing eyepiece to perform small dimensional measurements down to about 2 ym. Other microscope systems that are used less frequently

include coordinate-measuring systems with translating stages and scanning microdensitometers . More recent developments to reduce human reading errors, measurement

time, and visual strain employ electronic interfacing with the optical microscope;

these system include automated dimensional readout or a video display with fiducial

lines for positioning over the magnified image of the object to be measured.

Advertised values of accuracy for these systems range from 0.1 \im to 0.01 ym. It should be stressed that very often precision and accuracy are advertised as being

the same value. The quoted error is termed an instrument error or accuracy by the

manufacturer when, in fact, the values quoted are the precision. In some cases,

the measuring-equipment manufacturer states that furnished linear scales, or micrometer

stages, are traceable to NBS dimensional calibration. Other instrument manufacturers

quote only the precision and accuracy of mechanical stages or other moving parts, but

do not list the accuracy and precision expected with the actual dimensional measurements. Still other manufacturers quote only the instrument sensitivity which is

usually the finest divisions on dials, verniers, or gauges.

The filar or image-shearing eyepiece replaces the normal eyepiece in an optical

microscope to permit dimensional measurement of objects placed on the specimen stage.

The filar eyepiece is basically a crosshair "which is moved across the field of view

by turning a micrometer drum, and the difference between two drum readings is re- lated to the linear dimension of the object. A shearing eyepiece produces two

identical images that are sheared or split by turning a micrometer drum; these two

images are often filtered to give a red and green image. The amount of shear, or

11
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

difference between the drum reading for zero shear with images superimposed and the

reading for shear with the two image edges (left edge from one image and right edge

from other image) just touching or slightly overlapping, is related to the object

length in the direction of shear. Both of these measurement systems require visual

judgement to position the crosshair and sheared images even though the readout of

the drum settings may be automated as mentioned earlier.

One of these two measurement systems is usually preferred by users at each photomask and IC facility based on their requirements and experience. At some facilities,

both systems are used routinely, and the choice for a particular measurement depends

on the type of photomask and the measurement conditions. Sample types and measurement conditions used with both the filar and image-shearing systems include emulsion

masks with low reflectance, highly reflective chromium masks, semi transparent ironoxide masks, opaque wafers, transmitted and reflected illumination, and filtered

and polychromatic illumination.

Differences between filar and image-shearing measurements of the same geometrical

feature on a mask vary from a few percent to over twenty percent throughout the IC industry. These differences most likely stem from the variable measurement conditions

and sample types already mentioned as well as other factors such as optical differences

and illumination coherence. The effort of some IC facilities to control tightly the

measurement conditions results primarily in improved precision on a particular

measurement system, but does not eliminate differences between the measurement systems.

A preliminary comparison of filar and image-shearing measurements made at the NBS

on a nominally 15-ym diameter wire and a lO-um diameter pinhole was included in the

present study. A comparison of line-width measurements on a nominally 12-ym width

chromium line on a glass substrate was also included. The results of these measurements are reported in appendix A, and they represent some of the measurement differences typically found between the filar and image-shearing systems.

The primary difficulties associated with dimensional measurements of mask pat- terns appear to be line-width measurements, unknown accuracies, and operating

limitations of the optical -microscope systems used to make the measurements. Linewidth measurements require locating the left and right edges of the line. Unless the

physical profiles of both edges are identical, differences in edge location can be

expected in measurement systems ranging from relatively simple microscopes to sophisticated interferometers. This fundamental measurement problem of edge detection is

discussed further in the following section.

Measurement accuracy requires that the measurement be traceable to a defined or standard unit of measurement. This link is normally provided in the laboratory by

secondary or working standards that are, in turn, related to the defining standard by

a primary or reference standard. The two types of material standards in common use

12
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

are Une-spacing standards whose length is the distance between two engraved lines,

and end standards or gauge blocks whose length is the distance between two opticallyflat, parallel surfaces [261], Since the meter has been defined in terms of the vacuum wavelength of monochromatic light of 605.6 nm from krypton 86 [2711, all length measurements must ultimately be referenced to this defining standard by interferometry.

Interferometry is presently used to calibrate both line standards and end

standards [283 at the NBS. Many research institutions and commercial firms engaged in some form of length measurement or manufacturing measurement equipment employ working

standards calibrated on these NBS measurement systems. Some of the facilities also

have mechanical comparators that use the NBS-cal ibrated scales or gauge blocks for

making routine length measurements. For example, scales and micrometer stages, such

as those used with the microscope for measurement purposes, are calibrated on these

mechanical comparators. However, the NBS systems cannot be used to calibrate line

widths; thus, no working standards for line-width measurements on photomasks are presently available.

In order to properly characterize the optical performance of a microscope, the

type of illumination and the optical aberrations must be considered. Image formation

in a microscope is much more complicated than in an instrument like a visual telescope because the object is not self-luminous in a microscope and must be illuminated

with an auxiliary source [2911. Diffraction patterns arising from this auxiliary illumination occur in the object plane of the microscope. These patterns partly overlap causing light vibrations at adjacent points to be partially correlated in phase.

In addition to this spatial correlation, there can exist a temporal correlation of

light that depends on the spectral pass-band of the illumination; these light cor- relations are characterized by the spatial coherence and temporal coherence,

respectively. For the extreme cases of coherent and incoherent light emerging from

the object, the resolution limit for a microscope without optical aberrations depends

only on the light wavelength and the numerical aperture of the objective. Most real

microscopes are not free of optical aberrations, and the illumination is neither

coherent or incoherent. Therefore, the general image quality, which includes the

image structure for various object contrast ratios and sizes of detail approaching the

resolution limit, is more useful in describing optical performance than a single value

of resolution limit.

The optical quality of microscope measurement systems commonly used by the IC community does not vary significantly; in general, the aberrations are small and do not greatly limit image quality. The major variations in these systems are the types

of sample illumination and the sample properties. Therefore, the effects of partial

coherence of the imaging system appear to be primarily responsible for existing dimensional-measurement differences. Even before calibrated artifacts could be used in

13
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

these measurement systems to determine the measurement accuracies, the effects of illumination on each imaging system would have. to be thoroughly determined.

Although the scanning electron microscope (SEM) has significantly improved resolution compared to the optical microscope, micromeasureraents with the SEM require

a careful dimensional calibration over the field of view occupied by the object to be

measured. The resolution is distinct from the accuracy and precision of measurements

and does not inherently guarantee that either measurement accuracy or precision will

be improved compared to optical -microscope measurements. Furthermore, calibrated

scales or measurement artifacts for micrometer measurements in the SEM are not

presently available,

A dimensional measurement technique [4, 30] of increasing interest that does not

require either a calibrated scale or visual readings uses Fourier optics. In this

approach, the object to be measured is illuminated by monochromatic light, and the

resulting diffraction pattern is usually collected by a lens; this far-field diffraction pattern is the spatial Fourier transform of the object. In theory, the

locations of the nulls and peaks and the relative intensities of this pattern can

be analyzed to give the size of the object. In practice, the object should be simple

and symmetrical, such as a slit or a wire, to avoid highly complicated diffraction

patterns.

4.2.2. Edge Definition

The location of a physical edge for a line, window, or other geometrical pattern

on a photomask or silicon die is primarily of interest for dimensional measurements,

registration of several masks, or alignment of mask and wafer. There are specific

problem areas associated with edge location for dimensional measurements that were

not treated in the previous section on measurement of small dimensions and will,

therefore, be presented in this section. In addition, the present discussion will

bear directly on the following section which discusses photomask reg-i strati on.

The major sources of difficulties encountered in determining the location of a physical edge may be grouped into the following three categories: (1) physical profile of the edge; (2) methods for observing the edge and recording the profile; and

(3) criteria selected for defining the edge location. In general, photomask and IC manufacturers currently experience measurement difficulties resulting from all three

sources. It should be noted that these problems are not unique to the IC industry.

Long before the advent of IC technology, such- problems had been encountered in microdensitometry , surface measurement, microphotography , and deposition of thin films.

For example, microdensiometry is chiefly concerned with accu»»ately recording the

optical -density variation as a function of position in a photographic image which

typically exhibits sharp density gradients or edges. Surface-roughness measurements

14
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

using contact probes are frequently used to map out the surface profile of materials,

and interferometry is traditionally used for step-height measurements of various thin

films. Neither contact probe nor step-height interferometry are very applicable to locating a physical edge because these techniques have relatively poor resolution and

accuracy in the sample plane or horizontal direction.

The physical profile of an edge in a photomask or IC die depends primarily on the

type of material, such as chromium, iron oxide, silver-hal ide emulsion, or silicon

oxide, and the process by which the edge was prepared. Over the past few years, efforts

to produce IC patterns have resulted in the routine generation of physical edges that

exhibit sharper profiles compared to those of the patterns produced by early techniques

of microphotography . Included in recent efforts are improved contact printing techniques, development of special optics, use of hard-surface photomasks, and electronbeam processing. However, the majority of photomasks currently used are silver-halide

emulsion and, therefore, the typical edge profile results from exposing adjacent re- gions of emulsion with high and low intensities of visible light. Even with the use of high resolution emulsions, diffraction-limited optics, intimate contact printing,

and controlled processing, there are chemical-diffusion effects that occur during

exposure of adjacent emulsion areas to high and low light levels [31] and, thereby

degrade an originally sharp edge. One approach for producing sharper edges in

emulsion is high-contrast processing or clipping [32]. This technique may lead to difficulties in controlling dimensional tolerances. Chromium on glass is grainless compared to emulsion and can provide a sharper edge. In addition, the photoresist coating

used on a chromium photoplate does not exhibit a grey scale like silver-halide emulsion

and, therefore, can provide sharper edges as in high-contrast printing. The IC die

also contains silicon-oxide edges which are structurally different from the metallic

and emulsion edges. In general, irregularities in both the horizontal and vertical

dimensions of the edge are more pronounced for silicon oxide and make dimensional mea- surements more difficult.

The instruments generally used in the IC industry to observe and record the edge

profile include optical microscopes, SEM's, and microdensitometers . The optical

microscopes are used chiefly for dimensional measurements, mask and wafer alignment, and defect inspection. These observations are concerned with the location of

the edge in the sample plane rather than the detailed height variation. With an optical microscope, an operator usually places a crosshair at the edge of the line or

shears the line images until opposite edges just touch as in the filar or image-shearing

eyepiece. In any event, the operator must make a visual judgment of the edge location;

the edge location chosen can depend on the type of illumination, the light-scattering

properties of the sample, and the experience of the operator. For example, an edge

on an emulsion mask viewed under dark-field transmitted light appears as a bright line

15
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

surrounded by a dark field, and the crosshair can be positioned symmetrically on the

linej while under bright-field transmitted light, this edge appears at the opaquetransparent interface and symmetrical positioning of the crosshair is difficult. In photoelectric microscopes [33], which require essentially no visual judgement by the

operator for determining the edge location, the optical image of the edge is converted

to an electronic signal, and the edge location' is based on a null signal or a slopedetection criterion. However, there exists no method for determining the relation. of

the edge location in this microscope system with the actual edge profile.

The SEM has been used to provide detailed examinations of edge profiles on photomasks, on IC dice, and in photoresist films [34, 3511. These studies have shown some of the edges to be highly' irregular or jagged. These irregularities are a source of

error for dimensional measurements and lead to significant light scattering with optical

inspection techniques. Because of the high resolution of the SEM, it is one of the

most promising techniques for determining the actual edge profile. Due to the cost,

complexity, and sample preparation requirements, the SEM has thus far had limited use

in the IC community.

Optical microdensitometers have been used to trace line-width profiles of both

emulsion and hard-surface masks. Hard-surface masks, such as chromium, are highly

reflective and can cause significant scattered light, or flare, in the microdensitometer; one investigator 1I36D has reported that as little as one percent flare light

can degrade the image of an edge beyond the point where useful information can be

obtained. Furthermore, since flare tends to be object dependent, the comparison of

profile traces between hard-surface and emulsion edges on the same microdensitometer

must be treated cautiously. In addition, current microdensitometers generally do not operate in a linear mode at the high spatial frequencies [37, 38] which often occur

in the detail of the edge profile; this non-linear operation stems from the partial

coherence of the illumination system and is essentially unavoidable, owing to the

optical design of these systems. The degree of illumination coherence also affects

the position and profile of the edge in image-forming systems such as microdensitometers and optical microscopes. A brief discussion of these effects is presented

in appendix B.

There is presently no single criterion for edge definition that is equally applicable to different instruments and different types of samples. From the previous

discussion, it is apparent that the selection of a criterion for edge location, such

as half-power point or maximum slope, would be influenced by the available trace or record of the edge profile. For example, with edges scanned by a microdensitometer,

a geometric average of the slopes of the output trace is the basis of the various measures of edge quality called acutance [39]. The measurement of acutance may prove

too cumbersome for the detailed profile obtained from an SEM, particularly for a rough

edge. Moreover, none of these techniques for determining edge location can be used withj

16
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

an optical microscope since it has a small depth of focus and normally does not provide

much detail in the vertical direction.

4.2.3, Registration

In routine production, fabrication of a single IC device may require

from four to twelve sequential mask layers. For a device series of masks, reqi strati on

is defined [40, 41] as the accuracy of the relative positions of all functional patterns

on any mask with the corresponding patterns of any other mask when the masks are properly superimposed. Registration is also sometimes used in the IC community to describe

the accuracy of the relative position of a single geometric pattern on a mask with an existing pattern on a silicon wafer; however, in conforming with the recommended definitions of reference 40, this accuracy should be considered alignment rather than

registration. Although techniques [6, 42, 43] for measuring mask registration are

often a measure of mask and wafer alignment, this alignment is usually regarded as part

of wafer processing rather than mask fabrication; therefore, in the present discussion,

only those aspects of mask and wafer alignment that bear directly on mask registration

will be presented.

Alignment marks are used on the mask reticle to permit rotational and translational

alignment of the mask image preparatory for the step and repeat phase. Other alignment

marks are used to position masks for registration check and to position the mask for

wafer exposure. These alignment marks are often simple geometric forms such as straight

bars, L-shaped bars, and crosses. For a reticle or a mask with a single pattern, the

alignment marks are included in the artwork or produced by the automatic pattern generator and are located outside the functional pattern area; whereas, for the common

multi -pattern mask, the marks are generated from a separate reticle and are located

either within or outside of the pattern array. An example of alignment marks is shown

in figure 1.

Mask registration and alignment of mask and wafer are generally checked by visual

inspection through a comparison microscope that superimposes two image. These optical

systems are often equipped with a micrometer stage, filar eyepiece, or image-shearing . eyepiece to permit measurement of registration and alignment. In practice, a pair of

masks is first observed under low magnification and the alignment marks are used to superimpose the two mask images; then, under higher magnification, a detail, such as a line width, for a pattern of one mask is compared with the corresponding pattern of the

other mask. A measure of registration is the relative separation of these comparative

pattern edges whenever these patterns are designed to overlap or just touch with no separation on the final wafer. Although this measurement of registration is a linear measurement in the usual comparative microscope, it should be noted that some registration

errors are also described by an angular difference, such as array rotation or pattern

rotation. In any event, this visual measurement is subject to some of the same optical

limitations and dimensional errors discussed previously. For example, the accurate com17
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

pari son of pattern geometry much below 1 ym is limited by the diffraction effects of light

even with microscope optics that exhibit no aberrations. Furthermore, the effects of

partial coherence on image formation and subsequent dimensional measurements will depend

to a large extent upon the type of illumination and the optical properties of the mask.

Therefore, some of the difficulties of locating the physical edge, as discussed earlier,

are also encountered in checking mask registration.

In addition to optical limitations, most of the present equipment for determining

registration has two basic shortcomings. First, this equipment compares only two masks at the same time and, consequently, it is not apparent from a registration-error

measurement which mask has the pattern in the desired design location. Second, alignment of emulsion or chromium masks is difficult due to the opacity of the patterns.

This difficulty led to the development of partially transparent, or see-through, masks

such as iron oxide [44, 45] and silicon. Even with these see-through masks, considerable time is still spent by the instrument operator in aligning the masks before re- gistration is measured.

The causes of registration errors include the following: (1) reticle misalignment and stage positional errors in the step-and-repeat camera; (2) non-flatness of

mask substrate; and (3) environmental changes. The registration errors introduced

by the step-and-repeat camera have attracted considerable attention since the early

development of IC's. The primary reason for developing the multi-barrel step-andrepeat camera, which has separate optical systems for projecting more than one mask

image on a common photoplate, was to eliminate registration errors introduced by non- repeating stage movement. However, recent experience has shown that multi-barrel

instruments may introduce registration errors from variations between the separate

optical systems; these differences include unmatched lenses and magnification differences, and alignment differences in the separate reticles. Furthermore, it is not always possible in actual production to produce masks that are all acceptable from

one run on a multi -barrel system, particularly when the number of optical barrels is

large. Thus, the defective masks have to be remade with some loss in registration

tolerance. The current trend at some IC facilities with both single and multi-barrel

equipment is to use the single-barrel configuration for high-quality masks requiring

tight dimensional and registration tolerances.

During exposure of the sub-master and working mask, a bow or warp in the mask

substrate often results in a registration error. If the non-flat glass substrate is

temporarily flattened against the master as in vacuum contact printing, the pattern

will be printed on a flat surface, but this sub-master will return to its previous

curvature when released. Therefore, the spacing between patterns on the sub-master

will vary from mask center to edge when compared to the pattern spacing on the master;

this relative change of pattern spacing relative to the proper spacing is usually termed

run-out or pitch error 1I40I]. Furthermore, this type of error is often the major

18
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

registration error resulting from the stepping errors discussed previously.

If a mask series is fabricated over a relatively long period of time, environment effects such as temperature variation can affect the dimensional stability of

the mask substrate and results in registration errors. This effect can be particularly important if a replacement mask has to be made at a later time and is re- quired to retrofit into the original mask series.

Present registration tolerances in the IC industry range from about +_ 0.25 pm

to + 2.5 pm. In general, the precision of mask registration should be better than

the minimum line width. As circuit density increases in the near future, the re- quired registration tolerances will quite naturally become even more critical. The

technology that must eventually replace visible radiation in the fabrication of

masks with pattern geometry below 1 ym should also include a method to ensure

better registration than presently available with optical equipment. One approach

C9, 46] using an electron beam to generate masks also uses the electron beam to register masks automatically and to align mask and wafer automatically; results

indicate a +0.2 ym alignment on 5.08-cm diameter silicon wafer. Another approach

1147n that uses X-ray lithography in the fabrication of elastic surface-wave devices

also suggests that X-ray detectors coupled with piezoelectric drives could be used

to provide +0.1 ym registration precision; this system would also automatically

align each mask during successive printing steps on the wafer.

19-
5. CONCLUSIONS

The present study has identified the current optical and dimensional-measurement problems related to the fabrication and use of photomasks in semiconductor

processing. These problems have been treated in detail in previous sections of

this report and are summarized below,

5.1 Optics

(a) The majority of optical problems are directly related to dimensionalmeasurement problems through the optical instruments used to fabricate, inspect,

and register photomasks; these problems are summarized in the next section on dimensional measurements.

(b) Although some optical systems have been designed specifically for the re- quirements of the IC industry, small-volume IC manufacturers cannot financially

support the development of these special optics and cannot guarantee a sufficient

market to assure the optics manufacturer the recovery of design and manufacturing

costs. This often results in the use of off-the-shelf optics, thereby constituting

a strong compromise in performance and cost.

(c) In general neither the supplier- of optical systems, which are the basis

of IC photolithography, nor the IC manufacturer uses optical testing

such as interferometry to determine the imaging performance. Usually, the optical

supplier furnishes only design data, prototype test data, or limited resolutionchart testing, and the user relies chiefly on the quality of the final IC device

to assess the optical equipment.

(d) The pronounced diffraction effects resulting from illumination of submicrometer geometry with visible radiation constitute a basic limitation to the

printing of acceptable patterns in photolithographic processing. Although this'

limitation is widely accepted by the IC community, a considerable effort is still

made to print, inspect, and measure patterns with dimensions approaching the wavelength of light. This effort often involves a tight control of photographic processing parameters and improvement of the mechanical precision associated with

processing equipment. The results appear to be very unrewarding to the IC manu- facturer since the final acceptable devices are then produced on a costly best-effort

basis.

5.2. Dimensional Measurements

(a) The major measurement problems are dimensional measurements below 10 ym, location of a physical edge for a line or other mask pattern, and mask registration;

these problems routinely occur during the use of optical instruments used to fabricate, inspect, and register masks.

(b) Line-width measurements are the usual type of dimensional measurements

made on masks. These measurements are made from left edge to right edge, or

20
CONCLUSIONS

vice-versa. There are presently no measurement artifacts available for calibrating

equipment used in line-width measurements. The NBS line-standard interferometer cannot

be used to calibrate line-widths; thus, no working standards for line-width measurements

on photomasks are currently available.

Significant <lifferences occur between measurements made on the widely used

image-shearing and filar eyepieces coupled to optical microscopes; the inability to determine measurement accuracy largely precludes the resolution of these differences.

Consequently, photomask and IC manufacturers have concentrated their measurement

efforts on dimensional repeatability of pattern geometry and have depended on the

reliability of the final I'C device rather than accurate comparison of pattern geometries to design data. As a consequence of such problems, the learning curve for

device development and reliable production is longer than is desirable, and customers

are frequently unable to obtain short runs of custom devices to meet special needs

in an affordable way.

(c) Equipment manufacturers have significantly improved the mechanical precision

of equipment used in mask fabrication and in the measurements of dimensions and

registration. A few systems using interferometers have also improved the mechanical

accuracy; since the dimensional accuracy of the resulting mask patterns and mask

registration must still be determined by independent measurements , this accuracy re- mains undetermined.

(d) The type of illumination, such as reflected, bright-field, and dark-field,

and its degree of coherence are known to affect significantly the apparent edge

location in an optical measurement system such as the microscope. These effects,

rather than lens aberrations, appear to be the prime limitations to measurement

precision and interpreting measurement differences among various optical measurement

systems

.

(e) The difficulties associated with mask registration are primarily measurement inaccuracy, location of a physical edge, and the limited visibility resulting

from a comparison of masks with opaque patterns. Even for masks with semi-transparent patterns, the measurement problems remain.

21
6. RECOMMENDATIONS

The following recommendations are made in view of the current optical and measurement needs in photomask technology that have been identified and discussed in the

present report.

6.1. Optics

(a) The optical properties such as the pupil function, the optical transfer function, the presence of aberrations, the resolution, and the depth of focus of photolithographic optical equipment should be measured. These properties are measured by interferometric lens testing and specify the optical performance of the equipment. Since

the quality of both photomask and IC devices is limited by the optical performance of

photolithographic equipment, a knowledge of these properties would benefit the industry.

(b) An alternate approach to photolithography, such as electron-beam and X-ray

lithography, should be developed for the routine processing of semiconductor devices

with sub-micrometer geometry. In the interim, a conformable mask could be used in

a printing system that provides uniform intimate contact over large areas in order

to improve the quality of patterns with geometry from about 1 pm to 0.5 ym.

6.2. Dimensional Measurements

(a) A calibrated measurement artifact for determining accuracy of line-width

measurements below 10 ym must be developed for use in the IC industry and all other

areas concerned with micrometrology. Currently, the primary measurement need in

the IC industry is for the high-volume devices with smallest geometry from about

2 ym to 5 ym that are measured with optical systems. Increasing demands for higher

density, smaller geometry devices indicate a future need for dimensional measurements

as small as 0.5 ym. Measurement artifacts or working standards must, of course,

be traceable to the primary length standard (monochromcitic radiation of wavelength

605.6 nm).

(b) The operating conditions and limitations of the optical microscope coupled

with measurement eyepieces must be more thoroughly studied and developed. The effects

of sample properties, types of illumination, and the degree of coherence on dimensional measurements must be included. Of particular interest to the IC industry,

with its sizeable investment in various types of optical measuring equipment,

would be a recommended set of practices to follow in obtaining measurements on a ; particular class of instruments under specified operating conditions. Using the | measurement artifact in conjunction with the improved theory developed for the

microscope would permit the measurement of small dimensions to a known accuracy.

22
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Vol. 55 (Society of Photo-Optical Instrumentation Engineers, Palos Verdes, Ca., 1975).

42. Tong, J. B. , Mask Manufacture for Integrated Circuits, Solid State Technol. 1J_, No. 7, 19-26 (July 1968).

43. Standard Recommended Practice for Determining Multiple Photomask Registration, ASTM

Designation F 54, Annual Book of ASTM Standards, Part 43. (American Society for

Testing and Materials, Philadelphia, 1975).

44. Sullivan, M. V., Iron Oxide See-Through Photomask, J. Electrochem. Soc. 120 , No. 4,

545-550 (April 1973).

45. Janus, A. R., Properties of Iron Oxide Films for Photomask Applications, Solid State

Teohnol. 16_, No. 6, 33-37 (June 1973).

46. Livesay, W. R. , Computer Controlled Electron Beam Projection Mask Aligner, Solid

25
REFERENCES

State Teahnol. 17, No. 7, 21-26 (July 1974).

47. Smith, H. I., Spears, D. L., and Bernacki, S. E., X-Ray Lithography: A Complementary

Technique to Electron Beam Lithography, J. Vaa. Soi. Teahnol. No. 6, 913-917

(Nov. /Dec. 1973).

48. Considine, P. S., Effects of Coherence on 'Imaging Systems, J. Opt. Soa. Am. 56,

No. 8, 1001-1009 (Aug. 1966).

49. Skinner, T. J., Energy Considerations, Propagation in a Random Medium and Imaging

in Scalar Coherence Theory, Doctoral dissertation, Boston University, 1964.

50. Dyson, J., Precise Measurement by Image-Splitting, J. Opt. Soo. Am. 50, No. 8,

754-757 (Aug. 1960).

51. Grimes, D. N., Imaging of Tri-Bar Targets and the Theoretical Resolution Limit in Partially Coherent Illumination, Opt. Soo, Am. 61_, No. 7, 870-876 (July 1971),

I

0

f

I

I

26
APPENDIX A

COMPARISON OF DIMENSIONAL MEASUREMENTS

MADE WITH IMAGE-SHEARING AND FILAR EYEPIECES

BY

Fred W. Rosberry

Preliminary laboratory tests were made to investigate the measurement differences

between an image-shearing eyepiece and a filar, or micrometer, eyepiece. The objects

measured were a nominally IS-pm diameter tungsten wire and a nominally lO-um diameter

pinhole which were the. only suitable artifacts immediately available. The two objects were illuminated both by transmitted light (bright field) and by reflected light (dark

field) from an incandescent source. A helium-neon laser was used as a source for

transmitted coherent illumination. In the present tests, the use of laser for reflected

illumination resulted in numerous fringe patterns across the microscope field of view.

These fringes arose from scattering and multiple reflections in the condenser and re- sulted in significantly degraded image quality; thus, measurements were not made with

reflected laser illumination. Dimensional calibrations were made against a stage

micrometer calibrated by the National Bureau of Standards.

The results of the dimensional measurements for both objects and both types of

microscope eyepieces are given in table 1. Measurements of the wire diameter with the

filar eyepiece in white light gave slightly larger dimensions than corresponding measurements made with the image-shearing eyepiece for both reflected white light and

transmitted laser light; larger dimensions were measured with the image-shearing

eyepiece for transmitted white light. Measurements of the pinhole diameter showed the

filar eyepiece to give larger dimensions than the image-shearing eyepiece with transmitted white light and laser illumination. The image-shearing eyepiece gave larger

dimensions than the filar eyepiece with reflected white light.

These measurements are not representative of the measurements the IC community is

currently making on photomasks. These samples differ from photomask patterns especially

in the height dimension which is much greater than that on photomasks.

A comparison of linewidth measurements using both eyepieces was made on nominally

12-ym width chromium lines on a glass substrate which more recently became available.

The results shown in table 2 are the average values of twenty measurements of each line

width. These values show a difference of 0.11 um between the filar and image-shearing

for bright field; this difference is within the 3a value, while for dark-field the

difference of 0.77 ym is far greater than the 3a value. If the bright-field and darkfield measurements are compared for the same type of eyepiece, a significant difference

exists for the filar. No explanation of these differences has been formulated, but

such discrepancies are typical of those currently found for measurements of these dimensions in the photomask and IC industry.

27
APPENDIX A

Table 1: Dimensional measurements of wire width and pinhole diameter using filar

and image-shearing eyepieces on an optical microscope.

a. Measurements for a nominally 15-pm width wire.

Filar (ym) Image-Shearing (pm)

White light Laser - White light Laser

Reflected 14.94 14.70

Transmitted 15.12 16.2 16.45 15.8

b. Measurements for a nominally 10-ym diameter pinhole.

Filar (ym) Image-Shearing (ym)

White light Laser White light Laser

Reflected 9.72 10.00

Transmitted 10.37 10.22 9.15 9.20

Table 2: Comparison of dimensional measurements for a nominally 12-ym width

chromium-on-glass line (486-nm illumination); 3o value for each measurement is approximately 0.25 ym.

Filar (ym) Image-Shearing (ym)^

Bright Field 11.76 11.87

Dark Field 11.06 11.83

28
APPENDIX B

EFFECTS OF ILLUMINATION COHERENCE ON APPARENT EDGE POSITION IN OPTICAL -IMAGING SYSTEMS

By

Richard E. Swing

When viewing objects with discontinuities such as sharp edges and wel 1 -defined

lines in the microscope, it is possible to make incorrect measurements of their dimensions because of the partial coherence of the illumination. Indeed, the observational device does not need to be a microscope; a microdensitometer, for example,

employs microscope optics and displays the scanned image as a chart-trace or magnetictape record. If widths of lines or locations of edges are based on the location of the

half-power point (the mean between maximum and minimum image transmittance) , the

degree of partial coherence of the illuminating system can cause serious errors in

the results.

These effects were reported by P. S. Considine L48II; his report is an experimental sunmary based on the theoretical considerations of a doctoral dissertation

by T. J. Skinner C49I1. In the summary by Considine, it is shown that if the edge

discontinuity is located at the half-intensity point, the coherent image of the

edge is shifted by

„ 0.106 xm

^ N.A.

where m is the magnification, N.A. is the numerical aperture of the objective lens,

and X is the illumination wavelength; it is assumed that an ocular is not used in combination with the objective (for an ocular, the value of m is increased). The

significance of D is shown in figure 3. For example, let

N.A. = 0.25, m = lOX, X = 500 nm;

+thus, h..c n

D

-= (-106) (10) (.5) _ o -.o ^ , ^ ^

j

—^— - c.ll \\m - I \im .

This 2-um shift of the image is equivalent to a 0.2-vjm shift of the object, i.e., the

object shift is the image shift divided by the magnification or D/m, Even if the optics

are improved by going to a 0.65 numerical aperture (with a consequent increase in magnification to 20X), D is .1.6 pm or still about 2 ym. Thus, there is an error

associated with measuring the image at the half-power point if the illumination is

fully coherent. Since the illumination in a microscope system is usually partially

coherent, the error is between zero and the value of D. Unless the degree of partial coherence is known, the error is only bracketed. It would be less ambiguous

to illuminate with completely coherent light and calculate the edge location at the

29
APPENDIX B

quarter-intensity point (where the edge will be found in such illumination).

The Considine summary considered only edges. These edges can be treated in

isolation and do not interact with any other image structure. Skinner, in his dissertation, treated the problem of lines and found that when the line widths were greater than about ten times the width of the impulse response of the imaging optics,

the line could be treated as the combination of two edges whose effects did not interact. As an example, consider an f/1.6 lens, such as these used in high-quality

step-and-repeat cameras, to be diffraction limited for actinic radiation of 405 nm. The impulse response for this lens is 1.3 ym; therefore, the line width that images

without interaction between its two edges is approximately 13 pm or greater. A detailed analysis for line widths below such values must be carried out before the

assessment of the effects of partial coherence on line-width measurements can be

made.

Recent research [50] indicates that with an image-splitting eyepiece the measurement of line widths can be accurate to better than one tenth of the smallest resolvable

dimension. For this accuracy, it is assumed that the object is incoherently illuminated. This accuracy may not be realized in practice because of the inability to incoherently illuminate the object as indicated in the study of tri-bar target imagery

by D. N. Grimes [51]. The program needs an investigation with considerable attention

given to microscope adjustments and to the effects of partial coherence relative to the object structure.

COHERENT ILLUMINATION INCOHERENT ILLUMINATION

Kv)

1.0 - 'l^ n

// // // /;

\ 1 .5 - -1

1

y- \—^

I: -2-1 1 1

TT

0 12

Figure 3. Theoretical plot of the intensity distribution for a coherent and incoherent

image of an edge. (Philip S. Considine, Journal of the Optical Society of America,

Vol. 56, p. 1003, 1966.) Note - The abscissa is proportional to the horizontal distance

from the edge. The horizontal distance between the two curves at the half-power point

represents an edge image displacement of about 2 ym for the examples of appendix B.

30
APPENDIX C

SELECTED BIBLIOGRAPHY OF PHOTOMASK PUBLICATIONS

The literature sources cited in this bibliography contain information related

to the optical and micrometrological aspects of the manufacture and use of photomasks

in semiconductor processing. This listing contains book chapters and sections,

articles from technical journals, contract reports, reports by U.S. Government

agencies, company publications, and proceedings of technical conferences, seminars,

and symposia. Publications that describe complete procedures for fabrication of a specific IC device and only briefly describe photomask procedures or publications

that concentrate primarily on other aspect of photomask technology, such as artwork generation, photoresists, or defect inspection, have generally not been included

It should also be noted that references to electron-beam and x-ray generation of

masks are excluded since the present study was concerned primarily with masks made

using visible and ultraviolet radiation (photolithography).

The approximate period covered by the bibliography is from January 1966' through

November 1974 and the arrangement is chronological. Some of these literature sources

are also cited as references in the present report. The abbreviations used for

technical journals follow the recommendations of (1) ACCESS - Key to the Source

Literature of the Chemical Sciences (The American Chemical Society, 1969) and (2)

Publications Indexed for Engineering (Engineering Index, Inc., New York, 1974).

Some of the bibliographic sources are also available directly from NTIS

(National Technical Information Service, 5285 Port Road, Springfield, Va. 22151)

and DDC (Defense Documentation Center, Cameron Station, Alexandria, Va. 22314).

The ASTM documents referenced are available as separate reprints from the American

Society for Testing and Materials, 1916 Race Street, Philadelphia, Pa. 19103. These

documents appear in the 1974 edition of the Annual Book of ASTM Standards in essentially

the same form as Tentatives.

31
APPENDIX C

1966

Newman, P. A., and Rible, V. E., Pinhole Camera for Integrated Circuits, Appl. Opt.

5, No. 7, 1225-1228 (July 1966).

Schuetze, H. J., and Hennings, K. E., Large-Area Masking with Patterns of Micron

and Submicron Element Size, Semioond. Prod, and Solid state Teohnol. 9_, No. 7,

31-35 (July 1966).

Maple, T. G., Integrated Circuit Mask Fabrication, Semioond. Prod, and Solid State

Teohnol. 9, No. 8, 23-34 (Aug. 1966).

Stevens, 6. W. W., Control of Line Width in Photographic Masks, Trans. Inst. Metal

Finishing 44, Printed Circuit Supplement, 123-127 (1966).

1967

Gaudiano, S., Microcircuit Masking Techniques, Prooeedings of Second NASA Mioroelectronios Symposium, NASA TM X-55834 (June 1967).

Payne, P. D., Photomask Technology in Integrated Circuits, Semioond. Prod, and

Solid State Teohnol. 10, No. 7, 39-42 (July 1967).

Integrated Cirouit Teahnology - Instrumentation and Techniques for Measurement, Process and Failure Analysis, S. Schwartz, ed., pp. 63-79 (McGraw-Hill Book Co.,

Inc. , New York, 1967).

1968

Stevens, G. W. W., Microphotography, Second edition. Chapter 11 (John Wiley and Sons,

Inc. , New York, 1968).

Geikas, G. I., and Abies, B. D., Contact Printing - Associated Problems, Proceedings

of the 1968 Kodak Photoresist Seminar, Los Angeles, Ca., May 20-21, 1968-,

Eastman Kodak Co., Rochester, N. Y., Publication P-192-B, pp. 47-54.

Levine, J. E., Process Analysis of Mask Making, Solid State Teohnol. No. 7,

34-48 (July 1968).

Tong, J. B., Mask Manufacture for Integrated Circuits, Solid State Teohnol. 11_, No. 7, 19-26 (July 1968).

Lovering, H. B., Direct Exposure of Photorest by Projection, Solid State Teohnol.

No. 7, 39-42 (July 1968).

Beeh , R. C. M., Automation and Motor Function Routines for Mask Making, Solid State

Teohnol. No. 7, 27-34 (July 1968).

Reams, Jr., R. B., and Klute, C. H., An Automatic Step-and-Repeat Camera, Harry Diamond Laboratories Report TR-1417 (Nov. 1968). (Available from NTIS as AD682068.)

32
APPENDIX C

1969

Barnes, R. D., Taking the "Ifs" Out of Photo Mask Making, Collected 'Papers from Kodak

Seminars on Miarominiaturization^ Eastman Kodak Co., Rochester, N. Y., Publication P-195, pp. 2-7 (1969).

Altman, J. H., Photograph of Fine Slits Near the Diffraction Limit, Collected Papers

from Kodak Seminars on Microminiaturization, Eastman Kodak Co., Rochester, N. Y.,

Publication P-195, pp. 20-27 (1969).

Ruff, B. J., Laser Interferometers for Step-and-Repeat Cameras, Proceedings of Kodak

Photoresist Seminar, Eastman Kodak Co., Rochester, W. Y., Publication P-209,

pp. 46-53.

Schellenberg, H., Optical Mask Alignment and Exposure Systems, Proceedings of Kodak

Photoresist Seminar, Eastman Kodak Co., Rochester, N. Y., Publication P-209,

pp. 54-63.

Jackson, T. M. , and Rowe, T. J., Laser Cuts Masks to Size, Eliminating Most Errors,

Electronics 42, No. 2, 81-84 (Jan. 20, 1969).

Altman, J. H., Photo-Optical Aspect of Mask Technology, Solid State Technol. 12^, No. 7, 34-42 (July 1969).

1970

Hartman, D. K. , Glasbrenner, R. K., Colangelo, D. , et. al . , In-Process Control

Techniques for Complete Semiconductor Structures, Part 1: Manufacturing In- Process Control and Measuring Techniques for Mask Evaluation (Tech. Report

AFML-TR-69-334), General Electric Co., Semiconductor Products Dept. (Dec. 1970).

(Available from DDC as AD881208.)

Epstein, L., and Husni , S. Y., Dimensional Control in Photoengraving, Proceedings of

the 1970 Kodak Seminar on Microminiaturization, Eastman Kodak Co., Rochester,

N. Y., Publication P-228, pp. 32-36.

Anon.: Techniques of Microphotography, Eastman Kodak Co., Rochester, N. Y., Publication

P-52, pp. 2-7.

Harriott, D. R., Device Photolithography: Lenses for the Photolithographic System,

Bell Syst. Tech. J. 49, No. 9, 2105-2116 (Nov. 1970).

Howland, F. L., and Poole, K. M. , An Overview of the New Mask-Making System, Bell Syst.

Tech. J. 49, No. 9, 1997-2009 (Nov. 1970).

1971

Heimer, R. J., Influence of Process Parameters on the Final Image Quality of Photomask,

Paper presented at the Topical Meeting on the Use of Optics in Microelectronics - Optical Society of America, Las Vegas, Nev., Jan. 25-27, 1971.

33
APPENDIX C

1971 (continued)

Hopkins, R. E., Buzawa, J., and Munnerlyn, C, Interferometric Testing of Microelectronic Optics, Paper presented at the Topical Meeting on the Use of Optics in

Microelectronics - Optical Society of America, Las Vegas, Nev., Jan. 25-27, 1971,

Gallagher, J. E., and Herriott, D. R., Wavefront Measurement for the Evaluation of

Photolithographic Lenses and Components, Paper presented at the Topical Meeting

on the Use of Optics in Microelectronics - Optical Society of America, Las Vegas,

Nev., Jan. 25-27, 1971.

Tibbetts, R. E., State of the Art in Microelectronic Lenses, Paper presented at the

Topical Meeting on the Use of Optics in Microelectronics - Optical Society of

America, Las Vegas, Nev., Jan. 25-27, 1971.

Rottmann, H. R., Small Dimensions in Mask Photolithography, Paper presented at the

Topical Meeting on the Use of Optics in Microelectronics - Optical Society of

America, Las Vegas, Nev., Jan. 25-27, 1971.

Qureshi , M. S., and Nichols, K. G., Machining Integrated Circuit Masks with a Two

Laser System, Is. J. Technol. 9, No. 3, 249-255 (March 1971).

0' Mai ley, A. J., An Overview of Photomasking Technology in the Past Decade, Solid

State Technol. 14, No. 6, 57-62 (June 1971).

1972

Hook, H. 0., How Coherent My Light? How Good My Print? Proceedings of the INTERFACE

'72 Microelectronics Seminar, Eastman Kodak Co., Rochester, N. Y.,' Publication

P-312, pp. 29-35.

Rottman, H. R., Optical Techniques for Resist Evaluation, Proceedings of the INTERFACE

'72 Microelectronics Seminar, Eastman Kodak Co., Rochester, N. Y., Publication

P-312, pp. 46-52.

Stacy, I. F., and Conley, E. W., Manufacturing Methods and Technology Measure/Ultraprecision Integrated-Circuit Photomasks, Final Technical Report, 1 Dec. 1969 to

31 Jan. 1972 (Contract No DAAB05-70-C-3112) RCA, Solid State Div. (Feb. 1972).

(Available from DDC as AD893221L.)

Hook, H. 0., Mechanical and Optical Limitations on the Performance of Photomasks, RCA

Engineer (April /May 1972).

Routh, D. E., Mask and Pattern Characteristics, NASA TM X-64688 (Aug. 1972).

1973

Skinner, J. G., Some Relative Merits of Contact, Near-Contact, and Projection Printing

Proceedings of the Microelectronics Seminar INTERFACE '7S, Eastman Kodak Co.,

Rochester, N. Y., Publication G-35, pp. 53-65.

34
APPENDIX' C

1973 (continued)

Bossung;J: W. , Projection Masking System for Integrated Circuit Production (Tech.

Report AFML-TR-72-284). The Perkin-Elmer Corp. (April 1973). (Available from

DDC as AD909957.)

Kleiman, H. S., Eggers, P. E., and Sheppard, W. J., An Evaluation of the Technical

Implications of Selected Items on the U. S. Export Controls List: Integrated

Circuit Production Equipment (Contract No. DAAH01-72-C-0982) , Battelle, Columbus

Lab. (May 1973). (Available from DDC as AD910315.)

Lin, B. J., Computer Simulation Study of Images in Contact and Near-Contact Printing,

Paper presented at the Regional Technical Conference - Photopolymers : Principles,

Processes, and Materials, Society of Plastic Engineers, Inc., Ellenville, N. Y., Oct. 24-26, 1973.

Flamholz, A. L., and Froot, H. A., Dimensional Measurement and Defect Detection Using

Spatial Filtering, IBM J. Res. Dev. 17, No. 6, 509-518 (Nov. 1973).

Horne, D. F., Recent Advances in Graticule and Mask Making, Opt. Acta 20, No. 12,

939-957 (Dec. 1973).

1974

Horne, D. F., Dividing, Ruling and Mask-Making, Chapter 8 (Crane, Russak and Co.,

New York, N. Y., 1974).

Definitions of Terms Relating to Photomasking Technology for Microelectronics, ASTM

Designation F 127, 1974 Annual Book of ASTM Standards, Part 43 - Electronics,

(American Society for Testing and Materials, Philadelphia, Pa., 1974).

Recommended Practice for Determining Multiple Photomask Registration, ASTM Designation

F 54, 1974 Annual Book of ASTM Standards, Part 43 - Electronics, (American Society

for Materials, Philadelphia, Pa., 1974).

Schafft, H. _A., Semiconductor Measurement Technology: ARPA/NBS Workshop 1 - Measurement Problems in Integrated Circuit Processing and Assembly, Nat. Bur. Stand.

(U.S.), Spec. Publ. 400-3, 24 pages (Feb. 1974).

Lounsbury, J. B., and Klein, D. L., Limitations in Photolithographic Semiconductor

Processing, Electron. Paokag. Prod. 14_, No. 3, 59-64 (March 1974).

Rottmann, H. R. , Photolithography in Integrated Circuit Mask Metrology, IBM J. Res. Dev.

18, No. 3, 225-231 (May 1974).

Ciarlo, D. R. , Schultz, P. A. and Novotny, D. B., Automated Inspection of IC Photomasks, Photofabrication Imagery, Vol. 55 (Society of Photo-Optical Instrumentation

Engineers, Palos Verdes Estates, Ca., 1975).*

*Presented as a talk in 1974 and published in 1975.

35
APPENDIX C

1974 (continued)

Schultz, P. A., and Ciarlo, D. R., Photomask Terminology, Photofabrication Imagery^

Vol. 55 (Society of Photo-Optical Instrumentation Engineers, Palos Verdes Estates,

Ca., 1975.)*

Wing, R., Technological Advances in Microcircuit Step and Repeat Cameras and Their

Relationship to the Future Needs of the Semiconductor Industry, Photofabrication

Imagery, Vol. 55 (Society of Photo-Optical Instrumentation Engineers, Palos Verdes

Estates, Ca., 1975).*

Anon.: Off -Contact Printing In, Positive Resist Use Up, Mask Use Changing, Circuits

Manufacturing 14, No. 10, 26-31 (Oct. 1974).

Feldman, M., and Morgan, J. M., A Laser Reticle Generator, Proceedings of the Microelectronics Seminar INTERFACE '74, Eastman Kodak Co., Rochester, N. Y.,

Publication G-41, pp. 32-34.*

Hopkins, R. E., Lenses and Optical Systems Used in Microelectronics, Proceedings of

the Microelectronics Seminar INTERFACE '.74, Eastman Kodak Co., Rochester, N. Y.,

Publication G-41, pp. 37-43.*

Rottmann, H.R., Advances in Contact and Proximity Printing, Proceedings of the Microelectronics Seminar INTERFACE '74, Eastman Kodak Co., Rochester, N. Y.,

Publication G-41, pp. 79-87.*

* Presented as a talk in 1974 and published in 1975.

36
NBS-114A (REV. 7-73)

U.S. DEPT. OF COMM. BIBLIOGRAPHIC DATA

SHEET

1. PUBLICATION OR R[-:P0RT NO. NBS Spec. Publ. 400-202. Gov't Acces.sion No.

3. Recipient's Acces.sion No.

4. TITLE AND SUBTITLE

Semioonduotov Measurement Technologij : Optical and Dimensional-Measurement Problems

with Photomasking in Microelectronics

5. Publication Date October 1975

6. Performing Organization Code

7. AUTHOR(S)

John M. Jerke

8. Performing Organ. Report No.

;9. PERFORMING ORGANIZATION NAME AND ADDRESS

NATIONAL BUREAU OF STANDARDS

DEPARTMENT OF COMMERCE

WASHINGTON, D.C. 20234

10. Project/Task/Work Unit No.

11. Contract/Grant No. ARPA Order No. 2397

Program Code 4D10

2. Sponsoring Organization Name and Complete Address (Street, City, State, ZIP)

Defense Advanced Research Projects Agency

1400 Wilson Boulevard

Arlington, Virginia 22209

13. Type of Report & Period Covered

14. Sponsoring Agency Code

SUPPLEMENTARY NOTES

Library of Congress Catalog Card Number: 75-619190

i. ABSTRACT (A 200-word or less factual summary of most significant information. If document includes a significant

bibliography or literature survey, mention it here.) Photomasks are the basic artifacts for transferring design geometry to the

semiconductor wafer in integrated circuit (IC) production. Currently, photolithographic techniques using optical equipment are the primary means for both

fabricating masks and using masks to print patterns on wafers. The present study

was to identify the major optical and dimensional-measurement problems related

to the fabrication and use of masks.

The results show that the primary optical problems are those related directly

to the use of optical instruments for dimensional measurements of IC pattern

geometry. Furthermore, most suppliers and users of optical equipment for mask

fabrication do not conduct sufficient optical testing to determine imaging performance. The basic limitations derived from light diffraction and coherence

continue to limit the quality of masks and IC devices with sub-micrometre geometry,

and acceptable units are produced generally on a best-effort basis. The primary

dimensional -measurement problems are (1) accurate measurements below about 10 ym,

(2) edge definition or location of a physical edge for a line, and (3) mask

registration. Recommendations to improve the accuracy of dimensional measurements

are given.

A bibliography of publications related to the optical and micrometrological

aspects of photomasking is included.

jKEY WORDS (six to twelve entries; alphabetical order; capitalize oily the first letter of the first key word unless a proper

name; separated by semicolons)

Integrated circuits; microelectronics; micrometrology ; photolithography;

photomask; semiconductor technology.

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