Technèca$ Paper 375 

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DEVELOPMENT OF LIGHT•ATTENUAT1NG

DEVICES (LADS) TO SIMULATE NIGHT

N VISIBILITY DURING DAYLIGHT

— Paul R Sleda

Engagement Simulation Technical Area

and

John P Farrell

Human Factors Technical Area

ENGAGEMENT SIMULAT ION TECHNICAL AREA

D DC

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Resea rch Institu te for the 8ehav~

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July 1979

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U. S. ARMY R ES EARCH INSTITUT E

FOR THE BEHAVIORAL AND SOCIAL SCIENCE S

A Field Operating A gency under the Jurisdiction of the

Deputy Chief of Staff for Personnel

WILLIAM L. HAUSER

JOSEPH ZEIDNER Colonsi . U S Army Tschnic .I Dèr s ct or Commsnd .r

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Light-att.nuatinq ~.vices ( LAD.) Weld•r ’s goggle fac sk

S iaulat.d dark~~ ss Sid.nsi ty filtars

Night training

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.I To circaavent safety , evaluation , and logistics probl s in niqhttia. L ...— training , AR! has developed light-attenuating d vtcus (LAD.) to sisulats

night visual condition. and allow daytia. training. Doth sinqle-d.nsity

and bidensity lenses have been developed for a variety of fac~~~ sks. This

report doc~.snt. API • role in developing and fabricating LAD. and discuss.

- - potential applications for training. i

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~~~~ sinq LAD. to si slat. night visibility for night training and testing

a.~’ be sore advanta g.ous than actual night training for several reasons.

First , safety t with single-density LADS , .

~~~one with full vision can

aonitor trainees’ per foraance . $.cond • per foraance evaluation s Instructors

~~rking in daylight can better ob .rve and evaluate trainees p.rfora.nce.

Third, convenience s Daylight is a aoz~

e convenient ties for eany qualifications testay

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Technàcal Paper 375

DEVELOPMENT OF LIGHT•ATTENUATING

DEVICES (LADS) TO SIMULATE NIGHT

VISIBILITY DURING DAYLIGHT

Paul R. Bleda

Engagement Simulation Technical Area

and

John P. Farrell

Human Factors Technical Area

Angelo Mirabella, Team Chief

Submitted by:

Frank J. Harris. Chief

ENGAGEMENT SIMULATIO N TECHNICAL AREA

A.pptovo,~ By

A P1 Btrnbaum . Acting DIrScIof

ORGANIZATIONS AND SYSTEMS

RESEARCH LABORATORY

Josept~ Zeidnet

TECHNICAL DIRECTOR

U.S. ARMY RESEARCH INSTITUTE FOR THE BEHAVIORAL AND SOCIAL SCIENCES

5001 E ,,nhow,r Avenue, AIex~~dria. VirgInia 22333

Office. Deputy Chief of Staff for P.rsonn.I

D.permwnt of the Army

July 1979

Anny P

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oI.ct Numbit Tr•inIng and EdUcat IOn

201S2722A75A

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,-.--— .-- -~
AR! Research Reports and Technical Papers are intended for sponsors of

R&D tasks and other research and military agenci.t Any findings ready for

implementation at the time of publication are presented in the latter part of

the Brief . Upon completion of a major phase of the task, formal recommen~ dations for officia l action normally are conveyed to appropriate military

agencies by briefing or Disposition Form.

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FOREWORD

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This report documents th. role of the Army ~~search Institu te for - the Behavioral and Social Sciences (ARI ) in developing and fabricating

light-attenuating devices ( LAD ). LX)s are technological innovations - that simulate night-illumination levels so that night training and test-

- ing can be conducted in daylight.

- Since 1974 , scientists at ARI have been involved in evaluating the

concept of using simulated darkn ess for night training during daylight.

To evaluate feasibility of this training concept , LADs have been d.-

ve loped to reproduce the essential features of night visual conditions .

In 1974 and 1975, a filter was fabricated to fit on a standard Army

sun/wind/dust goggle to conduct research on nap-of-the-earth flight at

Fort Rucker , Ala. In early 1977, outsert lenses were designed to fit

over the M17 protective mask to conduct land navigation research at Fort

L wls , Wash. In winter 1977-78 , the Basic Co~~~at Training (BCT) Committee Group at Fort Jackson , S.C. , conducted a field experiment to evaluate LADs as applied to training and testing night rifle marksmanship .

The LADs pro je Ct has been acco~~l ished jointly by ARI and Gen tax

Corporation (OS~~itech Di viston ) unde r contract s DAHC— 19-77-M- OO ll (3.

C~~uglas Dressel as COTR) and DA&I C-19-77-M-00 49 (Paul R. Bleda as (C’OTR).

Work reported was originated by the Aircre w Performan ce Work Unit by

John P. Farrell unde r David Moi ster, in the Human Factors in Tactical — Operations Te chnical Area unde r Aaron Hyrtan • and under Army Project

.2Q]62722A765, N~ght Operations Methodology . This report was prepared

unde r Army Project 2Q162722A764 , Training and Education .

chnical Director IV

1

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DE ELOP~~ HT OF LIGHT-ATTENUAT ING DEV ICES (LADs)

TO SIPSJ LA TE NIGHT VISIBILIT Y DURING DAYLIGHT

BRIEF

Requirement:

To develop light-attenuating devices ( LADS) that pe rmit night or

twilight training to tak e place dur ing the dayti me .

Product:

Coated and dyed p lastic lenses tha t transmit precisely attenuated

amounts of light have been fabricated and mounted in various existing

Army facemasks, both as single-density lenses that trani.mit the same

amoun t of light throughout and as bidensity lenses that are darker at

the top. Tests and field tr ials indicate that wearers ’ perceptions and

performances closely resemble those of actua l night .

Utilization :

Use of LADs to simulate night training may provide more safe ty, as

in tank cross-country dziving or helicopter flight where an instructor

has full vision , and better performance evaluation , as well as administrative convenience in scheduling train ing . Use of LADs for night rifle

marksmanship training at Fort Jackson , S .C. , was estunated to save appreciable time and a~~unxti on .

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1 1 - DEVELOPMENT OF LIGHT-ATTENUATING DEVICES ( LAD.)

TO SI*JLATE NIGHT VISIBILITY DURING DAYLIGHT

CONTENTS

Pag e

ItFF~~ DUCTION I

LAD. PROGRAM AT ARI 3

Sandwich Goggles 3

Evaporated-Metal Coated Lenses 7

Outsert Lenses 7

POTENTIAL APPLICATIONS 9

REFERENCES 13

DISTRIBUTION 15

LIST OF TABLES

Table I.. Characteristics of var ious light-attenuatin g

fil ters 4

2. Desired characteristics of LADs 5

3. Sandwich goggle version of LAD 6

4. Outsert-lens version of LADs . 8

5. Welder ’s goggle version of LAD 10

ix

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DEVELOPMENT OF LIGHT-ATTENUATING DEVICES (LADs)

TO SIItJIATE NIGHT VISIBILITY DURING DAYLIGHT

INTRODUCTION

Tactics and doctrine in the modern Army have e~~hasi zed the concept

of continuous operations , which specifies that military functions continue around the clock , under all weather conditions , and across different terrains . A contLnuous comba t capability depends on an army ’s capacity to perform without letup , unhindered by darkness , reduced visibility,

or ex treme temperatures . The importance of a continuous operat .ons

capability is essential , mainl y because the Soviets have adopted such

a capability as the primary principle of their combat doctrine since

the late 1950..

The doctrine of continuous operations places new emphasis on night

warfare . To conduct successful night missions , combat personnel must be

trained to perform when visual cues are reduced . However , numerous administra tive problem s relating to safety , performance evalua tion , and

convenience arise whet train ing and testing are held at night. To cir- — cumvent the l imitatx ~~r

~

s x:.herent in ~ ight training , scientists at the

t

~.S. Army Research In ,;titute (ARt) have developed light—attenuating devices (LAD .) that simulate ni gh t visual conditions to allow training

dur ing daylight . This paper doc~

’iments ARt ’s involvement in the development , fabric ation , and evaluation of LADs .

The use of LAD. during daylight may be more advan tageous than actual night training 1:, several respects. First , sm ile—density L.ADs

are safe to use , because trainees ’ performances can be monitored by a

person with full vision . For exam ple , dur ing aviation , fligh t instructors not wearing LADs would be in a better position to manipulate dua l

controls to a~.oi i potential hazards. Second . training effectiveness is

enhanced because instructors can better observe and evaluate trainee

performance. Thus, the corrective feedhack to trainees is based on a

more accurate and thorough account of their behavior. Third . many qualification tests are conducted more conveniently during daylight , allowing greater schedulinq flexibility and minimizing the “dead ” time spent

w a i t in g for darkness.

Other limited~ visibi1ity conditions with great tactical importance

can be simulated with the LAD, by varying the optical density (o.d.) of

the filters. For example , future combat conditions most likely will em—

phasize the dawn and dusk periods, because the development of passive

night-vision devices has reduced the tactical advantages once afforded

by darkness. Although effective at night , passive nig h t-vision devices

become i nopera t ive in twilight when the illumination leve l is too high

for the image intensifiers but too low for good vision with the nak

ed1
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eye . Because dawn and dusk are short and occur at widely separated

par ts of the day, it is difficult to train for them. By simulating twilight conditions using LADs, effective training could be conducted during most of the day .

The concept of using LADs for training purposes is not new . In

the late l940s , British resear cher, tried to simulate night visibility

for airc raft crew trainees by circulating an opaquing fluid between

twin—walled bubble canopies . However , this technique was never used

widely because the uneven distribution of fluid resulted in uneven light

attenuation (Lazo. 1974).

In the United States, various combinations of blue and amber filters as well as Polaroid materials have been used to train aircraft personnel . A blue and amber filter combination lowered light level , but

for the instruments to be visible , one filter had to be applied to the

tra inee ’s goqgles and the other to the cockpit windscreen . tJnfortunately, this technique reduced the instructor ’s visibil ity , although to a lesser extent than the trainee ’s. The technique was abandoned when

flight simulators for instrument and night flight were introduced . A

neutral density filter was developed to simulate twilight and dusk for

ai rborne visual reconnaissance teams (Porterfield & Self , 1971), but it

was never used on a wide scale.

There were two attempts to simulate night conditions for infantry

training, the first at Fort Benning , Ga ., in the 1950s, and the second

at Fort Sheridan . Ill. , from 1968 through 1970. The first effort was

~

.-ancelled before extensive testing was undertaken , but the second involved a more thorough development and evaluation program .

At Fort Sheridan , exposed X-ray film was inserted into the frame of

the standard mil itary sun1-w ind/dust goggle . Although exposed film attenuates ’light across all s

~ cctral regions , including infrared (I.R.)

and ultraviolet (U.V.), it is difficult to obtain optical densities

over 4.0 without the film beccminq occluded. Some light scatter also

occurs.

Prelim inary tests at Fort Sheridan supported the concept of using

LAD. for night training dur i ng daylight but showed the need for an improved filter. Plastic filters containing carbon particles in colloidal

suspension were developed , and eventually 7,000 lenses wi th an optical

density of 5.5 were bought for extensive field tests. In 1970. however ,

problems with lens fogging from perspiration and with light scatter when

the lenses faced the sun led to the pro)ect ’s termination . Those involved in ‘hat effort believed that such technological problems eventually could have been solved .

2

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LAOs PROGRAM AT ARI 

At ARI, John P. Farr 11 initiated exploratory work on the d velopment of the LAOs concept in 1973. The t chnical specifications of 

various light-att nuating materials w re investigated. 

Inv stigations began with dual lay rs of Polaroid filters (Table 1) . 

ln the configuration used , one sh t remained stationary while the other 

wa rotated to vary the level of a.ttenuated light. However, this technique was re jected because of the inability to produce prec se and uniform attenuation 1 v ls. 

Photochromit:: materials th t darken upon exposure to light w r e r e -

jected because of th delay in the material ' s response tim and because 

of poor attenuation in the infr red and ultraviol t reqtons. 

V rious filters with a glass substrate wer r ) ected for safety 

reasons. 

Significant expansion of 

decici~ that LADs must h v th 

ct".1.cv Army-wide cc p anc . 

S ndwl.c h Goggl s 

he ffort occurc d 1.n 1974 , when i was 

ch rae ris 1cs listed in Table 2 to 

John P. F rr 11 and Aaron Hyman d ve1o cd th ini ial roto ypo of 

LADs ' ing th frame of th s t. ndard Army sun/ wind/dus goggle modified 

t o pr ovid ll.gh -tlght v nt1lation . Farr ll and Hyman combined several 

lcments t o produc tt nu t1.on w1. h corr c ral charact ris i cs 

in th 1 n A n utral las tic 1 ns for ro c tion wa s th 

ba h affix d 1975) . To the 

( a) o f m tallic 

nua 

r o ec 

Kod.ak 

visible 

o the r mat rials 

There we re s andw1.ch ypc of LADs : a singl -

density and singl -dens1 y 1 ns had a constant 

amount of t nuat1on across th n ir Vlsua l fl ld (5.3 o .d. ) . The 

bidenslty len had gr at tr tt nuation 1.n th up r par of the lens 

(5 . 0 o .d.) h n in the l o r par (3 . 5 o .d .). To validat h overall 

a enu tion produced by th s andw1ched 1 ents , the o i cal d nsi y 

was m asur in a Cary model 14 opec rophotom r, and th r adings were 

intoqr t d against the pho opic visual function . 

1

commercial designations in t his report are given only in the interest 

of precision o f r eporting. Their use does not constitute indorsement 

by the u.s. Army Res arch Institute or the u.s. Army . 

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The single-density and bidansity versions of the sandwich goggle

LADs were field tested by Farrell for infantry tasks at Fort Ord , Calif.,

and avia tion tasks at Fort Rucker, Ala ., in 1974. The infantry tests included distance est imat ion , target detection , and terrain walking . The

av~ation tests consisted of helicopter maneuvers such as 3600 and 450

bank turns , hovering , obstacle avoidit nce , and obstacle detection . The

resul ts of these preliminary field tests were encourag ing , because performance wi th the LADs appeared to be degraded to the same extent as

performance tinder actual night conditions. Unfortunately, the ini tial

mockup version of these LADs was too fragile for more extensive field

testing because Wrat ten filters scratch easily and must not be exposed

to temperatures above 110°F .

Ev~pora ted -Metal Coa t ed Lenses

Evaporated metal lenses were investigated to try to overcame the

difficulties inherent in the Wratten filters. Light—attenuating filters

are produced by heating a m tal such as silver or the alloy inconel in a

vacus.~ chamber and depositing a thin layer of the metallic particles on

a substrate such as glass. This type of filter attenuates well in the

ul traviolet and infrared region s and , in general , meets the required

characterist ics listed in Table 2. Four proto type lenses were produced

with contractor support f rom Gentex Corporation (C)snltech Division).

The filters were fabricated by dep ositing silver on both sides of a

plastic subst rate (buty l acetate) , because op tical dans ittes over 4.0

are diff icult to obtain in a single coating with this technique . An

a n t i s cx a tch coating was applied to protect the metal , and both singledensity and b i den s i ty lenses were produced .

Farrell field tested these LADs for aviation use at Fort Rucker .

Although performances obtained with tIxis versi en corre~xpondad with those

obta i ned with the sandwich goggle , subjects preferred the evaporated

metal lenses because of their ars’ater clar ity . Pilots also favored the

single-density over the bidensit y lens ; this response was surprising

beca use the b i d ensity lens was specially designed to facilitate reading

the instrument panel. However, most pilo ts indicated that they found the

bidensity nqglcs distracting and said they preferred to keep their

eyes outside the cockpit ’ and to query the copilot when instrument information was needed . Unfortunately, the evaporated meta l lenses were

too expensive for mo re extensive field testing .

Outsert Lenses

The next stage of develoçment began in early 1976, moni tored by

L~~uqlas Oressel with design direction from Aaron Hymen . These scientists fabrica ted a neutral attenuating lens of dyed polycarbonate plast ic with a me tall ic coating designed to fit as an outsert on the standard

Army protective mask (M1 ~ Al ). Table 4 provides a more detailed descrip— —

— t ion of this type of LAD.

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10th single-density and bidensity lenses of various densi t ies and

density combinations were fabricated . The LADs were field tested in

the sumeer of 1977 with elements of the 9th Infantry Division at Fort

Lewis, Wash. (Peters , Blade , & Fineberg , 1979). A bidensity LAD having

a density of 5.5 in the upper part and 4.0 in the lower part was used in

the test for safety reasons--navigators could easily check their footing . Not surprisingly, the findings indicated that performance dur ing

actual night was significantly degraded in term s of navigation speed and

accuracy . Performances obtained using the LADs were between those found

in daylight and at night . It appeared that the bidensity safety feature

allowed naviga tors with LADs to travel slightly faster than navigators

who performed at night . However , i t was the consensus of those present

during the research tha t a single-density LAD would yield results corn—

parable to those found for actua l night.

Welder ’s Goggles. In response to a field request from Fort Jackson ,

S.C., AR ! scientists, wi th contractor support from Gentex Corporation

(c~ ni t.ch Division) , developed a ligh t-attenuating goggle that can accommodate trainee s who wear he).mets and corrective lenses (Blade & Johnson ,

1978) . This version of the LADs was designed to provide a relatively

quick and inexpensive solution to a night-fire prob lem at Fort Jackson .

Consequen tly , these LADs were fabricated using a conventiona l welder ’s

goggle facemask tram Ame r ican Optics Corporation (product 0488) and a

012 and *13 welder ’s shade plat e produced by Gentex Corporation. The

welder ’s pla tes were made of polycarbonate plastic filters containing an

organic dye with a metallic gold coating on one of the lenses to filter

out potentially harmful infrared and ultraviolet rays . Table 5 gives

the technical specificatioi..~ of welder ’s goggle LADS .

P~1FENT IAL A PPL ICAT IONS

In early 1978, a series of field tests at Fort Jackson assessed the

feas ibili ty of applying LADs to train and test night rifle marksmanship

durin g dayligh t (Bleda , 1979; Blade & L.abrozzi , 1979) . The results of

the first of these tests validated the comparability of the various optical densities of the LADs to different moon phases in the specific

training environment at Fort Jackson . Comparability was defined in terms

of the percentage of trainees who qualified for record ; that is , who

achieved a spec i fic number of h i ts on pop-up targets at 25 and 50 m.

Follow-up research compared the inssediate (2 to 3 hours) performance transfer and long-range retention (7 weeks ) der ived from practice

and record fire with the LADs to per formance in actual nighttime . The

result s demonstrated that the LADs ’ performance i ndex was as effective

as the ac tual ni gh t performance index . Although one l imi tat ion of the

welder ’s goggle LAD is that i t restricts peripheral vision , it appears

that a wide field of view is not essential for the night rifle marksmanship applica t ion of the LADs.

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Two field experiments at Fort Knox, Ky ., evaluated the feasibility

of using LADs to train night tank-driving and weapons disasse~~ly/assembly. Trainees practiced either at night or with the LADs during daylight before being tested at night . With regard to tank-driving , the

results indicated that reductions in errors as a function of prior practice were comparable for both the night- and LAD-trained groups . Moreover, the findings for weapons disassembly/assembly task revealed that

subjects trained with LADs required an average of 83 fewer seconds to

complete the task than did their conventionally trained counterparts.

These results indicate that the application of LADs to training during

daylight for these two night tasks was successful (Blade £ Bauer , 1979).

It is important to note that LADs cannot be applied directly to

certain training areas. For example , small amounts of focused or diffused light (such as that emitted by the luminous dial of a compass or

the instrument panel of a vehicle) cannot be seen with LADs, because

the filters attenuate light by several orders of magnitude . For this

reason , LADs may not be useful for training and testing tasks performed

at night with limited levels of artificial light . In many training situations, however , these problems can be circumvented through procedural

changes (e.g., increasing the intensity of the light source) or technological modifications to the LADs (e.g., using bidensity lenses) .

Even tually, the concept of using simulated rather than actual condit ions of darkness may prove of great value to the Army . L.ADs may provide a saf e, convenien t , and cost effective way to develop a continuous

operations capability . The LADs program can continue to expand in several ways . The program can develop an even greater arsenal of different

types of these devices for application to diverse training tasks. In

th~ s regard , LADs can be fabricated for use with different sighting

mechanisms , periscopes, windows , and so on. With various modifications,

LADs can be used to simulate not only night but also other conditions of

reduced visib ility , such as smokescreens or dawn-dusk twilight conditions.

In addi tion to its training applications , LADs may serve to fill an important role in the conduct of basic research. That is , LADs can be a

tool for investigating human performance capabilities during reduced

visibility .

11 

~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~ ~~~-- _ -

~~~ _ - 

_

_ _ _ ---- -_ --

- _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ --
-

- ~~~~~~~~~ -

REFERENCES

Bleda , p. R. Simulating Various Moon Illumination Levels with LightAttenuating Devices (LAD.). ARI Technical Paper 374, July 1979.

Blade , P. R ., £ Johnson , ‘F. M. The Goggles that Turn Of f the Sun.

March 1978 . 28 , 36-39.

Bleda , P. R. , & L.a brozzi , A. In the Dark of the Day . Infantr y, MarchApril 1979 , 69(2) , 32—34 .

Sleds, P. R . . £ Bauer , R. W. Night A rmor Trainin g in Simulated Darkness.

Armor, May-June 1979 .

Farrell , J. P. Simula ting Night Visual Conditions Dur ing the Day with

Light Atte nuati ng Filters . Behavior Research Methods and Instrumentation, 1975, 7, 539—541.

LaSo , J. Personal coemunication , 1974.

Peters , 3. I . , Bleda , P. K., £ Fineberg , N . Effec ts of Illumination

Level and Sense of Direction on Land Navigation Performance . ARI

Technical Paper 362 , May 1979.

Por terfield , J. , ~. Self , H. C. A irborne Visual Reconnaissance as a

Function of Illumination Level (AMRL-TR-71-9) . Dayton , Ohio:

W r ight-Patterson Air Force Base , June 1971.

13

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16

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