Basalts from the 117~ S 

of .,au n~l , ti , aii .. : N---· ··· 

011 the Variation ot P,it.lag......., .. , i!!K_ ..... , ..... 

Rata with Temgerotute , 

Basalts from the 1877 Submarine Eruption 

of Mauna Loa, Hawaii: New Data 

on the Variation of Palagonitization 

Rate with Temperature 

By JAMES G. MOORE, DANIEL j. FORNARI, and DAVID A. CLAGUE 

U,S. GEOLOGICAL SURVEY BULLETIN 1663 
DEPARTMENT OF THE INTERIOR 

DONALD PAUL HODEL, Secretary 

U.S. GEOLOGICAL SURVEY 

Dallas L. Peck, Director 

UNITED STATES GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE: 1985 

For sale by the 

Distribution Branch, Text Products Section 

U.S. Geological Survey 

604 South Pickett St. 

Alexandria, VA 22304 

Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data 

Moore, James Gregory, 1930-

Basalts from the 1877 submarine eruption of Mauna loa, 

Hawaii: New data on the variation of palagonitization 

rate with temperature. 

(U.S. Geological Survey Bulletin 1663) 

Bibliography: p. 9-10 

Supt. of Doc. No.: I 19.3:1663 

1. Basalt-Hawaii-Kealakekua Bay region. 2. Mauna loa 

(Hawaii Island, Hawaii)-Eruption. 3. PalagoniteHawaii-Kealakekua Bay region. I. Fornari, Daniel j. 

II. Clague, David A. Ill. Title. IV. Series: 

United States. Geological Survey. Bulletin 1663. 

QE75.B9 no.1663 

[QE462.B3] 

557.3s 

[552'.22] 

85-600163 
Abstract 1 

Introduction 1 

Suamr ine geology at Kealakekua Bay 2 

Studies of basalt samples 2 

Petrology 2 

Yes icle content 4 

Olemistry 6 

Palagonitization rates 1 

Conclusions 9 

References cites 9 

Appendix: Fran the Hawaiian Gazette, February 28, 1877 10 

FICIJRES 

1. N.Bp of the island of Hawaii showing location of Kealakekua Bay 1 

2. N.Bps of Kealakekua Bay region 3 

3. Ternary diagram of proportions of phenocryst nrlnerals in basalt samples fran Kealakekua Bay 

region 4 

4. Plot of vesicularity of subaerially erupted and subaqueously erupted lava sarrples as a 

function of depth of collection 6 

5. Plot of rredian diwmeter of vesicles in lava samples as a function of depth of collection 

and ambient pressure 6 

6. Plot of rate of palagonitization of subaqueous basaltic glass as a function of water 

tE!Tperature 8 

1. Plot of ocean temperature against water depth off west Hawaii 9 

TABUS 

1. Mbdal analyses of basalt sarrples fran the Kealakekua Bay region 5 

2. N.fi~roprobe analyses of glass fran submarine lava, Kealakekua Bay 1 

3. Palagonite on historical lava flows 8 

III 

Basalts from the 1877 Submarine Eruption 

of Mauna Loa, Hawaii: New Data 

on the Variation of Palagonitization 

Rate with Temperature 

By James G. Moore, Daniel j. Fornari1 , and David A. Clague 

Abstract 

The well-documented 1877 submarine eruption of 

Mauna Loa volcano occurred offshore from Kealakekua 

Bay, west Hawaii. The three vents active during the 

eruption are aligned parallel to the Kealakekua fault, 

which apparently bounds the north side of a large 

slump structure of Mauna Loa volcano. Samples of 

1877 glassy basalhc lava were collected by submersible from these eruption sites, at water depths from 

about 100 m to greater than 1000 m. Because their 

age, depths, and ambient ocean temperatures are 

known, these samples of basalt permit determination 

of palagonitization rates at different temperatures. 

The rate is found to increase 1.8 times for each 10 °C 

of temperature increase. At 4-5 °C {the prevailing 

water temperature on much of the ocean floor) the 

rate is 0.003-0.03 ]1m per year, and the extrapolated 

rate at 300 °C {the temperature at some hot springs on 

ridges) is O.Z7-Z.7 mm per day. These samples and 

others from nearby subaerially erupted lavas that 

flowed into the sea allow determination of vesicularity 

at different water depths. The data indicate that the 

decrease in vesicularity of subaerial lava flows that 

cross a shoreline and flow into increasingly deeper 

water is largely explicable by the pressure effect, and 

hence the vesicularity of such flows can provide 

information on the depth of cooling of ancient lava. 

However, vesicle volume and size are slightly smaller 

than expected, probably because of re-solution of 

volatiles back into the melt as pressure increases. 

INTRODUCTION 

A short-lived submarine eruption occurred on 

February 24, 1877, within one mile of shore in 

Kealakekua Bay on the west side of the island of 

Hawaii (fig. 1). This activity followed a brief summit 

eruption of Mauna Loa on February 14, yet it occurred 

35 km west of the summit of the volcano in a region 

remote from any known rift zone. Most of the reports 

1Lamont-Doherty Geological Observatory of 

Columbia University, Palisades, N.Y. 10964 

about this eruption appear to be derived from an 

excellent. descriptive article which appeared in the 

February 28, 1877, issue of the Hawaiian Gazette 

published in Honolulu. The complete telCt of that 

article, written by a passenger of the interisland 

steamer Kilauea as it steamed into the bay on the 

morning of February 24, appears in the appendix. 

The eruption was first observed at 3 a.m. when 

red, green, and blue lights appeared about a mile 

offshore. Daylight disclosed steam and lava blocks at 

the water surface along a west-northwest-trending line 

that extended as far as 1.6 km offshore (fig. 2), where 

water depths were 37-110 m. The sea surface in the 

most active area appeared agitated as though boiling, 

and many blocks of solid lava as large as 60 em rose 

from below. The lava blocks floated readily while hot 

and emitted sulfurous gases, but they sank after 

cooling. Numerous fish were killed by the activity. A 

severe earthquake, felt during the night of the eruption, may have signaled movement on the Kealakekua 

fault (fig. 2) that allowed magma to enter subsidiary 

fractures and erupt on the sea floor. 

Submarine explorations since 1975 have located 

three vent areas inferred to be related to this 1877 

eruption, and samples of basaltic lava have been 

collected at these sites. The purpose of this paper is 

to describe these samples and to examine implications 

of their characteristics for (1) the extent and source of 

the 1877 eruption, (2) the relation of vesicularity to 

water depth, and (3) the relation of palagonitization 

rate to temperature. 

Acknowledgements.-Collection of samples from 

the submersible Makali'i was skillfully conducted by 

the Hawaii Undersea Research Laboratory (HURL) 

technical team; costs for both submersible and support 

ship were funded by NOAA's National Undersea 

Research Program at the University of Hawaii. 

Support for Fornari was provided by the Office of 

Naval Research contract N00014-80-0098Scmm to the 

Lamont-Doherty Geological Observatory. Lee Tepley 

collected samples by SCUBA diving off Palemano 

Point. William Loskutoff made modal analyses and 

vesicle measurements on basalt samples. Robert 

Tilling and Roy Bailey reviewed the manuscript. 'lbe 

help of these individuals and groups is appreciated. 

1 
Figure 1. The island of Hawaii and location of 

Kealakekua Bay. Dashed lines are boundaries 

between volcanoes. 

SUBMARINE GEOLOGY AT KEALAKEKUA BAY 

Fifteen submersible dives, utilizing the U.S. 

Navy's deep-diving submersible Sea Cliff were made 

off the west side of the island of Hawaii (fig. 1) in the 

summer of 1975. These dives fortuitously discovered 

several extremely young volcanic vents west of 

Kealakekua Bay at depths between 690 and 1050 m 

(Fornari and others, 1980). Because of this discovery 

and the historical documentation (appendix) of the 

submarine eruption inshore from this locality in 1877, 

a detailed bathymetric and acoustic survey was made 

of the Kealakekua Bay region in 1976 (Normark and 

others, 1978). Submersible navigation had been imprecise during the 1975 diving program, but better estimation of the position of bottom tracks and submarine 

vents became possible when the new bathymetry was 

available (See fig. 4 of Normark and others, 1978). On 

subsequent dives with Sea Cliff in 1979 and Turtle in 

1983 (D. J. Fornari, unpub. data) utilizing an improved 

navigation system, these relatively deep-water young 

vents and the lava flows which issued from them were 

more precisely located (fig. 2). 

During the summer of 1982 a SCUBA-diving 

program was undertaken inshore from these deepwater vents seeking any evidence of the reported 1877 

eruption. This work revealed a submarine lava delta 

offshore from the prehistoric Palemano Point lava 

flow (fig. 2) Observations were limited to depths less 

than 65 m, and no evidence of the submarine volcanic 

vent was found (Lee Tepley, written commun., 1982). 

During the summer of 1983, ten dives were made 

with the submersible Makali'i, a two-man vehicle with 

a depth limit of 380 m, operated by the Hawaii Undersea Research Laboratory (HURL). The position of the 

support ship was fixed during the dive program by 1

a 

radio navigation system (Motorola MiniRanger ) 

2 

utilizing two shore stations. Such ship-position determinations were made every few minutes and, combined 

with ranges and bearings from ship to submersible 

based ~n an acoustic navigation system (BooWestern ), provided locations of the submersible on 

the bottom generally accurate to within 50 m. 

Five of the Makali'i dives explored a terrace at 

150-m depth, whose outer edge proved to be a major 

submerged reef buil£4 of coralline limestone that 

yielded an average C age of 13,250 years B.P. 

(Moore and Fornari, 1984). The other five dives were 

inshore from the shelf break in the general area of the 

reported 1877 eruption and also to the north. No 

evidence of the 1877 eruptive vent was observed; we 

suspect this vent is now covered by drifting calcareous 

sand. These dives did, however, recover· two samples 

of rock, described herein, that we have determined to 

be 1877 lava. 

The two offshore vents and associated lava flows 

west of Kealakekua Bay (fig. 2A) have been observed, 

mapped, and sampled by submersibles • The location 

and extent of the shallower (eastern) of these vents 

were determined accurately during the diving 

programs in 1979 and 1983. The deeper (western) vent 

area remains known only from imprecisely navigated 

dives (Normark and others, 1978; Fornari and others, 

1980). The two deep vents and the 1877 shallow disturbed area are all aligned in an east-west zone that is 

generally parallel to, and 2 km south of, the surface 

trace of the Kealakekua fault (fig. 2A). The 

Kealakekua fault appears to form the northern boundary of a region that has undergone massive gravitational slumping (Normark and others, 1979). 

Presumably the dislocation zone of this slump margin 

is profound enough to have tapped the magma conduit 

system of Mauna Loa volcano and brought about these 

submarine eruptions a century ago. 

The eastern vent constructed a discontinuous low 

ridge of shelly pillow lava that interrupts the regional 

southwest-facing slope. This vent ridge is generally 

about 3-5 m high, and most of the lava that issued 

from it flowed southwest, down the regional slope; 

some lava, however, flowed northeast into a narrow 

trench that formed between the vent ridge and the 

regional slope. The well-pillowed lava flows that 

issued from these vents are increasingly cavernous and 

shelly toward the vent ridges (figs. 3 and 4 of Fornari 

and others, 1980). Samples of hollow, shelly pillows 

from near the crest of the vent ridges display wellpreserved spreading cracks, important in the formation 

of pillow crust (Moore and Lockwood, 1978). 

STUDIES OP BASALT SAMP~ 

Petrology 

Thirty-six lava samples, collected in 1983 by the 

submersible Makali'i, were compared with nine 

1 Any use of trade names and trademarks is for 

descriptive purposes only and does not constitute 

endorsement by the U.S. Geological Survey. 
66-1X 

0 1 

I 

63-2 

70-4 .65-1 ··63-3 

70-3·'2-5 68-6· .63-4 

70-2. 68-7 ~3-1 70-1 X • ~3-5 

lf-C 187 69-2• lf-.61-4 

2 KM 

I 

·68-3 

64-5 X 68-2. •61-3 

*68-1 

x62-2 £!s. ~ 64-2 A 8'2 

64-1.& 

~ 

0 

0 

B 

/ 

/ 

Figure z. Maps of Kealakekua Bay region. !!J Location of features associated with the 1877 eruption of Mauna 

Loa. Depth contours in meters. The shallow-water disturbed area of 1877 (dotted) is based on contemporary 

accounts (see appendix); the position of the eastern deep-water lava flows (solid line) has been refined as a result 

of the dives of 1979 and 1983; the western deep-water lava (dashed) remains poorly located. ~ Location of 

submarine and subaerial basaltic lava samples (see tables 1 and 2). Stars, 1877 basalt; squares, Cook Point flow; 

circled dots, Palemano Point flow; dots, Keei flow; triangles, picritic basalt; diamonds, hypersthene-bearing 

basalt; crosses, unassigned basalt. Unplotted samples 68-4, -5 and -8, and 69-3 and -4 are close to 61-4. Dashed 

lines on land bound major lava flows including the Cook Point, Keei, and Palemano Point flows. 

3 
samples collected on land and with two recovered by 

SCUBA divers from lavas that flowed into the sea 

(table 1). Most of the submersible-collected samples 

can be assigned to one of the following major lava 

flows: (1) Palemano Point lava flow, (2) Keei lava 

flow, (3) :::ook Point lava flow, (4) a submerged hypersthene-bearing porphyritic lava flow, (5) a submerged 

picritic lava flow, and (6) the 1877 lava flows. 

The Palemano Point pahoehoe lava flow crosses 

the coastline in the vicinity of Palemano Point. It 

contains many distinctive, elongate olivine phenocrysts 

as much as 2 mm long, as well as phenocrysts of 

plagioclase and subordinate clinopyroxene (fig. 3; table 

1). This lava is distinctive in containing abundant 

millimeter-size clots of clinopyroxene and plagioclase 

crystals. 

The Keei aa lava flow, which overlies the 

Palemano Point floV( on the north, is about one-half 

kilometer wide and can be traced more than a kilometer offshore, where it curves to the south. The 

petrology of this aa flow is similar to that of the 

Palemano Point flow, except that it is somewhat 

richer in both plagioclase and pyroxene phenocrysts 

(fig. 3). Below sea level the flow occurs as branching rounded lobes several meters wide and a meter or two 

high that are partly buried by carbonate sand. These 

flow lobes are fissured by deep, irregular breadcrustlike cracks. 

The Cook Point lava flow drapes the west end of 

the Kealakekua fault scarp on land and forms a 

distinct steep-fronted delta extending toward the 

south. The subaerial part of this delta forms a flat 

lobate pahoehoe plain, which was formerly occupied by 

Kaawaloa, the large native village where Captain Cook 

was killed near the shoreline in 1779. The Cook Point 

lava flow extends west to Keawekaheka Point, and the 

Cook Point delta has been traced about 0.5 km offshore to depths of about 180 m (fig. 2). The Cook 

Point lava flow is moderately rich in plagioclase (fig. 

3). 

Three samples of an olivine-rich lava flow were 

collected in the southern part of the study area. This 

picrite flow forms thin draperies that cover the face 

of the submerged reef and are consequently less than 

13,000 years old. The flow has not been identified on 

land, where it is apparently covered by the Palemano 

Point lava flow. 

Five samples were collected from a hypersthenebearing porphyritic lava flow that likewise drapes the 

coral-reef face near the middle of the study area, but 

this lava flow has also not been identified on land. 

Two samples of vesicular lava (61-4 and 68-1) 

were collected close to the reported area of the seasurface disturbance associated with the 1877 

eruption. Though from the outer part ot the Palemano 

Point lava delta, they are petrographically distinct 

from Palemano Point lava. In contrast to other major 

units of the dive area, these samples are notably rich 

in pyroxene phenocrysts (fig 3). The phenocrysts are 

orthopyroxene, commonly overgrown with a thin rim of 

clinopyroxene, and similar pyroxene phenocrysts occur 

in the pillow lavas collected farther offshore from the 

deep-water vents. Such orthopyroxene phenocrysts 

mantled by clinopyroxene are not common in Mauna 

Loa lavas. Their presence in the nearshore vesicular 

bloeks and also in lava associated with the deep-water 

4 

vents, suggests that both were erupted in the same 

volcanic episode. The nearshore vesicular blocks were 

found adjacent to the area reported to be active in 

1877, and we infer that these occurrences of lavas 

with mantled pyroxene were products of the 1877 

eruption. 

PLAGIOCLASE 

OLIVINE 

0 

0 

c . .. 

tl • 

. ~· 

• • • • .. . 

• 

• • • 

• • 

PYROXENE 

Figure 3. Modal proportions of phenocrysts in 

basalt samples from Kealakekua Bay region. Stars, 

1877 basalt; squares, Cook Point flow; circles, 

Palemano Point flow; dots, Keei flow; diamonds, 

hypersthene-bearing basalt. 

Vesiele eontent 

The vesicularity of lava erupted under water is 

related to the water depth. One of the shallowest 

sample sets of submarine basalt is that collected from 

the crest of the Reykjanes Ridge south of Iceland 

(Moore and Schilling, 1973). Those rocks become 

systematically less vesicular with increasing depth of 

eruption (fig. 4) because (1) the exsolved gas occupies 

a smaller volume at greater depth and pressure, and (2) 

less gas exsolves at greater depth because higher 

pressure inhibits exsolution. 

For subaerially erupted lava that has flowed into 

the sea, the relationship between vesicularity and the 

water depth at cooling defines an entirely different 

trend from that for suaqueously erupted lava. Subaerially erupted lava loses most of its volatiles by exsolution and bubbling while the lava is fountaining and 

flowing on the surface at one atmosphere of pressure. 

When a lava flow crosses the shoreline and descends 

below sea level, however, the pressure then increases 

one atmosphere for each 10 m of water depth, and the 

vesicles are increasingly compressed in accordance 

with Boyle's law. Samples from the submarine parts of 

the Palemano Point, Keei, Cook Point, and hypersthene-bearing basalt flows fall generally on the trend 
Table 1. Modal analyses of basalt samples from the Kealakekua Bay region 

[Sample number prefixes indicate: B, collected on land; S, collected by SCUBA diving; C, collected by 

submersible Sea Cliff; sample numbers beginning with a 6 or 7, collected by submersible t1akali'i (dive 

number is first two digits plus 100). Types of pyroxen~: +, orthopyroxene; *, orthopyroxene mantled 

by clinopyroxene; others all clinopyroxene] 

Sample Water Phenocrysts Vesicles Vesicles/rock Specific 

number depth (volume percent calculated vesicle-free} {volume percent} {volume ratio} gravity (m) Olivine Pyroxene Plagioclase Glass 

Lava of 1877 submarine eruption 

61-4 113 2.6 16.9* 4.4 76.1 50.1 l. 01 1. 94 

68-1 122 2.2 16. 9* 7.0 73.9 35.5 .55 2.28 

C187 691 3.3 7.1 * 5.0 84.6 11.1 .125 

C203 993 3.2 8.7* 6.1 82.0 4.7 .049 

C185 1017 3.8 9.2* 4.8 82.2 4.5 .047 2.75 

Palemano Point flow 

B-7 0 5.6 0.70 3.4 90.3 41.0 0.69 2.20 

B-8 0 5.7 1.0 3.5 89.9 40.2 .67 2.20 

B-9 0 6.3 .22 5.8 87.6 43.3 .76 1.85 

S-2 23 7.5 .84 4.6 87.0 9.2 .1 0 2.63 

S-1 38- 13.1 .75 5.6 81.0 3.8 .040 2. 77 

52 

63-4 41 8.6 3.7 10.0 77.7 3.9 .041 2.63 

63-3 42 9.7 3.3 9.4 77.5 5.3 .056 2.70 

63-5 46 8.1 . 7 8.9 82.3 4.3 .045 2. 72 

63-2 49 8.4 5.3 9.0 76.8 4.3 .045 2.72 

63-1 70 7.5 6.1 9.7 76.7 2.6 .027 2.67 

Keei flow 

68-7 85 8.2 2.5 13.1 76.3 2.4 0.025 2.82 

68-4 99 9.5 2.6 12.3 75.6 2.1 .021 2.84 

68-5 104 10.3 4.8 10.5 74.5 2.4 .024 2.74 

68-6 104 9.3 2.3 9.9 78.5 2.5 .025 2.80 

68-3 113 8.0 3.3 7.8 80.8 1.6 .017 2.84 

68-8 117 6.8 3.0 7.1 83.0 1.2 .012 2.82 

61-3 119 9.5 3.8 9.5 77.2 1.7 .017 2.66 

69-4 123 7.3 4.8 10.3 77.5 2.0 .021 2.86 

68-2 125 7.2 3.4 8.4 80.5 1.5 .016 2.83 

69-2 130 7.3 3.0 7.6 R2 .1 1.4 .014 2.85 

Cook Point flow 

B-1 0 4.2 2.8 6.5 86.5 41.7 0.72 2.26 

B-2 0 3.2 6.9 9.7 94.1 41.4 . 71 2.18 

B-3 0 3.7 2.6 8.5 85.2 32.2 .48 2.23 

B-4 0 4.0 5.9 12.7 77.3 31.0 .45 2.46 

B-5 0 2.1 11.9 14.1 71.9 40.1 .67 2.36 

B-6 0 4.0 5.0 9.8 80.4 29.5 .42 2.27 

67-4 79 5.5 7.3 10.3 75.0 1.4 .014 2.79 

67-3 81 5.5 7.2 13.4 71.6 2.2 .022 2.77 

67-5 85 6.0 7.0 12.7 72.9 1.2 .012 2.74 

Picritic (olivine-rich} flow 

62-1 180 18.3 1.9 0.52 79.3 2.1 0.021 2.85 

64-1 346 22.2 .81 4.5 76.6 3.0 .031 2.91 

64-2 369 23.2 .41 0 76.4 2.0 .021 2.89 

Hypersthene-rich flow 

65-1 130 0.5 l.l+ 3.0 95.4 1.6 0.017 2.79 

70-4 130 .78 2.8+ 6.7 89.7 2.1 .022 2.82 

70-3 137 .44 3.3+ 8.0 88.2 1.5 .015 2.83 

62-5 207 l.l 2.0+ 4.6 92.3 .16 .0016 2.85 

70-2 262 1.1 3.9+ 9.5 85.5 .9 .0094 2.80 

Unassigned flows 

65-3 178 3.0 8.0 12.2 76.8 1.6 0.016 2.85 

62-2 186 7.4 3.9 10.4 78.3 15.8 .19 2.50 

66-1 .227 7.5 3.3 5.1 84.1 2.0 .020 2.83 

70-1 319 1.3 7.8 10.1 80.7 1.5 .015 2.85 

64-5 365 1.3 3.0 7.8 87.9 .4 .0039 

5 
expected for subaerially degassed lavas subjected to 

increasing submarine pressure. The vesicularity of 

these lavas is only about one-fortieth that of subaqueously erupted lavas quenched at the same depth (fig. 4). 

As expected, the samples from the deep offshore 

vents fall on the curve for subaqueously erupted lava. 

The two petrographically similar shallow samples, 

collected from depths of 113 and 122 m near the 1877 

disturbed area, also fall on this curve. Their vesicularity therefore supports our interpretation that these 

shallow samples were erupted from a submarine vent, 

most likely in 1877. 

Examination of the vesicularity-depth variation 

indicates that Boyle's-law compression of vesicles is 

largely responsible for lower vesicularity with 

increasing depth. However, the available data show a 

tendency toward an even lower proportion of vesicles 

with increasing depth than would be predicted from 

Boyle's law (fig. 4). The same tendency is apparent in 

vesicle size. About 30 vesicles were measured in each 

sample, and the median diameter was plotted against 

depth (or pressure). The median vesicle diameter 

shows a greater decrease with depth than would be 

expected from the pressure effect alone (fig. 5). We 

suspect that the gas within the vesicles was not only 

compressed with increasing pressure, but also was 

redissolved back into the basalt melt. 

This variation in vesicularity with de;>th may have 

utility as a gauge of the depth of cooling of subaerially 

erupted submarine lavas. Subaerially erupted lavas 

can be distinguished from lavas erupted under the sea 

by their low sulfur content (see table 2). The water 

depth at cooling could be estimated with some confidence if the slope and position of the depthvesicularity curve could be determined by measurement of several samples from the same flow. Such 

estimates would only be feasible to a depth of about 

200 m, however, because of the rapid decrease of 

vesicularity with depth (fig. 4). 

Chemistry 

Electron microprobe analyses of glass in four 

samples of lava from the deep-water vents and two 

samples of vesicular lava from the shallow-water area 

associated with the reported 1877 eruption are shown 

in table 2. The analyses indicate that these glasses are 

virtually identical and represent material from the 

same eruption. For comparison, glass from the Cook 

Point lava flow was also analyzed by microprobe; it is 

chemically distinct, especially in its higher Ti02 and 

K2o contents (table 2). 

The sulfur content of glass from the deep-water 

1877 vents (table 2) averages about 0.12 percent, in 

good agreement with the normal sulfur content of 

undegassed submarine lava (Moore and Schilling, 

1973). The glass from the shallow 1877 vent area 

(depths 113-122 m) averages about 0.042 percent 

sulfur, and it has therefore lost, relative to the deep 

lava, more than half the sulfur during shallow submarine venting. The high vesicularity of these samples 

and the reported odor of sulfur during the 1877 

activity attest to the loss of sulfur.. Glass from the 

Cook Point subaerially erupted lava that flowed into 

6 

1000 

600 

400 

~ 200 

I 

:;:: 100 w 

0 

z 60 <( 

w 

(.) 

0 

0 0 • 

00 

0 0 0

:

0 o:D-.. : ;o 0 0 0 °-

0 0.01 0.1 

VESICLES/ROCK (Volume ratio) 

Figure 4. Vesicularity of subaerially erupted and 

subaqueously erupted basaltic lava samples as a 

function of depth of collection (see table 1). Lava 

flows that were erupted on land and flowed into the 

sea are on lower left: large dots, Keei flow; squares, 

Cook Point flow; diamonds, hypersthene-bearing 

basalt. Lavas erupted from submarine vents are on 

upper right: stars, Kealakekua Bay 1877 submarine 

vents; small dots, Reykjanes Ridge (Moore and 

Schilling, 1973). Lava collected above sea level is 

plotted at zero depth. Solid line is estimated data 

trend line; dashed line indicates calculated Boyle's 

law slope. 

190 r--

::iE 

::I: 90 r--

1-

Q. 

w 

c 

z 

< 40 r-- w 

u 

0 

10 r0 

I \I I I 

\ 

\ -

•• \ 

·~ •• -

• \ 

, .. -

\ • • \ 

\ -

\ 

\ 

I I I \.-. I .. 0.05 0.1 0.2 0.5 

MEDIAN VESICLE -DIAMETER, MM 

20 

10 

C/) 

a: 

< 5 a:a 

0: 

2 

Figure S. Median diameter of vesicles in lava samples 

(plotted on logarithmic scale) as a function of depth of 

collection and ambient pressure. Dashed line indicates 

calculated Boyle's law slope. 
Table z. Microprobe analyses of glass from submarine lavas, Kealakekua Bay 

[All figures in weight percent] 

Submarine eruption of 1877 Cook 

Deep vents 

Sample--- Cl85 C187 C203-l 

Na 20----- 2.42 2.45 2.38 

MgO------ 5.75 5.48 5. 77 

Al703---- 13.26 13.64 13.74 

Si02----- 52.21 52.10 52.15 

P20s----- 0.29 0.30 0.33 

s--------- 0.12 0.10 0.12 

K20------ 0.47 0.47 0.45 

cao------ 10.12 9.99 10.13 

Ti02----- 2.50 2.50 2.45 

NnO------ 0.20 0.21 0.19 

FeO------ 11.83 12.14 11.76 

Total--- 99.34 99.54 99.66 

the sea contains 0.016 percent sulfur and is typical of 

degassed subaerial lavas (Fornari and others, 1979). 

Palagonitization rates 

Palagonite is an alteration product of basaltic 

glass (sideromelane) that replaces the glass inward 

from a surface exposed to water or air. Palagonitization is primarily a hydration process in which most of 

the elements in the glass are partly replaced by 

water. Ti02 and FeO are apparently the principal 

major elements not removed and hence are passively 

enriched during removal of the remaining cations 

(Staudigel and Hart, 1983). The rate of palagonitization of basalt, like that of the hydration of rhyolitic 

glass or obsidian (Friedman and Smith, 1960), is dependent on the ambient temperature. Estimates of the 

palagonitization rate at different temperatures are 

available from laboratory experiments and from 

measurements of palagonite thicknesses on historical 

lava flows and on lavas dated by other means. 

Basaltic glass (Moore, 1965, table 2, sample 6) was 

crushed, screened to a size range of 0.5-1 mm, and 

immersed in sea water held close to 100 °C in a steam 

bath for one year. Palagonite rims 3-6llm thick are 

visible on the glass clasts in thin sections of this 

material, indicating that the palagonitization rate at 

100 °C is 3-6l-tm per year. 

In another experiment, artificial basaltic glass of 

various compositions, made by melting and quenching 

basalt samples in a furnace, was cast into disks that 

were immersed in water at known temperatures for 

various lengths of time (Fumas, 1975). Measurements 

of the thickness of palagonite visible in thin sections 

of these disks indicate palagonitization rates much 

higher than those found by other workers. Perhaps this 

anomaly results from the use of remelted and 

artifically quenched samples. 

Point 

Shallow vent area flow 

C203-2 61-4 68-1 67-4 

2.43 2.51 2.49 2.52 

5. 72 5.58 5.51 5.31 

13.47 13.10 13.32 12.90 

51.52 53.09 52.23 52.15 

0.31 0.33 0.30 0.39 

0.12 0.040 0.044 0.016 

0.46 0.48 0.47 0.58 

10.21 9.92 10.00 9.86 

2.44 2.51 2.52 2. 72 

0.19 0.19 0.19 0.20 

11.81 11.96 12.13 12.09 

98.87 99.76 99.28 98.76 

The oldest historical subaqueous lava flow 

sampled in connection with this problem is the basalt 

flow that flowed into Lake Motosu on the flank of Mt. 

Fuji, Japan, in 864 A.D. (Moore, 1966). The measured 

summer temperature of the water at 9-m depth, at the 

site of sample collection by divers, was 17.5 °C. The 

estimated year-round average temperature in this 

lake, which is frozen several months per year, is 

10±5 °C. Palagonite rims measured in 1965, after 

1101 years, are 7-9 l-Im thick. The apparent rate of 

palagonitization is 0.0064-0.0082l!m per year. 

The 1381 lava flow of Mount Etna volcano in 

eastern Sicily flowed 8 km into the Ionian Sea north of 

Catania. This alkali basalt lava flow was sampled by 

divers in 1970 (Moore and others, 1971). The average 

temperature of near-surface waters at the site of 

collection is 23-24 °C. Measured palagonite thickness 

after 589 years is 9-16 ll m, indicating a rate of 0.015-

0.027 l-Im per year (table 3). 

Samples from four historical lava flows of known 

age have been collected by SCUBA divers offshore the 

island of Hawaii. These lava flows were erupted 

subaerially from Hualalai and Mauna Loa volcanoes 

and subsequently flowed into the sea. The palagonite 

rimming the glass crust was measured in thin sections 

cut perpendicular to the outer lava surface and shows 

a linear increase in thickness with age for samples 

from similar water depths (table 3). This demonstrates 

that the rate of hydration of basaltic glass, at constant 

temperature, is directly proportional to time, as 

suggested by Morgenstein and Riley (1975), and is not 

proportional to the square root of time, as is the 

hydration rate of rhyolitic glass (Friedman and Smith, 

1960). The measured rate of palagonitization in 

Hawaiian marine waters at depths of 10-35 m and 

temperatures of 25-26 °c is 0.07±0.01 JJm per year (fig. 

6). 

A 150-m-deep drill hole on the island of Surtsey, 

7 
Table 3. Palagonite on historical lava flows 

Year Water Year Age Temperature Palagonite 

Volcano of depth collected (years) (oC) thickness 

eruption (m) (Jlm) 

Surtsey 1963 0 

Mauna Loa 1919 23 

1887 21 

1877 113-

122 

691-

1017 

1868 23 

Hualalai 1801 24-

38 

Etna 1381 12 

Fuji 864 10 

south of Iceland, recovered glassy tephra that was 

examined for palagonite thickness (Jakobsson and 

Moore, 1982). Much of the 1963-64 tephra composing 

the island remains at elevated temperatures, and 

steam rising from numerous cracks on the surface 

suggests that parts of the tephra above sea level are 

now (and probably have been since formation of the 

volcano) maintained at a temperature of 100 °C. 

Measurements on samples of the drill core above sea 

level show that the palagonite thickness varies, but for 

a considerable volume of tephra the maximum thickness is 30].lm. Consequently, that part of the drill-core 

tephra that has the maximum palagonite thickness is 

believed to have been subjected for its entire life of 

15.4 years to steam at 100 °C. The palagonitization 

rate for Surtsey tephra at 100 °C is therefore 

estimated to be 1.9 lim per year table 3). 

The search for a method of dating archeological 

material led Morgenstein and Riley (1975) to explore 

the subaerial palagonitization rate of basaltic glass in 

artifacts from ancient Hawaiian living sites. They 

calibratea their system by measurements on glass from 

historical subaerial lava flows and found that at 24 °C 

the palagonite formed at a constant rate of 0.012 11m 

per year. They also reported rates of 0.0073 Jl m per 

year at 17 °C and 0.0029 Jlm per year at 5 °C. This last 

rate is nearly identical with the 3 mm per thousand 

years determined by fission-track dating of young 

submarine basalts of the mid-Atlantic ridge (Hekinian 

and Hoffert, 1975). 

Measurements of palagonite rims on 1877 lava 

samples show a dramatic difference between the 

shallow and deep lavas. Lava collected from shallow 

depths nearshore has palagonite thicknesses of 4-9llm 

(rate: 0.04-0.09 11m per year), and that collected from 

depths of 700-1,000 m has palagonite thicknesses of 

about 0.5-lllm (rate: 0.005-0.0111 m per year). Since 

the basaltic glass from which the palagonite is forming 

by hydration is virtually identical in composition 

among the different samples (table 2), we attribute the 

8 

1979 15.4 100 30 

1969 so 25 3-

5 

1969 82 25 5-

6.5 

1983 106 23- 4-

24 9 

1983 106 4- 0.5-

6 1 

1969 101 25 5.4-

8.5 

1969 168 25 11-

14.5 

1970 589 23- 9-

24 16 

1965 1101 5- 7-

15 9 

variation in alteration rate to differences in water 

temperature. The surface temperature of the sea at 

this latitude is generally between 25 and 26 °C (fig. 

7). This surface temperature prevails to depths of 

about 100 m, below which the temperature decreases 

to about 4-5 °C at depths of about 1,000 m. The 

ambient water temperature at the collection site of 

the shallow samples is about 23-24 °C and that of the 

deep ones about 4-6 °C. The thickness of palagonite 

(and hence the rate of palagonitization) increases by 

an order of magnitude for this 20-°C increase in 

temperature. Apparently an Arrhenius-type increase 

in the rate of palagonite formation occurs as water 

temperature increases. 

Comparison of the available data on palagonitization rates (table 3) indicates a strong temperature 

dependence for the palagonitization process (fig. 6). 

100 

80 

40 

20 

I I 

MT ETN~\· HAWA\ .... ·. 

..··a=== • ~. . . 

.. ··A LAKE .. ·· 

·I • 

SURTS~Y~D ==r'. · .. :.... ·· 1 YRI .· .· LAB .. ·· 

-

-

-

-

_ .. · u:MOTOS~.·· 

oL_~_o __ • __ ~f~~··_··-----~~------~~~------~ 0.001 0.01 0.1 1.0 10 

Palagonitization rate, pm/yr 

YJ.gUre 6. Rate of palagonitization of subaqueous 

basaltic glass as a function of water temperature. 

Stars, 1877 basalt in Kealakekua Bay; circles, data 

from Morgenstein and Riley (1975); other data are 

discussed in the text. 
The data show considerable scatter, and at present it 

is possible only to define the palagonitization rate at a 

given temperature to within about one order of magnitude. The rate increases by a factor of about 1.8 for 

each temperature increase of 10 °C or by a factor of 

360 for each increase of 100 °C. The palagonitizaton 

rate at 4-5 °c, the general temperature of the deep 

ocean, including the sites of most spreading-ridge 

lavas, is probably in the range G.003-0.03 J1 m per 

year. A simple extrapolation of the trend in figure 6 

suggests that the rate of galagonitization would be 

2.7-27 mm per year at 200 c, and 100-1,000 mm per 

year (or 0.27-2.7 mm per day) at 300 °C. Basalt glass 

subjected to the high temperatures of submarine hot 

springs would be completely hydrated in a matter of 

days. 

CONCLUSIONS 

Vesicular lava blocks collected about 1 km offshore at shallow depths (113-122 m) in Kealakekua Bay 

prove to be identical in petrology and chemistry to 

dense lava from submarine vents 3-~ km offshore. At 

both locations these basaltic rocks are believed to be 

from the 1877 submarine eruption of Mauna Loa for 

the following reasons: 

1. The shallow vesicular blocks were found only in 

the general region of the bay reported to be affected 

by the 1877 eruption, in which vesicular blocks similar 

to those found were seen at the sea surface. 

2. The vesicular blocks are distinct in chemistry 

and petrology from the dominant submarine lava in the 

same region, which is the submarine extension of a 

large lava flow on land. 

3. The high vesicularity and moderate sulfur 

content of the vesicular blocks are consistent with 

eruption at the depth where the blocks were found. 

4. The palagoni te thickness on the vesicular 

blocks, when compared with that on the submarine 

extensions of various historical lava flows, is consistent with eruption in 1877. 

Studies of lava samples from the 1877 eruption, 

together with those of other nearby lava flows, have 

led to the following conclusions: 

1. Although the 1877 vents are not on any known 

rift zone of Mauna Loa volcano, their location suggests 

that they are related to the Kealakekua fault, which 

apparently bounds the north side of a large slump 

structure on the west flank of the volcano. Tensional 

fractures associated with this fault may have 

intersected the plumbing system of Mauna Loa, 

permitting the eruption of submarine lava in 1877. 

2. The vesicularity change which occurs when a 

subaerially erupted lava flow crosses the shoreline and 

flows into progressively greater water depths has been 

measured and can provide information on the depth of 

cooling of similar ancient lava flows. The proportions 

of vesicles and glass and the diameter of the vesicles 

both decrease with increase in pressure (and water 

depth); the decrease is generally consistent with 

Boyle's law. However, the total volume of vesicles and 

their sizes are slightly smaller at increasing depth than 

would be expected, probably because of re-solution of 

volatiles back into the melt as pressure increases. 

3. Because the 1877 eruptive vents occurred at 

different depths and hence · ditferent ambient water 

temperatures, new data are available on the temperature-dependence of the rate of palagonitization. The 

rate increases by a factor of about 1.8 for everY 

increase of 10 °C in temperature. The rate at 4-5 °C 

(the prevailing temperature at the deep ocean floor) is 

0.003 to 0.03pm per year, and the extrapolated rate at 

300 °C (the temperature of some deep-sea hot springs) 

is 0.27-2.7 mm per day, or about 90,000 times as 

great. 

200 

~ 

r."' 400 ..... 

0.. 

UJ 

Q 600 

z 

< 

w 

0800 

0 

0 10 0 20 

T, C 

Figure 1. Gradient of ocean temperature with 

water depth off west Hawaii. Solid line, average of 

five bathythermograph profiles on Kohala terrace 

(Campbell and Erlandson, 1979); dashed line, 

measurements from submersible Sea Cliff on a dive 

west of Napoopoo, Kealakekua Bay (see fig. ZA). 

REFERENCES CITED 

Campbell, J.F., and Erlandson, D., 1979, OTEC-1 

anchor site survey: Hawaii Institute of 

Geophysics, Report HIG-79-6, 55 P• 

Fornari, D.J., Lockwood, J. P., Lipman, P.W., Rawson, 

M., and Malahoff, A. 1980, Submarine volcanic 

features west of Kealakekua Bay, Hawaii: Journal 

of Volcanology and Geothermal Research, v. 7, P• 

3Z3-337. 

Fornari, D.J., Moore, J.G., and Calk, Lewis, 1979, A 

large submarine sand-rubble flow on Kilauea 

volcano, Hawaii: Journal of Volcanology and 

Geothermal Research, v.5, p. Z39-Z56. 

Friedman, LL, and Smith, R.L., 1960, A new dating 

method using obsidian; Part L The development of 

the method: American Antiquity, v. Z5, P• 476-

5ZZ. 

Furnes, H., 1975, Experimental palagonitization of 

basaltic glasses of varied composition: Contributions to Mineralogy and Petrology, v. 50, p. lOS113. 

Jakobsson, S.P., and Moore, J.G., 198Z, The Surtsey 

9 
research drilling project of 1979: Surtsey 

Research Progress Report 9, p. 76-93. 

Hekinian, R., and Hoffert, M., 1975, Rate of 

palagonitization and manganese coating on 

basaltic rocks from the rift valley in the Atlantic 

Ocean near 36 °50' North: Marine Geology, v. 19, 

p. 91-109. 

Moore, J.G., 1965, Petrology of deep-sea basalt near 

Hawaii: American Journal· of Science, v. Z63, p. 

40-SZ. 

-----1966, Rate of palagonitization of submarine 

basalt adjacent to Hawaii: U.S. Geological Survey 

Professional Paper 550-D, p. D163-D171. 

Moore, J.G., Christofolini, R., and Lo Giudice, A., 

1971, Development of pillows on the submarine 

extension of recent lava flows, Mount Etna, Sicily: 

U.S. Geological Survey Professional Paper 7 50-C, 

P• C89-C97. 

Moore, J.G., and Fornari, D.J., 1984, Drowned reefs as 

indicators of the rate of subsidence of the island 

of Hawaii: Journal of Geology, v. 9Z, p. 75Z-759. 

Moore, J.G., and Lockwood, J.P., 1978, Spreading 

cracks on pillow lava: Journal of Geology, v. 86, 

p. 661-671. 

Moore, J.G., and Schilling, J.G., 1973, Vesicles, water, 

and sulfur in Reykjanes Ridge basalts: Contributions to Mineralogy and Petrology, v. 41, p. 105-

118. 

Morgenstein, M., and Riley, T.J., 1975, Hydration-rind 

dating of basaltic glass; a new method for 

archaeological chronologies: Asian Perspectives, 

v. 17, no. Z, p. 145-158. 

Normark, W.R., Lipman, P. W., Lockwood, J.P., and 

Moore, J.G., 1978, Bathymetric and geologic maps 

of Kealakekua Bay, Hawaii: U.S. Geological 

Survey Miscellaneous Field Studies Map MF-986, 

scale 1:10,000, 1:ZO,OOO. 

Normark, W.R., Lipman, P. W., and Moore, J.G., 1979, 

Regional slump structures on the west flank of 

Mauna Loa volcano, Hawaii: Hawaii Symposium on 

Intraplate Volcanism and Submarine Volcanism, 

Hilo, Hawaii, July 16-Z2, 1979. 

Staudigel, Hubert, and Hart, S.R., 1983, Alteration of 

basaltic glass; mechanisms and significance for 

the oceanic crust-seawater budget: Geochimica et 

Cosmochimica Acta, v. 47, p. 337-350. 

APPENDIX-FROM THE HAWAIIAN GAZETTE, 

FEBRUARY 28, 1877 

From the Volcano! A new and remarkable VOLCANIC 

OUTBREAK! in Kealakeakua Bay! 

The Steamer Kilauea, which left this port on 

Tuesday of last week for the scene of the eruption on 

Hawaii, returned on Monday morning, having 

proceeded as far as Kau, which point she left on Friday 

evening, nothing being visible of the summit eruption, 

which occurred on the 14th, and which lasted only six 

hours. Returning from Kau, we reached Kealakeakua 

Bay, on Saturday morning, Feb. 24, where a most 

singular outbreak was found to have taken place, being 

nothing less than a SUBMARINE VOLCANO, near the 

entrance of the harbor. On approaching the scene of 

action, three canoes were observed cruising around the 

10 

crater, in which were Judge Hoapili, Hon. Simon Kaai, 

and others, who were attracted thither by the reports 

which had spread rapidly over the country. 

As the steamer approached nearer, columns 

of smoke or steam were seen rising from the surface 

of the sea, resembling the spouting of a school of 

whales, and numerous pieces of lava were floating 

about. A boat was immediately despatched to the 

scene, which returned with specimens of the floating 

lava, which have been brought to Honolulu, and can be 

seen at our office. 

The natives report that the eruption was first 

observed in the sea, at three o'clock on the morning of 

the 24th, about a mile from shore, and it appeared like 

innumerable red, blue and green lights. Some thought 

these were the steamer's lights-only they were so 

numerous as to excite some consternation. Morning 

disclosed the fact that a new volcano had broken out, 

and that it was the cause of the strange illumination 

seen during the night. 

Those who are acquainted with Kealakeakua 

Bay, will recollect that Keei Point forms its southern 

shore. The volcano appears to consist of a sub-marine 

rupture, running in a straight line out to sea, steam 

and lava rising as far out as one mile from the point. 

The depth of water here has been from twenty to sixty 

fathoms, and the new volcano lies directly across the 

track of vessels bound south from the bay. The course 

of this land and submarine ground rent is about W .N. W. 

by E.S.E. 

In the afternoon of the 24th, three boats from 

the steamer visited the scene of the eruption, cruised 

directly over the most active part, where the water 

was in a state of peculiar activity, boiling and 

appearing as if passing over rapids, or very much like 

the water at Hellgate, New York. While the boats 

were in this position, blocks of lava, two feet square, 

came up from below, frequently striking and jarring 

the boats. In one minute, we counted no less than six 

of these stones hitting the boat. Yet as the lava was 

quite soft, no harm was done. Nearly all the pieces, on 

reaching the surface were red hot, emitting steam and 

gas, strongly sulphurous. A fine block of this has been 

secured for the Museum. 

At one time the surface of the sea was 

covered with several hundred pieces of this lava; but 

we observed that as soon as they became cold they 

sank, as rapidly as they had risen. Several were taken 

into the boats, perfectly incandescent and so molten in 

the interior, that the lava could be stirred with a stick, 

like pudding, the water having penetrated not more 

than an inch from the surface. 

A rumbling noise was heard, like that of rocks 

in a freshet, caused no doubt by the eruption of lava 

from the submarine crater, which is supposed to be a 

crack or line of rupture extending at least a mile from 

the shore. Another rupture, doubtless a continuation 

of the submarine fissure, was traced inland from the 

shore nearly three miles, varying in width from a few 

inches to three feet. In some places the water was 

seen pouring down the opening into the abyss belowfood for the fiery element. 

A severe earthquake shock was felt, by those 

living at Kaawaloa and Keei during the night of the 

eruption, which must have preceded the outbreak. It 
was quite severe, but no damage is reported. 

The lava thrown up from the new volcano is 

quite porous, brittle and light, similar to what is 

frequently emitted at the commencement of these 

eruptions, called by Hawaiians aa. When hot and 

burning, it floats readily, sustained on the surface 

partly by the gases, which give a strong sulphurous 

smell to the vicinity. When cold and saturated with 

water, it sinks to the bottom. It is probable that only 

the very lightest lava reaches the surface, while most 

of it remains at the bottom, the water here varying 

from ten to fifty fathoms in depth. Some of this lava 

consists of what is known as "Pele's hair," and when 

first taken out is red hot, and yet preserves its 

peculiar characteristics. This singular volcanic glass 

has always been supposed to be formed by the wind 

blowing the floating lava as it rises from the crater, 

and causing it to spin out. How it gets down under 

Kona is a question for scientists to solve. 

Numerous fishes were killed by the action of 

the volcano, and were picked up on the surface by 

natives cruising around the spot in their canoes. 

The foreigners residing on the hill at 

Kealakeakua watched this singular eruption with 

glasses, but so far as we could learn it was not visited 

by boats until after the passengers by the steamer had 

done so. 

What is most singular in this connection, is 

the fact that no volcanic eruption has been known to 

have occurred in the Kona district of Hawaii, during 

the residence of foreigners there, or within the last 

hundred years. The active fires and flows were 

supposed to be confined to the summit crater of 

Mokuaweoweo, and to the districts of Puna and Kau. 

The present outbreak indicates that the internal fires 

are again at work undermining the earth crust below 

Kona, though it is to be hoped that there will be no 

further outbreak. How long this eruption will continue 

in action, no one can tell; but it is highly probable that 

the volcano will soon burst out again, either near this 

spot or somewhere else on the islands of Hawaii. 

It is quite probable that H.B.M's Ship 

Fantome, Captain Long, will visit Kealakekua Bay 

during the present week, and if so will make 

investigations regarding this eruption which will be of 

public interest. 

In conclusion, we cannot avoid remarking that 

our visits to Pele's domains have been exceedingly 

fortunate and well timed; or else that she is very 

partial to editors who volunteer to visit her solely to 

see and describe her pyrotechnic displays. Four times 

we have been thus singularly favored - once in 1859; 

then in 1865, when the eruption lasted only four days, 

and we were among the few who saw it; again in 1872, 

when we visited the summit crater of Mokuaweoweo, 

and witnessed it in all its glory; and lastly the present 

most remarkable submarine eruption, the first of the 

kind recorded in Hawaiian history. 

Among those who visited the submarine 

crater, in the steamer's boats, were His Lordship 

Bishop Willis, A. S. Cleghorn, H. M. Whitney, W. W. 

Hall, W. Wilder, S. Myers of California, John M. 

Sheldon, A. Moot of Canada, Engineer Campbell, and 

several officers of the steamer Kilauea. 

11 
GPO 587-044/100l9