tional Bureau of Standards

Library, N.W. Bldg

JUL1 61963 *ATIONAI. BOftBAU

OF ITANDABDg

LIBHART

MAR 6 1973lb

^ecknlcal ^lote 190

IMPEDANCE OF COMMERCIAL LECLANCHE

DRY CELLS AND BATTERIES

RALPH J. BRODD AND HAROLD J. DEWANE

U. S. DEPARTMENT OF COMMERCE

NATIONAL BUREAU OF STANDARDS
THE NATIONAL BUREAU OF STANDARDS

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NATIONAL BUREAU OF STANDARDS

ISSUED JULY 5, 1963

IMPEDANCE OF COMMERCIAL LECLANCHE

DRY CELLS AND BATTERIES

Ralph J. Brodd and Harold J. DeWane

NBS Technical Notes are designed to supplement the Bureau's regular publications program. They provide a means for making available scientific data that are of transient or limited interest. Technical Notes may be

listed or referred to in the open literature.

For sale by the Superintendent of Documents. U.S. Government Printing Office Washington 25, D.C. - Price 40 cents
Contents

Page

1. Introduction 1

2

Impedance Measurements 2

3 • Standard Service Tests 3

3-1. General-Purpose k- ohm Intermittent Test (hQ) 3

3.2. General-Purpose 2. 2 5- ohm Intermittent Test (2.25Q) 3

3-3- Light-Industrial Flashlight-Cell Test (LIF) 3

3.k. Heavy-Industrial Flashlight-Cell Test (HIF) k- 3 • 5 • Test and Storage Conditions k

k . Results k

k.l. AA-Size Cells (Penlite Size) 6

k.2. C-Size Cells 7

^•3 D-Size General-Purpose Cells 7

k.k. D-Size Industrial Cells 7

5 • General Considerations 8

6 . References 8

II
IMPEDANCE OF COMMERCIAL LECLANCHE

DRY CELLS AND BATTERIES

Ralph. J. Brodd and Harold J. DeWam

An extensive study of the impedance characteristics of the most commonly used sizes of commercial Leclanche type dry cells and batteries has been

made through the frequency range of 50 to 50; 000

cycles. Changes in impedance due to aging and use were determined. Open-circuit voltages and flash

currents were measured, and capacities determined on standard tests in an effort to find a possible corre- lation between any of those three parameters and

residual capacity. Data obtained are displayed in

tabular form and on Argand diagrams

1. Introduction

This note presents results of studies of the impedance of Leclanche

dry cells and batteries of various make, size, type, and condition. By

condition is meant the age or the amount of electrical capacity remaining

in the cells or batteries either after storage or after electrical discharge. Three sizes of cylindrical cells, AA, C, and D and various sizes

of flat-cell ^5-volt "B" batteries were used in the studies. Dimensions

of the cells and batteries are given in the tables referred to later.

Impedance measurements were made on the., cells prior to and after their

discharge on various standard tests [l] ; in fact, the measurements were

made in conjunction with the qualification tests of dry cells and

batteries which are conducted annually at the National Bureau of

Standards. Impedance measurements were also made on cells and batteries

prior to and after a specified period of storage at 21 °C.

Figures in brackets indicate literature references at the end of this

paper

* Initial tests were made after cells and batteries were stored at 21 °C

for approximately one week.
2. Impedance Measurements

The impedance was calculated from measurements of the internal

resistance and the capacitive reactance of the cells and batteries.

These latter quantities were measured by a substitution method using a Wien bridge, as described by Grover [2] and Vinal [3], and shown schematically in figure 1. PL was a variable non-inductive resistor, graduated in 0.01-ohm steps, covering a range up to 11,111.1 ohms in six

decades. Capacitor C. consisted of two capacitors in parallel, continuously variable from 56 pf to 1.111 |if and served to compensate for the

capacitance of the cell or battery under study. R„ and C were a fixed

precision resistor and capacitor, respectively, and were selected to

cover a range of R and C found for the cells or batteries under study.

For single cells R and C were, respectively, 100 ohms and lp,f • R~ and

R, were 1000-precision ac resistors. Detector D was a tunable amplifier

having a sensitivity of 5 |iv for a 10 per cent deflection of full scale.

The oscillator was a wide- range type activated by 60- cycle ac and was coupled to the bridge by an isolation transformer, and had a range of

5 cps to 600 kc. Its frequency was monitored by an electronic counter.

The bridge was Initially balanced with a thick, short copper bar, then

with the cell or battery under study. This procedure was repeated at

ten frequencies, namely, 50, 100, 200, and 500 cps and 1, 2, 5, 10, 20,

and 50 kc . All measurements were made at ambient room temperature which

was about 26 °C.

The resistances and capacitances were calibrated by the Resistance

and Reactance Section. To calibrate the Wien bridge a calibrated capacitor and a calibrated resistor were placed In the unknown positions and

their values determined on balancing of the bridge. Results for a 1.0 -ohm resistor and a 10 |if capacitor follow for several frequencies

Frequency Resistance Capacitance

Standard Measured Standard Measured

(DC calibration)

cycles/ second ohms ohms |if p,f

60

100

to

1000

20000

0.99943 0.998 10.5577 10.5.497

0.999^3 1.002 10.5501 10.5409

0.999^3 0.999 10.5258 10 . 5166

0.999^3 O.999 10 . 5088 10 . 5011

0.99943 1.000 10.74 10.7778
Measured values generally agreed -with, calibrated values -within 0.1 per

centj therefore, residuals in the bridge arms were insignificant for the

purpose.

The resistance, R, and the capacitive reactance, X , were obtained

at each frequency from

R = \ - R

f

(i)

c „ p±

- y

X =M^ -Fl (2)

where C = capacitance, m = 2-nf where f is the frequency in cycles per

second (cps), and 1 and f refer to the initial (with bar) and final

(with cell) balances. From these, the impedance, Z, is obtained from

4R

2 + X2

(3)

3- Standard Service Tests

The resistance, capacitive reactance, and impedance were not only

determined for new and aged cells but for cells after they had been discharged on one of the following standard tests [l]

3-1 General-Purpose k- ohm Intermittent Test (4fi).

Each cell is discharged through a resistance of k ohms for 5 -minu-te periods at 2^--hour intervals. The test is continued until the closedcircuit voltage of the cell falls below 0.75 volt. The service is

reported as the number of minutes of discharge before the cell voltage

falls below O.75 volt.

3-2 General-Purpose 2.25-ohm Intermittent Test (2.250).

Each cell is discharged through a resistance of 2.25 ohms for 5

_ minute periods at 2^--hour intervals. The test is continued until the

closed-circuit voltage of the cell falls below O.65 volt. The service

is reported as the number of minutes of discharge before the cell

voltage falls below . 65 volt

3-3 Light-Industrial Flashlight-Cell Test (LIF).

Each cell is discharged through a resistance of k- ohms for kminute periods, beginning at hourly intervals for 8 consecutive hours

each day, with l6-hour rest periods intervening. The test in continued
until the closed-circuit voltage of the cell falls below O.9O volt. The

service is reported as the number of minutes of discharge before the cell

voltage first falls below 1.10 volts and then below O.9O volt.

3.1+ Heavy-Industrial Flashlight-Cell Test (HIF) .

Each cell is discharged through a resistance of k ohms for ^--minute

periods, beginning at 15-minute internals, for 8 consecutive hours each

day, with l6-hour rest periods intervening. The test is continued until

the closed-circuit voltage of the cell falls below O.9O volt. The service

is reported as the number of minutes of discharge before the cell voltage first falls below 1.10 volts and then below O.9O volt.

Prior to and at times during the tests the open-circuit voltage of

the cells or batteries was measured with a voltmeter having a resistance

of 1,000 ohms per volt. Also, the short-circuit current of the cells was measured with a critically-damped ammeter having a resistance, with

the leads, of 0.01 ohm. The impedance of the cells or batteries was measured on the day following or on the day preceding the standard discharge test.

3.5 Test and Storage Conditions

"Initial" tests intended to show the condition of fresh batteries

shall be started within 30 days of the receipt of the batteries by the

testing agency.

"Delayed" tests are intended to measure the keeping quality of

cells and batteries. Cells and batteries for delayed test shall be

stored on open-circuit at a temperature of 70 ± 2°F (21°C) for the time

specified. The storage time specified shall be measured from the time

at which the batteries were received by the testing agency.

The standard temperature for tests is 70 ± 2°F (21°C) unless

otherwise specified.

k. Results

Results obtained on fresh (or new) and discharged (on standard

tests) AA-size general-purpose, C-size general-purpose, D-size generalpurpose, and D-size industrial Leclanche dry cells, and on J+5-volt

Leclanche dry batteries of various make are given in tables 1 to 5,

inclusive. In each case the results are the average of the number of

cells listed in the table heading. In tables 1 to k, inclusive, the

condition of the cell at the time of the impedance measurements is

listed in the next to the last column. The number given in the last
column of these tables refers to the diagrams discussed "below. For

fresh cells the values of the open- circuit voltage (OCV) and the shortcircuit current (SCC) are given. For the various discharge tests the

number of minutes obtained on the discharge is listed; this is the ser- vice obtained from the cell before the final impedance measurements

were made. When more than one discharge test was made on a particular

brand of cell, the second or third test was made on a similar cell chosen

from the same production lot. Inspection of the data shows clearly that

there are no clear-cut correlations between output and internal resistance, impedance, open-circuit voltage, or short-circuit current. In

table 6 a summary is given where the data, for any one cell size or type, are listed in order of increasing values for the internal resistance.

One would expect that the output would decrease, within any one group,

as one goes down the table; instead, no such tread is evident.

The data of table 5 refer to ^-5 -v°l"t batteries of 30 cells in series.

Since it was not possible to complete the measurements of the batteries,

whether simultaneously or within a short period of time, the batteries

had an age ranging from 1 to k months at the time of the impedance

measurement. Batteries F100 (brand 6) and F100 (brand 7) were discharged on the 2500-radio "B" battery test as described in reference

[l] . In this test each 22.5-volt battery unit is discharged through

a resistance of 2,500 ohms for a continuous period of k- hours daily,

with the intervals between successive discharge periods being not less

than l6 hours. The test is continued until the closed-circuit voltage

falls below 15 volts per 22.5 volt unit. On this test, batteries F100

(brand 6) and F100 (brand rj) } although their internal impedances differed

by a considerable amount (82.7 per cent at 1000 cps), gave nearly the same service, viz., 559 and 595 hours, respectively. Here again the

lack of a correlation between cell output and internal impedance is

evident.

The impedance is a function of the frequency and decreases as the

frequency is increased, approaching a constant value in the limit. At

the higher frequencies the impedance tends to have the characteristics

of a resistive element; this tendency begins at about 1,000 cps. At

the lower frequencies the capacitance of the electrode-electrolyte interface comes into play.

In table 7 the effect of aging on the impedance is summarized. The

data given are in percentage changes which occur during a 6-month or a 3-month aging period at 21 °C . Aging does not change the impedance much

at the higher frequencies, above 1,000 cps where the impedance has the

characteristics of a resistive element. Above and including the

frequency of 1,000 cps, the average increase in Impedance is only 3*0

per cent for C-size cells, 2 A per cent of D-size general-purpose

cells, and k.Q per cent for D-size industrial cells. Below 1,000 cps,
aging increases the impedance considerably and a progressively higher

amount as the frequency is decreased. The increase in the impedance at

the lover frequencies is a manifestation of an increase in the resistance

at the electrode-electrolyte interface.

In table 8 the effects of various types of discharges on the impedance are summarized, likewise in percentage changes. As is the case for

aging, different phenomena are seen to occur above and below a frequency

of about 1,000 cps. At the higher frequencies the percentage change

in impedance is nearly constant with frequency and is quite large. This

change in Impedance is not related to the output given by the cells, as was shown above in table 6 for frequencies of 1,000 cps. At the lower

frequencies the percentage changes, in general, were of lower magnitude

showing that the resistive element at the electrode-electrolyte interface is decreased during or as a result of electrical discharge. This

decrease was so large in some cases that the percentage changes were

negative. Increase in electrode capacitance during discharge would also

contribute to a lowering of the electrode impedance.

In figures 2 to 52, inclusive, Argand diagrams are given for the

various cells having the condition listed in the next to the last column

of tables 1 to h, inclusive. In these diagrams the capacitive reactance,

X , is plotted against the resistance, R, where each point corresponds

to one definite frequency in cycles per second and is so labeled. The

vector from the origin to where the curve (at the left) cuts the R axis

gives the resistive component of the impedance which is frequency

independent whereas the vector from the origin to a point on the curve

gives the total impedance. The angle the vector makes with the real'

axis is the phase angle for that frequency.

^.1 AA-Size Cells (Penlite Size).

Argand diagrams for new (fresh or undischarged) AA-size Leclanche

cells of h different manufacturers are shown in figures 2, k, 6, and 8,

respectively; the corresponding diagrams after the cells were discharged

on the general-purpose k- ohm intermittent test are shown, respectively,

in figures 3; 5^ 1} and 9* In the first group of figures (No. 6

excepted) the open-circuit voltage (0CV), short-circuit or flash current

(SCC), and performance on test (PT) are given. The units for 0CV, SCC,

and PT are, respectively, volts, amperes, and minutes. These figures

show that cells of the same size (AA) but of different manufacture

exhibit widely different impedance characteristics not only when new

and undischarged but also after discharge on the same test procedure.

Furthermore, none of the cells exhibit a semi-circle with the abscissa,

which is a necessary result if simple relaxation processes as a function of frequency prevail in the electrode processes [W\.
k.2 C-Size Cells.

Argand diagrams for new (fresh or undischarged) C-size Leclanche

cells of k different manufacturers are shown in figures 10, 13, lS} and

19, respectively; the corresponding diagrams for the respective cells

after they -were stored for 6 months are given in figures 11, lK, YJ, and

20, respectively. In the first group of figures OCV, SCO, and PT mean

the same as above. The figures also show the wide difference in the

impedance of cells of the same size (c) "but of different manufacture.

Here, however, the difference is not as marked as for AA-size cells and

the diagrams approximate a semi-circle much more closely. After the cells

were discharged on the general-purpose k- ohm intermittent test they

exhibited, respectively, the impedance shown in figures 12, 15, 18, and

21.

li-,3 D-Size General-Purpose Cells.

Argand diagrams for D-size general-purpose Leclanche cells of 5 different manufacture when new, after 6-month storage, after discharge

on the light-industrial test, 2.25-ohm test, and the general-purpose

^-ohm test are shown in the corresponding figures as listed below:

Brand New

22

6-month

23

LIF

2k

2.25-ohm

25

k-dhi

1 26

2 27 28 29 30 - 3 31 - 32 - -

k- 33 3^ - 35 -

5 36 37 38 39 kO

6 hi k2 ^3 kk ^5

Here again, we see the wide difference in the impedance of cells of the

same size but of different manufacture. In some cases the Argand diagrams approach a semi-circle in shapej in other cases a semi-circle

would become complete only at very low frequencies, if at all.

k.k D-Size Industrial Cells.

t Argand diagrams for D-size industrial Leclanche cells of 2 different

manufacture when new, after 3-inonth storage, after discharge on the lightindustrial test, and after the heavy-industrial test are shown in the

corresponding figures as listed below:

Brand New 3-month LIP HIP

1 k6 k-7 kQ

2 k9 50 51 52

7
As with D-size general-purpose cells the diagrams are different for cells

of different make. Again, semi-circles are approximated.

5« General Considerations

t In the above it has been shown that the impedance of Leclanche dry

cells of different make, size, type, and condition varies widely, not

only at a particular frequency, but as a function of frequency. In some

cases the impedance tends toward a maximum at a particular frequency and

then decreases as the frequency is lowered. In other cases, the impedance tends to increase, as the frequency is lowered. The over-all

characteristics of the Leclanche cell depend on the type of cell

construction and since this is not known and frequently cannot be

ascertained no correlation of impedance with cell construction is

possible here. Even so, relative changes that occur in the impedance of

Leclanche cells on storage or on electrical discharge may be followed

by the method described here.

The authors wish to thank Dr. W. J. Hamer for his patient guidance

and his help in preparing the manuscript. It is also appropriate

to acknowledge the discussions with many mamebers of the staff of the

National Bureau of Standards during the course of this investigation,

especially Drs. F. R. Kotter, J. Lauritzen, J. D. Hoffman and C. H.

Page. Also the authors thank W. J. Vadnais for his help in conducting

the standard tests

6. References

[l] "Specification for Dry Cells and Batteries", Natl, Bur. Standards

Handbook 71, December 29, 1959; American Standards Association

Standard C 18.1-1959; UDC 621. 35 2. 7.

[2] F. W. Grover, Bull. Natl. Bur. Standards 3, 378(1907).

[3] G. W. Vinal, "Storage Batteries", Irth Ed., p. 328, John Wiley and

Sons, New York, N. Y., 1955
Table 1. Impedance Data on AA-slze General-purpose Leclanche" Dry Cells; Average of 3 Cells in Each Case. [AA Cells: diameter, 17/32 inch; can height, 1 7/8 inches]

Resistance, capa- citive reactance, Freque ncy, Cycles pe r Second Condition Figure

Brand and impedance 50 100 200 500 1,000 2,000 5,000 10,000 20, 000 50,000 of Cell Number

R, ohm 0.955 0.546 0.410 0.349 0.330 O.316 0.307 0.300 0.296 0.289 Fresh

1 X , ohm 2.174 I.165 .617 .268 147 .079 .038 .024 .016 .011 OCT = 1.65v 2

Z, ohm 2.375 1.287 .741 .440 .361 .326 .309 .301 .296 .289 SCC =3.7 amp

R, ohm 1.517 1.207 1.069 0.952 O.836 0.722 0.593 0.530 0.491 0.461 After 4-fJ 1 X , ohm

c' I.O89 O.673 .432 .297 .268 237 .173 .127 .090 .058 GP* test 3

Z, ohm 1.867 1.382 1.153 • 997 .878 .760 .618 .545 .499 .465 min = 148

R, ohm 1.077 O.738 0.519 0-393 O.361 0.344 0.332 0.325 0.320 O.314 Fresh

2 X , ohm O.561 .513 .362 .180 .104 .061 .032 .022 .016 .011 OCT = 1.56v 4

Z, ohm 1.214 O.899 •633 .432 • 376 .349 • 33^ .332 .320 .314 SCC = 3-5 amj

R, ohm O.897 O.85O 0.797 0.747 O.722 0.705 0.684 O.67O O.669 0.656 After 4-0

2 X , ohm

a' .103 .103 .093 .070 .053 .041 .032 .028 .027 .022 GP* test 5 Z, ohm .903 .856 .802 • 750 .724 .706 .685 .671 .670 .656 min = 144

R, ohm 1.449 0.722 0.447 0.324 0.292 0.273 O.262 0.255 0.251 0.245 Fresh

3 X , ohm 2.082 1.273 .709 .318 175 .094 .045 .026 .016 .009 OCV = 1.56v 6

Z, ohm 2.537 1.464 .838 .454 .340 .288 .266 .256 .252 .245 SCC = 4.1 ami

R, ohm 1.572 1.4l8 1.245 1.138 1.107 1.075 I.036 1.011 1.000 O.969 After 4-fi

3 X , ohm O.33I O.327 0.265 0.162 0.111 0.079 O.057 0.049 0.044 0.043 GP* test 7

Z, ohm 1.606 1.1+55 1.273 1.149 1.113 1.078 I.038 1.012 1.001 0.970 min = 102

R, ohm I.396 0.702 0.388 0.237 0.199 0.193 0.188 0.184 0.183 0.177 Fresh

4 Xc

, ohm 1.239 -951 .577 .269 .146 .076 .034 .019 .011 .005 OCV = 1.62v 8

Z, ohm 1.867 1.182 .695 • 359 .247 .207 .191 .185 .183 .177 SCC = 6.1 ami

R, ohm 1.339 1.078 0.999 0.931 0.864 0.842 0.773 0.714 0.657 O.634 After 4-n

k X , ohm 0.615 0.448 .262 • 153 .092 .067 .038 .033 .022 .028 GP* test 9

Z, ohm 1.474 1.168 1-033 • 9^3 .869 .845 • 774 •715 .657 •635 min = 128

* - GP = general purpose
Table 2. Impedance Data on C-size General-purpose Leclanche' Dry Cells; Average of 3 Cells in Each Case.

[C Cells : diameter j 15/l6 inch; can height 1 13/l6 inches]

Brand

Resistance, capa- citive reactance, and impedance 50 100 200

Frequency, Cycles pe 500 1,000 2,000r Second

5,000 10,000 20,000 50,000

Condition

of Cell

Figure Number

R , ohm O.509 0.1*87 0.356 0.297 0.259 0-237 0.221+ 0.218 0.215 0.213 Fresh

1 X

c

, ohm .035 .01*8 .067 .071* • 059 .038 .020 .013 .008 .001+ OCV = 1.60v 10 Z , ohm .510 .1*89 .362 .306 .266 .21*0 .225 .219 215 .213 SCC = 5.1*amp

R , ohm O.638 0.586 0.1*37 O.307 0.262 0.21*6 0.233 0.229 0.226 0.225 After 6-

1 Xc

, ohm .136 .186 .198 •139 .086 .052 .026 .016 .009 .005 month 11

Z , ohm .652 .615 .1*80 • 337 .276 .251 .231+ .230 .226 .225 aging

R , ohm I.396 1.296 1.11*8 1.006 0.931 0.871 O.8O3 0.785 0.774 0.71+2 After k-Cl 1 X

c ohm 0.212 0.21*2 0.21*3 0.201+ .156 .117 .076 .068 .058 .050 GP* test 12

Z , ohm 1.1*12 1-319 1.171* 1.026 .91+1+ • 879 .807 .788 -776 .71*1* min =1+30

R , ohm 0.521 0.501 0.1*76 0.1*11+ 0.371* 0.31*3 0.320 O.306 O.3OI 0.291 Fresh

2 Xc ohm .031 .01*6 .068 .082 .070 .05U 037 .027 .019 .011 OCV = 1.56V 13

Z , ohm .522 .503 .1*81 .1+22 .381 -3V7 .322 .307 .302 .291 SCC = 3.8 amp

R ohm O.869 0.682 0.513 0.1*01+ 0.365 0.31*1+ O.323 0.309 0.303 0.293 After 6-

2 X

c ohm • 317 .365 .21*6 11*5 .091* .O63 .01+0 .029 .021 .013 month 11+ Z ohm .925 • 771* .569 .1*29 377 .350 .326 .310 .301+ • 293 aging

R ohm 1.172 1.108 1.056 1.052 0.980 0-933 0.898 0.880 O.865 0.852 After l+-n

2 xc ohm 0.102 0.116 0.113 0.093 • 079 .062 .oi+7 .01+1 .O38 •035 GP* test 15 Z ohm 1.177 1.114 1.062 1.056 .983 935 -899 .881 .866 .852 min = 1*06

R ohm O.876 0.778 0.617 0.387 0.305 0.260 0.236 0.228 0.225 0.223 Fresh

3 Xc ohm •159 .238 .286 .21*0 .161+ .095 .01+8 .026 .011+ .006 OCV = 1.6lv 16

Z ohm .890 .8ll* .680 .1*55 .3U6 277 .21*1 .229 .225 .223 SCC =5-3 amp

R ohm 1.521 0.971 0.51*5 0.31*1 O.289 0.268 0.253 0.21*7 0.21+7 0.21*1* After 6-

3 X

c ohm 0.961* .862 .596 .296 .167 .091+ .01*1* .021+ .012 .006 month 17 Z ohm 1.801 1.298 .808 .1*52 • 331* .281* 257 .21*8 .21*7 .21*1* aging

R ohm l.li*3 1.081 1.011 0.969 O.953 0.935 0.925 0.923 O.9O9 O.898 After 1+-0

3 X

c ohm 0.11*1 0.125 0.098 .061 .01*1* .032 .021+ .022 .020 .021 GP* test 18

Z. ohm 1.152 1.089 1.016 .971 • 951* • 936 • 925 •923 .909 .898 min = 1*20

R, ohm O.625 0.547 0.1*57 0.376 0.336 O.331 O.323 0.317 0.313 O.3O8 Fresh

1* V ohm .110 • ll*7 .11+8 .098 .061* .01+0 .021 .015 .011 .009 OCV = 1.59v 19

Z, ohm .635 .566 .1*60 .389 .31*2 • 333 .321+ 317 .313 .308 SCC = 1*.0 amp

R, ohm 0.75 1* 0.625 0.1+80 0.382 0.350 O.335 0.323 O.318 O.316 0.310 After 6- k X

c- ohm .213 .219 .201 .121 .075 .01*5 .025 .017 .012 .008 month 20

Z, ohm .781* .662 .520 .1+01 • 358 • 338 • 321* •319 .316 .310 aging

Rj ohm 1.550 1.1*91* 1.1*65 1.1*06 1-372 1.31*5 1.315 1-303 1.277 1.251 After l*-n k xc ohm .021* .066 .072 .075 .071 .061 .051 .01*7 .01+3 .01*1* GP* test 21

Z; ohm 1.550 1.1+95 1.1+67 1.1+08 1.371* 1.346 1.316 1.301* 1.278 1.252 min = 1*62

* - GP = general purpose

10
Table 3. Impedance Data

[D

on D-size General-purpose Leclanche Dry Cells; Average of 9 Cells in Each Case

Cells: diameter, 1 l/4 inches; can height , 2 l/4 inches]

Resistance, capa- citive reactance, and impedance

R, ohm X , ohm

Z, ohm

R, ohm

X , ohm

c7 Z, ohm

Rj ohm

X . ohm

Z, ohm

R, ohm X , ohm

Z, ohm

R, ohm

Xc

, ohm

Z, ohm

R, ohm

Xc

, ohm

Z, ohm

R, ohm

Xc

, ohm

Z, ohm

R, ohm

X , ohm

c'Z, ohm

R, ohm X , ohm

Z, ohm

R, ohm

xc , ohm

z, ohm

R, ohm

c' ohm

z, ohm

R, ohm

c ohm

z, ohm

50 100

Frequency, Cycles per Second

200 500 1,000 2,000 5,000 10,000

0.246

.007 .246

0.262

.014

.262

0.719

.O65 .722

1.180

.034 1.180

1.253

0.238 0.232 0.211 O.189 0.174 0.160 0.153

.015 .023 .034 .035 .028 .015 .011

.238 .233 .214 .192 .176 .161 .153

0.251 0.239 0.206 0.191 O.I65 O.163 0.159

.022 .034 .049 .O36 .026 .015 .010

.252 .241 .212 .194 .167 .164 .159

0.690 0.658 0.602 0.565 0.526 0.482 0.461

.066 .072 .084 .087 .077 -059 -046

.693 .662 .608 .572 .532 -486 .463

1.149 1.109 1.043 O.963 0.833 0.794 O.753

.085 0.106 0.138 .154 .147 -116 .088 1.153 1.114 1.052 .975 -845 .802 .758

1.224 1.192 1.115 1.032 O.938 O.826 O.772

.068 .083 0.106 0.119 0.179 -179 -3-39 -102

1.255 1-227 1.197 1.121 1.047 .955 -838 .779

O.33O 0.303 0.263 0.214 0.196 O.183 0.171 0.164

.045 .064 .068 .053 .038 .028 .018 .013

•333 -336 .272 .220 .199 .185 .172 .165

0.458 0.343 0.259 0.212 0.195 0.184 0.174 0.170

.177 .166 .124 .070 .046 .031 .020 .014

.491 .38I .287 -223 .200 .187 .175 .171

O.328 O.319 O.298 0.284 O.276 0.273 0.270 O.267

.029 .033 .029 .019 .014 .007 .007 .005

.329 .321 .299 .285 .276 .273 .271 .267

0.756 0.708 0.675 0.650 0.635 0.633 0.625 0.622

.087 .072 .058 .040 .032 .026 .020 .015 .761 .712 .678 .651 .636 .634 .625 .622

0.335 0.314 0.241 0.238 0.224 0.207 0.184 0.181

.006 .005 .011 .021 .028 .030 .022 .015

•335 -314 .241 .239 .226 .209 .185 .182

0.639 O.608 0.561 O.507 0.482 0.468 0.460 0.455

.056 .075 .082 .064 .044 .029 .016 .011

.641 .613 .567 .511 -^84 .469 .460 .455

0.975 0.755 0.502 O.298 0.233 0.212 0.194 0.190

.310 .409 .377 -230 .135 -077 .036 .020 1.023 .859 .628 .376 .269 .225 .197 .191

Condition Figure

20,000 50,000 of Cell Humber

0.151 0.151 Fresh

.007 .004 OCV = I.58V 22

.151 .151 SCC = 7-1 amp

0.159 0.154 After 6-

.007 .003 month 23 159 .154 aging

0.452 0.448 After 033 .022 LIF

S 24

453 .449

0.718 0.693 After 2.25-0

.065 .047 GP* testb

25

.721 • 695 min = 444

0.742 0.713 After 4-n

.116 .046 GP* test 26

• 751 .714 min = 584

0.159 O.155 Fresh

.008 .004 OCT = I.56V 27

• 159 • 155 SCC =6.9 amp

O.I65 O.165 After 6-

.010 .005 month 28

.165 .165 aging

0.265 0.259 After

.004 .002 LIF

a

29

.265 .259 min = 642

0.617 0.613 After 2.25-n

.013 .010 GP* test 30 .617 .613 min = 533

0.180 0.175 Fresh

.010 .008 OCV = 1.68v 31

.180 •175 SCC = 7-3 amp

0.449 0.444 After

.009 .008 a LIF 32 .449 .444 min = 693

0.188 0.188 Fresh

.011 .005 OCV = 1.6lv 33 .188 .188 SCC =6.5 ami

11
Table 3. (CONTINUED)

Brand

Resistance, capa- citive reactance, and impedance 50 100 200

Frequency, Cycles pe 500 1,000 2,000

r Second

5,000 10,000 20,000 50,000

Condition

of Cell

Figure Number

R , ohm 1.255 O.663 O.383 O.258 0.229 0.215 0.205 0.204 0.201 0.201 After 6-

32 X

c

, ohm 1.275 -910 .522 .239 .131 • 073 .035 .018 .011 .005 month 3^

Z , ohm I.789 1.126 .647 • 352 .264 .227 .208 .205 .201 .201 aging

R , ohm 0.882 O.792 O.720 O.676 O.655 O.636 0.620 0.607 O.6O5 0.592 After 2.25-f2

32 X , ohm .184 .157 .119 073 .054 .040 .029 .025 .023 .021 GP* test 35 Z , ohm .901 .807 .729 .680 .657 .637 .621 .607 .605 .592 min =538

R ohm 0.401 O.354 O.307 0.241 0.208 0.193 O.I85 0.181 0.178 0.175 Fresh

1+ X

c

, ohm .049 .077 -090 .074 .051 .034 .017 .011 .007 .005 OCV = I.63V 36 z ohm .404 .362 .320 .252 .214 .196 .186 .181 .178 •175 SCC = 6.9 amp

R ohm O.438 O.378 O.306 0.243 0.215 0.203 0.194 0.190 0.189 0.183 After 6-

4 X

c ohm .095 .121 .115 .075 •053 • 033 .018 .012 .009 .006 month 37 z ohm .448 .397 .327 .254 .221 .206 •195 .190 .189 .183 aging

R ohm O.556 O.531 0.501 0.459 0.434 0.423 0.408 0.404 0.397 0.390 After

4 X

c ohm .038 .056 .060 .057 .044 .032 .021 .016 .012 .008 LIF

a

38

Z ohm •557 -53^ -505 .463 .436 ..424 .409 .404 •397 -390 min =695

R ohm 0.993 0.966 0.947 0.911 0.878 O.855 0.819 0.794 0.775 0.751 After 2.25-n

k X

c ohm .051 .061 .054 .060 .061 .059 .055 .051 .046 .033 GP* test 39 Z ohm .995 .968 .949 • 913 .880 • 857 .821 .796 .776 •752 min = 497

R ohm 1.130 1.099 1.064 0.994 0.938 0.884 0.829 0.797 0.768 0.736 After 4-0

4 X

c ohm .080 .102 .101 .110 .110 .102 .086 .073 .062 .052 GP* test 40 Z ohm 1.133 1.104 1.069 1.000 .945 .89O .834 .803 .770 .738 min = 758

R ohm 0.696 0.314 0.271 0.204 0.180 0.166 0.153 0.149 0.145 0.141 Fresh

5 Xc

ohm •546 .415 .247 .128 .077 .047 .026 .017 .012 .010 OCV = 1.62v 41

Z. ohm .885 .520 .366 .241 .196 .172 • 155 .150 .146 .141 SCC = 7-1 amp

R, ohm 0.478 O.3I3 0.240 0.190 0.182 0.155 0.154 0.150 0.148 0.142 After 6-

5 X . c ohm .399 .265 .165 .088 .056 .O36 .020 .014 .010 .008 month 42 Z ohm .623 .410 .291 .209 .190 •159 • 155 .151 .148 .142 aging

R. ohm . 431 . 349 . 307 0.286 0.278 0.276 0.271 0.268 0.260 0.257 After

5 c

J ohm .194 .137 .085 .044 .028 .019 .013 .010 .009 .009 LIFa

^3

Z. ohm •^73 -375 -319 .289 .279 .277 .271 .268 .260 .257 min =823

R, ohm 1.707 1.526 1.401 1.350 1.315 1.275 1.246 1.219 1.182 After 2.25-0

5 Xc

ohm 0.583 O.387 0.221 0.151 0.109 0.082 O.073 O.069 0.073 GP* test 44

Zj ohm 1.804 1.574 1.418 1-358 1.319 1.277 1.248 1.221 1.184 min = 526

R, ohm I.319 1.219 1.162 1.118 1.090 1.073 1.046 I.033 1.014 — After 4-0

5

c ohm O.354 0.230 O.151 O.O93 0.068 0.053 0.045 0.043 0.043 __. GP* test h5

Zj ohm 1.365 1.240 1.172 1.122 I.092 1.074 1.047 1.034 1.015 — min = 904

GP = general purpose a - to a 0.9-volt cutoff

b - when more than one test, results were obtained on separate cells

within same production lot

3, and 3p were of different production lots

12
Table 4. Impedance Data on D- [D Cells:

size Industrial Leclanche Dry Cells} Average of 6 Cells in Each Case, diameter, 1 l/4 inches; can height, 2 1/4 inches]

Resistance, capa- citive reactance, Frequency, Cycles per Second Condition Figure

Brand and impedance 50 100 200 500 1,000 2,000 5,000 10,000 20,000 50,000 of Cell Number

R, ohm 0.314 0.301 0.285 0.254 0.231 0.219 0.207 0.199 0.196 0.191 Fresh

1 X , ohm

c

' .018 .028 .036 .o4o .034 .026 .018 .013 .007 .006 OCV = 1.62v 46

Z, ohm • 315 .302 .287 .257 .234 .220 .208 •199 .196 .191 SCC = 6.8 amp

R, ohm 0.377 0.348 O.307 0.262 0.242 0.225 0.217 0.211 0.207 0.203 After 3- 1 X , ohm

c'

• 053 .061 .071 .057 .041 .028 .019 .014 .011 .008 month 47

Z, ohm .381 -353 • 315 .268 .245 .227 .218 .211 .207 .203 aging

R, ohm 1-319 1.266 1.200 1.079 0.972 0.873 0.778 0.732 0.700 O.663 After

1 X , ohm

c 0.119 o.i4o 0.162 0.195 • 199 .172 .124 .095 .072 -053 LIF3- 48

Z, ohm 1.324 1.274 1.211 1.097 • 992 .89O .788 -738 .704 .665 min = 913

R, ohm 0.363 0.336 0.294 0.242 0.222 0.208 0.197 0.192 0.187 O.I83 Fresh

2 X , ohm

c' .045 .066 .073 .057 .041 .028 .016 .012 .007 .005 OCV = 1.66v ^9

Z, ohm .366 .342 •303 .249 .226 .210 .198 .192 .187 .183 SCC = 6.7 amp

R, ohm O.506 0.368 0.286 0.243 0.229 0.214 O.207 0.200 0.198 O.194 After 3- 2 X , ohm

c .230 .203 .138 .072 .047 .030 .020 .014 .009 .005 month 50

Z, ohm 556 .420 .318 • 253 .233 .216 .208 .200 .198 .194 aging

R, ohm 0.584 0.547 O.516 0.478 0.459 0.449 0.435 0.429 0.419 0.418 After

2 X , ohm

c' .072 .065 .060 .044 .035 .027 .020 .014 .010 .005 LIF

a

51

Z, ohm .589 -551 •519 .480 .460 .450 A35 .429 .419 .418 min = 891

R, ohm ... 0.466 0.427 0.401 O.385 0.374 O.367 0.361 0.356 0.347 After

2 X , ohm

c — .093 .070 .041 .031 .023 .017 .013 .008 .009 HIF

a^ •52

Z, ohm — • 475 •^33 .403 .386 • 375 .367 .361 .356 .349 min = 775

a - to a 0.9-volt cutoff

b - obtained on similar celjs within same production lot

13
Table 5- Impedance Data on 45-volt Leelanche' Dry Batteries; Average of Either 2 or 3 Batteries in Each Case. [Composed of Flat Cells of Various Sizes*; all Batteries 1 to 4 Months Old]

Resistance, capa- citive reactance, Frequency, Cycles per Second Cell

Brand and impedance 50 100 200 500 1,000 2,000 5,000 10,000 20,000 50,000 Size

R> ohms 672.90 627.93 56i*.i*6 463.33 396.19 346.47 302.59 277.36 256.95 -- 6

c

7 ohms 105.1*6 133-1*5 l1*3-79 143.68 124.49 98.OO 72.57 56.87 41.51 — F20

z, ohms 681.11 61*1.95 582.1*8 485.10 415.29 360.06 311-17 282.95 260.28 —

Rj ohms 375-00 221*. 89 15I1..78 106.38 82.48 73-24 62.86 57.76 54.04 50.23

6 x , c ohms 1*91.59 336.87 201*. 33 106.47 65.69 40.95 22.90 15.41 10.83 7.44 F40

z, ohms 618.29 1*05.01* 256.33 150.51 105.44 83.91 66.90 59-78 55-11 50.78

R> ohms 131.51 89.37 58.08 35-34 27.36 22.79 18.95 16.86 15-17 13.52

6 x , ohms 85.21 71*. 1*1* 55.88 32.30 20.58 13.26 8.00 5.70 4.13 2.60 F60a

Zj ohms 156.70 116.31 80.60 47.88 34.23 26.37 20.57 17.80 15-72 13-77

R> ohms 65.07 1*7 - 37 32 . 1*0 19.50 14.87 12.63 10.91 9-94 9.16 8.35

6 x , c ohms 31.75 31-39 26.33 16.59 10.49 6.54 3-79 2.72 1-95 1.13 F95

b

z, ohms 72.1*0 56.83 1*1-75 25.60 18.20 14.22 11.55 10.30 9-37 8.54

R> ohms 1*6.1*7 1*1.82 38.01* 33.65 30.54 27.59 24.14 21.92 19.98 17-49

6 x , c ohms O.85 l*.ll 5-87 6.55 6.59 6.19 5-43 4.80 4.15 3-22 F100

z, ohms 1*6.1*8 1*2.02 38.1*9 34.28 31.24 28.28 24.74 22.44 20.41 17-78

R> ohms 331-33 222.29 161.03 136.17 128.24 123.60 120 . 38 118.75 116.82 114.84

7 x , c ohms 356.90 236.90 136.68 62.72 36.35 20.48 10.43 6-97 5-38 4.86 F20

z, ohms 1*86.99 321*. 86 211.21 149.92 133.29 125.28 120.83 118.96 116.94 114.94

R> ohms 166.50 107.63 81.02 66.97 61.57 57-12 53-08 50.81 48.74 45.47

7 x , ohms 256.63 148.75 79-27 40.88 24.67 15.94 9.48 7.12 5-93 4.94 F30

Zj ohms 31*8.29 183.60 113.35 78.46 66.33 59-30 53-92 50.10 49.10 45-74

R> ohms 85.29 57.43 46.87 41.00 38.63 37-14 35-68 34.63 33.54 31.98

7 x , c ohms 78.60 1*8.51* 28.22 14.11 8.63 5-53 3-67 3-13 2.91 2.88 F60

z, ohms 115-99 75-19 54-71 43.36 39-58 37-55 35-87 34.77 33-67 32.11

R, ohms 37.80 27-00 21.17 16.91 14.92 13.66 12.62 12.02 11.48 10.73

7 X , c' ohms 13-59 12.77 9-75 6 . 34 4 . 49 3.09 2.04 1.67 1.46 1-34 F95

z, ohms 1*0.17 29.87 23.30 18.06 15.58 i4.oo 12.78 12.14 11-57 10.81

R > ohms 30.53 22.27 18.38 15.47 14.49 13.89 13.20 12.68 12.12 11.34

7 x , c' ohms 6.81* 8.17 6.01 3.61 2.45 1.79 1.41 1-33 1.29 1.25 F100

z, ohms 31.29 23.72 19.34 15.89 14.70 14.00 13.27 12.75 12.19 11.41

* c ell size Length, inches 1 •Jidth, inches Thickness, inches F20 15/16 17/32 0.11 F30 1 1/k 27/32 • 13 F40 1 1/1* 27/32 .21 F60 1 1/1* 1 1/4 •15 F95** 2 3/8 1 3/4 .28 F100 2 3/8 1 25/32 .41 ** new size not included in HBS Handbook 71 [l] a - c ylindric al AA- size t :ells b - cylindrical B-size cells; B cells have a diameter of 3/4 inch and a can height of 2 l/8 inches.

14
Table 6. Comparison of Output with Internal Resistance, Impedance,

Open-circuit Voltage, and Short-circuit Current

[in increasing order for internal resistance within cell s ize]

Cell R* Z* OCV sec Test No. 1 Test No. 2 Test No. 3

ohm ohm volts amperes minutes minutes minutes

Akk 0.199 0.247 1.62 6.1 128

AA3 .292 • 3^0 1.56 4.1 102

AM .330 .361 1.65 3-7 148

AA2 .361 .376 1.61 3.5 Ikk

CI 0.259 0.266 1.60 5-h k30

C3 .305 .3^6 1.61 5-3 420

Ck .336 • 3^2 1.59 k.o 462

C2 • 37^ .381 1.56 3.8 406

D5 0.180 O.I96 1.62 7.1 904 526

b 823

Dl .189 .192 1.58 7.1 584 444

Dk .208 .214 1.63 6.9 758 ^97 695

D2 O.196 0.199 1.56 6.9 — 533 642

D3, .224 .226 1.68 7.3 — — 693

D3

2

•233 .269 I.61 6.5 — 538

D2a 0.222 0.226 1.66 6.7 — — 891

Dia.231 .234 1.62 6.8 — —

— — — 913

at 1000 cps

industrial type cell

when more than one test, results were obtained on a separate cells within

same production lot.

15
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16
Table 8. Effect of Various Types of Discharge on the Impedance of Leclanche Dry Cells, given in Percentage Change

Frequency, Cycles per Sec ond Minutes

Brand Size of Cell* 50 100 200 500 1,000 2,000 5,000 10,000 20,000 50,000 Discharge

General-purpose l+-ohm Intermittent Test

1 AA -21 7 56 127 11+3 133 100 81 69 61 11+8

2 AA -26 -5 27 71+ 93 102 105 102 109 109 H+1+

3 AA -37 -1 52 151 227 27I+ 290 295 297 296 102

1+ AA -21 -1 1+9 163 252 308 305 286 259 259 128

1 C 177 170 221+ 235 255 266 259 260 261 21+9 1+30

2 C 125 121 121 150 158 I69 179 187 187 193 1+06

3 C 29 3* 1+9 113 176 238 283 303 301+ 303 1+20

1+ C Ikk 16k 206 262 302 301+ 306 311 308 306 1+62 1 D 1+10 1+16 1+11+ 1+21+ 1+1+5 ^2 1+20 1+09 397 373 581+

k D 180 205 23l+ 297 3l+2 35l+ 3I+8 31+1+ 333 322 758

5 D 5>+ 138 220 366 1+57 521+ 575 589

General-purpose 2.25-ohm Intermittent

595

Test

901+

1 D 380 384 378 392 1+08 380 398 395 377 360 1+1+1+

2 D 129 112 11+9 196 220 21+3 263 277 288 295 533

32 D -12 -6 16 81 11+1+ 183 215 218 222 215 538

k D 1h6 167 197 262 311 337 31+1 3l+0 336 330 1+97

5 D 21+7 330 1+88 593 667 72l+ 732

Light-industrial Flashlight-cell Test

736

(LIP)

7I+0 526

l D 193 191 181+ 18I+ 197 202 202 202 200 196 ___

2 D -1 -1+ 10 30 39 1+8 58 62 67 67 61+2

3i D 91 95 135 111+ ill). 12I+ 11+9 150 11+9 151+ 693

It- D 38 - 1+5 58 81+ 101+ 116 120 123 123 123 695

5 D -1+7 -28 -13 20 1+2 61 75 79 78 82 823

l D

a

320 322 322 327 32l+ 305 279 271 259 21+8 913

2 Da

61 61 71 93 101+ ill). 120 123

Heavy-industrial Flashlight-cell Test

121+

(hif)

128 891

2 D

a — 39 1+3 62 71 79 85 88 90 91 775

* - All cells were of the general-purpose type except those marked with a superscript a.

a - Industrial type cells

17
R

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FIG. 1 WIEN IMPEDANCE BRIDGE CIRCUIT

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FIG. 6 RESISTMCE-REACTAECE CURVE OF AA-SIZE CELLS OF

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1.4 1.6

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69 6 U. S. GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE : 1963 O - 691483

U. S. DEPARTMENT OF COMMERCE

Luther H. Hodges, Secretary

NATIONAL BUREAU OF STANDARDS

A.'V. Astin, Director THE NATIONAL BUREAU OF STANDARDS

The scope of activities of the National Bureau of Standards at its major laboratories in Washington, D.C.and

Boulder, Colorado, is suggested in the following listing of the divisions and sections engaged in technical work.

In general, each section carries out specialized research, development, and engineeringin the field indicated by

its title. A brief description of the activities, and of the resultant publications, appears on the inside of the

front cover. WASHINGTON, D. C.

Electricity. Resistance and Reactance. Electrochemistry. Electrical Instruments. Magnetic Measurements.

Dielectrics. High Voltage. Absolute Electrical Measurements.

Metrology. Photometry and Colorimetry. Refractometry. Photographic Research. Length. Engineering Metrology. Mass and Volume.

Heat. Temperature Physics. Heat Measurements. Cryogenic Physics. Equation of State. Statistical Physics.

Radiation Physics. X-ray. Radioactivity. Radiation Theory. High Energy Radiation. Radiological Equipment.

Nucleonic Instrumentation. Neutron Physics.

Analytical and Inorganic Chemistry. Pure Substances. Spectrochemistry. Solution Chemistry. Standard Refer- ence Materials. Applied Analytical Research. Crystal Chemistry.

Mechanics. Sound. Pressure and Vacuum. Fluid Mechanics. Engineering Mechanics. Rheology. Combustion

Controls. Polymers. Macromolecules: Synthesis and Structure. Polymer Chemistry. Polymer Physics. Polymer Characterization. Polymer Evaluation and Testing. Applied Polymer Standards and Research. Dental Research.

Metallurgy. Engineering Metallurgy. Metal Reactions. Metal Physics. Electrolysis and Metal Deposition.

Inorganic Solids. Engineering Ceramics. Glass. Solid State Chemistry. Crystal Growth. Physical Properties.

Crystallography.

Building Research. Structural Engineering. Fire Research. Mechanical Systems. Organic Building Materials. Codes and Safety Standards. Heat Transfer. Inorganic Building Materials. Metallic Building Materials. Applied Mathematics. Numerical Analysis. Computation. Statistical Engineering. Mathematical Physics. Operations Research. Data Processing Systems. Components and Techniques. Computer Technology. Measurements Automation.

Engineering Applications. Systems Analysis.

Atomic Physics. Spectroscopy. Infrared Spectroscopy. Far Ultraviolet Physics. Solid State Physics. Electron Physics. Atomic Physics. Plasma Spectroscopy.

Instrumentation. Engineering Electronics. Electron Devices. Electronic Instrumentation. Mechanical Instru- ments. Basic Instrumentation. Physical Chemistry. Thermochemistry. Surface Chemistry. Organic Chemistry. Molecular Spectroscopy. Ele- mentary Processes. Mass Spectrometry. Photochemistry and Radiation Chemistry.

Office of Weights and Measures. BOULDER, COLO.

CRYOGENIC ENGINEERING LABORATORY

Cryogenic Processes. Cryogenic Properties of Solids. Cryogenic Technical Services. Properties of Cryogenic

Fluids. CENTRAL RADIO PROPAGATION LABORATORY

Ionosphere Research and Propagation. Low Frequency and Very Low Frequency Research. Ionosphere Research. Prediction Services. Sun-Earth Relationships. Field Engineering. Radio Warning Services. Vertical Soundings Research. Troposphere and Space Telecommunications. Data Reduction Instrumentation. Radio Noise. Tropospheric Measurements. Tropospheric Analysis. Spectrum Utilization Research. Radio-Meteorology. Lower Atmosphere

Physics.

Radio Systems. Applied Electromagnetic Theory. High Frequency and Very High Frequency Research. Fre- quency Utilization. Modulation Research. Antenna Research. Radiodetermination. Upper Atmosphere and Space Physics. Upper Atmosphere and Plasma Physics. High Latitude Ionosphere

Physics. Ionosphere and Exosphere Scatter. Airglow and Aurora. Ionospheric Radio Astronomy.

RADIO STANDARDS LABORATORY

Radio Standards Physics. Frequency and Time Disseminations. Radio and Microwave Materials. Atomic Fre- quency and Time-Interval Standards. Radio Plasma. Microwave Physics.

Radio Standards Engineering. High Frequency Electrical Standards. High Frequency Calibration Services. High

Frequency Impedance Standards. Microwave Calibration Services. Microwave Circuit Standards. Low Frequency

Calibration Services.

Joint Institute for Laboratory Astrophysics -NBS Group (Univ. of Colo.).
NBS