i

International Space Station 

Benefits for Humanity

2nd Edition

This book was developed collaboratively by the members of 

the International Space Station Program Science Forum, which 

includes the National Aeronautics and Space Administration 

(NASA), Canadian Space Agency (CSA), European Space Agency 

(ESA), Japan Aerospace Exploration Agency (JAXA), Russian 

Federal Space Agency (Roscosmos), and the Italian Space 

Agency (ASI).

NP-2015-01-001-JSC
ii

Acknowledgements

A Product of the ISS Program Science Forum

National Aeronautics and Space Administration:

Julie Robinson, Pete Hasbrook, Amelia Rai, Tara Ruttley, 

Camille Alleyne, Cynthia Evans, William Stefanov, Michael Read, 

Kirt Costello, David Hornyak, Tracy Thumm, Susan Anderson, 

Joshua Byerly, Joshua Buck

Canadian Space Agency:

Nicole Buckley, Luchino Cohen, Ruth Ann Chicoine, 

Christine Giguère

European Space Agency:

Martin Zell, Eric Istasse, Jason Hatton, Jennifer Ngo-Anh, 

Nigel Savage, Jon Weems

Japan Aerospace Exploration Agency:

Shigeki Kamigaichi, Kazuyuki Tasaki, Sayaka Umemura, 

Koki Oikawa, Hideyuki Watanabe, Nobuyoshi Fujimoto, 

Masato Koyama, Yayoi Miyagawa, Tatsuya Aiba, 

Shiho Ogawa, Toshitami Ikeda

Russian Federal Space Agency:

Georgy Karabadzhak, Elena Lavrenko, Igor Sorokin, 

Natalya Zhukova, Nataliya Biryukova, Mark Belakovskiy, 

Anna Kussmaul

Italian Space Agency:

Salvatore Pignataro, Jean Sabbagh, Germana Galoforo

Executive Editor:

Julie Robinson, NASA 

Managing Editor:

Amelia Rai, NASA

Section Editors:

Camille Alleyne, Kirt Costello, David Hornyak, 

Michael Read, Tara Ruttley, William Stefanov; NASA

Technical Editor:

Neesha Hosein, DB Consulting Group, Inc.

Graphic Designer:

Cynthia Bush, DB Consulting Group, Inc.
iii

About the Cover Art

Several themes are integrated into the cover art for this 2nd International Space Station

Benefits for Humanity. The most central theme is that of “bringing light to the darkness,” 

as indicated by the predominantly nighttime view of Earth, with both the station crew and 

the populace over which it soars on the verge of experiencing a new dawn. The Earth view 

chosen includes some of the most underdeveloped regions on the planet; home to people 

whose lives stand to gain the greatest enrichment from the groundbreaking research being 

conducted high overhead. 

The double-headed arrow, which can be interpreted to be a stylized representation of the 

space station’s orbital flight path, is also the visual centerpiece for two of the remaining 

themes. The double arrow points both behind the station—back toward Earth, and 

ahead of the station—forward past the Earth, to the moon, Mars, and to far more distant 

destinations. This highlights the dual charter of station research to improve life on Earth 

and to lay the technological groundwork for human expansion beyond low-Earth orbit. 

The arrow’s color shift from silver to gold represents the third theme: “Invest silver, get 

back gold.” This theme pays homage to the manifold benefits of knowledge realized 

through international investment in the space station. It also celebrates “gold” of another 

kind, the enrichment of life on Earth that is the subject of this volume. These benefits for 

humanity are represented by five gold medallions, each signifying a major area of emphasis: 

Human Health, Earth Observation and Disaster Response, Innovative Technology, Global 

Education, and Economic Development of Space.

The final theme is also the most subtle. Although this is a publication coordinated by 

NASA, the NASA logo is absent from the front cover, in deference to the fact that the 

benefits chronicled herein are a result, not of any single nation’s efforts, nor those of one 

nation above others, but of unprecedented international partnership and cooperation. 

This is a benefit for humanity in and of itself, one which promises incalculable rewards 

not only in such tangibles as heightened international commerce, but perhaps most 

importantly, in greater cross-cultural understanding and tolerance, the very foundation 

for humanity’s future. 

Michael C. Jansen

December 2014

Human 

Health

Earth 

Observation 

and Disaster 

Response

Economic 

Development 

of Space

Global 

Education

Innovative 

Technology
iv

Book Highlights

Robotic arms lend a healing touch

The world’s first robotic technology capable of performing surgery inside magnetic 

resonance machines makes difficult surgeries easier or impossible surgeries possible. 

Page 3

Bringing space station ultrasound to the ends of the Earth

Small ultrasound units, tele-medicine and remote guidance 

techniques make medical care more accessible in remote regions.

Page 8

Advanced ISS technology supports water purification efforts worldwide 

At-risk areas can gain access to advanced water filtration and purification systems 

affording them clean drinking water. 

Page 65

TomatosphereTM: Sowing the seeds of discovery through student science

This award-winning educational project with an estimated 3 million students participating 

is helping researchers answer questions about growing food in space while teaching 

students about science, agriculture and nutrition.

Page 94

Calling cosmonauts from home

Currently aboard the Russian segment of the station are four space 

investigations that have educational components to inspire future 

generations of scientists, technologists, engineers and mathematicians.

Page 104

Commercialization of low-Earth orbit (LEO)

Forward-thinking, agile companies like NanoRacks and UrtheCast believe routine utilization 

of the unique environment of outer space has come of age, and that at long last ISS is open 

for business.

Page 112

Space mice teach us about muscle and bone loss

Biotech and pharmaceutical companies like Amgen use spaceflight to study their 

drugs and do preclinical work important for FDA approval.

Page 129

Improved eye surgery with space hardware

An eye-tracking device allows the tracking of eye position without interfering 

with a surgeon’s work during corrective laser eye surgery.

Page 6 

Earth remote sensing from the space station

ISS contributes to humanity by collecting data on global climate, environmental 

change, and natural hazards using its unique complement of crew-operated 

and automated Earth observation payloads.

Page 51

High-quality protein crystal growth experiment aboard Kibo

Protein crystal growth experiments contribute to the development of medical 

treatments. JAXA is making positive advancements in research on obstinate 

diseases through experiments in space.

Page 23
v

Acknowledgments..........................................................................................................ii

About the Cover Art ...................................................................................................... iii

Book Highlights .............................................................................................................iv

Executive Summary.......................................................................................................ix

Introduction.................................................................................................................... x

Human Health

Health Technology..................................................................................................................................... 3

Robotic arms lend a healing touch ............................................................................................................ 3

Robots from space lead to one-stop breast cancer diagnosis treatment ................................................... 5

Improved eye surgery with space hardware............................................................................................... 6

Sensor technologies for high-pressure jobs and operations ...................................................................... 7

Bringing space station ultrasound to the ends of the Earth ....................................................................... 8

Are you asthmatic? Your new helper comes from space ......................................................................... 10

Cold plasmas assist in wound healing ..................................................................................................... 10

Preventing Bone Loss ............................................................................................................................. 13

Preventing bone loss in spaceflight with prophylactic use of bisphosphonate: 

Health promotion of the elderly by space medicine technologies ............................................................. 13

Improved scanning technologies and insights into osteoporosis .............................................................. 15

Good diet, proper exercise help protect astronauts’ bones ..................................................................... 15

Add salt? Astronauts’ bones say please don’t ......................................................................................... 17

Immune Defenses.................................................................................................................................... 19

Early detection of immune changes prevents painful shingles in astronauts and 

in Earth-bound patients ........................................................................................................................... 19

Station immunology insights for Earth and space ................................................................................... 20

Targeted treatments to improve immune response .................................................................................. 21

Developing New Therapies..................................................................................................................... 23

High-quality protein crystal growth experiment aboard Kibo .................................................................... 23

Cancer-targeted treatments from space station discoveries..................................................................... 25

Using weightlessness to treat multiple ailments ....................................................................................... 26

Food and the Environment ..................................................................................................................... 29

Microbiology applications from fungal research in space.......................................................................... 29

Plant growth on ISS has global impacts on Earth .................................................................................... 30

Experiments with higher plants on the Russian Segment of the International Space Station .................... 32

Table of Contents

1
vi

Heart Health and Biorhythms................................................................................................................. 35

Space cardiology for the benefit of health care ........................................................................................ 35

Biological rhythms in space and on Earth ................................................................................................ 36

Innovative space-based device promotes restful sleep on Earth .............................................................. 37

Improving Balance and Movement........................................................................................................ 39

New technology simulates microgravity and improves balance on Earth.................................................. 39

New ways to assess neurovestibular system health in space also benefits those on Earth ...................... 40

Space research leads to non-pharmacological treatment and prevention of vertigo, dizziness 

and equilibrium disturbances................................................................................................................... 42

Capturing the secrets of weightless movements for Earth applications .................................................... 44

Space technologies in the rehabilitation of movement disorders .............................................................. 45

Earth Observation and Disaster Response

Environmental Earth Observations........................................................................................................ 51

Earth remote sensing from the space station .......................................................................................... 51

Coastal ocean sensing extended mission ............................................................................................... 53

Visual and instrumental scientific observation of the ocean from space ................................................... 54 

Disaster Response .................................................................................................................................. 57

Space station camera captures Earthly disaster scenes ......................................................................... 57

Clear high-definition images aid disaster response ................................................................................. 59

Innovative Technology

Fluids and Clean Water........................................................................................................................... 65

Advanced ISS technology supports water purification efforts worldwide ................................................. 65

Exploring the wonders of fluid motion: 

Improving life on Earth through understanding the nature of Marangoni convection ................................ 66

Space station-inspired mWater app identifies healthy water sources ...................................................... 68

Space-tested fluid flow concept advances infectious disease diagnoses ................................................ 69

Materials................................................................................................................................................... 71

Improving semiconductors with nanofibers ............................................................................................. 71

InSPACE’s big news in the nano world ................................................................................................... 72

Satellites................................................................................................................................................... 75

Deploying small satellites from ISS .......................................................................................................... 75

Pinpointing time and location .................................................................................................................. 77

Space station technology demonstration could boost a new era of satellite-servicing ............................. 78

Transportation Technology..................................................................................................................... 81

Cool flame research aboard space station may lead to a cleaner environment on Earth .......................... 81

Robotics ................................................................................................................................................... 83

Robonaut’s potential shines in multiple space, medical and industrial applications .................................. 83

63

49
vii

Global Education

Inspiring the next generation of students with the International Space Station ........................................ 89

Inquiry-based Learning........................................................................................................................... 91

Student scientists receive unexpected results from research in space .................................................... 91

Europe’s alliance with space droids ........................................................................................................ 92

NASA has a HUNCH about student success in engineering .................................................................... 93

TomatosphereTM: Sowing the seeds of discovery through student science ............................................. 94

Students photograph Earth from space via Sally Ride EarthKAM program .............................................. 96

Try zero G 2: Igniting the passion of the next generation in Asia .............................................................. 97

Inspiration ................................................................................................................................................ 99

Asian students work with astronauts in space missions .......................................................................... 99

Educational benefits of the space experiment “Shadow-beacon” on ISS .............................................. 100

Students get fit the astronaut way ........................................................................................................ 102

Inspiring youth with a call to the International Space Station ................................................................. 103

Calling cosmonauts from home ............................................................................................................ 104

MAI-75 experiment, main results and prospects for development in education ..................................... 105

Economic Development of Space

Commercial Service Providers............................................................................................................. 111

Water production in space: Thirsting for a solution ................................................................................ 111

Commercialization of low-Earth orbit (LEO)............................................................................................ 112

Innovative public-private partnerships for ISS cargo services: Part 1 ..................................................... 113

Innovative public-private partnerships for ISS cargo services: Part 2 ..................................................... 115

Precision pointing platform for Earth observations from the ISS............................................................. 116

The Groundbreaker: Earth observation .................................................................................................. 118

A flock of CubeSats photographs our changing planet.......................................................................... 119 

Stretch your horizons, Stay CuriousTM .................................................................................................... 120

Mission critical: Flatworm experiment races the clock after splashdown ................................................ 122

Economic development of space in JAXA ............................................................................................. 123

Commercial Research........................................................................................................................... 127

Colloids in space: Where consumer products and science intersect ..................................................... 127

Space mice teach us about muscle and bone loss ............................................................................... 129

Protein crystals in microgravity ............................................................................................................. 130

Muscle atrophy: Mice on the ISS helping life on Earth ........................................................................... 131

Link to Archived Stories 

and Videos ................................................................................................................ 134

Authors and Principal Investigators by Section.............................................................. 135

109

87
viii
ix

Executive Summary

The International Space Station (ISS) is a unique scientific platform that enables researchers from all over the 

world to put their talents to work on innovative experiments that could not be done anywhere else. Although each 

space station partner has distinct agency goals for station research, each partner shares a unified goal to extend 

the resulting knowledge for the betterment of humanity. We may not know yet what will be the most important 

discovery gained from the space station, but we already have some amazing breakthroughs.

In the areas of human health, innovative technology, education and observations of Earth from space, there are 

already demonstrated benefits to people back on Earth. Lives have been saved, station-generated images assist 

with disaster relief, new materials improve products, and education programs inspire future scientists, engineers 

and space explorers. Some benefits in this updated second edition have expanded in scope. In other cases, new 

benefits have developed. 

Since the publication of the first edition, a new constituency has developed, one that is using the ISS in a totally 

different fashion—to develop a commercial market in low-Earth orbit. From pharmaceutical companies conducting 

commercially-funded research on ISS, to private firms offering unique research capabilities and other services, to 

commercial cargo and crew, the ISS is proving itself to be just as adaptable to new business relationships as it has 

been for a broad diversity in research disciplines.

This book summarizes the scientific, technological and educational accomplishments of research on the space 

station that have had and will continue to have an impact to life on Earth. All serve as examples of the space 

station’s potential as a groundbreaking research facility. Through advancing the state of scientific knowledge of 

our planet, looking after our health, developing advanced technologies and providing a space platform that inspires 

and educates the science and technology leaders of tomorrow, these benefits will drive the legacy of the space 

station as its research strengthens economies and enhances the quality of life here on Earth for all people.
x

Introduction

Welcome as we share the successes of the International Space Station (ISS) in this second edition of the 

International Space Station Benefits for Humanity. The ISS is a unique scientific platform that has existed 

since 1998 and has enabled over 2,400 researchers in 83 countries and areas to conduct more than 

1,700 experiments in microgravity through just September 2014, and the research continues...

Since November 2, 2000, the ISS has maintained a continuous human presence in space. Even before it was 

habitable, the research began on the only orbiting laboratory of its kind. In 2011, when ISS assembly was 

complete, the focus shifted to fully utilizing the lab for continued scientific research, technology development, 

space exploration, commerce, and education. 

The tremendous value of the ISS began through the engineering achievement evolving over a decade. 

Components were built in various countries around the world—all without the benefit of prior ground testing—

allowing us to learn a vast amount about construction and about how humans and spacecraft systems function 

in orbit. This testament to the international achievement exemplifies cultural harmonization through cooperative 

teamwork leading to an international partnership that has continued to flourish and foster international 

cooperation. While each ISS partner has distinct agency goals for research conducted, a unified goal exists 

to extend the knowledge gleaned to benefit all humankind. 

In the first edition of the book released in 2012, the scientific, technological and educational accomplishments of 

ISS research that have an impact on life on Earth were summarized through a compilation of stories. The many 

benefits being realized were primarily in the areas of human health, Earth observations and disaster response, 

and global education. 

This second edition includes updated statistics on the impacts of those benefits as well as new benefits 

that have developed since the first publication. In addition, two new sections have been added to the book: 

Economic Development of Space and Innovative Technology.

Economic Development of Space highlights case studies from public-private partnerships that are leading to 

a new economy in low-Earth orbit (LEO). Businesses provide both transportation to the ISS as well as some 

research facilities and services. These relationships promote a paradigm shift of government-funded, contractorprovided goods and services to commercially-provided goods purchased by government agencies. Other 

examples include commercial firms spending their research and development dollars to conduct investigations 

Value of the Platform
xi

on ISS and commercial service providers selling services directly to ISS users. This section provides examples 

of the use of ISS as a testbed for new business relationships and illustrates successful partnerships. 

The second new section, Innovative Technology, merges technology demonstration and physical science 

findings that promise to return Earth benefits through continued research. Examples include robotic refueling 

concepts for life extensions of costly satellites in geo-synchronous orbit that have applications to the robotics 

industry on Earth, flame behavior experiments that reveal insight into how fuel burns in microgravity leading 

to the possibility of improving engine efficiency on Earth, and nanostructures and smart fluids examples of 

materials improvements that are being developed using data from ISS. 

This publication also expands the benefits of research results in human health, environmental change and 

disaster response and in education activities developed to capture student imaginations in support of Science, 

Technology, Engineering and Mathematics, or STEM, education, internationally. Applications to human health 

of the knowledge gained on ISS continue to grow and improve healthcare technologies and our understanding 

of human physiology. 

The ISS is a stepping stone for future space exploration, as the only orbiting multi-disciplinary laboratory of its 

kind returning research results that develop LEO and improve life on our planet. The goal of this publication is to 

serve as a source of pride to those who read it and learn of the unique shared laboratory orbiting our planet that 

provides ground for critical technologies and ways to keep humans healthy in space. 

Benefits of

Research and

Technology

Benefits for Humanity Themes
xii

Medical team prepares for SYMBIS Surgical System use in the operating room. 

Image credit: University of Calgary
1

Human 

Health

The International Space Station is a unique laboratory for performing investigations that affect human 

health both in space and on Earth. During its time in orbit, the space station has enabled research that is 

providing a better understanding of many aspects of human health including aging, trauma, disease and 

environmental impacts. Driven by the need to support astronaut health, several biological and human 

physiological investigations have yielded important results that we on Earth can also benefit from. These 

results include new ways to mitigate bone loss, insights into bacterial behavior, and innovative woundhealing techniques. Advances in telemedicine, disease models, psychological stress response systems, 

nutrition and cell behavior are just a few more examples of the benefits that have been gained from 

applying studies in orbit to human health back on Earth.
2
3

Robotic arms lend a healing touch

The delicate touch that successfully removed an 

egg-shaped tumor from Paige Nickason’s brain got a 

helping hand from a world-renowned arm—a robotic 

arm, that is. The technology that went into developing 

neuroArm, the world’s first robot capable of performing surgery inside magnetic resonance machines, was 

born of the Canadarm (developed in collaboration with 

engineers a MacDonald, Dettwiler, and Associates, Ltd. 

[MDA] for the U.S. Space Shuttle Program) as well as 

Canadarm2 and Dextre, the Canadian Space Agency’s 

family of space robots performing the heavy lifting and 

maintenance aboard the International Space Station.

neuroArm began with the search for a solution to a 

surgical dilemma: how to make difficult surgeries easier 

or impossible surgeries possible. MDA worked with a 

team led by Dr. Garnette Sutherland at the University 

of Calgary to develop a highly precise robotic arm that 

works in conjunction with the advanced imaging capabilities of magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) systems. 

Surgeons wanted to be able to perform surgeries while 

a patient was inside an MRI machine, which meant 

designing a robot that was as dexterous as the human 

hand but even more precise and tremor-free. Operating inside the MRI also meant it had to be made entirely from safe, MRI compatible materials (for instance, 

ceramic motors) so that it would not be affected by the 

MRI’s magnetic field or, conversely, disrupt the MRI’s 

images. The project team developed novel ways to 

control the robot’s movements and give the robot’s 

operator a sense of touch via an intuitive, haptic handcontroller located at a remote work station—essential 

so that the surgeon can precisely control the robot and 

can feel the tool-tissue interface during the surgery.

Health Technology

Research on ISS has allowed for innovations in surgical performance through the world’s first robotic 

technology capable of performing surgery inside MRI machines. This technology is making difficult 

brain tumor surgeries easier and impossible surgeries possible. Soon, medical technology stemming 

from space station robotics will enter clinical trials for use in the early diagnosis and treatment of breast 

cancer by providing increased access, precision and dexterity resulting in highly accurate and minimally 

invasive procedures. Development of an advanced technology solution for pediatric surgery is also in 

the design stages. In common laser surgeries to correct eyesight, a new technology developed on ISS 

is now used on Earth to track the patient’s eye and precisely direct a laser scalpel. Thermal regulation 

research on ISS has also led to the use of sensor technology for monitoring during surgery.

When medical facilities are not readily available such as in remote and underdeveloped regions of the 

world, ultrasound units are used in conjunction with protocols for performing complex procedures 

rapidly with remote expert guidance and training. These telemedicine and remote guidance techniques 

empower local healthcare providers, provide patients with access to more timely and diagnostic care, 

and the healthcare system is made more efficient.

A lightweight, easy-to-use device to measure nitric oxide in air exhaled by astronauts on ISS is used to 

study possible airway inflammation before health problems are encountered. This device is now used 

at some health centers to monitor levels of asthma control leading to more accurate medication dosing, 

reduced attacks, and improved quality of life.

The study of plasmas (charged gases that can permeate many materials and spread evenly and quickly) 

reveals that they support the disinfecting of chronic wounds, the neutralization of bacteria, the boosting 

of tumor inactivation, and even the jumpstarting plant growth.

Robotic specialists and 

surgeons sought to make 

difficult surgeries easier or 

impossible surgeries possible.
4

Since Paige Nickason’s surgery in 2008, neuroArm has 

been used in initial clinical experience with 35 patients 

who were otherwise inoperable. In 2010, the neuroArm 

technology was licensed to IMRIS Inc., a private, 

publicly traded medical device manufacturer based 

in Winnipeg, Manitoba, Canada, for development of 

the next-generation platform and for wide distribution 

under the name “SYMBIS Surgical System.”

IMRIS is advancing the design to commercialize minimally invasive brain tumor resection procedures, which 

allow surgeons to see detailed, 3-D images of the brain 

as well as use surgical tools and hand controllers that 

allow the surgeon to feel tissue and apply pressure 

when he or she operates. SYMBIS has been undergoing calibration, testing and validation at Dr. Sutherland’s 

research facility since March 2015. SYMBIS is expected to be able to perform microsurgery and stereotactic 

biopsy within the bore of the magnet while real-time 

MR images are being acquired. The system is more 

compact, with improved haptics, safety no-go zones, 

motion scaling and tremor filters. SYMBIS is currently 

being reviewed by the FDA, and once approved, the 

system will be made available commercially for other 

centers worldwide to establish its clinical efficacy 

through clinical trials. 

MDA is also continuing to apply its space technologies 

and know-how to medical solutions for life on Earth. 

The company has partnered with the Hospital for Sick 

Children (SickKids) in Toronto, Ontario, to collaborate 

on the design and development of an advanced technology solution for pediatric surgery. Dubbed KidsArm, 

the sophisticated, teleoperated surgical system is 

being designed specifically to operate on small children 

and babies. KidsArm is intended for use by surgeons 

in conjunction with a high-precision, real-time imaging technology to reconnect delicate vessels such as 

veins, arteries or intestines.

In collaboration with the Centre for Surgical Invention 

and Innovation (CSII) in Hamilton, Ontario, MDA is also 

developing an advanced platform to provide a more 

accurate and less invasive identification and treatment 

of breast tumors in the MRI. The image-guided autonomous robot (IGAR) will provide increased access, 

precision and dexterity, resulting in more accurate 

and less invasive procedures. IGAR is currently in the 

second phase of clinical trials in Hamilton, Ontario, 

Canada, and Quebec City, Quebec, Canada.

Watch these videos to learn more:

neuroArm: http://tinyurl.com/neuroArm

KidsArm: http://tinyurl.com/KidsArm

IGAR: http://tinyurl.com/CSA-IGAR

Medical team prepares for SYMBIS Surgical 

System use in the operating room. 

Image credit: University of Calgary

“Where the robot entered my head,” says 

21-year-old Paige Nickason, the first patient to 

have brain surgery performed by a robot, as 

she points to an area on her forehead. “Now 

that neuroArm has removed the tumor from my 

brain, it will go on to help many other people 

like me around the world.”

Image credit: University of Calgary
5

Robots from space lead to one-stop 

breast cancer diagnosis treatment 

Technology derived from the highly capable robots 

designed for the International Space Station may soon 

increase access to life-saving surgical techniques to 

fight breast cancer.

A team of collaborative researchers with the 

Centre for Surgical Invention and Innovation (CSII) 

in Canada is working to enhance the quality and 

access to healthcare through the development and 

commercialization of innovative medical robotic 

technologies. In particular, an advanced platform 

is about to enter clinical trials for use in the early 

diagnosis and treatment of breast cancer. 

The main player besides the medical staff is a robot. 

But not just any robot. This robot’s technology was 

designed for use aboard the International Space 

Station by MacDonald, Dettwiler and Associates Ltd. 

(MDA) for the Canadian Space Agency (CSA).

Researchers created the Image-Guided Autonomous 

Robot (IGAR) from a long line of Canadian heavy lifters 

and maintenance performers for the space shuttle and 

space station Canadarm, Canadarm2 and Dextre. 

In dealing with breast cancer, IGAR is expected to 

provide increased access, precision and dexterity, 

resulting in highly accurate and minimally invasive 

procedures.

Dr. Mehran Anvari, chief executive officer and scientific 

director at CSII, said the IGAR platform moves 

the use of robotics in surgery to a new dimension, 

allowing the robot to act in an automated fashion after 

programming by a physician.

IGAR is designed to work in combination with an MRI 

scanner, which is highly sensitive to early detection of 

suspicious breast lesions before they possibly turn into 

a much larger problem. The radiologist uses specially 

designed software to tag the potential target and tell 

IGAR what path to take. The software then helps the 

radiologist to make sure he or she is accurately hitting 

the right area. IGAR has a special tool interface that 

can be used to define adaptors for any needle-based 

biopsy device or a wide range of instruments that 

remove tissue, known in the medical world as needlebased ablation devices.

Anvari explained that the automated robot is capable 

of placing the biopsy and ablation tools within 1 

mm of the lesion in question with a high degree of 

targeting accuracy, improving sampling, reducing 

the pain of the procedure, reducing time in the MRI 

suite and reducing cost as a consequence. He also 

said that using the robot will allow all radiologists to 

perform this procedure equally well, regardless of 

the number of cases per year and move the site of 

treatment from operation room to radiology suite for 

a significant number of patients. The radiologist can 

operate in the challenging magnetic environment of 

the MRI, providing access to leading tumor-targeting 

technology. The robot fits on the patient bed, so it can 

travel in and out of the MRI opening easily. This in turn 

simplifies the flow of patients in the department, which 

Dr. Mehran Anvari, chief executive officer and 

scientific director at the Centre for Surgical 

Invention and Innovation, with the Image-Guided 

Autonomous Robot (IGAR) manipulator. 

Image credit: The Hamilton Spectator

ISS technologies enable a 

robot to provide increased 

access, precision and dexterity, 

resulting in highly accurate 

and minimally invasive surgical 

procedures.
6

can be challenging to many radiologists, optimizing 

patient time to diagnose.

Dr. Nathalie Duchesne, co-investigator on the clinical 

study and breast radiologist at the Saint-Sacrament 

Hospital in Quebec City, Quebec, Canada, has been 

teaching MRI-guided breast biopsy for years and 

will be performing the first of three clinical trials. She 

said there are many steps in the procedure that are 

operator-dependent, and these steps may prevent 

good sampling of the lesions if not done properly. 

Duchesne believes IGAR will decrease the time of the 

exam, ensure good sampling and increase patient’s 

comfort during the exam. Duchesne and her team 

think that IGAR will improve sample collection because 

it will be less operator-dependent, and it will be 

constant from one doctor to another, from one patient 

to the other, and from one lesion to the other.

IGAR removes most of the “manual” aspects of the 

procedure and reduces user-dependence and the level 

of training required. This allows for a standard process 

regardless of experience. An expert will program 

remotely once the patient is in the MRI suite. A 

physician will then supervise to make sure the patient 

is comfortable and there are no complications.

Anvari said this technology lays the foundation for a 

family of telerobotic systems, and it has the potential 

to change the way people think about performing 

these interventions and ensures that specialized, 

highly-trained doctors are focusing on the activities to 

which their training is best suited. Anvari believes this 

technology will improve efficiency in the health care 

system by streamlining clinical workflow and allowing 

highly skilled radiologists to extend their care to a wider 

population through teleoperation.

This robotic technology is not limited only to biopsies. 

Duchesne explained that IGAR is paving the way for 

the minimally invasive excision and treatment of 

small tumors that are often found incidentally during 

pre-op MRI.

The trend toward breast preservation has brought on 

the importance of lumpectomies. For tumors that may 

require this procedure because they are invisible to 

ultrasound and X-ray mammography, researchers are 

currently developing the ability for IGAR to deploy a 

radioactive seed—smaller than a grain of rice—near 

the area of interest. During surgery, the seed can be 

located with a detector, allowing the doctor to identify 

the lesion and remove it with increased accuracy and 

patient comfort. It is expected that follow-up surgeries 

also will be greatly reduced.

Whether it be capturing a visiting spacecraft or helping 

save lives, Canadian-designed robots are lending a 

hand. Bringing beneficial technologies from the space 

station to the ground will hopefully one day allow us to 

make historic strides in cancer treatment.

Watch this video to learn more 

about IGAR: 

http://tinyurl.com/CSA-IGAR

Improved eye surgery with space 

hardware 

Laser surgery to correct eyesight is common practice, 

and technology developed for use in space is now 

commonly used on Earth to track the patient’s eye 

and precisely direct the laser scalpel. 

When looking at a fixed point while tilting or shaking 

one’s head, a reflex allows the eyes to automatically 

IGAR manipulator and full breast intervention 

platform mounted on the patient support 

structure with a biopsy tool attached. 

Image credit: CSii and MDA

Artist rendering of IGAR performing a biopsy.

Image credit: CSii and MDA
7

hold steady and see clearly even while this movement is taking place. This involves the brain constantly 

interpreting information from the inner ear to maintain 

balance and stable vision. An essential feature of this 

sensory system is the use of gravity as a reference.

The Eye Tracking Device experiment researched 

mechanisms involved in this process and how humans’ 

frames of reference are altered in space. The experiment used a specially designed headset fitted with 

high-performance, image-processing chips able to 

track the eyes without interfering with an astronaut’s 

normal work. The results showed that our balance and 

the overall control of eye movements are indeed 

affected by weightlessness. These two systems work 

closely together under normal gravity conditions but 

become somewhat dissociated in weightlessness. 

After a flight, it takes several days to weeks for the 

astronauts to return to normal. The findings point to 

the entire sensory-motor complex and spatial perception relying on gravity as a reference for orientation. 

In parallel with its use on the space station, the engineers realized the device had potential for applications 

on Earth. Tracking the eye’s position without interfering 

with the surgeon’s work is essential in laser surgery. 

The space technology proved ideal, and the Eye Tracking Device equipment is now being used in a large 

proportion of corrective laser surgeries throughout the 

world. A commercially available version has been 

delivered to a large number of research laboratories in 

Europe and North America for ground-based studies.

Sensor technologies for high-pressure 

jobs and operations 

Novel sensor technologies used within the joint 

Thermolab experiment (2009-2012) of ESA/DLR have 

been used for improving our understanding of thermal 

regulation of astronauts in space. These sensor 

technologies also hold great potential and benefits for 

use within many different critical areas from fire-fighting 

to recognizing exhaustion or early overheating. In fact, 

the sensor is currently used in hospitals for monitoring 

during surgeries and on intensive care units.

Thermal regulation in the body is vital for our wellbeing. Our vital organs are kept at a constant 

temperature of 37° C (98.6 F) whether it is the middle 

of a freezing winter or on a hot sunny beach. Any 

disturbance to this stasis can cause symptoms such 

as physical and mental fatigue or, in the extreme, fatal 

effects on how the body functions under conditions 

such as heat stroke and hypothermia. 

In weightlessness, the adaptation of the cardiovascular 

system, the lack of convection in space and the 

shifting of fluids to the upper half of the body could 

have a negative influence on thermal regulation. 

Former ESA astronaut Thomas Reiter undertakes 

the Eye Tracking Device experiment on the ISS 

in 2006. 

Image credit: ESA

The device developed for ISS 

allows the tracking of eye 

position without interfering 

with a surgeon’s work during 

corrective laser eye surgery.

Sensor technology developed 

on ISS is now used to monitor 

thermal regulation during 

surgeries and in intensive 

care units.
8

The Thermolab experiment has been looking at 

changes in thermal regulation and cardiovascular 

adaptations in weightlessness by investigating how 

the body heats up and cools down during exercise. 

The testing of this new type of sensor to record 

the core body temperature in orbit could have 

novel applications in space and on Earth. This new 

sensor was developed for DLR by Charité (Berlin) 

and Draegerwerk (Lübeck) since standard ground 

measurement in clinics and surgeries use an internal 

body probe for taking measurements, which is not 

practical in orbit. The sensors measure the skin 

temperature and the heat flow in the skin, which 

are used to calculate core body temperature using 

sophisticated algorithms.

Compared to on Earth, core body temperature rises 

faster during exercise on the International Space 

Station. This is likely caused by fluid shifts and 

modified heat flow away from the body. It is also 

noticeable that the body temperature takes longer to 

cool down to core temperature after exercise. The 

measurement of the core body temperature together 

with cardiovascular measurements taken during 

NASA’s VO2 Max protocol can be used to evaluate 

the subject’s state of fatigue, which is very important 

during a space mission for optimising mission success. 

This makes this non-invasive double sensor a very 

useful diagnostic tool for recognising early warning 

signs of fatigue during spacewalks in orbit. On Earth, 

firefighters, jet pilots, miners, steel workers, soldiers in 

combat, divers, mountaineers, polar explorers, marine 

fishermen, and all who work in extreme conditions 

could benefit from the new measurement technology. 

Bringing space station ultrasound to 

the ends of the Earth 

Fast, efficient and readily available medical attention is 

key to survival in a health emergency. When a person is stricken with injury or illness, getting a quick and 

accurate diagnosis through medical imaging technology can be crucial for ensuring proper treatment. 

For people who live in major cities and towns where 

fully equipped hospitals are only a quick ambulance 

ride away, that’s not usually a problem. But for those 

without medical facilities within easy reach, it can mean 

the difference between life and death.

For astronauts in orbit about 240 miles above Earth 

aboard the International Space Station, that problem 

was addressed through the Advanced Diagnostic 

Ultrasound in Microgravity (ADUM) investigation. Space 

station astronauts are trained to use a small ultrasound 

unit aboard the station to examine fellow crewmates. 

In the event of a health concern, astronauts could use 

this facility to diagnose many injuries and illnesses with 

the help of doctors on Earth. Launched in 2011, the 

ultrasound unit used for ADUM was replaced with a 

NASA astronaut Sunita Williams uses the Portable 

Pulmonary Function System whilst on the CEVIS 

cycle exercise device during a session of the joint 

Thermolab/EKE/VO2Max experiments in August 

2012. 

Image credit: NASA

Medical care becomes more 

accessible in remote regions 

by use of small ultrasound 

units and tele-medicine, and 

remote guidance techniques, 

just like those on ISS.
9

smaller and even more sophisticated scanner dubbed 

Ultrasound 2, currently in use aboard the orbiting 

laboratory.

Now those same techniques are being adapted and 

used for people living in remote, underdeveloped areas 

where CT scans, MRIs and even simple X-ray exams 

are impossible. In partnership with the World Interactive Network Focused on Critical Ultrasound (WINFOCUS), ADUM principal investigator Scott Dulchavsky, 

M.D., is taking techniques originally developed for 

space station astronauts and adapting them for use 

in Earth’s farthest corners by developing protocols for 

performing complex procedures rapidly with remote 

expert guidance and training. 

WINFOCUS is a global network organization whose 

main goal is to use ultrasound as an enabling pointof-care device in an effort to make medical care more 

accessible in remote regions. Using the ADUM 

methods, WINFOCUS has trained over 20,000 

physicians and physician extenders in 68 countries. 

This includes two important holistic healthcare projects: in remote areas of Nicaragua (from 2011) and in 

Brazil in a statewide healthcare project in partnership 

with the Secretary of Health of the State of Minas 

Gerais (since 2012).

WINFOCUS has also benefited from the tele-medicine 

and remote guidance techniques developed for use 

on the space station, and has adapted and further 

developed them in order to allow large-scale integration in healthcare systems on Earth through low-cost 

applications. Local healthcare providers are empowered, more patients can access quality and timely 

diagnostic care, and the healthcare system is made 

more accessible and efficient.

ADUM’s impact is also felt in modern emergency 

rooms, proving the effectiveness of ultrasound in diagnosing conditions previously considered beyond its 

technical capabilities, such as a collapsed lung, which 

has now become integrated as a standard of care in 

medical treatments. In addition, the ADUM protocols 

have proven so effective that they’re now part of the 

standard medical school curriculum. The American 

College of Surgeons, which requires ultrasound training for all surgical interns and residents, is using the 

ADUM program. 

The ADUM investigation and the WINFOCUS partnership have brought the promise of space station 

research back down to Earth in perhaps the most 

direct and immediate way possible—keeping people 

healthy and alive, even in remote regions where care 

was previously a limited option. 

World Interactive Network Focused on Critical 

Ultrasound (WINFOCUS) and Henry Ford 

Innovation Institute members, Dr. Luca Neri and 

Alberta Spreafico work with Kathleen Garcia from 

Wyle Engineering to help train Dr. Chamorro from 

the rural community of Las Salinas, Nicaragua, 

using the Advanced Diagnostic Ultrasound in 

Microgravity and tele-ultrasound applications.

Image credit: WINFOCUS/Missions of Grace

NASA astronaut Tom Marshburn assists Canadian 

Space Agency astronaut Chris Hadfield with an 

Ultrasound 2 scan in the Columbus Module of 

the International Space Station. 

Image credit: NASA
10

Are you asthmatic? Your new helper 

comes from space

Kalle, a 10-year-old boy, is already in favor of space 

technology. In the future, he could control his asthma 

with a small device also used by crew members 

aboard the International Space Station. Because 

of it, he knows almost everything about nitric oxide—

an important gas we all breathe out.

Nitric oxide, or nitrogen monoxide, as it is properly 

called, is both a good and bad molecule, found almost 

everywhere as an air pollutant that is produced by 

vehicle exhaust and industrial processes burning fuel. 

Nitric oxide is a contributor to the damage of the ozone 

layer and easily converts into nitric acid—which may 

fall as acid rain. 

Intriguingly, tiny amounts of nitric oxide are released 

locally in inflamed tissue of humans and other mammals. Tracing it back to its source can reveal different 

diseases. 

In people with asthma, inflammation in the lung adds 

nitric oxide to exhaled air. Measuring the gas can help 

to diagnose the disease and may prevent attacks if 

the levels of nitric oxide indicate that medication should 

be adjusted.

Nitric oxide is also an interesting molecule on the 

space station. Dust and small particles floating around 

in weightlessness can be inhaled by the astronauts, 

possibly triggering inflammation of the airways. It also 

plays a role in decompression sickness that may arise 

from spacewalks.

The European Space Agency (ESA) uses a lightweight, 

easy-to-use, accurate device for measuring nitric oxide 

in exhaled air. The aim is to investigate possible airway 

inflammation in astronauts and act before it becomes 

a health problem. 

Following its development by the Swedish company 

Aerocrine AB and ESA, the device has been found 

beneficial in space exploration and everyday use 

on Earth.

NIOX MINO® is now used by patients like Kalle at 

health centers. They can monitor levels of asthma 

control and the efficiency of medication—leading to 

more accurate dosing, reduced attacks and improved 

quality of life.

Cold plasmas assist in wound healing

A unique form of matter could help disinfect wounds, 

neutralize bacteria, help people heal faster, and even 

fight cancer—and its potential for human health is now 

well understood, thanks to research on the International 

Space Station. The microgravity environment provides 

a powerful method for studying plasmas, one of the 

four states of matter along with liquid, solid and gas. 

The Plasma Kristall Experiment (PK-3 Plus) lab, a Russian-German collaboration, provided new insight into 

an unusual type of matter known as plasma crystals. 

A lightweight, easy-to-use 

device monitors levels of 

asthma control leading to 

more accurate medication 

dosing, reduced attacks, and 

improved quality of life.

Former European Space Agency (ESA) astronaut 

Thomas Reiter undertakes science activities for 

the Nitric Oxide Analyzer experiment in 2006. 

Image credit: ESA
11

Because it is a charged gas, plasma can permeate 

many materials, spreading evenly and quickly. It can 

disinfect surfaces, and has been proven to neutralize drug-resistant bacteria like methicillin-resistant 

Staphylococcus aureus within seconds. In more than 

3,500 examples in several clinical trials, physicians 

found plasmas can disinfect chronic wounds and help 

wounds heal faster. Other research has shown that 

along with chemotherapy, plasma treatment efficiently 

fights cancer; it can boost tumor inactivation by 

500 percent, compared with just chemotherapy. 

Plasmas can even jumpstart plant growth.

For the researchers involved in PK-3, the technical 

challenges of space-based research provided the 

knowledge base for the medical spin-offs, according to Professor Gregor E. Morfill, director at the Max 

Planck Institute for Extraterrestrial Physics in Garching, 

Germany. Without space station research, some team 

members would never have been involved in plasma 

medicine.

The PK-3 lab was designed to study complex or 

“dusty” plasmas, which get their name from the presence of small, solid particles mixed into the plasma’s 

charged gases. These particles can dramatically 

change the behavior of a plasma, and sometimes the 

particles even form crystalline structures. Dusty plasmas are found near artificial satellites, occur in Earth’s 

upper atmosphere, and can be produced in lab settings. Physicists favor them because they are relatively 

easy to control and provide a unique view of physics 

at the single-particle level. But they can be difficult to 

study on Earth, because the planet’s gravity affects 

the way dust particles settle and how they crystallize. 

This isn’t the case on the space station, however. 

Investigations with PK-3 Plus created dusty plasmas 

containing argon or neon gas as well as micron-size 

particles. The gas molecules received an electric 

charge so they would ionize and form a plasma, and 

then particles were injected into it. A laser lit up the 

sample while a camera recorded the particles moving 

through the plasma and organizing themselves in 

Side view of a plasma crystal in the laboratory. 

Dust particles are suspended in an argon 

plasma above a high-frequency electrode 

(bottom). The horizontal field of view is 2 cm. 

Image credit: Max Planck Institute for 

Extraterrestrial Physics

Plasma studies reveal 

applications to disinfect 

chronic wounds, neutralize 

bacteria, boost tumor 

inactivation, and jumpstart 

plant growth.

Russian cosmonaut Oleg Kotov, Expedition 

30 flight engineer, inspects the Plasma Kristall 

Experiment laboratory, enclosed in black housing, 

in its new home in the Poisk Mini-Research 

Module 2 of the International Space Station. 

Image credit: RKK-Energia
12

crystal structures. Basic experiments tested a wide 

range of particle sizes and different gas types, and 

researchers found a plethora of interesting new 

phenomena. In one example, researchers used the 

PK-3 Plus high-resolution camera to examine the 

exact point at which matter changes its phase from 

liquid to solid. Other experiments tested how radio 

waves cause particles in a dusty plasma to move. 

Beyond basic science, dusty plasmas have several 

practical applications in space and on Earth. For 

instance, some computer chips are manufactured using a processing plasma, and removal of microscopic 

particles is crucial for preventing chip contamination. 

Understanding how gases and dusty plasmas interact 

is critical for improving this technology. A better grasp 

of this interaction could also help scientists create 

powders containing specific ingredients, for applications like agriculture, hygiene and medicine. And 

plasmas hold great promise for treating sick and 

injured people on Earth.

Astronauts and cosmonauts operated the PK-3 Plus 

equipment during 20 separate missions across a 

six-year period, each lasting about five days. All told, 

collaborators on the PK-3 Plus investigation and its 

predecessor, PKE-Nefedov, have published more than 

70 scientific papers and given at least 100 presentations at scientific conferences.

The past PK investigations may be concluded in 

space, but plasma medicine research in particular 

continues to produce new applications—which will 

further increase with the PK-4 investigation for 

which new hardware was commissioned on 

ISS in November 2014.
13

Preventing bone loss in spaceflight with 

prophylactic use of bisphosphonate: 

Health promotion of the elderly by 

space medicine technologies

Bone loss and kidney stones are well-known as essential problems for astronauts to overcome during 

extended stays in space. Crew members engage in 

physical exercise for two-and-a-half hours a day, six 

times a week (15 hours a week) while in orbit to avoid 

these issues. Nevertheless, the risks of these problems 

occurring cannot be completely eliminated through 

physical exercise alone. 

Bone plays an important role as a structure that supports the body and stores calcium. It retains fracture 

resistance by remodeling through a balance of bone 

resorption and formation. In a microgravity environment, because of reduced loading stimuli, there is 

increased bone resorption and no change in or possibly decreased bone formation, leading to bone mass 

loss at a rate of about 10 times that of osteoporosis. 

The proximal femoral bone loses 1.0 to 1.5 percent 

of its mass per month, or roughly 6 to 10 percent 

over a six-month stay in space, with the recovery after 

returning to Earth taking at least three or four years. 

The calcium balance (the difference between intake 

and excretion), which is about zero on Earth, decreases to about -250 mg/day during flight, a value that 

increases the risk of kidney stones. 

Bisphosphonate is a therapeutic agent that has been 

used to treat osteoporosis patients for more than 

Preventing Bone Loss

The common problem of bone loss in the elderly is also observed in astronauts when they are in 

space. Ongoing studies on ISS indicate a reduction in bone loss and renal stone risk through use of 

a bisphosphonate and exercise to increase bone load and muscle training, and in a well-balanced, 

low-sodium diet. In promoting the health of the elderly at risk of osteoporosis, improved scanning 

technologies are under development to provide a reference technique to enable the early detection 

of osteoporosis and in the development of more effective countermeasures to its effects.

Ongoing studies indicate a 

reduction in bone loss and 

renal stone risk through 

use of a bisphosphonate 

and exercise.

JAXA astronaut Soichi Noguchi performs exercise 

aboard the International Space Station. 

Image credit: JAXA/NASA
14

a decade, with a proven efficacy to increase bone 

mass and decrease the occurrence of bone fracture. Through 90-day bed rest research on Earth, we 

confirmed that this agent has a preventive effect on 

the loss of bone mass. Based on these results as well 

as studies conducted by others, Japan Aerospace 

Exploration Agency (JAXA) and NASA decided to collaborate on a space biomedical experiment to prevent 

bone loss during spaceflight. Dr. Adrain Leblanc, 

United Space Research Association, and Dr. Toshio 

Matsumoto, Tokushima University, are the two principal 

investigators of this study. 

JAXA and NASA crew members are participating in 

this study by taking this agent once a week while in 

space. The study is still ongoing; however, early results 

suggest that astronauts can significantly reduce the 

risk of bone loss and renal stones with the combination 

of resistive exercise and an antiresorptive such as a 

bisphosphonate. 

Bone loss is also observed in bedridden older people. 

Elderly people lose 1 or 2 percent per year of their 

bone mass because of aging and a decline in the 

amount of female hormone. Osteoporosis is declared 

when a person has a bone mass 30 percent lower 

than the average for young adults, which is a condition 

affecting 13 million Japanese and one in two women 

aged 70 years and older. Every year, 160 thousand 

patients undergo operations for femoral neck fractures in Japan, followed by intense rehabilitation for 

three months. Such operations cost 1.5 million yen 

per person, and the total annual expense for medical 

treatments and care of these bone fractures amounts 

to 66.57 billion yen in total national cost. 

The three key elements for promoting the health of elderly people to prevent fractures are nutrition, exercise 

and medicine. Meals should be nutritionally balanced 

with calcium-rich foods (milk, small fish, etc.) and 

vitamin D (fish, mushrooms, etc.). Limited sunbathing 

Astronauts enjoy meals aboard the International Space Station. 

Image credit: JAXA/NASA
15

is also important for activation of vitamin D. Physical 

exercise to increase bone load and muscle training 

should also be integrated into each person’s daily life. 

Those at high risk for fractures should take effective 

medicines to reduce the risk of fractures.

Accordingly, the secrets of the promotion of astronauts’ health obtained from space medicine are 

expected to be utilized to promote the health of 

elderly people and the education of children.

Improved scanning technologies and 

insights into osteoporosis

ESA’s Early Detection of Osteoporosis in Space (EDOS) 

experiment has been testing skeletal adaptation to 

long-term space exposure by using 3-D peripheral 

quantitative computed tomography (3DpQCT) as a 

technique for detection of bone structure. It has been 

providing a detailed evaluation of the bone loss and 

of kinetics of recovery after flight. ESA supported the 

development of the enhanced 3-D scanner by the 

Institute for Biomedical Engineering in Zürich and 

Scanco Medical as part of ESA’s Microgravity Applications Programme (MAP). The scanner is providing 

high-quality, 3-D images of living bone structures 

as part of this ground experiment. This is backed 

up by analysis of bone biochemical markers in 

blood samples.

One important element that has derived from this 

research into bone loss in space is the successful 

commercialisation of the 3DpQCT scanner, of which 

ESA supported the development, for a non-invasive/in 

vivo technique for observation of bone structure. 

The EDOS project has been assessing the efficiency 

of such a technique and will contribute to the development of a reference technique to perform an early 

detection of osteoporosis on Earth in a unique way. 

These improved diagnostics in the early stages of such 

a medical condition may prove extremely important in 

development of more effective countermeasures to the 

effects of osteoporosis. In 2006, according to the International Osteoporosis Foundation, 8.9 million fractures 

were estimated worldwide. The project will continue 

within the EDOS-2 project, which will commence in 

collaboration with Russia in spring 2015 in conjunction 

with the first one-year mission. 

Good diet, proper exercise help protect 

astronauts’ bones

Eating right and exercising hard in space helps protect 

International Space Station astronauts’ bones, a finding that may help solve one of the key problems facing 

future explorers heading beyond low-Earth orbit. 

A study published in the September 2012 issue of 

the Journal of Bone and Mineral Research looked at 

the mineral density of specific bones as well as the 

entire skeleton of astronauts who used a new, stronger 

“weight lifting” machine. Of course, weights don’t really 

Early detection of osteoporosis, 

and the development of more 

effective treatments, link astronauts to patients on Earth.

After 51 years of human 

spaceflight, we have made 

significant progress in 

protecting bone health 

through diet and exercise. Xtreme CT distal radius. 

Image credit: SCANCO Medical
16

“weigh” anything on the space station, but resistance 

machines allow astronauts to get the same kind of 

workout. The new Advanced Resistive Exercise Device 

(ARED), installed in 2008, doubles the maximum simulated weight to as much as 600 pounds. 

Researchers compared measurements from 2006 until 

2008 when astronauts used a less capable workout 

machine. They found that astronauts using the advanced system came home with more lean muscle and 

less fat and kept more of their whole body and regional 

bone mineral density. Those same astronauts also 

consumed sufficient calories and vitamin D, among 

other nutrients. These factors are known to support 

bone health and likely played a contributing role. 

After 51 years of human spaceflight, these data mark 

the first significant progress in protecting bone through 

diet and exercise. Since the 1990s, resistance exercise 

has been thought to be a key method of protecting 

astronauts’ bones. Normal, healthy bone constantly 

breaks down and renews itself, a process called remodeling. As long as these processes are in balance, 

bone mass and density stay the same. Earlier studies 

of Russian Mir space station residents found an increased rate of breakdown but little change in the rate 

of regrowth, resulting in an overall loss in bone density. 

In the new study, astronauts who used the ARED 

device still had increased bone breakdown, but their 

bone renewal tended to increase, likely resulting in 

a better balance in whole bone-mineral density. 

Bone density loss in astronauts on long-duration missions has been a major medical concern. In the past, 

astronauts have lost an average of 1 to 2 percent per 

month. By comparison, an elderly person loses about 

1 to 2 percent per year. 

This study shows that, through proper exercise and 

nutrition, crew members on long journeys in space can 

return to Earth with much less loss of bone mineral 

density. But a key question remains as to whether the 

bones are as strong as when the astronaut launched 

into space. For these and other reasons, additional 

studies to evaluate bone strength before and after flight 

are currently under way. 

Beyond bone strength, further study is needed to 

figure out the best possible combination of exercise 

and diet for long-duration crews. One experiment on 

the space station right now is looking at how different ratios of animal protein and potassium in the diet 

affect bone health. Another is looking at the benefits 

NASA Astronaut Dan Burbank, Expedition 30 

commander, exercises using the Advanced 

Resistive Exercise Device aboard the International 

Space Station. 

Image credit: JAXA/NASA

NASA astronaut Jeffrey Williams, Expedition 

22 commander, exercises using the Advanced 

Resistive Exercise Device in the Tranquility node 

of the International Space Station. 

Image credit: NASA
17

of lowering sodium intake. NASA food scientists have 

reformulated more than 80 space foods to reduce the 

sodium content. 

Information gained through space station studies like 

these will be critical in enabling humans to explore 

destinations beyond low-Earth orbit.

Add salt? Astronauts’ bones say 

please don’t

Osteoporosis is a harsh disease that reduces the 

quality of life for millions and costs Europe around 

€25 billion ($31 billion) each year. It typically affects 

the elderly, so the rise in life expectancy in developed 

countries means the problems inflicted by osteoporosis are increasing. 

Fortunately, research done in space may change 

the game. Astronauts on the International Space 

Station experience accelerated osteoporosis because 

of weightlessness, but it is carefully controlled, and 

they can regain their lost bone mass in time once they 

are back on Earth.

Studying what happens during long spaceflights offers 

a good insight into the process of osteoporosis—losing 

calcium and changing bone structure—and helps to 

develop methods to combat it.

It has been known since the 1990s that the human 

body holds on to sodium, without the corresponding 

water retention, during long stays in space. But the 

ISS research provides insight 

into the benefits of reduced 

sodium and increased 

bicarbonate consumption for 

those prone to osteoporosis.

European Space Agence (ESA) astronaut André Kuipers (left) and Russian cosmonaut Oleg Kononenko (right) 

with food items on the International Space Station in December 2011. In the SOdium LOad in microgravity 

experiment, astronaut subjects undergo two different diet regimes to determine the physiological effects of 

sodium on the body. 

Image credit: ESA
18

textbooks said this was not possible. “Sodium retention in space” became an important subject to study.

Salt intake was investigated in a series of studies, in 

ground-based simulations and in space, and it was 

found that not only is sodium retained (probably in the 

skin), but it also affects the acid balance of the body 

and bone metabolism. So, high salt intake increases 

acidity in the body, which can accelerate bone loss.

The European Space Agency’s (ESA’s) recent SOdium 

LOad in microgravity (SOLO) study zoomed 

in on this question. 

Nine crew members, including ESA’s Frank De Winne 

and Paolo Nespoli during their long-duration flights in 

2010 and 2011, followed low- and high-salt diets. 

The expected results may show that additional 

negative effects can be avoided either by reducing 

sodium intake or by using a simple alkalizing agent 

like bicarbonate to counter the acid imbalance.

This space research directly benefits everybody 

on Earth who is prone to osteoporosis. 

3-D pQCT image of osteoporotic bone. 

Image credit: Scanco Medical AG

The SOdium LOad in microgravity experiment 

carries out research into salt retention and its 

effect on bone metabolism in astronauts, which 

can help provide insights into medical conditions 

on Earth, such as osteoporosis. 

Image credit: Istockphoto/S.Kaulitzki

European Space Agence (ESA) astronaut Frank 

De Winne undertakes a body mass measurement, 

an essential element of the SOdium LOad in 

microgravity experiment, on the space station. 

Image credit: ESA
19

Early detection of immune changes 

prevents painful shingles in astronauts 

and in Earth-bound patients1

The physiological, emotional and psychological stress 

associated with spaceflight can result in decreased immunity that reactivates the virus that causes shingles, 

a disease punctuated by painful skin lesions. NASA 

has developed a technology that can detect immune 

changes early enough to begin treatment before painful lesions appear in astronauts and people here on 

Earth. This early detection and treatment will reduce 

the duration of the disease and the incidence of 

long-term consequences.

Spaceflight alters some elements of the human immune system: innate immunity, an early line of defense 

against infectious agents, and specific components 

of cellular immunity are decreased in astronauts. 

Astronauts do not experience increased incidence 

or severity of infectious disease during short-duration 

spaceflight, but NASA scientists are concerned about 

Immune Defenses

Virtually the entire population is infected with one of eight herpes viruses, four of which reactivate and 

appear in body fluids in response to the stress of spaceflight. A patent-pending device designed for use 

in either a doctor’s office or on a spacecraft allow for the rapid detection of one of these viruses (VZV), 

which can lead to earlier treatment and prevent the onset of painful shingles. Microgravity studies on 

ISS help researchers pinpoint genetic triggers for immune responses in T-cells leading to future medical 

treatments on Earth for immunosuppression. Determining the changes that occur to the immune system 

in space is providing the means to develop targeted countermeasures to adverse effects in space, as well 

as providing additional information for targeted treatments on Earth for the development of pharmaceuticals that can suppress immune response to help manage autoimmune diseases or organ transplants.

Space research has led to the 

rapid detection of Varicella 

(chickenpox virus), which 

improves treatment of shingles.

 1Adapted from an original article that appeared in NASA Technology Innovation, Vol 15; 3, 2010; NP-2010-06-658-HQ.

Varicella zoster-infected MeWo cells showing 

typical herpes virus-induced, multinucleated giant 

cells. Cultures are stained with acrydine orange 

to identify RNA (red) in the cytoplasm. 

Image credit: NASA
20

how the immune system will function over the long 

stays in space that may be required for exploration 

missions.

To determine specific causes of decreased immunity 

in healthy individuals is difficult, but the herpes viruses 

have become valuable tools in early detection of 

changes in the immune system, based largely on the 

astronaut studies. Eight herpes viruses may reside in 

the human body, and virtually all of us are infected by 

one or more of these viruses. Herpes viruses cause 

diseases including common “fever blisters” (herpes 

simplex virus or HSV), infectious mononucleosis 

(Epstein-Barr virus or EBV), chickenpox and shingles 

(varicella zoster virus or VZV). In immune-suppressed 

individuals, herpes viruses may cause several types of 

cancer, such as carcinoma, lymphoproliferative disease 

and others.

According to the Centers for Disease Control and 

Prevention, one million cases of shingles occur yearly 

in the U.S., and 100,000 to 200,000 of these cases 

develop into a particularly painful and sometimes 

debilitating condition known as post-herpetic neuralgia, which can last for months or years. The other 

seven herpes viruses also exist in an inactive state in 

different body tissues much like VZV, and similarly they 

may also reactivate and cause disease during periods 

of decreased immunity.

The most common cause of decreasing immunity is 

age, but chronic stress also results in decreased immunity and increases risk of the secondary disease, 

such as VZV-driven shingles. Chemotherapy, organ 

transplants and infectious diseases, such as human 

immunodeficiency virus (HIV), also result in decreased 

immunity. Thus, viral reactivation has been identified 

as an important indicator of clinically relevant immune 

changes. Studies of immune-compromised individuals 

indicate that these patients shed EBV in saliva at 

rates 90-fold higher than found in healthy individuals.

The herpes viruses are already present in astronauts, 

as they are in at least 95 percent of the general adult 

population worldwide. So measuring the appearance 

of herpes viruses in astronaut body fluids is critical. It is 

widely believed that various stressors associated with 

spaceflight are responsible for the observed decreased 

immunity. Researchers at NASA’s Johnson Space 

Center found that four human herpes viruses reactivate 

and appear in body fluids in response to spaceflight. 

Due to the reduced cellular immunity, the viruses can 

emerge from their latent state into active infectious 

agents. The multiplying viruses are released into saliva, 

urine or blood and can be detected and quantified 

by a method called polymerase chain reaction (PCR) 

for each specific virus. The finding of VZV in saliva of 

astronauts was the first report of VZV being reactivated 

and shed in asymptomatic individuals, therefore posing 

a risk of disease in uninfected individuals. However, the 

PCR assay requires large, complex equipment, which 

is not practical for spaceflight.

To overcome this obstacle, NASA developed a rapid 

method of detection of VZV in body fluids, and a 

patent application is currently pending for it. The new 

technology requires a small sample of saliva, which is 

mixed with specialized reagents that produce a red 

color only when VZV is present. This technology makes 

possible early detection, before the appearance of skin 

lesions. Early detection allows for early administration 

of antiviral therapy and thus limits nerve damage and 

prevents overt disease. The device is designed for use 

in doctors’ offices or spacecraft and can be modified 

easily for use with other viruses in saliva, urine, blood 

and spinal fluid. The sensitivity and specificity emanates from an antibody-antigen reaction.

In another collaborative study, NASA and University of 

Colorado Health Science Center (Denver) researchers 

developed a tool to assess stress hormones during 

space shuttle missions. Saliva samples are collected 

on individual filter paper strips and tested once back 

on Earth. The test measures cortisol and dehydroepiandrosterone (DHEA), two important stress and 

immune regulatory hormones. The filter paper also can 

be used for proteins and other molecules of interest 

in saliva. Booklets of these filter papers now are being 

used in university and government laboratories for 

remote saliva collection. These studies demonstrate 

the potential value of bringing to the general public a 

technology that could prevent a painful and debilitating 

condition in up to one million people each year in the 

U.S. alone.

Station immunology insights for Earth 

and space

When people get sick, their immune systems kick into 

gear to tell their bodies how to heal. T-cells—white 

blood cells that act like tiny generals—order an army 

of immune cells to organize and attack the enemy. 

Microgravity studies aboard the International Space 

Station are helping researchers pinpoint what drives 

these responses, leading to future medical treatments 

on Earth.

Scientists have known since the early days of human 

spaceflight that living in microgravity suppresses 

the immune system. During the Apollo Program, 

for instance, 15 of the 29 astronauts developed an 
21

infection either during or right after flight. Forty years 

later, Leukin results show that immunosuppression 

begins within the first 60 hours of flight.

Findings from this investigation, led by Millie HughesFulford, Ph.D., a former NASA astronaut and director 

of the Laboratory of Cell Growth at the University of 

California, San Francisco, enabled researchers to 

pinpoint some specific genetic triggers for the go/no 

go of the immune system responses in the T-cells. 

It was the first time scientists have been able to prove 

that gravity is making a difference in activation of the 

T-cell. A healthy body depends on these T-cells giving 

orders for the immune system to function properly as 

it marches into battle. There are factors that can hinder 

victory, however, such as signal interruption, delayed 

responses or even outright cell death. A suppressed 

immune system is like an army with an ineffective 

leader, significantly reducing the chances of a 

successful fight.

Results revealed that specific genes within T-cells 

showed down regulation—a decrease in cell response—when exposed to microgravity. This combined down regulation in the genetics of T-cells leads 

to a reduction in the body’s defense against infections 

during spaceflight in various ways. For instance, there 

is a reduced proinflammatory response, the cell’s protective reaction to initiate healing. Cells also produce 

fewer cytokines, the proteins responsible for signaling 

communications between cells. There is even a negative impact to a cell’s ability to multiply, known as mitogenesis, the chromosomal splitting in a cell nucleus 

necessary for cell reproduction.

Examples of immunosuppression on Earth include 

the AIDS-related HIV infection, rheumatoid arthritis 

and even age-related impacts to the immune system, 

which is why the elderly have a difficult time fighting off 

infections like pneumonia. Identifying how the immune 

system works at the cellular level provides a powerful 

tool to develop treatments at the root of the defense 

response. This is like a negotiation for peace talks 

before conflict breaks out, instead of trying to raise 

a white flag in the midst of an already raging battle. 

If doctors can isolate and control specific immune 

responses, they increase the chance for recovery. 

With the removal of gravity as its own variable, the 

data gathered from immune studies in space can be 

used to help understand some of the immune challenges seen in these populations on Earth.

Hughes-Fulford launched a follow-on immunology 

study aboard the space station, funded by a grant

from the National Institutes of Health and sponsored by the Center for Advancement of Science in 

Space (http://www.iss-casis.org/). Launching on the 

SpaceX-3 commercial resupply mission, the investigation, called T-Cell Activation in Aging, investigates at 

another class of control points in T-cells that trigger 

immune response. Finding the genes that tell the cells 

to turn on and off is key to advancing medical options 

to improve immune system functions. Data analysis is 

underway, with the potential to pinpoint new candidate 

pharmaceutical targets to treat immunosuppression.

Targeted treatments to improve immune 

response

Cell biology experiments have been uncovering 

different aspects of altered immune system response 

in weightlessness. Determining the changes that 

occur to the immune system in space is providing the 

means to develop targeted countermeasures to adverse effects in space, as well as providing additional 

Microgravity studies on ISS 

help researchers pinpoint 

genetic triggers for immune 

responses in T-cells leading 

to future medical treatments.

Expedition 30 Flight Engineer Andre Kuipers, 

European Space Agency, works with the 

Kubik facility in the Columbus Module of the 

International Space Station. 

Image credit: NASA
22

information for targeted treatments on Earth. This 

could either be for the purpose of developing pharmaceuticals that can improve treatment and recovery from 

certain medical conditions or alternatively targeted 

treatments that can suppress immune response, for 

example to help deal with autoimmune diseases or 

organ transplants.

Research undertaken in the Kubik incubators has 

uncovered many altered mechanisms that occur 

in the immune system in space using biological 

samples processed at body temperature at 0 g and 

1 g (centrifuge) in orbit. This has included discovering 

reduced function in monocyte white blood cells that is 

due to a disrupted cytoskeleton. This is an apparent inhibition of the Protein Kinase C family of enzymes and 

a specific immune cell transmitter, called the Rel/NF-κB 

pathway, which stops working in weightlessness. All of 

these are important mechanisms in immune response. 

One of the most recent ESA experiments in this 

domain was the ROle of Apoptosis in Lymphocyte 

Depression (ROALD) experiment series, which was 

undertaken in 2008 with a follow-up experiment in 

2011. In the first part of the experiment, researchers 

discovered that a particular enzyme called 5-LOX, 

which in part regulates the life expectancy of human 

cells, became more active in weightlessness and could 

play a real role in causing weakened immune systems. 

The 5-LOX enzyme can be blocked with existing 

drugs, so using these findings to improve human 

health could be a close reality. Additional efforts to 

understand this treatment pathway, targeting patient 

treatment on Earth, is ongoing.

ESA astronaut Thomas Reiter undertakes in-orbit activities for one of ESA’s immunology experiments in 2006. 

Image credit: ESA

ISS research provides 

the means to develop 

pharmaceuticals and targeted 

treatments that can suppress 

immune response to help deal 

with autoimmune diseases 

or organ transplants.
23

Developing New Therapies

Studying the unique and complicated structures of proteins in the human body leads to the development 

of medical treatments. Microgravity allows unique conditions for growth of protein crystals where there 

is no gravity or convection to disrupt their growth. The protein expressed in certain muscle fibers of 

patients with Duchenne Muscular Dystrophy, which affects 1 in 3,500 boys, has been successfully 

crystallized in space revealing a new inhibitor several hundred times stronger than the prototype inhibitor.

Microencapsulation is the process by which tiny, liquid-filled, biodegradable micro-balloons are created 

containing specific combinations of concentrated anti-tumor drugs. The goal is to deliver this medication 

using specialized needles to specific treatment sites within a cancer patient. The microgravity 

environment, where density differences do not cause layering of the medication, has allowed for the 

development of devices on Earth to create these microcapsules and devices that will aid in the drug 

delivery using this technology. Progress continues towards clinical studies in cancer patients one day in 

the future. 

Ongoing research of gravitational unloading supported by dry immersion technology allows for a broad 

spectrum of possible clinical applications such as the early diagnosis of slow-developing neurological 

disorders, the combating of edema that responds poorly to medication, post-operative rehabilitation, 

sports medicine and rehabilitation for premature babies.

High-quality protein crystal growth 

experiment aboard Kibo

There are more than 100,000 proteins in the human 

body and as many as 10 billion in nature. Every 

structure is different, and each one of them holds 

important information related to our health and to the 

global environment. Each protein has a unique and 

complicated structure, which is closely related to its 

function. Therefore, revealing protein structure leads to 

an understanding of its function. However, it is difficult 

to analyze protein structures here on Earth, where 

gravity interferes with optimal growth. The perfect 

environment in which to study these structures is 

space; microgravity means there is no convection to 

disrupt the liquid solution, nor is there precipitation to 

cause heavier molecules to sink. Therefore, protein 

molecules form orderly, high-quality crystals that 

provide optimal structures for study. Many crystals 

of various proteins have been created in the unique 

environment of space.

The Japan Aerospace Exploration Agency (JAXA) 

has conducted nine sessions of protein crystallization 

experiments since 2003 in the Zvezda service module 

and has developed techniques to produce high-quality 

protein crystals in space. Based on these techniques, 

JAXA executed six sessions of experiments for the 

first series for the High-quality Protein Crystal Growth 

experiment (JAXA PCG) in the Japanese Kibo module 

on the space station from July 2009 to May 2013. 

JAXA is conducting another six sessions in total as 

the second series by periodic flight opportunities of sixmonth intervals. The first session of the second-series 

experiments started in March 2014. 

Through collaboration with the Russian Federal Space 

Agency (Roscosmos), protein samples are launched 

to the space station aboard the Russian Progress or 

Soyuz spacecraft. Soon after the docking, the samples 

are brought into Kibo to be placed inside the Protein 

Crystallization Research Facility (PCRF) where they 

Microgravity allows for 

optimal growth of the unique 

and complicated crystal 

structures of proteins leading 

to the development of medical 

treatments.
24

are kept for a period of one-and-a-half to four months 

at a stable temperature, 68 degrees Fahrenheit (20 

degrees Celsius). A counter-diffusion method called 

“Gel-Tube method” is used for crystallization whereby 

polyethylene glycol or salt solution is diffused into the 

protein solution separated by a porous membrane 

inside a tube. In this method, concentration of 

polyethylene glycol in the protein solution gradually 

increases and finally satisfies the condition for 

protein crystallization.

One of the major purposes of the protein crystal 

growth experiments is the contribution to the development of medical treatments. The relationship between 

a certain protein that causes disease and its medicine 

that suppresses the disease can be compared to the 

relationship between a “keyhole” and its “key.” If the 

shape of the keyhole becomes apparent by examining 

the structure of the protein, treatment-oriented 

medicine with few side effects—the key to fit the 

keyhole—can be designed. JAXA is making positive 

advancements in research on obstinate diseases 

through experiments in space with the hope of 

supporting medical care more effectively. 

An example of a protein that was successfully crystallized in space is hematopoietic prostaglandin D 

synthase (H-PGDS). This protein may hold the key to 

treating disease. A research team at the Osaka Bioscience Institute (OBI) reported that H-PGDS is expressed 

in certain muscle fibers of patients with Duchenne 

muscular dystrophy (DMD). An inherited muscle 

disorder, DMD is the most common form of muscular 

dystrophy, affecting approximately 1 in 3,500 boys. 

DMD causes muscular wasting and accelerates the 

progression of muscular deterioration. It is an obstinate 

disease for which a fundamental mode of treatment 

has not yet been found. Therefore, H-PGDS-specific 

inhibitors are considered to be useful drugs for muscular dystrophy.

High-quality crystals of H-PGDS-Inhibitor 

complexes.

The detailed structure of muscular dystrophy 

related-protein became clear through a space 

experiment. 

Image credit: Osaka Bioscience Institute/

Tsukuba University/Maruwa Foods and 

Biosciences, Inc./JAXA

Advantage of the Space Experiment. 

Because the structure of the disease-causing protein, or the keyhole, is vague when it is obtained on the ground, 

the shape of the key, or a medicine candidate compound for treatment cannot be determined. However, it is 

possible to find the structure of the disease-causing protein through the space experiments and medicine that 

fits the treatment (the key that fits the keyhole) can be developed. 

Image credit: JAXA
25

The OBI research team has successfully determined 

the 3-D structure of H-PGDS in a complex with a 

prototype H PGDS-specific inhibitor. H-PGDS has 

been crystallized several times in microgravity as part 

of JAXA’s space experiments. Using X-ray crystallographic analysis—using X-rays to determine the 

structure—researchers determined the structure of the 

high-quality crystals of H-PGDS-inhibitor complexes 

grown in space, and as a result, discovered a new inhibitor with several hundred times stronger activity than 

the prototype inhibitor. This particular experiment is an 

example of how understanding a protein’s structure 

can lead to better drug designs. Further research 

is ongoing.

Cancer-targeted treatments from space 

station discoveries

Invasive and systemic cancer treatment is a necessary 

evil for many people with the devastating diagnosis. 

These patients endure therapies with ravaging side 

effects, including nausea, immune suppression, hair 

loss and even organ failure, in hopes of eradicating 

cancerous tissues in the body. If treatments targeted a 

patient’s cancerous tissues, it could provide clinicians 

with an alternative to lessen the delivery of toxic levels 

of chemotherapy or radiation. Remarkably, research 

that began in space may soon result in such options 

here on Earth. 

Using the distinctive, microgravity environment aboard 

the International Space Station, a particular series of 

research investigations is making further advancements in cancer therapy. A process investigated 

aboard the space station known as microencapsulation is able to produce tiny, liquid-filled, biodegradable micro-balloons containing specific combinations 

of concentrated anti-tumor drugs. Using specialized 

needles, doctors could deliver these micro-balloons, 

or microcapsules, directly to specific treatment sites 

within a cancer patient, effectively revolutionizing 

cancer treatment. 

Dr. Dennis Morrison of NASA’s Johnson Space Center 

used the microgravity environment aboard the space 

station for microencapsulation experiments as a tool 

to develop the Earth-based technology, called the 

Microencapsulation Electrostatic Processing System-II 

(MEPS-II), to make the most effective microcapsules. 

The technique for making these microcapsules could 

not be done on Earth, because the different densities 

of the liquids would layer. But in space, microgravity 

brought together two liquids incapable of mixing on 

Earth (80 percent water and 20 percent oil) in such a 

way that spontaneously caused liquid-filled microcapsules to form as spherical, tiny, liquid-filled bubbles surrounded by a thin, semipermeable, outer membrane. 

In space, surface tension shapes liquids into spheres. 

Each molecule on a liquid’s surface is pulled with 

equal tension by its neighbors. The closely integrated 

molecules form into the smallest possible area, which 

is a sphere. In effect, the MEPS-II system allowed a 

combination of liquids in a bubble shape because 

surface tension forces took over and allowed the fluids 

to interface rather than sit atop one another. Studying 

the samples upon return to Earth allowed scientists to 

understand how to make a device that could create 

the same microcapsules on Earth. 

The microgravity environment 

has allowed for the development of devices on Earth to 

create microcapsules that 

could aid in drug delivery.

The oil contains a visualization marker that is 

traceable by ultrasound and CT scans to allow 

doctors to follow the microcapsules as they 

are site-specifically delivered to the tumor. The 

semipermeable outer skin releases the drug 

slowly, through its physical ability to be timed 

released. 

Image credit: NuVue Therapeutics, Inc.
26

The MEPS-II system is now being brought to commercial scale under U.S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA) Good Manufacturing Practice requirements, 

and commercialization of the MEPS technology and 

methods to develop new applications for these unique 

microcapsules has already begun. The space station 

research led to 13 licensed microcapsule-related 

patents and two that are pending. 

In laboratory testing, MEPS-II microcapsules containing anticancer drugs were injected directly into a human prostate and lung tumors in animal models. 

These models were then, in follow-on tests, also 

injected following the delivery of specific cryo-surgical 

effects, similar to a freeze and thaw effect on the 

tumorous tissues. Injecting the microcapsules directly 

into the tumor demonstrated improved site-specific 

therapeutic results and the inhibition of tumor growth. 

Following cryo-surgery, the microcapsules demonstrated improved destruction of the tumor better 

than freezing or local chemotherapy alone. 

Though Morrison’s previous laboratory studies of 

microcapsules were primarily focused on prostate and 

lung cancer, his studies now target breast cancer for 

the FDA approval process through development with 

NuVue Therapeutics, Inc. Though it will take a few 

years to get approval to use the microcapsules as a 

treatment option filled with anti-tumor drug therapies, 

several devices that will aid in drug delivery using this 

technology are planned for pre-clinical study as early 

as 2015. 

After achieving full FDA approval, planned clinical trials 

will involve injecting the microcapsules with the antitumor drugs directly into tumor sites in humans at both 

MD Anderson Cancer Center in Houston and the Mayo 

Cancer Center in Scottsdale, Ariz. Given the success 

in animal models in laboratory studies with human 

prostate and lung tumor treatment, Morrison has high 

hopes in the near future of being able to begin use of 

the microcapsule treatment in breast cancer. 

These kinds of technologies are enabled by the availability of the microgravity environment aboard the 

space station. Just as microgravity can aid in the 

discovery of new technologies for cancer treatment, 

these microcapsules may one day aid in the recovery 

of breast and other specific deep-tissue cancers. 

Using weightlessness to treat multiple 

ailments

The technology of dry immersion was developed as 

an Earth-based model to study the effect of microgravity factors on the human body. Using this model, the 

effectiveness of measures developed to prevent the 

negative impact of spaceflight factors on people has 

been and continues to be evaluated. The countermeasures currently used on the International Space Station 

were tested in experiments involving dry immersion. 

Experts at the Institute of Biomedical Problems (IBMP) 

developed the automated immersion system to create 

water hypodynamia (utility model patent #44505 

“Immersion bath” and invention patent #2441713 

“Polymer covering and device for dry immersion”). 

The concept of the technology involves submerging 

a person in an immersion bath filled with water. The 

immersion system is an ergonomically designed tub 

with a built-in elevation mechanism, filtration, and temperature control systems. The subject is kept separate 

from the water by a thin water-proof cloth with an area 

significantly exceeding the area of the water’s surface. 

In this way, conditions closely simulating the lack of 

Dr. Dennis Morrison poses with the Microencapsulation Electrostatic Processing System flight 

hardware that was used on the International 

Space Station to produce microcapsules for 

cancer treatment delivery.

Image credit: NASA 

Ongoing research on dry 

immersion technology allows 

for a broad spectrum of 

possible clinical applications.
27

gravity are recreated. As a result, changes typical 

of acute gravitational unloading are reproduced in 

the body. 

The potential use of the system for health purposes 

relates to the specific physiological changes in the 

body caused by gravitational unloading. In particular, 

acute disruptions occur in the mechanisms of sensory 

interaction. These disruptions counteract compensatory processes in the central nervous system resulting 

in discovery of latent neurological disruptions. Treatment with dry immersion is also accompanied by a 

number of physiological shifts such as the redistribution of fluids in the body, which have positive effects 

in certain cardiovascular conditions such as edema.

The drug-free method of dry immersion offers the 

user: relaxation of muscles; increase in immunity; 

elimination of edema; and, normalization of blood 

pressure, thus making it possible to use the immersion system for the early diagnosis of slow-developing 

neurological disorders and to combat massive edema 

that responds poorly to pharmacological remedies. 

Its use may also be an effective mechanism in rehabilitative treatment in areas such as psychoneurology, 

traumatology, orthopedics (post-operative rehabilitation), sports medicine, clinical neurophysiology, and 

applied psycho-physiology.

The use of the immersion system is also a particularly 

valuable rehabilitation measure for premature babies 

who are exposed to the effects of gravity following 

the intrauterine environment. Perinatal damage to the 

central nervous system (hyperexcitability; depressive, 

muscle hypertonia, and cephalohematoma syndromes) 

is an opportunity for the use of the dry immersion 

method. Additional uses for dry immersion include 

treatment of immune disorders, hormone imbalances, 

muscle disease, wound healing, and cardiovascular 

health.

The spectrum of possible applications of this system 

that simulates spaceflight conditions, such as those 

experienced by the International Space Station, is fairly 

broad and will expand with further study.

Dry Immersion Complex (prototype). 

Image credit: Institute of Biomedical Problems, 

Russia

New prototype of the automated immersion 

system used in clinics. 

Image credit: Aerospace Medical Center and 

Technology
28
29

Microbiology applications from fungal 

research in space

Microbiology is a vitally important area, not only within 

human spaceflight but also for humans on Earth. With 

this microscopic world encompassing microorganisms 

such as bacteria, archea, fungi and algae that can 

have both a detrimental or beneficial impact on our 

daily lives, this research has far-reaching effects 

feeding into many different areas of biotechnology. 

Microorganisms have both negative and beneficial 

effects, and different species of fungi are inherent in 

many of these processes. 

•	 They can spoil food but assist in waste and sewage

treatment and processing as well as nutrient cycling 

and exchange.

•	 Assist in pollution control but also increase greenhouse gases.

Food and the Environment

Microbiology is a vitally important area, not only within human spaceflight but also for humans on Earth. 

Microorganisms such as bacteria, archea, fungi and algae have a detrimental or a beneficial impact on 

our daily lives. This research has far-reaching effects feeding into many different areas of biotechnology 

as microorganisms have a role in food spoilage, waste and sewage treatment and processing, nutrient 

cycling and exchange, pollution control, and in increased greenhouse gases. 

Studying the effects of gravity on plants led to the development of an ethylene scrubber. This technology is now used as an air purifier that destroys airborne bacteria, mold, fungi, viruses, and odors. 

The scrubber is used for food preservation in major supermarkets, high-end refrigerator technology, 

and in trucks that carry groceries to remote regions of countries such as India, Saudi Arabia and Kuwait 

to name a few. Even the health care industry benefits from the use of these units in clinics, operating 

rooms, neonatal wards and waiting rooms making these locations safer for their inhabitants. 

Plant research in a space greenhouse has allowed the study of root zone substrates in space allowing 

scientists to improve predictions of how artificial soils will behave when irrigated both in space and 

on Earth in experimental forests.

Microbiology research on 

ISS provides insight into how 

microorganisms can spoil 

food, assist in waste and 

sewage treatment, and in 

pollution control.

Flight day 5 sample from the Coloured Fungi in 

Space experiment. 

Image credit: CFS-A science team
30

•	 Cause disease but can be used in the manufacture

of antibiotics, detergents and pesticides.

•	 Cause deterioration in manufactured materials and

buildings but can also be used in the recover of 

metals in the mining sector as well as the production of biofuels and fertilizers. 

Insights into one species may provide insights into 

others and hence feed into different applications.

The Growth and Survival of Coloured Fungi in Space-A 

(CFS-A) experiment determined the changes that 

weightlessness and cosmic radiation have on the 

growth and survival of various coloured fungi species. 

Understanding any changes in the physiology and 

survivability of different microorganisms in space 

can help determine the effect that this may have on 

spacecraft, associated systems and supplies, as well 

as the astronauts inhabiting them. This could provide 

important insights for developing countermeasures 

to possibly deleterious microorganisms, help to draw 

conclusions on how the space environment may 

affect similar organisms, and could also feed into 

biotechnology applications in the future. 

The main fungal species studied in the CFS-A 

experiment was Ulocladium chartarum, which is well 

known to be involved in biodeterioration of organic and 

inorganic materials and suspected to be a possible 

contaminant in spacecraft. Other species studied 

were Aspergillus niger (which causes a disease 

called black mold on certain fruits and vegetables, 

and commercially accounts for 99 percent of global 

commercial citric acid production); Cladosporium 

herbarum (frequently the most prominent mold spore 

in air and found on dead herbaceous and woody 

plants, textiles, rubber, paper, and foodstuffs of all 

kinds); and Basipetospora halophile (which survives 

in high-saline environments). 

The CFS-A experiment clearly indicated that 

Ulocladium chartarum is able to grow under spaceflight 

conditions, elaborating a new strategy to survive for a 

short time by developing submerged mycelium and for 

a long time by developing sporulating microcolonies 

on the surface of the nutrient source on which it was 

cultured. In spacecraft, U. chartarum and other fungal 

species could find a favorable environment to grow 

invasively unnoticed in the depth of surfaces under the 

right conditions posing a risk factor for biodegradation 

of structural components, as well as a direct threat 

for crew health. This will be especially important for 

future long-duration missions outside of low-Earth orbit 

where astronauts will have to be more self-sufficient for 

maintaining spacecraft and systems, and some food 

supplies would need to be preserved for longer than 

potentially 18 months. However, on the same line, in 

the future this kind of research could potentially feed 

into strategies for waste recycling on spacecraft and 

the development of biological life support systems. As 

we gain knowledge of the life histories of key species 

of fungi in the space environment, that knowledge 

can be readily applied to better manage these species 

on Earth.

Plant growth on ISS has global impacts 

on Earth

Understanding the effects of gravity on plant life is essential in preparation for human exploration beyond 

low-Earth orbit. The ability to produce high-energy, 

low-mass food sources during spaceflight will enable 

the maintenance of crew health during long-duration 

Fungi on the ISS, grows on a panel of the Russian 

Zarya Module where exercise clothes were hung 

to dry. 

Image credit: NASA
31

missions while having a reduced impact on resources 

necessary for long-distance travel. 

The Advanced AstrocultureTM (ADVASC) investigation, 

led by Weijia Zhou, Ph.D., of the Wisconsin Center 

for Space Automation and Robotics, University of 

Wisconsin-Madison, explored the benefits of using 

microgravity to create custom crops that can withstand 

the inhospitable climates of space, resist pestilence, 

and need less volume to grow. ADVASC was performed over several International Space Station (ISS) 

expeditions, growing two generations of Arabidopsis 

thaliana (rapidly growing, flowering plant in the mustard 

family that has been grown on many space missions), 

and soybean plants, from seed to seed in space using the ADVASC payload, an autonomously operated 

plant growth unit. The ability to grow plants from seeds 

through several generations has proven to be challenging in space and is critical in developing hardware and 

operational concepts to take human explorers farther 

beyond low-Earth orbit.

While serving as a unique plant-growth chamber, the 

ADVASC hardware design has also contributed to 

national security, cancer-fighting pharmaceuticals and 

educational tools for students. ADVASC’s novel air 

scrubber was designed to remove ethylene from the 

chamber atmosphere, thus allowing longevity of the 

produce. Ethylene is a naturally occurring, odorless, 

colorless gas given off by plants that hastens the 

A new technology for an 

ethylene scrubber is used for 

food preservation in major 

supermarkets and in trucks 

that carry groceries to remote 

regions of the world.

Astronaut Peggy Whitson with the ADVASC soybean plant growth experiment during Expedition 5. 

Image credit: NASA
32

ripening of fruits and the aging of flowers, encouraging 

decay. Comprised of carbon and hydrogen in closed 

growing environments, like on a spacecraft or in a 

terrestrial greenhouse, ethylene builds up quickly and 

plants mature too fast. Removing ethylene, therefore, 

is important to preserving crops not just in space, but 

also on Earth, where grocers and florists have an 

interest in reducing the gas that ultimately shortens 

the shelf life of their products. 

The ethylene-reduction device, also called the ethylene “scrubber,” draws air through tubes coated in thin 

layers of titanium dioxide. The insides of the tubes are 

exposed to ultraviolet light, which creates a simple, 

chemical reaction, converting the ethylene into trace 

amounts of water and carbon dioxide, both of which 

are actually good for plants. 

KES Science & Technology Inc., a Kennesaw, Georgiabased company specializing in sustaining perishable 

foods, licensed the ethylene-scrubbing technology 

from the University of Wisconsin. KES partnered with 

Akida Holdings, of Jacksonville, Florida, which now 

markets the NASA-developed technology as AiroCide. 

According to the company, it is the only air purifier that 

completely destroys airborne bacteria, mold, fungi, 

mycotoxins, viruses, volatile organic compounds (like 

ethylene), and odors. What’s more, the device has no 

filters that need changing and produces no harmful 

byproducts, such as the ozone created by some 

filtration systems. 

Food preservation customers include supermarkets 

like Whole Foods; produce distribution facilities like 

those operated by Del Monte; food processing plants; 

wineries; distilleries; restaurants; and large floral shops. 

Reeves Floral, an AiroCide user, reported 92-percent 

reductions in airborne mold and a 58-percent drop 

in airborne bacteria levels in just the first 24 hours it 

had the units operating in its floral storage warehouse. 

The AiroCide units can be used in walk-in coolers to 

preserve freshness of produce during storage and 

transport, to increase safety in food preparation areas, 

to kill bacterial contaminants in flowers (botrytis), and 

to protect against spoilage and contaminants.

AiroCide technology is now incorporated into a line of 

refrigerators, high-end consumer models that preserve 

freshness and reduce food waste. The refrigerator 

recycles the air every 20 minutes, reducing odors, 

viruses, and bacteria, as well as eliminating the presence of veggie-wilting ethylene. 

AiroCide units have been deployed to India and 

the Gulf Cooperation Council, which includes the 

countries of Bahrain, Kuwait, Qatar, Oman, Saudi 

Arabia, and the United Arab Emirates. In these areas, 

where refrigerated trucks carry groceries from rural 

farmland to towns miles away, the AiroCide unit 

preserves freshness and prevents food spoilage 

in harsh environments. 

In the health care arena, AiroCide units have been 

incorporated into doctors’ clinics, operating rooms, 

neonatal wards, and in waiting areas, an often overlooked location rife with germs and bacteria like 

respiratory influenza or mycobacterium tuberculosis 

and frequented by people with compromised immune 

systems. Operating rooms with AiroCide units mounted in the ceiling become safer for all inhabitants, as 

harmful bacteria like methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus and vancomycin-resistant Enterococcus, 

and the fungi Penicillium and Aspergillus are removed 

from the air. In addition to eliminating virtually all known 

airborne germs and diseases, the technology reduces 

the burden on high-efficiency particulate air filters and 

laminar flow environments. These same air-cleaning 

properties have also been applied to neonatal wards.

The AiroCide units have been adapted for use in 

everyday living environments. In hotels, for example, 

the units eliminate mold, mildew, germs and unwanted 

odors. These same features are also useful in offices, 

where illnesses caused by airborne organisms can 

lower productivity. In homes, the AiroCide units help 

eliminate the growth of mold and fungi as well as 

eliminate allergens like pet dander and dust mites.

Experiments with higher plants on the 

Russian Segment of the International 

Space Station

Some of the most important tasks in space biology 

include the creation of reliable and effectively functioning life support systems, and providing sustaining food sources for crew members. For long-term 

interplanetary spaceflights and planetary bases, the 

human life support system and food production has 

Space station studies improved 

predictions of how artificial 

soils will behave when irrigated 

both in space and on Earth in 

experimental forests.
33

to be based on regenerating the living environment 

from life support products through physical/chemical 

and biological processes. Greenhouses will most likely 

be designed for the cultivation of vegetables, primarily greens and herbs. However, in order to implement 

these plans, plants must grow, develop, and reproduce 

in spaceflight with cultivation productivity similar to 

Earth. To address this need, a series of 17 Rasteniya

experiments were conducted from 2002-2011 using 

the Lada greenhouse on the Russian segment of the 

International Space Station.

Multigenerational studies were carried out to culture 

genetically tagged dwarf pea plants in the Lada space 

greenhouse. For the first time in space research, four 

consecutive generations of genetically tagged pea line 

seeds were obtained in spaceflight. The growth and 

development characteristics of various lines of pea 

plants did not change in a significant way compared to 

ground control samples. Using molecular methods with 

random amplified polymorphic DNA (RAPD) primers 

with 10 markers and analyzing chromosomal aberrations, it was demonstrated that plants having undergone four complete development cycles in spaceflight 

did not manifest genetic polymorphism. That makes it 

possible to assert that there is no impact of spaceflight 

factors on the genetic apparatus of plants in the first 

to the fourth “space” generations.

To prepare a chain of higher plants for future life 

support systems of space crews, experiments were 

carried out to cultivate the leafy vegetable plant mizuna

(Brassica rapa var. nipposinica). Results showed 

that the significant increase in the parameter of total 

contamination of International Space Station (ISS) air 

did not result in a decrease in productivity of the leafy 

vegetable plant; however, the plants responded with 

a change in gene expression.

A space experiment to grow super dwarf wheat during 

a complete vegetation cycle showed that the rate of 

Cosmonaut Valery G. Korzun, Expedition Five mission commander, studies mizuna lettuce as part of the Rastenyia-2 

investigation.

Image credit: NASA
34

plant development over 90 days did not differ from 

data from ground control experiments. When the 

space-produced seeds were planted on the ground, 

plants that grew were no different from the control 

sample.

The work done has great applied value because in 

the process of creating and operating the space greenhouse, cutting-edge equipment and software were 

developed, making it possible to grow plants automatically. This dual-purpose technology can also improve 

plant growth on Earth. The psycho-physiological 

aspect of the interaction between humans and plants 

in a habitable pressurized volume was studied, and 

data were obtained on the safety of cultivating plant 

biomass on a space station for human consumption. 

These data are of great interest for design work to 

create productive greenhouses that are part of promising life support systems of any living complexes that 

are cut off from the Earth’s biosphere. 

Scientists have also studied the interaction of plants 

with the soil. The processes by which plant roots receive water, gases and nutrients are different in space 

than they are on Earth. On Earth, gravity and surface 

tension combine to move water through soil, allowing 

air to move through the pore spaces in the soil to the 

plant’s roots. In space, soil is replaced with an artificial growth medium, made up of small grains or other 

porous material. In microgravity, liquid moves through 

capillary action, where the liquid is attracted to the adjacent surface of a solid material. The surface tension 

of the liquid pulls additional liquid along as each new 

surface is wetted. If the plant is over-watered and all of 

the surface area and open spaces within the growth 

medium are filled with liquid, then gas (air) can’t move, 

and the plant’s roots are deprived of air and oxygen. 

When properly wetted, as water is used by the roots, 

surface tension pulls additional liquid along without filling the pore spaces, and therefore without preventing 

oxygen from diffusing through the open spaces to the 

roots. Studies in the Lada greenhouse have addressed 

the importance of root zone media in these extreme 

artificial conditions. Scientists have studied a variety of 

root zone substrates—growth media, material particle 

sizes, and packing structure—and learned which combinations work best. 

Knowledge of root zone substrates in space has allowed scientists to improve their predictions of how 

artificial soils will behave when they’re irrigated—in 

space and on Earth—and to design specific plant 

growth media and artificial soils for greenhouses and 

other large scale plant production facilities on Earth. 

Models, describing the behavior of water and oxygen 

learned from these space experiments, have been 

published in scientific journals, allowing commercial 

users to access the information without divulging their 

propriety growth media mixtures. Sensor technology 

developed to monitor the Lada root zone is being 

applied to monitor soil properties in a state-of-the-art 

measurement facility at an experimental forest. 

Editor’s note: Colleagues from many Russian and 

non-Russian organizations participated in carrying out 

work according to the Rasteniya program in the Lada 

greenhouse on the ISS RS. The contributions of G. 

E. Bingham (Utah State University, Space Dynamics 

Laboratory, Logan, Utah, USA), S. A. Gostimsky (M. V. 

Lomonosov Moscow State University), and M. Sugimoto (Okayama University, Institute of Bioresources, 

Okayama, Japan) should be especially noted.

Cosmonaut Maxim Suraev, Expedition 22 Flight 

Engineer, holds Mizun lettuce plants from the BIO-5 

Rasteniya-2 (“Plants-2”) experiment in the Service 

Module during Expedition 20.

Image credit: NASA
35

Space cardiology for the benefit of 

health care

The cardiovascular system plays an exceptionally 

important role in cosmonauts’ physical adaptation to 

long-term weightlessness. Since 2002, the scientific 

experiment “Puls” and from 2007 through 2012, the 

experiment “Pneumocard” were performed regularly 

on the International Space Station to study spaceflight 

effects on the cardiovascular system. These studies 

have provided a tremendous amount of information about space cardiology that has resulted in new 

technologies successfully used to evaluate the body’s 

functional reserves, to determine the degree of stress 

on regulatory systems and to assess the risk of development of disease. These new technologies served as 

the basis both for further development of cardiological 

systems on the International Space Station and 

for the creation of unique sets of instruments that 

can be used in health care practice, including the 

Ecosan-2007 hardware-software complex.

Ecosan-2007 is a multi-purpose instrument for early 

detection of the earliest deviations in health status. It 

is based on the principle of prenosological diagnosis, 

which arose in space medicine, referring to the study 

of changes in the body that precede their development. This device is now used to examine drivers of 

motor vehicles, civil aviation pilots, and test subjects in 

experiments on Earth involving various stress factors.

A study that used the Ecosan-2007 to detect 

early health issues among 105 bus drivers showed 

that more than 30 percent of the drivers were in 

prenosological and premorbid states, which sharply 

increases the risk of motor vehicle accidents. During 

Heart Health and Biorhythms

Studying spaceflight effects on the cardiovascular system has led to the creation of unique instruments 

that can be used on Earth for the detection of the earliest deviations in health status. These technologies are now used to examine motor vehicle drivers and civil aviation pilots to evaluate risks and 

prevent accidents. Twenty-four-hour ECGs of astronauts were also analyzed to understand the space 

environment’s effect on biological rhythm and cardiac autonomic nervous activity leading to recommendations for maintaining a well-balanced biological rhythm on Earth. One of these recommendations 

is maintenance of a regular sleep schedule. In studying the sleep patterns of cosmonauts using a 

miniature device that fits in their pocket, information is recorded and sent to Earth for analysis of sleep 

quality. An Earth model of this device is placed under the pillow or mattress to record movements 

related to heart and breathing. 

Instruments used on Earth 

for the early detection of 

deviations in health status are 

now used to examine motor 

vehicle drivers and civil 

aviation pilots.

Andre Borisenko performs the Pneumocard 

experiment aboard the International Space Station. 

Image credit: Roscosmos
36

examinations of civil aviation pilots the use of Ecosan-2007 showed that long-term, work-related chronic 

stress increases the risk development of pathologies, 

which should be considered during the expert evaluation of fitness for flight, especially for people at the age 

more than 50.

The Ecosan-2007 complex was also used in a 520-

day experiment on Earth simulating a flight to Mars. 

During the experiment, monthly examinations of the 

“Martian” crew located in a pressurized mockup of 

an interplanetary spacecraft and at the same time of 

volunteer test subjects in control groups in 12 different 

regions of the world were performed. Long-term telemedicine of medical-environmental research using the 

Ecosan-2007 complex will be the prototype of a future 

system of individual prenosological monitoring, which 

will be based on space cardiology methods.

The results of the studies on Earth performed using t

he Ecosan-2007 complex served as a tool for Earthbased clinical use and as the basis for the further 

development of space cardiology technologies. Two 

new instruments have been developed for the space 

station and have both been in use since 2014. One of 

them, Cardiovektor, will be the advanced development 

of Pneumocard, which will make it possible to perform 

precise measurements of energy of heart muscle and 

to evaluate the activity of the right and left chambers of 

the heart. The second instrument, Cosmocard, will 

develop the methodology that was used in the Ecosan-2007 for electrocardiogram dispersion mapping. 

This will allow us to use the non-invasive study of the 

energy-metabolic characteristics of the cardiac muscle 

at various stages of spaceflight. In the future, these 

instruments may also be successfully used in health 

care practice.

Biological rhythms in space and on Earth

Humans wake up in the morning and fall asleep at 

night. The biological clock generates this regular, 

daily rhythm. Similar to the clock in the brain, there 

is a peripheral clock in every single cell in our bodies. 

The clock in the brain is called the “master clock,” 

and the clock in cells is referred to as the “peripheral 

clock.” The “master clock” and “peripheral clocks” 

communicate with one another through the autonomic, 

especially the sympathetic, nervous system to accurately regulate the biological rhythm. 

It is not uncommon to perform docking and destination 

landings in the late night or early morning for maximizing efficiency during rocket launching or returning to 

Earth. In such cases, the astronauts experience an 

effect much like traveling through time zones during 

international travel. Furthermore, we also have broad 

biological spectra (i.e., 90-min, 8-hour and 7-day, etc.) 

and have developed “chronomics” to analyze them. 

Chronomics is the term that defines a new scientific 

field such as genomics and proteomics and can reveal 

hidden signals in the original time series data, which 

ISS research has led to 

recommendations for 

maintaining a well-balanced, 

biological rhythm on Earth.

Research using the Ecosan-2007 complex.

Image credit: Institute of Biomedical Problems 

of the Russian Academy of Sciences

Space sleep – Crew members usually sleep in 

sleeping bags. 

Image credit: JAXA/NASA
37

are not decipherable without use of chronomics. 

Chronomes are time structures consisting of (1) multifrequency rhythms, (2) elements of chaos, (3) trends 

in chaotic and rhythmic endpoints, and (4) noise (or as 

yet unresolved variables). Chronomics can solve the 

complexity of organism’s interactions with their environment, near and far. The International Space Station 

(ISS) circles around the Earth once every 90 minutes, 

and astronauts aboard see sunrise and sunset every 

45 minutes. The effects of high-intensity light deficiency 

on human health in the unique environment created by 

microgravity and 45-minute day and night cycles is not 

well understood. 

There may be an increased risk for biological rhythm 

deregulation and insomnia when living in a space 

environment with microgravity and is deficient in high 

intensity light. We analyzed 24-hour ECG recordings of 

long-term-spaceflight astronauts with the aim to clarify 

the space environment’s effect on biological rhythm 

and cardiac autonomic nervous activity. A small, 

light-weight Holter monitor was used to record 24-

hour ECGs, preflight (once), inflight (three times), and 

postflight (once). The 24-hour ECG data recorded in 

orbit was downlinked from Kibo Japanese Experiment 

Module to Tsukuba Space Center for time domain 

and frequency domain analysis. As a result, we found 

that although biological rhythms of the astronauts 

were immediately disturbed after arrival on the ISS, 

they recovered in five months after the beginning of 

long-term stay, and their biological rhythms became 

well-regulated when compared to the preflight and 

postflight recordings. We speculated that although the 

astronauts experienced a time-difference effect during 

their long-term spaceflight after spacecraft docking, 

they were able to maintain a well-regulated biological 

rhythm because of their regular, daily schedule aboard 

the ISS. 

We are exposed to environments that easily disturb 

our biological rhythm. Progress in communications, 

i.e., internet and smartphones, and transportation, i.e., 

airplanes, have made borders of countries and time 

zones irrelevant. It has been reported that disturbance 

in biological rhythm may cause diseases such as high 

blood pressure, obesity, hypercholesterolemia, diabetes, osteoporosis, insomnia, depression, premature 

aging, cancer, etc. 

Three factors for maintaining a well-balanced biological rhythm are morning light, melatonin secreted at 

night, and a balanced diet (particularly breakfast). Most 

important is the exposure to bright light during daytime 

and complete darkness during sleep at night. The astronauts’ daily regimen in maintaining a well-balanced 

biological rhythm during their long-term spaceflight 

serves as a guideline for us living on Earth. In particular, 

we recommend the following six activities for maintaining a well-balanced biological rhythm: 1) keep a 

regular daily schedule; 2) keep regular sleep and meal 

schedules; 3) drink coffee or green tea in the morning; 

4) maintain appropriate temperatures during day and 

night; 5) engage in activities that support the peripheral 

clock such as exercise and getting dressed after waking; and 6) occasionally note the time.

Innovative space-based device promotes 

restful sleep on Earth

There has been a growing interest in the study of nighttime sleep in weightlessness since the first steps of 

space exploration. Indeed, normal, good-quality sleep 

is the basis for maintaining the necessary, high psychological functioning and good physical condition of 

cosmonauts. However, the clinical method used to 

study sleep (polysomnography) requires the use of a 

large number of sensors, which disturbs normal sleep, 

requires time, and is too complex for spaceflight. 

A miniature device can be 

placed under a pillow or a 

mattress to record movements 

related to the heart and to 

breathing.

Sunrise from the International Space Station. 

Since the space station orbits the Earth once 

every 90 minutes, it sees a sunrise or a sunset 

every 45 minutes. 

Image credit: NASA
38

Thus, nowadays the data on the sleep quality of 

cosmonauts in long-term weightlessness have 

been extremely limited.

In 2007, a new device, Sonocard, arrived on the Russian segment of the International Space Station (ISS), 

making it possible to study sleep with a miniature device in the size of a deck of cards. The device is placed 

on the left in the top pocket of the cosmonaut’s T-shirt 

before sleep, and its sensor elicits micro-fluctuations of 

the chest wall that are related to heart function. Upon 

wake-up, the information recorded during the night is 

sent to Earth for analysis.

Sonocard provides a contactless recording of physiological signals, and its use does not require attaching 

electrodes or special sensors to the body. Instead, it 

acquires its data by recording all the vibrations that 

are elicited by the sensor/accelerometer. Pulse rate, 

breathing rate, movement activity, and heart rhythm 

variability are obtained. This method is successfully 

used in various fields of medicine and physiology to 

assess the state of the basic body functions. Space 

medicine was one of its first fields of application, and 

to date, a large amount of experience has been accumulated on its use to assess the functional condition 

of cosmonauts during spaceflight. When analyzing the 

data obtained during sleep, the changes in the activity 

of the sympathetic and parasympathetic regulation 

chains in first hours after falling asleep and last hours 

before waking up are determined. This makes it possible to assess to what extent the body was able to 

rest during sleep and how much it replenished the 

functional reserves that were spent the day before.

Scientific experiments using the Sonocard device are 

conducted on the space station on all Russian cosmonauts every two weeks. Over five years, a large amount 

of information on sleep in weightlessness has been 

gathered. For the first time, it is possible to discuss 

results that are not impacted by factors of workload 

and psycho-emotional stress that are always present 

during the day while carrying out science experiments 

under the normal flight program. A flight index sleep 

quality showed that the quality of sleep on average for 

the entire flight for all 22 participants in the experiment 

is 77.4 percent. 

The Sonocard contactless method of sleep study that 

was created for use on the space station has been 

successfully used on Earth. The Earth model used a 

sensor that was designed in the form of a plate to be 

placed under the pillow or mattress to record a person’s body movements related to heart and breathing 

rate. The signals recorded during the night are downloaded to a computer and analyzed according to the 

methods already proven in space research.

The new hardware/software system called Cardioson-3 was tested in a series of experiments on Earth, 

including a long-term, 520-day experiment simulating 

a flight to Mars. Unique research experience of the 

cosmonauts’ functional state during sleep can have 

further development in two directions: creation of 

new, more effective systems of evaluating sleep in 

space for the simultaneous medical control of all crew 

members and development of similar devices for the 

control of the quality of sleep in the interests of public 

health care practice. 

Crew member sets up the Sonocard device 

before sleep in spaceflight.

Image credit: Roscosmos

Cardioson-3 system–Earth analog of the 

Sonocard space device. 

Image credit: Institute of Biomedical Problems of 

the Russian Academy of Sciences
39

Improving Balance and Movement

A new technology developed to correct motor disturbances in weightlessness has been used to treat 

patients with cerebral palsy, stroke, spinal cord injuries, balance problems and motor decline due to 

aging. Assessment of eye movement reactions of cosmonauts preflight and postflight has led to faster 

and less expensive diagnoses and treatment of patients suffering from vertigo, dizziness and equilibrium 

disturbances. A patented computerized, non-pharmacological method of preventing and correcting 

unfavorable perception and sensorimotor reactions is used to train patients and astronauts to acquire 

the ability to suppress vertigo, dizziness and equilibrium disturbances.

A system of hardware and software that collects information on body movements of astronauts on ISS 

has led to motor imagery protocols used in the research environment of a hospital in Rome in treatment 

of adult stroke patients and children with cerebral palsy. Other body movement research on ISS lead 

to the development of a suit for astronauts to compensate for the lack of daily loading from gravity. 

The clinical version of this suit is used for the comprehensive and drug-free treatment of cerebral palsy 

in children in Russia. Another clinical variation of this suit is used on patients who have suffered from 

stroke or brain trauma.

New technology simulates microgravity 

and improves balance on Earth

Spaceflight opportunities, such as that of the International Space Station (ISS), facilitated the development 

of Earth-based models of weightlessness and opened 

the door to studying the effects of the elimination of 

gravity. Over the 10 years since the ISS came into existence, a large amount of data, information and facts 

have been compiled by the Russian Institute of Biomedical Problems (IBMP) that have made it possible to 

switch from describing occurrences and phenomena 

to developing theories about the role and place of 

gravitational mechanisms in various bodily systems.

One example of an evolution in the development 

of new knowledge is the discovery of the leading 

triggering role in maintaining vertical posture, of 

A device to correct motor 

disturbances treats patients 

with cerebral palsy, stroke, 

spinal cord injuries, balance 

problems and motor decline 

due to aging. The support unloading compensator.

Image credit: Institute of Biomedical Problems 
40

sensory organs called Vater-Paccini corpuscles, 

located in the soles of the feet. These receptors were 

discovered back in the 19th century, but their role in 

gravireception was established very recently, thanks 

to ground-based simulation studies designed to keep 

cosmonauts’ balance healthy in long-duration spaceflights. As a result of these studies, a unique piece of 

technology was developed to help to correct the motor 

disturbances in individuals with central nervous system 

dysfunction, injuries, balance problems, and motor 

decline due to aging.

Ground-based studies at IBMP identified a particular 

pattern of stabilization between body loading on the 

soles of the feet and subsequent motor stabilization processes associated with brain and spinal cord 

activities. The knowledge obtained revealed that the 

development of sensory-motor disturbances may be 

prevented by means of “artificial” support stimuli applied to the bottoms of the feet. The research results 

led to the development of new technology, the “support unloading compensator,” a device that stimulates 

the support zones of the foot in natural human gait.

The uniqueness of this device lies in its ability to simulate the physical parameters that the support receptor 

or the foot receives during walking: the magnitude of 

pressure, temporal characteristics - duration of impact, 

intervals between stimulation of the heel and metatarsal support zones, and intervals between stimulation 

of the right and left foot.

But the disturbances of muscle tone and coordination 

of movement are not inherent exclusively to weightlessness. Diseases of the central nervous system (CNS), 

brain injuries of various types, long-term motor unloading in aging, as well as some specific occupational 

conditions are also accompanied by the development 

of the aforementioned changes. Based on these data, 

IBMP scientists are working jointly with commercial 

companies to introduce motor disturbances corrective 

measures that were developed for weightlessness into 

the practice of treating and rehabilitating patients with 

profound motor lesions that are due to cerebral palsy, 

stroke, and brain and spinal cord injuries.

Between 2005 and 2011, the Center for Aerospace 

Medicine developed a clinical version of the support 

unloading compensator, the Korvit, and obtained all 

approval documents and licenses. 

Today this technology is being successfully used in 

the most acute phase of stroke and facilitates more 

significant regression of motor disturbances and earlier 

recovery of locomotion than traditional treatment methods. Of particular interest are the data on prevention 

of muscle spasticity development of limbs affected by 

paresis in cases when the Korvit device is used in the 

first hours after the onset of a stroke.

The use of the support stimulation method in children 

during the early recovery phase after surgical treatment 

for fractures of the calf bones has facilitated the reduction of edema by 17 to 20 percent, and an increase 

in the range of motion in the ankle joint by 45 percent 

as early as the first 72 hours after surgery. Children 

who do not receive such treatment experience edema 

lasting six to eight days, which hinders motion in the 

injured limb and retards regenerative processes.

The use of the Korvit apparatus in the integrated rehabilitation of Cerebral Palsey patients has made it possible to maximize restoration of the balance of strength 

between extensor and flexor muscles, particularly in 

an upright position, and to normalize the functions 

of standing and walking, as well as the control of the 

coordination of various classes of movements.

New ways to assess neurovestibular 

system health in space also benefits 

those on Earth

Among the many problems that have confronted the 

medical sciences since humans first began exploring 

space, a main one is adaptation to the conditions of 

changed gravitational force. Upon arrival in weightlessness (first three to seven days) and upon the return to 

Earth (from landing to three to five days later), virtually 

all crew members experience a number of negative 

reactions and sensory disorders (orientational illusions, 

vertigo, dizziness, problems focusing on and tracking 

The support unloading compensator used on 

children.

Image credit: Aerospace Medical Center and 

Technology
41

visual objects), which are perceived as uncomfortable 

and can be accompanied by space motion sickness.

In weightlessness, information received from the 

vestibular apparatus within the inner ear does not align 

with information received from other sensory systems, 

so the typical sensory links are broken and the brain 

cannot correctly interpret the incoming signals at the 

beginning of flight, leading to the development of 

space motion sickness. As a result, this causes a decrease in the quality of crew member performance of 

work tasks, particularly those relating to visual tracking 

accuracy. It is very likely that the unsuccessful docking of spacecraft, errors in structural assembly, and 

other instances of errors in manual control that have 

occurred in orbit were often caused by disturbances in 

the function of tracking moving space objects because 

of changes in sensory functions.

Analysis of data accumulated in a series of scientific 

experiments before, during and after spaceflights on 

the stations Salyut-6, Salyut-7, and Mir has led the 

Institute of Biomedical Problems in Russia to develop 

a method that uses computerized systems named 

OculoStim-CM, Virtual and Sensomotor that can 

Assessment of eye movement 

reactions leads to faster and 

less expensive treatment of 

patients suffering from vertigo, 

dizziness and equilibrium 

disturbances.

Space experiment Virtual aboard the International Space Station (2013).

Image credit: Roscosmos 
42

accurately assess the state of vestibular function, 

intersensory interactions, spatial orientation, and visual 

tracking (Russian Federation patent #2307575 dated 

10/10/2007, Kornilova L. N. et al.).

At the basis of the method lies the assessment of eye 

movement reactions – visual tracking tests that are 

conducted both with visual targets (stimuli) on a clean 

(black) field on the screen and against a backdrop of 

additional visual interferences (diffuse spots/ellipses 

moving horizontally or vertically) to “irritate” the peripheral vision. During the testing under differing conditions, movements of the eyes (by electro- and videooculography) and head (using angular rate sensors and 

accelerometers) are recorded.

The eye-movement system is controlled by a complex 

hierarchy of innervation mechanisms located at different levels of the nervous system. The use of a special 

test battery makes it possible to evaluate the disruptions occurring in various forms of eye movements 

and, given the known mechanisms of how these 

movements are performed, to find the causes of 

these disturbances. 

This method has been actively used during the preflight and postflight clinical/physiological examination of 

International Space Station (ISS) crew members in experiments called Virtual and Slezheniye (Pursuit) since 

2013 and 2015, respectively and after crew members 

return to Earth during experiments Sensory Adaptation 

and Gaze-Spin since 2001 and 2009, respectively.

The procedure and hardware/software systems 

developed for spaceflight has also demonstrated 

effectiveness of the computerized method and 

hardware/software systems for use in diagnosing conditions of the vestibular and its related sensory systems 

(primarily visual) and in assessing the stability of static 

and dynamic spatial orientation on Earth. The systems 

have particularly been useful in experiments simulating 

weightlessness (immersion and bed rest); in examining 

highly qualified athletes (high-performance sports – 

gymnastics, figure and speed skating, target shooting, 

etc.); in diagnosing and treating patients suffering from 

dizziness and equilibrium disturbances; and, in evaluating the effectiveness of medications (betahistine drugs 

Betaver and Betaserc). The OculoStim-CM system 

was successfully certified for use in clinical studies of 

200 patients with vertigo, dizziness and equilibrium 

disturbances, together with specialists from the nervous disease department of the I. M. Sechenov First 

Moscow State Medical University, the Academician 

Alexander Vein Clinic for the Treatment of Headaches 

and Vegetative Disorders, and the Federal Scientific 

Clinical Center of Otorhinolaryngology. Such application in clinical practice has made it possible to develop 

diagnostic criteria to determine the type of vestibular 

disturbance, while offering a rapid, less expensive initial 

differential diagnosis of dizziness and balance disturbances compared to traditional clinical testing.

Space research leads to nonpharmacological treatment and 

prevention of vertigo, dizziness 

and equilibrium disturbances

The history of spaceflight has shown that initial introduction to the weightlessness environment, such as 

that of the International Space Station, can lead to 

space motion sickness, making crew members feel 

dizzy and uncoordinated, and even impacting their 

ability to track objects with their eyes. The result can 

be a negative effect both on the health of crew members and the quality of their work performance in flight.

Space research has led to a 

patented method used to train 

patients to acquire the ability to 

suppress vertigo, dizziness and 

equilibrium disturbances.

Application of the Okulostim-KM hardware/

software system in clinical studies. 

Image credit: Institute of Biomedical Problems
43

At present, medications are typically used to eliminate 

the symptoms of space motion sickness, but they 

have a number of contraindications and side effects 

that can have a negative effect on various types of 

professional activity. Therefore, there has been an 

obvious need to develop non-pharmacological methods of preventing and treating space motion sickness.

It is well known that people in extreme professions, 

such as mountain climbers, athletes, acrobats, and 

ballet dancers develop the capability to suppress 

unfavorable vestibular reactions at the moment high 

accelerations act on them by developing a “fixation 

reflex.” However, attempts by many clinicians to treat 

patients with vestibular problems using the same 

methods have been unsuccessful because of the 

vestibular challenges unique to this population. Therefore, experts at the vestibular physiology laboratory at 

the Institute of Biomedical Problems developed and 

patented a “Computerized method of preventing and 

correcting unfavorable perception and sensorimotor 

reactions” (Russian Federation patent #2301622 dated 

06/27/2007, Kornilova L. N. et al.). The innovation of 

this method is in creating a unique approach to the 

training of patients depending on their disease (type 

of vestibulopathy) and in selecting the most effective 

means of training (visual, vestibular, or combined) for 

them using biofeedback.

During patient training, depending on the nature of the 

vertigo, dizziness or equilibrium disorder and of his/

her disease (type of vestibulopathy), a series of training 

sessions is conducted to develop a unique fixation 

reflex using biofeedback, provided by the computer 

using this method to record eye and head movements.

Training is conducted until the negative reactions (vertigo, dizziness and equilibrium disturbances) the patient 

suffers from disappear or are significantly reduced. 

The therapeutic effect of the training is assessed 

through a follow-up clinical/neurological examination, including the use of the computerized method of 

comprehensively assessing the condition of vestibular 

function and visual tracking function (Russian Federation patent #2307575 dated 10/10/07, Kornilova L. N. 

et al.). The indicator of training success is the suppression of experimentally induced negative reactions 

(full or partial) during the action of visual and vestibular 

stimuli while fixing the gaze on an imagined target.

The non-pharmacological computerized method 

for treating and preventing vertigo, dizziness and 

equilibrium disturbances was tested in clinical conditions jointly with specialists from the nervous disease 

department of the I. M. Sechenov First Moscow State 

Medical University, the Academician Alexander Vein 

Clinic for the Treatment of Headaches and Vegetative 

Disorders, and the Federal Scientific Clinical Center 

of Otorhinolaryngology.

The results of the clinical work demonstrated that 

patients acquired the capacity to fixate on and hold 

the gaze on both real and imagined targets, thus 

suppressing (fully or partially) vertigo, dizziness, nystagmus, and equilibrium disturbances. It was shown 

that training effectiveness depended not only on the 

disorder (type of vestibulopathy), but also on the 

type of training selected. For patients with peripheral 

vestibulopathies, the most effective was visual training; 

for patients with central vestibulopathies, the vestibular 

method was best; and for patients with psychogenic 

vestibulopathies, the combined method was preferred.

Analysis of special questionnaires demonstrated that 

all patients with psychogenic, 91 percent of patients 

with peripheral, and 80 percent of patients with central 

vestibulopathies subjectively noted “good suppression 

of vertigo in everyday conditions” and “improvement in 

general adaptation to real life conditions.”

The effectiveness of the non-pharmacological computerized method has made it a good candidate for use 

both during the preflight training of ISS crew members, 

and during spaceflight, to suppress the symptoms of 

space motion sickness. The suppression of negative 

reactions during flight using the fixation reflex has been 

successfully applied by crew members aboard the ISS 

since 2013.

Visual method of training. (Laboratory of Vestibular 

Physiology, 2013) 

Image credit: Institute of Biomedical Problems
44

Capturing the secrets of weightless 

movements for Earth applications

Leaving Earth’s gravity initially impairs sensorimotor 

coordination in astronauts. Understanding how weightless astronauts learn to move and interact with objects 

will improve mission safety. There are also benefits to 

people on Earth because certain populations with brain 

injury or disease experience many of the same coordination challenges that astronauts experience. 

The ELaboratore Immagini TElevisive - Space 2 (ELITES2) developed by Kayser Italia for the Italian Space 

Agency (ASI), is a system of hardware and software 

that collects information on body movements of 

astronauts on the International Space Station (ISS) with 

great accuracy. Two studies have been carried out with 

ELITE S2, Movement in Orbital Vehicle Experiments 

(MOVE) and Imagery of object Motion Affected by Gravity In Null-gravity Experiments (IMAGINE). MOVE involves reaching and touching a stationary target placed 

beyond arm’s length while standing. This is a typical 

movement that on Earth would perturb balance unless 

it was compensated by adjusting the posture of trunk 

and leg muscles. While most healthy individuals on 

Earth can make sure movements, some patients, such 

as those with Parkinson’s Disease, cannot. Interestingly, 

early in flight, astronauts make postural adjustments 

that are unnecessary in space but are part of their typical movement patterns on Earth. As the flight progresses, they learn to reduce unnecessary muscle activation, 

although with significant inter-subject variability.

IMAGINE tested the ability to interact with a moving 

object. People have implicit knowledge of how the 

world works since infancy, which allows them to react 

appropriately to the environment. In particular, gravity 

effects on an object in motion are detected accurately 

so that we can catch a falling object instantly. However, 

patients with a brain lesion, such as that which is due 

to stroke, often lack this ability. A previous study using 

an antecedent of ELITE S2 demonstrated that over the 

course of a two-week flight of the space shuttle, the 

motor responses of the astronauts were still sharply 

tuned to gravitational acceleration (http://science1.

nasa.gov/science-news/science-at-nasa/2002/18mar_

playingcatch/). In this study, astronauts asked to catch 

a ball that was projected “downward” from the ceiling 

contracted their limb muscles too early, anticipating 

non-existent gravity effects. Later, in the IMAGINE 

study, the astronauts were instead asked to throw an 

imaginary ball toward the ceiling and to catch it upon 

return in their hand. The motion of the ball was purely 

imaginary, but subjects performed an actual movement 

of their arm as realistic as possible to throw the ball. 

In different blocks of trials, they were asked to imagine either that the ball motion was affected by Earth’s 

gravity (1 g) or that it was unaffected by gravity (0 g). 

Moreover, they were asked to vary the momentum of 

the throw from trial to trial. Surprisingly, it has been 

found that astronauts (including new flyers) are able 

to implicitly reproduce the 0 g conditions already on 

ground, prior to their mission, although their performance improved over the course of their time in space. 

There is a striking dissociation, therefore, between the 

motor control system that drives automatic responses 

tuned to Earth’s gravity, where the anticipation of gravity persists even after two weeks in space, and the 

Limb and body movements recorded by ELITE-S2 

during one experiment on the International Space 

Station.

Image credit: ASI

Motor imagery protocols used 

in the research environment of 

a hospital in Rome treat adult 

stroke patients and children 

with cerebral palsy.
45

cognitive system that allows one to imagine 0-g 

movements even on the ground and that appears 

endowed with a more general implicit knowledge 

of Newton’s laws.

The results from this study will not only provide more 

information that can be used to keep astronauts 

healthy but could also lead to new rehabilitation 

strategies to help people with brain injuries. In fact, 

mental imagery represents a powerful tool to rehabilitate sensorimotor coordination in disabled patients. 

These motor imagery protocols are currently used in 

the research environment of the Neuromotor Rehabilitation Hospital of Santa Lucia Foundation in Rome. 

In particular, imagery training is used in adult stroke 

patients as well as in children with cerebral palsy. The 

training protocols involve the presentation of computer 

displays under supervision by medical or paramedical 

staff. Mental imagery is typically trained in combination 

with conventional physical therapy over a period of 

several weeks. Improved motor performance can be 

attributed to two main factors: 1) mental practice helps 

keep the motor programs active when little or no 

movements are possible, and 2) it allows an increase in 

the duration of the training session without adding to 

the physical demands of the task. There are still open 

issues in this ongoing research, such as establishing 

the best time window in the course of the disease at 

which mental practice could prove effective as well as 

determining the long-term effects of imagery training.

Space technologies in the rehabilitation 

of movement disorders

More than 50 years have passed since the first 

human spaceflight. As the duration of the flights has 

increased considerably, and amount of in-orbit activities has become greater, the need to maintain healthy 

bones and muscles in space has become more 

critical. Bones and muscles rely on performing daily 

activities in the presence of Earth’s gravity to stay 

healthy. In space, traditional Earth-based methods to 

maintain bones and muscles, such as physical 

exercise, are challenging due to constraints that 

include such factors as crew time and vehicle size. 

To meet these challenges, specialists from the Institute 

of Biomedical Problems in Russia and their commercial 

partner, Zvezda, developed the Penguin suit to provide 

loading along the length of the body (axial loading) in a 

way that compensates for the lack of daily loading that 

the body usually experiences under the Earth’s gravity. 

The first testing of the suit in space was performed in 

1971 aboard the Salyut-1 station. Now the Penguin 

suit is actively used on the International Space Station 

as a regular component of the Russian countermeasure system of health maintenance.

Treatment suits are used in 

Russia for the comprehensive 

and drug-free treatment of 

cerebral palsy in children and 

in patients with stroke and 

brain trauma.

The Adeli treatment suit in use for pediatric 

rehabilitation. 

Image credit: Aerospace Medical Center and 

Technology, Russia
46

Since the early 1990s, Professor Inessa Kozlovskaya 

and her team at the Institute of Biomedical Problems 

in Russia have implemented the use of this axial loading suit in clinical rehabilitation practice. The clinical 

version of the Penguin suit, the Adeli, was developed 

at the Institute of Pediatrics Russian Academy of 

Science under the leadership of Professor Ksenia 

Semyonova and is used for the comprehensive treatment of cerebral palsy in children. The treatment method is focused on restoring functional links of the body 

through a corrective flow of sensory information to the 

muscles, thereby improving the health of the tissues 

being loaded. This results in the correction of walking 

patterns and stabilization of balance in a relatively 

short period of time, including for those cerebral palsy 

children with deep motor disturbances. The Adeli suit 

was licensed in 1992 and has been continuously 

developed since. These methods have become one 

of the most popular and widely used in Russian medical clinics for rehabilitation of children with infantile 

cerebral paralysis. 

New methods were also developed for patients 

undergoing motor rehabilitation after stroke and brain 

trauma. Paralytic and paretic alterations of motor 

functions that are the most frequent after-effects of 

these diseases typically lead to significant limitations 

in motor and social activity of these patients, decrease 

their functional abilities and obstruct their rehabilitation. 

Given all of the complexities and importance of the 

rehabilitation of these patients, another clinical modification of the Penguin suit was developed called the 

“Regent suit.” The complex effect of the Regent suit on 

the body is based on an increase of the axial loading 

on skeletal structures and an increase in resistive loads 

on muscles during movement, which results in an 

increase of sensory information to the nervous system 

that is important for counteracting the development 

of pathological posture and for normalization of vertical stance and walking control. The Regent suit is 

effectively used at the early stage of rehabilitation for 

patients having movement disorders after cerebrovascular accident and cranium-brain traumas.

The clinical studies of the efficacy of the Regent suit 

in the rehabilitation of motor disorders in patients with 

limited lesions of the central nervous system were 

performed in acute and chronic studies with the 

participation of hundreds of stroke and brain trauma 

patients in the hospital No 83 Federal MedicalBiological Agency of Russia under leadership of 

professor Sergey Shvarkov, and in the Center of 

Speech Pathology and Neurorehabilitation under leadership of professor Vicktor Shklovsky. The efficacy of 

the suit in patients with post stroke hemiparesis 

was assessed at the Scientific Center of Neurology 

under leadership of professor Ludmila Chernikova. 

These studies have shown that use of the suit results 

in a significant decrease in paresis and spasticity in the 

lower leg muscle groups, as well as an improvement of 

sensitivity in distal parts of lower limbs, and an overall 

improvement of locomotor functions. The positive effect on high mental functions was noticed at the same 

time, namely, an improvement of speech characteristics, an increase of active vocabulary, and an improvement in the patient’s ability to recognize objects. 

The use of the Regent suit is a complex, drug-free 

approach to the treatment of motor disorders. The 

method is closely related to the natural function of 

walking, activates all of the muscles involved in posture 

and spatial orientation and is very safe. It allows for 

shorter treatment time, can be used both under 

The Regent treatment suit in use for patient 

rehabilitation. 

Image credit: Aerospace Medical Center and 

Technology, Russia
47

hospital and outpatient conditions and allows for a 

wide range of adjustments that allow individualized 

rehabilitation programs based on uniqueness of 

the neurological deficit and functional abilities of each 

patient. Today the Regent suit is applied in 43 medical institutions in Russia and abroad, and the results 

related to using both the Adeli and Regent suits are 

based on numerous observations and clinical studies.

Editor’s note: Small studies based in the U.S. and 

Israel were not able to distinguish improvements from 

Adeli suit therapy with traditional physical therapy. 

Therefore, this therapy has not yet been adopted in 

North America.
48

High oblique view of an eruption plume from Kliuchevskoi Volcano on the Kamchatka 

Peninsula, Russia. The International Space Station was located over a ground 

position more than 1,500 km to the southwest when the image was taken on 

November 16, 2013.

Image credit: NASA
49

Earth Observation and 

Disaster Response

The International Space Station is a “global observation and diagnosis station.” It promotes international 

Earth observations aimed at understanding and resolving the environmental issues of our home planet. 

A wide variety of Earth observation payloads can be attached to the exposed facilities on the station’s 

exterior as well as in the Window Observational Research Facility located within the Destiny module. 

The presence of a human crew also provides a unique capability for real-time observation of the 

Earth, and “on the fly” data collection using hand-held digital cameras, and the astronauts may also 

provide input to ground personnel programming the station’s automated Earth observation systems. 

Several instruments are currently collecting data from the International Space Station; in addition, 

some instruments have completed their data collection missions, with other remote sensing systems in 

development or proposed by researchers from the partner countries, NASA, academic institutions, and 

corporations. The existing international partnerships, fundamental to the International Space Station, 

facilitate data sharing that can benefit people around the world and promote international collaboration 

on other Earth observation activities. The station contributes to humanity by collecting data on the global 

climate, environmental change, and natural hazards using its unique complement of crew-operated and 

automated Earth observation payloads. 
50
51

Earth remote sensing from the space 

station

The installation of new facilities and sophisticated 

internal and external remote-sensing systems have 

transformed the International Space Station into a 

capable platform for Earth remote sensing. It also 

retains the unique distinction of being the only such 

platform with a human crew, which provides unique 

opportunities and advantages for remote sensing, 

particularly in the arena of data collection for disaster 

response efforts. So what can the station offer in terms 

of Earth remote sensing that free-flying, robotic satellite 

systems cannot? 

Images With a Variety of Lighting Conditions 

Unlike many of the traditional Earth observation platforms, the station orbits the Earth in an inclined equatorial orbit that is not sun-synchronous. This means 

that the station passes over locations on the Earth between 52 degrees north and 52 degrees south latitude 

at different times of day and under varying illumination 

conditions. Robotic, satellite-based, Earth-observing 

sensors are typically placed on polar-orbiting, sunsynchronous platforms in orbits designed to pass over 

the same spot on the Earth’s surface at approximately 

the same time of day.

Responsive Data Collection 

Another advantage unique to the space station is 

the presence of crew that can react to unfolding 

events in real time, rather than needing a new data 

collection program uploaded from ground control. 

Crew Earth Observations of forest fires near 

Sydney, Australia, taken just after local sunset with 

a handheld camera on Oct. 23, 2013. Orange fires 

and grey smoke threaten nearby towns.

Image credit: NASA

Environmental Earth Observations

The space station offers a unique vantage for observing the Earth’s ecosystems and atmosphere 

with hands-on and automated equipment. The size, power, and data transfer capabilities of the 

station enable a wide range of sophisticated sensor systems including optical multispectral and 

hyperspectral imaging systems for examining the Earth’s land surface and coastal oceans, as well 

as active radar and Light Detection and Ranging (LiDAR) systems useful for investigating sea surface 

winds and atmospheric aerosol transportation patterns. Astronauts using hand-held digital cameras 

provide an additional imaging capability for obtaining both detailed images of the Earth surface as 

well as sweeping panoramic views of its atmosphere. This flexibility is an advantage over sensors on 

unmanned spacecraft, especially when unexpected natural events such as volcanic eruptions and 

earthquakes occur. 

The space station significantly 

improves our ability to monitor 

the Earth and respond 

to natural hazards and 

catastrophes.
52

This is particularly important for collecting imagery of 

unexpected natural hazard events such as volcanic 

eruptions, earthquakes and tsunamis. The crew can 

also determine whether viewing conditions—like cloud 

cover or illumination—will allow useful data to be collected, as opposed to a robotic sensor that collects 

data automatically without regard to quality. 

This is well demonstrated by the International Space 

Station (ISS) response to disaster events, in support 

of the International Charter, Space and Major Disasters 

(http://www.disasterscharter.org/home), also known 

as the International Disaster Charter (IDC). The ISS 

became a participating platform—in other words, a 

potential source of remotely sensed data—in April 

2012, joining many other NASA satellite assets. As 

of May 2015, the NASA-managed sensor systems 

on ISS have responded to 130 IDC activations, with 

data collected for 34 of those events by either astronauts or ground-commanded sensors (or both). 

The following NASA Earth observation instruments 

and facilities are now aboard and operational on the 

space station. International Partner sensor systems 

and programs are described in other articles included 

in this volume.

•	 Window Observational Research Facility (WORF;

http://worf.msfc.nasa.gov/) provides a highly stable, 

internal mounting platform to hold cameras and 

sensors steady while offering power, command, 

data and cooling connections. 

•	 ISS-RapidSCAT (http://www.jpl.nasa.gov/missions/

iss-rapidscat/) monitors ocean surface wind speed 

and direction to provide essential measurements 

used in weather predictions, including hurricane 

monitoring. The sensor is mounted on the Columbus Module External Payload Facility and measures 

the echo strength of microwaves reflected off of 

the ocean surface. Several views of the same sea 

surface area provides radar return signals that can 

be used to estimate wind speed and direction.

•	 The Cloud Aerosol Transport System (CATS; http://

cats.gsfc.nasa.gov/) is a LiDAR sensor that obtains 

measurements of atmospheric aerosols and clouds. 

Clouds and aerosols reflect a significant proportion 

of the sun’s energy back to space, but their 

complex interaction in Earth’s atmosphere is not 

yet fully understood. Data from CATS will allow 

scientists to better assess the role and impact of 

clouds and aerosols on Earth’s global energy 

budget and climate. 

•	 The High-Definition Earth Viewing (HDEV) camera

(http://eol.jsc.nasa.gov/HDEV) includes four different 

commercial, high-definition cameras on the Columbus External Facility. The investigation is assessing 

camera quality while taking Earth imagery and the 

hardware’s ability to survive and function in the 

extreme thermal and radioactive environment of 

low-Earth orbit.

•	 International Space Station SERVIR Environmental Research and Visualization System Pathfinder 

(ISERV; http://www.nasa.gov/mission_pages/station/

research/experiments/867.html) is a sensor system 

collecting visible-wavelength imagery at ground 

resolutions of approximately 3 meters per pixel, 

which completed its mission in early 2015.

•	 Crew Earth Observations (CEO; http://eol.jsc.nasa.

gov) includes Earth imagery taken by crew members 

using handheld cameras. 

International Space Station SERVIR Environmental 

Research and Visualization System Pathfinder 

(ISERV) image of flooding in Cambodia, taken 

Nov. 1, 2013. 

Image credit: NASA
53

The combined capabilities of both human-operated 

and autonomous sensor systems aboard the space 

station are helping to significantly improve our ability 

to monitor the Earth and respond to natural hazards 

and catastrophes. Integration of the space station 

Earth observation systems represents a significant 

and complementary addition to the international, 

satellite-based, Earth-observing “system of systems,” 

providing knowledge and insight into our shared 

global environment.

Coastal ocean sensing extended mission

Scanning the globe from the vantage point of the International Space Station (ISS) is about more than the 

fantastic view. While cruising in low-Earth orbit on the 

ISS, the Hyperspectral Imager for the Coastal Ocean 

(HICO) gave researchers a valuable new way to view 

the coastal zone. 

HICO, originally a one-year demonstration program 

supported by the Office of Naval Research (ONR) 

was installed on the ISS on Sept. 23, 2009, and collected data until Sept. 14, 2014. HICO far exceeded 

its planned mission and provided new insights into 

coastal environments around the world. 

Using the HICO imaging spectrometer mounted outside the station on the Japanese Experiment Module 

- Exposed Facility of the Kibo Laboratory, researchers collected data about the Earth that will help them 

to better understand coastal environments and other 

regions around the world. 

HICO was the first spaceborne, hyperspectral imager 

optimized for environmental characterization of the 

coastal ocean and large lakes. Archived HICO image 

data is being exploited to produce maps of coastal 

ocean properties, and provides a new science dataset 

for coastal regions worldwide. The HICO experimental 

sensor offered 10 times the spectral and spatial 

resolution of other ocean color sensors. 

Why is this important? Coastal waters are an important 

link between local and global economic development 

and environmental sustainability. Coastal zones support many of the world’s major cities (and their industrial zones, ports, and recreational facilities); they also 

include critical ecosystems that support fisheries and 

protect shorelines. Similarly, large lakes and reservoirs 

provide many of the same benefits and are the water 

supply for millions of people. 

The ONR sponsored the development and first three 

years of the operation of HICO as an Innovative Naval 

Prototype. The HICO prototype had two goals. The 

first was to demonstrate ways to drastically reduce 

the cost and schedule of building a space payload. 

By innovative design and using commercial-off-theshelf components where possible, the Naval Research 

Laboratory (NRL) engineers effectively built HICO in 

18 months at a small fraction of the cost of traditional 

space instruments. The second goal was to demonstrate the ability to produce valuable images of coastal 

environmental properties using hyperspectral imagery 

from space. 

Coastal waters are an important link between local and 

global economic development 

and environmental sustainability, and HICO on the space 

station was the first space 

instrument designed to 

observe them.

Hyperspectral Imager for Coastal Ocean being 

installed on the Japanese Experiment Module 

- Exposed Facility of the Kibo Laboratory, 

Sept. 23, 2009. 

Image credit: NASA 
54

These goals were met and the mission extended by 

NASA continuing to fund operation of the sensor. 

HICO data was used by scientists at NRL, Oregon 

State University and over 50 other institutions worldwide to study coastal environments. Access to the 

instrument by researchers in U.S. government agencies, commercial entities and other non-academic 

institutions was also available through proposals to 

the Center for the Advancement of Science in Space 

(http://www.iss-casis.org). Studies ranged from characterizing coral reefs of Australia, New Caledonia, and 

Palau to assessing water quality in lakes and reservoirs 

in North America and Europe to developing algorithms 

for NASA and European-proposed, hyperspectral 

instruments. 

The results from HICO investigations provide benefits 

to agencies with marine responsibilities, such as the 

National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration 

(NOAA) via information on bathymetry, bottom type, 

water clarity, and other water optical properties. Scientists at the Environmental Protection Agency used 

HICO data (http://www.nasa.gov/mission_pages/station/research/news/epa_coastal.html) to develop water 

quality monitoring tools that will allow the public to 

check water conditions from their mobile devices. 

The rich hyperspectral information available from 

HICO enabled the use of spectral techniques to 

specifically identify features such as the massive 

Microcystis bloom in Western Lake Erie (shown 

above), which threatened the water supply for 

millions of people in September 2011. 

HICO was operated under ONR sponsorship for over 

three years and in 2013, NASA assumed sponsorship 

of operations in order to leverage HICO’s ability to address their Earth-monitoring mission. This opened up 

access of HICO data to the broad research community. All the HICO data is now available on NASA’s Ocean 

Color website (http://oceancolor.gsfc.nasa.gov/).

Visual and instrumental scientific 

observation of the ocean from space

One feature of oceanographic research conducted with 

the participation of cosmonauts on orbital stations, 

including the historical Salyut, Mir, and the current 

International Space Station (ISS), is the broad application of the method of scientific visual and instrumental 

observation of the world’s oceans from space. The 

basis of the method is the visual search, detection and 

identification of phenomena under examination in the 

near-surface layer of the ocean and the atmosphere 

above it. This is the simplest, yet one of the most 

informative, ways to obtain data in the visible spectrum 

on the condition of the ocean’s natural environment. 

The reliability and scientific value of information on 

the ocean obtained in this way significantly increases 

because of the targeted use of special recording 

equipment (such as digital photo and digital video 

cameras) and of on-board instruments that expand 

the capabilities of the crew member’s visual analysis capabilities during observations. Such combined 

observations are referred to as visual and instrumental. 

The methods of visual and instrumental observation 

Hyperspectral Imager for Coastal Ocean image of a massive Microcystis bloom in western Lake Erie, Sept. 3, 

2011, as confirmed by spectral analysis.

Image credit: NASA NRL OSU
55

(VIO methods) are used to establish informational 

databases in the visible electromagnetic wave 

spectrum not only in the field of remote sensing 

of the oceans but also in other areas of knowledge 

and practical activity. 

The many years of Russian experience conducting 

oceanographic experiments by crews on the longterm, orbital stations, Salyut, Mir, and ISS, have made 

it possible to evaluate the actual informational potential 

of VIO of the world’s oceans from space. Also, this has 

allowed for the development of a flight-tested method 

of solving specific issues of oceanography and of developing equipment and procedures for the remote 

sensing of the ocean. These procedures and methods 

are frequently reviewed while conducting oceanographic experiments with cosmonauts’ participation, 

as is currently done on the ISS as part of some space 

experiments (e.g. “Diatomea,” “Seiner,” etc.).

The main object of search and observation for a cosmonaut researcher while working on this category of 

task using VIO is large-scale, color-contrast formations 

(CCF) on ocean surfaces related to the mass growth of 

phytoplankton (Fig. 1). In the field of view of space station crews observing the ocean surface along the flight 

path, a wide variety of cloud formations are constantly 

present. In addition, the following are observed among 

cloud fields above the ocean: cloud indicators of 

tropical cyclones in varying stages of development 

(Fig. 2), lineaments (Fig. 3) identifying jet streams, 

cumulus clouds with powerful vertical development 

above the ocean surface under intensive atmospheric 

convection (Fig. 4), and other phenomena of interest 

for maritime meteorology serving the shipping industry, 

aviation, and seafood industry. 

Of particular importance among hydro-meteorological 

phenomena observable by the VIO method are 

tropospheric cloud formations characteristic for the 

movement of air masses past obstacles in the atmosphere of island regions (Karman vortex streets, 

Helmholtz gravitational shear waves, etc.). Experiments 

have also proven the capability to identify and record, 

through imagery from space, optically active events 

in the atmosphere, such as terrigenous dust and 

sand flows (Fig. 13), fog, volcanic ash clouds over the 

ocean, etc., and regions with signs of intensive thunderstorm activity. Applicable to the hydro-physical area 

of oceanic research, the VIO method ensures obtaining 

documented data on the nature of local water circulation (Fig. 1), icebergs (Fig. 6), the structure of surface 

agitation fields (Figs. 7 and 8), broken ice (Fig. 5), and 

the color and transparency of water (Figs. 1, 9 and 10). 

The results of such data interpretation are used to describe the most significant elements of general ocean 

water circulation and to deal with hydro-optic tasks.

To date, a significant amount of information obtained 

from the visual and instrumental observations of the 

oceans from space, has been collected and grouped 

according to various objects of environmental monitoring. As applicable to open ocean ecosystems, the 

most broadly represented are the results of observations and color photographs of the ocean characterizing the diversity of forms and condition of coral reefs 

(Figs. 11 and 12), the morphology of different sizes of 

phytoplankton fields and the hydro-dynamic specifics 

of the environments in which they live (Fig. 1).

The most important aspect of the VIO method is the 

capability to evaluate the environmental condition of 

the ocean-atmosphere system in real time, to identify 

anomalous processes and phenomena in the ocean 

environment, such as surfactant films (Fig. 14), oil and 

petroleum products spills (Fig. 16), contamination of 

clean ocean waters with surface runoff (Fig. 15), and 

rinsing agents of ferromanganese nodules mined from 

the sea floor in mining areas of the oceans.

Currently, visual and instrumental observations of the 

ocean from space have broad practical applications 

for resolving the issues pertaining to the research 

of biological resources of the world’s oceans. The 

increased attention to this area of research is explained 

by the relevance of the problem, by the capability to 

conduct research using relatively inexpensive commercial photography equipment, and by the existence of 

an algorithm of searching and identifying from space, 

highly productive waters of the world’s oceans that 

have been tested by crews on Russian space stations 

and patented.

Visual and instrumental 

observations of the ocean 

from space have broad 

practical applications 

for resolving the issues 

pertaining to the research of 

biological resources of the 

world’s oceans.
56

 1. Phytoplankton 

 field

3. Cloudless

lineaments

2. Cloud canopy of a 

typhoon

4. Clouds of intensive 

vertical development

9. Sea floor relief 11. Sea floor of 

 an atoll

10. Sea floor of 

 Bermuda

12. Above-water 

 part of an atoll

5. Condition of ice 

cover

 7. Development of 

 internal waves

6. Antarctic iceberg 8. Area of calm in the 

shadow of an island

13. Dust/sand 

 streams

15. River runoff 

 contamination

14. Surfactant film 

 contamination

16. Oil spill

Image credit: Roscosmos/Energia/FGUP TsNIIMash
57

Space station camera captures 

Earthly disaster scenes

Of all the hundreds of spacecraft and satellites in lowEarth orbit, few can match the International Space 

Station (ISS) for its view of the big, blue marble below 

it. The ISS, circling the Earth once every 90 minutes, 

offers a unique observing platform with over 90 percent 

of the Earth’s populated area visible from its orbit. 

Scientists put that spectacular view to good use by 

using a camera on the ISS to demonstrate disaster 

observation and responses to humanitarian requests.

The system is a prototype called the ISS SERVIR Environmental Research and Visualization System (ISERV) 

Pathfinder. ISERV was developed by NASA to support 

a joint NASA/US Agency for International Development 

(USAID) project known as SERVIR (http://www.nasa.

gov/mission_pages/servir/index.html) and potentially 

Disaster Response

Remotely sensed data acquired by orbital sensor systems has emerged as a vital tool to identify 

the extent of damage resulting from a natural disaster, as well as providing near-real time mapping 

support to response efforts on the ground and humanitarian aid efforts. The International Space 

Station (ISS) is a unique terrestrial remote-sensing platform for acquiring disaster-response imagery. 

Unlike automated remote-sensing platforms it has a human crew; is equipped with both internal 

and externally mounted still and video imaging systems; and has an inclined, low-Earth orbit that 

provides variable views and lighting (day and night) over 95 percent of the inhabited surface of the 

Earth. As such, it provides a useful complement to autonomous sensor systems in higher-altitude 

polar orbits for collecting imagery in support of disaster response.

The ISERV camera helped 

the space station support 

countries around the world, 

making the ISS even more of 

an international asset by 

capitalizing on the unique 

view of Earth it provides. The Royal Gorge wildfire ignited on June 11, 2013, 

northwest of Cañon City and along the Arkansas 

River in central Colorado. The fire raged over 

the sagebrush and pine-covered topography, 

charring 3,218 acres in five days until firefighters 

finally corralled it. This ISS SERVIR Environmental 

Research and Visualization System (ISERV) image 

shows the Arkansas River passing through the 

burn scar. 

Image credit: NASA
58

the broader NASA Applied Sciences community. The 

word “servir” is Spanish for “to serve.” The SERVIR 

project provides satellite data and tools to environmental decision makers in developing countries and operates via regional “hubs” in Nairobi, Kenya; Kathmandu, 

Nepal; and Panama City, Panama. These SERVIR hubs 

can task the ISERV system to image scenes of Earth’s 

surface in their countries to address environmental 

issues and disasters. SERVIR’s coordination office 

at NASA’s Marshall Space Flight Center in Huntsville, 

Alabama, controls ISERV operations. 

Installed in January 2013 for a two-year mission, the 

camera observes our planet’s surface through the 

Destiny module’s Earth-facing window, acting on 

commands to photograph specific areas during the 

space station’s next pass over them. ISERV’s targets 

were threatened by or already experiencing floods, 

landslides, forest fires, or other disasters. The images 

were used to monitor the situation, evaluate damage 

extent and direct evacuation and disaster relief efforts. 

ISERV was well adapted to higher-resolution “survey” 

applications like disaster monitoring and assessment. 

ISERV captured first light on Feb. 16, 2013, and the 

myriad images it has captured since then of locales 

around the world include critical disaster photos. As 

two examples, ISERV images revealed the burn scar 

left by the June 11-16, 2013, Royal Gorge wildfire in 

June floods devastated much of southern Alberta, Canada, and forced the evacuation of over 100,000 citizens in 

Calgary and nearby towns. Three people died in the swirling, murky waters, which also caused millions of dollars’ 

worth of damage on June 22 and the days following. Before and after images of flooding in downtown Calgary 

are shown here. The GeoEye/IKONOS (a commercial satellite sensor) image on the left, taken on Sept. 13, 2008, 

shows normal flow of the Bow and Elbow Rivers. The ISERV image, captured June 22, 2013, is on the right and 

shows floodwaters from the two rivers inundating downtown Calgary. Canadian officials used the images to help in 

their disaster assessments and to improve their flood-mapping algorithms.

Image credits: left, Digital Globe; right, NASA
59

Colorado, and the devastation caused by floodwaters 

in Calgary on June 22-24, 2013.

While the ISERV camera completed its primary mission 

goals in December 2014, the system remains aboard 

the International Space Station and could be 

re-deployed if needed to capture imagery of natural 

disasters. The ISERV camera can help the space station lend support to countries around the world, making the ISS even more of an international asset 

by capitalizing on the unique view of Earth it provides.

Editor’s note: 

Georeferenced images are available for public use at: 

ftp://ghrc.nsstc.nasa.gov/pub/iserv/data/L0/.

The SERVIR team provides an online map/tool (http://

www.servirglobal.net/mapresources/iserv/) that allows 

users to locate and download ISERV images. 

Clear high-definition images aid disaster 

response

Data collected from various International Space Station 

(ISS) sensor systems have contributed to Earth observation and disaster response through international 

collaboration frameworks, such as the International 

Charter, Space and Major Disasters (http://www.

disasterscharter.org/home) and Sentinel Asia (http://

www.jaxa.jp/article/special/sentinel_asia/index_e.html). 

The Japanese Experiment Module (JEM), or Kibo, provides opportunities to obtain very clear high-definition 

(HD) images both from internal handheld and externally 

mounted cameras. These clear images are beneficial 

for disaster support. 

The Japan Aerospace Exploration Agency (JAXA) offers data taken with two camera systems, the Super 

Sensitive HDTV Camera System (SS-HDTV) and the 

Commercial Off-The-Shelf (COTS) High-Definition 

Television Camera System on JEM External Facility 

(HDTV-EF). JEM-EF is an unpressurized, multipurpose 

pallet structure attached to the JEM. This external 

platform is used for research in diverse areas such as 

communications, space science, engineering, technology demonstration, materials processing, and Earth 

observation.

SS-HDTV was developed to take night images of the 

Earth, including such phenomena as aurora, airglow 

and meteor showers. It is operated in the ISS pressurized module cabin including the JEM and the Cupola 

Observational Module. The beautiful night images are 

utilized for the check of the electric power restoration 

and the revival of cities after a natural disaster and the 

return of normal life to those people affected.

Images of the Earth surface, the ocean, clouds, etc., 

are taken from ISS for disaster response, education 

and publicity purposes.

Data collected from various 

ISS sensor systems have 

contributed to Earth 

observation and disaster 

response through international 

collaboration frameworks.

Night view of Italy. 

Image credit: JAXA/NASA 

Night view, aurora and airglow.

Image credit: JAXA/NASA 
60

Sentinel Asia aims to promote international cooperation to monitor natural disasters in the Asia-Pacific 

region. According to statistics by the Asian Disaster 

Reduction Center’s Natural Disasters Data Book 2013, 

Asia accounts for 44.6 percent of occurrences; 84.6 

percent of people killed; 87.1 percent of affected 

people; and 49.0 percent of economic damage. 

Under these circumstances, the Asia-Pacific Regional 

Space Agency Forum (APRSAF) proposed Sentinel 

Asia in 2005 to showcase the value and impact of 

Earth observation technologies.

Sentinel Asia uses Earth observation satellites and 

other space technologies to collect disaster-related 

information and shares it over the internet. The aim 

is to mitigate and prevent damage caused by natural disasters such as typhoons, floods, earthquakes, 

tsunamis, volcanic eruptions, and wildfires. Sentinel 

Asia now counts 15 international organizations and 83 

participating organizations from 25 countries as members, and utilization of its systems is steadily expanding. JAXA, as the only Asian partner of the ISS, will 

continue to support disaster response and hopes to 

contribute to Asia and the whole world with Kibo and 

its high-definition cameras.

Wildfire, Queensland, Australia.

Image credit: JAXA/NASA 

Hurricane Sandy.

Image credit: JAXA/NASA 
61
62

Water filtration plant set up in Balakot, Pakistan, following the earthquake disaster 

in 2005. The unit is based on space station technology and processes water 

using gravity fed from a mountain stream. 

Image credit: Water SecurityTM Corporation
63

Innovative

Technology

In space, physical processes can be better understood with the control of external influences such as 

gravity. Technical innovations designed for space systems are tested on the International Space Station 

(ISS) before use in other spacecraft systems. While investigating how new technologies operate in space, 

unexpected discoveries are possible. Simplified physical systems can also be directly used to improve 

models of physical processes leading to new industrial techniques and materials.

The ISS provides the unique capability to perform long-duration experiments in the absence of gravity 

and in interaction with other spacecraft systems not available in any other laboratory. Additional insight 

comes from the presence of the ISS crew observing and interacting with these experiments and 

participating in the discovery process.

The ISS research portfolio includes many engineering and technology investigations designed to take 

advantage of these opportunities. Experiments investigating thermal processes, nanostructures, fluids 

and other physical characteristics are taking place to develop these technologies and provide new 

innovations in those fields. Additionally, advanced engineering activities operating in the space station 

infrastructure are proving next-generation space systems to increase capabilities and decrease risks 

to future missions. Emerging materials, technology and engineering research activities on the ISS are 

developing into benefits for economic development and quality of life.
64
65

Advanced ISS technology supports water 

purification efforts worldwide

Whether in the confines of the International Space 

Station or a tiny hut village in sub-Saharan Africa, 

drinkable water is vital for human survival. Unfortunately, many people around the world lack access to clean 

water. Using technology developed for the space station, at-risk areas can gain access to advanced water 

filtration and purification systems, making a life-saving 

difference in these communities. 

In 2006, the first of many ground-based water filtration systems using NASA technology was installed in 

northern Iraq. The system was developed by Water 

Security Corporation in Reno, Nevada, and installed 

by the nonprofit organization Concern for Kids (CFK). 

CFK representatives learned about a deep-water well 

failure in the tiny Kurdish village of Kendala, Iraq, which 

left its residents without access to drinkable water. 

The population quickly dwindled from 1,000 residents 

to a mere 150. Those remaining were forced to use a 

nearby creek that contained water contaminated by 

livestock, which they sifted through fabric to remove 

dirt and debris.

Todd Harrison was president of CFK’s board of directors at the time and strongly empathized with the 

people of Kendala. He set out on a mission to revive 

the ailing community by improving the deplorable 

conditions. The solution came in the form of a familial connection that put Harrison in touch with NASA 

engineers who developed technology to provide clean 

water aboard the space station.

Harrison’s sister, Robyn Gatens, was the engineering manager for the Environmental Control and Life 

Support System (ECLSS) project at NASA’s Marshall 

Fluids and Clean Water

Whether in the vacuum of space or the relative comfort of the Earth’s surface, access to clean water 

is essential for living organisms. The challenges of moving and processing fluids such as water using 

compact, reliable systems in the microgravity environment of space have led to advances in the 

way we purify water sources on the ground. Testing methods developed to ensure water quality on 

the International Space Station (ISS) have led to advancements in water monitoring here on Earth. 

Investigations into the basic dynamics of how fluids move in space have also led to advances in medical 

diagnostic devices.

Girl at hydration station.

Image credit: Sinergia Systemas

Using technology developed 

for the space station, at-risk 

areas can gain access to 

advanced water filtration and 

purification systems, making a 

life-saving difference in these 

communities.
66

Space Flight Center. She and her team of engineers 

were responsible for developing the cutting-edge water 

purification system that recycles air and water aboard 

the station.

By efficiently recycling wastewater aboard the space 

station, there is a reduced need to provide the resource via resupply—which would not be an option 

for long-duration space travel. Without this capability, 

the station’s current logistics resupply capacity would 

not be able to support the standard population of six 

crew members.

Two principal components make up the International 

Space Station Regenerative ECLSS: The Water Recovery System (WRS) and the Oxygen Generation System 

(OGS). The WRS conducts the water purification and 

filtration process in the ECLSS. Water Security Corporation (WSC) took an interest in this part of the ECLSS 

project, and licensed the technology in order to adapt 

it to an Earth-based water treatment system.

Harrison discovered an interesting relationship between 

WSC’s water filtration system and NASA because of 

his familiarity with his sister’s work. NASA’s previous 

research and application provided the Microbial Check 

Valve (MCV), an integral component of the purification 

and filtration process.

The MCV is an iodinated-resin that provides a simple 

way to control microbial growth in water without the 

use of power. By dispensing iodine into the water, it 

performs an important secondary nutritional function 

for the populace. When added to the diet, it promotes 

proper brain function and maintains bodily hormone 

levels, which regulate cell development and growth. 

Children born in iodine-deficient areas are at risk of 

neurological disorders and mental retardation.

With the help of U.S. Army Civil Affairs and Psychological Operations Command (Airborne) personnel, a 

2,000-liter water tank and fresh water were delivered 

to the Kurdish village in Iraq. Workers ensured that the 

water was clean and iodinated to prevent bacteria and 

virus contamination. When CFK encountered technical issues, Gatens and her team were able to help by 

phone to implement a workaround that enabled the 

successful processing of Kendala’s water supply.

Joint collaborations between aid organizations and 

NASA technology show just how effectively space 

research can adapt to contribute answers to global 

problems. Since this initial effort, the commercialization of this station-related technology has provided aid 

and disaster relief for communities worldwide. WSC, 

in collaboration with other organizations, has deployed 

systems using NASA water-processing technology 

around the world. Applications have included home 

water purifiers in India, village processing systems in 

remote areas of Mexico, Central and South America, 

water bottle filling stations in Pakistan, and even a 

survival bag designed as a first response device for 

natural disasters, refugee camps, civil emergencies 

and remote locations.

Exploring the wonders of fluid motion: 

Improving life on Earth through understanding the nature of Marangoni 

convection 

Fluid is everywhere in our lives. The Earth, known 

as “the water planet,” is able to support life in part 

because of the presence of water. From the lava that 

Chiapas installed system at school.

Image credit: Sinergia Systemas
67

cools to form islands, the blood that flows in our veins, 

and the molten metals that we turn into structures 

and vehicles, human beings have been using fluids 

throughout history. Understanding the fundamental 

principles of fluid motion is important for all walks of 

life, from the microfluidic systems that deliver drugs to 

keep us healthy to the rocket fuel tanks that propel us 

into the vastness of space. One of these fundamental 

principles of motion, Marangoni convection, is revealed 

in microgravity but masked by the stronger force 

of gravity on Earth. The International Space Station 

gives us the unique opportunity to study this principle 

in detail.

Marangoni convection is the flow driven by the 

presence of a surface tension gradient that can be 

produced by a temperature difference at a liquid/

gas interface. It can best be studied in a liquid bridge 

formed under microgravity conditions. To learn 

thermal-fluid dynamics in microgravity, the convection 

in a liquid bridge of silicone oil is generated by heating one disc higher than the other, allowing scientists 

to observe flow patterns that can tell them about how 

heat is transferred in microgravity.

Surface tension is the characteristic of a liquid in which 

it forms a layer at its surface so that this surface covers 

as small an area as possible. For example, in the 

image below, one can see the coin floating on the 

surface of the water. Surface tension is the force 

that keeps the heavier coin from sinking. In general, 

surface tension becomes stronger with decreasing 

ISS gives us the unique 

opportunity to study a 

fundamental principle 

of motion, Marangoni 

convection, which is revealed 

in microgravity but masked 

by gravity on Earth. 

A liquid bridge forms in the International Space 

Station Kibo Module. (Diameter: 30 mm, Length: 

62.5 mm)

Image credit: JAXA/Yokohama National 

University/Tokyo University of Science

A coin floats on the surface of the water because 

of surface tension.

Image credit: JAXA

The Earth, known as “the water planet.” 

Image credit: JAXA/Japan Broadcasting 

Corporation
68

temperature. A trait of Marangoni convection is a 

surface tension-driven fluid flow in which the driving 

force is localized only at the surface. When a temperature difference exists along a surface, the surface is 

pulled toward a low-temperature region. The surface 

tension difference is also produced under fluid concentration differences at the meniscus (the fluid’s surface), 

such as what you may see in a wine glass as tears or 

legs of wine. 

Such a phenomenon is often observed in everyday life. 

For example, oil in a pan heated from the center moves 

to the side. Oil floating on water immediately moves 

when a surfactant (e.g., detergent) drops onto a part 

of the oil because of the imbalance in the surface tension. The detergent causes the center to have a lower 

surface tension while the outside has a higher surface 

tension; therefore, the center and the oil were pulled 

out in all directions to equalize the surface tension. 

These phenomena result from the Marangoni effect.

The Marangoni experiment has obtained the flow transition process from laminar to turbulent (chaotic) flows. 

The onset conditions of oscillatory flow were clarified 

by studying long liquid bridges, which are only available under the microgravity environment present on 

the space station. This helps to make more accurate 

predictions of instability onsets that can give rise to different pattern-forming instabilities. In a higher temperature difference regime, transitions to the chaotic and 

turbulent flows are detected and characterized. 

This knowledge of the floating zone (liquid bridge), 

may help in refining a technique that is used to 

produce extremely high purity crystals by the semiconductor and rare metals industries. Flow disturbance is 

a major cause for the deterioration of the quality of the 

crystal grown by this method. 

Understanding the rheological (deformation and flow 

of matter) dynamics in liquid bridges is of fundamental 

interest for many industrial and biological processes, 

as well as medical diagnostic devices. For instance, 

micro-Total Analysis Systems (μ-TAS) are expected 

to enable on-site medical diagnosis techniques by 

sampling minute amounts of blood and DNA. In this 

technique, fluid manipulation is dominated by the interface capillarity. With a stronger understanding of the 

fundamentals of Marangoni phenomena, practical use 

of thermocapillarity in microfluidics such as the μ-TAS 

can be achieved.

Space station-inspired mWater app 

identifies healthy water sources 

What if that clear, sparkling stream coming from the 

ground or a faucet were teeming with contaminants? 

How would you know? Whether you live in some remote region of Africa, a high rise in New York City 

or aboard an orbiting laboratory in space, you need 

reliable drinking water to survive. You now can check 

the cleanliness of your water using the mWater app 

on your mobile phone.

This handy tool, based in part on International Space 

Station technology, provides a global resource available for free download as an app or usable via the 

Web browser version of the app on most smartphones. Governments, health workers and the public 

all can make use of mWater to record and share water 

test results. During the first year of the beta release of 

mWater, more than 1,000 users downloaded it and 

mapped several thousand water sources.

John Feighery, mWater co-founder and former lead 

engineer for air and water monitoring with NASA, 

Pictured are the tears or legs of wine. Droplets 

form the vicinity of the fluid’s surface and drip 

into the wine continuously.

Image credit: Professor Hiroshi Kawamura, 

Tokyo University of Science

Check the cleanliness of your 

local water bodies using the 

mWater app first developed 

from technology proven on the 

space station.
69

was inspired by his work for the space station. There, 

he and his team created efficient, mobile and ambient 

testing techniques to test for contamination in drinking 

water sources without the need for costly lab equipment such as incubators. The resulting Microbial Water 

Analysis Kit (MWAK)—part of the environmental monitoring Crew Health Care System Environmental Health 

System (CHeCS EHS) suite aboard station—sparked 

Feighery’s imagination, providing the basis for the 

mWater testing of E. coli in 100-milliliter (3.38-ounce) 

water samples.

One key innovation that came from NASA was proving that these types of tests will work at near ambient 

temperatures. Various studies have shown that any 

temperature about 25 degrees Celsius (77 degrees 

Fahrenheit) will produce a result, whereas traditional 

laboratory procedures call for incubation at 37 degrees 

Celsius (98.6 degrees Fahrenheit). This is very important for developing countries because incubators are 

expensive and require reliable electricity and can also 

easily break down. Since many of the countries that 

suffer from poor access to safe water are tropical, the 

tests can easily be done by anyone at room temperature most any time of the year. 

Hefting testing materials or expensive equipment to 

test water sources is unrealistic, Feighery discovered 

while volunteering with Engineers Without Borders in 

El Salvador. Portable, inexpensive and effective, that’s 

the goal for technologies bound for the defined real estate of the space station, but also for those needed in 

remote or low-resource regions of the world. Low-cost 

mWater test supplies cost users $5 per kit.

Combining his aerospace experience and philanthropic 

passions, Feighery went to work with co-founders 

Annie Feighery and Clayton Grassick on what would 

become mWater. Following the 2011 Water Hackthons, the mWater app was developed and later 

improved upon through field testing sponsored by 

U.N. Habitat. The app helps to simplify recording of 

water quality results, mapping water sources and 

finding safe water nearby. 

The tests and app are both designed with ease of use 

in mind. The user tests the water, allows the test to 

incubate at ambient temperatures, photographs the 

results to count the bacteria and finally uploads the 

findings to the global water database. Ease of use 

was key to Feighery’s design goals.

Feighery’s experience with writing crew procedures 

at NASA influenced the design of the app. The app is 

task-oriented and designed to require very little training 

beyond following the procedure. In the future, Feighery 

and his mWater team plan to introduce checklists for 

each type of water test to further improve ease of use 

and reduce the training needed to perform field testing. 

Test results upload to the cloud-based global water 

database, using the phone’s Global Positioning System 

to identify the exact location of the water source. Each 

location gets a unique and permanent numeric identifier for reference by those who visit the global water 

source map for updates. Users can add new water 

location points and input or update test results, working within the open source sharing approach for the 

health of the community. 

Space-tested fluid flow concept 

advances infectious disease diagnoses

A low-energy medical device that can diagnose 

infectious diseases on-site may soon be operating in 

remote areas of the world that have limited access to 

power sources. With a reduced need for energy and 

on-site diagnosis, less time would be needed between 

identifying a disease and beginning treatment for it. 

The device that could quickly identify diseases like HIV/

AIDS or tuberculosis relies on a deeper understanding 

of capillary flow. That deeper understanding is the 

result of research conducted on the International 

Space Station. 

The Capillary Flow Experiment (CFE) was a suite of 

fluid physics experiments conducted on the space 

Screenshot of the global water source map people 

can visit to find data uploaded by mWater users 

across the globe. 

Image credit: mWater
70

station by Dr. Mark Weislogel of Portland State University in Oregon and assisted by researchers at NASA’s 

Glenn Research Center in Cleveland, Ohio. 

Capillary flow, also known as wicking, is the ability of a 

liquid to flow without the assistance of gravity and other external forces. It even works in opposition to those 

forces. Stick a straw into a glass of water; the water 

will rise maybe a few millimeters in the straw before 

you begin to drink through it. Or consider how a paper 

towel will draw, or wick, liquid into it. In the absence of 

gravity, the effect of capillary forces is more dramatic. 

For example, the water would rise and completely fill 

a straw before you begin to drink through it.

CFE was a basic physics investigation that refined our 

understanding of how capillary action helps fluids flow. 

The principle has application in many fluid-handling 

systems from fuel tanks to cooling systems to medical 

devices. 

Cell samples in the form of bodily fluids or blood are 

placed in the CFE-studied medical device. Enzymes 

burst the samples leaving behind DNA or RNA, which 

is then captured on a bead that is processed by the 

device to identify the infectious virus. Capillary flow is 

used to manage and direct the flow of the cell samples 

inside the device.

David Kelso, Ph.D., of Northwestern University in Evanston, Illinois, developed the simple, inexpensive device. 

Kelso and his team were using energy-consuming 

items like batteries and motors to operate the device, 

but when his designs did not work as expected in the 

lab, Kelso turned to Weislogel. Kelso explained that 

he and his team thought that gravity would pull fluids 

through the device, but Weislogel had the understanding that capillary action would do this based on his 

previous work in microgravity.

By relying on the principles of capillary flow, the device 

uses much less energy and can provide medical 

professionals with a valuable tool in areas with limited 

resources. The device is scheduled for field testing in 

late 2014.

While a primary focus of the CFE research was fluid 

management in space where gravity is nearly absent, 

the basic principles of capillary flow can be used on 

Earth as well. The most direct applications for CFE 

research are immediate design improvements for most 

life support equipment aboard spacecraft. In addition, 

Weislogel believes that terrestrial applications will be 

commercially viable, applying the unique results of 

space station research. 

Research in the microgravity environment of space is 

once again contributing to work that impacts our 

lives here on Earth. Much like it is with the medical 

device, this deeper understanding of capillary flow 

could change how fluid-handling systems are designed 

and operated in any number of applications. 

Understanding capillary flow 

could change how fluidhandling systems are designed 

and operated in any number 

of applications.

A view of Capillary Flow Experiment - 2 Interior 

Corner Flow 3 vessels set up during an experiment 

aboard the International Space Station. This study 

looks at capillary flow in interior corners. 

Image credit: NASA
71

Improving semiconductors with 

nanofibers

Nanotechnology involves materials at the atomic and 

molecular level and holds great promise for a wide 

range of applications, from telecommunications and 

computing to health and medicine. But nano-structured materials, especially those that can self-assemble 

into organized patterns, have proven difficult to control. 

Experiments on the International Space Station (ISS) 

demonstrated a new process for constructing materials that can arrange themselves into structures just one 

atom thick (the nano scale). The research paves the 

way for development of fast, high-capacity computers 

and information storage systems.

The 2-D Nano Template experiments were designed to 

build a fine layer of material that can assemble by itself 

into a very tight, repeating pattern. This pattern can be 

used as a template for a focused beam of electrons. 

The electron beam traces the template, carving out 

the same pattern onto another surface.

The investigation used peptides, which are small 

biological molecules made from amino acids, and 

polymers, which are larger molecules made from many 

smaller parts that repeat. Proteins are made up of peptides, and DNA is an example of a polymer. Binding 

together with water, the molecules would form nanofibers, which would combine to create a single array just 

one molecule thick. This ultra-thin surface would be 

used as a masking layer for a tiny semiconductor—

the basis of a computer chip.

Investigators developed a simple way to induce the 

peptides to bond, starting the process of self-assembly. Microgravity provided a unique environment for this 

process, because it was not interrupted by the force of 

Earth’s gravity causing some of the molecules to settle 

or clump together incorrectly. 

After the samples were returned to Earth, researchers 

studied them using a special microscope called an 

Atomic Force Microscope (AFM), which enables a view 

of the atomic scale. The images showed that fibers 

built on the ISS were greatly improved compared to a 

sample grown on Earth. The space-based sample also 

had a much more uniform pattern because there were 

no excess molecules or particles settling together.

The new, error-free, two-dimensional nanofiber layer 

was then used as a template, which can be traced like 

a blueprint to mark the processing surface of a semiconductor. Investigators tested this in space with a 

silicon carbide substrate. When they coated it with the 

two-dimensional nano-patterned template, a focused 

ion-beam followed the pattern and marked it onto the 

silicon carbide material. This is a novel process for creating a very specific, incredibly tight pattern with less 

than 10 nanometers of spacing. 

Materials

The ISS provides a unique laboratory environment for the testing of new materials. In microgravity, 

sedimentation and buoyancy-driven convection do not take place allowing us to witness how materials 

change and develop over longer periods. This allows researchers to manipulate their materials in unique 

ways. These opportunities are leading to a better understanding of how material processes work on 

Earth thereby enabling the manufacturing of new materials with well-defined structures, improved 

strength, and better function.

Data from ISS for nanoscale material assembly will 

be applied in several fields, 

including computers and 

chemical catalysts for industrial 

processes.
72

Materials that can follow such a small-scale pattern 

will be useful in several fields, including computers, 

chemical catalysts for industrial processes, and even 

super-water repellent substances. Thanks to space 

station research, the cutting edge of nanotechnology 

is sharper than ever. 

InSPACE’s big news in the nano world

A technology of tiny elements studied on the International Space Station could have a big impact on 

everything from braking systems and robotics to 

earthquake-resistant bridges and buildings. 

Investigating the Structure of Paramagnetic Aggregates from Colloidal Emulsions (InSPACE) is a set of 

experiments that gathered fundamental data about 

Magnetorheological (MR) fluids. They are a type of 

smart fluid that tends to self-assemble into shapes 

when exposed to magnetic fields. 

MR fluids change viscosity in a magnetic field and can 

even be made to change their arrangement at the 

nanoscale level, or one billionth of a meter. Such tiny 

distances are typical for molecules and atoms. 

When exposed to magnetic fields, MR fluids can 

quickly transition into a nearly solid state. When 

the magnetic field is removed, the MR fluids return 

to a liquid state. This process produces useful 

viscoelastic properties that can be harnessed for a 

variety of mechanical devices, from robotic motions to 

strong braking and clutch mechanisms. The process 

of self-organization exhibited by MR fluids also could 

have long-ranging consequences for the design and 

manufacturing of a whole host of new nanomaterials 

and nanotechnologies.

The Colloid Self Assembly set of experiments conducted during InSPACE-3 looked at colloid arrangement 

at a nanoscale using magnetic and electric fields for 

development of nanomaterials. The principal investigator for the study was Eric M. Furst, Ph.D., University 

AFM images of (left) long-range fiber obtained in the space experiment and (right) original fiber array obtained 

in the ground experiment.

Image credit: JAXA/Nagoya Institute of Technology

Magnetorheological fluid 

research in space could have 

long-ranging consequences 

for the design and manufacturing of a whole host of 

new nanomaterials and 

nanotechnologies.
73

of Delaware. His study goal was to understand the 

fundamental science around directed self-assembly 

to better define new methods of manufacturing 

materials composed of small colloidal or nanoparticle 

building blocks. 

Colloids are tiny particles suspended in a solution. 

They are critical to industrial processes as well as 

household products such as lotions, medications 

and detergents. 

InSPACE-3 is focused on oval- or ellipsoid-shaped 

particles, as opposed to earlier InSPACE investigations 

with MR fluids composed of round particles. These 

oval- and ellipsoid-shaped particles were expected to 

pack differently and form column-like structures in a 

unique way, different from previous experiments. Particles of InSPACE-3 are made of a polystyrene material 

embedded with tiny, nano-sized iron oxide particles.

When the fluid containing iron oxide is mixed, it has 

a brownish, rusty hue. Astronauts, under the direction 

of the project team, ran a series of experiments on 

this rust-colored mixture.

Astronauts applied a magnetic field, which was pulsed 

from a low frequency of around 0.66 hertz up to 

20 hertz, or switched on and off, roughly one time 

per second up to 20 times per second. Scientists 

were looking for formation of structures that are at a 

lower-energy state. Typically in an MR fluid application, a constant field is applied, and the particles form 

a gel-like structure. They don’t pack very well, so the 

particles have no definite form. They are like a cloud 

or hot glass that can form into almost any shape.

In a pulsed field, the on-off magnetic field forces 

the particles to assemble, disassemble, assemble, 

disassemble and so on. In this pulsed field, the particles organized into a more tightly packed, ordered 

structure. Scientists could then measure and plot 

the column growth over time.

The space station’s microgravity environment was critical to understanding the behavior of self-assembly in 

toggled fields. Microgravity slows down the movement 

of colloidal mixtures, allowing researchers to understand how they interact and how to control the tiny 

particles on the ground. You cannot do these experiments on Earth because the nanoparticles would settle 

out too quickly because of gravity.

At first, the particles in the fluid form long, thin chains. 

As the magnetic field is applied, the magnetic dipoles 

in the particles cause these singular chains to grow 

parallel to the applied field. The chains parallel to each 

other interact and bond together over time. These 

“bundles” of chains become more like columns when 

the magnetic field is toggled on and off. The columns 

grow in diameter with time as they are exposed to a 

pulsed, magnetic field. This self-directed “bundling” 

was not observed until the InSPACE-2 investigation, 

which ended in 2009.

When the InSPACE study began, it identified a pulsing 

phenomenon that had never been seen before. Work 

continued with InSPACE-2 and -3 investigations to 

further observe how magnetic fields impact colloidal, 

self-assembly phase transitions. By better understanding how these fluids “bundle” themselves into solid-like 

states in response to magnetic pulses, researchers 

have insight into phase separation. This may lead them 

to new nanomaterials from these tiny building blocks 

for use on Earth.

With new manufacturing models resulting from InSPACE -2 and -3 studies, these models could be used 

to improve or develop active mechanical systems 

such as new brake systems, seat suspensions, stress 

transducers, robotics, rovers, airplane landing gears 

and vibration damping systems. It also has promise 

to engineer new nanomaterials for thermal barriers, 

energy harvesting and color displays.

Thanks to the InSPACE series of investigations into 

tiny things, fundamental science could advance these 

systems and improve how we ride, drive, fly and 

live—in a big way. 

Investigating the Structure of Paramagnetic 

Aggregates from Colloidal Emulsions science 

video image of aggregates (columns forming). 

The black lines are the formed columns. The 

green background is from a green LED lamp 

used to provide lighting for the video camera. 

Image credit: NASA
74
75

Deploying small satellites from ISS

Traditional satellites require complex systems and 

often, the resources of a dedicated launch vehicle to 

find their way into orbit. However, with some help from 

the International Space Station, a new class of small 

satellites is changing the model for how we launch new 

technologies into space. CubeSats, small, less than 

50 centimeter and mostly 10 centimeter (4 inch) cubic 

satellites, have an alternative way of being deployed. 

Some are deployed into orbit from the space station 

using a robotic arm. The satellites are transported 

to station in soft-sided bags by cargo ships such as 

Japan’s H-II Transfer Vehicle (HTV). And at an appropriate time later, the satellites are taken out from the 

station’s cabin, and the Japanese Experiment Module 

(JEM) Robotic Manipulator System (JEMRMS) aims 

the satellites at their planned orbits and releases them. 

The JEM Small Satellite Orbital Deployer, an ejecting 

system for small satellites, was developed by JAXA.

In the past, small satellites of a certain class have been 

launched by rockets as piggyback satellites. When 

a rocket can launch extra weight other than its main 

satellite, piggyback satellites are given their seats in 

the rocket and are thrown into the orbit after the main 

satellite is successfully deployed. The advantages of 

launching satellites from the space station by robotic 

arm compared to piggyback on a rocket include the 

option to choose the best timing of the small satellite’s 

ejection without affecting the main satellite’s timing. 

With limited space for small satellites to piggyback on 

rockets, the space station provides the additional benefit of having regularly scheduled cargo resupply flights 

on which the small satellites can more readily travel. 

Any satellite must pass space environment tests to 

confirm that the satellite will survive the harsh environment during launch and its operational period in 

space. Among these, the vibration test that simulates 

Japanese Experiment Module Robotic Manipulator System satellites are deployed into orbit.

Image credit: JAXA

Japanese Experiment Module (JEM)

Ejected Satellites

JEMRMS

Satellites 

The International Space Station (ISS) offers a unique platform for access to low-Earth orbit (LEO) 

through its Japanese Experiment Module (JEM) airlock working in coordination with the JEM robotic 

arm. This small airlock allows small devices such as CubeSats to be deployed into LEO while making the 

trip up to space in the relative comfort of a pressurized cargo container. This can have many benefits in 

reducing the cost to small satellite operators specifically in the number of launch testing and redundancy 

requirements for the developer. Lower cost leads to more financial incentive to enable small operators 

to design and prove out their technology in space.

Developers of small satellites 

have increased their use 

of space station deployers 

affording non-traditional 

users access to space.
76

vibrations experienced during launch, subjects the 

satellite to a rigorous level of agitation. Piggyback 

satellites are required to pass this test because they 

are installed in the same area as the main satellite. By 

contrast, satellites deployed from the space station are 

delivered by cargo spacecraft, where they are kept in a 

soft bag and buffered with packing material. The vibration level they experience during launch to the space 

station is less than that of piggyback satellites. 

The relaxation of the vibration condition can be gamechanging for small satellite developers because some 

developers, such as college students, cannot afford to 

use expensive aerospace-rated electric parts to pass 

the vibration test. 

An additional benefit to space station deployment of 

CubeSats is that after the CubeSats launch to space, 

astronauts aboard the orbiting outpost can perform 

quality checks on the hardware to ensure the small 

satellites are not damaged before deploying into 

space. One of the difficulties of developing free-flying 

satellites is that once they are launched, it is uncertain whether the satellite is still in good working order 

after enduring the launch vibration. With space station 

deployment, there is still opportunity to check out 

satellite systems and intervene before it deploys. This 

can allow designers to choose electric parts without 

the traditional space ratings, which can lower the total 

cost of development and expedite new space-qualified 

technology. 

In order to launch a small satellite into orbit using the 

JEMRMS, first the space station cargo supply spacecraft, such as the HTV, delivers the satellite in a Cargo 

Transfer Bag. The satellites are stored in Cargo 

Transfer Bags in the space station cabin until time 

Satellite packed in a soft-sided bag.

Image credit: JAXA

Crew in the International Space Station install a 

satellite onto the Japanese Experiment Module 

airlock table.

Image credit: JAXA

FITSAT, one of the small satellites thrown into 

orbit by Japanese Experiment Module Robotic 

Manipulator System.

Image credit: Fukuoka Institute of Technology
77

for deployment. Following the final satellite checkout, 

the crew installs the small satellite into the JEM Small 

Satellite Orbital Deployer and places it on the JEM 

airlock table. Then, after the airlock is sealed, it opens 

to allow the airlock table to slide out of the cabin of the 

space station. The JEMRMS approaches the airlock 

table and grapples the satellite ejector. Next, the 

JEMRMS moves the satellite in the ejector into position 

for deployment into orbit. JEMRMS holds the specified 

attitude aiming at the satellite’s orbit. Finally, ground 

operators send the command to the ejector to release 

the satellite.

In summary, introduction of this new method of satellite 

ejection using the JEM facility achieves the advantages 

of providing more frequent opportunities for small 

satellite deployment in low-Earth orbit, lowering the 

vibration test hurdles and providing the opportunity 

for a final checkout of the satellite before use. 

As a result of the use of the space station, potential 

developers of small satellites have increased their 

use of the space station deployers, and universities, 

companies and other non-traditional space users are 

finding affordable access to space. 

Pinpointing time and location

Lost phones and running late for appointments 

could become a thing of the past thanks to benefits

originating from technology tested aboard the 

International Space Station. The Global Transmission 

Services 2 (GTS-2) experiment demonstrated that 

radio transmissions could be used to synchronize 

Earth-based clocks and watches and, eventually, to 

locate stolen cars and deactivate lost credit cards 

directly from space.

An antenna on the station currently transmits Coordinated Universal Time (UTC), also known as Greenwich 

Mean Time. These transmissions cover almost the 

entire Earth and can be received at a particular location 

several times daily. The signal is strong enough to be 

received even by small wrist watches, and transmits 

accurate local time for different time zones, even taking 

into account daylight saving time. A unique code for 

each ground receiver verifies the authenticity of data 

and guarantees its secure transmission. Watches and 

clocks can automatically synchronize with these signals through receivers typically activated once per day 

or when the devices are turned on.

The GTS can function as theft protection by sending 

a message to a receiver chip in an electronic device 

such as a phone, car, or car key that shuts down the 

device. Even someone with an authentic key would not 

be able to steal the car to which it goes, because the 

signal makes the key unusable. That could reduce theft 

of car keys directly from drivers, which can sometimes 

turn violent.

The system also may be able to help deter theft of 

larger mobile items, such as shipping containers and 

truck trailers, by pinpointing their exact locations.

In addition to accurate setting of clocks and theft 

protection, other possible applications of the system 

include paging services, targeted broadcast of messages such as automobile recalls, remote control of 

various devices, container tracking and fleet-management services. 

The system’s ground receivers are capable of accurately determining the position of the space station 

based on its transmission of signals. This ability could 

Graphic of potential receivers for GTS signals from 

the International Space Station. 

Image credit: Steinbeis-Transferzentrum Raumfahrt

Global Transmission Services 

technologies can function as 

theft protection by shutting 

down stolen vehicles, making 

them unusable.
78

be used in reverse to determine the location of a receiver from the station, a capability that one day might 

enable an orbiting spacecraft to navigate a ground 

vehicle on a planet below.

Using the space station for these global transmission 

applications offers several advantages over the use 

of other satellites. Because of the station’s low orbit, 

every point between 70 degrees north and 70 degrees south latitude—most of the populated areas on 

Earth—can receive signals five to seven times a day. 

The transmissions also can be sent using very little 

power. Finally, because the station is manned, astronauts can exchange and maintain the device 

as needed.

The GTS experiment is supported by the company 

Fortis Swiss Watches, the German Aerospace Center 

(DLR), and the European Space Agency (ESA). 

Steinbeis Transfer-zentrum Raumfahrt provided 

experiment management, development and operation. 

The antenna unit was mounted on the Russian Service 

Module in December 1998, carried into space summer 

of 2000, and began operations in 2002, making this 

experiment one of the oldest aboard the station. 

Integration, launch and operation of GTS are now a 

cooperative undertaking with the Russian Institute 

of Applied Mathematics through the Russian Federal 

Space Agency (Roscosmos) and ESA’s program of 

joint scientific investigations and experiments aboard 

the space station until 2020. 

Space station technology demonstration 

could boost a new era of satelliteservicing

It may be called the Robotic Refueling Mission (RRM), 

but NASA’s RRM was built to demonstrate much more 

than the clever ways space robots can refuel satellites. 

Following the success of this namesake task, RRM will 

demonstrate how space robots can replenish cryogen (a type of refrigerant) in the instruments of legacy 

satellites—existing, orbiting spacecraft not originally 

designed to be serviced. 

Delivery to Space Station and Installation 

New hardware deliveries to the space station help to 

outfit the RRM module for the new set of operations. 

A new task board and the RRM On-Orbit Transfer 

Cage (ROTC), an original device designed to transfer 

hardware outside the space station, are added to the 

RRM module to produce the increased capabilities.

Astronauts mount the ROTC on the sliding table within 

the Japanese airlock and then install the task board 

onto the ROTC, giving the Canadian Dextre robot an 

easy platform from which to retrieve and subsequently 

install new hardware.

A second task board and a new device called the 

Visual Inspection Poseable Invertebrate Robot 

(VIPIR) are also added to the RRM module. This 

borescope inspection tool, built at the Satellite 

Orbit altitude and inclination of mobile radio 

satellite constellations and their relative signal 

strengths compared to that of the International 

Space Station. 

Image credit: ESA

Remote refueling and robotics 

technology uses the space 

station as a test bed for 

technology research and 

development.
79

Servicing Capabilities Office (SSCO) at NASA’s Goddard Space Flight Center in Greenbelt, Maryland, 

provides a set of eyes for internal satellite repair jobs. 

Both items are transferred and installed on RRM via 

the Japanese airlock, ROTC and Dextre.

With the help of the twin-armed Dextre robot, the additional RRM task boards and the RRM tools, the RRM 

team works its way through intermediate steps leading 

up to cryogen replenishment. After retrofitting valves 

with new hardware, peering into dark places with the 

aid of VIPIR and creating a pressure-tight seal, the 

RRM and Dextre duo will stop short of actual cryogen 

transfer for this round of tasks. 

RRM Phase 2 operations are scheduled to begin 

in 2014. Initial activities to demonstrate this in-orbit 

capability—cutting wires and removing caps—were 

completed in 2012 with the aid of the original RRM 

tools and activity boards.

Expanding Capabilities and Fleet Flexibility in 

Space

Cryogenic fluids are used on the ground and in space 

to make very sensitive cameras work better. However, 

in time, this extremely cold substance leaks out, and 

the camera no longer performs well. According to 

Benjamin Reed, deputy project manager of the SSCO, 

robotically replenishing these reserves would allow 

spacecraft instruments to last beyond their expiration 

date and ultimately permit satellites to perform longer.

Reed explains that both the government and commercial sectors are focused on expanding options 

for fleet operators. Operators can choose to extend 

the life of an aging observatory or spacecraft by use 

of a future cryogen-toting space tanker, instead of 

retiring or launching a new, costly one. The RRM 

demonstrations are an important step to eventually 

enabling that capability. 

Preparing for a Servicing-Enabled Future

With the 2011 launch to the space station on the last 

space shuttle mission, RRM has been steadily practicing robotic satellite-servicing activities in orbit. RRM 

uses the space station as a test bed for technology 

research and development in a joint effort with the 

Canadian Space Agency. 

NASA developed RRM to demonstrate how remotely 

operated robot mechanics could extend the lives 

of the hundreds of satellites residing in geosynchronous-Earth orbit (GEO). Costly assets traveling about 

22,000 miles above Earth, GEO spacecraft deliver 

such essential services as weather reports, cell phone 

communications, television broadcasts, government 

communications and air traffic management. Servicing capabilities could greatly expand the options for 

government and commercial fleet operators in the 

future. They could potentially deliver satellite owners significant savings in spacecraft replacement and 

launch costs.

NASA continues to test capabilities for a new robotic 

servicing frontier. In conjunction with RRM, the 

SSCO team has been studying a conceptual servicing mission while building the necessary technologies, 

including an autonomous rendezvous and capture 

system, a propellant transfer system and specialized 

algorithms to orchestrate and synchronize satelliteservicing operations.

The Robotic Refueling Mission investigation 

(center, on platform) uses Canadarm2, the 

International Space Station’s robot arm, and the 

Canadian Dextre robot (right) to demonstrate 

satellite-servicing tasks.

 Image credit: NASA
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Cool flame research aboard space 

station may lead to a cleaner 

environment on Earth

The anxious moments of trying to make the next service station, one eye on the fuel gauge, the low-fuel 

light staring at you, may become less frequent in the 

future. Even the choice of which fuel is better for the 

environment may be easier, thanks to droplet combustion research on the International Space Station; better 

mileage and a very real possibility of reduced pollution 

on Earth may be possible in the future.

Researchers from academia working with NASA’s 

Glenn Research Center in Cleveland, Ohio, conducted 

the Flame Extinguishing Experiments (FLEX and 

FLEX 2), which revealed some new insights into how 

fuel burns. 

Led by principal investigator (PI) Forman Williams of the 

University of California, San Diego, who has studied 

combustion for more than 50 years, and co-PI Vedha 

Nayagam of Case Western Reserve University, 

Cleveland, Ohio, the results of the FLEX investigations 

revealed a never-before-seen, two-stage burning 

event. While a heptane droplet of fuel appeared to 

extinguish, it actually continued to burn without a 

visible flame. This knowledge could contribute to 

reduced pollution and better mileage in engine design 

because of improved prediction of flame behavior 

during combustion.

After decades of flame studies that have produced 

well-understood, theoretical models and numerical 

simulations, the FLEX flame investigations in microgravity produced this unexpected result. This is the 

first time scientists have observed large droplets (about 

three millimeters) of heptane fuel that had dual modes 

of combustion and extinction. The fire went out twice, 

once with and once without a visible flame. While the 

initial burn had a traditional hot flame, the secondstage vaporization was sustained by what is known 

as cool-flame, chemical heat release.

A cool flame is one that burns at about 600 degrees 

Celsius. To understand how cool this is, consider that 

a typical candle is about two-and-a-half times hotter, 

burning at around 1,400 degrees Celsius.

The phenomenon of the continued burning of heptane 

droplets after flame extinction in certain conditions 

was not anticipated when the study was designed. 

This result came during the FLEX investigation on the 

space station using the Multi-User Droplet Combustion 

Apparatus in the Combustion Integrated Rack (CIR). 

More recent FLEX experiments reveal similar two-stage 

burning phenomena with n-octane and decane fuels.

While burning the heptane droplets in the CIR, the 

first stage had a visible flame that eventually went out. 

Transportation Technology

Combustion science is one of the longest running fields of research on the International Space Station 

(ISS). There is a long running campaign to understand just how both simple and more complex fuels 

burn in space. Understanding this process in microgravity helps us refine combustion models on Earth 

where gravity and turbulent buoyancy-driven convection flows make this process too difficult to model. 

Recent observations on ISS have shown that a phenomenon known as “cool flames” can be witnessed 

in the combustion chambers in orbit to understand how lower temperature burning could have 

significant applications towards more efficient fuel use and new combustion engine designs in 

the future.

Thanks to the FLEX investigation in the reduced gravity 

environment of the space 

station, we have new insight 

into the mysteries of flames 

and fuel.
82

Once the visible flame disappeared, the heptane droplet continued rapid quasi-steady vaporization without 

any visible flame. This ended abruptly at a point called 

second-stage extinction. At this point, a smaller droplet 

was left behind that either experienced normal, timedependent evaporation or sometimes grew slightly 

through condensation of vapor in the cloud 

that formed upon extinction.

The new findings have been published and are available online in Combustion and Flame, the journal of 

the Combustion Institute. This new discovery will help 

scientists and engineers modify numerical models and 

better predict the behavior of flames, fuel and combustion. It also has many long-term implications both in 

space and on Earth. These findings can help with development of new technology to reduce pollution and 

increase gas mileage in internal combustion engines. 

Cool flame burning could also be used to partially oxidize the fuel for use in burners with reduced emissions 

and better control. 

The Homogeneous Charge Compression Ignition 

(HCCI) engine combines diesel ignition with sparkignition and can be used in any diesel engine, either 

stationary or for transportation. By merging these two 

technologies, engines could have the efficiency of 

burning diesel, while also providing reduced particulate 

and nitrogen oxide emissions. This could eliminate the 

need to burn diesel-fuel sprays, which are notorious for 

pollutant production, according to the researchers.

Thanks to the FLEX investigation in the reduced gravity environment of the space station, we have new 

insight into the mysteries of flames and fuel. Whether 

it’s a candle, a campfire, or some other fuel source, 

the combustion process may be waiting for the right 

investigation to pry loose more secrets. Microgravity research may prove to be the tool that helps force 

those secrets free.

 A burning heptane droplet during the Flame 

Extinguishing Experiments investigation on the 

International Space Station.

Image credit: NASA
83

Robonaut’s potential shines in 

multiple space, medical and 

industrial applications 

When scientists and engineers began developing Robonaut, a first humanoid robot for space exploration, 

they set out to create robotic capabilities for space 

exploration, but did not limit their design just for use in 

microgravity. Instead, they decided to lend a robotic 

hand, along with many other appendages and abilities, 

to those in need on Earth. 

The first Robonaut was a collaborative effort between 

NASA and the Defense Advanced Research Projects 

Agency. Though it was built for space exploration missions like performing skilled hand movements during 

Extravehicular Activity (EVA), or spacewalks, NASA 

has since gained significant expertise in expanding 

robotic technologies for space and Earth applications 

through successful creation of partnerships with 

outside organizations.

The latest iteration of Robonaut, Robonaut 2 (R2), 

was co-developed with General Motors (GM) through 

a Space Act Agreement. R2 is a faster, more dexterous 

robot, built for the microgravity environment to utilize 

human rated tools, assist with International Space 

Station activities and safely work side by side with 

astronauts. While R2 resides aboard the space station, 

many of the technologies developed for Robonaut and 

R2 are being adapted for use on Earth. Here are three 

examples:

Robo-Glove Technology

One of these, a robotic glove, or the RoboGlove, was 

developed as a grasp assist device after NASA and 

GM realized there was overlap between what astronauts needed in space and what factory workers could 

use on the ground. The RoboGlove can augment 

human tendons to help both astronauts and factory 

workers with grasping tasks and potentially minimize 

the risk of repetitive stress injuries. 

Since astronauts wear pressurized spacesuit gloves 

during a spacewalk, they are exerting more force to 

hold a tool or tighten a screw, causing fatigue. The RoboGlove could help astronauts close their gloves and 

reduce the amount of effort they apply while conducting EVA tasks, much like the way power steering helps 

to steer a car.

At GM, factory workers on assembly lines are performing tasks like gripping tools repeatedly throughout their 

work day. These individuals are tiring more quickly during the day by either exerting a high amount of force 

at multiple intervals or exerting force for long periods 

of time. The RoboGlove may help the factory workers 

to grip a tool longer with less discomfort by reducing the amount of force that they need to exert. This 

could result in less fatigue and fewer stress injuries. 

Robotics

Key to enhancing human spaceflight missions is the ability of robots to work alongside the human 

crew to perform necessary tasks more efficiently. These tasks include those that are monotonous or risky 

and impose on the available time astronauts have to focus on science experiments. The International 

Space Station provides an excellent platform where these operational concepts and procedures can 

be developed, tested and evolved in an actual space environment while demonstrating robotic systems 

performance and reliability over the long duration. The precision and reliability requirements for space 

robotics led to dual-purpose technologies and advanced robotic capabilities for use on Earth.

Technologies developed for 

gloves, walking and telemedicine for Robonaut are being 

adapted for use on Earth.
84

NASA and GM are working to find a supplier to make 

the patented RoboGlove. GM plans to use the glove 

technology in future advanced vehicle safety systems 

and manufacturing plant applications. NASA is experimenting with the technology in their Earth laboratory 

and integrating it into a working spacesuit glove for 

possible future use by crew members. 

The RoboGlove also generates interest from the medical community. For instance, patients in rehabilitation 

may benefit from a device that helps them to recover 

their skills for grasping objects. Another potential application involves an adapted glove that could both open 

and close to help patients recovering from brain injury. 

NASA engineers have explored ways to adapt the 

glove for people with partial hand amputations, as well. 

A future partnership with a medical center or research 

institution could expand the technology of RoboGlove 

to medical settings, in addition to its use for space 

exploration and factory work at GM.

Robotic Exoskeleton

NASA and The Florida Institute for Human and Machine Cognition (IHMC), with the help of engineers from 

Oceaneering Space Systems of Houston, have jointly 

developed a robotic exoskeleton called X1. The X1 

technology, derived from R2, may someday help astronauts stay healthier in space with the added benefit 

of assisting people with physical disabilities on Earth. 

Currently in the research and development phase, X1 

is a 57-pound robotic device that a human could wear 

over his or her body either to assist or inhibit movement in leg joints. Worn over the legs with a harness 

that extends up the back and around the shoulders, 

X1 has 10 degrees of freedom, or joints – four motorized joints at the hips and knees, and six passive joints 

that allow for sidestepping, turning and pointing, and 

flexing a foot. 

Employing IHMC’s experience in exoskeleton development for paraplegics, NASA and IHMC streamlined 

R2 arm technology. They made it slim enough to allow 

a person in a wheelchair to get out using the exoskeleton. The X1 device has the potential to produce 

enough force to allow for assisted walking over varied 

terrain to paraplegics or other patients in rehabilitation 

settings. 

In addition to the IHMC and NASA applications of the 

X1 technology, researchers at the University of Houston (UH) are working to adapt an exoskeleton so it is 

controlled by brain signals. This type of exoskeleton 

would attach a device to a person’s head and try to 

read signals that the brain sends to the legs to get 

them to move. 

Telemedicine Applications

The Houston Methodist Research Institute (HMRI) 

and NASA worked together to adapt some of the 

technology used by R2 in space and on the ground. 

The research team tested R2 for use in telemedicine, 

conducting medical procedures through electronic 

communication by tasking R2 to perform an ultrasound 

scan of a medical mannequin and to use a syringe as 

part of a procedure.

The Robo-Glove was built through the continuing 

partnership between NASA and General Motors. 

It uses R2 technology to decrease fatigue and 

stress when a human grasps an object. 

Image credit: NASA
85

With human control of the teleoperated R2, tasks 

were performed with accuracy and efficiency using 

R2’s dexterity to apply the appropriate level of force 

and monitoring progress through R2’s vision system. 

This demonstration of R2’s capabilities could potentially allow physicians to conduct complex medical 

procedures on humans in remote locations on Earth 

or in space.

NASA’s Space Technology Program is developing, 

testing and applying robotic technologies through innovative partnerships. They continue to look for new 

collaborative opportunities to leverage resources that 

will help all partners to increase their chances of making better products, as demonstrated by the numerous 

current applications of the R2 technology. Furthermore, 

using the International Space Station as a test bed for 

these robotic and future technologies will be vital to 

human exploration and beneficial to human health.

Watch these videos to learn more: 

Robo-Glove Technology: 

http://tinyurl.com/nasa-robo-glove 

Exoskeleton Technology Applications: 

http://tinyurl.com/nasa-exoskeleton-tech

Robonaut’s Telemedicine Initiatives: 

http://tinyurl.com/robonaut-telemedicine 

NASA Project Engineer Shelley Rea demonstrates 

the X1 Robotic Exoskeleton, which could improve 

the mobility and strength of astronauts and 

paraplegics. 

Image credit: NASA
86

Student inspired by the ISS and the future of space exploration. 

Image credit: NASA
87

Global

Education

The International Space Station has a unique ability to capture the imaginations of both students and 

teachers worldwide. The presence of humans aboard the station provides a foundation for numerous 

educational activities aimed at capturing interest and motivating children towards the study of science, 

technology, engineering and mathematics (STEM). Projects such as the Amateur Radio on International 

Space Station (ARISS); Earth Knowledge Acquired by Middle School Students (EarthKAM); and 

Synchronized Position Hold, Engage, Reorient Experimental Satellites (SPHERES) Zero Robotics 

competition, among others, have allowed for global student, teacher and public access to space 

through student image acquisition and radio contacts with crew members. Projects like these and their 

accompanying educational materials are distributed to students around the world. Through the continued 

use of the station, we will challenge and inspire the next generation of scientists, engineers, writers, 

artists, politicians and explorers.
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Inspiring the next generation of students 

with the International Space Station

In the 1960s, the innovators responsible for missions 

to the moon inspired homemade space helmets and 

backyard bottle rockets that sent toy soldiers a bit shy 

of low-Earth orbit. The innovations of the International 

Space Station (ISS), however, provide a more direct 

approach to opportunities for the next generation 

as they watch, learn and even participate in today’s 

missions. 

For more than a decade, the space station has 

provided hands-on educational opportunities that 

encourage students to go beyond passive learning, 

engaging them as interactive participants. In 2012, 

NASA published Inspiring the Next Generation: International Space Station Education Opportunities and 

Accomplishments, 2000-2012, which compiles these 

events to share with the public. 

From 2000 through 2012, there have been more than 

42 million students, 2.8 million teachers and 25,000 

schools from 44 countries involved in education 

activities aboard the space station. 

The publication was an international effort that details 

opportunities available today for students and summarizes those already completed. The comprehensive account includes education projects led by all the space 

station partners: NASA, the Canadian Space Agency, 

the European Space Agency, Japan Aerospace Exploration Agency and the Russian Federal Space Agency. 

ISS provides hands-on 

educational opportunities that 

encourage students to go 

beyond passive learning.

ISS Chief Scientist Julie Robinson engages students in International Space Station education activities.

Image credit: Sally Ride EarthKAM
90

Competitive student opportunities leverage real research to explain the depths of the scientific process; 

for instance, the Synchronized Position Hold, Engage, 

Reorient Experimental Satellites (SPHERES) ZeroRobotics challenge focuses on software programming 

skill development to guide robots through a virtual 

obstacle course aboard the space station. There are 

also contests that allow students to have their experiments performed in orbit, such as those proposed for 

Try ZeroG and the YouTube SpaceLab competitions, 

which were implemented on the space station in 2012. 

An inquiry-based approach to learning engages students and their communities, enabling them to 

contribute to the growing knowledge gained from 

research done aboard station. 

These types of activities involve an investigative approach to learning and allows students to understand 

the true nature of science; gain in-depth knowledge of 

scientific concepts, laws, and theories; and develop 

interests, attitudes and “habits of mind” related to 

science and mathematics. 

Other opportunities for station interaction include 

question-and-answer sessions via the Amateur Radio 

on the International Space Station (ARISS), which lets 

students contact astronauts on the station via ham 

radio. In-flight education downlink sessions through 

the NASA Education Office also enable student-crew 

communications, using live video feeds so communities can see the astronauts while speaking with them. 

There are growing commercial opportunities, such as 

the Student Spaceflight Experiment Program in coordination with NanoRacks. This program provides opportunities for elementary and middle school students 

to propose and launch their own investigations to the 

space station. 

The education publication is available in both hardcopy 

and through download via the International Space Station Research and Technology website at http://www.

nasa.gov/iss-science. 

Students from Charminade College Preparatory, 

West Hills, California, run preliminary variations of 

their experiment in the lab. 

Image credit: Student Spaceflight Experiment 

Program
91

Student scientists receive unexpected 

results from research in space

YouTube is a great place to find bloopers, snuggly 

kitten or music videos. Now, it’s also a place to post 

grand ideas for microgravity research studies. Two 

of those ideas actually got to fly on the International 

Space Station. The YouTube Space Lab competition 

provided such an opportunity, and three students 

saw their research performed aboard the orbiting 

laboratory.

For then-high school students Dorothy Chen and 

Sara Ma of Troy, Michigan, and Amr Mohamed of 

Alexandria, Egypt, the sky no longer is the limit for 

their research questions. Chen, Ma and Mohamed 

completed research investigations as winners of the 

YouTube Space Lab global contest. The competition 

invited 14- to 18-year-old students to submit two-minute videos via YouTube to propose physics or biology 

investigations for astronauts to perform aboard the 

space station. Their research was chosen out of more 

than 2,000 entries received from around the world.

The two winning studies looked at the anti-fungal 

properties of the bacteria Bacillus subtilis (B. subtilis)

in microgravity, and the predatory behavior of Salticus scenicus and Phiddipus johnsoni, also known as 

a zebra jumping spider and a red-backed jumping 

spider, respectively. The results they received from their 

research informed them that microgravity can be a wily 

participant in a research study held in space aboard an 

orbiting laboratory.

Chen and Ma hypothesized that B. subtilis, a naturally 

occurring bacteria commonly used as an anti-fungal 

agent for agricultural crops, would have increased 

anti-fungal properties when grown in microgravity compared to the same bacteria produced on Earth. Their 

Inquiry-based Learning

From the launch of the first modules of ISS into orbit, students have been provided with a unique 

opportunity to get involved and participate in science and engineering projects. Many of these 

projects support inquiry-based learning—an approach to science education that allows students to 

ask questions, develop hypothesis-derived experiments, obtain supporting evidence, analyze data, 

and identify solutions or explanations. This approach to learning is well-published as one of the most 

effective ways to engage students to pursue careers in scientific and technology fields. 

The YouTube Space Lab 

competition motivated 

thousands and selected three 

14- to 15-year-old students to 

fly their microgravity research 

ideas on ISS.

Dorothy Chen, YouTube Space Lab winner, 

presents findings from her study on the antifungal properties of the bacteria Bacillus subtilis

in space at the 2013 International Space Station 

Research and Development Conference.

Image credit: Center for the Advancement of 

Science in Space
92

testing also added phosphates and nitrates to the B. 

subtilis nutrient source to see if the additives affected 

growth and anti-fungal strength. The phosphates and 

nitrates acted as nutrients to potentially boost growth 

of the bacteria. The outcome of their investigation 

aboard the space station showed that the least 

amount of growth in the bacteria occurred in microgravity as compared to bacteria produced on Earth. 

They found that microgravity had no effect on the 

degree to which phosphates and nitrates affect B. 

subtilis growth.

Mohamed, now a college student in California, was 

excited about seeing his zebra jumping spider research 

in action while talking with Astronaut Sunita Williams 

in orbit. 

Europe’s alliance with space droids

Between video games and sci-fi movies, a group 

of young students find time for a robotic squadron of 

miniature satellites that come to life aboard the International Space Station, obeying their commands.

The European Space Agency (ESA) is participating 

in the NASA, Defense Advanced Research Projects 

Agency (DARPA), and Massachusetts Institute of 

Technology (MIT) Zero Robotics competition (http://

www.nasa.gov/mission_pages/station/research/

experiments/690.html). The competition is a chance 

for high school students to program droids for action 

on the space station. Synchronized Position Hold, Engage, Reorient Experimental Satellites (SPHEREs) are 

volleyball-sized satellites with their own power, propulsion, computers and navigation.

The challenge to remotely control them began in the 

United States, where an adventurous professor from 

MIT found inspiration in the Star Wars saga to create 

these intriguing robots. The mini-spacecraft have been 

used inside the station since 2006 to test autonomous 

rendezvous and docking maneuvers.

Now formation flying in zero gravity is a programming issue for European students, also. A number of 

schools from ESA member states create rival programs that control three SPHERES in real-time on the 

space station. A local SPHERES expert, familiar with 

the coding requirements for the droids, is assigned to 

each European school. Sponsored by ESA, several 

university staff members are being trained at MIT.

The competition is not only about feeding the 

satellites sets of commands; the local experts help 

students build critical engineering skills, such as 

problem solving, design thought process, operations 

training, and teamwork. Their results could lead to 

The three Synchronized Position Hold, Engage, 

Reorient Experimental Satellites (SPHEREs) on 

the space station are considered facilities. Two are 

used for Zero Robotics.

Image credit: NASA

High school students compete 

to program ISS droids and 

build critical engineering skills.

Students participate in Synchronized Position 

Hold, Engage, Reorient Experimental Satellites 

(SPHERES) Zero Robotics. 

Image credit: ESA
93

important advances for satellite servicing and vehicle 

assembly in orbit.

Teams in the U.S. and in Europe test their algorithms 

under realistic microgravity conditions by competing 

in elimination rounds against each other with finals on 

both sides of the Atlantic.

The winners’ software is uploaded and run in the three 

weightless SPHERES by astronauts on the station. 

The exciting final is streamed live at ESA’s technology 

center in the Netherlands, European Space Research 

and Technology Center (ESTEC), and MIT.

Europe’s alliance with the space droids is stronger 

than ever. The competition has given hundreds of high 

school students from across Europe and the United 

States the opportunity to operate droids in space by 

coding software. The success of the first rounds consolidates the station as a common scientific platform 

for students. They are embarking on a robotic future, 

and may the force be with them!

NASA has a HUNCH about student 

success in engineering

Several young science, technology, engineering and 

mathematics professionals entering the workforce right 

now are likely to have been motivated to enter those 

fields by the High school students United with NASA 

to Create Hardware (HUNCH) Program. HUNCH is a 

nationwide instructional partnership between NASA, 

Students build cost-effective 

hardware and soft goods for 

use on the ISS, launching 

careers and saving money for 

spaceflight programs.

European Space Agency astronaut Paolo Nespoli observes a can crusher, built by students in the High school 

students United with NASA to Create Hardware Program, during Expedition 26 aboard the International Space 

Station. 

Image credit: NASA
94

high school and intermediate/middle school students 

to build cost-effective hardware and soft goods both 

for use on the International Space Station and for 

training of NASA astronauts and flight controllers.

With more than 11 years in existence, the popularity 

of HUNCH has grown to include 1,750 students in 

77 schools across 24 different states. Trainees receive 

a hands-on opportunity that helps them strengthen 

their skills in science, technology, engineering and 

mathematics (STEM). 

Students that participate in HUNCH learn to use and 

apply 3-D software, drafting, prototyping, welding, 

basic architecture, critical-thinking and problem-solving 

skills. NASA provides materials, equipment, mentoring 

and inspection oversight during the fabrication of these 

items. While students are building items for NASA, they 

are also building their self-confidence and interest as 

researchers. 

To date, HUNCH participants have produced singlestowage lockers, cargo transfer bags, educational videos and experiments proposed to fly on the space station. Some standout projects include the design and 

fabrication of a disposable, collapsible glove box; an 

organizer for crew quarters on the space station; and 

a European Physiology Modules Rack trainer, which 

provides facilities for human physiology research. 

Since the beginning of HUNCH in 2003, hundreds 

of items for NASA have been produced.

In a culmination of skills learned as part of the HUNCH 

program, two students from Cypress Woods High 

School in Texas, Robert Lipham and Alie Derkowski, 

were selected to attend the Technology Student 

Association (TSA) National Competition in Orlando, 

Fla., to present the skills they acquired while building Microgravity Science Glove Box (MSG) trainers 

for NASA. HUNCH paired with the Center for the 

Advancement of Science in Space (CASIS) to provide 

funding for the students to showcase their engineering 

education endeavors. 

Design updates made by the Lipham and Derkowski 

saved NASA money by streamlining the MSG trainers, 

which are mockups of space hardware for crew mission preparation. When the idea to create these items 

came to HUNCH, the cost estimate was $1 million for 

four MSG high-fidelity trainers. HUNCH provided NASA 

five MSG trainers for less than $250,000.

Every year, recognition ceremonies are held for all students and teachers that participate in the HUNCH program. The number of participants continues to grow 

annually, as well as the quality, quantity, and diversity 

of the products that students fabricate. While the 

recognition ceremonies recognize student work, they 

also acknowledge the educational benefits of NASA 

teaming up with students. This is often measured by 

the changes in the students’ attitudes toward their own 

self-assurance and desire to enter STEM careers.

HUNCH is an innovative solution for inspiring the next 

generation of researchers and space explorers while 

providing money-savings and resource efficiencies 

for NASA. Schools can get involved through online 

application on the HUNCH website at http://www.

nasahunch.com/.

TomatosphereTM: Sowing the seeds of 

discovery through student science

Home base on the moon. Boot prints on Mars. Visits 

to asteroids. With the world’s space-faring nations 

looking beyond the International Space Station (ISS) 

to envision human missions to increasingly distant 

destinations, scientists have already begun to tackle 

the many challenges of sending humans farther and 

farther from our home planet. Missions to the ISS have 

made substantial contributions to our knowledge of 

how the human body adapts to microgravity for three, 

six or even 12 months, but taking steps further out into 

the solar system will require much longer expeditions. 

A human mission to Mars, for instance, will likely mean 

a six-month journey each way, coupled with a stay of 

about 18 months on the surface of the planet! 

Students from Cypress Ranch High School, 

Cypress, Texas, present mockup hardware to 

staff at NASA’s Johnson Space Center built for 

NASA training programs as part of the High 

school students United with NASA to Create 

Hardware Program. 

Image credit: NASA
95

Future crews on long-duration missions will need to be 

self-sufficient to stay safe and healthy. Since carrying 

two to three years’ worth of food would be expensive 

and impractical, astronauts will have to grow their own 

food en route to their destination. Space farming may 

sound futuristic, but in the closed environment of a 

spacecraft, plants could make a huge contribution to 

life-support systems. Not only do plants provide food, 

water and oxygen, they also recycle carbon dioxide 

and waste. But how do you grow plants effectively in 

the radiation-filled environment of space? Which plants 

are best suited for space missions? What type of 

seeds would be able to withstand the journey and 

still germinate? What if we could recruit the next generation of astronauts, scientists and engineers to help 

solve the problem? 

Since 2001, the award-winning TomatosphereTM 

educational project has done just that. An estimated 

3 million students in Canada and the United States 

have helped researchers gather data to address 

these questions, while learning about science, space 

exploration, agriculture and nutrition. TomatosphereTM 

provides students with two sets of tomato seeds: 

one set that has been exposed to space or spacesimulated environments as well as a control group 

for comparison. Without knowing which set is which, 

students grow the seedlings in their classrooms, measuring a variety of information about the tomato plants, 

the germination rates, growth patterns and vigor of the 

seeds. This methodology, known as a “blind study,” 

allows the mystery of the project to be real science for 

the students. Each class submits their results to the 

project’s website to be shared with scientists studying 

horticulture and environmental biology. 

Grade 3 students measure their tomato plants as 

part of the TomatosphereTM experiment. 

Image credit: TomatosphereTM

Chris Hadfield, Canadian astronaut and former 

commander of the International Space Station, 

poses with 600,000 tomato seeds for the 

TomatosphereTM project, which returned to 

Earth with Hadfield in May 2013 after orbiting 

Earth for nine months aboard the station. The 

seeds will be grown by 16,000 classrooms 

in Canada and the U.S., a record number of 

participants for the project. 

Image credit: CSA, NASA

The award-winning 

TomatosphereTM educational 

project has helped students 

learn about science, space 

exploration, agriculture and 

nutrition.
96

The project’s baseline experiment investigates the 

germination rate of the seeds; however, supporting 

materials have been developed to allow educators 

from grades 3 to 10 to build on student understanding 

of a variety of topics, from the science of plants to the 

science of nutrition to the science of ecosystems.

TomatosphereTM’s hands-on approach to learning 

gives students a taste for science and space research. 

In addition to being rewarded with their very own 

“space tomatoes” to bring home, the students participating in TomatosphereTM today know that they have 

each made a personal contribution to assisting space 

exploration in the future. And perhaps one day, an astronaut biting into a fresh, juicy tomato on the surface 

of the Red Planet will thank them. 

TomatosphereTM is sponsored by the Heinz Canada, 

HeinzSeed, Stokes Seeds, the University of Guelph, 

Let’s Talk Science, First the Seed Foundation and the 

Canadian Space Agency (CSA).

Students photograph Earth from space 

via Sally Ride EarthKAM program

Sally Ride EarthKAM (Earth Knowledge Acquired by 

Middle School Students) is a NASA educational 

outreach program enabling students, teachers and 

the public to become researchers, focused on learning about Earth from the unique perspective of space. 

During the Sally Ride EarthKAM missions, middle 

school students around the world request images of 

specific locations on Earth. The entire collection of 

Sally Ride EarthKAM images is available in a searchable image archive. This image collection and accompanying learning guides and activities are extraordinary 

resources to engage students in Earth and space 

science, geography, social studies, mathematics, 

communications, and art. Four missions are offered 

per year. 

Sally Ride EarthKAM uses a Nikon D2Xs digital camera 

mounted in the Window Observational Research 

Facility (WORF), which uses the science window 

located in the U.S. Destiny Laboratory. This window’s 

high-quality optics capabilities allow the camera to 

take high-resolution photographs of the Earth using commands sent from the students via the online 

program. Students and educators then use the photos 

as supplements to standard course materials, offering 

them an opportunity to participate in space missions 

and various investigative projects. Creators of Sally 

Ride EarthKAM hope that combining the excitement 

of this space station experience with middle-school 

education will inspire a new set of explorers, scientists 

and engineers. 

Students use Sally Ride EarthKAM to learn about 

spacecraft orbits and Earth photography through the 

active use of Web-based tools and resources. With 

the help of their teachers, they identify a target location 

and then must track the orbit of the station, reference 

maps and atlases, and check the weather prior to 

making their image request. These requests funnel to 

another set of students, this time at the University of 

California at San Diego. These college students run 

the Sally Ride EarthKAM Mission Operations Center 

for the project. Here they compile the requests into a 

camera control file and, with the help of NASA’s Johnson Space Center, uplink the requests to a computer 

aboard the space station. 

Requests ultimately transmit to the digital camera, 

which then takes the desired images and transfers 

them back to the station computer for downlink to 

Sally Ride EarthKAM computers on the ground. This 

entire relay process is usually complete within a few 

Middle school students 

track the orbit of the station, 

reference maps and atlases, 

and check the weather before 

making an imagery request.

The above photo of The Bahamas is one of the 

pictures taken during the 2013 spring mission. 

Image credit: Sally Ride EarthKAM
97

hours and the photos are available online for both the 

participating schools and for the public to enjoy.

Sally Ride EarthKAM was initiated in 1995 and originally called KidSat. The KidSat camera flew on three 

space shuttle flights (STS 76, 81 and 86) to test its feasibility and was later moved to the International Space 

Station (ISS) and renamed ISS EarthKAM. In 2013, the 

program was renamed once more; this time to Sally 

Ride EarthKAM to honor the late Dr. Sally K. Ride, 

America’s first woman in space and the program’s 

creator. Dr. Ride passed away July 23, 2012.

Since its first space station expedition in March 2001 

to the present, Sally Ride EarthKAM has touched the 

lives of nearly 300,000 student participants and an 

unknown number of online followers. The program also 

has a strong international presence with users from 

74 countries to date. Interested viewers of Sally Ride 

EarthKAM images and educators interested in participating have the opportunity to register online at 

https://earthkam.ucsd.edu/. 

Try zero G 2: Igniting the passion of 

the next generation in Asia

Twelve-year-old Lily Thornton sat with her mother in 

an Australian airport getting ready to leave her homeland for the first time while waiting to board a plane 

to Japan. Such a young girl could be quite nervous 

about going to a completely different environment or 

the ensuing language barrier that she would face once 

she disembarked the plane, but Lily had on her mind 

something that most 12-year-old girls rarely have to 

think about. Lily was going to see her microgravity 

experiment conducted on the International Space 

Station (ISS) through a program called Try Zero Gravity 

(Try Zero G).

Try Zero G is a program aimed at children and educators to learn about ISS and its educational experiments. In 2009, Japan Aerospace Exploration Agency 

(JAXA) started a domestic, micro-gravity program, Try 

Zero G, using the Japanese Experiment Module, Kibo. 

It is a brand new, innovative, educational program that 

gives the public the opportunity to participate in ISS 

experiments in Japan. This program has successfully 

stimulated public interest. A total of 1,597 ideas were 

submitted with the hope of being implemented in 

2009. Among those, 16 were selected, and the domestic Try Zero G idea was conducted by a Japanese 

astronaut and continued thereafter.

With the belief that educational activities conducted on 

ISS are a benefit for humanity, JAXA opened up the Try 

Students from countries 

across Asia compete to see 

their microgravity experiments 

conducted on ISS.

Two students from Good Shepherd School in 

Alberta, Canada, participate in Sally Ride EarthKAM. 

Image credit: NASA

Lily Thornton, age 12, of Australia at Tsukuba 

Space Center, Japan Aeropsace Exploration 

Agency (JAXA).

Image credit: JAXA
98

Zero G program to Asian nations, implemented from 

2011 under the framework of the Asia-Pacific Regional 

Space Agency Forum (APRSAF). The first Try Zero G 

for Asian nations was announced in APRSAF-17 in 

2010 and 10 ideas from three countries were submitted. Five ideas were conducted by JAXA’s astronaut 

Satoshi Furukawa and implemented on Sept. 22, 

2011. The second Try Zero G was announced in 

APRSAF-18 in Singapore right after the first Try Zero G 

was conducted. The number of applications increased, 

and JAXA received 127 applications from four countries. Eight ideas were implemented by JAXA’s astronaut Akihiko Hoshide on Nov. 15, 2012. Every Try 

Zero G, JAXA welcomes those whose ideas have been 

selected to observe their experiments at the JAXA 

facility in Tsukuba Space Center, Japan.

Lily’s idea, “Weight Station,” observes the behavior of 

a spring balance under microgravity. Having her idea 

selected for the ISS experiment became big news in 

Lily’s small town and in her school in Victoria, Australia. Once she heard of the opportunity to watch 

the downlink in JAXA’s facility, she wished to see her 

experiment performed with her own eyes. Her school 

and the whole town held fundraisers for her to earn 

her travel expense to go to Japan to watch her dream 

come true.

On Nov. 27, 2012, Lily and her mother, Elise Thornton, 

were able to travel to Japan to visit JAXA’s Tsukuba 

Space Center. Together they toured the space center 

and watched the downlinked video of Lily’s experiment 

conducted by astronaut Akihiko Hoshide. During the 

tour, they had the opportunity to talk to the flight director of the mission control room in Tsukuba Space Center. The flight director talked about ISS and of microgravity conditions. Lily and her mother listened in rapt 

attention and had a chance to ask questions further 

expanding their knowledge of ISS and microgravity 

conditions. Lily found the tour enjoyable and interesting. Elise said that Lily dreams of one day becoming 

a space robotics engineer. We hope Lily stays true to 

her dreams and realizes her efforts!
99

Asian students work with astronauts in 

space missions

Methawi Chomthong of Mahidol Wittayanusorn School 

in Thailand plants chili seeds to observe how they 

grow while Leonita Swandjaja of Bandung Institute 

of Technology in Indonesia distributes tomato seeds 

to primary school pupils. These are seeds that have 

traveled in space and many students and pupils in the 

Asia-Pacific region have enthusiastically planted and 

nurtured these “space seeds.” The Space Seeds for 

Asian Future (SSAF) (http://iss.jaxa.jp/en/kuoa/ssaf/) is 

a joint program run by space agencies and institutions 

for science education in the region.

SSAF does more than simply sending seeds into 

space and bringing them back to Earth. It requires 

collaboration between astronauts and students on 

the ground. In September 2013, astronaut Dr. Karen 

Nyberg pulled out a box from a stowage rack in the 

Japanese Experiment Module, Kibo, of the International Space Station. The box contained seedlings 

of Azuki, small red beans, that grew seven days after 

being watered and kept under dark conditions. 

In parallel on the ground, students prepared their own 

plant boxes and started cultivating their own seeds. 

They observed the growth of their plants to see if there 

was any difference between the ground and space 

seedlings. Karen showed the seedlings in the box on 

a video camera. She then pulled out some seedlings 

and examined how strong their stems were. The video 

image of the operation was downlinked to the Tsukuba 

Space Center, Japan Aerospace Exploration Agency, 

Japan. The ground staff observed the space seedlings 

as conveniently as if they were side by side with her. 

These downlinked video images were distributed to the 

organizations participating in the SSAF2013 program, 

and a timeline was set for showing the video to students, making them feel like they were working with 

an astronaut.

Inspiration

Conducting education activities is not the reason the space station was built, but the presence 

of astronauts aboard the ISS serves as an inspiration to students and their teachers worldwide. 

Having the opportunity to connect with crew members real-time, either through “live” downlinks or 

simply speaking via a ham radio, ignites the imagination of students about space exploration and its 

application to the fields of science, technology and engineering. 

Through collaboration with 

astronauts, students compare 

how seedlings in space look 

different from those they grew 

on the ground.

Students from Osaka City University, Osaka, 

Japan, monitor the SSAF2013 experiment at 

Tsukuba Space Center as members of the ground 

crew, who have played an important role in 

developing the experiment protocol and preparing 

the plant materials. 

Image credit: JAXA
100

In Malaysia, the National Space Agency (ANGKASA)

held a competition to help students develop their 

skills in science research with SSAF2013. A total 

of 79 teams, each consisting of five members from 

25 primary schools and 54 secondary schools, 

participated in the competition. In other countries, 

including Australia, Indonesia, Japan, New Zealand, 

Philippines, Thailand and Vietnam, various age groups 

of students and pupils learned the scientific method 

through this experience. These young people play an 

important role, not only in space technology, but also 

in other fields of science and technology for the future 

development of those areas.

The results showed that the seedlings in space looked 

quite different from those on the ground. Students 

understood the wonderful capability of such tiny seeds 

by witnessing that they were able to adjust to various 

gravitational conditions. Although stricter control of experimental conditions is required for the more involved 

science, the observations in SSAF2013 still offer many 

hints to scientists who are developing their new 

research projects. 

Educational benefits of the space 

experiment ‘Shadow-beacon’ on ISS

The use of spaceflight for stimulation of public interest 

to advance science and education is a common practice among the global space agencies. Particularly at 

the Russian Segment of the International space station 

(ISS RS) the space experiment Shadow-beacon (SE) 

has been performing in series since 2011 for the 

scientific and educational purposes.

As an on-board radio beacon transmits VHF sounding 

signals of a 145-megahertz range, ground participants 

can register moments of signal appearance, follow the 

signal until it vanishes using the time marks, and send 

this information, along with data on its geographical 

position, to the Information Storing Center on Earth. 

Every operating sequence would take up to 20 minutes, while ISS is passing over the given continental 

measuring field.

Malaysian students 

set their experiment. 

Image credit: MARA 

Junior Science College, 

Royal Malaysian Police, Kulim, Malaysia

ISS provides opportunities 

to stimulate student interest 

and participation in science, 

technology, engineering, and 

math (STEM).

A typical result of construction of International 

Space Station experimental footprint contour 

on the Earth surface in the azimuthal projection. 

European measuring field, 27.11.11. Current 

moment 05.02.23 UTC. Position of undersatellite 

point: Ukraine, latitude 50.45, longitude 26.54.

Image credit: FGUP TsNIIMash
101

The data provides instant mutual position of the ISS, 

and each receiver allows definition of experimental 

borders of the station’s footprint, i.e., “illuminated” spot 

on the Earth’s surface. With many ground receivers, 

Shadow-beacon simulates a “multibeam” method of 

radio sounding of undersatellite space. Its basic properties are evaluated by comparing obtained experimental and calculated contours of the ISS footprint. 

Shadow-beacon is a developing methodology for 

the future experiment “Shadow,” which will use radio 

waves scattering in an artificial plasma.

Possible application of this radio-sounding method 

is observation of interference in radio communication caused by plasma plumes of perspective electric 

thrusters, which are planned to be used for Martian 

expeditions. Exclusive simplicity of the radio sounding 

method allows the opportunity to carry out Shadowbeacon by non-professional operators (radio amateurs) 

and includes participation by educational programs. 

Therefore, the goals and objectives of the SE are both 

scientific and educational in nature.

Observations gained in Shadow-beacon sessions 

using the in-orbit “Sputnik” hardware between 2011-

2013 involved around 70 ground operators in the 

testing and development of special software for construction of experimental ISS footprint contours on the 

Earth’s surface. In a November 2011 series of Shadowbeacon sessions, laboratory curriculum for students 

was tested and students demonstrated the Shadowbeacon procedure as an extracurricular activity.

For more information about the formulation and conditions of the experiment, the sessions schedule, registration instructions, information on the progress 

of its implementation, or for training materials, visit 

the website at http://knts.tsniimash.ru/shadow/en/

Default.aspx.

To date, the Shadow-beacon website has received 

over 160 applications for participation from private 

and club amateur radio stations. This includes educational institutions interested in using Shadow-beacon 

procedures in the learning process. In order to improve 

the methodology for educational purposes and to 

strengthen its social significance, the developers hold 

classes in which students are directly involved in the 

process of data registration and analysis, and in preparation and sending resulting reports to amateur radio 

operators. These operators are registered participants 

of the experiment who will be invited to help the neighboring schools conduct space lessons.

Expanding the ISS educational laboratory to orbital 

heights through use of programs like Shadow-beacon 

provides opportunities to stimulate student interest 

and participation in the educational process.

Students from Moscow’s Center of Social Aid 

to family and Children “Pechatniki” take part 

in registration of sounding signals from orbit 

by field station ra3awc in the November 2011 

series of Shadow-beacon (SE). 

Image credit: FGUP TsNIIMash

Onboard Amateur radio equipment “Sputnik.”

Image credit: FGUP TsNIIMash
102

Students get fit the astronaut way

When you think of NASA, you likely picture either the 

space shuttle or the International Space Station. Perhaps you have images of planets and galaxies flashing 

before your mind’s eye. NASA’s Mission X: Train Like 

an Astronaut (TLA), however, focuses a little closer 

to home. Working with the schools in local neighborhoods and around the world, Mission X applies the 

same skills used to train astronauts, as well as the 

excitement of space exploration, to motivate over 

15,000 students in 140 cities around the globe to 

live a healthier lifestyle.

Led by NASA’s Human Research Program, the TLA 

project includes physical education activities and 

educational modules on an interactive website (www.

trainlikeanastronaut.org). The activities and modules 

are available in 15 different languages for participants 

in 22 countries including, the United States, Austria, 

Belgium, Colombia, the Czech Republic, Denmark, 

France, Germany, Indonesia, Ireland, Italy, Japan, 

Kazakhstan, the Netherlands, Norway, Portugal, Puerto 

Rico, Russia, Spain, Sweden, Switzerland, and the 

United Kingdom. This growing list of countries brings 

the TLA program closer to its goal of making kinesiology and nutrition fun for children by encouraging them 

to train like astronauts!

Chuck Lloyd, the NASA program manager responsible 

for the project, commented on how the space program 

excites students, prompting their active participation. 

Mission X is all about inspiring and educating our youth 

about living a healthy lifestyle with a focus on improving their overall daily physical activity with the Mission X 

physical activities. 

Students ranging from 8 to 12 years old learn about 

the science behind their activities, including the 

importance of hydration, bone health and balanced 

nutrition. The activities have also been adapted for 

individuals with unique needs. Known as “fit explorers,” 

the participants stay motivated with fun ways to gauge 

their success. For instance, they can see what other 

schools are doing on the Train Like An Astronaut blog. 

Fit explorers log their accumulated activity points over 

the course of the program to help an online cartoon 

astronaut, known as Astro Charlie, walk to the moon. 

Astro Charlie has made it to the moon every year—a 

distance of 238,857 miles (384,403 km) or 478 million 

steps—and he’s still going! 

Fit explorers learn that astronauts train before, during 

and after missions to maintain top physical health via 

good nutrition, rest and physical activity to function in 

Participants at The Resource Center (TRC) in 

Jamestown, New York, celebrate their kick-off of 

Mission X 2013. 

Image credit: TRC

Students ages 8 through 12 

learn about the importance 

of hydration, bone health, 

balanced nutrition, and fitness. 

Third- and fourth-grade students in Japan 

participate in the “Jump for the Moon” activity. 

Image credit: JAXA
103

the demanding environment of microgravity. Lloyd 

makes the connection of such health-centric mindsets 

for everyone, even those not planning to launch into 

space. Program success is met when our youth makes 

smart choices by balancing the amount of work, play 

and sleep they get to maintain peak performance. 

Education is critical to our youth and to our communities to ensure we have tomorrow’s workforce and 

technical leadership poised to address the rigors of 

our societies.

Mission X was piloted in 2011. The challenge takes 

place from January to March when the participants 

from around the world complete the activities and team 

up to help Astro Charlie arrive at the moon. Each year 

Mission X continues to grow in the number of participating children and adults, countries and languages. 

During the 2014 Challenge, participants were able to 

follow NASA astronaut, Mike Hopkins, who encouraged Fit Explorers to join him in a lifelong journey to 

improve health and fitness. In preparation for his mission to the ISS, a series of videos and products were 

produced to showcase his astronaut training. While on 

the station, he connected with participants to share his 

experiences in space. After his return to Earth, you can 

also learn what it took for him to return his strength 

and fitness to pre-mission levels. We encourage you to 

follow the TLA Facebook and Twitter pages at http://

www.facebook.com/trainastronaut and https://twitter.

com/trainastronaut.

Inspiring youth with a call to the 

International Space Station

Ever since the Amateur Radio on the International 

Space Station (ARISS) hardware was first launched 

aboard Space Shuttle Atlantis on STS-106 and 

transferred to the space station for use by its first 

crew, it has been used regularly to perform contacts 

with education organizations. The overall goal of ARISS 

contacts is to get students interested in science, 

technology, engineering, and mathematics (STEM) by 

allowing them to talk directly with the crews living and 

working aboard the station.

The ARISS conversations usually last for about 10 minutes. During that time, crew aboard the station answer 

students’ questions as an audience of students and 

community members look on.

An ARISS contact takes place as a part of a comprehensive suite of education activities. In preparation 

for these exchanges, students learn about the space 

station and the research conducted aboard the space 

station. In addition to learning about life in space, the 

students learn about radio waves and how amateur 

radio works. The ARISS program is all about inspiring and encouraging by reaching the community and 

providing a chance for schools to interact with local 

technical experts. It also brings the space program 

to their front door.

In order for ARISS to work, the station must pass 

over the Earth-bound communicators during amateur 

radio transmissions to relay signals between the 

station’s ham radio and ground receivers. Other 

factors, including weather, crew availability, and the 

schedules of vehicles visiting the space station, drive 

the timing of the scheduled transmissions. During this 

pass, an average of 18 questions can be answered, 

Astronaut Sunita L. Williams, flight engineer for 

Expeditions 14 and 15, talks with students at the 

International School of Brussels in Belgium during 

an Amateur Radio on the International Space 

Station session in the Zvezda Service Module.

Image credit: NASA

Students get interested 

in science, technology, 

engineering and mathematics 

by talking directly with crews 

living and working on the 

space station.
104

depending on the complexity of the query. To date, the 

space station has held more than 800 ARISS sessions 

with students in over 40 countries around the world.

The downlink audio from ARISS contacts can be heard 

by anyone in range with basic receiving equipment, 

transmissions broadcast on 145.800 megahertz. Interested parties can also catch a broadcast via EchoLink 

and the Internet Radio Linking Project (IRLP) amateur 

radio networks or on the Internet, when available.

For students who have never thought about space 

exploration, being involved in an amateur radio event 

such as this can be an eye-opener and pave the way 

for them to dare to dream and for those dreams to 

come true.

U.S. educators interested in participating in an ARISS 

communication can contact NASA’s Teaching From 

Space Office for a proposal packet. International 

schools should submit applications via the ARISS 

website for consideration. Submissions are due in 

July and January of each year.

Calling cosmonauts from home

Educating future generations of scientists, technologists, engineers and mathematicians is a global effort—one that includes the contributions of the Russian 

Federal Space Agency, or Roscosmos. One of the 

main objectives of activities aboard the International 

Space Station is the implementation of education 

and outreach projects that contribute to attracting 

young people to studying science. These projects 

also help create modern, high-technology equipment 

and increase society’s support of space programs in 

general and in the space station program, particularly. 

Currently aboard the Russian segment of the station 

are four space investigations that have educational 

components: Coulomb Crystal, Shadow-beacon, 

MAI-75 and Great Start. These experiments continue 

to demonstrate great benefits in capturing the imagination of students across Russia.

Coulomb Crystal is an investigation aimed at studying 

the dynamics of solid, dispersed environments in 

an inhomogeneous, magnetic field in microgravity. 

Pilot studies aboard the station explore the structural 

properties of Coulomb clusters—liquid crystal phase 

transitions, wave processes and the physical and 

mechanical characteristics of its heating mechanism, 

to just name a few. Students at all levels, including secondary school and college, have had the opportunity 

to prepare and conduct the experiment on the ground. 

Shadow-beacon is a VHF radio beacon that allows 

amateur radio enthusiasts to communicate with 

crew members aboard the station. The presence of 

this equipment on the Russian segment of the station serves as a learning tool for students in the area 

of space communications. Students learn about the 

conditions of the admission-transfer of the radio beacon using the world amateur radio network. They also 

study the characteristics and spatial distribution of the 

intensity of the radio broadcast and rebroadcast from 

the onboard transceiver.

A student talks to a crew member aboard the 

International Space Station during an Amateur 

Radio on the International Space Station 

(ARISS) contact. 

Image credit: ARISS

Future generations of 

scientists, technologists, 

engineers and mathematicians 

get their start through global 

communication.
105

Along the lines of Shadow-beacon, MAI-75 is also 

part of the suite of communication equipment housed 

aboard the Russian segment of the station. This 

investigation allows for a system of quick video 

downlinks from space in near-real-time. This network 

distribution affords students and amateur radio 

operators from all over Russia the opportunity to learn 

first-hand from space explorers what it is like to live 

and work in space. The use of Earth images from 

space are also an effective source of inspiration and 

motivation for students.

Great Start is an investigation aimed at popularizing 

the achievements of cosmonautics in Russia and in 

the world. Developed with the preparation of a special 

questionnaire, this experiment allows the general public 

an opportunity to express its opinion regarding the first 

human flight in space, a great event in human history. 

The public also gets acquainted with the results of 

scientific investigations conducted aboard the space 

station. Great Start promotes and enhances international cooperation on the space station for further 

integration of Russia into the world of cultural, 

educational and scientific relations. As a result, there 

will be scientific and educational workshops held to 

popularize the achievements of Russian human spaceflight with the involvement of the general population, 

including students and specialists in various areas of 

possible utilization of the results of space missions.

There are several more experiments planned within 

the framework of the educational program: ecologyeducation, which includes student experiments that 

demonstrate the conduct of airborne, microscopic 

particle suspensions in microgravity; chemistry-education, which includes student experiments that capture 

microgravity structural elements in the specified form 

on the basis of polymer composite materials and 

diffusion; and diffusion, which is an educational demonstration of the process of diffusion in liquid environments in weightlessness. These educational projects 

involve hundreds, if not thousands, of students from 

all regions of Russia. Like all of our space station global, regional and national education programs, these 

experiments serve to inspire and motivate students to 

pursue careers in science, technology, engineering and 

mathematics (STEM). 

MAI-75 experiment, main results and 

prospects for development in education

The MAI-75 experiment develops and validates the 

concepts for designing and operating an innovative 

telecommunication satellite system at the Moscow 

Aviation Institute (MAI) to support video information 

broadcasting from space in real-time to a wide range 

of users within Russia’s academic mobile communications and internet user communities

The MAI-75 space experiment (“Spacecraft and Modern Personal Communication Technologies”) has been 

carried out on the International Space Station Russian 

Segment (ISS RS) since 2005.

Image taken by the reception and processing 

center MAI. 

Image credit: Roscosmos

Diagram of the experiment Shadow-beacon. 

Image credit: Roscosmos
106

The MAI-75 experiment is carried out using a notebook 

computer on the ISS RS, which stores and prepares 

the photos and videos that are then transmitted to 

Earth using the ham radio communication system, the 

primary component of which is the onboard Kenwood 

TM D700 transceiver of the “Sputnik” ham radio system within the 144-146/430-440 MHz bands. 

The experiment used a communication channel operated on the ham radio frequencies, allowing to significantly expand the number of experiment participants 

both in Russia and globally. The experiment results 

can be obtained at a work station. All that is needed is 

transceiver equipment that operates on VHF ham radio 

frequencies. 

During the experiment, a total of 120 communication 

sessions were carried out between the ISS RS and the 

MAI Data Reception and Processing Center, each with 

a duration of 9-15 minutes, and over 240 video images 

were received ranging in size from 14 to 94 KB.

After pre-processing, the images obtained are posted 

on a special website where they can be viewed, 

reviewed and processed by both educational program 

participants and common users. Besides the MAI Data 

Reception and Processing Center, the following were 

involved in the imagery reception process: Reception 

centers at higher education institutions in Moscow (M. 

V. Lomonosov Moscow State University, N. E. Bauman 

Moscow State Technology University); Krasnoyarsk (Siberian State Aerospace University); and Kursk (Kursk 

State Technology University); Reception centers at the 

Aerospace Technology Research Laboratory (Kaluga) 

of the Russian Defense Sports-Technology Organization; Gagarin Research and Test Cosmonaut Training 

Center (Star City); and S.P. Korolev RSC Energia (Korolev); Ham radio reception stations in Russia, Western 

Europe, Central America, and South-East Asia. Some 

Students were able to immerse themselves in real-life 

science and engineering 

applications while learning 

management and leadership 

skills.

Russian Cosmonaut M. V. Tiurin during a communication session with the Moscow Aviation 

Institute. 

Image credit: Moscow Aviation Institute (National 

Research University)

Samples of images taken from the ISS RS by amateur radio communication channel during the sessions of 

SE “MAI-75.” 

Image credit: Moscow Aviation Institute (National Research University)
107

of the video images received are posted on the following site: http://www.issfanclub.com/image/tid/54.

During ground-based preparations for MAI-75 experiment sessions, the MAI teachers and students in 

conjunction with experts from RSC Energia and FGUP 

TsNIIMash led the development and testing of in-orbit 

procedures and cosmonaut training; development of 

software and hardware packages for use on Earth at 

global test sites and in space; and the development 

and verification of procedures and tests between the 

ground-based remote user terminals. 

As a result of the first phase of the MAI-75 experiment, 

students were able to immerse themselves in real-life 

science and engineering applications, while learning 

management and leadership skills unique to the space 

station vehicle. 

Space experiments such as these enable the secondary and higher-education systems to enhance the 

effectiveness of teaching natural sciences and to promote the interest of the public in the space programs 

implementation. The capabilities of modern information and communication technologies, particularly the 

Internet, and of the mobile (cellular) communications 

operators enable education program participants to 

work directly with the general-purpose video equipment deployed on the ISS. Using a Web interface and 

a special site, the program participants are able to 

control a digital camera installed on the ISS RS, based 

on both the Web-posted camera operation schedules 

and the ISS sub-satellite point movement data.

Centers of data reception from the International 

Space Station Russian Segment during MAI-75 

experiment sessions. 

Image credit: Moscow Aviation Institute (National 

Research University)
108

International Space Station:

Fostering commerce in space.
109

Economic Development 

of Space

While the International Space Station (ISS) has proven its value as a platform for a broad waterfront 

of research disciplines as well as technology development, it also provides an ideal opportunity to test 

new business relationships. This allows an opportunity to shift from a paradigm of government-funded, 

contractor-provided goods and services to a commercially provided, government-as-a-customer 

approach. 

This interest in promoting a more commercially oriented market in low-Earth orbit (LEO) is driven by 

several goals. First, it can stimulate entirely new markets not achievable in the past. Second, it creates 

new stakeholders in spaceflight and represents great economic opportunity. Third, it ensures strong 

industrial capability not only for future spaceflight but also for the many related industries. Finally, and 

perhaps most importantly, it allows cross-pollination of ideas, processes, and best practices, as a 

foundation for economic development. 

From commercial firms spending some of their research and development funds to conduct research on 

the space station, to commercial service providers selling unique services to users of the orbiting lab, 

the beginnings of a new economy in LEO are starting to emerge.
110
111

Water production in space: 

Thirsting for a solution

Developing and maintaining water production on the 

International Space Station is vital for keeping the crew 

alive as well as supporting hygiene and equipment 

functions, yet it presents a bit of a challenge. Historically, about half of station’s requirements were met by 

recycling used water and the rest by deliveries from 

visiting cargo vehicles. That is not ideal, and there’s 

an even greater reason for rethinking a self-generating 

water solution.

For many years, the station’s life support machinery 

has kept the crew alive by recycling oxygen from 

water using electrolysis. The hydrogen this produced 

was considered waste gas and vented overboard. 

So, too, was carbon dioxide—generated by crew 

metabolism—vented overboard. NASA knew it forfeited two important consumables but did not have 

the money to put a more effective system into the 

baseline for the station. NASA considered a process, 

originally developed by Nobel Prize-winning French 

chemist Paul Sabatier in the early 1900s, using a 

nickel catalyst to interact with hydrogen and carbon 

dioxide at elevated temperatures and pressures to 

produce water and methane. The Sabatier process is 

a well-established water production technology used 

for many years for advanced military and commercial 

applications, but the space-based application for the 

station is unique because of the commercial structure 

of its implementation.

NASA determined an enhanced Sabatier system could 

reduce water resupply requirements by thousands of 

Commercial Service Providers

Evolution of the space station as a laboratory in the vanguard of research in microgravity relies on a 

new and growing number of commercial service providers. Rather than follow the traditional model 

of government-funded, contractor-provided hardware or capability, a number of firms are entering a 

new phase of development of LEO—establishing a market. In this model, commercial firms develop 

capabilities that are then offered to government users and also marketed widely to potential new 

users of the ISS as a research platform. The space station gains important new (or updated) capability, 

while the service provider gains a new market in which to offer its services. 

Not only was the Sabatier 

hardware developed and 

funded by a non-governmental 

entity, it is operated on a 

purely commercial basis, 

with NASA buying the water 

generated for use on the 

space station.

NASA astronaut Douglas H. Wheelock, Expedition 

25 commander, is photographed with the Sabatier 

Assembly - Just prior to installation into Oxygen 

Generator System rack. 

Image credit: NASA
112

pounds of water per year and close the loop in the 

oxygen and water regeneration cycle. This represented 

significant and immediate cost savings in the operation 

of the space station, and provided a way to produce 

water rather than transport it all from Earth, increasing 

the goal of self-sufficiency and broadening the path 

for extended human survival in low-Earth orbit 

and beyond. 

In April 2008, NASA contracted with Hamilton Sundstrand Space, Land & Sea, to provide water-production services aboard the space station that would 

connect to the existing life-support system. While the 

company for some time has provided a number of 

systems for ISS, including spacesuits and those that 

control electrical power, this agreement expanded its 

existing work to develop the Sabatier processor. The 

result was that a 550-pound stainless steel cube the 

size of a small refrigerator arrived via Space Shuttle 

Discovery on April 7, 2010, and was operational by 

October of that year. 

The system includes half a dozen major components 

that ingest, pressurize, condense and transform gases 

to produce water and methane gas. Besides this 

production, it is designed for containment of the very 

reactive hydrogen and carbon dioxide gases. Water is 

processed through the Water Recovery System. The 

methane is vented into space, and the water is fed into 

the station’s water system where it undergoes treatment before it is used for drinking, personal hygiene 

and scientific experiments. 

The implementation of Sabatier on ISS is as much 

about the technological value as about a partnering 

breakthrough; not only was the Sabatier hardware 

developed and funded by a non-governmental entity, 

it is operated on a purely commercial basis, with NASA 

buying the water generated for use on the space 

station. The collaboration between NASA and UTC 

Aerospace Systems has made a significant contribution to the space station’s supply chain. Instead of 

traditional cost-plus contracting roles, the idea was to 

develop a piece of spaceflight hardware with minimal 

NASA oversight. 

A new business model was in the making. The partners agreed that UTC would fund the development 

and operation of the Sabatier system, while NASA 

would launch it on an assembly mission and provide 

it rack space on the station. Importantly, the agreement 

removed more than 70 percent of NASA’s standard 

requirements. Verification of the remaining requirements was left as flexible as possible, and specific 

verification criteria were defined only where 

absolutely required. 

If the system did not work, NASA would owe nothing to UTC; while the system is operational (which it 

has been for several years now), NASA pays for the 

amount of water produced. While NASA provided 

some milestone payments during the development 

timeframe, these were subject to a 100-percent 

refund if the hardware did not work upon in-orbit activation. This met NASA’s need to keep UTC motivated 

and met UTC’s need for cash flow during the development phase.

ISS is a test bed for exploration, but this illustrates 

that it can also be a test bed for procurement options. 

Commercial providers believed that they could deliver 

a Sabatier system cheaply if the government would 

just allow them to do so. This experience is serving as 

a pathfinder for other innovative hardware development 

on ISS.

Commercialization of low-Earth orbit 

(LEO)

For too long, in order to utilize the International Space 

Station and its LEO environment, one had to be an 

expert, and that presented a significant barrier. Fortunately, an exciting new commercial pathway is revolutionizing and opening access to space—making space 

just like any other place to do business.

In 2009, NanoRacks started under a very unique 

Space Act Agreement that enables access to the 

ISS manifest and in-orbit resources. NanoRacks has 

self-funded specific research hardware for the station. 

Utilizing the ultimate “Plug and Play” approach, small 

payloads in the CubeLab/CubeSat form factor are 

plugged into platforms or racks, providing interface 

with space station power and data capabilities. 

(A CubeSat is a miniaturized satellite that usually 

has a volume of exactly one liter, or a 10-cm/4-inch 

cube, and has a mass of no more than 1.33 kilograms/2.9 pounds; the CubeLab is a comparable, 

compact research environment for inside ISS.) 

An exciting new commercial 

pathway is revolutionizing and 

opening access to space, 

making space just like any 

other place to do business.
113

In return, the business model enables NanoRacks 

to market to other organizations as long as it executes the mission of the U.S. National Lab to provide 

research access to paying customers as commercial 

users of ISS. This is extraordinary because, for the first 

time, the market is expressing what can and should 

be done on the station without direct funding by the 

government. Over the past three years of operation, 

NanoRacks has sent more than 200 payloads to 

station, literally launching a new space market.

Another slice of the new market for NanoRacks is the 

deployment of small satellites from the station, and no 

one anticipated its immediate success. NanoRacks 

saw the opportunity to use the Japanese Experiment 

Module (JEM) airlock and posed the question to NASA: 

“If we develop our own more-efficient, less-expensive 

satellite deployer, can we use it?” The question was 

not about seeking funding, but permission, to develop 

and serve a market. NanoRacks identified potential 

customers on the U.S. west coast working on miniaturization and electronics that wanted to make small 

satellites but had no way to launch other than through 

cost-prohibitive Russian or U.S. assets. Subsequently, 

these companies, as well as labs and organizations 

throughout the U.S. government, have been very 

responsive to the NanoRacks CubeSat Deployer 

(NRCSD). Initially planning to deploy only occasionally, 

the company now has a queue of customers ready to 

be deployed from the station. 

NanoRacks has applied the power of standardization, 

the efficiencies of commercialization, and the advances 

in component miniaturization to in-orbit operations. By 

focusing on customer satisfaction, they have made it 

possible for non-experts to use the space environment 

for experiments.

Private sector participation provides a new model for 

moving forward in partnership with the government. 

Through that model, the private sector develops the 

market, secures the funding, and builds the hardware 

while the U.S. taxpayer provides the infrastructure 

and the foundation of the U.S. National Lab in space. 

The benefits include transparency of costs, low-cost 

execution, access to space (either for microgravity or 

the vantage point in low-Earth orbit), speed to market 

(months as opposed to years), international collaboration and new-idea generation, and broad accessibility 

over five years.

Innovative public-private partnerships 

for ISS cargo services: Part 1 

In January 2006, NASA announced the Commercial Orbital Transportation Services (COTS) program 

would be designated to coordinate the delivery of 

crew and cargo to the International Space Station by 

private companies. The intent was to spur innovation 

by the commercial sector to design, build, launch, 

and fly ISS-destined cargo demonstration flights by 

September 2013. The companies initially selected for 

the COTS program were Space Exploration Technologies (SpaceX) and Rocketplane Kistler. However, the 

companies and spacecraft ultimately completing the 

Planet Labs’ Dove satellites being deployed from 

the NanoRacks CubeSat Deployer, Feb. 14, 

2014. 

Image credit: NASA

NanoRacks Exposed Platform, scheduled for 

delivery to the ISS in October 2015 on HTV-5. 

Image credit: NanoRacks
114

program demonstration requirements were the SpaceX 

Dragon and Orbital Sciences Corporation’s Cygnus vehicles. COTS did not involve binding contracts but did 

require the successful completion of pre-determined 

development and financing milestones through the use 

of Space Act Agreements. A separate program called 

the Commercial Resupply Services (CRS) was initiated 

approximately two years after the COTS program began. While the first program developed the transportation vehicles, the second is designed to provide actual 

cargo and payload deliveries to the station and either 

cargo return or cargo removal and disposal from the 

station. The COTS program involved funded Space Act 

Agreements, with NASA providing milestone-based 

payments. CRS is a fixed-price services contract, 

which requires the two suppliers to assume liability 

for failure to perform their cargo deliveries.

A look inside the decision by NASA to open its doors 

to private industry is compelling. 

Station resupply and disposal was the first capability 

area—requiring precision orbit insertion, rendezvous, 

and docking with another spacecraft—with commercial crew transportation to follow. 

Today, with space station cargo resupply efforts 

underway, it is clear the unprecedented efficiency of 

the COTS investment resulted in two new automated 

cargo spacecraft. It has been heralded as one of the 

most extraordinary examples of public/private partnership, and a leap of faith for NASA.

SpaceX’s achievements include the first privately 

funded, liquid-fueled rocket (Falcon 1) to reach orbit 

on Sept. 28, 2008; the first privately funded launch, 

orbit and recovery of a spacecraft, Dragon, on Dec. 

9, 2010; and the first private spacecraft (Dragon) to 

launch to the station, on May 25, 2012. As of February 

2015, SpaceX has flown six cargo missions to the ISS.

Founder Elon Musk focused the vision early, utilizing a 

vertical integration business model—an arrangement in 

which the supply chain of a company is owned by that 

company. In order to control quality and costs, SpaceX 

designs, tests and fabricates the majority of its 

components in-house, including the rocket engines 

used on the Falcon launch vehicles and the Dragon 

spacecraft. This type of production is unusual in the 

aerospace industry but has allowed SpaceX to 

significantly reduce conventional rocket development 

and flight integration time. In addition to the capability 

of delivering pressurized cargo, the Dragon vehicle also 

has a “trunk” allowing the transport of unpressurized 

payloads intended for the exterior locations on the 

station (and for disposing of them once their operational life or research mission is complete). Perhaps 

most importantly, it can return cargo and experiment 

samples to Earth in the pressurized volume. This return 

The Commercial Orbital 

Transportation Services 

(COTS) program has been 

heralded as one of the most 

extraordinary examples of 

public/private partnership, and 

a leap of faith for NASA.

SpaceX’s Falcon 9 lifts off with its Dragon resupply 

vehicle aboard, headed for the ISS.

Image credit: NASA
115

of recoverable capability had been all but lost to NASA 

since the retirement of the shuttle; the only other 

means of returning very small amounts of pressurized 

cargo has been with the crews as they return to Earth 

via Russian Soyuz vehicles.

During a keynote speech in 2013 at the International 

Symposium for Personal and Commercial Spaceflight 

(ISPCS) Conference, SpaceX Chief Operating Officer 

Gwynne Shotwell described the notable change in 

public perception about space. She said the surge in 

commercial opportunities through partnerships with 

NASA and the rebirth of entrepreneurial organizations 

has spurred renewed awareness and excitement, 

including a growth in technical and engineering jobs. 

Innovative public-private partnerships 

for ISS cargo services: Part 2 

An important part of the COTS story is that a humaninhabited space station presents a useable, continuous 

market for commercial ventures. Initially, there was 

a crucial need for cargo delivery to the station. The 

COTS and CRS programs enabled a new mindset 

about resupply missions, with cost and assumption 

of risk no longer weighted on the government and the 

opportunity for private contractors to propose innovative solutions. The new resupply services contracts 

represent a major change in the way NASA procures 

space transportation services.

Orbital Sciences Corporation (Orbital) has been 

involved in the commercial use of space for 33 years. 

Orbital sells satellites commercially to operators around 

the world. That business model evolved to incorporate 

rocket development and integration at the launch site. 

Having been a partner with NASA for many years on 

multiple projects, the COTS and CRS projects allowed 

Orbital to be actively involved in the ISS program, 

NASA’s premier human spaceflight endeavor, leveraging its spacecraft and rocket experience to date. 

Additionally, it inspired Orbital to invest in more research and development to support the new endeavor.

The new resupply services 

contracts represent a 

major change in the way 

NASA procures space 

transportation services.

SpaceX’s Dragon capsule as it approaches the 

ISS, Oct. 25, 2014. 

Image credit: NASA

Orbital’s Antares rocket with the Cygnus cargo 

vehicle aboard, launches to the International 

Space Station.  

Image credit: NASA
116

As one might imagine, the level of financial risk for a 

commercial company in the rocket and satellite business is greater than other means of transportation. 

There is always potential for failure. A case in point is 

the total loss of the Orbital 3 flight immediately after liftoff in October 2014. The loss of the cargo destined for 

the station required all parties to work together to replan and recover from the unfortunate event. Publicly 

traded Orbital had built cost control into the structure 

of the company. The books are open for the Security 

Exchange Commission and stockholders to see, so 

there has to be transparency in company finances. 

Insurance companies are incorporated into the mix to 

help manage risk. Another challenge is that customer 

requirements tend to change and there is a desire to 

be flexible, but changes cost money. Past systems 

such as the space shuttle used cost-plus contracting. 

If NASA sought to change a requirement, the contractor complied and issued an additional bill. Under the 

fixed-price contracting of today, the change request is 

reviewed by all parties for potential scope increase and 

evaluated for the additional cost. Alternative in-scope 

versus out-of-scope ideas, called “what if” scenarios, 

can be brainstormed without incurring a lot of cost 

because of the collaborative nature of all involved. 

Competition also makes the parties more cognizant 

of the costs. 

Commercialization of various aspects of NASA’s 

mission is having a very positive ripple effect. 

New companies participating in human spaceflight 

and developing unique partnerships has given regional 

economies a boost. Multiple international suppliers 

have close ties to their respective space agencies, 

which enables more collaboration and continuity. And 

large and small U.S. aerospace companies now have 

the ability to contribute and join these ventures.

With SpaceX and Orbital leading the way in carrying 

out the resupply service at a lower cost to the taxpayer, NASA can give its attention to other space station 

and exploration objectives. 

Precision pointing platform for Earth 

observations from the ISS

In May 2014, the German Aerospace Center (Deutsches Zentrum für Luft- und Raumfahrt; DLR) and the 

U.S. corporation Teledyne Brown Engineering, Inc. 

(TBE) announced an agreement to install and operate 

the imaging spectrometer DLR Earth Sensing Imaging 

Spectrometer (DESIS) aboard the International Space 

Station. As one of four DLR-built camera systems 

for remote sensing, it will be fitted to the Multi-User 

System for Earth Sensing (MUSES) precision-pointing 

platform TBE is developing for the station. DESIS will 

be able to detect changes in the land surface, oceans 

and atmosphere—contributing to a better understanding in fields as diverse as ecology, agriculture, and 

urban land use. The project is intended to open up 

new possibilities in Earth observation and is one of 

the first to be developed for ISS in cooperation with a 

commercial enterprise. This follows by just two years 

TBE’s award of a Cooperative Agreement by NASA to 

foster the commercial utilization of the space station by 

developing MUSES, which in turn launched the company’s new commercial space-based digital imaging 

business.

MUSES is a platform designed to host Earth-looking 

instruments, such as high-resolution digital cameras 

and multi- or hyperspectral instruments, and provide 

precision pointing, inertia-stabilization, and other 

accommodations. 

The new platform is about a meter square, with gyros, 

star trackers (small aperture, space-qualified optical 

We must establish enough 

momentum to sustain 

commercial enterprise in lowEarth orbit when the current 

station is no longer available.

Orbital’s Cygnus vehicle about to be berthed to 

the International Space Station, July 16, 2014. 

Image credit: NASA
117

products that ensure a spacecraft’s accurate attitude in 

space), and step motors (used for robotics and handy 

devices for repeatable positioning) designed to keep 

that platform fixed in inertial space, so as to negate the 

wobbles and vibrations of the station, which is critical 

for image quality. MUSES can host up to four instruments simultaneously to look down at the Earth. The 

model for commercialization of the station is evolving 

such that the company contributed its own resources 

while NASA shared in the development costs as well 

as providing the launch and in-orbit infrastructure. TBE 

has secured a National Oceanic and Atmospheric 

Administration (NOAA) commercial imaging/remotesensing license so that it can operate instruments on 

MUSES and then sell the data commercially. The 

company likens the station to a piece of real estate 

several hundred miles up in the air that is being 

developed over time for scientific, economic, educational, commercial, and quality of life purposes.

The first instrument placed aboard will be the DLR’s 

DESIS hyperspectral instrument, which has the capacity to distinguish slight variations in the reflectance of 

sunlight from the Earth surface (in the visible through 

near-infrared spectrum) when pointed over a geographic area. An image spectrometer is able to distinguish very subtle changes in the reflectance spectrum 

for distinguishing plant species or whether the forest 

is undergoing some sort of stress due to drought or 

pests. Fine variations in surface reflectance can give 

immense amounts of information just not possible with 

picture, such as you would take with an off-the-shelf 

digital camera.

Remote sensing of the Earth has come a long way, 

driven by concerns about agriculture, oil or gas 

resources, biodiversity, mineralogy, change detection 

and monitoring of world heritage sites, coastal zones, 

water ecosystems, and transportation. The DLR/TBE 

commercial enterprise introduces a very specific measurement tool that will improve with application, 

for many markets that already exist. It is as much 

about the uses of the data as the data itself. For example, if a farmer wants to know when, where and how 

to water his corn, he doesn’t really need to know all 

the technology behind a spectral library. 

TBE was motivated to think more commercially about 

how it does business. TBE responded to a broad 

agency announcement (BAA) with an idea for putting a 

platform on the station and starting a commercial business leveraging its existing infrastructure. NASA and 

TBE recognized that the quickest way to extract value 

from the ISS would be to bring down data. 

TBE knows it is at one end of the pipeline—its 

users will benefit from the use of the data—and 

by providing data that is otherwise not available 

for application in industries such as fisheries and 

agriculture, TBE will be testing a commercial model 

for other instruments in the future.

Visioning beyond the space station will be critical for 

NASA and companies like TBE. To sustain what is now 

a nascent commercial marketplace in low-Earth orbit, 

participants must understand, accept, and plan for the 

day when the station will no longer be there. We must 

The MUSES facility on the ISS will provide a stateof-the-art pointing platform for Earth observations. 

Image credit: TBE

The MUSES platform undergoes final testing at 

the TBE labs, Huntsville, Ala. 

Image credit: TBE
118

not only leverage and develop the commercial market 

utilizing current assets but smoothly portage that whole 

commercial economy from the current station to whatever other infrastructures we can foresee, will build, or 

have available in LEO or beyond. In other words, we 

must establish enough momentum to move the commercial enterprise beyond when the current station is 

no longer an asset at our disposal. Though this might 

seem difficult, it actually energizes the foundations on 

which our country was established: the challenge to 

persist, to contribute, to open new possibilities, and 

to make this world a better place. 

The Groundbreaker: Earth observation 

In 2014, NanoRacks signed an agreement with a 

publicly traded Canadian company called UrtheCast 

to place Earth Observation (EO) sensors on the 

American side of the space station, having already 

placed two instruments on the Russian side. UrtheCast’s entire business model is tied now to the ISS. 

What’s more, through this partnership, UrtheCast is 

making one of the single largest private investments 

to date in utilization of the station.

The genesis of a new company began four years ago 

when MacDonald, Dettwiler and Associates (MDA), 

Canada’s largest aerospace company, explored 

options for placing Earth observing sensors on the 

Russian segment. Ultimately, MDA determined the 

project was not compatible with its corporate mission, 

so did not pursue it further. However, a couple of 

executives took the opportunity to spin the company 

out and pursue the prospect directly, calling the new 

firm UrtheCast. They developed an experiment to build 

and operate two cameras on the ISS and market the 

imagery worldwide. 

Both cameras launched in November 2013 and 

were installed in January 2014 via two spacewalks 

by Russian cosmonauts. With two sensors in place, 

UrtheCast went on to raise $68 million privately and 

ultimately executed an Initial Public Offering (IPO) 

on the Toronto Stock Exchange. 

About the same time the two cameras were installed, 

UrtheCast started actively seeking a U.S. partner, ultimately partnering with NanoRacks, seeking its access 

to station. It was a natural fit, which resulted in a June 

2014 announcement that a suite of next-generation 

sensors would be developed and ready to launch in 

late 2016 or early 2017.

The UrtheCast/NanoRacks partnership plans to put 

its own small module, called Lightweight UrtheCast 

NanoRacks Alcove (LUNA), on the U.S. side of station. 

The proposed project would contain three elements: 

1. A very high-resolution, dual-mode and multispectral camera, capable of switching between still 

images and high-resolution video. Developers hope 

that after processing, the sensor can achieve resolution as low as 40 centimeters, which would make 

it one of the highest-resolution, Earth observation 

instruments in orbit. 

2. A Synthetic Aperture Radar (SAR) sensor, which 

will send an energy pulse down to Earth, providing 

the ability to see at night and through clouds. The 

data set is not intuitive to look at and very difficult to 

handle, but fusing the data sets ultimately creates a 

cloudless image. 

3. The two sensors will be paired with a dedicated 

X-band downlink and distributed through Internet 

Cloud technology, enabling a capability akin to 

Google Earth and Netflix.

UrtheCast is a company 

whose entire business 

model is tied to the ISS and 

is making a large private 

investment to use the station.

Urthecast camera being installed on the Russian 

Segment of the International Space Station.

Image credit: Roscosmos
119

The station is a very capable imaging platform. It is 

in low-Earth orbit, which means very high-resolution 

instruments can provide great images, its orbit covers 

approximately 95 percent of the Earth’s inhabited 

areas, and it has the ability to revisit locations regularly.

The partnership between UrtheCast, NanoRacks, and 

NASA allows instruments to be put in orbit at a lower 

cost by benefitting from existing infrastructure and 

investment. These companies believe that dreams for 

space exploration will remain politically and economically difficult to achieve unless an energized customer 

base emerges. They believe that data from state-ofthe-art EO sensors on the station offer an obvious 

solution to help stimulate that demand.

A flock of CubeSats photographs our 

changing planet

Around 10:50 a.m. on July 23, 2014, the California 

Highway Patrol received a report of a fast-growing 

wildfire in Riverside County, west of Palm Springs. The 

blaze spread quickly, forcing some residents to evacuate. Within 15 minutes, a toaster-sized satellite called 

a Dove captured an image depicting the fire’s size, the 

path it burned through, the wind’s direction, and the 

fire’s exact location. The fire was fully contained within 

a day. The satellite took the picture without anyone 

requesting it, simply performing its normal task of 

photographing a 10-kilometer by 15-kilometer strip 

of Earth (about 6 miles by 9 miles) every second, a job 

enabled by the International Space Station.

Larger government and commercial satellites provide 

nations and corporations with detailed images of the 

planet, some of which people can browse to look 

for their own neighborhoods. These satellites are 

expensive and limited in number, though, and either 

have low spatial resolution or take images according 

to customer requests, focusing only on certain areas. 

Crucially, these satellites might not take repeat images 

of the same region for several months. This makes it 

difficult to study rapid changes, such as international 

conflicts, environmental degradation or fast-growing 

forest fires. 

A small-satellite startup called Planet Labs is using the 

space station as a launch pad for a fleet of miniature 

Captured by UrtheCast’s Theia camera on July 3, 2014, this image spans across Rome, Italy, and its surroundings.

Image credit: UrtheCast

Planet Labs aims to make 

Dove images searchable and 

easily available for everyone 

from governments studying 

changing shorelines to 

firefighters battling a forest fire.
120

orbital cameras. These “flocks” of 11-pound (5 kg) 

CubeSats, or Doves, take continuous photos of the 

entire Earth and transmit them to ground stations every 

90 minutes. They provide an unprecedented view of 

Earth, from growth in cities to summer wildfires like the 

one in California. 

Different types of CubeSats frequently launch from the 

space station and provide a novel way to image Earth, 

log ship traffic, and send messages, among many 

other tasks. An entire flock allows Planet Labs 

to collect planet-wide data, which would be impossible 

with a larger single satellite. The company started in 

Silicon Valley in 2009 with a goal of capturing a daily 

global mosaic of Earth. This requires a large fleet of 

CubeSats, and the station is the key to getting them 

into space. 

From its perch 230 miles (370 km) above Earth, each 

Dove captures images once per second and each 

has a resolution of 10 to 16 feet (three to five meters). 

That means each pixel in the camera’s viewing area 

corresponds to a 3-meter-wide object. That resolution 

is enough to distinguish individual trees in a rainforest but not enough to identify a person walking on 

the street. Planet Labs has launched 71 Doves since 

January 2014 using CubeSat deployers developed by 

NanoRacks, LLC. In part because the CubeSats are 

so small and relatively inexpensive, they have a lifespan 

of only a few months of operations, but their orbital 

altitudes are low enough that they eventually fall back 

to Earth and, by design, burn up in the atmosphere. 

Doves are continually replaced by newer models, 

which Planet Labs is constantly testing and updating 

from its San Francisco headquarters. To date, Planet 

Labs has built more than 100 Doves. The company 

is funded through private venture capital and private 

investors. 

Eventually, Planet Labs aims to make Dove images 

searchable and easily available for anyone who wants 

to look at them—from spectators eager to see their 

houses, to governments studying changing shorelines 

and firefighters battling a blaze in a small slice of forest.

Stretch your horizons, Stay CuriousTM

Kentucky Science and Technology Corporation 

(KSTC), and two subsidiaries, Kentucky Space 

(a nonprofit company) and Space Tango, Inc. (a forprofit enterprise) are building a reputation for designing 

and executing diverse initiatives in science, technology, entrepreneurship and disruptive innovation. The 

focus is on small, high-value satellites and applications, 

and novel space platforms and experiments for 

the space station. 

Kentucky Space began as a vehicle for involving 

university students in space projects. It is an ambitious 

consortium of universities and public and private organizations aimed at designing and leading innovative 

space missions within realistic budgets and objectives. 

The programs cover a spectrum of flight opportunities 

including near-space balloons; sub-orbital, orbital and 

Two Planet Labs “Dove” CubeSats immediately 

after being deployed from the ISS.

Image credit: NASA

 Irrigated fields in Pinal County, Arizona, as viewed 

by a Dove CubeSat.

Image credit: Planet Labs
121

ISS missions; as well as partnerships with organizations and space agencies worldwide. Twyman Clements was a student at Kentucky Space only a few 

years ago; now he is the young CEO of Space Tango. 

Based in Lexington, Space Tango seeks to utilize 

space to discover, design and commercialize solutions 

for applications on Earth. This is accomplished through 

platforms—hardware and software offerings to those in 

the research communities looking to utilize the unique 

environment of microgravity. Focused primarily on the 

entrepreneurial space marketplace, Space Tango’s 

capabilities and experience involve CubeSat class and 

other micro-satellites and subsystems, satellite ground 

operations, space platform design and testing, and 

development of novel technology and experiments 

for the station. The company is committed to a highly 

collaborative business strategy and works closely 

with a number of other companies, universities 

and organizations.

A general research platform/multi-lab facility, called 

TangoLab by Clements, will be installed in 2015 on 

the ISS. It will host a variety of payloads relevant to the 

medical field, the material sciences, and environmental 

sensing. Researchers will interact with their experiments in the unique space environment right from a 

computer, with data transmitted over the internet. 

The CubeLab arose from a need for repeatable/affordable research on the station. The uniquely designed 

research module was developed by Kentucky Space, 

based on the proven CubeSat form-factor. Providing 

a standardized platform and open architecture for the 

experimental modules shortens the development cycle 

and lowers costs for research and development. The 

goal is to lead to quicker time to market for new drug 

products, treatments or procedures. 

The TangoLab research platform is a work of elegant 

art. It was not simple to develop, requiring the collaborative experience and creativity of everyone involved, 

with the aid of 3-D printing. The premise, though, is 

simple: use of standardized hardware dramatically 

lowers the cost of space station utilization.

In May 2011, Kentucky Space launched an exciting 

new initiative: the study and exploration of medical 

solutions in the microgravity environment of space. 

The Exomedicine Institute, an interdisciplinary team 

of top scientists, engineers and entrepreneurs, has 

been assembled to forge ahead into this new and 

potentially promising field of research. 

All organisms on Earth, during evolution over billions 

of years, have adapted their form and function to the 

force of Earth’s gravity. These characteristics are encoded in their genes: up-down asymmetry, structural 

strength, size of force-producing elements and sensory 

systems. 

Since gravity influences all biological systems at a 

molecular level, what happens to biological systems 

when the influence of gravity is modified or removed? 

We can’t remove gravity on Earth, but conducting biomedical research in space makes certain Earth-bound 

limitations disappear.

Without gravity, cells, molecules, protein crystals, 

and microbes behave in very different ways. 

Microgravity thus presents opportunities to explore 

new and potentially game-changing discoveries in 

areas such as human tissue regeneration, drug development, treatments for diseases such as cancer and 

other life-threatening and chronic conditions, as well 

as energy and novel materials.

The work of Kentucky Space, Space Tango, and the 

Exomedicine Institute reflect an interdisciplinary approach to research and development (R&D), as well 

as the rise of a “newspace” era with a multitude 

Space has always been at 

the forefront of innovation and 

really pushes any company to 

challenge the status quo.

Flatworms being prepared for loading into the 

Biological Research In Canisters hardware. 

Image credit: Space Tango
122

of players. Lowering barriers enables people to do 

research in, and manufacture for, LEO. Based on a fullservice philosophy, these three companies recognize 

that the average person knows little about handling a 

launch with NASA, so the companies offer engineering and technical expertise to assist with experiment 

design, payload design and integration, facilities, and 

a full suite of test equipment and capabilities for a 

successful launch. 

Going into space forces people to think outside the 

box; space has always been at the forefront of innovation and really pushes any company to challenge the 

status quo.

In 2000, Kimel created another entity as well: IdeaFestival, an international event centered on innovation, discovery and creative thinking across different 

disciplines. IdeaFestival is an annual four-day gathering 

of an eclectic network of global thinkers and oneof-a-kind innovators bound together by an intense 

curiosity about what is impacting and shaping the 

future. Those who attend leave the event with interesting new ideas, a better sense of connectedness, an 

expanded network of relationships and lasting inspiration to help create change in the world.

These types of opportunities help inform others of new 

ideas, fueling the pipeline of newspace activity with 

a vision to increase private sector entrepreneurship 

through student pioneers.

As the IdeaFestival mantra goes: Stretch Your Horizons, Stay Curious—for a new idea can be generated 

when you least expect it.

Mission critical: Flatworm experiment 

races the clock after splashdown 

Everyone is familiar with the blastoff countdown associated with a rocket headed to space, but what about 

the countdown that takes place once a capsule returns 

to Earth?

The highly sensitive biomedical experiments that travel 

aboard the International Space Station have the potential to impact lives. Success of these experiments often 

depends on a swift shipment from the splashdown site 

to the lab, where scientists can analyze crucial data. 

The moments between splashdown and analysis 

are critical. 

This was the case when a capsule from the station 

carrying 48 planarian flatworms (known for their ability 

to regenerate their own body parts) splashed down in 

the Pacific Ocean off the coast of California in 2014.

The flatworms had been delivered to the space station 

one month earlier as part of a collaboration between 

independent, nonprofit space contractor Kentucky 

Space and its for-profit arm Space Tango, the Center 

for the Advancement of Science in Space (CASIS), 

NASA and the Tufts Center for Regenerative and 

Development Biology. The experiment could lead to 

powerful benefits for humanity, including further understanding of the regenerative powers of the flatworms 

that could someday impact global healthcare, including 

treatments for cancers, treatment of spinal cord injuries, and the ability to correct developmental problems 

in embryos. 

Two factors were critical to the success of the research: time and temperature. The flatworms 

needed to be transported quickly from Long Beach, 

California, to Tufts University in Boston for analysis, 

and the shipment needed to maintain a temperature 

Flatworm specimens are prepared prior to their 

launch to the ISS. 

Image credit: Space Tango

Innovative logistics by FedEx 

enabled the possibility to 

connect the space station and 

a strong terrestrial team to 

advance research.
123

of 12 degrees Celsius throughout its journey. Mishandling of either environmental factor could kill the 

flatworms and cause the experiment to fail.

FedEx was up for the challenge. Space Tango, on Kentucky Space’s behalf, worked with the FedEx Space 

Desk team, logistical experts for the space industry 

and the power behind FedEx® Space Solutions, to design the optimum journey for the flatworm experiment. 

When the capsule hit the water, the countdown began. 

The vessel was rapidly retrieved and the flatworm 

shipment quickly sent on its way to Boston via FedEx 

Express, inside a custom-designed, temperature-controlled package. The shipment was monitored throughout its journey by SenseAware, powered by FedEx, 

which allowed stakeholders at Kentucky Space, Space 

Tango and Tufts University to not only track its location, 

but also remain certain that the temperature inside the 

package did not waver from 12 degrees Celsius.

The shipment arrived safely and on time in Boston, 

giving Tufts’ scientists near-immediate access to the 

flatworms. Mission: Accomplished.

Research continues on the effects of a microgravity 

environment on the regenerative ability of flatworms. 

Innovative logistics by FedEx enabled the possibility 

to connect the space station and a strong terrestrial 

team—all of which played a key role in advancing the 

research in this important field.

Economic development of space in JAXA

Japan Aerospace Exploration Agency (JAXA) has been 

striving for economic development of space in the 

Japanese Experiment Module (JEM, or “Kibo,” which 

means “hope” in Japanese) and H-II Transfer Vehicle 

(HTV, or “Kounotori,” which means “white stork” in 

Japanese). Economic development of space includes 

advancing technology of Japanese companies, expanding spin-offs and opening the door to commercial 

sectors in Kibo utilization. 

Navigation and Communication Services for the 

International Space Station

Throughout the history of the ISS program, many 

Japanese industries have been challenging traditional 

approaches to human spaceflight and acquiring 

advanced human space technologies. 

Some Japanese firms, with acquired globally competitive technologies and know-how, have delivered 

human space technology systems to the worldwide 

commercial market. 

An example is the Proximity Link system applied for 

commercial spacecraft. Mitsubishi Electric (MELCO) 

designed and produced the Proximity Link System 

(PLS), which communicates with Proximity Communication System (PROX) installed in the Kibo module, 

providing navigational information and communication 

links to space vehicles to safely approach and depart 

from the station. MELCO originally designed and produced this PROX/PLS to enable HTV, or Kountori, to 

rendezvous and berth with the station. This brand new 

technology has since been applied to Orbital’s Cygnus 

spacecraft to enable its safe arrival at the station. 

This FedEx environmentally controlled shipping 

container, with SenseAware environmental 

monitoring, transported the Space Tango 

flatworms experiment to the lab after returning to 

Earth from the ISS.

Image credit: FedEx

There are many undiscovered 

possibilities for increasing 

space station utilization. JAXA 

already has discovered and 

successfully accomplished 

a number of commercial 

projects aboard Kibo.
124

Commercial Utilization Initiatives

JAXA has endeavored to utilize the Kibo module commercially for research by following three core initiatives 

based on our human space technologies and experiences of its utilization: promoting use of the station to 

new potential commercial markets, creating new 

opportunities for commercial customers to use the 

station, and enhancing the capabilities of Kibo.

Promotion to Potential Commercial markets

JAXA searched promising research areas with ground 

applications and recognized the potential benefit for 

drug design using protein crystal growth experiments, 

Earth observation and generation of new materials.

For Earth observation, the Japan Space Forum delivers 

the high-quality movies of the Earth via internet with its 

Kibo Hi-Vision EarthView Educational Program service.

The possibility of generating new materials in space 

has attracted commercial companies. One example 

is the colloidal crystals as novel optical materials. 

Large, high-quality colloidal crystals made in space are 

expected to have applications for photonic materials. 

This experiment was executed as a collaborative work 

between Hamamatsu Photonics K.K., Fuji Chemical 

Co., Ltd. and universities.

The Production of High Performance Nanomaterials 

in Microgravity (Nanoskeleton) investigation 

aimed to clarify the effect of gravity on oil flotation, 

sedimentation, and convection on crystals generated 

in microgravity. Nanoskeleton data will be added into a 

computational chemistry simulation for Nanoskeleton 

synthesis, and the simulation will be used for the prediction of the proper parameters for synthesis on the 

ground. Shiseido Co., Ltd. and universities took part in 

this project.

Strategic promotion by JAXA has increased the 

number of commercial customers, including nontraditional users. One example is drug companies 

benefitting from the protein crystal growth experiments 

in Kibo. Another example is space experimentation on 

the effects of probiotics on immune function, a collaborative work between a beverage company, Yakult 

Honsha Co., Ltd. and JAXA. Astronauts may be at 

physical risk because a long stay in space is known 

to alter human immune function. A probiotic, Lactobacillus casei strain Shirota, has been demonstrated to 

offer health benefits by improving intestinal microbiota 

and maintaining immune function on the ground. An 

investigation in Kibo examined the health benefits of 

probiotics consumption on human immune systems 

aboard the space station. It may lead to the development of functional space food and techniques for 

long-term Lactobacillus preservation on Earth.

New Opportunities for Commercial Customers

In 2013, JAXA started a new commercial utilization 

scheme, based on knowledge from previous activity, 

Protein crystal growth for drug development.

Image credit: JAXA

In space On ground

Lactobacillus casei strain Shirota.

Image credit: Yakult Honsha Co., Ltd.
125

to provide more user-friendly utilization services and 

a system to facilitate entry and shorten the time required for implementation of space activities. JAXA’s 

efforts to encourage new entries from non-traditional users into the space field continue.

One of the major services already available to 

commercial users is the JEM Small Satellite Orbital 

Deployer (J-SSOD), which deploys small satellites 

for Earth observation, remote sensing and capability building. J-SSOD is an excellent example of 

producing new business using an existing facility, 

combining the JEM, airlock and robotic arm. This 

conceptual breakthrough has spread. In fact, once 

the deployment of small satellites using the airlock 

had proven to be a valuable capability, a US company—with NASA as a customer—developed their own 

deployer to take advantage of this opportunity. 

A Brazilian microsatellite, AESP-14, was successfully 

deployed in February 2015 from Kibo at Tsukuba 

Space Center. AESP-14 was developed by Technological Institute of Aeronautics (ITA) with support of 

Brazilian Space Agency (AEB) and Brazilian National 

Institute for Space Research (INPE), with Japan 

Manned Space Systems Corporation (JAMSS) 

ensuring deployment from Kibo. This was the first 

opportunity for commercial utilization of J-SSOD.

Various new space experiment technologies are being developed such as crystallization technique that 

acquires large single crystals for neutron diffraction 

and widening temperature range to meet commercial 

users’ demands. Protein crystal growth project has 

attracted research-and-development oriented drug 

companies through targeted direct promotion. Interprotein Corporation, Chugai Pharmaceutical Co., Ltd. 

and ARKRAY, Inc. participated in JAXA’s protein crystal 

growth experiments. Interprotein set out to achieve 

high-quality, co-crystal structure of proteins and lowmolecular compounds for effective design of drugs. 

Chugai aimed at precise 3-D structures of proteins 

by the high-quality crystals grown in microgravity, to 

help understand the structure/function relationship of 

drug candidates and create revolutionary new drugs. 

ARKRAY and Tokyo University of Agriculture and Technology took part in JAXA’s experiment to analyze the 

protein structure that is indispensable for the development of biosensing technology and aim at its application for an innovative biosensing system that will be 

helpful for the treatment and diagnosis of diabetes.

Enhancing the Capabilities of Kibo

JAXA continues upgrades of existing Kibo facilities 

as well as new facility installations, including the 

Rodent facility (Mouse Habitat Unit) for rodent 

research, fluorescence microscope and Electrostatic 

Levitation Furnace (ELF) for new material generation 

research and high-temperature thermal property 

data acquisition. 

The space station also serves as a test bed for future 

exploration, satellite technology validation and transfer vehicle technology development. JAXA provides 

Electrostatic Levitation Furnace (ELF) for new 

material generation and high-temperature thermal 

property data acquisition.

Image credit: JAXA

Experiment Handrail Attachment Mechanism 

(ExHAM) attached to the JEM Exposed Facility.

Image credit: JAXA
126

simple external experiment opportunities for technical 

demonstrations. For example, the Exposed Experiment 

Handrail Attachment Mechanism (ExHAM) enables exposure of materials to the space environment outside 

the station, and cosmic dust extraction. Junkosha Inc. 

will utilize ExHAM facility to expose the PEEK electric 

wire material, which has high-temperature and high-radiation resistance, to the space environment. Acquired 

data will be evaluated for the company’s wire commercialization in space craft use.

There are likely many undiscovered possibilities for 

increasing space station utilization. JAXA already has 

discovered and successfully accomplished a number 

of commercial projects aboard Kibo and will keep 

finding innovative ways to facilitate its commercial 

utilization. This will benefit all humanity as well as 

provide benefits to Japan.
127

Colloids in space: Where consumer products and science intersect

The Proctor & Gamble story represents two types 

of people: the consumer and the materials scientist.

As a rule, consumers want to use products that 

enhance their lives. Those products must fulfill the 

promises they promote, whether to have a long 

shelf life, be easy to use, or perform as advertised. 

In the case of products such as shampoos or liquid 

soaps, the purchaser does not want to see obvious 

physical separation of the material within the bottle 

(a sediment or settling), which could indicate something amiss. 

Materials or physical scientists, for their part, want to 

produce products or discover formulas that hold new 

promise and function. They want to know how certain 

active ingredients or stabilizers behave when added to 

product formulas. They constantly hunt for the optimal 

mix that will increase product shelf life or performance. 

Sometimes it takes working under very special circumstances, which is why materials scientists at Procter 

& Gamble Co. (P&G) decided to take their research 

to a higher level—aboard the orbiting laboratory of 

the International Space Station. Working with NASA, 

P&G has funded an investigation of how gas and liquid 

phases separate and come together in microgravity in 

the study of colloids.

On Earth, gravity complicates this research by causing 

heavy components to sink and lighter ones to float. 

This movement occurs very quickly, making it difficult 

to understand what is happening and why. Space, 

however, negates these gravitational forces, revealing the natural movement of the colloids. The in-orbit 

samples’ aging process works more slowly and evenly, 

making it easier to study. 

A series of colloid investigations aboard the space 

station were conducted from October 2013 to March 

2014 using a science platform known as the Advanced 

Colloids Experiment (ACE), it is a collaboration between P&G and Case Western Reserve University.

Though the investigation is designed to help researchers understand how to optimize stabilizers for extending product shelf life, the results also are intended to 

cut development, production and transportation costs. 

Better stabilizers result in better quality, reduced costs 

and greener, more concentrated products that use less 

plastic packaging, resist collapse, and remain consistent throughout their life. In such an improved process, 

the first ounce coming out of the bottle will be the 

same as the last. 

Driving P&G’s interest in research on the station is the 

fact that about two thirds of its biggest brands are softmatter systems—things like fabric softener, deodorant and detergent—that could benefit from this study. 

Armed with a better understanding of the nature of the 

Commercial Research

The unique environment of microgravity provides opportunities for many types of commercially-viable 

research. Using model organisms (such as rodents or flatworms) to help understand terrestrial concerns 

such as bone loss or muscle wasting, performing materials research on colloids to develop products 

that are more uniform and have a longer shelf life, growing larger protein crystals on the space station to 

help develop monoclonal antibodies, and using the station as a launchpad for a flock of Earth-observing 

satellites, are just a few examples of the diverse research interests of the corporate world and how they 

intersect with the International Space Station. These summaries of commercial research activities in 

progress show the impact and interest in using the space station for research and development.

Using microgravity to study 

the exceptionally small 

particles that make up liquid 

products may ultimately lead 

to improving health, beauty 

and household care products 

that we use every day. 
128

fluids separation, researchers can work on creating 

better stabilizers and product formulations. 

ACE-M-1 studied behavior of microscopic particles in 

liquids, gels and creams. ACE-M-2 is currently operating on the space station and continues work in phase 

separation and how to influence phase separation. The 

investigation examines the behavior of model colloidrich liquids and model colloid-poor gases near the 

critical point, or the point at which no distinct boundary exists between the two phases. ACE-M-2 records 

micro-scale events on short time scales, while previous 

experiments observed large scale behavior over many 

weeks. Liquids and gases of the same material usually 

have different densities and so would behave differently 

under the influence of gravity, making the microgravity 

environment of the International Space Station ideal for 

these experiments.

The ACE-M-3 experiment involves the design and 

assembly of complex three-dimensional structures 

from small particles suspended within a fluid medium. 

These so-called self-assembled colloidal structures 

are vital to the design of advanced optical materials. 

Researching them in the microgravity environment will 

provide insight into the relation between particle shape, 

crystal symmetry and structure: a fundamental issue in 

condensed-matter science.

One reason P&G is involved in this research is its 

interest in understanding phase separation kinetics 

of colloids, masked by gravity on Earth. The small 

blobs that form and grow in microgravity, instead of 

Similar to what is under investigation in the Advanced Colloids Experiment, the above microscopic view of product 

sample gel in microgravity is dominated with fragile strands composed of many particles in a cross-section. The 

Model of gel structure above reveals characteristics hidden by gravity. 

Image credit: NASA

European Space Agency astronaut Paolo 

Nespoli operates the Light Microscopy Module 

microscope aboard the International Space 

Station on a previous mission. 

Image credit: NASA
129

the simple top and bottom phase seen on Earth, allow 

recording of the kinetics of this process. The scientific 

insights that result from having this data available can 

lead to more efficient and improved product formulations that are less expensive to produce and/or 

provide longer shelf life. For a product such as Downy, 

with sales of about $4 billion a year, even a small one 

percent savings in production costs or a slightly longer 

shelf life provides a significant return on the investment. 

P&G will spend $10 million this year on research to 

address product shelf life problems. 

The results of this work can impact far more than 

fabric softener.

The potential for the ACE research application in 

other areas is something that continues to grow. For 

instance, advanced colloidal formulas also could conceivably lead to improvements in items such as liquid 

pharmaceuticals, which can be ineffective or even 

dangerous if not properly mixed when consumed. With 

better formulations, consumers could look forward to 

the certainty of a perfect product every time. 

Gaining a better understanding of the physical processes of particles obtained through ACE samples, 

for example, may greatly impact the quality, production and longevity of commercial products. Using 

microgravity to study the exceptionally small particles, 

known as colloids, which make up these types of liquid 

products, researchers can gain more insight into their 

characteristics. This may ultimately aid research efforts 

in improving products people use every day.

Space mice teach us about muscle and 

bone loss 

Bone breakage, buildup and eventual loss have a 

significant impact on our bodies. Bone loss occurs 

at an accelerated rate in space because of the lack 

of normal weight-bearing activities in the microgravity 

environment. Using nutrition and specific exercises, the 

crew aboard the International Space Station can partially mitigate these concerns. This accelerated aspect 

of bone loss in spaceflight provides an opportunity for 

researchers to identify the mechanisms that control 

bones at a cellular level. While most people will never 

experience life in space, the benefits of studying bone 

and muscle loss aboard the station has the potential to 

touch lives here on the ground. 

Bone loss from osteoporosis is a major concern for the 

elderly. However, inactivity from injury, illness, or malnutrition from anorexia or dietary challenges can lead 

to bone breakdown in otherwise healthy people. For 

some time, researchers have tried to understand this 

phenomenon and have looked at rodents flown aboard 

Now that the station is 

complete, rodent research 

can continue for longer test 

runs than shuttle missions 

permitted, thereby increasing 

data collection and the 

potential for discovery.

A view inside of the NASA Rodent Research facility, 

self-contained habitat that provides its occupants 

living space, food, water, ventilation, and lighting. 

Cabin air is exchanged with the facility, creating 

a slight negative pressure inside the cage to pull 

animal waste into a collection filter.

Image credit: NASA
130

space shuttle missions to the space station in a series 

of experiments using the Commercial Biomedical 

Testing Module (CBTM).

The CBTM studies came about as a result of two 

former Bioserve graduate students going to work for 

Amgen, a California-based biopharmaceutical company. The students interested Amgen in testing in microgravity three drugs that were under development—two 

targeting bone loss and one targeting muscle atrophy. 

Not only did Amgen provide substantial funding for 

the three investigations, the company also contributed 

significant in-kind resources. 

Bone remodeling—the natural breakdown and rebuilding of bone—occurs in a balanced fashion in healthy 

bone so that the rate of rebuilding, known as formation, equals the rate of breakdown and absorption, 

known as resorption. This cycle of breakdown and 

buildup helps us to maintain skeletal strength and 

repair injuries such as fractures, so we can continue 

to enjoy normal mobility. When this natural process 

is out of balance, bones and health may suffer.

The first investigation launched in 2001 and looked at 

using Osteoprotegrin (OPG), while in 2011 researchers flew a sclerostin antibody treatment. OPG and the 

sclerostin antibody are used as drugs to mitigate bone 

loss and are based on naturally occurring molecules in 

the body. The 2007 flight studied myostatin, a preclinical therapy for treating muscle loss. All three therapeutics, which were in preclinical development with Amgen 

during the time of their flights, had positive impacts on 

maintaining bone strength.

Moving therapies from the lab to the medicine cabinet 

takes time, as did the progression of these studies, 

which spanned a decade in orbit as the space station was under construction. This duration enabled 

advances in the ways researchers conducted their 

microgravity investigations, including enhancements 

to the available tools for analysis.

Now that the station is complete, this research can 

continue for longer test runs than shuttle missions 

permitted, thereby increasing data collection and 

the potential for discovery.

Protein crystals in microgravity

Pharmaceutical companies have developed myriad 

ways to fight ailments from arthritis to cancer, but the 

body’s immune systems inspired the newest weapons 

in their arsenal. A new generation of drugs targets 

specific attackers, sparking immune cells into action. 

These drugs, called monoclonal antibodies (MABs), 

are engineered proteins that bind themselves to 

substances that cause disease. Monoclonal antibodies can be created for almost any target inside a cell 

or on its surface, allowing greater specificity and fewer 

side effects than conventional therapies. They include 

top-selling drugs used to treat several types of inflammation and cancer.

To be effective, though, MABs have to be dispensed 

in large quantities, which can make them difficult to 

administer to patients. Rather than simply swallowing 

a pill, people receiving MAB therapy must receive injections or intravenous infusions. Now research on the 

International Space Station is changing that. By taking 

MABs into space and crystallizing them in microgravity, 

Merck Research Laboratories is working toward highconcentration, high-quality mixtures that can be given 

to patients more efficiently.

Space is an excellent environment to study complex, 

three-dimensional proteins, because gravity and convective forces do not get in the way of crystal formation, which allows creation of larger and more perfect 

crystals. With large crystals, scientists on the ground 

The main goal is the development of new, biologically 

based drugs, providing even 

tougher weapons for physicians fighting human diseases.

The difference between protein crystals grown on 

the ground (top) versus in microgravity (bottom).

Image credit: Merck
131

can use X-ray crystallography to determine how the 

protein is organized. Determining protein structures 

helps researchers design new drugs.

The first experiment on the space station yielded 

crystals larger than those that could be grown on 

the ground, which was promising. Merck continued 

space-based protein crystallization experiments on 

10 separate shuttle flights. 

Based on these previous findings, Paul Reichert, 

chemistry research fellow at Merck, expects to grow 

uniform suspensions of 5-micron crystals without impurities that can develop on Earth. He also plans 

to study how temperature gradients can affect the 

beginning of crystal formation, or nucleation. Reichert 

flew two different MAB experiments on the SpaceX-3 

cargo flight in April 2014 and is planning additional 

experiments to launch on the SpaceX-6 flight, planned 

for April 2015.

These high concentrations of protein crystals could 

improve the way patients receive MABs to treat a wide 

range of diseases. Because MABs have to be delivered in large amounts, they are usually administered 

intravenously in a hospital, where a patient would have 

to wait for several hours to receive the full dose. Highly 

concentrated suspensions of crystallized proteins, produced in microgravity, could instead be given in a simple shot in a doctor’s office. The fluid would look similar 

to milk, Reichert said, opaque with high concentrations 

of crystallized MABs making it appear white. 

Highly-concentrated MAB mixtures also would be 

more efficient to ship and store. Currently, different 

components of MAB treatments are manufactured at 

different sites and then shipped overseas or to different 

places in the United States to be formulated into drugs 

given to patients.

Reichert hopes the work will attract other scientists 

who want to conduct advanced research in space. 

But the main goal is the development of new, biologically based drugs, providing even tougher weapons 

for physicians fighting human diseases.

Muscle atrophy: Mice on the ISS helping 

life on Earth

Muscles atrophy, or waste away, when they are not 

used. In microgravity, muscles atrophy even in those 

who exercise regularly. Without normal gravity to work 

against, in fact, some muscles begin to atrophy within 

days after an astronaut reaches orbit. Some people still 

on Earth experience muscle loss because of diseases 

or injuries that can make it harder to move, although 

atrophy happens more gradually here. Ultimately, 

atrophy affects everyone, as all humans lose muscle 

as they get older. 

Scientists still are not sure what happens to trigger 

muscle loss. Atrophy comes from many pathways in 

the body, from different cell signaling processes to removal of proteins and loss of amino acids. If scientists 

can understand how these pathways regulate muscle 

mass, they might be able to develop new treatments 

for diseases. First, though, they need a better picture 

of atrophy itself, and the study of rodents is helping. 

By observing changes to the genetic activity of mice, 

scientists at the Novartis Institutes for BioMedical Research (NIBR) hope to learn more about microgravity’s 

effects on muscle mass. 

The Novartis team got involved at the invitation of 

the Center for the Advancement of Science in Space 

(CASIS), which manages the National Laboratory. 

Samuel Cadena and his colleagues at Novartis have 

The overall goal is to use ISS 

to learn more about muscle 

wasting so scientists and 

drug companies can help 

patients who are at risk. 

NASA’s rodent habitat module seen with both 

access doors open.

Image credit: NASA
132

been studying atrophy for several years, and consider 

using the space station to further their work a unique 

opportunity.

Cadena and his research partners are studying mice 

genetically engineered to resist muscle loss. Called 

knockout mice, these animals lack specific genes that 

would enable them to make a protein called Muscle 

Ring Finger-1, or MuRF-1, which hastens muscle loss 

by labeling certain proteins for degradation. Expression 

of this protein increases in several muscle atrophy situations, including spaceflight.

One group of 10 MuRF-1 knockout mice flew to the 

space station on SpaceX-4, arriving on Sept. 23, 

2014. A second set stayed at NASA’s Kennedy Space 

Center. Each group was accompanied by an experimental control group of 10 mice whose genes were 

not changed. The animals stayed in space for three 

weeks then were euthanized and sent back to Earth 

for study. Researchers are still analyzing early data, 

but expect that the knockout mice experienced less 

atrophy than the control mice, helping to validate the 

MuRF-1 model.

The overall goal is to learn more about muscle wasting 

so scientists and drug companies can help patients 

who are at risk. The partnerships that enable research 

aboard the orbiting laboratory continue to push the envelope of science in space, seeking answers to propel 

exploration and benefit people on Earth.
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Link to Archived Stories 

and Videos 

http://www.nasa.gov/mission_pages/station/research/benefits/index.html
135

Authors and Principal Investigators 

by Section

Principal Investigator (PI) listed for stories focused on a specific space station investigation.

Human Health

Robotic arms lend a healing touch

Author: CSA 

PI: Dr. Garnette Sutherland, University of Calgary

Robots from space lead to one-stop breast cancer 

diagnosis treatment

Author: Jessica Eagan, NASA

PI: Dr. Mehran Anvari, Scientific Director & CEO, Centre 

for Surgical Invention & Innovation (CSii), Hamilton, 

Canada.

Improved eye surgery with space hardware

Author: ESA 

PI: A. Clarke, Charité Universitätsmedizin, Berlin, 

Germany

Sensor technologies for high-pressure jobs 

and operations

Author: ESA 

PI: Hans-Christian Gunga, Charité Universitätsmedizin, 

Berlin, Germany

Bringing space station ultrasound to the ends 

of the Earth

Author: Mark Wolverton, NASA 

PI: Scott Dulchavsky, M.D., Henry Ford Hospital, Detroit, 

Michigan

Are you asthmatic? Your new helper comes from 

space

Author: ESA 

PI: Lars Karlsson and Lars Gustafsson, Karolinska 

Institutet, Dept of Physiology and Pharmacology, 

Stockholm, Sweden

Cold plasmas assist in wound healing

Author: NASA 

PI: Dr. Hubertus M. Thomas, Deutsches Zentrum 

für Luft- und Raumfahrt e.V. (DLR), Germany; 

Prof. V.E. Fortov, Institute for High Energy Densities 

(IHED, RAS), Russia

Preventing bone loss in spaceflight with 

prophylactic use of bisphosphonate: 

Health promotion of the elderly by space 

medicine technologies

Author: Hiroshi Ohshima, JAXA

PI: Adrian Leblanc, United Space Research Association, 

and Toshio Matsumoto, Tokushima University 

Improved scanning technologies and insights 

into osteoporosis

Author: ESA

PI: Christian Alexandre, M.D., University of St. Etienne, 

France

Good diet, proper exercise help protect astronauts’ 

bones

Author: Bill Jeffs, NASA

PI: Scott Smith and Jean Sibonga, NASA

Add salt? Astronauts’ bones say please don’t

Author: ESA

PI: Petra Frings-Meuthen, German Aerospace 

Center (DLR)

Early detection of immune changes prevents painful 

shingles in astronauts and in Earth-bound patients

Authors: Satish K. Mehta, Duane L. Pierson, and C. 

Mark Ott, NASA 

PI: Satish K. Mehta, Duane L. Pierson, and C. Mark Ott, 

NASA

Station immunology insights for Earth and space

Author: Jessica Nimon, NASA 

PI: Millie Hughes-Fulford, Director of the Laboratory of 

Cell Growth at the University of California, San Francisco

Targeted treatments to improve immune response

Author: ESA 

PI: M. Maccarrone, N. Battista, University of Teramo, 

Teramo, Italy

High-quality protein crystal growth experiment 

aboard Kibo

Authors: Mitsugu Yamada and Kazunori Ohta, JAXA 

PI: Over 80 Principal investigators conducted JAXA 

protein crystal growth experiments on the ISS.

Cancer-targeted treatments from space station 

discoveries

Author: Laura Niles, NASA 

PI: Dennis Morrison, NASA’s Johnson Space Center 

and NuVue Therapeutics, Inc.

Using weightlessness to treat multiple ailments

Authors: I. B. Kozlovskaya and Ye. S. Tomilovskaya, 

Institute of Biomedical Problems of the Russian 

Academy of Sciences (IBMP RAS), Moscow, Russia 

PI: Ye. S. Tomilovskaya 
136

Microbiology applications from fungal research in 

space

Author: ESA 

PI: D. Hasegan, G. Mogildea, Romanian Institutes of 

Space Science and Biology, Bucharest, Romania; 

E. Chatzitheodoridis, National Technical University 

of Athens, Greece

Plant growth on ISS has global impacts on Earth

Author: Tara Ruttley, NASA 

PI: Weijia Zhou, Ph.D., of the Wisconsin Center 

for Space Automation and Robotics, University of 

Wisconsin-Madison

Experiments with higher plants on the Russian 

Segment of the International Space Station

Authors: V. N. Sychev, M. A. Levinskikh, I. G. Podolsky, 

Institute of Biomedical Problems of the Russian 

Academy of Sciences (IBMP RAS), Moscow, Russia; 

G. E. Bingham (Utah State University, Space Dynamics 

Laboratory, Logan, Utah, USA) 

PI: V. N. Sychev, M. A. Levinskikh, I. G. Podolsky, G. E. 

Bingham 

Colleagues from many Russian and non-Russian 

organizations participated in carrying out work 

according to the Rasteniya program in the Lada 

greenhouse on the ISS RS. The contributions of S. A. 

Gostimsky (M. V. Lomonosov Moscow State University), 

and M. Sugimoto (Okayama University, Institute of 

Bioresources, Okayama, Japan) should be especially 

noted. 

Space cardiology for the benefit of health care

Authors: R. M. Baevsky, Ye.Yu. Bersenev, I.I. Funtova, 

Institute of Biomedical Problems of the Russian 

Academy of Sciences (IBMP RAS), Moscow, Russia 

PI: R. M. Baevsky, Ye.Yu. Bersenev, I.I. Funtova 

Biological rhythms in space and on Earth

Authors: NaomuneYamamoto, JAXA and Kuniaki 

Otsuka, Tokyo Women’s Medical University 

PI: Chiaki Mukai, JAXA

Innovative space-based device promotes restful 

sleep on Earth

Authors: R. M. Baevsky, Ye. S. Luchitskaya, I. I. 

Funtova, Institute of Biomedical Problems of the 

Russian Academy of Sciences (IBMP RAS), Moscow, 

Russia 

PI: R. M. Baevsky, Ye. S. Luchitskaya, I. I. Funtova 

New technology simulates microgravity and 

improves balance on Earth

Authors: I.B. Kozlovskaya, I.V. Sayenko, Institute of 

Biomedical Problems of the Russian Academy of 

Sciences (IBMP RAS), Moscow, Russia 

PI: I.B. Kozlovskaya 

New ways to assess neurovestibular system health 

in space also benefits those on Earth 

Authors: L. N. Kornilova, I. A. Naumov, G. A. 

Ekimovskiy, Yu. I. Smirnov, Institute of Biomedical 

Problems of the Russian Academy of Sciences (IBMP 

RAS), Moscow, Russia 

PI: L. N. Kornilova, I. A. Naumov, Yu. I. Smirnov 

Space research leads to non-pharmacological 

treatment and prevention of vertigo, dizziness 

and equilibrium disturbances

Authors: L. N. Kornilova, I. A. Naumov, G. A. Ekimovskiy, 

Institute of Biomedical Problems of the Russian 

Academy of Sciences (IBMP RAS), Moscow, Russia 

PI: L. N. Kornilova, I. A. Naumov, G. A. Ekimovskiy 

Capturing the secrets of weightless movements 

for Earth applications

Authors: Salvatore Pignataro, Gabriele Mascetti, 

Italian Space Agency

PI: Francesco Lacquaniti, Center of Space Biomedicine, 

University of Rome Tor Vergata; 

Giancarlo Ferrigno, Department of Electronics, 

Information and Bioengineering

Space technologies in the rehabilitation of 

movement disorders 

Authors: I.V. Sayenko, I.B. Kozlovskaya, Institute 

of Biomedical Problems of the Russian Academy 

of Sciences (IBMP RAS), Moscow, Russia 

PI: I.V. Sayenko 

Earth Observation and Disaster Response

Earth remote sensing from the space station

Author: ISS Program Earth Observations Working Group 

Coastal ocean sensing extended mission

Author: Curtiss Davis, College of Earth, Ocean, and 

Atmospheric Sciences, Oregon State University 

PI: Mary E. Kappus, US Naval Research Laboratory; 

Michael R. Corson, US Naval Research Laboratory 

Visual and instrumental scientific observation of the 

ocean from space

Authors: A. N. Yevguschenko, State Organization 

“Gagarin Research&Test Cosmonaut Training 

Center”; B. V. Konovalov, P. P. Shirshov Institute of 

Oceanography of the Russian Academy of Sciences 

Space station camera captures Earthly disaster 

scenes

Authors: Dauna Coulter and Jaganathan Ranganathan, 

SERVIR Team, NASA’s Marshall Space Flight Center 

PI: Burgess Howell, NASA

Clear high-definition images aid disaster response

Authors: Hideaki Shinohara and Sayaka Umemura, 

JAXA 

PI: Chikara Harada, JAXA
137

Innovative Technology

Advanced ISS technology supports water 

purification efforts worldwide

Author: Arun Joshi, NASA 

PI: Donald L. Carter, Robyn Gatens

Exploring the wonders of fluid motion: Improving 

life on Earth through understanding the nature of 

Marangoni convection

Author: Satoshi Matsumoto, JAXA 

PI: Hiroshi Kawamura, Tokyo University of Science, 

Koichi Nishino, Yokohama National University, Shinichi 

Yoda, JAXA, Yasuhiro Kamotani, Case Western Reserve 

University, Satoshi Matsumoto, JAXA

Space station-inspired mWater app identifies 

healthy water sources

Author: Jessica Nimon, NASA 

PI: John and Annie Feighery, mWater

Space-tested fluid flow concept advances 

infectious disease diagnoses

Author: Mike Giannone, NASA Glenn Research Center 

PI: Mark Weislogel, NASA 

Improving semiconductors with nanofibers

Author: Masato Katsuta, JAXA 

PI: Takatoshi Kinoshita, Graduate School of Engineering, 

Nagoya Institute of Technology

InSPACE’s big news in the nano world

Author: Mike Giannone, NASA 

PI: Eric M. Furst, University of Delaware

Deploying small satellites from ISS

Author: Hitoshi Morimoto, JAXA 

PI: Yusuke Matsumura, JAXA 

Pinpointing time and location

Author: ESA 

PI: Felix Huber, Steinbeis Transferzentrum Raumfahrt, 

Gaufelden - Stuttgart, Germany 

Space station technology demonstration could 

boost a new era of satellite-servicing

Author: Adreinne Alessandro, NASA 

PI: Frank J. Cepollina, Benjami B. Reed

Cool flame research aboard space station may lead 

to a cleaner environment on Earth

Author: Mike Giannone, NASA 

PI: Folman Williams, Daniel L. Dietrich

Robonaut’s potential shines in multiple space, 

medical and industrial applications

Author: Laura Niles 

PI: Myron A. Diftler

Global Education

Inspiring the next generation of students with the 

International Space Station

Author: Jessica Nimon, NASA 

PI: NASA, CSA, ESA, JAXA, Roscosmos

Student scientists receive unexpected results from 

research in space

Author: Jessica Nimon, NASA 

PI: Zahaan Bharmal

Europe’s alliance with space droids

Author: ESA 

PI: ESA

NASA has HUNCH about student success in 

engineering

Author: Laura Niles 

TomatosphereTM: Sowing the seeds of discovery 

through student science

Author: CSA 

PI: Michael Dixon, University of Guelph 

Students photograph Earth from space via Sally 

Ride EarthKAM program

Author: Arun Joshi, NASA 

PI: Sally Ride, Karen Flammer

Try zero G2: Igniting the passion of the next 

generation in Asia

Author: Yayoi Miyagawa, JAXA 

PI: JAXA 

Asian students work with astronauts in space 

missions

Author: Muneo Takaoki, JAXA 

PI: Kibo-ABC (Asian Beneficial Collaboration through 

Kibo Utilization) Initiative

Educational benefits of the space experiment 

“Shadow-beacon” on ISS 

Author: V.A. Strashinskiy, Central Research Institute for 

Machine Building (FGUP TsNIIMash) 

PI: V.A. Strashinskiy, (FGUP TsNIIMash) 

Students get fit the astronaut way

Author: Jessica Nimon, NASA 

PI: Charles Lloyd, NASA

Inspiring youth with a call to the International Space 

Station

Authors: Jessica Nimon and Camille Alleyne, NASA 

PI: Frank Bauer

Calling cosmonauts from home 

Author: S.V.Avdeev, FGUP TsNIIMash 

PI: Space experiment “Coulomb Crystal” – V.Ye.Fortov, 

Joint Institute for High Temperatures of the Russian 

Academy of Sciences
138

Space experiment “Shadow-Beacon” – O.M.Alifanov, 

Moscow Aviation Institute (National Research 

University); V.A.Strashinskiy, FGUP TsNIIMash

Space experiment “MAI-75” - O.M.Alifanov, 

V.K.Odelevskiy; Moscow Aviation Institute (National 

Research University)

Space experiment “Great Start” – M.Yu.Belyaev, OAO 

“Rocket and Space Corporation “Energia” after S.P. 

Korolev” 

MAI-75 experiment, main results and prospects for 

development in education

Authors: O. M. Alifanov, S. O. Firsyuk, V. K. Odelevsky 

(Moscow Aviation Institute (National Research 

University)); N. S. Biryukova (Central Research 

Institute for Machine Building (FGUP TsNIIMash)); S. 

N. Samburov, A. I. Spirin (OAO Rocket and Space 

Corporation Energia after S.P. Korolev (RSC-Energia))

PI: O. M. Alifanov, V. K. Odelevsky, Moscow Aviation 

Institute (National Research University) 

Economic Development of Space

Water production in space: Thirsting for a solution

Authors: Kathy Watkins-Richardson, Melissa Gaskill

Company name: UTC Aerospace Systems

Commercialization of low-Earth Orbit (LEO)

Authors: Kathy Watkins-Richardson, Melissa Gaskill

Company name: NanoRacks, LLC

Innovative public-private partnerships for ISS cargo 

services: Part 1 

Authors: Kathy Watkins-Richardson, Melissa Gaskill

Company name: SpaceX

Innovative public-private partnerships for ISS cargo 

services: Part 2

Authors: Kathy Watkins-Richardson, Melissa Gaskill

Company name: Orbital Sciences Corporation

Precision pointing platform for Earth observations 

from the ISS

Authors: Kathy Watkins-Richardson, Melissa Gaskill

Company name: Teledyne Brown Engineering, Inc.

The Groundbreaker: Earth observation 

Authors: Kathy Watkins-Richardson, Melissa Gaskill

Company name: UrtheCast

A flock of CubeSats photographs our changing 

planet

Authors: Rebecca Boyle and Melissa Gaskill

Company name: Planet Labs 

Stretch your horizons, Stay CuriousTM 

Authors: Kathy Watkins-Richardson, Melissa Gaskill

Company name: Kentucky Space/Space Tango, Inc.

Mission critical: Flatworm experiment races the 

clock after splashdown

Author: Craig Simon, President and CEO

Company name: FedEx SupplyChain

Economic development of space in JAXA

Authors: Sayaka Umemura and Kazuyuki Tasaki, JAXA

Company and organization names: Mitsubishi Electric 

(MELCO)/Orbital Sciences Corporation, Japan Space 

Forum, Hamamatsu Photonics K.K., Fuji Chemical 

Co., Ltd., Shiseido Co., Ltd., Yakult Honsha Co., Ltd., 

Japan Manned Space Systems Corporation (JAMSS)/

Technological Institute of Aeronautics (ITA)/Brazilian 

Space Agency (AEB)/Brazilian National Institute for 

Space Research (INPE), Interprotein Corporation, 

Chugai Pharmaceutical Co., Ltd., ARKRAY, and 

Junkosha Inc.

Colloids in space: Where consumer products and 

science intersect

Authors: Kathy Watkins-Richardson, Melissa Gaskill

PI: David A. Weitz, Harvard University; Matthew Lynch, 

Proctor and Gamble

Space mice teach us about muscle and bone loss

Authors: Rebecca Boyle, Kathy Watkins-Richardson 

and Melissa Gaskill

PI: H. Q. Han, Amgen Research

Protein crystals in microgravity

Authors: Rebecca Boyle and Melissa Gaskill

PI: Paul Reichert, Merck Research Laboratories

Muscle atrophy: Mice on the ISS helping life on 

Earth

Authors: Rebecca Boyle, Kathy Watkins-Richardson 

and Melissa Gaskill

PI: Samuel Cadena, Novartis Institutes for Biomedical 

Research

140