Genesis and Residence Times of Soil and 

Weathering Profiles on Residual and 

Transported Parent Materials in the Pine 

Mountain Area of West-Central Georgia

U.S. GEOLOGICAL SURVEY BULLETIN 1589-E

Prepared in cooperation with the 

U.S. Department of Agriculture, 

Soil Conservation Service
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Genesis and Residence Times of Soil and

Weathering Profiles on Residual and

Transported Parent Materials in the Pine

Mountain Area of West-Central Georgia
The Meriwether Inn resort hotel about 1920 (City of Warm Springs, 1993). Locally, the hotel was also known as the Warm Springs Hotel (see 

McCallie, 1913, pi. XXIII/4). b
Chapter E

Genesis and Residence Times of Soil and 

Weathering Profiles on Residual and 

Transported Parent Materials in the Pine 

Mountain Area of West-Central Georgia

By H.W. MARKEWICH, M.J. PAVICH, W.C. LYNN, 

G.J. THOMAS, R.C. JOHNSON, T.R. GERALD, and 

G.G. PHILLIPS

Prepared in cooperation with the U.S. Department of 

Agriculture, Soil Conservation Service

Weathering and soil development in the Pine Mountain area 

of west-central Georgia largely reflect the texture, composition, 

and fabric of parent material. The pattern of ancient river 

terraces, alluvial fans, landslides, and colluvial aprons in a 

metasedimentary terrane has resulted in a mosaic of Pliocene 

to Pleistocene soils developed in residual and transported 

parent material. Soils common to the alluvial fans, debris 

flows, and other transported material are more similar to 

soils developed in unconsolidated Coastal Plain sediments 

than to those developed in the surrounding weathered 

Piedmont metasedimentary rocks

U.S. GEOLOGICAL SURVEY BULLETIN 1589

PEDOLOGIC STUDIES IN THE EASTERN UNITED STATES: RELATIONS TO GEOLOGY
U.S. DEPARTMENT OF THE INTERIOR 

BRUCE BABBITT, Secretary

U.S. GEOLOGICAL SURVEY 

Gordon P. Eaton, Director

Any use of trade, product, or firm names

in this publication is for descriptive purposes only

and does not imply endorsement by the U.S. Government

UNITED STATES GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE: 1994

For sale by

U.S. Geological Survey, Information Services

Box 25286, Federal Center, Denver, CO 80225

Library of Congress Cataloging in Publication Data

Genesis and residence times of soil and weathering profiles on residual and 

transported parent materials in the Pine Mountain area of west-central 

Georgia / by H.W. Markewich ... [et al.].

p. cm. (U.S. Geological Survey bulletin ; 1589-E) (Pedologic studies 

in the eastern United States, relations to geology ; ch. E)

"Prepared in cooperation with the Department of Agriculture, Soil 

Conservation Service."

Includes bibliographical references.

Supt. of Docs, no.: I 19.3:1589-E

1. Soils Georgia Pine Mountain Region Age. 2. Soil formation Georgia Pine Mountain Region. 3. Weathering Georgia Pine Mountain 

Region. 4. Geology Georgia Pine Mountain Region. I. Markewich, 

Helaine W. II. United States. Soil Conservation Service. III. Series. IV. 

Series: Pedologic studies in the eastern United States, relations to geology 

; ch. E.

QE75.B9 no. 1589-E

[S599.G4]

557.3 s-dc20

[551.3'05'09758] 93-1144

CIP
Preface

Some geologic investigations of Quaternary deposits, especially in the conterminous United States, have attempted to use relative degrees of weathering and soil 

formation to establish chronosequences of glacial and (or) fluvial landforms. Most 

studies have been in the glacial terrane of the midcontinent and the Western United 

States. Few such studies have been conducted in the Eastern United States, especially in 

the unglaciated Middle Atlantic and Southeastern States.

From 1980 to 1984, the U.S. Geological Survey and the U.S. Department of 

Agriculture's Soil Conservation Service conducted cooperative regional studies of the 

relations between soils and geology in the Middle Atlantic and Southeastern States. The 

primary goal of the studies was to determine if soil properties could be used to estimate 

ages of associated landforms. Coral, wood fragments, and peat were sampled from 

constructional landforms of fluvial and marine origin in order to estimate ages by isotopic 

analyses; these ages were then related to regional biostratigraphic and lithostratigraphic 

correlations. Specific site investigations were conducted on Pliocene to Holocene marine 

and fluvial terraces in the Atlantic and eastern Gulf Coastal Plains and the Appalachian 

Piedmont. In addition to transported materials, soils on granite, schist, and quartzite of 

the Appalachian Piedmont were also sampled to test the use of soil properties as 

indicators of soil age. Each chapter of this bulletin series examines the relation of soils to 

geology in a specific geographic area.

The cooperative study involved research scientists from both agencies and field 

personnel from State offices of the Soil Conservation Service. Responsibility for sample 

analysis was divided between the Department of Agriculture's National Soil Survey 

Laboratory in Lincoln, Nebr., and the U.S. Geological Survey in Reston, Va. This report 

was prepared by scientists from both agencies who participated in specific site investigations or in studies of pedogenic processes.

Preface

CONTENTS

Preface V 

Abstract El 

Introduction El

Purpose and Scope E2

Land Use E2

History of the U.S. Geological Survey's Interest in the Area around Warm

Springs, Georgia E2 

Acknowledgments E2 

Field and Laboratory Methods E3 

Environmental Setting E3 

Climate E3 

Paleoclimate E7 

Vegetation E7

Geologic and Geohydrologic Settings E8 

Geology E9 

Geohydrology E10

Warm Springs E10 

Cold Spring Ell

Parent Material and Associated Soil and Weathering Profiles Ell 

Residual Soils in Piedmont Parent Material E12 

Mountain Parent Material and Soils E14

Pedon 231-001: Quartzite Residual Soil E16 

Pedon 231-003: Colluvium over Quartzite E19 

Pedon 231-004: Quartzite Residual Soil E27 

Pedon 231-002: Landslide Debris (Quartzite) E27 

Soil and Weathering Profiles in Alluvial Fan Parent Material E29 

Soil and Weathering Profiles in Terrace Alluvium E35 

Landslides and Associated Weathering Profiles E36 

Debris Flows E36 

Discussion E37

Weathering and Relative Residence Times of Weathering Profiles E37 

Pedogenesis E39

Argillic Horizons E39 

Desilication of Argillic Horizons E40 

Fragic Horizons E40

Age Estimates for Soils and Geomorphic Surfaces E41 

Summary E43 

References Cited E43 

Tables 6-14 E47 

Appendix E63

Contents VII
FIGURES

1. Maps showing major geologic and geographic features of the Pine Mountain 

area of Alabama and Georgia, locations of major springs, and all soil and 

weathering profile sample sites E4, E5

2. Graphs showing least-squares sinusoidal fit of long-term periodic temperatures 

for Flint River near Griffin, Ga., Potato Creek near Thomaston, Ga., and 

Mountain Oak Creek near Hamilton, Ga. E6 

3, 4. Maps showing:

3. Mean annual precipitation and estimated mean annual lake 

evaporation for Georgia E7

4. Relief map of the Piedmont and Blue Ridge physiographic 

provinces E9

5. Ternary diagrams showing compositions of cold- and warm-water springs in 

the Pine Mountain area of Georgia E12

6. Maps showing soil and weathering profile sample sites in parts of the

Sunset Village, Thomaston, Zebulon, Warm Springs, Woodbury, and Durand 

7.5-min quadrangles E14-E19

7. Summary plots of data for pedons S84GA-199-001, S84GA-231-001, 

S84GA-231-003, S84GA-231-004, S84GA-231-002, S84GA-293-001, 

and S84GA-199-002 and an unnumbered pedon in Flint River terrace 

alluvium E20-E27

8. Diagrams showing X-ray diffraction patterns for pedons S84GA-199-001, 

S84GA-231-001, S84GA-293-001, and S84GA-199-002, an unnumbered 

pedon in Flint River terrace alluvium, and three unnumbered weathering 

profiles E28-E30

9. Photomicrographs of C2 horizon of pedon S84GA-199-001 E31

10. Stereo aerial photographs showing landscape position of alluvial fans 

and landslides in the Sunset Village and Warm Springs 7.5-min 

quadrangles E32,E33

11. Map and photograph of an east-facing alluvial fan deposit exposed in a 

railroad cut near Parkman Pond in the Shiloh 7.5-min quadrangle of 

Georgia E34

12. Cross section of the eastern half of a roadcut through a fining-upward 

sequence of terrace alluvium adjacent to White Sulphur Creek showing 

its position as channel fill cut into metamorphic rocks that are now 

saprolitized E35

13. Photograph showing small-boulder-sized clasts in a landslide deposit exposed 

along Jeff Davis Road on the southern side of Bull Trail Mountain E36

14. Map showing topographic expression of SSE.-facing debris flows in the Pine 

Mountain SW 7.5-min quadrangle of Georgia E37

15. Photographs of site 12 showing details of SSE.-facing debris flows E38 

16-19. Plots showing:

16. Percentage of fine silt versus the percentage of clay for all horizons 

of all sampled pedons E40

17. Ratio of fine silt to coarse silt versus the percentage of clay for 

argillic and fragic horizons from selected pedons E41

18. Relation of (Fe2O3 +Al2O3)/SiO2 to clay mass and of solum 

(Fe2O3 +Al2O3)/SiO2 to ages of depositional units E42

19. Comparison of thickness of argillic and fragic horizons to depths of 

oxidation for fan, mountain, and Piedmont soils E42

VIII Contents
TABLES

1. Analyses of primary and sedimentary kaolin and bauxite from the area 

around Warm Springs, Meriwether County, Georgia Ell

2. Discharge and temperature data from several springs in the area of Pine 

Mountain, Georgia Ell

3. Analytical data from a cold spring at the National Fish Hatchery at Warm 

Springs, Georgia E12

4. Soil sampling site locations and geomorphology E13

5. Analyses, methods, and units of expression for analyses conducted at the

National Soil Survey Laboratory E13 

6-12. Field descriptions and analytical data for:

6. Pedon S84GA-199-001 E48

7. Pedon S84GA-231-001 E50

8. Pedon S84GA-231-003 E52

9. Pedon S84GA-231-004 E54

10. Pedon S84GA-231-002 E55

11. Pedon S84GA-293-001 E57

12. Pedon S84GA-199-002 E58 

13A, B. Textural analyses and other analytical data for unnumbered soil developed in

Flint River terrace alluvium E60 

14. Sand mineralogy of Pine Mountain soils E61

Contents IX

PEDOLOGIC STUDIES IN THE EASTERN UNITED STATES: RELATIONS TO GEOLOGY

Genesis and Residence Times of Soil and 

Weathering Profiles on Residual and 

Transported Parent Material in the 

Pine Mountain Area of West-Central Georgia

By H.W. Markewich, 1 M.J. Pavich,2 W.C. Lynn,3 G.J. Thomas,4 R.C. Johnson,5 T.R. Gerald,6 

andG.G. Phillips7

Abstract

The 100-mi-long, 1.2- to 6.2-mi-wide Pine Mountain 

area of Alabama and Georgia is a physiographically and 

geologically unique part of the southern Appalachian 

Piedmont physiographic province. The high, narrow 

ridges, incised streams, and numerous surficial deposits 

combine to form a landscape more similar to the Valley 

and Ridge and Blue Ridge physiographic provinces than 

to the rolling topography of the surrounding Piedmont 

province. The soil and weathering profiles developed in 

this area largely reflect the effect that parent material has 

had on the stability of the land surface. The oldest soils 

and deepest weathering profiles are associated with the 

least eroded positions on constructional landforms such 

as alluvial fans, landslides, debris flows, and alluvial terraces. Matrix and clast composition of these transported 

parent materials is primarily Hollis Quartzite. Soils developed in erosional remnants of these deposits are no 

younger than early Pleistocene. We estimate their ages

Manuscript approved for publication September 1, 1994.

'U.S. Geological Survey, Atlanta, GA 30360.

2U.S. Geological Survey, Reston, VA 22092.

3U.S. Department of Agriculture, Soil Conservation Service, 

National Soil Survey Laboratory, Lincoln, NE 68508.

4U.S, Department of Agriculture, Soil Conservation Service, Decatur, GA 30030. (Present address: Thomas Soil Consulting Service, P.O. 

Box 517, Epworth, GA 30541.)

5U.S. Geological Survey, Reston, VA 22092. (Present address: 

12210 Sugar Maple Drive, Herndon, VA 22070.)

^J.S. Department of Agriculture, Soil Conservation Service, Athens, GA 30601.

7U.S. Geological Survey, Reston, VA 22092. (Now at U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Denver, CO 80202.)

between late Miocene and late Pliocene (from 6 to 2 

million years).

Although soils of all ages are present on the high 

narrow ridges that characterize the Pine Mountain area, 

data suggest that residual soils developed in the least 

eroded positions on the ridges are younger than the soils 

developed on most surficial deposits. We estimate the 

mountain soils to be early to middle Pleistocene in age. 

The youngest soils in the area are those developed in 

granite, granitic schist, and gneiss of the surrounding 

Piedmont. We estimate these soils to be younger than 1 

Ma.

It is the composition, fabric, and internal structure 

of the parent material that have the greatest effects on the 

style and degree of weathering and on the rate(s) of 

erosion. Differences in soil ages mirror differences in 

erosion rates.

INTRODUCTION

This study was a cooperative effort between the U.S. 

Geological Survey (USGS) and the U.S. Department of 

Agriculture's Soil Conservation Service (SCS) to describe, 

classify, analyze, compare, and determine the ages of soil 

and weathering profiles developed in different parent materials in the Pine Mountain area of west-central Georgia. 

These soil and weathering profiles have developed in residuum and transported parent materials in a low-latitude, wet 

to humid, temperate to subtropical, high-relief terrain. Parent materials include granite and granitic gneiss on the 

Piedmont lowland, a porous, flexible lithotype (itacolamite) of the Hollis Quartzite underlying the high ridges, 

and transported material comprising alluvial fans, alluvial 

terraces, and landslides. We compared the properties of the

Genesis and Residence Times of Soil and Weathering Profiles, Pine Mountain Area of West-Central Georgia E1
soil and weathering profiles in order to establish a relative 

chronosequence of profile development. Estimates of absolute age were made by comparing the weathering and soil 

profile data with data from soil and weathering profiles of 

known ages from Virginia, North Carolina, South Carolina, Georgia, and Alabama. This study and others in the 

region are part of a long-term effort to (1) identify and 

understand the processes involved in weathering and soil 

development in the temperate to subtropical areas of the 

United States and (2) use soil and weathering profile data to 

estimate ages of erosional surfaces and constructional landforms to better understand the evolutionary history of a 

region's landscape.

Purpose and Scope

The Pine Mountain area of Alabama and Georgia 

includes the southernmost mountains of the Eastern United 

States (figs. 1A, B). It is a high-relief area of ENE.- 

trending ridges and valleys surrounded by relatively low 

relief Piedmont terrain. The area is known for its numerous 

springs and its unusual faunal and floral assemblages. We 

restricted our study to that part of the Pine Mountain area in 

Georgia between the communities of Hamilton and Thomaston. The study area includes the area of Cenozoic faulting around Warm Springs (figs. 1A, B).

The primary goal of the study was to use lithologic, 

geomorphic, weathering, and pedogenic data to better 

understand the physiographic evolution of the Pine Mountain area in west-central Georgia. Specific objectives 

included:

1. Identification of the different types of surficial deposits 

that characterize the area.

2. Characterization and comparison of soils developed on 

quartzite-rich alluvial fans, on the narrow quartzitecored mountainous ridges, on large landslide blocks of 

quartzite, and on the surrounding rolling hills underlain 

by granite and granitic schist and gneiss.

3. Determination of minimum ages for the area's constructional landforms by comparing their soil and weathering 

profile characteristics with those from chronosequences 

in Virginia, North Carolina, South Carolina, Georgia, 

and Alabama.

Land Use

Settlement of the Piedmont of west-central Georgia 

began shortly after the Treaty of Indian Springs in 1825. 

Agriculture, specifically cotton production, was the dominant land use before the early 1930's. Textile manufacturing accompanied cotton production. With textiles came the 

railroads. In the late 1800's and early 1900's, five different 

rail lines were in use in the Pine Mountain area. Boll 

weevil infestations in the 1920's, the development of synthetic fabrics, and the nationwide economic depression of

the 1930's contributed to a regional decline in agriculture 

and a subsequent decline in textile production and the 

railroads. Since that time, the area has been intermittently 

exploited for its value in tourism, medical rehabilitation, 

mining, fish farming, peach and apple production, poultry 

production, horse and cattle breeding, and timber production. Each of these activities has met with limited success. 

The rehabilitation facility at Warm Springs and the nearby 

National Fish Hatchery have contributed to the local economy continuously (but at fluctuating levels) since the late 

1920's. Textile manufacturing has continued on a greatly 

reduced scale. As a result, this easily accessible and beautiful part of Georgia has remained predominantly rural, 

boasting few communities greater than 10,000 in population.

History of the U.S. Geological Survey's Interest 

in the Area around Warm Springs, Georgia

In the 1930's and 1940's, President Franklin Delano 

Roosevelt maintained a residence in Warm Springs, Ga., 

near the polio rehabilitation facility that utilized the 88 °F 

high-volume springs of the same name. As a result of 

President Roosevelt's interest in Warm Springs, the USGS 

mapped the Warm Springs 15-min quadrangle and conducted studies on the source and hydrogeological properties 

of the springs (see appendix). This study was published as 

USGS Water Supply Paper 819 (Hewett and Crickmay, 

1937), which is no longer in print.

In the middle 1940's, as a result of wartime interest 

in strategic minerals, the USGS again investigated the 

geology of the Pine Mountain area. Interest centered on the 

origin and potential of a small bauxite deposit in downfaulted kaolinitic sediments on the northern side of Pine 

Mountain, a few miles west of the town of Warm Springs 

(White, 1965). In the late 1970's and early 1980's, interest 

in the bauxite deposits near Warm Springs was renewed. 

Pollen from fluvial sediments associated with the bauxite 

beds was identified as late Paleocene and early Eocene 

(Sabinian) in age and thereby verified post-Sabinian faulting (Christopher and others, 1980; Reinhardt and others, 

1984a, b; Prowell, 1987).

Acknowledgments

The study presented here was the result of a cooperative project between the USGS and the SCS, from 1984 to 

1988, to study the relations between parent material and 

soils and to establish a relative chronology of constructional and erosional landforms in the area.

We thank David C. Prowell (USGS) for first 

acquainting us with some of the surficial deposits and 

near-surface deformation features in the area around Thomaston, Ga., and for numerous discussions both in the 

field and at the office. We thank Michael W. Higgins,

E2 Pedologic Studies in the Eastern United States
E. Joseph Inman, and Jamie B. Shanley (USGS), who 

allowed us to use their unpublished data. Higgins provided 

us with his bedrock mapping of the area. Inman and Shanley allowed us to use precipitation data from the western 

Georgia Piedmont. Special thanks go to Jesse M. Gunn and 

Hoyt Dunn of Meansville, Ga., and Hiram W. Kersey of 

Thomaston, who allowed us unconditional access to their 

properties.

We would like to express our appreciation to J.P. 

Owens, R.B. Mixon, and J.T. Hack (USGS) and R.A. 

Daniels and Klaus Flach (SCS) for suggesting a cooperative project between the two agencies.

Steven F. Obermeier and Jennifer Harden (USGS) 

and Robert L. Wilkes (SCS) contributed thoughtful reviews 

of the manuscript. Carolyn D. Becker and Julie Reynolds 

(USGS) prepared the manuscript.

We especially thank Kathie R. Fraser (USGS) for her 

editorial assistance, not only with this manuscript but with 

many of the chapters in this series as well.

FIELD AND LABORATORY METHODS

The seven study pedons were described and sampled 

by the authors and local personnel from the SCS. All 

pedons were sampled in backhoe trenches. Weathering 

profiles were described and sampled for clay mineralogy 

from roadcuts and quarries. Pedon numbers are standard 

SCS notation, which gives the year, the State abbreviation, 

the county number, and the pedon number in the county 

(for example, S81AL-087-001). Pedons discussed in this 

report are referred to by the last six digits of their complete 

pedon numbers. Horizon designations follow the revision 

of the Soil Survey Manual (Soil Survey Staff, unpub. manual, 1981) and also a brochure produced by Cornell University and the U.S. Department of Agriculture's Agency 

for International Development (Soil Survey Staff, 1986). 

New horizon designations are used in the text of this report

Samples were sent to the SCS National Soil Survey 

Laboratory (NSSL) in Lincoln, Nebr., where they were 

split; one set was then sent to the USGS laboratories in 

Reston, Va., and the other was retained by the NSSL. 

Samples were analyzed for standard physical and chemical 

characteristics at the NSSL. Some of the analyses conducted at the NSSL are particle-size distribution, cation 

exchange capacity, pH, base saturation, and X-ray diffraction on the <2-|xm fraction of selected horizons (magnesium saturated at room temperature, magnesium saturated 

and glycerol solvated at room temperature, potassium saturated at 300 and 500 °C). Diffraction patterns presented in 

this report represent glass-mounted slides of clay that were 

magnesium saturated at room temperature. The USGS laboratories conducted additional analyses, including bulk 

chemistry by X-ray fluorescence and analyses of iron and 

aluminum by oxalate extraction and by atomic absorption.

ENVIRONMENTAL SETTING 

Climate

The climate of the Pine Mountain area of westcentral Georgia is considered to be wet to humid and 

temperate to subtropical. The average temperature is no 

higher than 80 °F in any one month. The average minimum 

monthly temperature in the summer is about 68 °F. Hewett 

and Crickmay (1937, p. 4) reported temperature data from 

West Point, Warm Springs, and Talbotton (locations on 

fig. 1A):

According to the records of the United States Weather 

Bureau, the average air temperature at West Point, 28 

miles west of Warm Springs, is 63.3°F, and at Talbotton, 

17 miles southeast, 64.1°F.

Variations in surface water temperatures also reflect 

the variability of the air temperature. Dyar and Stokes 

(1973) show 35 °F seasonal change in temperature for the 

Flint River and its tributaries in the Pine Mountain area (see 

figs. 2A, B, Q.

Prevailing winds in the west-central Piedmont are 

from a northerly direction in the winter and a southerly 

direction in the summer. Local wind speeds can vary from 

averages of 10 mph in the spring to 7 mph in the late 

summer. The influence of cold winds from the north and 

northwest and of warm southern winds from the Gulf of 

Mexico can, in the winter, produce frequent and large 

temperature variations over relatively short periods of time. 

The cold spells, which drop morning temperatures below 

freezing, are usually shorter than the alternating periods of 

milder weather. Temperature usually rises above freezing 

even on the coldest winter days, which can, on rare occasions, see morning temperatures near zero. Every few 

years, there is a measurable amount of snow. Average 

rainfall is about 49 to 52 in per annum (fig. 3). Frequent 

thunderstorms occur in the spring and summer, occasionally accompanied by damage-causing winds and hail 

(Wells, 1965).

Hewett and Crickmay (1937, p. 72) reported that 

rainfall at six stations within 35 mi of Warm Springs 

ranged between 46 and 58 in a year in 1934. These data not 

only show local variability in rainfall in the Pine Mountain 

area but also indicate that the local range of annual precipitation (12 in) is well within the 20-in range of precipitation 

for any 10-yr period.

Rainfall is seasonal; evapotranspiration is greater 

than precipitation for a minimum of 3 months a year. 

Kohler and others (1959) showed mean annual lake evaporation between 42 and 44 in for this area of Georgia. 

Periods of intense rainfall are not unusual. As a result of 

Hurricane Agnes on June 21, 1972, the Pine Mountain area 

of Alabama and Georgia received up to 4 in of rain in one 

24-hr period; 1 to 2 more inches fell in the following 24-hr 

period (Bailey and others, 1975). As the result of a recent

Genesis and Residence Times of Soil and Weathering Profiles, Pine Mountain Area of West-Central Georgia E3
85°

zo

I

33°

EXPLANATION

o Towns

 Major springs

 Major faults

 Fall Line

Hollis Quartzite 

Fall Zone

Warm W , 

O Springs '

.20 3 V -"*

Tuskegee

Figure 1A. Major geologic and geographic features of the Pine Mountain 

area of Alabama and Georgia (modified from Hewett and Crickmay, 1937; 

Higgins and others, 1988). Major springs in the area are numbered as 

follows: (1) Warm Springs, (2) Parkman Springs, (3) Brown's Springs and 

Chalybeate Springs, (4) Thundering Spring, (5) Barker Spring, (6) Lifsey 

Spring, (7) Taylor Spring (Clearwater Spring), (8) Blue Spring, and (9)

Trammel's Spring. The Fall Zone (

marks the outcrop area where Late C

the Coastal Plain can be seen overly

ic^) metasedimentary and metavol

mont. The Fall Line refers to the cha

streams and rivers as they flow from 
85°

33C

EXPLANATION

$$$& Area of 0000001 Flint River 

Water Gap

^ 

<&/

^^

. , ;* ::* 

,,:^fpl Hamilton ^M*^V" 

|rtl2) o .,,, """"

 , Durand

Figure Iff. Location of the study area. Soil and weathering profile sample sites are numbered as follows: (1) 

S84GA-199-001 (Piedmont soil), (2) S84GA-231-001 

(mountain soil), (3) S84GA-231-003 (mountain soil), (4) 

S84GA-231-004 (mountain soil), (5) S84GA-231-002 

(landslide/mountain soil), (6) S84GA-293-001 (fan soil), 

(7) S84GA-199-002 (fan soil), (8) unnumbered soil

profile (Flint River terrace alluvium), (9) weathering profile (White Sulphur Creek terrace alluvium), (10, 11) 

weathering profile (old landslide deposit on southern 

side of Bull Trail Mountain), and (12) reticulate mottling 

in clasts and matrix (roadcut through debris slides 

about 2 mi NNW. of Hamilton, Ga.).

tropical storm, the weather station at Woodbury reported 

7.15 in of rain during the 24-h period from 7 a.m. July 4 to 

7 a.m. July 5, 1994. Butler, Ga., located 9 mi south of 

Talbotton, reported 12.15 in during the same 24-h period 

(National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration, provisional unpub. data, 1994).

Local storms can be very intense. Hourly data for 

Hamilton, Ga., show 1.7 in of precipitation from 12 noon 

to 1 p.m. on April 4, 1974 (National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration, 1974). Data for West Point, Ga. 

(25 mi northwest of Hamilton) (see fig. 1A), show precipitation of 1.00 in from 5 to 6 p.m. on May 28, 1986, 1.30 

in from 6 to 7 p.m. on June 9, 1986, and 1.50 in from 6 

to 7 p.m. on July 17, 1986. In the same year, Hamilton's 

maximum was recorded as 1.00 in from 7 to 8 a.m. on 

March 19, (National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration, 1986). Unpublished data from other localities in 

the Piedmont show that the periods of high rainfall 

recorded hourly are commonly short periods (15-20 min) 

of intense rainfall that start suddenly and then taper 

gradually. 8

8One data set from a small drainage basin (2.19 mi2) in northeastern 

Atlanta, Ga., provides a record for four storm events. On August 14,1973, 

1.104 in of rain fell in 15 min. On this date, precipitation records made at 

5-min intervals show 0.00, 0.24, 0.45, 0.35, 0.23, 0.17, 0.05, and 0.01 

in for eight consecutive recordings. Values of this magnitude are not 

uncommon. On July 14, 1974, five 5-min intervals were recorded as 0.02, 

0.13, 0.65, 0.35, and 0.00. Again, on August 15, 1976, precipitation of 

0.02, 0.30, 0.60, 0.58, 0.48, 0.07, and 0.01 was recorded over seven 

5-min intervals. Other data show that rainfall can be more evenly 

distributed. At the same locality, on August 7, 1974, 3 in of rain fell in 3 

hr; the maximum precipitation recorded in one 5-min interval was 0.25 in 

(E.J. Inman, unpub. precipitation data, 1973-1978).

Precipitation data for 1-min intervals from Panola Mountain State 

Park about 16 mi east of Atlanta (J.B. Shanley, unpub. data, 1988) show 

distribution patterns of precipitation during 5- and 10-min thunderstorms. 

One storm from 1:25 to 1:34 p.m. on July 27, 1988, shows the following 

distribution (in inches of rainfall): 0.02, 0.04, 0.07, 0.08, 0.10, 0.08, 

0.04,0.07, 0.02,0.01. A 22-min interval during a storm from 8:50 to 9:12 

p.m. on September 8, 1987, showed a more sustained level of activity but 

did not reach the intensity of the July 27, 1988, storm: 0.01, 0.05, 0.06, 

0.05, 0.06, 0.04, 0.06, 0.07, 0.08, 0.05, 0.05, 0.04, 0.03, 0.03, 0.03, 

0.02, 0.01, 0.02, 0.03, 0.02, 0.02, 0.01. A July 31, 1987, storm from 

9:00 to 9:13 p.m. shows that relatively high rates can be sustained for 

several minutes: 0.06, 0.09, 0.10, 0.08, 0.06, 0.05, 0.07, 0.08, 0.08, 

0.09, 0.03, 0.04, 0.04.

Genesis and Residence Times of Soil and Weathering Profiles, Pine Mountain Area of West-Central Georgia E5
DC 

D 68

DC 59

LLJ 

Q.

Oct. I Nov. I Dec. I Jan. I Feb. Mar. Apr. I May I June I July I Aug. I Sept.

B

30

25 ^

20

15 DC

Figure 2. Least-squares sinusoidal fit of long-term periodic temperatures (Dyar and Stokes, 

1973). A, Flint River near Griffin, Ga.; B, Potato Creek near Thomaston, Ga.; C, Mountain Oak 

Creek near Hamilton, Ga. Town locations are shown in figure 1/4.

E6 Pedologic Studies in the Eastern United States
L _.

100 KILOMETERS

-46-

EXPLANATION

Line of equal mean annual precipitation. 

Interval 2 inches

Fall Zone

Line of average annual lake 

evaporation in inches

Study area

Figure 3. Isopleths of mean annual precipitation and 

estimated mean annual lake evaporation for Georgia 

(modified from Kohler and others, 1959; Carter and 

Stiles, 1983).

Such an orographic effect operating over long time 

periods would have influenced the development of vegetation and landforms on the southern and northern slopes of 

the ridges. Some suggestion of this influence can be seen in 

the present floral assemblages and in the pattern of preserved surficial deposits. The flora and landform patterns 

are discussed in following sections of this report.

Paleoclimate

The interpretation of soil development requires information about paleoclimate. We have no direct paleoclimate 

information, such as palynologic data, from dated deposits 

or surfaces in the immediate area. Regionally, however, 

there is evidence for variable paleoclimate through the 

Quaternary. Markewich and Markewich (1994) found evidence for periods of Holocene aridity in southern Georgia. 

Regional palynologic analysis (Delcourt and Delcourt, 

1985) from the Southeastern United States provides evidence of a cooler and dryer climate in the late Pleistocene 

correlated with Laurentide glaciation; however, no periglacial effects on the landscape have been found this far south 

of the glacial border. Presumably, there were numerous 

periods of cooler and (or) drier climate through the Pleistocene associated with glaciation/deglaciation cycles. We 

have no evidence for the frequency or duration of such 

periods. We assume that the changes in the regional patterns of precipitation, wind, and temperature would affect 

the entire study area; that is, there were no major climatic 

gradients associated with Pine Mountain. On the basis of 

the evidence for an orographic effect presented in the 

previous section, we assume that the microclimatic pattern 

for the Pine Mountain area has been constant as long as 

Pine Mountain has been a positive relief feature of the 

landscape.

Carter and Stiles (1983) showed that the western half 

of Georgia is wetter than the eastern half and that central 

Georgia receives less rainfall than either northern or southern Georgia (fig. 3). Plummer (1983) studied historical 

records for any data pertaining to weather and described a 

more detailed pattern of precipitation along a south-tonorth transect from Tallahassee, Fla., to Chattanooga, 

Tenn. He stated (Plummer, 1983, p. 53):

...precipitation decreases northward to a place just 

beyond Columbus (from Tallahassee); then it increases 

slightly around Pine Mountain and decreases northward 

toward Carrollton; lastly it increases more northward 

toward the mountains and Chattanooga.

This pattern of precipitation implies a local orographic effect as air moves from south to north from the 

hotter and drier Coastal Plain across the cooler high ridges 

in the Pine Mountain area. At present, there are not an 

adequate number of precipitation monitoring stations to 

verify this effect.

Vegetation

Comparisons of soil development must take vegetation differences into account. The present plant communities in the Piedmont and on Pine Mountain are distinctly 

different.

The predominant vegetative growth in the Piedmont 

is deciduous hardwoods, whereas needle-leaf evergreens 

predominate in the Coastal Plain and on the high, narrow 

ridges of Pine Mountain. More specifically, the present 

vegetative growth in the Piedmont is modified regrowth 

deciduous hardwoods and hardwood-pine mixtures. The 

floral community of Pine Mountain is different than that of 

the surrounding Piedmont. Pine Mountain was probably 

named for its communities of longleaf pine, which are still 

evident on the very top of and on south-facing slopes of the 

quartzite ridges. The short-leaf loblolly pine is the dominant pine on other aspects, where it is cooler and commonly wetter.

Genesis and Residence Times of Soil and Weathering Profiles, Pine Mountain Area of West-Central Georgia E7
The Flint River Water Gap, where the Flint River 

flows through Pine Mountain (fig. IB), exhibits a remarkable array of both northern and southern floral elements 

occurring together. 9 Harper (1903a,b) noted the interesting 

admixture of Piedmont, mountain, and Coastal Plain species in the Pine Mountain area. Seventy years later, Jones 

(1974) wrote on the uniqueness of the phytogeography and 

flora of the region. Wharton (1977), in his study entitled 

"The Natural Environments of Georgia," best summarized 

the unique floral and faunal characteristics of the Pine 

Mountain area.

In his description of the vegetative communities 

associated with ravines and narrow canyons of the Pine 

Mountain belt, Wharton (1977, p. 151-153) gave the following descriptions:

Ravine Forest of Mixed Affinities: The ravines, slopes, 

and bluffs of the Pine Mountain area (Meriwether and 

Harris counties) support classic examples of these environments with their curious mixture of mountain and Coastal 

Plain plant life, as well as mixtures of Piedmont and 

Coastal Plain animal life....ravines are cool and moist, 

with small streams and steep sides....In one Harris County 

ravine the principal trees were northern red oak, beech, 

chalk maple, Florida maple, and an ash. The understory 

contained both silver bells (Halesia caroliniana), buckthorn (Rhamnus sp.), sweet shrub, and mulberry. This is 

the most northern area where I have found the needlepalm 

(Rhapidophyllum). Herbs of note were hepatica, alumroot 

(Heuchera americana), doll's eyes ginseng (Panax quinquefolia), the latter being a new record this far south. A 

north-facing river bluff bore a forest of white oak, buckeye, red elm, poplar, Florida maple, and mockernut hickory. The shrub layer had red bay, witch hazel, Amphora 

fruitcosa, and mountain laurel. It is quite odd to see mountain laurel side by side with Coastal Plain red bay.

Dripping Rock ravine between Dripping Rock Falls 

and the Flint River (Upson County) [in the area of the Flint 

River Water Gap] is another example of disjunct northern 

and southern floral elements together. The following plants 

were either dominant or common: Trees (D) beech, black 

gum, sourwood, sweet bay (Magnolia virginiana), American holly. Shrubs Carolina rhododendron (Cyrilla racemosa), myrtle (Mrica heterphylla), (D) Hercules'-club 

(Aralia spinosa), mountain laurel, sweet shrub, greenbriers 

(Smilax walteri, S. laurifolid). Herbs lousewort (Pedicular is), Ligusticum canadense, yellowroot, Indian cucumber 

(Medeola virginiana), Siliphium compositum, small green 

wood orchid (Habenaria clavellata), Indian plantain 

(Cacalia atriplicifolia), (D) cinnamon fern, (d) chain fern, 

southern lady fern, bracken fern, royal fern, angelica 

(Angelica venenosa).

9The entire area of the Flint River Water Gap has been recommended 

by Radford and Martin (1975) as a Natural Landmark called the "Flint 

River Water Gap Wilderness Area." They list it as one of three outstanding 

sites in the Piedmont of eastern America when the following criteria are 

considered: community and species diversity; endemic, rare, and disjunct 

species; edaphics; topography; and geology.

Wharton (1977, p. 159-161) also provided descriptions of 

the forests present on the high ridges of the Pine Mountain 

belt:

Pine-Broadleaf Deciduous Subcanopy Xeric Forests: 

There appear to be two subtypes of this forest. The most 

spectacular is on the Hollis Quartzite on the high ridges of 

Pine Mountain. It is similar to the Broadleaf Deciduous 

Subcanopy Forest of the Coastal Plain. Another type has a 

more diverse understory of deciduous trees and shrubs and 

occurs on dry ridges throughout the western Piedmont 

north of Pine Mountain....The Pine Mountain localities 

have typically a longleaf pine overstory and a blackjack 

oak understory, instead of turkey oak as in Coastal Plain 

environments. The common sandhill sticky foxglove 

(Aureolaria pectinata) is common. On ridges and westfacing bluffs along the Flint River there are still some good 

stands of longleaf pine...Somewhat surprisingly, this soil 

(on Pine Mountain ridges) is an adequate habitat for the 

burrowing coral snake....It is quite unusual to find coral 

snakes this far north in the Piedmont. Most have come 

from the narrow sandy Flint River floodplain.... PineHardwood Xeric Ridge And Slope Forests: This type of dry 

forest occupies much of Pine Mountain.... Some of these 

ridges should seemingly grow longleaf pine but for some 

reason (soil, infrequent fire, lack of seed source) they 

maintain other species of pine along with oaks and hickories. Sometimes shortleaf or loblolly pines completely 

dominate the ridge tops. In rocky situations chestnut oak 

(Quercusprinus) tends to dominate....

As we have with paleoclimate, we can only assume 

that the differences in relief, parent material, and microclimate have affected the vegetation similarly through the 

Quaternary.

GEOLOGIC AND GEOHYDROLOGIC SETTINGS

Hack (1982) referred to the Pine Mountain area of 

Georgia and Alabama as the Pine Mountain belt and 

included it as a subdivision of the Piedmont Lowlands 

subprovince of the Piedmont physiographic province. 

Structurally, the Pine Mountain belt of Hack (1982) has 

been identified as a window of older Precambrian rocks in 

a younger Precambrian or Paleozoic terrain (Clarke, 1952; 

Higgins and others, 1988). The Pine Mountain belt or 

window is a structurally complex, ridge-forming anticlinorium that extends 100 mi southwestward from Barnesville, 

Ga., to Notasulga, Ala. (fig. 1A). Linear bands of high, 

narrow ridges, broad valleys, deeply incised canyons, steep 

cliffs, and numerous springs make the area, which is more 

similar to the Valley and Ridge and Blue Ridge physiographic provinces, unique in the southern Piedmont physiographic province. In Georgia, the prominent semicontinuous ridge that trends from west of Hamilton to just east of 

Manchester is locally referred to as "Pine Mountain" (fig. 

IB). Thus, Pine Mountain encompasses numerous ridges of 

varying length, several of which have local names.

In his relief map of the Piedmont and Blue Ridge 

provinces (fig. 4), Hack (1982) showed the Pine Mountain

E8 Pedologic Studies in the Eastern United States
EXPLANATION

Steep hills and mountains 

(relief more than 50 m in 

6-km2 area)

Moderate relief

( relief averages 150 m in 

100-km2 area)

Low relief

(relief averages 60 m in 

100-km2 area)

Low relief

( relief averages 30 m in 

100-km2 area)

40>

300 KILOMETERS 

I

Figure 4. Relief of the Piedmont and Blue Ridge physiographic provinces of the Eastern United States 

(Hack, 1982). Areas are based on the number of 100-ft contours within 100-km2 areas, as shown on 

topographic maps at a scale of 1:250,000.

area of Georgia to have relief similar to that of the high 

Blue Ridge (greater than 50 m in a 6-km2 area). This relief 

is in contrast to that of the adjacent Piedmont north of Pine 

Mountain (60 m in a 100-km2 area). Ridge-crest altitudes 

in the study area range between 900 and 1300 ft. Valley 

altitudes are between 500 and 800 ft.

Geology

Structurally, the Pine Mountain belt or window is 

expressed as a large anticlinorium bounded on the north by 

the Towaliga fault zone and on the south by the Oak 

Mountain fault, which has been referred to as the Achumchee fault by Higgins and others (1988). Hewett and Crickmay (1937) mapped the Warm Springs 15-min quadrangle 

(between long 84°30' and 84°45' W. and lat 32°45' and 

33W N.), which includes part of the Pine Mountain 

window. The area of the Pine Mountain window between 

Thomaston and Indian Grave Mountain was first mapped in 

detail by Clarke (1952) as part of the Thomaston 15-min 

quadrangle (between long 84° 15' and 84°30' W. and lat 

32°45' and 33W N.). In the 1970's and early 1980's, the 

stratigraphy of the area was revised by a number of geologists. Higgins and others (1988) have included a revised 

stratigraphy of the Pine Mountain structural window, 

which is a modified combination of the nomenclature used 

by Hewett and Crickmay (1937), Bentley and Neathery 

(1970), Sears and others (1981), Schamel and Bauer

Genesis and Residence Times of Soil and Weathering Profiles, Pine Mountain Area of West-Central Georgia E9
(1980), Schamel and others (1980), and Sears and Cook 

(1984).

Dominant rock types of the outer Piedmont of westcentral Georgia and east-central Alabama include crystalline metasediments, metavolcanics, melange sequences, 

and younger granitic intrusives. The Pine Mountain window in Georgia is composed of two units Middle Proterozoic granulitic rocks and overlying late Precambrian 

quartzites and schists of the Pine Mountain Group. The 

Pine Mountain Group is comprised of the Hollis Quartzite, 

the Manchester Schist, the Mountain Creek Formation, and 

the Chewacla Marble (not mapped in Georgia) (Higgins 

and others, 1988). The Hollis Quartzite underlies the high 

ridges and is the most common clast lithology in the surficial deposits.

Hewett and Crickmay (1937) described upper and 

lower units of the Hollis as thin bedded, porous, flexible, 

jointed, and friable. They referred to these sections of the 

Hollis as itacolumite, which is the most common lithotype 

exposed in the study area. Compositionally, the Hollis 

varies from orthoquartzite to a muscovitic quartzite conglomerate. Locally, the Hollis is feldspathic. Original bedding may be evident, or else what appears to be bedding 

could be the penetrative layer-parallel schistosity parallel to 

the axial surfaces of the isoclinal folds (Sears and others, 

1981). No internal bedforms have been identified, except at 

one locality where Clarke (1952, p. 22) described crossbeds from what he mapped as "the quartzite member of the 

Manchester formation," which is probably the Hollis 

Quartzite.

Hewett and Crickmay (1937) referred to the middle 

unit of the Hollis as being massive and impervious. It is 

this facies of the Hollis that is exposed on ridge crests on 

the western limit of the study area, near the town of 

Hamilton. The orthoquartzite has been incorporated into 

the large debris flows and colluvial aprons in that area.

In the study area, a few isolated pods of early Cenozoic fluvial sediments have been preserved in structurally 

low positions. These bauxitic and kaolinitic sediments (see 

table 1) have been referred to as the Republic Mine beds 

(Reinhardt and others, 1984a, b). Reinhardt and others 

(1984a) indicated that minor cross faults associated with 

the Towaliga fault have deformed the oldest of three surficial deposits that overlie the downfaulted sediments with a 

minimum of 10 ft displacement. Reinhardt and others 

(1984a) considered the faulting of the oldest surficial sediments to be syngenetic with faulting of the Republic Mine 

beds. They indicated that the second and third fan deposits 

could be associated either with later tectonism or with 

climate change.

Later Cenozoic sediments comprise much of the surface materials and are expressed as alluvial fans and terraces, landslides, debris flows, and colluvial aprons. These 

deposits are described in the same sections as their associated soil and weathering profiles.

Geohydrology

The Pine Mountain area of Georgia is characterized 

by numerous springs that vary in discharge from less than 1 

to more than 800 gal/min. Temperature variation is from 60 

to 88 °F. The concept of a "warm" spring is relative to the 

near-surface ground-water temperatures in an area. Hewett 

and Crickmay (1937, p. 4) reported that "the average temperature of the water in 36 wells in the lowland adjacent to 

Pine Mountain area is 62.1 °F." Near-surface water temperatures reflect the area's mean annual temperature, which 

ranges between 60 and 64 °F. In this study area, temperatures above 70 °F appear to be common to springs having 

relatively high discharge rates (more than 100 gal/min). 

Most of the springs, but not all, are located on the northern 

side of Pine Mountain (fig. 1A). McCallie (1913) and 

Hewett and Crickmay (1937) studied the more important 

springs in the area. Some of their data are summarized in 

the following sections. Specific data are shown in table 2. 

Other data from Hewett and Crickmay (1937) and some 

unpublished data are given in tables 2 and 3.

Warm Springs

Warm Springs is the only known warm spring that 

emanates from a crack in the Hollis Quartzite. Other warm 

springs in the area rise from either the Manchester Schist or 

surficial units. Hewett and Crickmay (1937) measured the 

temperature and volume of water of Warm Springs at the 

source, where it is controlled for use at the rehabilitation 

center; other springs were measured as access allowed. The 

following excerpt from Hewett and Crickmay (1937, p. 5) 

is included to show the detail of work that they attempted 

in the area:

From December 14, 1933, to June 30, 1935, the 

discharge under control ranged from 594 to 678 gallons a 

minute. Measurements of the discharge of all the minor 

sources during the same period ranged from 233 to 294 

gallons a minute. The total discharge of all sources, therefore, ranged from 844 to 914 gallons a minute. Precise 

measurements of the temperature of the Warm Springs 

water as it issues from the ground at its main east and west 

sources were made on seven different days in 1933, 1934, 

and 1935 by using a platinum resistance thermometer. At 

the east source the temperature on different days ranged 

from 87.7° to 88.2°F, and at the west source from 87.1° to 

87.5°F.

Water chemistry is given in table 2, reproduced from 

Hewett and Crickmay (1937, p. 17, 18, 21). Although 

warm spring waters have a greater content of calcium and 

magnesium bicarbonate (fig. 5) than cold spring waters do, 

the overall composition of all spring waters suggests that 

they are essentially rain water and contain no component of 

water from an igneous or volcanic source. Hewett and 

Crickmay (1937) attributed the 88 to 89 °F temperature of 

Warm Springs to a normal geothermal gradient of about 1 

°F per 100 ft for water moving downward and then upward 

along bedding planes of the Hollis Quartzite.

E10 Pedologic Studies in the Eastern United States
Table 1. Analyses (in percent) of primary and sedimentary kaolin and bauxite from the area around Warm 

Springs, Meriwether County, Georgia (Smith, 1929, p. 453, 454, and 458) 

[No entry indicates value was not given by Smith (1929)]

SiO2 ....

A12O3 . . .

Fe2O3 . . .

TiO2

Sand

Bauxite from 

Warm Springs 

bauxite mine

19.05

51.28

.48

1.71

Kaolin and bauxite from prospect wells 

near Warm Springs bauxite mine1

A2

44.76 

38.00 

2.35 

1.08 

.97

B3

47.74 

36.64 

1.19 

1.17 

13.15

C4

46.34 

36.40 

1.72 

1.80 

9.91

Primary or residual kaolin from property 

3 mi south of Durand and 4 mi west of 

Warm Springs (Smith, 1929, p. 458)5

D

75.02 

17.00 

1.57 

.72 

58.60

E

57.30 

30.58 

1.41 

1.53 

26.17

*A, Stiff, semi-hard, light-gray and dark bluish-gray kaolin from a prospect well 50 ft north of Warm Springs bauxite mine 

(sample taken at depth between 12 and 18 ft); B, hard, white, sandy, nodular bauxitic clay from a prospect well 600 ft west of Warm 

Springs bauxite mine and in line with it (sample taken below depth of 4 ft); C, stiff, semi-hard, white to pink kaolin from prospect 

pit 10 ft north of location B (sample taken at depth of about 12 ft).

typical kaolin.

3Sandy bauxitic clay. If the percentage of sand is subtracted from the total analysis and the percentage of alumina recalculated 

to a basis of 100 percent, the clay is 42.27 percent A12O3 .

4Sandy, slightly bauxitic clay. If the percentage of sand is subtracted from the total analysis and the percentage of alumina 

recalculated to a basis of 100 percent, the clay is 40.42 percent A12O3 .

5D, Grab sample from material thrown out a a 15-ft prospect well; E, grab sample from outcrop in bank of road.

Cold Spring

Cold Spring is a name given to four springs that lie in 

close proximity about 1 mi southeast of Warm Springs. 

The four individual springs are Cold Spring, North 

Springs, and South Springs No. 1 and No. 2. All the

Table 2. Discharge and temperature data from several 

springs in the area of Pine Mountain, Georgia (modified 

from Hewett and Crickmay, 1937) 

[ , not shown in fig. I A]

Spring

Location 

no. 

(fig. 1A)

Discharge Temperature 

from all of main 

sources source 

(gal/min) (°F)

Warm springs (>66 °F)

Warm Springs. .............

Parkman Pond (Springs) .... 

Brown's Spring ............

Thundering Spring. .........

Barker Spring ..............

Lifsey Spring ..............

Taylor Spring (Clearwater) . .

1 

2 

3 

4 

5 

6 

7

844-914 

50-100 

15-30 

380 

30 

83 

385

87-88 

76.6 

69

74 

74 

78 

75

Cold springs (<66 °F)

Cold Spring ................

North Spring. ............

South Springs 1,2.......

Cold Spring and seepage. . 

Trammel's Spring ..........

Blue Spring ................

Chalybeate Springs .........

Oak Mountain Spring .......

White Sulphur Springs ......

9

8 

3

1282-1822 

238^51 

50 

1050-1320 

100 

282-367 

12-24 

0.54-0.94 

0.65-1.62

64

62 

64 

62-64 

60-64 

62-63

springs are located on land owned by and used as a fish 

hatchery by the U.S. Government. This hatchery has been 

in continuous operation for 60 years. Hewett and Crickmay 

(1937) found that Cold Spring and North Spring were 

related and that the two southern springs were separate 

outlets for the same source but that the South Springs were 

not related to either Cold or North Springs.

Hewett and Crickmay (1937) estimated the combined 

discharge of South Springs No. 1 and No. 2 to be about 50 

gal/min, the total discharge from the four sources of Cold 

Springs being averaged as 1,500 gal/min. Water from these 

springs is used as the municipal water supply for the town 

of Warm Springs and for the fish hatchery. The remainder 

of the waters constitute the main source for Cold Spring 

Branch. Analyses of Cold Spring are given in table 3.

PARENT MATERIAL AND ASSOCIATED SOIL 

AND WEATHERING PROFILES

Soil10 and weathering profiles sampled for this study 

have developed in situ on metasedimentary rocks and on

10A11 soils described, sampled, and (or) analyzed in the Pine Mountain area are classified as Ultisols Udults and Paleudults which are 

common in humid-temperature areas that have a seasonal precipitation 

deficit. In the Piedmont and Coastal Plain of Georgia, evapotranspiration 

is greater than precipitation for at least 3 mo of the year. The area is in the 

thermic soil temperature regime (mean annual soil temperature from 15 to 

22 °C at 50 cm depth), and the difference between mean summer and 

mean winter soil temperatures is more than 5 °C. The soil moisture regime 

is udic (that is, in most years, the soil moisture control section is not dry 

in any part for as long as 90 days cumulative).

Genesis and Residence Times of Soil and Weathering Profiles, Pine Mountain Area of West-Central Georgia E11
Table 3. Analytical data from a cold spring at the National Fish Hatchery at Warm Springs, Georgia 

[ND, no data; , not detected; S.D., standard deviation; S.E., standard error]

Month

March .

June ...........

July. ...........

Aug............

Sept............

Oct. ...........

Nov. ...........

No. of 

observations . . 

Mean ..........

S.D. ...........

S.E. ...........

PH

. 3.9

. 4.3

. 4.4

. 4.3

. 3.9

. 3.7

. 4.1

PH

. 7 

. 4.1

. .3

. .1

Hardness

4.0

2.0

4.0

10.0

1.6

6.0

6.0

Hardness

7 

4.8

2.9

1

NO2 

(ppm)1

0.004

0.010

NO2 

(ppm)1

7 

0.002

.004

.001

NO3 

(ppm)1

0.03

1.0

NO3 

(ppm)1

7 

.19

.38

.14

NH3 

(ppm)1

0.06

0.03

NH3 

(ppm) 1

7 

0.01

.02

.01

Conductance

25

25

20

25

25

20

20

Conductance

7 

23

3

1

Temperature

(°C)

17

ND

17.8

ND

17.8

17.8

17.8

Temperature

(°C)

5 

17.6

.4

.2

Dissolved 

oxygen

9.5

ND

12.0

12.0

7.8

11.0

7.0

Dissolved 

oxygen

6 

9.9

2.1

.9

'National Fish Hatchery (unpub. data, 1981) supplied the following analyses: Fe (total), 0.05 ppm; Na, 0.90 ppm; K, 0.40 ppm; total 

alkalinity (as CaCO3), 3.00 ppm; SO4 , 0.20 ppm; NH3 , 0.13 ppm.

CaO+MgO

Na,0

EXPLANATION 

Warm water springs

 Warm Spring

 Thundering Spring 

A Lifsey Spring 

Cold water springs

+ Chalybeate Springs

X White Sulphur Springs

A Blue Spring

O Cold Spring

K,0 SO,

B

Figure 5. Cation (A) and anion (B) compositions of cold- and warm-water springs in the Pine Mountain area of 

Georgia including data from McCallie (1913) and Hewett and Crickmay (1937).

many different surficial deposits such as stream alluvium, 

landslide debris, and alluvial fans. A description of each 

sampling site, the parent material, and the soil and (or) 

weathering profile(s) is given in the following sections. 

Locations of sample sites are shown in figures IB, 6A-E, 

and 14. Specifics on locations are given in table 4.

Analytical methods and references to those methods 

are presented in table 5. Data obtained from characterization of these soils are presented in tables 6 through 14 (see 

p. E47) and in figures 1A-H and 8A-H.

Residual Soils in Piedmont Parent Material

The Piedmont north of the Towaliga fault zone is 

composed of schist and gneiss and tabular-shaped granitic 

intrusives. Depth of weathering exceeds 30 ft beneath 

uplands and is deeper along joints and in rocks fractured by 

faulting. Weathering depths in the granite are shallower 

than those in metamorphic rocks. We sampled and analyzed one pedon (199-001) developed on schistose metasedimentary crystalline rock north of Pine Mountain (site 1, 

figs. IB, 6D).

E12 Pedologic Studies in the Eastern United States
Table 4. Soil sampling site locations and geomorphology

[ , surface is flat, so there is no slope value. Site locations shown in fig. IB]

Site

1

?

3

4

5

6

7

8

Soil Conservation 

; Service no.

.. S84GA-199-001

.. S84GA-23 1-001

.. S84GA-23 1-003

.. S84GA-23 1-004

.. S84GA-23 1-002

.. S84GA-293-001

.. S84GA-199-002

. . Unnumbered

7.5-min 

quadrangle

Woodbury

Thomaston

Zebulon

Zebulon

Sunset Village

Warm Springs

Woodbury

Geomorphology

Piedmont

Mountain

Landslide quartzite

Fan

Fan

Terrace alluvium

Altitude

(ft)

248

310

342

345

250

287

288

228

Latitude

(°N.)

32°57'01"

32°59'58"

33°00'11"

33W09"

33°00'58"

32°57'19"

32°53'05"

32°59'30"

Longitude

(°W.) (

84°37'17"

84°19'24"

84°20'58"

84°20'57"

84°19'38"

84°25'00"

84°42'35"

84°30'50"

Slope 

percent)

2

6

5

7

10

3

3

4

Aspect

NW.

sw.

NE.

ME.

E.

E.

S.

Pedologic data 

tables

6A-E

7A-D

8A-C

9A-C

10A-C

11A-C

12A-D

13A, B

We classified this pedon (199-001) as Cecil, which 

is the most common soil series in the southeastern Piedmont. The Cecil is a clayey, thermic typic Kanhapludult. 

Characterization data for this pedon are given in tables 

6A-F. Some data are plotted on figure 7A. Profile characteristics are similar to those of Hapludults developed from 

saprolite on the Piedmont between Alabama and Virginia 

(National Soil Survey Laboratory, unpub. data for computerized data base, 1940-present).

This Cecil profile has a high clay content and clay 

maxima of 63.3 percent at 33 to 56 cm depth and 39 

percent within 33 cm of the surface. Summed clay mass 11 

for pedon 199-001 is 85.4 g/cm2 , similar to the clay 

masses of other Piedmont pedons (Pavich and others, 

1989). Fine silt dominates the silt fraction and increases 

downward to the Cl horizon at 154 cm. Unlike that in 

Coastal Plain soils investigated by Markewich and others 

(1986), the fine silt maximum in pedon 199-001 occurs 

below the clay maximum. Fine silt is probably produced by 

the physical alteration of mica (see fig. 9) in the upper part 

of the C horizon. X-ray diffraction and chemistry data (fig. 

8A, tables 6C, D) indicate that chemical alteration of mica 

is active above the C3 horizon, the result being a lower fine 

silt content and a higher clay content.

In the clay-sized fraction, mica is abundant (predominantly muscovite) in both the parent material and the C3 

horizon (254-304 cm). The loss of mica above the C3 

horizon is seen by petrographic and X-ray diffraction 

examination (figs. 8A, 9). Hydroxy-interlayered vermiculite is not present in the diffraction pattern of the lower 

solum (horizons BC, B/C, C2) but is present in upper 

horizons. In Coastal Plain soils studied by Markewich and 

others (1987) and in Piedmont soils studied by Pavich 

(1986), mica is apparently not transformed to hydroxyinterlayered vermiculite. It is possible that this vermiculite 

is the initial product of the weathering of the mica but does 

not persist owing to its transformation to other constituents.

Pedogenic kaolinite is the dominant clay-sized constituent of pedon 199-001. The high kaolinite content 

directly affects the texture and drainage characteristics of 

the Bt horizon, which is much finer textured and less well 

drained than subjacent or superjacent horizons. This association of kaolinite with fme-textured, less well-drained Bt 

horizons has also been investigated by Markewich and 

others (1987) and Harris and others (1989). Gibbsite is not 

identifiable in the saprolitic parent material or in the soil B 

horizons of pedon 199-001.

Major element chemistry of pedon 199-001 (table 

6D) is similar to that of pedons developed in mica schist 

elsewhere in the Piedmont (Pavich and others, 1989).

Table 5. Analyses, methods, and units of expression for 

analyses conducted at the National Soil Survey Laboratory, 

Lincoln, Nebraska

Analysis

Particle size .......

Organic carbon ....

Dithionite-citrate . . .

Iron. ..............

Aluminum. ........

Manganese ........

Bulk density .......

COLE2 . ...........

15-bar water. ......

WRD3 ............

Extractable bases . .

CEC4 : ............

Sum of cations . .

NH4OAC .......

Bases+Al ......

Base saturation: . . .

Sum of cations . .

NH4OAC .......

pH: ..............

CaCl2

H2O ............

Method

code1

. 3A1

. 6A1C

. 6C2A

. 6C2B

. 6G7A

. 6D2A

. 4A1D

. 4D1

. 4B2A

. 4C1

. 5B5A

. 5A3A

. 5A8B

. 5A3B

. 5C3

. 5C1

8C1E

8C1A

Unit of expression

weight percent <2-mm material

weight percent <2-mm material

weight percent <2-mm material

weight percent <2-mm material

weight percent <2-mm material

weight percent <2-mm material

g/cm3 <2-mm material

cm/cm whole soil

weight percent <2-mm material

cm/cm whole soil

meq/lOOg <2-mm material

meq/lOOg <2-mm material

meq/lOOg <2-mm material

meq/lOOg <2-mm material

percent

percent

negative Iog10

negative Iog10

HClay mass is calculated from weight percent clay times bulk 

density (in grams per cubic centimeter) times horizon thickness (in centimeters) for each horizon. The clay mass (in grams per square centimeter) 

is then summed for the horizons comprising the pedon.

'Methods codes from Soil Survey Staff (1972). 

Coefficient of linear extensibility. 

3Water-retention difference. 

4Cation exchange capacity.

Genesis and Residence Times of Soil and Weathering Profiles, Pine Mountain Area of West-Central Georgia E13
1 KILOMETER 

J

Figure 6/4. Soil and weathering profile sample sites. Location map is part of a 7.5-min (1:24,000 scale) 

Georgia quadrangle and has a 20-ft contour interval. Site numbers are same as those given in figure 18. 

Sites 6, 10, and 11, Sunset Village quadrangle.

Totals from X-ray fluorescence (XRF) analyses given in 

table 6D that are significantly less than 100 percent are due 

to the high H2O content of the clay. The A horizon is 

highly siliceous and depleted in Fe2O3 , CaO, and K2O. 

The Bt horizon is enriched in A12O3 and Fe2O3 relative to 

the A horizon. The enrichment is due in part to translocation of clay-sized phyllosilicate and iron oxyhydroxides but 

mostly to leaching of silica from micas and quartz in the Bt 

horizon. The importance of leaching is illustrated by the 

BC and upper C horizons. Despite having a lower clay 

content than the Bt horizon, the upper part of the saprolite 

and the lower part of the pedogenic B horizon have 

extremely low SiO2 values and high A12O3 and Fe2O3 

values (tables 6B, D). The high mica content of the saprolite 

is partly responsible for the low SiO2 (relative to a quartzite 

parent material), but the X-ray diffraction pattern (fig. 8A) 

shows that 10.5-A mica is absent above the C2 and has 

been altered for more aluminous phases (hydroxyinterlayered vermiculite or kaolinite). Thus, figure 8A provides evidence that 10.5-A micas have been strongly 

weathered in the upper C horizon, the result being a material approaching the kaolinitic composition of the Bt horizon but having a lower clay content. The C3 horizon 

reflects the composition of the aluminous schistose parent

material. The greater bulk density of the Bt relative to the 

C3 is probably owing to the physical reorganization or 

repacking of minerals, as Pavich and others (1989) have 

seen in Virginia.

Mountain Parent Material and Soils

On the ridge locally known as Indian Grave Mountain (fig. IB), we sampled soils developed in the Hollis 

Quartzite, in Hollis Quartzite overlain by colluvium, and in 

Hollis Quartzite that comprises the surface block of a large 

landslide. Weathering of feldspathic micaceous layers of 

the Hollis is very deep, perhaps several hundred feet. 

Direct evidence of deep weathering comes from open borrow pits on the crest of Indian Grave Mountain where 

feldspathic micaceous layers are completely altered to clay 

at depths greater than 50 ft below the surface. Other indications of deep weathering are the ease of drilling 200- to 

300-ft-deep water wells in the Hollis and the ease of highway excavation by heavy machinery. Indirect evidence 

from Hewett and Crickmay (1937) suggests that the water 

feeding the hot springs is meteoric in origin and has circulated to depths of several hundred feet before surfacing at 

springs.

E14 Pedologic Studies in the Eastern United States
1 KILOMETER 

J

Figure 6fl. Soil and weathering profile sample sites. Location map is part of a 7.5-min (1:24,000 scale) Georgia 

quadrangle and has a 20-ft contour interval. Site numbers are the same as those given figure 18. Site 2, Thomaston 

quadrangle; sites 3, 4, and 5, Zebulon quadrangle.

Genesis and Residence Times of Soil and Weathering Profiles, Pine Mountain Area of West-Central Georgia E15
1 KILOMETER

J

Figure 6C. Soil and weathering profile sample site. Location map is part of a 7.5-min (1:24,000 scale) Georgia 

quadrangle and has a 20-ft contour interval. Site numbers are the same as those given in figure 1fi. Site 7, Warm 

Springs quadrangle.

Tables 7A, 8A, 9A, and 10A present the field 

descriptions of the pedons (sites 2, 3, 4, 5 on fig. 6B). 

Other data are given in tables 1B-D, SB and C, 9B and C, 

and 105 and C. Textural, cation exchange capacity, and 

porosity data for these pedons are plotted in figures 1B-E.

Pedon 231-001: Quartzite Residual Soil

Pedon 231-001 (site 2, figs. IB, 6B) has developed 

as a residual soil in the Hollis Quartzite and has the gravelly surface horizons typical of these soils. The quartzite 

gravel is pebble sized (0.5-3 in) and appears to have 

formed in place as the result of chemical and mechanical 

breakdown of the Hollis. The pebbles are subrounded to 

rounded. Pebble surfaces are pitted and have weathered to 

a purple-gray color. At some localities, such as along the 

crest of Pine Mountain south of the town of Warm Springs, 

these surface gravels are extensive and sufficiently thick to 

map as a separate unit. Hewett and Crickmay (1937, p. 30) 

stated that "The pebbles do not form a continuous layer but 

are embedded in the layer of residual sandy soil 1-2 feet 

thick derived from the Hollis Quartzite." They felt that 

these gravels were transported by streams and represent an 

old erosion surface. They also felt that these gravels were 

older than those on the mountain slopes. We interpret these 

upland gravels to be residual and not remnants of transported material. We also consider the residual mountain 

soils to be younger than the soils developed on the many 

alluvial fans that are present along the slopes of the high 

ridges.

This soil (pedon 231-001) has a Bt horizon at least 

170 cm thick, significantly thicker than the 64-cm-thick Bt 

in pedon 199-001 (classified as a Cecil) developed on 

schist. In comparison with the eluvial horizons of the Cecil 

(pedon 199-001), the eluvial part of the quartzite soil 

(pedon 231-001) is thick (A and E horizons and upper part 

of the BE horizon). This greater thickness is probably due 

to the abundance of sand-sized quartz in the parent material, which produces a porous, grain-supported matrix in 

the upper part of the solum. The Cecil soil (199-001), 

which developed in schistose parent material, contains a 

smaller percentage of chemically resistant quartz sand.

There is evidence within the quartzite soil (pedon 

231-001) that the quartz sand is being reduced in grain size 

by both mechanical and chemical processes. Such grainsize reduction has been documented for Piedmont soils by 

Pavich and others (1989). Evidence for quartz grain-size 

diminution by physical breakdown includes (1) a quartz silt 

maximum both above and below the clay maximum, (2) 

concurrence of the coarse silt minimum with the clay maximum, and (3) the high ratio of fine to coarse silt throughout the pedon. The origin of the silt appears to be in place 

rather than from an external (for example, aeolian or slopewash) source.

Figure SB shows the X-ray diffraction results from 

pedon 231-001. The clay-rich lower part of the pedon is 

dominantly kaolinite having small percentages of 14.7-A 

hydroxy-interlayered vermiculite and 4.85-A gibbsite. 

The percentages of the latter two minerals increase as the

E16 Pedologic Studies in the Eastern United States
1 KILOMETER

Figure 6D. Soil and weathering profile sample sites. Location map is part of a 7.5-min (1:24,000 scale) 

Georgia quadrangle and has a 20-ft contour interval. Site numbers are the same as those given in 

figure 16. Site 1, Woodbury quadrangle.

percentages of kaolinite decrease upward. In contrast to the and South Carolina Atlantic Coastal Plain soils (Markewich

schistose soil (pedon 199-001), quartz is also present in the and others, 1986, 1987).

clay fraction of pedon 231-001, particularly above the Bt2 The major chemical change between the BE and Bt

(fig. 85). This trend is the same as the one seen in Virginia horizons is the significant decrease in the percentage of

Genesis and Residence Times of Soil and Weathering Profiles, Pine Mountain Area of West-Central Georgia E17
1 KILOMETER 

J

Figure 6F. Soil and weathering profile sample sites. Location map is part of a 7.5-min (1:24,000 scale) Georgia 

quadrangle and has a 20-ft contour interval. Site numbers are the same as those given in figure 18. Site 8, Woodbury 

quadrangle.

SiO2 relative to A12O3 and Fe2O3 (table ID). This decrease thick Bt. Allowing for ongoing erosion of the A horizon,

can be explained in part by translocation of aluminous the mass balance between the illuvial and eluvial clay does

kaolinite and ferric oxyhydroxides from the E horizon to not support a simple translocation model. It is more likely,

the Bt horizon. The A, E, and BE horizons, however, are as Pavich (1986) suggested, that dissolution of quartz,

only 51 cm thick in comparison with the more than 160-cm- particularly clay-sized quartz, accounts for an absolute

E18 Pedologic Studies in the Eastern United States
1 KILOMETER 

J

Figure 6F. Soil and weathering profile sample sites. Location map is part of a 7.5-min (1:24,000 scale) Georgia

quadrangle and has a 20-ft contour interval. Site numbers are the same as those given in figure 16. Site 9, Durand 

quadrangle. Site 12 is shown in figure 14.

SiO2 depletion and relative A12O3 and Fe2O3 enrichments 

in the Bt horizon. As silica is lost, A12O3 and Fe2O3 should 

increase in a constant ratio. This suggestion is consistent 

with the fairly constant ratio of 3.6 for Al2O3/Fe2O3 in the 

Bt horizon. Furthermore, the ratio of 3.6 is significantly 

less than the ratio of 9.7 in the BE. If translocation of 

clay-sized material from the BE into a grain-supported 

quartz sand were the only mechanism responsible for the 

Bt, then the Al2O3/Fe2O3 ratio would be expected to stay 

constant rather than decrease downward.

Pedon 231-003: Colluvium over Quartzite

The site of pedon 231-003 is near the top of Indian 

Grave Mountain, about 100 ft higher than pedon 231-001. 

This soil has developed in colluvium overlying weathered 

Hollis Quartzite and is very different from the quartzite 

residual soil, having an A/C profile only 71 cm thick (fig.

1C). This pedon does not have a Bt horizon (the clay 

maximum occurs in the C3) (see table 85), and the dominant color is yellow-brown 10YR overlying a red 2.SYR, 

well-oxidized saprolite C horizon. The residual soil (pedon 

231-001) has a 169-cm-thick Bt horizon and color (hue) 

ranging from 10YR to 2.SYR.

The dominant textural characteristics of pedon 

231-003 are its high sand content, its low clay content, and 

its relatively low and constant ratio of fine to coarse silt 

(about 2:1 above the Cl horizon, in comparison with a ratio 

as high as 4:1 in the Bt2 horizon of pedon 231-001). The 

coarser texture of the colluvium may be due to winnowing 

of fine silt and clay during transport and deposition of the 

colluvium.

X-ray diffraction patterns for pedon 231-003 are 

not shown. Kaolinite is the dominant clay mineral in 

the soil and in the underlying saprolite. Gibbsite is 

next in abundance. The soil contains relatively little

Genesis and Residence Times of Soil and Weathering Profiles, Pine Mountain Area of West-Central Georgia E19
Particle Size Distribution 

CECIL S84GA199-001

FINE_CLAY: <.002

25 COARSEJCLAY

TOTAL_SILT

TOTALJSAND: 0. 05-2. Omm

Percent of <2-mm Soil

0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 

0 I . .J.....J.. 

(CM)

BT1

C3

304

Cation Exchange

CECIL S84E 

JBases 

E3 Bases + Al

99-001 

Cec-7 

Cec-8.2

meq/lOOg soil 

5

C3

300-:

304

Clay-free Particle Size Distribution

CECIL S846A199-001 

< s i It > < s an d > 

fine co_ v.f. fine med co+vc 2-75mm E=i rn VT\ ri isa rn req

Percent of silt and Sana 

0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100

BT1

BT2

300

Soil Water. Pores and Solida 

CECIL S846A199-001

>2 SAND SILT CLAY OM 15J3AR WRD AIR

Volume Percent ^r <2mm Soil 

0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100

BT1

8T2

C3

300-

304

Figure 7/4. Summary plots of soil data for pedon S84GA-199-001. 

E20 Pedologic Studies in the Eastern United States
NOT DESIGNATED S84GA231-001 

FINEJXAY: <.002 

COARSEJXAY

TOTALJSILT 

TOTAL_SAND: 0.05-2.Omm

Percent of <2-mm Soil 

0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100

(CM) :

50-:

100-

150

200- 2BT4

220

Cation Exchange 

NOT DESIGNATED SB46A231-001

150

200-

Clay-free Particle Size Distribution

NOT DESIGNATED S84GA231-001 

< silt > < sand > 

fine co_ v.f. fine med coryc 2-75mm F=I i i YTA rn R^ ri R^

Percent of Silt and Sand 

0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100

(CM) =

100

150 J

200-

Soil Water, Pores and Solids 

NOT DESIGNATED S84GA231-001

>2 SAND SILT CLAY OM 15J3AR WRD AIR

1^ FFfl P?3 C^ Hi f=j B%) I I

Volume Percent of <2mm Soil 

0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100

200

Figure 7fi. Summary plots of soil data for pedon S84GA-231-001.

Genesis and Residence Times of Soil and Weathering Profiles, Pine Mountain Area of West-Central Georgia E21
Particle Size Distribution 

NOT DESIGNATED S84GA231-003

FINE_CLAY:<.002 

COARSE_CLAY

TOTAL_SILT 

TOTAL_SAND: 0.05-2.Omm

Percent of <2-mm Soil 

10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100

8/C

150

200-

C3

C4

C5

C6

C7

221

230

NATIONAL SOIL SURVEY LABORATORY 

Clay-free Particle Size Distribution

NOT DESIGNATED S84GA231-003 

< s i It > < sand > 

fine co y.f. fine med co-fyc 2-75mm

Percent of Silt and San3 

0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100

0 -J i-A-i *-iC'-jf x*

(CM)

10 Al

A2

C4

C5

204

021

230

Cation Exchange 

NOT DESIGNATEQ_SBJGA231-003 

jBases 

0 Bases -f Al

246 

meq/lOOg soil 

j_______I_______I

Al

E 100--

200-

230

Figure 7C. Summary plots of soil data for pedon S84GA-231-003.

E22 Pedologic Studies in the Eastern United States
Particle Size Distribution 

SND S84GA231-004

FINE_PLAY: <.002 

COARSE_CLAY

TOTAL_SILT 

TOTAL_SAND: 0.05-2.Omm

Percent of <2-mm Soil 

0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100

(CM) =

1004

150

CR

Cation Exchange 

SND SB4GA231-004 

 YAO. cec-7

Cec-8.2

CR

Clay-free Particle Size Distribution

SND SB4GA231-004

< s i It > < sand > 

fine co_ v.f. fine med cc-ryc 2-7Smm s i m i i E§3 n E^

Percent of Silt and Sand 

0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100

CR

183

Soil Water. Pores and Solids 

SND SB4GA231-004

>2 SAND SILT CLAY DM 15BAR WRD AIR

Volume Percent of <2nrniSoil 

0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100

CR

Figure 7D. Summary plots of soil data for pedon S84GA-231-004.

Genesis and Residence Times of Soil and Weathering Profiles, Pine Mountain Area of West-Central Georgia E23
Particle Size Distribution 

ALLEN S84GA231-002

FINE_CLAY: <.002 TOTAL_SILT

COARSE_PLAY TOTAL JSAND: 0.05-2.Omm

Percent of <2-mm Soil 

10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100

Clay-free Particle Size Distribution

ALLEN S846A231-002 

< silt > < sand > 

fine co_ v.f. fine med co+vc 2-75mm ^ rn wk r~i isa rn R^

Percent of Silt.and Sand 

0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100

350-

300

350-

Cation Exchange

350

BT1

BT2

BT3

BT4

B/C

Soil Water, Pores and Solids 

ALLEN S84GA231-002

>2 SAND SILT CLAY DM 15BAR WRD AIR ^l^rT/lf^Bpgg^l I

Volume Percent of <2mm Soil 

0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 BO 90 100

300

350-

Figure 7f. Summary plots of soil data for pedon S84GA-231-002.

E24 Pedologic Studies in the Eastern United States
Particle Size Distribution 

NOT DESIGNATED SB4GA293-001 

FINE_CLAY: <.002 OOO TOTAL SILT 

COARSE_PLAY TOTAL_SAND:0.05-2.Omm

Percent of <2-mm Soil 

0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100

200

AP

BX2

Clay-free Particle Size Distribution

NOT DESIGNATED SB4GA293-001 

< silt > < sand > 

fine co_ v.f. fine med coryc 2-75mm E3 n £2 n ^ Cn £3

Percent of Silt and Sana 

0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100

ISO200-I

AP

Cation Exchange 

NOT DESIGNATED_S84GA293-001 

iBases

Al

Cec-7 

Cec-8.2

AP

200

BX2

Soil Water. Pores and Solids 

NOT DESIGNATED S84GA29S-001

>2 SAND SILT CLAY OM 15BAR WRD AIR

Volume Percent of <2mm Soil 

0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100

205

200-

AP

BX2

Figure 7F, Summary plots of soil data for pedon S84GA-293-001.

Genesis and Residence Times of Soil and Weathering Profiles, Pine Mountain Area of West-Central Georgia E25
Particle Size Distribution

NOT DESIGNATED S84GA199-002

FINE_CLAY: <.002

COARSE_CLAY

TOTAL_SILT 

TOTALJ3AND: 0.05-2.Omm

Percent of <2-mm Soil

0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 BO 90 100 

0 -L_J__L__J__I I I I I

200-

250

BT1

BT2

235

2BX5 

250

Clay-free Particle Size Distribution

NOT DESIGNATED SB4GA199-002 

< silt > < sand > 

fine co_ v.f. fine med co+vc g-75mm Fq r~i ?T;\ r~i rep rn f33i

Percent of Silt and Sana 

0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100

200- =

250-^

BT1

Cation Exchange 

NOT DESIGNATED S84GA199-002 

[Bases 

EiBases + Al

meq/lOOg soil 

5

Soil Water. Pores and Solids 

NOT DESIGNATED S84GA199-002

200-

250

BT1

235

2BX5 

250

>2 SAND SILT CLAY OM 15_BAR WRD AIR

Volume Percent of <2mm Soil 

0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100

200-

250

BT1

Figure 7G. Summary plots of soil data for pedon S84GA-199-002.

E26 Pedologic Studies in the Eastern United States
Particle Size Distribution

NOT DESIGNATED 

FINE_CLAY: <.002 

COARSE_CLAY

TOTAL_SILT

TOTAI_SAND: 0.05-2.Omm

Percent of <2-mm Soil 

0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100

AP

ISO200-

Clay-free Particle Size Distribution

NOT DESIGNATED

< s i It > < sand > 

fine co v. f. fine med cp+yc 2-75mm

B CH Percent E2 

of 

CD 

Silt and 

ES 

Sand 

dl ^

0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100

200

AP

BT1

Figure 7H. Summary plots of soil data for and unnumbered pedon in the Flint River terrace.

hydroxy-interlayered vermiculite (fig. 8C) and more gibbsite, relative to kaolinite and vermiculite, than the residual 

quartzite pedon (231-001) (fig. 85). The contrast in clay 

mineralogy between pedons 231-001 and 231-003 is due 

to better drainage in the colluvial pedon (231-003), which 

would facilitate the removal of silica from kaolinite and 

(or) mica and the formation of gibbsite.

Pedon 231-004: Quartzite Residual Soil

The last of the "in place" mountain sites is represented by pedon 231-004 (fig. ID). This pedon is similar 

to pedon 231-001 (fig. IB). It exhibits a well-developed Bt 

horizon and a thick solum. Clay and silt combined are more 

abundant than sand in the Bt horizon, and the ratio of fine 

to coarse silt is close to 4:1 in the upper horizons. As in 

pedon 231-001, there is a silt maximum both above and 

below the clay maximum. The ratio of fine to coarse silt is 

lowest in the Bt2 horizon, and the ratio of fine to coarse silt 

is highest in the upper B and upper C horizons.

These changes in ratio and weight percent are taken 

as evidence of the active breakdown of quartz sand to fine 

silt in the C and upper B horizons and of dissolution of silt 

in the Bt horizon. The thickness of the A plus E horizons 

(38 cm) is not sufficient to provide all the clay in the

84-cm-thick Bt horizon by translocation. It is much more 

likely that the clay maximum in the Bt is due to physical 

breakdown and chemical dissolution of the sand- and siltsized fractions.

The clay-sized fraction of pedon 231-004 contains 

abundant kaolinite and gibbsite and moderate to small 

amounts of hydroxy-interlayered vermiculite. The chemistry of pedon 231-004 has not been determined.

Pedon 231-002: Landslide Debris (Quartzite)

Pedon 231-002 (site 5) is similar to the mountain 

soils (sites 2, 3, and 4) in that it has also developed from 

the Hollis Quartzite. It is dissimilar in that it has developed 

on a slide block of Hollis that became detached from Indian 

Grave Mountain and slid northward to its present position 

(fig. 6B). The internal structure of the slide block is chaotic.

Pedon 231-002 has a well-developed argillic horizon 

that is significantly thinner than the argillic horizons of the 

residual quartzite profiles (pedons 231-001 and 231-004) 

but thicker than the argillic horizon of the colluvial soil 

pedon (pedon 231-003). Pedon 231-002 is similar to other 

residual soils because it has a silt maximum both above and 

below the clay maximum. The ratio of fine to coarse silt is

Genesis and Residence Times of Soil and Weathering Profiles, Pine Mountain Area of West-Central Georgia E27
DEPTH (cm) HORIZON

79-104 BC

 104-154 B/C

-154-216 C1

216-254 C2

254-304 C3

V 

14.7

K

3.60 Q 

3.35 DEPTH (cm) HORIZON

2.82

0-18 Ap 

18-35 AB

BA

146-175 Bxl

175-205 Bx2

K

3.60 Q 

3.35

2.82

B

DEPTH (cm) HORIZON

0-20 A

20-32 E 

38-51 BE

51-66 2Bt1

66-85 2Bt2

85-120 2Bt2

85-114 2Bt3

114-168 2CR1

168-220 2CR2

Figures 8/4, B, C. X-ray diffraction patterns for untreated 

<2-|xm fractions from selected horizons of pedons and 

from weathering profiles in the Pine Mountain area of 

west-central Georgia. Site locations are shown in figures 

6A-F. Traces illustrated are of oriented, untreated clay. 

Peak spacings are in angstroms. Depths to middle of horizons and sample intervals are given in centimeters and 

inches, respectively. V is hydroxy-interlayered vermiculite, M is mica, K is kaolinite, G is gibbsite, and Q is 

quartz. A, Pedon S84GA-199-001 (Piedmont) (site 1); B, 

pedon S84GA-231-001 (mountain) (site 2); C, pedon 

S84GA-293-001 (fan) (site 6).

less than it is in the residual quartzite pedons, possibly 

reflecting less time for breakdown of sand and coarse silt to 

fine silt and clay. The silt ratio difference may also reflect 

minor differences in parent material composition and (or) 

texture.

As is the case with the other pedons, the A-horizon 

thickness is insufficient to supply all the clay in the Bt 

horizon. The formation of clay in place from silt and sand

is the likely source of most of the clay in the Bt. This 

interpretation is supported by the commonly observed clayrich seams in the saprolite developed from Hollis Quartzite 

well below the Bt horizon. These red 10R seams are apparently zones of (1) intense in place weathering along zones 

of feldspar- or mica-rich parent material and (or) (2) downward and (or) horizontal translocation of clay-sized material in the seams.

E28 Pedologic Studies in the Eastern United States
DEPTH (cm) HORIZON

0-15

15-44 Bt1

44-66 Bt2

2.82

98-130 2Bx1

130-164 2Bx2

195-235 2Bx4

235-250 2Bx5

V M K Q

D

DEPTH (cm) HORIZON

Q

0-15 Ap

15-25 BA

152-178 C1

178-193 2C2

193-213 2C3

213-236 2C4

Figures 8D,E. X-ray diffraction patterns for untreated 

<2-|xm fractions from selected horizons of pedons and 

from weathering profiles in the Pine Mountain area of 

west-central Georgia. Site locations are shown in figures 

6/4-F. Traces illustrated are of oriented, untreated clay. 

Peak spacings are in angstroms. Depths to middle of horizons and sample intervals are given in centimeters and 

inches, respectively. V is hydroxy-interlayered vermiculite, K is kaolinite, G is gibbsite, and Q is quartz. D, Pedon 

S84GA-199-002 (fan) (site 7); E, unnumbered pedon (Flint 

River terrace alluvium) (site 8).

Soil and Weathering Profiles in Alluvial Fan 

Parent Material

Figure 10 shows aerial photographs of two alluvial 

fans in the eastern and central parts of the study area 

(Sunset Village and Warm Springs 7.5-min quadrangles). 

Alluvial fans such as these blanket the toe slopes of numerous quartzite ridges in the Pine Mountain area. We have 

identified fans on south-, north-, and east-facing slopes 

(figs. 6A, 6C, and 11A, respectively). In the present topography, fan deposits form distinct hills at the base of the 

quartzite ridges. Local streams are incised into the fans. 

Commonly, stream beds are 20 to 40 ft below the upper 

surfaces of the fans. Fan deposits consist of stacked 

sequences of fining-upward sand and gravel (subrounded to 

rounded medium sand to cobble gravel) (fig. 11 A). Many of

the fan deposits have completely filled and topped paleovalleys and therefore are somewhat bowl shaped in cross 

section. Because of their geomorphic expression as erosional remnants, it is difficult to directly associate the fans 

with the present topography of the mountain slopes.

At least at one locality (the edge of the south-facing 

fan shown as C in fig. 10A), the fans have 5- to 15-ft-deep, 

2- to 5-ft-wide cracks at the surface. The cracks are interpreted to be tensional, resulting from oversteepening of the 

slope by the adjacent deeply incised stream. These tension 

cracks are filled with a dark-red, clayey, masssive material 

rich in smectite (fig. SH). The origin of the smectite is 

uncertain.

Weathering of the alluvial fan deposits, including 

oxidation, exceeds 50 ft (as can be seen from exposures 

along county roads and railroads and from auger samples

Genesis and Residence Times of Soil and Weathering Profiles, Pine Mountain Area of West-Central Georgia E29
DEPTH (cm) 

122

183

244

305

366

427

488

549

Figures 8F,G,H. X-ray diffraction patterns for untreated 

<-2|xm fractions from selected horizons of pedons and 

from weathering profiles in the Pine Mountain area of 

west-central Georgia. Site locations are shown in figures 

6A-F. Traces illustrated are of oriented, untreated clay. 

Peak spacings are in angstroms. Depths to middle of horizons and sample intervals are given in centimeters and 

inches, respectively. V is hydroxy-interlayered vermicuDEPTH (cm) 

61

122

305

lite, M is mica, K is kaolinite, G is gibbsite, S is smectite, 

and Q is quartz, f, Weathering profile (White Sulphur 

Creek terrace alluvium) (site 9); C, weathering profile 

(landslide deposit) (site 10); H, clay-rich material filling 

tension(?) cracks in alluvial fan deposit (sampled pedon 

from this fan is site 6) (X-ray diffraction patterns shown in 

fig. 8Q.

taken for this study). Locally, the depth of oxidation may 

be much deeper. The composition of alluvium is controlled 

by rock type in the source area.

These incised and dissected alluvial fans have no 

recognizable surface features (such as channels or levees), 

are deeply weathered and oxidized, and have thick soils 

containing fragic horizons. There is no evidence of fan 

formation in the modern landscape. For these reasons, we 

view the fans in the Pine Mountain area as no younger than 

early Pleistocene and probably Pliocene. Because the presence of alluvial fans in the Piedmont is uncommon, if not 

rare, we consider the fans to represent disequilibrium periods of rapid deposition. Although we believe that deposition of the fan material was in response to climatic events,

we do not reject the possibility of seismic and (or) tectonic 

activity during or just before periods of fan formation. We 

discuss the relative ages of constructional and erosional 

landforms in "Age Estimates for Soils and Geomorphic 

Surfaces" (p. E41). We use the weathering and soil data 

from these fans in limiting the age(s) of physiographic 

features of the region.

Soils developed on alluvial fans in the Pine Mountain 

window are in excess of 9 ft thick. Two sites having 

different aspects were selected for detailed characterization. Site S84GA-293-001 is on an east-facing, 3-percent 

planar slope, and site S84GA-199-002 is on a northfacing, 3-percent planar slope. Both sites are on dissected 

remnants of fan surfaces and are considered to be well

E30 Pedologic Studies in the Eastern United States
B

0.1 mm 0.1 mm

Figure 9. C2 horizon of pedon S84GA-199-001 (site 1). The soil at this locality has been described as a Cecil. Mica and 

kaolinitic pseudomorphs of mica form "books" that are recognizable in the weathered C horizon of this profile. 

Magnification x150. A, Crossed nicols; B, plane polarized.

drained. The dominant pedogenic features in both of these 

pedons are the fragic Bx horizons 12 beneath the Bt horizons. The characteristics of each of the soils are discussed 

below.

Relative to the residual soil (Cecil, pedon 199-001) 

developed in foliated Piedmont rocks and to residual mountain soils developed in the Hollis Quarztite, pedon 293-001 

has a thick (69 cm) epipedon split into Ap, AB, and BA 

horizons. The AB and BA have a silt-loam texture and 

weakly developed, subangular, blocky structure. Textural 

analysis shows that fine to medium sand is dominant in the 

epipedon. Total silt in pedon 293-001 reaches a maximum 

in the Ap horizon, whereas silt maxima are in the lower B 

and upper C horizons of residual soils. In the Bt horizon 

(69-146 cm), clay increases and silt decreases relative to 

clay and silt in the epipedon. The sand fraction also

12Fragic horizon or fragipan is defined as "a dense subsurface layer 

of soil whose hardness and relatively slow permeability to water are 

chiefly due to extreme compactness rather than to high clay content (as in 

clay pan) or cementation (as in hard pan). It appears indurated when dry, 

but shows a moderate to weak brittleness when moist. It contains much 

silt and sand, but little clay and organic matter" (Bates and Jackson, 1987, 

p. 257).

decreases in the Bt horizon, but the coarse and very coarse 

sand fraction in the profile increases downward (particularly in the Bxl at 146 cm and the Bx2 at 175 cm) (see 

table UB).

In the Bx horizons of pedon 293-001, the major 

change in texture from the Bt horizon is a decrease in total 

silt from the surface to 175 cm particularly the decrease 

in fine silt from the surface to 205 cm. There is also an 

increase in the very coarse fraction, mainly of rock fragments. The decrease of fine silt from the Bt to the Bx 

horizons is seen on the plot of clay-free texture (fig. IF). 

The decrease of fine silt coincides with changes in bulk 

density and water content.

Data in table 12B show that the north-facing fan soil 

(pedon 199-002) contains more clay in its Bt horizon than 

the SSE.-facing fan soil (pedon 293-001). The Bt2 horizon 

in pedon 199-002 is about the same thickness as the Bt2 

horizon in pedon 293-001 but occurs higher in the profile. 

The combined thickness of the Bx horizons in pedon 

199-002 is greater than that in pedon 293-001, and the 

uppermost Bx horizon is nearer to the ground surface. The 

weight percentages of clay, silt, and sand in the Bx horizons in the two pedons are similar. The textural profile 

of pedon 199-002 is shown in figure 1G. The main

Genesis and Residence Times of Soil and Weathering Profiles, Pine Mountain Area of West-Central Georgia E31
z

oI

% te .*,. ',.,../*",.'*«' !'-J' *'ll I*1 '&/..,

f '. $T' >" &» *;> ' ;.'«!< /!» "!> ;r.rr«j^ .,

 <*, " 

- .i "

i.V1f'p-«Vt ; .,,, .«>«. i , *i t*tw*:; ^ ^ 5 >N ,.'/^'-:i K''4^-;U^V^^' * 'i '' - '^ i-v«; :*-i» ; 'r;'^%f .r <* - i- ^- i " ^,*^^F"';7' - ^; ...i;,f^^?ii^', r.^A. 1'1?^ ..." ', . - " i .' .'**. " »'/ :) ...' , " tffe* i'/.'t ' w fe-> -''^ ^ ' -\v, '.i^-^/^.^r. - ^s^!».s * '*' ^jV^'t ^i^4.i:

ws ' ' r.^raT *" 11 SV.«i-'7' M|< ?? "*

 4*M- i,

1 ' !;,? V" ! '' *' :,T] ; ^SfeV ''*

&'*,: /:

,,, ''&^

^^^^ y^M

"{.; ?lj$$$$&, ' :''ff^1«

Figure 10A. Alluvial fan (af), older landslide deposits (Is1), younger landslide deposits (Is2), and cracks (c) on the southern side of Bull Trail Mountain (sites 6 and 10, respectively). Scale 1:20,000. Sunset Village 7.5-min quadrangle.
Figure 10ff. Large alluvial fan (af) on the northern side of Pine Mountain just 

west of Warm Springs, Ga. (site 7). The cleared area north of the treeline 

outlines the fan. Scale 1:20,000. Warm Springs 7.5-min quadrangle.

differences in particle-size distribution between pedon 

199-002 and pedon 293-001 are differences in clay content 

in the Bt2 horizons and the position of the Bt2 horizon in 

the pedons. A similar decrease of clay between the Bt2 and 

Bx horizons is seen in both profiles. Along with the clay 

decrease, the total silt (particularly fine silt) decreases 

between the Bt2 and Bx horizons. This decrease is seen 

clearly in the clay-free texture plot in figure 7G. This 

similarity suggests a depletion of fine silt during pedogenesis rather than control of the silt texture by the parent 

material. As it is in pedon 293-001, the fine silt in pedon 

199-002 is preferentially depleted, and there is no evidence 

of an upward-fining parent material. We hypothesize that 

the fine silt has undergone preferential dissolution in the Bx 

horizon. Bulk density and water content provide evidence 

for unique packing and hydrologic properties of the Bx. 

Bulk density in the Bt of both pedon 293-001 and pedon 

199-002 is 1.64 to 1.71 g/cm3 , typical of Bt horizons 

elsewhere in the Piedmont and Coastal Plain. The bulk 

density increases abruptly in the Bx2 of pedon 293-001 to 

2.16 g/cm3 , an increase of nearly 30 percent relative to the 

1.71 g/cm3 of the Bt2. In the same interval, the Vs-bar 

water content decreases by about 60 percent, whereas the 

15-bar water is relatively constant between the Bt and the 

Bx2. These observations suggest that changes in the hydrologic property of the Bx horizon coincide with the loss of 

fine silt and changes in the soil fabric. The result is a

density increase. We stress the fine silt depletion because it 

is not so striking in the mountain and Piedmont pedons.

The decrease in silt in the Bx horizon of pedon 

199-002 is also coincident with an increase in bulk density 

from 1.3 g/cm3 in the Bt2 to 1.8 g/cm3 in the 2Bx3 

horizon an increase of nearly 40 percent. The increase in 

bulk density is correlative with a decrease in the Vs-bar 

water content from 24.8 percent to 15.5 percent. Although 

the absolute bulk density and the Vs-bar water content are 

not the same as those in the Bx horizon of pedon 293-001, 

the textural, bulk density, and water content trends are the 

same from the Bt to the Bx horizons in both profiles, the 

suggestion being that the trends are due to pedogenic loss 

of fine silt and change in fabric rather than control by 

parent material characteristics.

The clay mineralogy of pedons developed in the 

alluvial fan material, shown in figures 8C and D, is significantly different from that of pedons developed in residual 

soils. The most striking difference is in the percentages of 

14.7-A vermiculite and 4.87-A gibbsite. These phases are 

associated, and high contents of gibbsite and vermiculite 

indicate that alteration of the parent material took place 

under well-drained conditions (Markewich and others, 

1986). Unlike pedons on the Coastal Plain in Virginia 

(Markewich and others, 1987) and North Carolina (Soller, 

1988), there is no tendency toward increasing kaolinite 

and decreasing vermiculite and gibbsite as a function of

Genesis and Residence Times of Soil and Weathering Profiles, Pine Mountain Area of West-Central Georgia E33
Figure 11. An ancient, east-facing alluvial fan deposit exposed in a railroad 

cut near Parkman Pond in the Shiloh 7.5-min quadrangle of Georgia. A, 

Topographic expression of the alluvial fan showing that it is an erosional 

remnant of a much larger deposit; B, rounded cobble gravel in bedded 

alluvial fan deposit. Handle of entrenching tool is 21 in long.

Figure 11. Continued.

increasing clay percentage and decreasing micropermeability per horizon. This contrast is apparently due to some 

factor that (1) limits the total percentage (or mass) of clay 

that can form in these pedons and (2) limits the decrease in 

small pore volume and thereby in micropermeability.

Unlike Coastal Plain Ultisols that we have studied, 

the clay bulge in pedons 293-001 and 199-002 is evenly 

distributed with depth, and the maximum percentage of 

clay per horizon is restricted to about 30 percent. The 

limited clay content may simply reflect quartz-rich parent

material (Hollis Quartzite), which has a low labile mineral 

content in both the sand and the silt fractions. Soils formed 

in situ in the Hollis are clay rich and have distinct clay 

maxima in the upper part of the B horizons.

The clay mineralogy of the fan soils does not suggest 

a bisequum or cumulative soil, because the trend of 

decreasing vermiculite and gibbsite relative to kaolinite in 

the fan soils is similar to that in soils developed in Coastal 

Plain sediments in Virginia (Markewich and others, 1987). 

The fan soil (pedon 199-002) has an abnormally high 

content of 10.1-A muscovite in its Bt2, 2Bxl, and 2Bx2 

horizons, which may be related to a higher mica content in 

the parent material. It contains little or no clay-sized 

quartz. The most striking change revealed by XRD in the 

Bx, relative to the Bt and BA, is the decrease in clay-sized 

quartz. This decrease, which is coincident with the 

decrease of fine silt, suggests that quartz in the fine silt and 

clay fractions has been removed by dissolution.

There is no change in clay mineralogy in the Bx 

horizon of pedon 199-002, an indication that any cementation is caused by a noncrystalline, probably subclay-sized 

material. The chemistry (table 12D) indicates that the 

cementation may be due to amorphous iron, aluminum, or 

silica. These analyses are for pedon 199-002 but are considered representative for both fan soils. As is the case with 

other Ultisols, the maximum Fe2O3+Al2O3 correlates with 

the Bt horizon, and Fe2O3+Al2O3 decreases (along with 

TiO2) in the Bx horizon.

E34 Pedologic Studies in the Eastern United States
-100 FEETFigure 12. Eastern half of roadcut through a fining-upward sequence of terrace alluvium adjacent to White 

Sulphur Creek (see site 9, fig. 6f) showing its position as channel fill cut into metamorphic rocks that are now 

saprolitized. Because there is no evidence of mixing at the alluvium/saprolite contact, we interpret the saprolitization to be associated in time with subaerial exposure of the entire section.

It appears that the coincidence of the clay maximum 

and the SiO2 minimum in the Bt horizon is largely the 

result of silica depletion, as Markewich and others (1986, 

1987) have suggested for Ultisols elsewhere in the Southeast. SiO2 depletion is not as intense in the Bx horizon as it 

is in the Bt horizon. It is not clear what limit exists on 

depth to the base of the Bt horizon or what controls the 

depth of the Bt/Bx transition. Textural and chemical data 

indicate that processes do change across the Bt/Bx boundary. The depletion of clay-sized and fine-silt-sized quartz in 

the Bx horizon indicates that silica dissolution did occur in 

the Bx horizon as well as in the Bt horizon.

We have not determined if there is any cementation 

in the Bx horizon. If there is cementation in the Bx horizon, it is either not silica (for example, it is Fe and Al) or 

it is silica derived from the dissolution of quartz in this 

horizon or higher in the profile. It is also possible that silica 

cement accumulated in the Bx after the initial silica depletion.

There is some evidence that Al and Fe play a role in 

cementation. In pedon 293-001 (table 11C), we see an 

abrupt increase in dithionite-citrate extractable iron and 

aluminum in the Bxl horizon relative to the Bt2 horizon. 

This increase may be the result of downward or lateral 

movement of amorphous or finely crystalline iron and aluminum colloids that act as cementing agents. As noted 

above, most of the cementation affects pores that contain 

Vs-bar water rather than fine pores containing 15-bar water. 

Thus, the cementation that contributes to the bulk density 

increase occurs mostly in larger pores, probably owing to 

movement of iron and aluminum phases from the Bt horizon. The simplest hypothesis that can be drawn is that 

creation of porosity by silt dissolution results in trapping of 

colloids translocated from the Bt.

We did not reach the base of the Bx horizon in either 

profile, but we suspect that fragipan development is related 

to a lithologic-hydrologic discontinuity in the fan alluvium. 

The role of textural or hydrologic discontinuities is not

clear but may be related to the slow rate of water and 

colloid movement from the finer grained near-surface sands 

to a coarser grained alluvial gravel.

In summary, both fan sites show well-developed profiles in which Bt horizons overlie Bx horizons. The development of the fragipan, which involved silt depletion by 

chemical weathering, appears to have postdated the phase 

of clay formation. One common feature in these pans is the 

small percentage of fine silt in the Bx horizon relative to 

that in the Bt horizon; another is the absence of clay-sized 

quartz in the Bx horizon. Pan formation in these soils may 

be related to the conditions associated with active quartz 

dissolution such as close packing of sand, kaolinite dissolution relative to vermiculite and gibbsite, and subsequent 

cementation by noncrystalline products of mineral alteration.

Soil and Weathering Profiles in Terrace Alluvium

Almost every creek, stream, and river in the study 

area has an adjacent terrace or terraces. The treads of these 

erosional terraces are planar surfaces formed by lateral 

erosion (planation) overlain by relatively thin deposits of 

alluvium. On the Flint River terraces, the capping alluvium 

is nowhere greater than 20 ft, and that thickness is only 

locally preserved as paleochannel deposits. Generally, alluvium of the Flint River terraces is 8 to 10 ft thick. Terraces 

of Flint and Chattahoochee River tributaries are commonly 

overlain by 2 to 5 ft of alluvium and have paleochannel 

deposits as thick as 15 ft (fig. 12).

Commonly, terrace alluvium along smaller streams 

consists of a sequence of coarse sand and pebble gravel 

fining upward to medium and fine sand and no gravel. The 

red colors and higher percentages of clay in the near surface are the result of oxidation and pedogenesis. The best 

exposure of terrace material from a small stream is in a 

roadcut on the eastern side of White Sulphur Creek west of 

Durand (fig. 12). The changes in clay mineralogy with

Genesis and Residence Times of Soil and Weathering Profiles, Pine Mountain Area of West-Central Georgia E35
depth (samples taken every 2 ft from the surface) characterize the weathering profile developed in the White Sulphur Creek terrace alluvium (fig. 8F).

Terrace material adjacent to larger streams and along 

the Flint River does not show the channel form, particlesize variation, or color variation seen in terrace alluvium of 

smaller streams. The weathered alluvium is red to redbrown in color and has relatively uniform grain-size distribution. Because the solum extends to bedrock, there is 

little to no weathered alluvium or C horizon. Our auger 

samples are from a high terrace (750 ft in altitude) about 4 

mi east of Woodbury, between Elkins Creek and the Flint 

River, about 2 mi upstream from the Flint River Water Gap 

(fig. IB). Particle-size distribution data and clay mineralogy data from this pedon are included in table 13 and 

figures 1H and 8E. We do not describe the soils formed in 

the White Sulphur Creek or Flint River terrace alluvium.

Landslides and Associated Weathering Profiles

The smallest landslide identified in the area is shown 

in figure 10A. The slide is lobate and has a steep frontal toe 

and a hummocky upper surface. Relief on the surface 

morphology is low and not represented on the area topographic map (fig. 6A), which has a 20-ft contour interval. 

The slide scarp or backwall can be seen in the aerial 

photograph (fig. 10A). This small slide has flowed out onto 

an older slide deposit that has no surface morphology but 

can be seen in the cut bank along Jeff Davis Road (fig. 

10A). In the older slide deposit, clasts range from cobble to 

small boulder sized and are dominantly subangular. The 

combined older and younger slide deposits appear to be on 

but oblique to the local dip slope of the Hollis Quartzite.

Figure 13 shows the angularity of clasts in the older 

slide in comparison with the rounded clasts in alluvial fans 

shown in figure HB. Rinds on clasts in the slide indicate 

long-term in place weathering. We sampled the upper 8 ft 

of the weathering profile of the older landslide. X-ray 

diffraction patterns of these samples are shown in figure 

8G. We made no attempt to sample and date the younger 

slide. We used the observable weathering characteristics of 

the older material to estimate the relative age of the older 

slide. The depth of oxidation and the degree of weathering 

of individual clasts, plus clay mineralogy and bulk chemistry data, all suggest that the older slide is at least as old as 

alluvial fan and debris-flow deposits in the area and therefore probably is no younger than early Pleistocene in age.

Debris Flows

Debris-flow deposits on the slopes of Pine Mountain 

are typical in that they all have narrow necks, lobate and 

hummocky toes, and surface layers (commonly a few feet 

thick) that are finer grained than the underlying material. 

The neck of one flow is about 300 ft across. One of the best

Figure 13. Small-boulder-sized clasts in a landslide 

deposit exposed along Jeff Davis Road on the southern 

side of Bull Trail Mountain. Note the angularity of the 

clasts and the thick weathering rind on the large clast in 

the center of the photograph (site 10, figs. 6A, 8G, and 

10A). Handle of entrenching tool is 21 in long.

exposures through the necks of several adjacent flows is 

along a county road as it goes across Pine Mountain 1 to 

1.5 mi northwest of Hamilton, Ga. (figs. 1A, B). Topographic expression of these debris flows and cross sections 

through the necks of the flows are shown in figures 14 and 

15 A-C. These exposures are 150 to 200 ft above the base 

of the flows. The set of flows exposed along this section of 

road is about 1,500 ft across. Coarse clasts ride on a base 

of mobilized saprolite (fig. 155). Both the matrix and the 

included cobbles are oxidized and mottled throughout (fig. 

15£>). Included clasts are dominantly cobble to small boulder sized.

The toes of the flows northwest of Hamilton coalesce 

to form a large, lobate, hummocky skirt at the base of the 

mountain. This hummocky surface is not represented in the 

topography shown on the Pine Mountain SW 7.5-min 

quadrangle of Georgia (fig. 14), because surface relief of 

the hummocks is within the map's 20-ft contour interval.

E36 Pedologic Studies in the Eastern United States
Figure 14. Topographic expression of SSE.-facing debris flows in the Pine Mountain SW 

7.5-min quadrangle of Georgia. The stipple pattern shows the area of debris flow deposits 

northwest of Hamilton, Ga. Also shown is the location of sample site 12.

Figure 15C shows the contact between the debris-flow 

gravels and the underlying saprolite in the toe part of the 

flow. Unlike the contact shown in figure 15B, there is no 

mobilized saprolite beneath the debris-flow gravels.

Debris-flow deposits are present on the steeper 

slopes underlain by beds of resistant, massive Hollis 

Quartzite in the Pine Mountain area. They are present on 

both the northern and the southern slopes of Pine Mountain 

but are best exposed on the southern slopes. They appear to 

be restricted to the western part of the study area.

The debris flows near Hamilton are present on crossdip and dip slopes of massive orthoquartzite within the 

Hollis. They are more numerous and more distinctive on 

the cross-dip slopes. The upper sections or source areas of 

these debris flows cannot be seen in the present landscape.

There is no evidence of gullying or of any gravel lag. It is 

this lack of characteristic topography in the headward areas 

of the flows, the deep oxidation and mottling due to iron 

segregation, and the incision and dissection of the toes that 

indicate an age no younger than early Pleistocene for these 

deposits. No descriptions or mineralogic analyses are available for these deposits.

DISCUSSION

Weathering and Relative Residence Times of 

Weathering Profiles

In the Pine Mountain area, near-surface residual 

weathering profiles developed in place on weathered bedGenesis and Residence Times of Soil and Weathering Profiles, Pine Mountain Area of West-Central Georgia E37
. B*%^fc% ^3Pf^ '*$imm

r-'. ' *

Figure 15. Site 12 (fig. 14) showing details of SSE.-facing 

debris flows. A, Channel-shaped cross section (about 

150-200 ft higher than base of flow) showing contact with 

underlying saprolite. B, Closeup of angular clasts in 

debris-flow deposit and of the mobilized saprolite at the 

base of the flow. C, Contact near the toe of the debris

flow between transported material and saprolitized bedrock (abrupt contact suggests that saprolitization 

occurred after the debris flow). D, Mottled clast of Hollis 

Quartzite from the neck section of the debris flow. Handle of entrenching tool shown in B and C is 21 in long.

rock (saprolite) can be contrasted with profiles developed 

in transported parent materials. Lithotypes having residual 

soil and weathering profiles include weathered metamorphic micaceous schists, itacolumite (flexible, micaceous 

lithotype of the Hollis Quartzite), granite, and granitic 

gneiss. In the Pine Mountain area, residual soil and weathering profiles developed on schist are similar in thickness 

and profile zonation to profiles developed in steeply foliated lithologies throughout the Appalachian Piedmont 

south of Maryland. The thickest profiles are developed 

beneath upland drainage divides. Soil and weathering profiles thin markedly beneath steeper valley side slopes. 

Drilling beneath uplands underlain by schist typically penetrates 40 to 70 ft of saprolite before hitting competent 

bedrock. Residual soil profiles exhibit thin (70 cm thick or 

less) sola dominated by Bt horizons. A horizons are commonly less than 15 cm thick and often contain angular, 

residual vein quartz. The sola of residual soil developed in

schist and gneiss grade downward into massive zones that 

grade into saprolite (Pavich and others, 1989). Where saprolite is exposed at the land surface, it is dominantly quartz 

and muscovite. Weatherable minerals such as feldspars and 

iron silicates have been altered by leaching. Oxidation of 

iron silicates and iron sulfides extends to the base of the 

saprolite. Joints and fractures in saprolite are commonly 

filled with clayey-textured manganese and iron-rich cutans. 

In the Pine Mountain area, the Hollis Quartizite is 

more deeply weathered than the surrounding schist. Exposures on Salter Mountain (fig. IB, western end of Indian 

Grave Mountain) indicate that there is a minimum of 70 ft 

of weathering. Well data suggest that the weathering is 

probably much deeper than 70 ft. Hewett and Crickmay 

(1937) suggested that meteoric water circulates to a depth 

of several hundred feet in the Hollis Quartize before 

migrating back to the surface and reemerging along a 

quartzite/schist contact as warm-water springs. Their arguE38 Pedologic Studies in the Eastern United States
ment suggests that alteration of mineral phases other than 

quartz and muscovite may take place at considerable depth 

in the Hollis. Weathering in the itacolumite lithotype of the 

Hollis may be analogous to deep weathering in Pliocene 

quartzose barrier sands in Horry County, S.C. (Markewich 

and others, 1987). The high quartz content of the quartzite 

and of the marine barrier sand allows for development of a 

thick unsaturated zone and deep circulation of oxygenated, 

acidic water that reacts readily with labile mineral phases. 

The ubiquitous fractures and joints in the Hollis facilitate 

the downward movement of waters. By contrast, massive 

orthoquartzite lithotypes of the Hollis are much less weathered and crop out as resistant ledges near ridge crests in the 

western part of the study area. Dark brick red, clay-rich 

layers at the base of exposures in the Hollis on Indian 

Grave Mountain (itacolumite lithotype) are interpreted to 

be feldspathic and (or) sheared zones, but more work is 

needed to determine their actual origin.

Transported materials also vary in the depth and 

intensity of weathering. Locally transported colluvium can 

be relatively unweathered, particularly when it is composed 

of resistant, massive orthoquartzite blocks. Some of the 

deepest weathering in the area, however, occurs on debrisflow and alluvial-fan deposits that flank the major ridges. 

These fans are dissected remnants of larger late Tertiary or 

early Pleistocene fans that developed under climate and 

drainage/discharge conditions quite different from those of 

the present. Outcrop and drilling show that depth of weathering is at least 50 ft in parts of the fans and that the 

intensity of weathering does not vary significantly with 

depth. This deep weathering is probably attributable to the 

highly porous fabric of the poorly sorted fan deposits. No 

data are available on the maximum thickness of fan deposits or the maximum depth of weathering.

Field and laboratory data pertaining to the relative 

degree of alteration suggest that, in general, soil and 

weathering profiles developed in alluvial-fan material and 

in Hollis Quartzite have longer residence times in the landscape than soil and weathering profiles developed in schist. 

Bt horizon thickness, clay mass, and development of fragic 

horizons are criteria, based on both field and laboratory 

data, that indicate residence-time differences between soil 

and weathering profiles developed in the three parent materials. Geomorphic field relations also support age differences.

The Piedmont surface developed on schist saprolite 

is lowered by a combination of volumetric collapse of 

saprolite to soil, desilication of soil in the Bt horizon, and 

soil surface erosion (Pavich and others, 1989). The short 

relative residence time of Piedmont soils in the Pine Mountain area is consistent with that model. Lowering of the 

Piedmont schists relative to the Hollis Quartzite probably 

occurs by long-term (for example, 10 Ma or less) differential erosion of weathered and unweathered materials of 

varying erosional resistance and permeability. This observation is consistent with the model put forward by Pavich 

and others (1985), which holds that typical Piedmont saprolite has a residence time of 1 Ma or less.

The apparently greater erosional resistance of the 

Hollis Quartzite appears to be due to two factors. First, the 

chemical resistance of the massive orthoquartzite to weathering results in little chemical or mechanical alteration. 

Secondly, in areas of steep, narrow ridges underlain by 

highly jointed and fractured itacolumite, the combined 

effects of high porosity and permeability may be more 

important. These areas show no perennial drainage development. We hypothesize that rainwater quickly infiltrates 

the quartzite. Because there is little surface runoff, there is 

little or no mechanical erosion, a geomorphic environment 

similar to that of sand ridges in the Coastal Plain of South 

Carolina, Virginia, and Georgia (Markewich and others, 

1986, 1987, 1990).

Pedogenesis

McCracken and others (1962) and Daniels and others 

(1987) have shown that most soils in the mountainous 

regions of North Carolina are Inceptisols formed in shallow 

colluvium overlying residual soils or saprolite. On the 

slopes of Pine Mountain, Inceptisols are coincident with 

near-surface lithic contacts. Most soils developed in colluvium or in colluvium/residuum mix that we have observed 

in the Pine Mountain area are Ultisols having argillic horizons.

Soils encountered in the Pine Mountain area fall into 

three distinct groups: (1) those formed in Piedmont saprolite, typified by the Cecil profile described herein, (2) those 

formed on quartz-rich residuum of the Hollis Quartzite, and 

(3) those formed on fan deposits derived from the Hollis 

Quartzite, which contain fragic horizons and are similar to 

soils developed in the Coastal Plain of central Georgia. We 

recognize that the climate of the Pine Mountain area was 

cooler during glacial periods in the Pliocene and Pleistocene, but all recognized soil properties can be explained by 

noncryogenic processes.

Argillic Horizons

The processes of formation of the argillic horizons 

have been discussed for the Piedmont by Pavich (1986) and 

for the Coastal Plain by Markewich and others (1986, 

1987) and by authors referenced in their papers. The argillic horizons in all the pedons studied are kaolinitic. The 

kaolinite is probably derived from the alteration of feldspars, K-mica, and possibly from vermiculite derived from 

primary mica. Gibbsite is a minor constituent except in the 

very well drained mountain and fan sites. Perhaps the 

H4SiO4 concentrations of waters derived from the soils are 

too high for gibbsite to be stable. This instability is probable in a soil so rich in clay that H4SiO4 concentrations are

Genesis and Residence Times of Soil and Weathering Profiles, Pine Mountain Area of West-Central Georgia E39
high owing to a lack of drainage. The absence of vermiculite and gibbsite, except in the A horizon, is consistent 

with the evidence presented by Markewich and others 

(1987) that soil drainage controls the occurrence of these 

phases. These data suggest, therefore, that gibbsite is not 

macroclimatically controlled, as Owens and others (1983), 

Soller (1988), and Soller and Owens (1991) suggested, but 

is rather the result of soil microclimate and drainage. 

Because drainage is commonly related to time (increased 

dissection and incision), gibbsite may have a relation to 

time in areas where soils are as old as middle Pleistocene (1 

Ma or older) and the land surface on which the soil has 

developed has been uplifted and (or) affected by eustatic 

change(s) in sea level.

Desilication of Argillic Horizons

Another, less certain argument for active desilication 

of the Bt horizon is the absence of clay-sized quartz in the 

Bt. Farther north in Virginia (Markewich and others, 1987) 

and North Carolina (Soller, 1988), quartz is present only as 

a minor constituent of the clay-sized fraction of Bt horizons 

in Coastal Plain soils. If clay-sized quartz is produced in 

these middle Atlantic Coastal Plain soils by the mechanical 

breakdown of sand- or silt-sized quartz grains, persistence 

of the clay-sized quartz may be due to dissolution rates that 

are slower than they are in the Georgia soils. This assumption is speculative but fits the observed mean annual temperature difference between Georgia and more northerly 

sites (64.4 °F for Georgia, 60.8 °F for North Carolina, and 

55.4 °F for Virginia). The physical breakdown of quartz 

may be less temperature dependent, or even enhanced by 

freeze/thaw cycles, relative to the chemical dissolution of 

quartz.

Rubification of soils occurs faster in Georgia soils 

than it does in soils of the Middle Atlantic States 

(Markewich and others, 1989). This difference, too, may 

reflect a difference in kinetics of processes between Middle 

Atlantic soils and soils of the Southeastern United States.

Fragic Horizons

Soils having fragic properties comprise a small percentage of the soils of the Southeastern United States. 

Their genesis may be related to age, parent material, and 

(or) climate. Ruhe and others (1975, p. 125) stated:

In the southeastern states the fragisols are mainly on 

older geomorphic surfaces (Daniels, et al., 1966), hence 

they may be relics of older environments (Grossman and 

Carlisle, 1969). However, their geographic distribution 

approximately coincides with a similar geographic band of 

stabilized sand dunes (Thorp and Smith, 1952) that reflect 

a relatively dry climatic episode during the Pleistocene 

(Whitehead, 1973).

Although we cannot comment on the parent material 

of fragic soils in the Coastal Plain, the data presented here

EXPLANATION

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10 20 30 40 50 

PERCENTAGE OF CLAY

60 70

Figure 16. Percentage of fine silt versus the percentage 

of clay for all horizons of all sampled pedons.

show that soils having fragic horizons on the Pine Mountain fans are associated not with sand dunes but with old 

constructional morphostratigraphic units (for example, fan 

deposits) comprised of gravels and sands of resistant lithologies, dominantly quartzite. These units may be similar to 

sand dunes because they are both parent materials in which 

drainage is generally unimpeded.

The soils on the fans are unique in this area because 

they contain fragic horizons. Other constructional landforms, such as the slide block and the Flint River terrace, 

have soils that do not contain fragic horizons. Fragipans 

may, therefore, be a function of parent material differences, textural-hydrologic discontinuities, time, or a combination of all three. The effects of these factors of fragipan 

development have been discussed elsewhere (Grossman 

and Carlisle, 1969), and the general consensus is that fragic 

soils cannot be grouped by any simple taxonomic criteria.

Both the fragic and the nonfragic soils in the Pine 

Mountain area contain argillic horizons in the upper parts 

of their profiles. As they do in Coastal Plain soils elsewhere (Markewich and others, 1987), fine silt and clay 

increase in Bt horizons owing to physical and chemical 

alteration processes.

Figure 16 shows a plot of the percentage of fine silt 

versus the percentage of clay for all horizons of the sampled pedons. The plot shows that, for the complete data set, 

there is no trend in the ratio of fine silt to clay. It is 

significant, however, that the Bt horizons in the two fan 

soils (199-002, 293-001) containing fragipans or fragic 

horizons have the smallest fine silt content of any of the Bt 

horizons and that, for both soils, the fine-silt minimum 

coincides with a clay content of about 30 percent within 

horizons having well-developed fragic properties. The fine 

silt minima are taken as evidence that fine silt is lost by 

dissolution of quartz (and muscovite?) from the Bt horizon.

E40 Pedologic Studies in the Eastern United States
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EXPLANATION

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PERCENTAGE OF CLAY

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Figure 17. Ratio of fine silt to coarse silt versus the percentage of clay for pedons S84GA-231-001 (mountain), 

S84GA-199-001 (Piedmont), and S84GA-293-001 and 

S84GA-199-002 (fan). The dashed line separates argillic 

horizons from all but one of the fragic horizons..

The loss of fine silt relative to sand and clay appears 

to correlate with fragipan formation. Close packing of 

skeletal sand with interstitial clay (and possible cementation at skeletal sand-grain boundaries) could provide the 

brittleness (nonplasticity) and density observed in fragipans. Removal of silt by leaching would be a slow process 

and would fit the description of fragipans in Mississippi 

(Gauggel and Pettry, 1988, p. 257) as "...argillic horizons 

which have undergone leaching and clay illuviation prior to 

fragipan formation, which appears to be a gradual pedogenic process."

The ratio of fine silt to coarse silt versus the percentage of clay (fig. 17) and the line separating argillic (above) 

from fragic (below) horizons suggest two distinctly different trends in argillic and fragic horizon development:

1. A trend toward increasing fine silt and clay in the 

Ultisols developed on the Piedmont saprolite and Hollis 

Quartzite residuum.

2. A trend toward decreasing fine silt as clay increases to a 

limit of about 30 percent in fragipan. The clay may be 

limited by the parent minerals available to be altered 

(for example, mica and feldspar) or by the rate of 

translocation of clay. In the case of fan sites, both 

factors may limit the maximum percentage of clay in a 

horizon. Translocation of clay may be an active process 

in the coarse-textured and freely drained parent material. Once the pan begins to form, water retention below 

the rooting depth may promote fine silt and clay dissolution rather than clay precipitation due to drying as in a 

Bt horizon. Loss of fine silt and some clay-sized material (including clay-sized quartz) could result in a clayey 

sand texture in a closely packed, high-density fabric.

Age Estimates for Soils and Geomorphic Surfaces

Because soils can be differentiated on different geomorphic surfaces, they allow us to determine relative ages 

of surfaces. We can bracket the intermediate age units 

between the oldest and youngest units as follows.

The oldest landscape elements are the fans. This 

argument is based on several observations:

1. The fans are geomorphic remnants that are isolated on 

the landscape. Their surface drainage is disconnected 

from the drainage net of surface waters off the mountain, and their surface morphology has evolved to the 

stage where alluvial channels are well entrenched into 

the fan surface, and headward erosion of Piedmont 

streams is cutting into fan heads and isolating them 

from the mountain slopes.

2. The total solum thickness, including argillic and fragic 

horizons, of the fan soils is several times greater than 

that of any of the mountain or Piedmont soils.

3. Regolith on the fans is oxidized to depths of 15 to 20 m. 

By contrast, mountain regolith oxidation is restricted to 

depths of 7 to 12 m, and the Piedmont regolith is 

oxidated to depths of 3 to 6 m.

4. The degree of desilication of the fan soils is exceptional, particularly for the silica-rich parent material. 

Figure ISA, taken from a paper by Markewich and 

Pavich (1991), shows a plot of major oxides versus clay 

mass for several Southeastern U.S. soils. The exceptionally thick Pine Mountain fan soils and inner Coastal 

Plain soils (from Augusta, Ga.) are similar in having the 

greatest silica depletion and the greatest clay mass per 

square centimeter. The Augusta site is estimated to be 

about 10 Ma on the basis of the age of the parent 

sediments and the geomorphic position of the site at the 

inner Coastal Plain margin (Pavich and others, 1981). 

Plotting chemistry against age (fig. 185) for younger, 

relatively well dated Pleistocene sites and the Augusta 

site shows a trend of increasing desilication through 

time. The position of the fan site on that trend indicates 

that the fan soils probably exceed several millions years 

in age.

As we mentioned previously, fragipans are commonly thought to form beneath older surfaces on the Atlantic Coastal Plain (Grossman and Carlisle, 1969; Ruhe and 

others, 1975). Pans are also related to coarser textured 

parent materials that permit rapid drainage, clay translocation, and silt depletion. Data suggest that residence time on 

the landscape depends in part upon formation of a coarse 

epipedon that is relatively resistant to erosion. Long residence time can also be related to development of a closely

Genesis and Residence Times of Soil and Weathering Profiles, Pine Mountain Area of West-Central Georgia E41
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EXPLANATION

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DZD Fi

CLAY MASS, IN GRAMS PER SQUARE CENTIMETER

5 10 15 

DEPTH OF OXIDATION, IN METERS

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SAMPLING AREA 

Delmarva Peninsula 

Rappahannock Valley 

Augusta, GA 

Pine Mountain, GA 

Uphapee Creek, AL

TIME IN YEARS

EXPLANATION

SYMBOL DATA SOURCE

o Markewich and others (1987)

 Markewich and others (1987)

 Pavich and others (1981)

A This report

^ Markewich and others (1988)

Figure 18. A, Relation of (Fe2O3 +AI2O3)/SiO2 to clay 

mass. Clay mass (measured in grams of clay per square 

centimeter) is the product of the bulk density (measured 

in grams per cubic centimeter) times the percentage of 

clay times the thickness of the horizon for each horizon in 

the solum (from Markewich and Pavich, 1991, fig. 5, p. 

230). fi, Relation of solum (Fe2O3 +AI2O3 )/SiO2 to ages of 

depositional units showing progressive chemical alteration through time (from Markewich and others, 1989, fig. 

8, p. D17; Markewich and Pavich, 1991, fig. 5, p. 230).

Figure 19. Comparison of thicknesses of argillic and 

fragic horizons to depths of oxidation for fan, mountain, 

and Piedmont soils.

packed, high-consistence structural pan that adds to slope 

stability by resisting creep. The data presented in figure 16 

make it plausible to suggest that not only is fine silt depletion important to some types of fragipan formation but also 

that it is a qualitative index to the residence time of soils 

having fragic properties. In soils on schist and quartzite, 

we do not observe such depletion.

Data indicate that the soil developed in residuum of 

Piedmont granite gneiss is the youngest. The soil (Cecil) is 

similar in thickness, color, fabric, clay content, and chemistry to other residual soils developed elsewhere on saprolite between Virginia and Georgia. On the basis of geomorphic and geochemical data, Pavich (1989) argued that the 

residual Piedmont soil in Virginia is less than 2 m.y. old. 

Comparison of Piedmont soil characteristics plotted by 

Markewich and Pavich (1991) for other Southeastern soils 

supports the argument that the Piedmont soils are younger 

that a few million years and may have residence times on 

the landscape of a few hundred thousand to a million years.

On the basis of comparison of mountain soil characteristics with the fan and Piedmont soils, we conclude that 

the mountain soils are of intermediate age; that is, they 

have residence times of a few hundred thousand to a few 

million years. Figure 19 shows solum thickness plotted 

against depth of oxidation for the study sites. This plot 

shows the intermediate nature of the mountain soils. 

Despite differences in parent materials, microclimate, 

drainage, vegetation, and slope, we assert that this plot is a 

reasonable indicator of relative age of the mountain soils.

E42 Pedologic Studies in the Eastern United States
We compared the properties (other than fragic) of 

soils in the Pine Mountain area with those of soils developed in other areas of the Southeastern United States 

(Markewich and others, 1990, fig. 8, open triangle). Relative residence times Piedmont soils are younger than 

mountain soils, which are younger than fan soils are 

consistent with the observed (1) relative thickness of B 

horizons, (2) relative solum thickness, (3) clay mass in 

grams per square centimeter, and (4) (Fe2O3 +Al2O3)/ 

SiO2 in soil B horizons. All of these properties (tables 

6-13, figs. 17-19) indicate that the fan sites have had 

significantly longer residence times than either mountain or 

Piedmont soils.

The pedogenic development and truncation of upper 

Bt horizons indicate that this residence-time sequence is 

due primarily to relative erosion rates in the different soilforming environments rather than to a limit on the progressive alteration of parent material. Figure 18 shows that the 

constructional landforms in the Coastal Plain and Piedmont 

having sandy epipedons have soils that developed in time 

periods of 105 to 106 years. Pedon characteristics indicate 

that they have experienced minimal erosion relative to 

mountain and Piedmont soils in the Pine Mountain area. 

Mountain soils, which have residence times intermediate 

between those of the fan soils and those of the Piedmont 

soils, are apparently less eroded than Piedmont soils. However, the range in the degree of development of the mountain soils (tables 8, 9) is also the result of profile truncation 

by erosion, which is largely a function of landscape position. In a general sense, Piedmont soils have the shortest 

residence times, primarily because the clay-rich, lowpermeability Bt horizon facilitates runoff and enhances 

surface erosion of fine particles.

SUMMARY

The general relations between soils and landscape 

described herein are consistent with patterns observed elsewhere in the Appalachian Piedmont. Investigating the soil/ 

geomorphic relations in an area can establish a relative 

chronology of landforms that, in turn, can be a valuable 

tool in determining the geomorphic history of that area. 

The USGS and the SCS have worked together in the Piedmont of Georgia as part of a larger effort to study the 

relations between geology and soils in the Middle Atlantic 

and Southeastern States. This regional study included both 

the Atlantic Coastal Plain and the Piedmont physiographic 

provinces of the Eastern United States. The two primary 

objectives of the regional study were to determine (1) the 

type and rate of processes active in weathering and 

pedogenesis and (2) if and how soil and weathering profile 

data could be used to estimate ages of surfaces and (or) 

deposits.

The data from Pine Mountain indicate that, in an area 

where there are few local differences in temperature and

precipitation, soils vary depending on the composition and 

texture of parent material and time. The data also corroborate previous regional studies (Markewich and others, 

1990) in showing that the Piedmont is largely a Pleistocene 

landscape and that erosion on foliated metasedimentary 

rocks in the Piedmont is faster than that on deposits of 

transported material having high quartz sand content. In the 

Pine Mountain area, we suggest that soils developed on the 

narrow quartzite ridges and on the schists and gneisses are 

Pleistocene in age and that soils developed in transported 

material such as terrace and fan alluvium and debris-flow 

conglomerate are probably late Miocene-Pliocene in age.

REFERENCES CITED

Bailey, J.F., Patterson, J.L, and Pauhus, J.L.H., 1975, Hurricane 

Agnes rainfall and floods, June-July 1972: U.S. Geological 

Survey Professional Paper 924, 403 p.

Bates, R.L., and Jackson, J.A., eds., 1987, Glossary of geology 

(3d ed.): Falls Church, Va., American Geological Institute, 

788 p.

Bentley, R.D., and Neathery, T.L., 1970, Geology of the Brevard 

fault zone and related rocks of the inner Piedmont of 

Alabama: University, Ala., Alabama Geological Society, 8th 

annual field trip guidebook, 119 p.

Carter, R.F., and Stiles, H.R., 1983, Average annual rainfall and 

runoff in Georgia, 1941-1970, in Hydrologic atlas 9: Atlanta, 

Georgia Department of Natural Resources, 1 pi.

Christopher, R.A., Prowell, D.C., Reinhardt, Juergen, and 

Markewich, H.W., 1980, The stratigraphic and structural 

significance of Paleocene pollen from Warm Springs, 

Georgia: Palynology, v. 4, p. 105-124.

City of Warm Springs, 1993, A brief history of Warm Springs: 

City of Warm Springs, in celebration of its 100th year as a 

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E44 Pedologic Studies in the Eastern United States
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Genesis and Residence Times of Soil and Weathering Profiles, Pine Mountain Area of West-Central Georgia E45

Tables 6-14
Table 6/4. Field description of pedon S84GA-199-001

[Site 1, Cecil Series, 32°57'17" N., 84°37'20" W., Meriwether, County, Ga., 10 km NE. of Warm Springs, 700 m NW. of Cane Creek, 100 m SE. of 

Georgia Highway 85 W, Woodbury 7.5-min quadrangle. Parent material is mica schist; surface elevation 248 m above mean sea level on a 2-percent planar 

upland slope of the Piedmont. Vegetation dominantly pine forest and some hardwood. Site is well drained under a udic moisture regime. , none observed]

Depth

(cm)

0-15 ...........

15-33 ..........

33-79 ..........

79-104 .........

104-154........

154-216........

216-254........

254-304 ........

Horizon

.. A

.. Btl

.. Bt2

.. BC

.. B/C

Cl

C2

.. C3

Moist color1

5YR4/4

2.5YR4/8

2.5YR4/6

2.5YR4/6

27.5YR5/8 

2.5YR4/8-

7.5YR5/8 

9 <\YRA/R

27.5YR5/8 

2.5YR4/8

Texture3

si

cl

cl

cl

1

1

Structure4

Ifgr

2msbk

2mabk/sbk

Imabk/sbk

Imabk

M

M

Consistence5

vf

f

f

f

f

vf

vf

vf

Clay skins6

f, t

P. t

Roots7 Boundary8

mf as

mf cs

 gw

 cw

 cw

'Munsell notation. A dash following a color notation indicates the presence of point colors or intergrades.

2Mottles.

31, loam; fsl, fine sandy loam; si, sandy loam; cl, clay loam; c, clay.

4 1, weak; 2, moderate; f, fine; m, medium; gr, granular; abk, angular blocky; sbk, subangular blocky; M, massive.

5f, friable; vf, very friable.

6f, faint; p, prominent; t, thin.

7mf, many fine.

8as, abrupt smooth; cs, clear smooth; cw, clear wavy; gw, gradual wavy; ci, clear irregular.

Table 6fi. Textural analyses of horizons for pedon S84GA-199-001

[Sampled as Cecil; clayey, kaolinitic, thermic Typic Kandhapludult. Grain size in millimeters; all other values in weight percent. VF, very fine; F, fine; 

M, medium; C, coarse; VC, very coarse]

Total Clay Silt Sand

Depth

(cm)

0-15 .....

15-33 ....

33-56 ....

56-79 ....

79-104 . . .

104-154 . .

154-216 . .

216-254..

254-304 . .

Horizon

..A

..Btl

..Bt2

. .Bt2

..BC

..B/C

..Cl

..Cl

..C3

Clay 

«.002)

7.8

38.9

55.0

63.3

47.4

31.2

19.4

14.3

3.8

Silt 

(.002-.05)

13 5

17.8

18.4

17.8

25.8

29.7

33.0

30.9

20.4

Sand 

(.05-2)

78.7

43 3

26.6

18.9

26.8

39.1

47.6

54.8

75.8

F 

(<.0002)

3.4

16.6

24.0

29.8

20.4

12.2

6.9

4.8

1.1

F 

(.002-.02)

7.0

12.9

15.0

15.1

21.6

24.0

26.6

24.2

14.0

C

(.02-.05)

6.5

4.9

3.4

2.7

4.2

5.7

6.4

6.7

6.4

VF 

(.05-.10)

13 9

7.9

4.9

4.4

6.5

8.3

13.3

19.8

13.8

F 

(.10-.25)

26.8

14.7

8.0

5.1

7.7

10.6

17.4

23.7

21.5

M 

(.25-.50)

19.1

10.9

6.0

3.5

4.9

6.3

5.6

6.7

15.8

C

(.5-1)

12.8

6.6

5.1

3.1

4.1

6.2

5.3

2.8

15.3

VC

(1-2)

6 1

3 2

76

78

3.6

7.7

6.0

1.8

9.4

E48 Pedologic Studies in the Eastern United States
Table 6C. Physical and chemical analyses of pedon S84GA-199-001

[Units of meaure for all values given in table 5. , not detected; TR, trace]

Dithionite-citrate

Depth 

(cm)

0-15 .......

15-33 ......

33-56 ......

56-79 ......

79-104 .....

104-154 .... 

154-216 .... 

216-254 .... 

254-304 ....

Horizon

A 

Btl 

Bt2 

Bt2 

BC 

B/C 

Cl 

C2 

C3

Extractable 

Fe

0.8 

3.3 

5.7 

7.1 

7.0 

6.8 

5.6 

3.9 

.8

Extractable 

Al

0.1

.3 

.4 

.5 

.5 

.4 

.3 

.3 

.1

NH4OAC 

extractable bases

Depth 

(cm)

0-15 .......

15-33 ......

33-56 ......

56-79 ......

79-104 .....

104-154.... 

154-216 .... 

216-254 .... 

254-304 ....

Horizon

A 

Btl 

Bt2 

Bt2 

BC 

, B/C 

, Cl 

, C2 

, C3

Ca

0.1 

.5 

.7 

.2 

.1 

TR

Mg

TR

0.3

.7 

.7 

.3 

.2 

.1 

.1 

.1

Na

TR 

TR 

TR 

TR 

0.1 

.1 

TR 

TR 

TR

K

TR 

TR 

0.1 

.1 

TR 

.1 

TR 

TR 

TR

Acidity

2.8 

4.5 

6.6 

8.8 

7.3 

6.2 

5.5 

4.7 

2.1

Extractable

Al

0.7 

.8 

.6 

1.1 

1.1 

1.1 

1.6 

1.7 

.9

Sum of 

cations

2.9 

5.3 

8.1 

9.8 

7.8 

6.6 

5.6 

4.8 

2.2

Ratio clay

CEC1

0.33 

.12 

.10 

.12 

.11 

.13 

.20 

.26 

.53

CEC1

NH4OAC

2.6

4.5 

5.6 

7.5 

5.4 

4.2 

3.9 

3.7 

2.0

15 bar

0.45 

.39 

.41 

.45 

.49 

.56 

.71 

.76 

.97

Bulk density 

(1/3 bar)

1.49 

1.58 

1.38 

1.27 

1.37 

1.36 

1.27 

1.29 

1.22

PH

Bases+AI

0.8 

1.6 

2.1 

2.1 

1.6 

1.5 

1.7 

1.8 

1.0

Al 

saturation

88 

50 

29 

52 

69 

73 

94 

94 

90

CaCI2

(1:2)

4.2 

4.5 

4.6 

4.5 

4.5 

4.6 

4.4 

4.3 

4.3

H2O 

(1:1)

4.7 

5.1 

5.2 

5.2 

5.4 

5.4 

5.2 

5.1 

5.3

'Cation exchange capacity.

Table 6D. Bulk chemistry of pedon S84GA-199-Q01

[All values in weight percent except for (Fe2O3 +Al2O3)/SiO2 , which is a ratio. No entry, no data]

Horizon2

Oxide

SiO2 ....................

A1AI 2nU3 ...................

Fe203 ...................

CaO.....................

K2O.....................

TiO2 ....................

P n

MnO ....................

S02 .....................

Total1 ...................

(Fe2O3 +Al2O3)/SiO2 .....

A 

(0-15)

..... 89.50

..... 5.70

..... 1.20

..... .11

52

..... .95

..... .12

..... .06

..... .07

..... 98.20

..... .0770

Bt1 Bt2 Bt2

(15-33) (33-56) (56-79)

76.80 

9.00 

10.30 

.11 

.42 

.48 

.02 

.03 

.08 

97.20 

.251

BC

(79-104)

49.50 

25.60 

12.80 

.10 

.38 

1.05 

.12 

.04 

.08 

89.80 

.776

B/C C1

(104_154) (154-216)

51.70 

25.60 

4.60 

.10 

.21 

1.08 

.14 

.05 

.12 

83.50 

.584

C2 C3

(216-254) (254-304)

67.10 

18.50 

2.30 

.11 

5.49 

.35 

.14 

.03 

.06 

94.00 

.208

'Totals significantly less than 100 percent are due to high H2O contents of clay-rich horizons. H2O not included in analyses. 

2Depth in centimeters is given in parentheses.

Genesis and Residence Times of Soil and Weathering Profiles, Pine Mountain Area of West-Central Georgia E49
Table 6f. Observations on thin sections of pedon S84GA-199-001

Depth 

Horizon (cm) Observations

Bt2. 33-56

BC...... 79-104

C2...... 216-254

C3 ...... 254-304

Clayey fabric is red-orange, oriented clay up to 0.1 mm thick along cracks, but thickness is mostly 0.02 to 0.05 

mm. Cannot get a good idea of internal porosity because of skips in the thin section.

Red, clayey fabric, oriented clay bodies scattered in a matrix along a few pores, all less than 0.1 mm thick.

Thin section displays two distinct fabrics. The first is a uniform fabric of angular silt and sand grains and some 

platy grains randomly oriented throughout. The second fabric is striking books of platy particles arrayed in 

various "expanded accordion" fashion, mostly having low birefringence (kaolinite?) but some having high 

birefringence (mica?). Several pictures were taken of the accordion books (see fig. 9).

Rock fragments of quartz, albite, and microcline. Some of the microcline appears to be albite in the center 

rimmed with microcline. One grain having potassium feldspar cleavage gives an interference figure of 

muscovite. Cracks among the rock fabrics contain brown clayey material, about 10 percent of the total thin 

section. Pieces of platy grains having birefringence are scattered through the clayey material.

Table 7A. Field description of pedon S84GA-231-001

[Site 2, series not designated, 32°59'58" N., 84°19'24" W. Pike County, Ga., 1 km north of Upson County line on U.S. 19, 300 m E. of U.S. 19 above 

gravel pit. Parent material is Hollis Quartzite; surface elevation 310 m above mean sea level on a 6-percent southwest-facing upland slope. Vegetation 

dominantly pine. Site is well drained under a udic moisture regime. No entry, no data; , none observed]

Depth

(cm)

0-20 ............

20-38 ..........

38-51 ...........

51-66 ..........

66-85 ..........

85-114 .........

114-220 ........

Horizon

A

E

BE

2Btl

2Bt2

2Bt3

2Cr

Moist color1

10YR3/1

10YR5/3

10YR6/6

2.5YR5/8

2.5YR4/8

2.5YR4/8

Texture2

p<:1

CTcl

CTol

cr*1

cl

cl

Structure3

Ifgr

Ifgr

Ifgr

2msbk

2msbk

2msbk

Consistence4

vf

vf

vf

f

f

f

Clay skins5

f, t

f , t

Roots6

ml

m!2

m!2

fl

fl

fl

Boundary7

r*c

CT<1

CW

r*c

gw

ai

notation.

2cl, clay loam; g, gravelly; si, sandy loam.

3 1, weak; 2, moderate; f, fine; m, medium; gr, granular; sbk, subangular blocky. 

4f, friable; vf, very friable. 

5f, faint; t, thin.

6m, many; f, few; 1, fine; 2, medium. 

7cs, clear smooth; cw, clear wavy; gw, gradual wavy; gs, gradual smooth; ai, abrupt irregular.

Table 7B. Textural analyses of horizons for pedon S84GA-231-001

[Sampled as fine, loamy, mixed, thermic Typic Hapludult. Grain sizes in millimeters; all other values in weight percent. VF, very fine; F, fine; M, medium; 

C, coarse; VC, very coarse]

Total Clay Silt Sand

Depth 

(cm)

0-20 .....

20-38

38-51 ....,

51-66....

66-85

85-114...,

114-168...

168-220 . .

85-120

Horizon

.. A

.. E

.. BE

. . 2Btl

.. 2Bt2

.. 2Bt3

.. 2B141

.. 2Bt4l

.. (2Bt3) SAT2

Clay 

(<.002)

6.7

6.6

9.2

27.8

49.8

59.1

67.6

60.4

54.7

Silt 

(.002-.05)

18.3

20.9

20.6

20.6

15.8

10.0

15.4

17.4

8.6

Sand

(.05-2)

75.0

72.5

70.2

51.6

34.4

30.9

17.0

22.2

36.7

F

K.0002)

2.0

1.6

2.2

7.9

14.6

21.6

22.3

15.1

21

F

(.002-.02)

12.1

14.3

14.7

15.8

12.4

7.1

2.8

4.0

5.6

C

(.02-.05)

6.2

6.6

5.9

4.8

3.4

2.9

2.6

3.4

3.0

VF 

(.05-.10)

9.7

9.9

8.7

6.6

4.7

4.0

3.5

4.2

3.8

F

(.10-.25)

24.0

24.6

21.0

14.2

11.1

8.5

5.9

8.4

11.6

M 

(.25-.50)

20.9

20.1

16.0

11.0

10.6

8.9

3.9

6.1

13.2

C

(.5-1)

11.8

10.2

10.3

8.8

5.4

6.0

2.0

2.7

6.8

VC

(1-2)

8,6

77

14?

11 0

7.6

3.5

1.7

0.8

1.3

'Clay seams in the 2Cr.

2Satellite sample of 2Bt3 taken about 2 m from principal pedon.

E50 Pedologic Studies in the Eastern United States
Table 7C Physical and chemical analyses of pedon S84GA-231-001

[Units of measure for all values given in table 5. No entry, no data; , not detected; TR, trace]

Dithionite-citrate

Depth 

(cm)

0-20 ......

20-38 .....

38-51 .....

51-66.....

66-85 .....

85-114....

114-168... 

168-220 . . . 

85-120 ....

Horizon

A

E

BE

2Btl

2Bt2

2Bt3

2Bt4 

2Bt4 

(2Bt3

Extractable 

Fe

) SAT1

0.3 

.3 

.4 

1.3 

3.1 

4.6 

5.0 

4.4 

4.0

Extractable 

Al

0.2 

.1 

.1

.2 

.3 

.4 

.4 

.3 

.4

NH4OAC 

extractable bases

Depth

(cm)

0-20 ......

20-38 .....

38-51 .....

51-66.....

66-85 .....

85-114....

114-168... 

168-220 . . . 

85-120 ....

Horizon

. A

p

. BE

. 2Btl

. 2Bt2

. 2Bt3

. 2Bt4 

. 2Bt4 

. (2Bt3) SAT1

Ca

1.8 

.1 

.1 

.1 

.1 

.1 

TR 

.2 

.2

Mg

0.3 

TR 

TR

.3 

.6 

.5 

.2 

.1 

.7

Na

0.1 

TR 

TR 

TR 

TR 

TR 

TR 

TR 

TR

K

0.1

TR 

TR 

TR 

TR

.2

Extractable 

Acidity Al

14.1 

2.4 

2.4 

4.4 

6.7 

7.5 

8.0 

7.5 

7.7

1.9

.4 

.4 

1.2 

1.7 

2.1 

3.3 

3.4 

1.7

Sum of 

cations

16.4 

2.5 

2.5 

4.8 

7.4 

8.1 

8.2 

7.8 

8.8

Ratio clay

CEC2

2.04 

.35 

.21 

.17 

.14 

.13 

.12 

.11 

.13

CEC2

NH4OAC

13.7 

2.3 

1.9 

4.8 

6.8 

7.9 

7.9 

6.5 

7.1

15 bar

1.00 

.41 

.34 

.33 

.35 

.36 

.36 

.37 

.36

Bulk density 

(1/3 bar)

1.30 

1.30 

1.30 

1.60 

1.47 

1.43 

1.49 

1.59

pH

Bases +AI

4.2 

.5 

.5 

1.6 

2.4 

2.7 

3.5 

3.7 

2.8

Al CaCI2 

saturation (1:2)

45 

80 

80 

75 

71 

78 

94 

92 

61

4.2 

4.8 

4.4 

4.2 

4.2 

4.3 

4.2 

4.2 

4.3

H2O

(1:1)

4.9 

5.0

4.8 

4.7 

4.8 

4.8 

4.7 

4.7 

4.9

'Satellite sample of 2Bt3 taken about 2 m from principal pedon. 

2Cation exchange capacity.

Table ID. Bulk chemistry of pedon S84GA-231-001

[All values in weight percent except for (Fe2O3 +Al2O3)/SiO2 , which is a ratio. No entry, no data]

Horizon2

SiO2 ....................

A12O3 ...................

Fe2O3 ...................

CaO.....................

K2O.....................

TiO2 ....................

P205 ....................

MnO ....................

SO2 .....................

Total 1 ...................

(Fe2O3+Al2O3)/SiO2

A E BE 

(0-20) (20-38) (38-51)

.................... 90.18

.................... 6.16

.................... .64

.................... .12

.................... .46

.................... .73

.................... .07

.................... .02

.................... .06

98 44

.................... .08

2Bt1 2Bt2 

(51-66) (66-85)

58.85

23.41

5.66

.11

i 23

1.19

.08

.03

.09

90.66

.49

2Bt3 

(85-114)

52 72

26.19

7.99

.11

1.17

1.28

.06

.02

.08

89.65

.65

2Bt4 

(114-168)

46.67

30.51

8.85

.11

1.14

1.31

.09

.03

.07

88.79

.84

2Bt4) 

(168-220)

50.65

28.71

7.56

.10

1.14

1.17

.08

.03

.09

89.54

.72

'Totals significantly less than 100 percent are due to high H2O contents of clay-rich horizons. H2O not included in analyses. 

2Depths in centimeters are given in parentheses.

Genesis and Residence Times of Soil and Weathering Profiles, Pine Mountain Area of West-Central Georgia E51
Table 8A Field description of pedon S84GA-231-Q03

[Site 3, series not designated, 32°00'11" N., 84°20'58" W. Pike County, Ga., 2 km west of U.S. 19; 2 km south on mountain road; Zebulon 7.5-min 

quadrangle. Parent material is residuum from the Hollis Quartzite; surface elevation 342 m above mean sea level on a 5-percent northeast-facing upland 

slope. Vegetation dominantly pine. Site is well drained under a udic moisture regime. No entry, no data; , not detected]

Depth

(cm)

0-10 ............

10-33 ...........

33-53 ...........

53-71 ...........

71-87...........

87-1 14 ..........

114-138.........

138-150 .........

150-178 .........

178-191.........

191-204.........

204-221 .........

221-230 .........

Horizon1

Al

A2

AB

B/C

Cl

C2

C3

C4

C5

C6

C7

C8

C9

Moist color2

10YR 5/3

10YR 5/4

10YR 5/6

10YR 5/6

2.5YR 4/8

2. SYR 4/8

7. SYR 5/8 

2. SYR 4/8

Texture3

CTcl

CTQ!

ffcl

Cf*1

si

u

fsl

u

u

U

U

U

U

Structure4

Ifgr

Ifgr

Ifgr

2m sbk

M

M

M

M

M

M

Consistence5 Clay skins Roots6

vf - m!2 f3

vf - m!2 f3

vf - m!2f3

f - fl

vfi

h

f fl

h

f

h

f

f

f

Boundary7

cs

cw

cw

as

aw

aw

aw

aw

'Al, common fine and medium gravel, few coarse gravel; A2, common fine and medium gravel, few coarse gravel; AB, few fine, medium, and 

coarse gravel; B/C, few fine gravel, 30 percent highly weathered fragments of quartzite; Cl, quartzite saprolite that crushes to sandy loam;C2, quartzite 

saprolite and seams of strong brown clay loam; C3, mica schist saprolite that crushes to fine sandy loam; C4, quartzite saprolite; C5, mica schist saprolite; 

C6, quartzite saprolite; C7, mica schist saprolite; C8, quartzite saprolite; C9, mica schist saprolite.

2Munsell notation.

3fsl, fine sandy loam; gsl, gravelly sandy loam; si, sandy loam; scl, sandy clay loam; cl, clay loam; u, undetermined.

41, weak; 2, moderate; f, fine; m, medium; gr, granular; sbk, subangular blocky; M, massive.

5f, friable; vf, very friable; h, hard; fi, firm; vfi, very firm.

6m, many; f, few; 1, fine; 2, medium; 3, large.

7as, abrupt smooth; cs, clear smooth; cw, clear wavy; aw, abrupt wavy.

Table 8fi. Textural analyses of horizons for pedon S84GA-231-003

[Grain sizes in millimeters; all other values in weight percent; VF, very fine; F, fine; M, medium; C, coarse; VC, very coarse. No entry, no data]

Depth

(cm)

0-10 ......

10-33

33-53

53-71 .....

71-87.....

87-114....

114-138...

138-150...

150-178 . . .

178-191 . . .

191-204 . . .

204-221 . . .

Horizon

,. Al

,. A2

. AB

. B/C

. Cl

. C2

,. C3

. C4

. C5

. C6

.. C7

. C8

Clay

«.002)

9.8

9 5

18.1

18.4

16.6

7.2

23.9

8.4

3.3

1.5

11.5

1.8

Total

Silt 

(.002-.05)

17.8

18.5

19 5

12.2

10.1

6.8

21.4

19.4

20.1

9.7

26.1

9.4

Clay

Sand F 

(.05-2) (<.0002)

72.4

72.0

62.4

69.4

73.3

86.0

54.7

72.2

76.6

88.8

62.4

88.8

Sill

F

(.002-.02)

12 5

13.0

14.3

8.4

6.1

2.3

17.6

12.4

12.3

4.2

21.7

5.9

t

C

(.02-.05)

5 3

5.5

5 2

3.8

4.0

4.5

3.8

7.0

7.8

5.5

4.4

3.5

VF 

(.05-.10)

6.4

6.6

5.5

5.0

6.8

8.9

5.9

9.9

10.2

10.0

7.2

7.8

F

(.10-.25)

19.3

20.0

15.7

15.7

22.1

26.1

16.7

19.5

18.0

26.3

23.7

27.5

Sand

M 

(.25-.50)

20.9

21.5

18.6

22.4

28.5

30.7

16.2

18.9

19.9

28.1

20.8

32.6

C

(.5-1)

14 5

15.1

13.2

16.9

13.5

15.2

11.5

15.8

18.4

16.2

8.1

16.3

VC

(1-2)

11 3

88

94

94

74

5.1

4.4

8.1

10.1

8.2

2.6

4.6

E52 Pedologic Studies in the Eastern United States
Table 8C. Physical and chemical analyses of pedon S84GA-231-003

[Units of measure for all values given in table 5. No entry, no data; , not detected; TR, trace]

Dithionite-citrate

Depth

(cm)

0-10 .......

10-33 ..... (

33-53 ......

53-71 .....

71-87.....

87-114....,

114-138..., 

138-150 .... 

150-178 

178-191 .... 

191-204..., 

204-221 .... 

221-230 ....

Horizon

A 

A 

A 

B 

C 

C 

C 

C 

C 

C 

C 

C 

C

1 

2 

B 

/C 

1 

2 

3 

4 

5 

6 

7 

8 

9

Extractable 

Fe

0.4 

.4 

.9 

1.1 

1.3 

.5 

3.4 

1.2 

.9 

.1 

1.7 

.3 

1.3

Extractable 

Al

0.2 

.1 

.2 

.2 

.2 

.1 

.3 

.1 

.1 

TR 

.1 

TR 

.1

Ratio clay

CEC1

0.57 

.24 

.18 

.13 

.10 

.07 

.14 

.07 

.03

.23 

.20

NH4OAC 

extractable bases

Depth 

(cm)

0-10 .......

10-33 ......

33-53 ......

53-71 ......

71-87......

87-114.....

114-138..., 

138-150 .... 

150-178 .... 

178-191 .... 

191-204 .... 

204-221 .... 

221-230 ....

Horizon

Al 

A2 

AB 

B/C 

Cl 

C2 

C3 

. C4 

, C5 

C6 

. C7 

, C8 

. C9

Ca

0.1 

.1 

.1 

.3 

TR 

TR 

TR

Mg

0.2 

TR 

.1 

.4 

.3 

.1 

.2 

.1 

TR 

TR 

TR

TR

Na

TR 

TR 

TR 

TR 

TR 

TR

.1 

.1 

TR 

TR 

TR 

.1

K

0.1 

TR 

TR 

TR 

TR 

TR 

.1

TR

Extractable 

Acidity Al

6.7 

2.7 

2.8 

1.9 

3.9 

1.2 

3.8 

1.2 

.8

3.0 

.5

2.2

.8 

.5 

.7 

.3 

.4 

.2 

.0 

.4 

.4 

.1 

.2 

.2 

.6

Sum of 

cations

7.1 

2.8 

3.0 

2.6 

4.2 

1.3 

4.1 

1.4 

.9

3.0 

.5

2.3

15 bar

0.56

.33 

.30 

.34 

.42 

.39 

.43 

.50 

.79 

.47 

.51 

.78 

.54

CEC1

NH4OAC

5.6

2.3 

3.3 

2.4 

1.6 

.5 

3.4 

.6 

.1 

TR 

2.6 

TR 

1.3

Water content 

(15 bar)2

5. 

3. 

5. 

6. 

7. 

2. 

10. 

4. 

2.

5. 

1.

3.

5 

1 

5 

2 

0 

8 

2 

2 

6 

7 

9 

4 

5

Bulk density 

(1/3 bar)

1.91 

1.76 

1.8 

1.45 

1.45 

1.45 

1.45 

1.45 

1.45 

1.45 

1.45 

1.45 

1.45

pH

Bases+AI

1.2 

.6 

.9 

1.0 

.7 

.3 

1.3 

.6 

.5 

.1 

1.2 

.2 

.7

Al 

saturation

67 

83 

78 

30 

57 

67 

77 

67 

80 

100 

100 

100 

86

CaCI2

(1:2)

4.6

4.4 

4.3 

4.6 

4.5 

4.6 

4.4 

4.5 

4.5 

4.9 

4.3 

4.5 

4.3

H2O

(1:1)

5.1

4.7 

4.8 

5.2 

5.0 

5.0 

5.0 

4.9 

4.8 

5.4 

4.6 

4.8 

4.7

'Cation exchange capacity. 

2Water content at 15-bar pressure.

Genesis and Residence Times of Soil and Weathering Profiles, Pine Mountain Area of West-Central Georgia E53
Table 9A. Field description of pedon S84GA-231-004

[Site 4, series not designated, 30°00'09" N., 84°20'57" W. Pike County, Ga., 2 km west of U.S. 19 on Oliver Road, 2 km south on mountain 

road; Zebulon 7.5-min quadrangle. Parent material is weathered Hollis Quartzite; surface elevation is 345 m above mean sea level on a 

7-percent northeast-facing upland slope. Vegetation dominantly pine forest. Site is well drained under a udic moisture regime. No entry, no 

data; , not observed]

Depth 

(cm)

0-13 ............

13-38 ...........

38-61 ...........

61-91 ...........

91-117..........

117-145.........

145-168 .........

168-183 .........

Horizon1

A

E

BA

Btl

Bt2

Bt3

B/C

Cr

Moist color2

10YR 4/3

10YR 5/4

7.5 YR 5/8

SYR 5/8

SYR 5/8

10R 4/6

10YR 5/8 

10R 4/6

Texture3

si

si

Cf*1

scl

scl

cl

1

Structure4

Ifgr

Ifgr

1m sbk

2m sbk

2m pl/2m abk

2m abk/0 sbk

M

M

Consistence5

vf

vf

f

f

f

fi

fi

Roots6

m!2

m!2

clf2

c!2

fl

Boundary7

cs

cs

cs

cs

f*C

aw

'A, few fine and medium gravel; E, common fine and medium gravel; BA, common fine and medium gravel; Btl, common fine and 

medium gravel; Bt2, few fine gravel; Bt3, few fine gravel, red and yellowish-brown colors in horizontal bands about 3 cm thick (red portion 

slightly brittle); B/C, pockets of quartzite (20 percent by volume); Cr, quartzite saprolite, discontinuous red clay bands 7 to 25 mm thick, hard 

in place.

2Munsell notation.

31, loam; si, sandy loam; cl, clay loam; scl, sandy clay loam.

40, very weak; 1, weak; 2, moderate; f, fine; m, medium; gr, granular; abk, angular blocky; sbk, subangular blocky; P, platy; M, 

massive; /, breaking to.

5f, friable; vf, very friable; fi, firm.

6m, many; 1, fine; 2, medium; c, common; f, few.

7cs, clear smooth; aw, abrupt wavy.

Table 9fi. Textural analyses of horizons for pedon S84GA-231-004

[Sampled as fine, loamy, mixed, thermic Typic Hapludult. Grain sizes in millimeters; all other values in weight percent. VF, very fine; F, fine; M, medium; 

C, coarse; VC, very coarse]

Depth

(cm)

0-13 ......

13-38

38-61

61-91

91-117....

117-145...

145-168 . . .

168-183 . . .

Horizon

A

,. E

. BA

. Btl

. Bt2

,. Bt3

. B/C

. Cr

Clay 

(<.002)

8.0

7.5

22.5

45.5

54.2

54.9

46.4

15.8

Total

Silt 

(.002-.05)

19.5

17.1

14.4

10.2

12.8

15.9

15.8

6.9

Sand

(.05-2)

77 'S

75.4

63.1

44 3

33.0

29.2

37.8

77.3

Clay

F 

(<.0002)

3 2

2.8

11.1

26.1

25.2

23.4

17.6

6.0

Sil

F

(.002-.02)

13.7

13 5

11.5

7.6

9.1

11.6

12.9

4.4

It

C

(.02-.05)

5.8

3.6

2.9

2.6

3.7

4.3

2.9

2.5

VF 

(.05-.10)

6.2

6.8

5 2

4.0

4.2

4.8

5.5

7.2

F

(.10-.25)

22.6

23.9

19.5

13.1

8.8

7.7

25.2

22.4

Sand

M 

(.25-.50)

27.4

27.7

21.3

15.1

10.8

8.7

.5

29.2

C

(.5-1)

13 2

13.1

13.4

9.4

6.6

5.6

5.5

14.9

VC

(1-2)

3 1

39

37

77

2.6

2.4

1.1

3.6

E54 Pedologic Studies in the Eastern United States
Table 9C. Physical and chemical analyses of pedon S84GA-231-Q04

[Units of measure for all values given in table 5. , not detected; TR, trace]

Dithionite-citrate

Depth

(cm)

0-13 .......

13-38 ......

38-61 .....

61-91 ......

91-117....,

117-145.... 

145-168 .... 

168-183....

Horizon

A 

E 

BA 

Btl 

Bt2 

Bt3 

B/C 

Cr

Extractable 

Fe

0.5

.4 

1.3 

3.4 

5.2 

6.2 

4.2 

1.2

Extractable 

Al

0.2 

.1 

.3 

.7 

.8 

.8 

.4 

.1

NH4OAC 

extractable bases

Depth

(cm)

0-13 .......

13-38 ......

38-61 ......

61-91 ......

91-117....,

117-145..., 

145-168 .... 

168-183 ....

Horizon

A 

E 

BA 

Btl 

Bt2 

, Bt3 

B/C 

Cr

Ca

0.8 

.1 

.3 

.5 

.2 

.1 

TR 

TR

Mg

0.2 

TR 

.4 

1.0 

.7 

.3 

.1 

TR

Na K

0.1 0.1 

.1 TR 

TR .1 

.1 .1 

TR .1 

.1 .1 

.1 - 

TR -

Acidity

7.8 

2.3 

3.9 

8.3 

9.3 

9.4 

5.0 

1.7

Extractable

Al

1.2 

.4 

.7 

1.2 

.0 

.8 

.7 

.4

Sum of 

cations

9.0

2.5 

4.7 

10.0 

10.3 

10.0 

5.2 

1.7

Ratio clay

CEC1

0.86 

.21 

.13 

.13 

.11 

.10 

.06 

.04

CEC1

NH4OAC

6.9 

1.6 

2.9 

5.9 

6.1 

5.5 

2.8 

.6

15 bar

0.63 

.39 

.35 

.36 

.42 

.46 

.40 

.38

Bulk density 

(1/3 bar)

1.14 

1.64 

1.47 

1.37 

1.43 

1.38 

1.52 

2.01

pH

Bases +AI

2.4 

.6 

1.5 

2.9 

2.0 

1.4 

.9 

.4

Al 

saturation

50 

67 

47 

41 

50 

57 

78 

100

CaCl2

(1:2)

4.5 

4.4 

4.4 

4.3 

4.5 

4.5 

4.5 

4.5

H2O

(1:1)

5.0 

4.8 

4.9 

4.9 

5.1 

5.1 

4.9 

5.0

Nation exchange capacity.

Table WA. Field description of pedon S84GA-231-002

[Site 5, Alien Series, 33°00'58" N., 84°19'38" W., Pike County, Ga., 11 km north of Thomaston on U.S. 19, 300 m west on Oliver Road, 

15 m north of road in woods, Zebulon 7.5-min quadrangle. Parent material is Hollis Quartzite at the toe of a large gravity-slide block; surface 

elevation is 256 m above mean sea level on a 10-percent east-facing slope on the slide block. Vegetation dominantly pine forest. Site is well 

drained under a udic moisture regime. No entry, no data]

Depth 

(cm)

0-13 ............

13-22 ...........

22-44 ...........

44-74 ...........

74-97 ...........

97-144 ..........

144-170 .........

170-205 .........

205-225 .........

300-360 .........

Horizon1

A

AB

BA

Btl

Bt2

Bt3

Bt4

B/C

C

2C

Moist color2

10YR 5/3

7. SYR 5/6

5 YR 5/6

2. SYR 4/6

2. SYR 4/6

2. SYR 4/6

2.5YR 4/6

2.5YR 4/6

2.5YR 4/6

10YR 7/6

Texture3

si

si

cl

cl

cl

cl

cl

^H

Structure4

Ifgr

Ifgr

1m sbk

2m sbk

2m sbk

2m abk/0 sbk

2m sbk

M

Consistence5

vf

vf

f

f

fi

fi

fi

fi

f

Roots6

m!2

m!2

c!2

fl

fl

Boundary7

cs

cs

cs

rye

cs

cw

cw

gw

1A, few fine gravel; AB, few fine gravel; BA, few fine gravel; Btl, few fine gravel; Bt2, platy structure in upper 7 cm, roots slightly 

restricted, few fine gravel; Bt3, few small quartzite fragments; Bt4, common small quartzite fragments; B/C, common fine and medium 

quartzite fragments (B portion is red, and C portion is yellow); C, mottled yellows, browns, and reds, common fine and medium quartzite 

fragments.

2Munsell notation.

3sl, sandy loam; cl, clay loam; scl, sandy clay loam.

40, very weak; 1, weak; 2, moderate; f, fine; m, medium; gr, granular; abk, angular blocky; sbk, subangular blocky; M, massive; /, 

breaking to.

5f, friable; vf, very friable; fi, firm.

6m, many; c, common; f, few; 1, fine; 2, medium.

7cs, clear smooth; cw, clear wavy; gw, gradual wavy; gs, gradual smooth.

Genesis and Residence Times of Soil and Weathering Profiles, Pine Mountain Area of West-Central Georgia E55
Table 10fi. Textural analyses of horizons for pedon S84GA-231-002

[Sampled as fine, loamy, mixed, thermic Typic Hapludult. Grain sizes in millimeters; all other values in weight percent. VF, very fine; F, fine; M, medium; 

C, coarse; VC, very coarse. , not detected]

Depth 

(cm)

0-13 ......

13-22

22-44

44-74

74-97

97-144

144-170 . . . 170-205 . . , 205-225 . . . 300-360 . . .

Horizon

.. A

.. AB

.. BA

.. Btl

.. Bt2

.. Bt3

.. Bt4

.. B/C

.. C

.. 2C

Clay 

(<.002)

8.7

8.8

14.9

44 7

58 9

44.0

23.4

16.7

12.4

7.7

Total

Silt 

(.002-.05)

29 5

29.1

28.4

18.6

16.1

18.8

24.4

29.4

30.8

14.6

Sand

(.05-2)

61.8

62.1

56.7

36.7

25.0

37.2

52.2

53.9

56.8

77.7

Clay

F 

(<.0002)

2.8

2.9

6.0

20.0

22.2

17.1

8.7

5.8

Sil

F

(.002-.02)

15.0

14.8

14 5

7.8

7.4

6.9

8.6

10.6

11.3

9.2

It

C

(.02-.05)

4 5

14.3

13.9

10.8

8.7

11.9

15.8

18.8

19.5

5.4

VF 

(.05-.10)

20.2

21.4

19.7

13.0

9.9

15 4

21.5

22.5

23.1

13.7

F 

(.10-.25)

23 7

23.8

22 3

13.9

8.3

9 5

12.2

12.6

13.2

27.7

Sand

M 

(.25-.50)

9.4

9.0

8.5

5.1

3.2

4.2

4.9

5.9

6.2

21.2

C

(.5-1)

4.1

3.8

3 5

2.4

2.0

4.2

6.1

6.7

7.1

11.1

VC

(1-2)

44

4 1

77

2 3

16

39

7.5

6.2

7.2

4.0

Table 10C. Physical and chemical analyses of pedon S84GA-231-002

[Units of measure for all values given in table 5. , not detected; TR, trace]

Dithionite-citrate

Depth 

(cm)

0-13 ......

13-22

22-44 ......

44-74

74-97

97-144 .....

144-170 .... 

170-205 .... 

205-225 .... 

300-360 ....

Horizon

A 

AB 

BA 

Btl 

Bt2 

Bt3 

Bt4 

B/C 

C 

2C

Extractable 

Fe

1.5 

1.3 

2.2 

6.3 

9.1 

7.7 

5.8 

5.9 

5.2 

4.3

Extractable 

Al

0.3

.2 

.2 

.4 

.6

.4

.2 

.2 

.2 

.2

NH4OAC 

extractable bases

Depth 

(cm)

(0-13. ......

13-22

22-44 ......

44-74

74-97 ......

97-144 ..... 

144-170..., 

170-205 .... 

205-225 .... 

300-360 ....

Horizon

A 

AB 

BA 

Btl 

Bt2 

, Bt3 

, Bt4 

. B/C 

C 

. 2C

Ca

1.2 

.1 

.2 

.2 

.1 

.1 

TR 

TR 

TR 

TR

Mg

0.2 

TR 

.1 

.7 

.6 

.2 

.1 

TR 

TR 

TR

Na

TR 

TR 

TR 

TR 

0.1 

TR 

TR 

TR 

TR 

TR

K

0.1 

TR 

TR 

TR 

TR

Acidity

6.9

3.3 

2.3 

5.8 

7.5 

4.8 

1.7 

1.5 

1.0 

1.9

Extractable 

Al

0.7 

.5 

.3 

.8 

.8 

.8 

.4 

.2 

.1 

1.1

Sum of 

cations

8.4 

3.4 

2.6 

6.7 

8.3 

5.1 

1.8 

1.5 

1.0 

1.9

Ratio clay

CEC1

0.77 

.32 

.13 

.10 

.10 

.08 

.06 

.05 

.05 

.22

CEC1

NH4OAC

6.7 

2.8 

2.0 

4.4 

5.6 

3.3 

1.5 

.9 

.6 

1.7

15 bar

0.59 

.41 

.37 

.36 

.39 

.37 

.38 

.38 

.39 

.56

Bulk density 

(1/3 bar)

.40 

.58 

.65 

.52 

.53 

.60 

.79 

1.78 

1.80 

1.80

PH

Bases+AI

2.2 

.6 

.6 

1.7 

1.6 

1.1 

.5 

.2 

.1 

1.1

Al 

saturation

32 

83 

50 

47 

50 

73 

80 

100 

100 

100

CaCI2

(1:2)

4.6 

4.5

4.4 

4.4 

4.5 

4.5 

4.4 

4.5 

4.6 

4.2

H2O

(1:1)

5.2 

4.9 

4.9 

4.9 

5.2 

5.2 

5.0 

5.1 

5.1 

4.8

'Cation exchange capacity.

E56 Pedologic Studies in the Eastern United States
Table 11A Field description of pedon S84GA-293-Q01

[Site 6, series not designated, 32°57'19" N., 84°25'00" W., Upson County, Ga., 8 km northwest of Thomaston, Sunset Village 7.5-min 

quadrangle. Parent material is alluvial fan sediments derived mainly from Hollis Quartzite; surface elevation 287 m above mean sea level on 

a 3-percent east-facing slope. Vegetation dominantly pine forest and some hardwood. Site is well drained under a udic moisture regime. No 

entry, no data]

Depth

(cm)

0-18 ............

18-45 ...........

45-69 ...........

69-97 ...........

97-146 ..........

146-175 .........

175-205 .........

Horizon1

Ap

AB

BA

Btl

Bt2

Bxl

Bx2

Moist color2

10YR 4/3

10YR 5/6

7.5 YR 5/6

7.5YR 5/8

7.5YR 5/8

2.5YR 4/8

7. SYR 5/8 

2.5YR 4/8

7. SYR 5/8

Texture3

si

si

si

scl

scl

scl

g

cr*1

Structure4

Ifgr

If sbk

1m sbk

2m sbk

2m sbk

M

M

Consistence5

vf

f

f

f

f

Roots6

ml

ml

cl

fl

fl

Boundary7

cs

cs

fro

fro

CS

cs

'Bxl, moist colors are mottled; red portion (35 percent by volume) is horizontally oriented and firm and brittle, brown portion is friable, 

few fine and coarse gravel and common medium gravel, few nodules of plinthite; Bx2, moist colors are mottled, red portion (35 percent by 

volume) is very hard in places, brown portion is friable, few fine, medium, and coarse gravel.

2Munsell notation.

3sl, sandy loam; scl, sandy clay loam; g, gravelly.

4 1, weak; 2, moderate; f, fine; m, medium; gr, granular; sbk, subangular blocky; M, massive.

5f, friable; vf, very friable.

6m, many; c, common; f, few; 1, fine.

7cs, clear smooth; gs, gradual smooth.

Table 11fi. Textural analyses of horizons for pedon S84GA-293-001

[Sampled as fine, loamy, mixed, thermic Typic Hapludult. Grain sizes in millimeters; all other values in weight percent. VF, very fine; F, fine; M, medium; 

C, coarse; VC, very coarse]

Depth

(cm)

0-18 .....

18^5 . . . . .

45-69

69-97

97-146 

146-175 . . . 

175-205 . .

Horizon

An

.. AB

.. BA

.. Btl

.. Bt2 

.. Bxl 

.. Bx2

Clay 

«.002)

9.0

5.0

10.5

23.0

30.3 

26.5 

28.3

Total

Silt 

(.002-.05)

14.6

11.2

6.7

10.7

8.8 

9.2

14.2

Sand

(.05-2)

76.4

83.8

75.3

66.3

60.9 

64.3 

65.0

Clay

F

K.0002)

4.4

2.0

5.3

13.8

18.1 

15.1 

15.9

Si

F

(.002-.02)

10.0

6.9

9.5

7.0

5.4 

5.2 

3.4

It

C

(.02-.05)

4.6

4.3

4.7

3.7

3.4 

4.0 

3.3

VF 

(.05-.10)

8.6

8.3

9.3

7.3

6.5 

6.1

5.2

F

(.10-.25)

26.2

28.2

29.0

22.1

19.2 

17.0 

16.1

Sand

M 

(.25-.50)

26.3

29.5

23.4

21.8

19.8 

18.3 

21.1

C

(.5-1)

13.3

15.4

11.6

12.4

11.5 

14.6 

16.3

VC

(1-2)

70

74

70

77

3.9 

8.3 

6.3

Genesis and Residence Times of Soil and Weathering Profiles, Pine Mountain Area of West-Central Georgia E57
Table 11C. Physical and chemical analyses of pedon S84GA-293-Q01

[Units of measure for all values given in table 5. TR, trace]

Dithionite-citrate Ratio clay

Depth

(cm)

0-18 .......

18^5 ......

45-69 ......

69-97 ......

97-146 .....

146-175 .... 

175-205 ....

Horizon

Ap 

AB 

BA 

Btl 

Bt2 

Bxl 

Bx2

Extractable 

Fe

0.4 

.2 

.5 

1.4 

2.4 

3.9 

2.4

Extractable 

Al

0.2 

.1 

.1

.3 

.5 

.7 

.4

NH4OAC 

extractable bases

Depth

(cm)

0-18 .......

18^5 ......

45-69 ......

69-97 ......

97-146 .....

146-175 .... 

175-205 ....

Horizon

Ap 

AB 

BA 

, Btl 

Bt2 

Bxl 

Bx2

Ca

0.5 

.7 

.7 

1.6 

.6 

.1 

.2

Mg

0.2

.1 

.2 

.6

.5

.2 

.2

Na K

TR 0.1 

TR .1 

TR .1 

TR .1 

TR .1 

TR .1 

TR .1

Acidity

1.3

2.3 

1.7 

3.6 

5.4 

5.4 

5.4

Extractable 

Al

0.2 

.2 

.1 

.1 

.7 

.1 

.8

Sum of 

cations

2.1 

3.2 

2.7 

5.9 

6.6 

5.8 

5.9

CEC1

0.18 

.40 

.19 

.17 

.14 

.17 

.17

CEC1

NH4OAC

1.6 

2.0 

2.0 

4.0 

4.3 

4.6 

4.8

15 bar

0.32

.44 

.34 

.32 

.35 

.43 

.39

Bulk density 

( 1/3 bar)

1.38 

1.50 

1.60 

1.64 

1.71 

1.70 

2.16

pH

Bases +AI

1.0 

1.1 

1.1

2.4 

1.9 

1.5

2.3

Al 

saturation

20 

18 

9

4 

37 

73 

78

CaCl2

(1:2)

4.9 

4.9

4.7 

4.9

4.5 

4.4 

4.3

H2O

(1:1)

5.5 

5.5 

5.2 

5.4 

5.1 

5.2 

5.2

'Cation exchange capacity.

Table 12A. Field description of pedon S84GA-199-002

[Site 7, series not designated, 32°53'05" N., 84°42'35" W., Meriwether County, Ga., 3 km west of Warm Springs, Warm Springs 7.5-min 

quadrangle. Parent material is alluvial fan sediment derived from Hollis Quartzite and Manchester Schist; surface elevation 288 m above mean 

sea level on a 3-percent north-facing slope. Vegetation dominantly pine forest and some hardwood. Site is well drained under a udic moisture 

regime. No entry, no data]

Depth

(cm)

0-15 ............

15-44 ...........

44-98 ...........

98-130 ..........

130-164.........

164-195 .........

195-235 .........

235-250 ........

Horizon1

An

Btl

Bt2

2Bxl

2Bx2

2Bx3

2Bx4

2Bx5

Moist color2

10YR 5/3

2. SYR 4/8

2.5 YR 4/8

2.5YR 4/8

2. SYR 4/8

7. SYR 5/6

2. SYR 4/8 

7. SYR 5/6

2.5YR 4/8 

7. SYR 5/8

2. SYR 4/8

Texture3

si

cl

cl

Cf*1

scl

si

si

cl

Structure4 Consistence5

Ifgr

2m sbk

2m sbk f

M vfib

M

M

M

M

Roots6

ml

cl

fl

fl

Boundary7

as

CTC

P<*

cs

OG

CfG

'Ap.few fine gravel; Bt2, split for sampling at 66 cm (66-98 cm is sample 84P2479), few fine gravel; 2Bxl, strong brown portion is 

firm sandy clay having few fine roots and few fine gravel, red portion (70 percent by volume) is very firm and brittle; 2Bx2, red portion (60 

percent by volume) is very firm and brittle, strong brown portion is firm sandy clay having few fine gravel; 2Bx3, red portion (50 percent 

by volume) is firm and brittle, strong brown portion is firm, common fine and medium gravel; 2Bx4, brown portion (60 percent by volume) 

is friable, red portion is firm and brittle, few fine gravel; 2Bx5, third moist color is 10YR 6/4, brown portion (70 percent by volume) is friable, 

red portion is firm and brittle, moist colors are mottled.

2Munsell notation.

3 sl, sandy loam; cl, clay loam; scl, sandy clay loam.

4 1, weak; 2, moderate; f, fine; m, medium; gr, granular; sbk, subangular blocky; M, massive.

5f, friable; vfi, very firm; b, brittle.

6m, many; c, common; f, few; 1, fine.

7as, abrupt smooth; aw, abrupt wavy; cs, clear smooth; gs, gradual smooth.

E58 Pedologic Studies in the Eastern United States
Table 12fi. Textural analyses of horizons for pedon S84GA-199-002

[Grain sizes in millimeters; all other values in weight percent. VF, very fine; F, fine; M, medium; C, coarse; VC, very coarse]

Depth

(cm)

0-15 .....

15^4 ....

44-66 ....

66-98 ....

98-130 . . .

130-164 . .

164-195 . .

195-235 . .

235-250 . .

Horizon

.. A

. . Btl

.. Bt2

.. Bt2

.. 2Bxl

.. 2Bx2

. . 2Bx3

. . 2Bx4

.. 2Bx5

Clay 

(<.002)

8.8

51.7

44 7

48.0

40.2

30.0

28.2

30.2

32.6

Total

Silt 

(.002-.05)

15.8

9.6

12.0

8.5

7.1

7.1

5.7

6.8

6.4

Sand

(.05-2)

75.4

38.7

43.3

43 5

52.7

62.9

65.6

63.0

61.0

Clay

F 

(<.0002)

4.4

27 5

24.7

26.2

21.4

14.7

12.6

11.7

12.4

Sil

F 

(.002-.02)

10.0

6.7

8.8

6.2

4.8

3.9

2.8

4.2

3.9

It

C

(.02-.05)

5.8

2.9

3 2

2.3

2.3

3.2

2.9

2.6

2.5

VF 

(.05-.10)

11.5

5.7

6.5

5.9

5.9

5.9

6.5

4.3

5.3

F 

(.10-.25)

29.1

13.8

15.4

14.9

15.8

17.1

19.8

15.4

16.2

Sand

M 

(.25-.50)

20.4

10.4

11.7

11.8

14.0

17.6

18.3

20.6

20.2

C

(.5-1)

9.8

5.7

6.4

7.1

10.0

12.4

12.2

14.4

12.9

VC

(1-2)

46

3 1

33

3 8

70

9.9

8.8

8.3

6.4

Table 12C. Physical and chemical analyses of pedon S84GA-199-002

[Units of measure for all values given in table 5. , not detected; TR, trace]

Dithionite-citrate

Depth

(cm)

0-15 .......

15^4 ......

44-66 ......

66-98 ......

98-130 .....

130-164 .... 

164-195 .... 

195-235 .... 

235-250 ....

Horizon

A 

Btl 

Bt2 

Bt2 

2B; 

2B: 

2B: 

2B: 

2B:

d

a

^23 

c4 

tf

Extractable Extractable 

Fe Al CEC

0.7 

4.0 

3.7 

4.0 

4.3 

3.6 

2.7 

2.0 

1.6

0.2 

.7 

.6 

.6 

.6 

.5 

.4 

.3 

.3

Ratio clay Water content

Bulk density 

1 15 bar (1/s bar)

0.30 0.43 

.11 .32 

.11 .34 

.09 .33 

.08 .36 

.09 .40 

.08 .39 

.10 .41 

.10 .37

NH4OAC 

extractable bases

Depth

(cm)

0-15 .......

15^4 ......

44-66 ......

66-98 ......

98-130 ..... 

130-164 .... 

164-195 .... 

195-235 .... 

235-250 ....

Horizon

A 

Btl 

Bt2 

Bt2 

2Bxl 

2Bx2 

2Bx3 

, 2Bx4 

2Bx5

Ca

0.8 

2.0 

1.7 

1.3 

.4 

.1 

.1 

TR 

.1

Mg

0.2 

.5 

.4 

.3 

.1 

.1 

TR 

TR 

TR

Na

TR 

TR 

TR 

TR 

TR 

TR 

TR 

TR 

TR

K

0.1 

TR 

TR

TR

Acidity

3.2 

6.5 

5.8 

6.6

5.8 

4.5 

4.1 

3.4 

4.1

Extractable 

Al

0.3 

.2 

.2 

.4 

.7 

.6 

.6 

.0 

.2

Sum of 

cations

4.3 

.0 

.9

.2 

6.3

4.7 

4.2 

3.4 

4.2

CEC1

NH4OAC

2.6

5.5 

4.7 

4.1 

3.3 

2.6 

2.3 

3.1 

3.1

1.54 

1.43 

1.30 

1.39 

1.68 

1.71 

.80 

1.75 

1.73

Vs bar2 15 bar3

12.5 

19.0 

26.0 

24.8 

17.9 

17.2 

15.5 

15.9 

16.0

3.5 

16.7 

15.0 

15.9 

14.6 

12.1 

11.2 

12.3 

12.1

PH

Bases+Al

1.4 

2.7 

2.3 

2.0 

1.2 

.8 

.7 

1.0 

1.3

Al 

saturation

21 

7 

9 

20 

58 

75 

86 

100 

92

CaCI2

(1:2)

4.6

4.9 

4.9 

4.7 

4.5

4.5 

4.4 

4.4 

4.3

H2 0

(1:1)

5.3 

5.4 

5.4 

5.2 

5.2 

4.9 

5.0 

4.9 

4.9

Nation exchange capacity. 

2Water content at Va-bar pressure. 

3Water content at 15-bar pressure.

Genesis and Residence Times of Soil and Weathering Profiles, Pine Mountain Area of West-Central Georgia E59
Table 12D. Bulk chemistry of pedon S84GA-199-002

[All values in weight percent except for (Fe2O3 +Al2O3)/SiO2 , which is a ratio, and H2O, which is in percent]

Horizon2

A Bt1 Bt2 

(0-15) (15-44) (44-66)

SiO2 ...................

Al O

Fe2O3 ..................

CaO....................

K2O....................

TiO2 ...................

P n 2U5 ...................

MnO ...................

Total1 ..................

Fe2O3 +Al2O3/SiO2

H2O....................

...... 90.6

5 2

...... .71

13

...... .16

...... .86

...... .10

...... .04

......97.8

.065

...... 2

63.2 

19.2 

5.9 

.16 

.25 

1.15 

.10 

.03 

90.1 

.397 

10

Bt2 

(66-98)

61.9

20.4 

6.5 

.15 

.23 

1.17 

.10 

.03 

90.50 

.435 

10

2Bx1 

(98-130)

65.9 

18.0 

6.9

.12 

.24 

1.18 

.08 

.02 

92.5 

.38 

9

2Bx2 2Bx3 2Bx4 2Bx5 

(130-164) (164-195) (195-235) (235-250)

74.7 

14.0 

4.2 

.11 

.26 

.87 

.09 

.03 

94.3 

.244 

6

76.2 

14.8 

2.8 

.11 

.38 

.87 

.09 

.03 

95.4 

.148 

6

'Totals significantly less than 100 percent are due to high H2O contents of clay-rich horizons. H2O not included in analyses. 

2Depths in centimeters are given in parentheses.

Table 13/4. Textural analyses of horizons for unnumbered soil developed in Flint River terrace alluvium

[Series not designated, Upson County, Ga. Grain sizes in millimeters; all other values in weight percent. VF, very fine; F, fine; M, medium; C, coarse; 

VC, very coarse]

Depth

(cm)

0-15 ......

15-25 .....

25-51 .....

51-91

91-127 ....

127-152 . . .

152-178 . . .

178-193 . . .

193-213 . . .

213-236 . . .

Horizon

An

. AB

. Btl

. Bt2

. Bt3

. BC

. Cl

. 2C2

. 2C3

. 2C4

Clay 

«.002)

18.9

47 3

49.0

55.0

51.8

45.0

43.0

42.7

41.0

23.7

Total

Silt 

(.002-.05)

23.8

18.3

18.4

15 9

18.8

22.1

27.2

23.3

28.3

27.2

Sand

(.05-2)

57 3

34.4

32.6

29.1

29.4

32.9

29.8

34.0

30.7

49.1

Sil

F 

(.002-.02)

15.4

12.1

13 1

11 3

12.9

17.4

21.6

18.1

19.9

18.1

It

C

(.02-.05)

8.4

6.3

5 3

4.6

5 9

4.7

5.6

5.2

8.4

9.1

VF 

(.05-.10)

9.9

5.1

4.9

3.8

3.9

5.1

7.0

5.0

9.0

9.5

F 

(.10-.25)

25.8

15.6

14.5

10.1

7.2

7.5

10.8

8.8

8.2

13.9

Sand

M 

(.25-.50)

14.0

8.6

8.1

6.7

6.3

6.0

4.8

5.4

5.5

10.5

C

(-5-1)

5.4

3.8

3.7

5 4

6.6

7.4

4.3

6.6

4.9

8.5

VC

(1-2)

??

1.3

1 4

3 1

5.4

6.9

2.9

8.2

3.1

6.7

Table 136. Other analyses of horizons for unnumbered soil developed in Flint River 

terrace alluvium

[Units of measure for all values given in table 5]

Depth

(cm)

0-15 .............

15-25 ............

25-51 ............

51-91 ............

91-127...........

127-152 ..........

152-178 ..........

178-193 ..........

193-213

213-236 ..........

Organic 

C

1.90

.64

.25

.14

.05

.03

.03

.04

.01

.05

Ratio clay 

(15 bar)

0.48

35

35

.38

.44

.48

54

53

57

.92

Water content 

(15 bar) 1

9.1

16.4

17.1

21.0

23.0

21.6

23.2

22.8

23 3

21.9

P>

CaCl2

(1:2)

5.3

4.5

4.5

4.5

4.3

4.3

4.3

4.3

4.3

4.5

H

H2O 

(1:1)

6.1

5.1

5.1

5.1

5.0

5.0

5.0

4.9

4.9

5.4

*Water content at 15-bar pressure. 

EGO Pedologic Studies in the Eastern United States
Table 14. Sand (>50 (Jim) mineralogy of Pine Mountain soils

[All values in percent, based on a minimum count of 300 grains. -1, less than 1 percent; 0, not observed]

Depth 

(cm)

Mineral

Horizon Quartz Muscovite Biotite K-feldspar

Piedmont soil (S84GA-199-001)

0-15 ..............

15-79 .............

79-154 ............

216-254 ...........

254-304 ...........

.....A 95 -1

..... Bt 73 8

..... BC 57 2

..... C2 25 2

..... C3 13 1

-1 

5 

29 

70 

41

3 

4 

1 

1

43

Mountain soil dike (S84GA-23 1-001)

20-38 .............

66-85 .............

114-220...........

..... E 97 2

..... 2Bt2 66 31

..... 2Bt4 49 48

0 

0 

0

0 

0 

-1

Mountain soil (S84GA-231-003)

33-53

53-71 .............

87-114............

138-150 ...........

150-178 ...........

179-191...........

191-204...........

204-221 ...........

221-230 ...........

..... AB 96 3

..... B/C 94 4

C2 89 10

..... C4 46 56

..... C5 12 87

..... C6 92 8

..... C7 12 88

..... C8 47 52

..... C9 15 82

1 

-1 

0 

1 

0 

0 

0 

0 

0

-1

0 

0 

0 

0 

0 

0 

0 

0

Mountain soil (S84GA-231-004)

13-38 .............

61-91 .............

145-168 ...........

168-183 ...........

..... E 99 0

..... Btl 96 1

.....B/C 64 33

..... Cr 83 14

-1 

1

2 

1

0 

0 

0 

0

Landslide/mountain (S84GA-231-002)

13-22 .............

44-74 .............

170-205 ...........

300-360 ...........

..... AB 98 -1

.....Btl 99 0

.....B/C 90 6

..... 2C 17 76

0

-1

0

-1

1

0 

0

-1

Fan soil (S84GA-293-001)

69-97 .............

175-205 ...........

.....Btl 99 0

..... Bx2 87 0

0 

0

0

-1

Fan soil (S84GA-199-002)

0-15 ..............

44-98 .............

130-164 ...........

235-250 ............

.....A 99 0

..... Bt2 99 0

..... 2Bx2 95 1

..... 2Bx5 91 1

1 

1

0

1

-1

-1

0 

0

Genesis and Residence Times of Soil and Weathering Profiles, Pine Mountain Area of West-Central Georgia E61

Appendix

The following articles, reprinted from internal publications of the U.S. Geological Survey, 

have been included because they may be of historical interest to the reader.

FOR vs USGS: or The Cold Facts About Warm 

Springs

[Reprinted from the Director's Newsletter, v. 1, no. 3,1979, p. 14,15]

In the summer of 1921, Franklin D. Roosevelt had 

an attack of polio that left him crippled. The former Assistant Secretary of the Navy, who had been the Democratic 

nominee for Vice President in 1920, had to give up his 

plans to run for Governor of New York in 1922. Instead he 

fought valiantly to recuperate. Swimming in warm water 

seemed especially effective in helping him regain some of 

the strength he had lost to the disease.

His search for rehabilitation led Roosevelt to Warm 

Springs, Ga., once a fashionable summer resort. When he 

first went there in 1924, not long after he had nominated Al 

Smith for President at the Democratic convention, Roosevelt found the resort had run down. But he found also that 

the naturally warm water, issuing from springs and led into 

both indoor and outdoor pools, seemed to help his damaged 

legs.

Two years after his first visit, Roosevelt bought the 

Warm Springs resort, determined to bring back its former 

grandeur. But when in 1927 he realized that he could not 

make Warm Springs into another Pinehurst, he turned it 

instead into a health spa run by the newly formed Georgia 

Warm Springs Foundation. Three physicians and therapists 

treated the victims of polio in the warm waters of the 

springs.

Roosevelt sought endorsements of the benefits of 

Warm Springs' waters. Late in 1927 he wrote the Director 

of the Geological Survey, asking him to undertake "a 

careful survey of all the mineral springs in this locality" to 

aid the Foundation in putting them to medical use. With the 

scientific skepticism for which the Survey is famous, the 

Acting Director replied that mineral springs were valuable 

chiefly for their location. Since people came to them for 

treatment, resorts could be built up around them, but their 

water was not really different from that which flowed 

through city water pipes.

Roosevelt was outraged. Like anyone who has been 

strong and healthy until struck down, he dreamed of 

regaining full use of his legs, and he believed that swimming at Warm Springs was helping him do it. The Survey's 

coldly scientific response to his request for evidence to 

support his belief would not help him build a hospital to 

treat those who had suffered as he had. In spite of 

Roosevelt's repeated requests, the Survey refused to make 

the study. Late in 1928 Roosevelt turned away from his 

efforts for Warm Springs. He ran for Governor of New 

York and was elected. After two terms in the Governor's 

mansion in Albany, N.Y., he went in 1933 to the White 

House in Washington as the 32nd President of the United 

States.

Like any other agency of the Executive Branch of the 

United States Government, the Survey will do for the 

President what it may or may not do for a private citizen.

When Roosevelt renewed through Harold Ickes, his Secretary of the Interior, the request for a geological survey of 

the Warm Springs area, the Geological Survey obliged. 

Director W. C. Mendenhall set up a cooperative project 

with the State of Georgia. D. Foster Hewett of the USGS 

and G. W. Crickmay of the Georgia Geological Survey 

began in the fall of 1933 to study the Pine Mountain area 

around Warm Springs. J. O. Kilmartin made a new topographic map, Crickmay did the areal mapping, and Hewett 

had general oversight of the project, paying particular 

attention to the natural springs. He relied heavily on O. E. 

Meinzer of the Water Resources Branch (now Division) 

and his colleagues L. K. Wenzel and W. L. Lamar. The 

district engineers from the office at Montgomery, Ala., 

also helped out. In Hewett's words, "the program, including geologic, physical, and chemical measurements of the 

water of the region was the most ambitious on a warm 

spring area ever undertaken in the United States."

Crickmay and Hewett began work in October 1933, 

so they were at Warm Springs when President Roosevelt 

made his annual Thanksgiving visit. He carved a large 

turkey for the young patients and the Foundation's trustees, 

and after dinner he introduced the guests, including the two 

geologists. "There has never been any scientific survey of 

this Pine Mountain region," Roosevelt began their introduction. "I tried a number of years ago to get the U.S. 

Government interested in a geological survey of this mountain of ours, but I was told by the Government that then 

existed in Washington, that there was nothing in the water 

anyway." The audience laughed. "But in the past few 

months," the President went on, "I have been able, somehow, to persuade Washington that there is something in the 

water, and so the Geological Survey in Washington is 

cooperating with the State of Georgia, and we are starting a 

survey of what lies under Pine Mountain." More laughter 

followed this account of his persuasiveness. As if to inspect 

the research, Secretary Ickes visited the President the 

weekend after Thanksgiving.

The geological investigation of Warm Springs by 

Hewett and Crickmay lasted about three years. They published their results in 1937 as Water-Supply Paper 819 

entitled The Warm Springs of Georgia, Their Geologic 

Relations and Origin, A Summary Report. By then President Roosevelt could no longer find time to go to Warm 

Springs for Thanksgiving every year as he had in his first 

term. And what the geologists reported could not have been 

to his liking.

For the result of the careful scientific study was to 

confirm the Geological Survey's initial skepticism. "The 

water which issued from Warm Springs at a temperature of 

88° was that which had fallen as rain on Pine Mountain 

within several square miles south of the spring... .The water 

was extremely simple chemically and similar to that which 

issued from springs elsewhere in the region." Far from 

being unusual, the water from Warm Springs "was simply

Genesis and Residence Times of Soil and Weathering Profiles, Pine Mountain Area of West-Central Georgia E65
rain water that had fallen on Pine Mountain, descended 

along a bed of quartzite in the earth, and ascended along 

the fault that marked the north edge of Pine Mountain."

Thus Foster Hewett confirmed what the Acting 

Director had told Roosevelt in 1927; there was nothing 

special about the water from Warm Springs.

Roosevelt's Georgia Warm Springs Foundation continued to offer treatment to the victims of polio. In 1938, 

the year after the Survey's report, Roosevelt established the 

National Foundation for Infantile Paralysis (the name then 

for polio) which sponsored research to find a cure. This 

research paid off in the 1950's with the development of 

vaccines, and the Georgia Warm Springs Foundation 

stopped treating polio victims in its spring-fed pools. As a 

source for the treatment of polio, rational medicine had 

replaced the faith healing associated with natural springs. 

What remains at Warm Springs, Ga., is a state rehabilitation hospital for all the crippling diseases. And the Little 

White House is a memorial to President Roosevelt, for 

whom no treatment ever restored the use of his legs.

An Historical Footnote

Warm Springs, Georgia, 1933-1936

By D. Foster Hewett

[Reprinted from The Cross Section, v. 10, no. 6, June 1979, p. 9-15]

On November 8, 1927, Franklin Delano Roosevelt, 

then a private citizen, wrote to the Director of the U.S. 

Geological Survey a letter expressing the wish that the 

Geological Survey would undertake a detailed study of the 

Warm Springs area in Georgia. The letter is interesting: 

"As you probably know, I became interested in the 

place two years ago, and since then have organized the 

Georgia Warm Springs Foundation, a medical corporation 

under the laws of the State of New York without profit, 

which Foundation is engaged in developing a therapeutic 

treatment here for infantile paralysis and kindred diseases. 

As our work goes on, we see more and more need for 

a careful survey of all the mineral springs in this locality The immediate thing before the Foundation undertakes 

the development or detailed explorations of any given spot, 

is for us to have a general geologic survey on which we can 

base a more detailed examination of springs We have had 

visits from two distinguished balneologists for Germany 

(Haertl and Baudish) who tell us that the mineral springs of 

this general locality are very remarkable and compare most 

favorably with the better known Bohemian, German, and 

French mineral springs. In fact, the general geological 

formation seems to me, as a lay observer, to resemble in 

many particulars the Taunus region in Germany, which 

includes Nauheim, Homberg, and Weisbaden.

It is a matter of great medical importance that the 

mineral springs of this country be developed for our own 

use, and the Georgia Warm Springs Foundation hopes to be 

able to go into the general subject as well as the development of our immediate work for infantile paralysis, etc."

The Director of the Survey, G. Otis Smith, was away 

from Washington at the time and the reply, dated November 22, was signed by the Acting Director. In substance, 

this letter declined the invitation to make a detailed study of 

the area, but unfortunately it included the following paragraph:

"The men in the Geological Survey who have given 

the most attention to the question of mineral springs and 

their use are generally of the opinion that practically the 

whole value of mineral springs is as an excuse for the 

location at a particular point of a resort or center for the use 

of water in the treatment of disease."

Mr. Roosevelt acknowledged this letter December 

15, requesting any information at hand concerning composition of waters elsewhere in the country that resembled 

those at Warm Springs, Georgia. It contained the following 

paragraph: "I think possibly that there may be a misconception in regard to the use of the Georgia Warm Springs 

water. The present rather careful scientific studies are 

based on the use of water to bathe and swim in and not for 

drinking purposes."

This letter was acknowledged and the desired information given. However, on December 21, Mr. Roosevelt 

wrote again, obviously revealing that he was deeply 

offended by statements in the first letter. He wrote:

"Quite frankly, I was a good deal horrified by Mr. 

Sears' letter, and my surprise at the attitude of the Geological Survey was shared by Mr. George Foster Peabody and 

several doctors who are working with me, including some 

of the people of the Rockefeller Institute. Of course, the 

truth of the matter is that we people in the United States are 

25 years behind Europe in the study and knowledge of the 

pathologic effect of mineral water on the human system 

and of the methods in the use of mineral water for the 

treatments of various forms of human illnesses....You may 

therefore imagine that I was somewhat surprised by being 

practically told by Mr. Sears that this Foundation was 

trying to use the Geological Survey as an excuse for locating the work of the Foundation at a Georgia resort and that 

very little scientific evidence could be produced to show 

that they could not carry on the treatment just as well in 

New York, Washington, or Chicago.

I know, my dear Dr. Smith, that you will see the 

humor in this situation and all I can ask you is to take up 

the matter afresh, for I know of your understanding of these 

matters and I hope that you will give some real study to the 

possibility of the Georgia Warm Springs Foundation. I can 

only tell you that the medical experts are finding some very 

interesting results at Warm Springs from the bathing in 

natural warm water."

The reply of the Director, January 7, 1928 was conciliatory, but it refused the cooperation of the Survey. This 

brought a letter from Mr. Roosevelt, dated January 11, 

which reveals that he was confident that therapeutic use of 

water in the United States was lagging far behind that in 

Europe, and he greatly regretted that the Survey would not 

assist him:

E66 Pedologic Studies in the Eastern United States
"I am sorry as a layman to take issue with you in 

regard to the proper method of possible development of any 

given area of the earth's surface which contains mineral 

springs of a variety of mineral contents I am afraid that 

you have wholly missed the point of the request of the 

Georgia Warm Springs Foundation for a geological study. 

We do not need any such study to determine the value 

of the water which in many places now flows naturally 

from Pine Mountain. Dr. Baudisch, Dr. Haertl, various 

doctors of the Rockefeller Institute, and several well known 

geologists have advised the Foundation that before large 

amounts of money are asked for as gifts by the public for 

the erection of buildings, etc. for the care of patients, it is 

necessary to find out more about the existing springs and 

possibly other springs before they come to the surface. For 

instance, by boring and tapping the water well below the 

surface, greater heat can be obtained. Also by boring, the 

chemical properties of the same spring may vary, as has 

been proved at Saratoga. By a careful preliminary geologic 

study, the Foundation would know where to bore and what 

it might find in the way of water at different locations and 

at different depths.

I cannot help expressing my disappointment that the 

Geological Survey takes the antiquated view that the city 

water supplies of New York, Chicago, or Washington 

would, if given similar conditions, produce the same 

results as scientific tests of natural mineral springs tapped 

far below the ground at different temperatures and with 

different mineral contents. We shall, of course, proceed 

with the cooperation of the State of Georgia and with such 

gifts as the Foundation may receive. I am only sorry not to 

have the cooperation of the United States Government in a 

study which promises greater things for many parts of the 

country which contain mineral springs."

Several letters passed before August 1933 between 

Dr. Mendenhall, then Director of the Geological Survey, 

and the State Geologist, S.W. McCallie and George Foster 

Peabody, an intimate friend of Mr. Roosevelt's. On August 

19, 1933 the President of the United States (Mr. Roosevelt) 

sent the following memorandum to Secretary Ickes:

"Would you be good enough to have Dr. Mendenhall 

look up all the old correspondence on the subject of a 

geological survey of Pine Mountain, Georgia. Perhaps Dr. 

Mendenhall would talk with me about it when I get back in 

September. Sgd/F.D.R."

On August 24, Secretary Ickes wrote the President, 

as follows:

"Mr. Mendenhall, Director of the Geological Survey, 

has reviewed the old correspondence about a geological 

survey of the Pine Mountain region and is now in communication with Dr. McCallie, State Geologist of Georgia, 

about the problem. Between them they will work out a 

method, perhaps cooperative, by which the desired study 

can be made."

As a result of this correspondence, plans were made

through September for a cooperative study of the Warm

Springs area, with particular reference to the warm springs.

G.W. Crickmay was selected to represent the State

Survey, primarily to do the areal mapping; I was selected to

pay particular attention to the warm springs and to oversee 

the project. Through discussion with O.E. Meinzer, of the 

Water Resources Branch, general plans were made for a 

comprehensive study of the Pine Mountain region. It was 

known that there were other warm springs along the north 

slope of Pine Mountain within a distance of 40 miles, and 

the program of investigation that was planned included 

detailed geologic mapping of about 40 square miles near 

the spring, accurate records of rainfall, the discharge of all 

the streams from the 40 square miles, and discharge and 

temperature of the principle [sic] springs the warm 

springs, and a large cold spring a mile away.

Meinzer drew in for aid and consultation the talent of 

the Water Resources Branch, particularly, L.K. Wenzel 

and W.L. Lamar. There were also drawn into the project 

the engineers of the Water Resources Branch at Montgomery, Alabama: C.E. McCarshin, DeLoss H. Barber. It was 

arranged that a new topographic map on the scale of 

1:48,000 would be made, and this was done by J.O. Kilmartin. It is fair to say that the program, including geologic, physical, and chemical measurements of the water of 

the region was the most ambitious on a warm spring area 

ever undertaken in the United States. It was clear that the 

authorities at Warm Springs were anxious to not only 

obtain more warm water and to conserve its supply, but, if 

possible, to get, possibly by drilling, warmer water.

The Georgia Warm Springs Foundation was founded 

in 1925, as a non-profit organization to develop the treatment of poliomyelitis and paralysis resulting from it. 

Briefly, the incidents preceding were as follows: Mr. 

George Foster Peabody, in 1933 a retired banker and philanthropist, was born in Columbus, Georgia, and at the end 

of the Civil War, with his brothers was taken by his mother 

to New York. His life is a fascinating story of industry and 

philanthropy. He acquired great wealth, which in his maturity, he proceeded to dispense in philanthropy, particularly 

the education of negroes in the south.

As a boy he had known of the existence of Warm 

Springs, which was an old-fashioned health resort as early 

as 1840. When Mr. Roosevelt was stricken with infantile 

paralysis, Mr. Peabody recalled the warm springs of Georgia, and suggested that he might be benefited by bathing in 

the waters. A visit by Mr. Roosevelt proved this to be the 

case with the result that Mr. Peabody purchased for 

$45,000, 175 acres which included the grounds around the 

springs and a hotel which he proceeded to deed to Mr. 

Roosevelt. With a few improvements of the pools and the 

addition of sundry apparatus used in the therapy, the plant 

stood in October 1933 just about as it was when Mr. 

Peabody bought it in 1925. The hotel, an old 3-story frame 

structure, was a firetrap, and it is miraculous that no catastrophe ever came. In 1933, construction was begun on the 

first new building Georgia Hall which included administration quarters and dining facilities.

Genesis and Residence Times of Soil and Weathering Profiles, Pine Mountain Area of West-Central Georgia E67
When I arrived in Warm Springs October 17, 1933, 

we found a room with Mrs. J. Mathis and obtained our 

meals from Mrs. Wm. Reid; both of their houses were on 

the north fringe of the town of Warm Springs. I soon met 

the manager of the Foundation, Arthur Carpenter, and his 

staff, but particularly dealt with his assistant, Ralph Sherrill, who proved to be most helpful and accommodating. 

When I explained the program of work to Mr. Carpenter, 

himself a victim of infantile paralysis, it was quite clear 

that he and others of the Foundation, including Miss 

Plastridge, the head nurse, not only had great confidence in 

the peculiar healing properties of the water, but were rather 

reluctant that any routine at the Foundation should be 

disturbed by any process of inquiry that we might set up. 

We soon faced this problem when I wished to have all the 

pools drained in order that I might examine the inner 

recesses from which the water issued from the earth.

The program of work continued through October into 

November, and we were interested when it was announced 

that the trustees of the Foundation would meet about 

Thanksgiving and that a dinner would be held at which the 

President would be present. As Mr. Peabody arrived in 

Warm Springs soon after I did and we had come to know 

him rather well, he arranged to have Crickmay and me, 

with our wives, invited to the Thanksgiving dinner.

At the dinner, there were present not only the President and the trustees, but other distinguished local guests, 

as well as all the patients of the institution, the nurses, and 

other assistants; the total of about 300.

It was a very interesting evening. The President, 

according to his habit, was seated in the midst of a group of 

young patients. He took great delight in carving a large 

turkey. When the dinner was over Mr. Roosevelt rose to 

discuss the plans for the Foundation, and then introduced 

the many guests that were present. Imagine my surprise 

when late in the ceremonies he said, "About six years ago 

I attempted to get the U.S. Geological Survey to make a 

study of Warm Springs to aid our plans for the Foundation, 

and was told that there was nothing in this water business. 

I am pleased to say that since the last election, the U.S. 

Geological Survey has found that there is something in 

water after all. I take pleasure in introducing Mr. Hewett of 

the Federal Survey and Mr. Crickmay of the State Survey, 

who are here to make a study of the warm springs."

Among the guests over Thanksgiving was Dr. Paul 

Haertl, Managing Director of Bad-Kissingen, Germany. I 

am not sure, but I think Dr. Haertl must have been a 

Prussian because he was the Perfect Type! He was more 

than 6 feet tall, weighed about 200 pounds (90.9 kg.), and 

had a certain arrogance in demeanor that seemed to me 

typical. He had been brought to Saratoga some years before 

by the Saratoga Springs Commission to advise it concerning the conservation and development of its water.

Saratoga Springs had for many years been owned 

privately by certain persons who in their zeal to exploit the

enormous quantities of carbon dioxide gas given off were 

drawing on these sources so freely that many springs in the 

area were failing. Soon thereafter, the springs were 

acquired by the State of New York and a program of 

orderly development and conservation began. Much of this 

was due to the vision and efforts of Mr. Peabody, who was 

Chairman of the Saratoga Springs Commission.

As we were planning to make the most comprehensive study of the warm springs that had been undertaken, I 

thought it would be fitting to discuss with Dr. Haertl the 

general program of investigation. He seemed pleased and 

interested, and I told him all of the work that was planned: 

the geologic study, the measurements of discharges of 

streams, chemical characteristics and temperature of the 

water, etc. After we had talked at great length, Dr. Haertl 

asked, "Are you studying the gas that comes from the 

water?" I replied that we were, and that I had collected 

samples of the gas for chemical analysis. He said, "Have 

you examined the shape of the bubbles?" Somewhat 

aghast, I said that we had not. He said, "Oh, you must 

examine the bubbles; some bubbles are round, but others 

are square."

I could hardly believe my ears, so I pressed the 

subject. "Do I understand that you know places in Germany where the bubbles issuing from water are square?" 

He replied, "Oh yes, Mr. Hewett. The bubbles of gas at 

Bad-Kissingen are square. You see, Mr. Hewett, when you 

put your arm in water that contains gas, bubbles appear on 

the flesh. Now, if these bubbles are round they produce no 

effect, but if they are square they have the effect of stimulating the nerves of the skin. It is extremely important that 

you determine whether these bubbles are round or square."

It took me some time to realize that Dr. Haertl was 

serious. To make a long story of my relations with Dr. 

Haertl for two weeks very short, I concluded that he was a 

typical P.T. Barnum in this hot springs business. He knew 

something of modern scientific lore, but whether deliberately or by some self-deception, he certainly affirmed a lot 

of foolishness. I could scarcely believe that a man of this 

type was held in high esteem by Mr. Peabody, as Dr. 

Haertl was a consultant to the Saratoga Springs Commission, and seemed to have a somewhat similar relation to the 

Warm Springs Foundation. I concluded that I must be very 

circumspect in dealing with him.

I thought it appropriate to show him the inner recess 

in which the warm spring issued. To do this, it was necessary to descend a concrete chamber in our bathing suits and 

crawl through a hole in the retaining wall, scarcely 2 feet in 

diameter, beyond which there was a chamber about 5 feet 

square and 3 feet high on the side of which warm water 

issued from an open fissure. Of course, it was dark and we 

had to use flashlights to guide us. Dr. Haertl was in an 

awkward position. He was terrified at the thought of entering the chamber, but since he had posed as an authority on

E68 Pedologic Studies in the Eastern United States
warm springs he could not withdraw. The experience for 

20 minutes in that inner chamber kept him in a high state of 

nervousness. I was quite sure that he had never gone 

through such an experience before. I should add that later 

when we did examine the gas, the bubbles were round.

As it was planned to continue some of the measurements for two years, I returned to Warm Springs each 

quarter and devoted several weeks on each visit to checking 

the state of the instruments making the measurements. By 

the spring of 1936 our work had been concluded to the 

point where we knew much about the water and its source, 

and were preparing to make some recommendations to the 

Foundation. Through three separate approaches to the 

problem, our work proved that the water which issued from 

Warm Springs at a temperature of 88° was that which had 

fallen as rain on Pine Mountain within several square miles 

south of the spring. The daily measurements of the discharge of warm springs made for two years, reflected the 

periods of rainfall and drought, accurately. From another 

angle, through measurements of rainfall and the discharge 

of streams we found what part of the total rainfall was 

discharged by the streams south of Pine Mountain and the 

discharge per acre of the ten streams.

By contrast, we found that the streams discharging 

from the north side of Pine Mountain were deficient by just 

the amount of water that issued at the warm and cold 

springs. The water was extremely simple chemically and 

similar to that which issued from springs elsewhere in the 

region. Through what sources I cannot be sure, the local 

doctors, as well as Dr. Baddisch, an assistant of Dr. 

Haertl's, had the impression that ultra-violet rays penetrated the Warm Springs water more readily than any other 

water.

It was also freely stated that Warm Springs water 

was "more buoyant than other water." Curiously, none 

of those who used these terms seemed to realize that 

buoyancy is a relation between the specific gravity of two 

substances and not a property. In order to be fortified 

concerning the specific gravity of the water, I personally 

collected and brought to Washington a sample of the 

water the specific gravity of which was determined under 

highly accurate control at the Bureau of Standards. It was 

found that the specific gravity was exactly what it should 

be with the ingredients dissolved in it.

It was a great disappointment to Mr. Peabody and his 

daughter, Mrs. Marjorie Waite, as well as others at the 

Foundation, when I told them in the spring of 1936 that 

there seemed to be nothing extraordinary about this water, 

that it was simply rain water that had fallen on Pine Mountain, descended along a bed of quartzite in the earth, and 

ascended along the fault that marked the north edge of Pine 

Mountain. I still recall Mrs. Waite's remark, "Oh, I am so 

sorry. We had hoped that the unusual properties of this 

water were due to the fact that it was water appearing at the 

surface of the earth for the first time!"

Even though the results of our investigation of Warm 

Springs found that the water was ordinary rain water without exceptional physical or chemical properties, I hesitate 

to view with scorn the widely-held belief that the water 

possessed miraculous properties. There can be nothing but 

admiration for the work the Foundation has done to bring 

back to normal living, hundreds of young children who 

would otherwise have gone through life with deformed 

bodies. The belief in the miraculous beneficial properties of 

Warm Springs water probably contributed to a widely prevailing spirit of hope and optimism that all of the patients 

seemed to share.

During the three years that I visited Warm Springs, I 

saw children arrive at the institution in various stages of 

frightful deformity, gradually recover a large part, if not 

all, the use of their limbs It is a tribute to the spirit and 

talent of all those who aid the institution that such miracles 

can be accomplished. I am almost sorry that much of this 

cannot be attributed to the properties of the water that 

issues at Warm Springs.

Perhaps in retrospect I should add that as I understand it, there are many institutions in the country now 

where victims of infantile paralysis are treated and that use 

only local water from wells, streams, etc., which has been 

heated to the temperature which facilitates the treatments.

The letter written by the Director of the Survey to 

Mr. Roosevelt in November 1927 contained indiscretions, 

particularly the reference to the use of springs by real estate 

schemes, but most that was said in the letter seems now to 

have been proven absolutely correct, even though Mr. 

Roosevelt was outraged when he read it.

When the Water Supply report (WSP 819) was 

printed in 1937, a specially bound copy was sent to the 

President. Its receipt was never acknowledged!

Genesis and Residence Times of Soil and Weathering Profiles, Pine Mountain Area of West-Central Georgia

*U.S. G.P.O.:1994-387-030:53

E69

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