r

- NBS

PUBLICATIONS

2052

Energy Budget Procedures and

Performance Criteria for Energy

Conserving Building Illumination

Systems

NBSIR 80-

NAT'L INST. OF STAND & TECH R.I.C.

|| III I lllllll 1 llllll llll llll ii mi I ii A111BS 131157

A. T. Hattenburg

J. L. Heldenbrand

D. K. Ross

R. G. Stein

W. Tao

Center for Building Technology

National Engineering Laboratory

National Bureau of Standards

U.S. Department of Commerce

Washington, D.C. 20234

April 1980

Issued May 1 980

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NBSIR 80-2052

J « # ENERGY BUDGET PROCEDURES AND

PERFORMANCE CRITERIA FOR ENERGY

CONSERVING BUILDING ILLUMINATION

SYSTEMS

DEC 4 1980

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A. T. Hattenburg

J. L. Heldenbrand

D. K. Ross

R. G. Stein

W. Tao

Center for Building Technology

National Engineering Laboratory

National Bureau of Standards

U.S. Department of Commerce

Washington, D.C. 20234

April 1980

Issued May 1 980

Prepared for: Technology and Consumer Products Branch

Office of Buildings and Community Systems

U.S. Department of Energy

Washington, D.C. 20545

U.S. DEPARTMENT OF COMMERCE, Philip M. Klutznick, Secretary

Luther H. Hodges, Jr., Deputy Secretary

Jordan J. Baruch, Assistant Secretary for Productivity. Technology, and Innovation

NATIONAL BUREAU OF STANDARDS, Ernest Ambler, Director

ENERGY BUDGET PROCEDURES AND PERFORMANCE CRITERIA FOR ENERGY-CONSERVING

BUILDING ILLUMINATION SYSTEMS

A. T. Hattenburg, J. L. Heldenbrand, D. K. Ross, R. G. Stein, and W. Tao

ABSTRACT

This report covers subsystem energy budget development procedures and performance criteria for building illumination which were developed by a consultant

team of practitioners experienced in building illumination systems. A general

procedure is described wherein the energy required for efficient illumination

of a building is examined and corresponding power and annual energy budget

guidelines are developed.

This methodology is applied to three classes of building - offices, schools,

and residences - to illustrate the method. Representative power and energy

budgets are developed.

The model performance criteria and illumination energy budget methodology are recommended as the basis for development of national consensus standards,

covering the principal classes of new buildings designed primarily for human

occupancy

.

Key Words: Building illumination systems; energy budget; energy conservation;

energy performance criteria; illumination; lighting; power budget.

iii
PREFACE

This report is one of a group documenting NBS research and analysis efforts

in developing energy and cost data in support of the Department of Energy

(DoE) /National Bureau of Standards (NBS) Building Energy Conservation Criteria Program. This work was supported by DoE/NBS Task Order A008-BCS under

Interagency Agreement No. EA 77 A 01 6010. The work was originally sponsored

by DoE's Architectural and Engineering Systems Branch and is now sponsored

by the Technology and Consumer Products Branch.

This document was prepared by the NBS Task Force on Illumination under the

project leadership of Albert T. Hattenburg of NBS. The performance criteria

and energy budget methodology described in this report were developed by

Donald K. Ross, P.E., of Ross and Baruzzini, Consulting Engineers;

Richard G. Stein, FAIA, of the Stein Partnership, Architects; and William Tao,

P.E., of William Tao Associates, Consulting Engineers, serving under contract

as consultants to NBS. Jim L. Heldenbrand and Gary T. Yonemura of NBS provided management and conceptual advice, and technical consultation, respectively .

The consultant members of the Task Force are experienced practitioners in

building illumination systems design, share a common interest in energy conservation, and brought a variety of individual experiences and viewpoints to

the effort. They completed their task with the limited resources provided,

and without the formation and collaboration of other subsystem task forces

recommended by them.

During the course of this project, the work was made available to scores of

interested parties. The authors are indebted to those individuals and

organizations who have contributed their time and have provided us with their

valuable comments. A number of these comments have aided in the preparation

of this report. The majority of the comments are more appropriate to the

deliberations of the proposed ANSI committee which will receive this document,

as a basis for that Committee’s development of an American National Standard

for use by building illumination system designers. These comments will be

provided to the committee with reviewers consent.

The authors are especially indebted to Neil E. Gallagher for his major con- tributions to the preparation of this report.

iv
SI CONVERSION UNITS

In view of the present accepted practice in the U.S. building community,

customary U.S. units of measurement have been used throughout this document.

In recognition of the position of the United States as a signatory to the

General Conference on Weights and Measures, which gave official status to the

metric SI system of units in 1960, assistance is given to the reader interested in making use of the coherent system of SI units by providing conversion factors applicable to the customary U.S. units used in this document.

Length

1 inch (in) = 0.0254 meter (m)

Area

1 square foot (ft^) = 0.0929 square meter (m^)

Illuminance

1 foot candle (fc) = 10.76 lux (lx)

Luminance O 1 footlambert (fL) = 3.426 candela per square meter (cd/m ) Energy

1 kilowatt-hour (kWh) = 3.6 x 10^ joules (J)

The conversion values for length and energy are exact; those for area,

illuminance, and luminance are approximate.

v
TABLE OF CONTENTS

Page

ABSTRACT iii

PREFACE iv

SI CONVERSIONS v

1. INTRODUCTION 1

1.1 General 1 1.2 Development of Methodology 2

1.3 Applications of Methodology 3

2. METHODOLOGY 5

2.1 General 5

2.2 Methodology Format 6

2.3 Methodology Flow Chart 8

3. BUILDING TYPE STUDY - OFFICE 10

3.1 General 10

3.2 Office & Office Building Energy Budget Metholodogy 10

3.3 Methodology for Office Lighting Budget 24

4. BUILDING TYPE STUDY - SCHOOL 28

4.1 General 28

4.2 Application of Method 35

4.3 Simplified Procedures 42

4.4 Conclusions 44

5. BUILDING TYPE STUDY - RESIDENCE 47

5.1 General 47

5.2 Methodology 48

5.3 Applications of Methodology 56

5.4 Conclusions 60

6. DISCUSSION, CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS 62

6.1 Discussion and Conclusions 62

6.2 Recommendations 63

APPENDIX I Phase I Report

APPENDIX II Lighting Design Factors for Energy Conservation

APPENDIX III Worksheets for School Analysis

vi
1 . INTRODUCTION

1.1 GENERAL

This project was originated to develop new energy-conservation guidelines

for illumination in buildings. The goal was the production of a method for

specifying the maximum annual energy needed to illuminate the building,

i.e., the illumination energy budget, as the next logical step beyond the

existing power budget formulations (an illumination power budget is the

maximum connected power allowed for illumination of the building). An

innovative approach was required; human visual needs would be assessed

in the context of an energy-limited society and without reliance upon

recommendations and practices developed during an energy-abundant period,

a period now behind us. The guidelines were intended to serve as the

basis for a voluntary consensus standard, as an earlier NBS report (NBSIR

74-452) had provided the basis for ASHRAE/IES 90-75. This potential standard, along with others covering the other energy-using subsystems, could

be used to demonstrate compliance with the Department of Energy's overall

building design annual energy budgets'*- , known as BEPS.

The project was carried out by the NBS Task Force on Illumination (Albert

T. Hattenburg, NBS; Donald K. Ross, Richard G. Stein, and William Tao,

consultants to NBS). The Task Force consultants developed the basic methodology, tested it through detailed calculations on office, school, and

residential buildings, and produced representative illumination budgets for

these three building classifications. The basic methodology was outlined

in the Phase I report included herein as Appendix I. The final methodology,

detailed studies, and performance criteria were described in the final

report of the Task Force, "Performance Criteria for Energy Conserving Building Illumination Systems," submitted to NBS in August, 1978. The present

NBS report conveys the Task Force Final Report with minor changes (Chapters

2 through 5), discusses the basic principles and approaches used in its

development, and in addition to the criteria presents conclusions and

recommendations resulting from this work. This proposed method differs from

existing standards, such as ASHRAE 90-75 (Chap. 9), principally in the

specification of an energy budget in addition to a power budget. It also

replaces a portion of the electrical lighting with natural lighting to

reduce energy consumption, places a greater stress upon separate consideration of task lighting and general lighting, and specifies the number of

controls required to manage the lighting system. In the application of

the method to prototype buildings, the chosen illumination levels generally

are lower than those of ASHRAE 90-75, and the budget computation forms,

especially the short forms, are much less complex.

The task force chose a performance approach toward its work, following the

key tenets of the performance concept without, however, utilizing the full

performance statement format. Thus, the members emphasized the importance

Energy Performance Standards for New Buildings; Proposed Rule, Department

of Energy, November 28, 1979 Federal Register, Part II.

1
of the methodology for arriving at power and energy budgets rather than the

values of input parameters or numerical results. Desired system attributes

were stressed rather than hardware specificationsi A formal Performance Statement has four parts: the Requirement or qualitative expression of human need; the Criterion, the quantitative statement of

the need and the basis for determining if it has been met; the Evaluation,

the means of making the compliance determination; and the Commentary, which

includes notes of rationale, uncertainty, and intent. The Task Force

directed its efforts to the Criterion portion, which the existing energy concerns rendered most urgent; however, their product provides a frame of

reference for the further development of Requirements, Evaluations, and

Commentaries leading to formal performance statements for illumination systems .

The criteria are intended to contribute to the development of consensus

standards for energy conserving illumination systems in an interim period,

i.e., a period pending the development of definitive criteria resulting

from ongoing vision research at the NBS, the Illuminating Engineering

Research Institute, universities, and other laboratories. This document

will be offered to a committee of the American National Standards Institute

as a proposed basis for future American National Standards.

1.2 DEVELOPMENT OF METHODOLOGY

The Task Force members agreed upon certain general principles during the

development of the methodology. First, the specification of a valid energy

budget would require a determination of the illumination needed for the

building to efficiently perform its function, and should not necessarily

be based upon typical installations found in buildings designed before

energy was given important consideration. Second, the required illumination

should be divided into two categories for energy calculations; Task Lighting,

and General Lighting (it was considered that natural lighting could be

considered a third category, or included in General Lighting). Third, the

lighting energy budget is only one component of the total building energy

budget and is not independent of the other sub-system budgets. Finally,

the criteria should include an explicit Power Budget.

The determination of the actual illumination energy needed for the various

building spaces requires the selection of appropriate light levels, calculation of the power required to deliver these levels, and the usage

patterns of the spaces. The levels used by each member for the calculations are derived from his knowledge, experience, and reviews of lighting

practices here and abroad. Power calculations are based on available com- ponents. Usage patterns assumed are described for each example building.

Both the components and usage patterns employed are used succesfully in

present buildings.

The separation of task and general lighting is considered essential to an energy efficient lighting system, in order to avoid high light levels

in areas where they are not needed (uniform lighting), and to provide for

2
switching off of task lights during periods when they are not needed. This

selective switching capability requires that sufficient controls be provided.

The lighting energy budget cannot exist as a separate entity due to the significant interactions with other buildings services (heating, cooling), and

the difficulty of separately metering the lighting energy. Often the same convenience outlets provide power for lights and other devices (typewriters,

duplicators, etc.), particularly in a system which relies heavily upon task

lighting. Within the limitations of resources and schedule the Task Force

has attempted to account for the interactions between illumination and other

building services, and the methodology and criteria are designed to be com- patible with those generated for the other sub-systems by subsequent task

groups.

Although the energy budget is the final measure of the buildings energyefficient performance, the power budget forms the basis for the energy budget,

and it is the power budget which determines the connected load at the time the

system is designed and installed. Together with the necessary controls, the

power budget allows the building to be operated within the energy budget. The

explicit statement of the power budget is also needed to indicate the peak

power demand of the system.

1.3 APPLICATIONS OF THE METHODOLOGY

The detailed methodology was applied to the three classes of building—office,

school, and residence—in order to demonstrate the method, to test its validity, and to produce representative values for both energy and power budgets.

In this process, the building was broken into units (spaces) according to

function and duration of use; the lighting power and energy were calculated

for each unit; and finally the values were summed to yield the power and

energy budgets for the entire building illumination system.

The applications to the several building types were performed on an individual basis, with each Task Force consultant member concentrating on a specific

type. During this process, the members discussed problems encountered,

agreed upon improvements to the methodology, and provided general reviews of one another’s results. Although the same basic methodology was used, the

detailed approach varied in the three applications; this is reflected in the

variations in emphasis and presentation which occur in chapters 3, 4, and 5.

Each of these examples provides a useful insight into particular aspects of

the application process. Thus Chapter 3 (office) emphasizes task analysis

and opportunities for task revision, explicit calculations of lighting power

conversion factors, and daylight allowances; no specific building layout is

shown, but results of the study are combined into worksheets which allow

budget calculations for a specific building from a knowledge of space distribution by function. Chapter 4 (school) presents a step-by-step demonstration

of the application to a specific school, with lighting layouts and detailed

worksheets for each of twenty-nine spaces; daylighting allowances are implicit

in the calculations, while lighting power conversion factors are listed for

each lumunaire employed. After establishing power and energy densities for

each space, the figures are further separated into Task and General lighting.

3
Finally, spaces are grouped into six educational categories, each with a power and energy budget for both Task and General lighting. Chapter 5

(residence) stresses the dependence of required lighting energy upon occupant type, analyses five types of residence for lighting needs, and derives

unit power densities and power allowances for the various functions. Daylighting contributions are accounted for in the assumed usage hours.

The detailed application of the methodology to the various building types

convinced the Task Force that, although essential to demonstrate the basis

for the criteria, the process was too cumbersome and time-consuming to be

recommended as a compliance procedure for the practicing lighting designer.

Therefore a simplified method or "short form" was developed for each building type. The short form has the advantage of simplicity and brevity. For

buildings which differ significantly from the prototypes, the more detailed

procedures may be required.

In view of present accepted practice in this country for building technology,

common U.S. units of measurement have been used throughout this document,

with SI (metric) units added parenthetically where a unit first occurs . Illumination levels (Illuminance) are stated in units of footcandles (lumens

per square foot), as would be measured by a typical "footcandle meter." No

specialized units such as "ESI footcandles" are used. The occasional luminance values are stated in the corresponding units of footlamberts . Power

and energy are quoted in units of watts and watt-hours respectively. The

use of British thermal units (Btu's) for energy values would allow a direct

combination with other sub-system energies; however, other sub-system

budgets are not yet available, and the use of watt-hours both simplifies

calculations and postpones a decision on whether the watt-hours-to Btu's

conversion factor should include the energy consumed in producing and transmitting the electricity.

4
2 . METHODOLOGY

2 . 1 GENERAL

The methodology for arriving at energy budgets for the illumination subsystem

was based on determining what a reasonably designed building using adequate

ambient illumination and selective task illumination would require under typical conditions. This figure, with a certain factor for the variability that occurs when different designers face the same problem, would then be incorporated in a performance energy standard after considering its interconnections

with the other subsystems in the building. For example, the reduction of the

performance budget for illumination would have an adverse effect on the heating budget and a favorable effect on the cooling budget. In this way values

could be established that would not depend on the usual pattern of energy use through illumination that was developed in a period when there was little concern for the energy implications of illumination, but rather would start at

the other end and examine what buildings need to function adequately and what

technological means are available to answer these requirements.

Although the standard is primarily for establishing an energy budget for operating the illumination system, it also formulates a typical power budget that

formed the basis for the energy budget calculations.

The method for determining these budgets was to examine actual situations

rather than depending on past building installations and performance which

would tend to continue present typical practices. A flow diagram was developed in the first phase of the project. This flow diagram took into account

all of the relevant information about the building, its location, its program,

and its schedule so that each would be properly considered in determining

the budget. In order to be widely applicable, the information framework

in the flow diagram may be more comprehensive than is necessary for certain

buildings and building types.

For example, the methodology permits the recording of such information as geographic location. It is obvious that the lighting requirements in Alaska, near the North Pole in December are very different from those in Ecuador

near the Equator if one is to credit the contribution of natural light. In

many cases, however, this is superfluous information that would produce a degree of refinement greater than is required for both the layout and the

assumed budget.

The diagram explaining the methodology is included in this report with minor

modifications (Fig. 2.1). This diagram has been the basis for a data matrix

which can be filled in for any building type in any location. The matrix

follows (2.2). In order to test the validity of the method, it was applied

to three different building types; office, school and residential buildings.

Each is explained in a separate section of this report.

Based on the information examined and developed for each of these, a generalized set of recommended values has been proposed. In order to make these

figures more sensitive to the particular requirements of a specific building,

5
the overall figures for the entire building have been broken down into significant sub-uses that are characteristic of the particular building type.

Since these reference figures are on a square foot basis, a new overall

figure can be developed that will reflect more accurately the uses within

the building being examined.

If either the kinds of services supplied within the building or the use schedule varies significantly from the assumptions used in developing the

standards, the figures in the standards can be modified either by a factor

reflecting the non-typical usage of the particular building under investigation or the entire analytical process can be undertaken to lead to a new

and more specifically relevant power and energy budget figure for the nontypical building.

As is shown in the methodological diagram (Fig. 2.1), the values developed

for the illumination subsystems would be incorporated with the values for

the other subsystems. This would in turn result in the overall energy budget and performance standard based on subsystem performance standards.

2.2

METHODOLOGY FORMAT

2.2.1

General Methodology Information

2. 2. 1.1 Building Type

2. 2. 1.1.1 Subcategories

2 . 2 . 1 . 1.

2. 2. 1.2 Location (geographic)

2. 2. 1.2.1 Position in time zone

2. 2. 1.2. 2 Daylight hours

2 . 2 . 1 . 2.

2. 2. 1.3 Occupancy Schedule

2. 2. 1.3.1 Annual operation

2. 2. 1.3.

2. 2. 1.4 Time of Use

2. 2. 1.4.1 Daily operating schedule

2. 2. 1.4.

2. 2. 1.5 Orientation

2. 2. 1.5.1 Major exposures of building

2. 2. 1.5.

6
2.2.2

List of Spaces by Type

2. 2. 2. 1.1 Area of unit

2. 2. 2. 1.2 Number of units

2. 2. 2. 1.3 Orientation

2. 2. 2. 1.4 Fenestration

2. 2. 2. 1.5

2. 2. 2. 1.6

Special requirements

2. 2. 2. 2 Type 2 Space (by name)

Spaces by Type - Illumination Requirements

2. 2. 3.1 Type 1 space (by name)

2. 2. 3. 1.1 General illumination

2. 2. 3. 1.2 Task illumination

2. 2. 3. 1.3 Security illumination

2. 2. 3. 1.4

2. 2. 3. 1.5

Special requirements

2. 2. 3. 2 Type 2 space (by name)

Duration of Use

2. 2. 4.1 Type 1 space (by name)

2. 2. 4. 1.1 Hours for general lighting

2. 2. 4. 1.2 Hours for task lighting

2. 2. 4. 1.3 Hours for security lighting

2. 2. 4. 1.4 Hours for special requirements

2. 2. 4. 2 Type 2 space (by name)

2.2.5 Light Delivery Components

2. 2. 5.1

2 . 2 . 5.

2

2 . 2 . 5.

3

2 . 2 . 5.

4

2 . 2 . 5.

5

Unit power for augmented illumination, W/fc/sf.

Unit power for general illumination, W/sf.

Unit power for security lighting, W/sf.

Unit power for special lighting, watts

2.2.6 Light Delivery Components - Utilizacion Patterns

2. 2. 6.1 Annual general building operating hours (AGH)

2. 2. 6. 2 General diversity factor (GDF)

2. 2. 6. 3 Net general operating hours (NGH) = AGH x GDF

2. 2. 6. 4 Annual task lighting operating hours (ATH)

2. 2. 6. 5 Task diversity factor (TDF)

7
2. 2. 6. 6 Net task operating hours (NTH) = ATH x TDF

2 . 2 . 6.

2.2.7

Lighting Energy for Each Space (Wh/yr)

2. 2. 7.1 Type 1 space

2. 2. 7. 1.1 Lighting energy for tasks

= Unit Power (2.2.5) x Area of Tasks x Utilization

Pattern (2.2.6)

2. 2. 7. 1.2 Lighting energy for general

= Unit Power (2.2.5) x General Area x Utilization

Pattern (2.2.6)

2. 2. 7. 1.3 Lighting energy for space

= (( 2 . 2 . 7 . 1 . 1 ) + ( 2 . 2 . 7 . 1 . 2 ))

2. 2. 7. 2 Type 2 space

2.2.8

Lighting Energy Budget (kWh/yr)

2. 2. 8.1 Summation of Total Space Lighting from 2. 2. 7.1, 2. 2. 7. 2, etc.

2. 2. 8. 2 Lighting energy for special lighting

2. 2. 8. 3 Credit for natural lighting (Alternate Approach)

2. 2. 8. 4 Contingency factor = allowance for special conditions and

contingencies = 1.0 to 1.1 as evaluated

2. 2. 8. 5 Lighting energy budget:

((2. 2. 8.1) + (2. 2. 8. 2) - (2. 2. 8. 3)) x (2. 2. 8. 4)

1000

2.2.9

Unit Energy Budget/Lighting (kWh/sf/yr)

2. 2. 9.1 Lighting energy budget (kWh/yr), from (2. 2. 8. 5)

2. 2. 9. 2 Building gross area, sf

2. 2. 9. 3 Unit energy budget/lighting (UEB-L), kWh/sf/yr.

(2. 2. 9.1)

UEB-L =

( 2 . 2 . 9 . 2 )

2.3

METHODOLOGY FLOW CHART

See Fig. 2.1

8
TASK

ANALYSIS

9

Methodology

diagram.
3. BUILDING TYPE STUDY - OFFICE

3.1 GENERAL

This chapter describes how the methodology of Chapter 2 has been applied for

determining the energy budget for office space or an office building.

A discussion of energy conserving office lighting practice on which the

development of the energy budget is based is presented in Section 3.2 of

this chapter. These principles have been applied to calculations of energy

budgets for typical office buildings of various sizes, as a test of the concepts. In Section 3.3, both a detailed and a simplified methodology are presented, with a discussion of their components and applications. The simplified procedure will be applicable, in most cases, to determine a realistic energy budget for a proposed office building; where a more detailed

analysis is required, the detailed procedure should be used.

3.2 OFFICE & OFFICE BUILDING ENERGY BUDGET METHODOLOGY

3.2.1 Lighting Sub-System Flow Chart

The Flow Chart of Chapter 2 has been modified to more clearly describe the

methodology applied to office lighting. This modified version, shown in

Figure 3.1, separates the energy calculations for offices into three categories: Task Lighting, Building Lighting, and Natural Lighting (Daylighting). The basis for lighting levels in footcandles (lux) for office

tasks is developed. Additional values are given for lighting for building

functions and areas not directly connected with performance of office tasks.

These lighting levels are converted into power density in watts per square

foot (watts per square meter) by means of recommended conversion factors in

watts/footcandles/sq. ft. (watts/lux/square meter). Multiplication of each

power density by its respective area provides the power required for the

building for each function. The total power for each function is multiplied

by the appropriate duration of use to obtain energy. The energy for each

component is multiplied by a diversity factor and totaled to obtain the

building lighting energy. Next, a calculation is made of the energy that the

building could have saved had it used an appropriate amount of the available

natural lighting. This energy is subtracted from the total energy previously

calculated. Finally, these components are totaled and this total is multiplied by a contingency factor to permit an allowance for unforseen requirements.

The detailed methodology presented here is complex and time-consuming, and

the simplified procedure in Section 3.3 will be more generally useful. However, a description of the detailed method is required both to demonstrate

the basis for this energy budget approach and resulting recommended energy

budgets, and to show how the multitude of lighting design factors (described

in Appendix II) contribute to the energy-conserving budget.

10
Fig.

3«1

-

Methodology

for

determining

office

building

lighting

energy

budget
3.2.2 Task Lighting

3. 2. 2.1 Task visual difficulty

Presently, there is no generalized measure of task visibility demonstrated to

predict performance as a function of illumination. The Illuminating Engineering Society developed a model using an "Equivalent Contrast" criteria: a recommended visibility level of thirteen times the threshold level was recom- mended for task lighting. (The threshold was later redefined to a new value

approximately 1.6 times the former definition and called VL1. VL1 was then

increased 8 times, to VL8 . VL8 , which relates equivalent contrast to task

background luminance, became the task performance criteria.) This concept

has been demonstrated to be applicable only for very specialized non-typical

tasks, if at all. Its justification at present is that a task will never require greater illumination than the level predicts. The IES is presently

considering major revision to this concept.

For the time being, performance criteria as a function of illumination can be

obtained only by direct comparison with similar tasks performed under varying

lighting levels. See, for example, "Task Lighting - Yet Another View,"

D. K. Ross, L. D. & A., May 1978, pp. 37-43.

3. 2. 2. 2 Overall task evaluation

The elements shown in Table 1 comprise most of the ones of importance in

performing office tasks. Tasks can be categorized for these elements

(formally or informally), noting any which are believed to be substantially

more visually difficult than normally-occuring office tasks. Where one

(or two) elements are noted to be visually difficult, they may often be

offset by another factor, easier than normal.

Visual performance is much less sensitive to changes in brightness above 10

footlamberts (35 candelas per square meter) than to most of the other factors

of Table 1. An analysis of these factors for the various tasks occuring in

office spaces is needed to determine the required illumination, and in addition indicates where cost and energy effective task modifications may be made.

Appendix II presents a detailed description of the analysis of several of the

more important of these factors, and offers some suggestions for costeffective task modifications.

The performance of individuals with normal eyesight and up to about 40 years

of age does not improve, or improves only very little, for normal office

tasks when the average task background luminance exceeds approximately 10

to 15 footlamberts. For individuals over the age of 50, there appears to be

improvement in performance up to approximately 20 footlamberts (70 Candelas

per square meter).

Many experiments have demonstrated that older persons do not perform visual

tasks as well as do younger persons; however, for normal older eyes, increasing

the illumination level above 20 to 30 footcandles (215 to 325 lux) improves

performance only very slightly, if at all, and no amount of extra illumination

can cause the older persons to perform as well as younger ones.

12
TABLE 1. TASK LIGHTING ANALYSIS - FACTORS REQUIRING CONSIDERATION*

Task Considerations

Reflectivity

Contrast

Specularity

Color Sensitivity

Texture

Shadowing

Clarity of material (blur)

Duration of task

Very small detail

Motion

Physical relationship, task to head:

Fixed

Moveable

Extent of field of view required

Changing accommodation (depth of field)

Redundancy in information presented

Errors permitted

Speed

Operator Considerations

Normal vision

Refracted vision

Motivation & Preference

Age

* See Appendix II for analysis description

13
3. 2. 2. 3 Determination of Appropriate Task Lighting Requirements

Tasks can be differentiated into two types: those requiring reading from

paper or similar material (two dimensions), and those requiring observation

of three dimensional objects such as equipment, warehousing, and requirements for personnel recognition and security.

3. 2. 2. 4 Two Dimensional Tasks

Normal office tasks are visually satisfied above a background luminance of

20 footlamberts, provided that the illumination from the surround does not

create excessive direct or reflected glare, or cause the more specular tasks

to be unduly reduced in contrast by reflected glare. To the extent that

glare causes problems and cannot be eliminated, the task background luminance

should be increased to permit the eye to see the task with at least approximately 1/5 the same intensity as the glare source. Normally the effects of

glare, where troublesome, are eliminated or at least greatly offset by simply

changing the relative geometric relationship between the observer, the task,

and the source, and not increasing the task luminance level. This is usually

done almost unconsciously by the observer moving position, since in most

cases only very slight adjustment is required.

Many, if not most, office tasks involve reading from paper. An appropriate

reflectivity for the background of these tasks can be considered to be no

less than 75%. Hence, an illumination level of 27 footcandles (20 footlamberts/ .75) should be quite adequate for seeing. However, to allow for

less than optimum lighting, and to adjust brightness for levels "remembered"

from outdoor daylighting or when exposed to fenestration, we recommend that

office task lighting be designed to provide approximately 50 (+10) footcandles

at the workplace (desk or table). This approximate doubling of illuminance

should be more than enough to allow for the average run of even the more difficult types of tasks.

Guidance that may be beneficial for justification of increasing levels above

50 footcandles is given in Table 2. This information was developed by a careful review of the literature relative to good lighting practice in many

countries throughout the world. More recent experiments relating actual

task performance to illumination are consistent with this review.

The total illumination furnished for the task includes the sum of the general

illumination provided for the space, plus additional or augmented task lighting as may be required. This task lighting should be separately controlled

and switched off when not required.

^ D. K. Ross - Task Lighting - Yet Another View, L. D. & A., May 1978,

pp. 37-43.

14
TABLE 2. SUGGESTED GUIDE FOR ILLUMINATION LEVEL BASED ON TASK ANALYSIS

VISUAL DESIGN LEVEL (FC)

DIFFICULTY

TASK OR AREA (VDF) GSA1 FEA2

Service or Public Areas, Hallway, or Corridors - 15+3 10+5

Circulation Areas within Office Space,

but not at Work Stations - 30+6 30+5

Normal Office Work, Reading, Writing, etc. 1-40 50+10 50+10

Prolonged Office Work visually

difficult or critical in nature 41-60 75+15 75+15

Prolonged Office Work, both visually

difficult and critical in nature 61 & up 100+20 100+20

VISUAL DIFFICULTY FOR OFFICE TASKS ' ~ ' " VISUAL

DIFFICULTY

TASK DECRIPTION RATING (R)

Large black object on white background ------------- 1 Book or magazine, printed matter, 8 point type and larger - - - 2

Typed original ------------------------- 2

Ink writing (script) ---------------------- 3

Newspaper test ------------------------- 4

Shorthand notes, ink ---------------------- 4

Handwriting (script) in No. 2 pencil -------------- 5

Shorthand notes. No. 3 pencil ----------------- 6

Washed-out copy from copying machine -------------- 7 Bookkeeping -------------------------- 8

Drafting ---------------------------- 8

Telephone Directory ---------------------- 12

Blurred, very low contrast copy (poor carbon) --------- 15

VISUAL DIFFICULTY FACTOR

VDF = R x T

R = Visual Difficulty Rating of Tasks (from table)

T = Duration of the particular visual task, in hours

EXAMPLE FOR DETERMINING ILLUMINATION LEVEL

Work station used 2 hours for bookkeeping and 3 hours for shorthand work

(ink), 2 - 1/2 hours typing from typed draft, 1/2 hour telephone.

VDF =(8x2 hrs. ) +(4x3 hrs.) + (2 x 2-1/2 hrs.) + 0 = 33

From Illumination Table, use 50 FC (540 LUX).

Lighting Systems Study , General Services Administration, March 1974

Lighting and Thermal Operations, Energy Management Action Program for

Commercial, Public, Industrial Buildings, Guidelines , Federal Energy

Administration, 1974.

15
3. 2. 2. 5 Three Dimensional Tasks

Three dimensional tasks, such as operation of equipment, recognition,

various types of social and business intercourse, etc., require illumination with different consideration than for two-dimensional task performance. Shadowing is important to bring out texture and features. Since

there is normally a certain amount of motion permitted between the viewer

and the object being viewed, the source of illumination for three dimensional objects can have a certain element of glare that would not otherwise

be desirable since positions can be changed to minimize its effect. It

is also important to have a lighting source that can be directed into recesses of the task for maintenance, or for viewing of interiors if this

is required. Modeling is optimized by directional lighting.

Identification of human facial expression in satisfactory detail is con- sidered to begin at about 5 footcandles.

Various safety codes promulgate levels of from 1 to 5 footcandles for

illumination of areas with movement and moving machinery, although values

much lower are actually quite satisfactory for many applications. For

example, most people can easily read a newspaper at arm's length with an intensity of only 1/2 footcandle.

The conversion from scotopic (rod vision) to photopic vision (cone vision),

which includes the ability to distinguish colors, is completed at approximately 1 footlambert, while the eye can readily detect objects in bright

moonlight at .01 f ootlamberts

.

These levels describe the lower end of recommended lighting levels for

three-dimensional tasks.

3.2.3 Building Lighting Illumination or Brightness Levels

3. 2. 3.1 Circulation Areas-Around and Near Desk Tasks

20 to 30 footcandles generally on areas surrounding tasks, and on task if practical, to supplement task lighting.

3. 2. 3. 2 Exitway and Stairway Lighting

Approximately 3 footlamberts of lighting on important safety features, steps, etc. Minimum of 1 footlambert, or code requirements,

whichever greater.

3. 2. 3. 3 Outdoor Security Lighting

Lighting at doorways, stairs, and walkways, use 1 footlambert on important safety factors.

Note the change in units for alternate recommendations. This is

deliberate and is believed to be appropriate for each instance.

16
3. 2. 3. 4 Corridor Lighting

5 to 10 footcandles at face level, 3 to 5 footcandles at floor level

3. 2. 3. 5 Maintenance Areas, Storerooms, closets

15 to 20 footcandles, higher if needed for machinery, etc.

3. 2. 3. 6 Indoor Parking

An average of about 5 footcandles, 4 feet above the floor, with

higher intensity provided in the aisles, dropping off to lower

levels in the parking stalls.

3. 2. 3. 7 Outdoor Parking

No more than .05 watt per square foot, power density.

3.2.4 Lighting Power Conversion Factors

The factor that relates lumens to watts is termed "efficacy". Efficacy is

given in terms of lumens/watt, usually for the lamp alone, and does not

include ballast losses, fixture light losses, circuit losses, room losses,

or light depreciation factors.

The methodology used here requires a factor in terms of watts/sq. ft. per

footcandle (on the task). This factor should be based on average maintained lumens over the life of the lamps used, and will vary for room size,

finish, the type of luminaire, and the lamp type. These same considerations

will affect task lighting differently than general lighting, but suitable

conversion factors can be developed for each case as appropriate, preferably

using point-by-point calculations. (The lumen method may be adequate for

general lighting, but certainly not for task lighting.)

The development of the lighting power conversion factors is based upon the use of efficient sources, such as metal halide and fluorescent lamps; fixtures

with a high efficiency in distributing the lamp lumens to the tasks without

visual discomfort, including ceiling troffers, pod-mounted moveable units,

and furniture-integrated lighting; and careful consideration of the design

factors discussed in Appendix II.

A series of computations, on a point-by-point basis, were performed to determine the footcandle level on a desk for several different arrangements of

ceiling-mounted troffers. The troffers are assumed to be conventional type

and to have reasonably-good-quality prismatic lenses, mounted approximately

6 feet above the desk. Each luminaire has two lamps, using energy-conserving

lamps and ballasts with a maintained output of 2,500 lumens per lamp. For

each two-lamp ballast, the input wattage is 72 watts per 5,000 lumens for

the energy-conserving equipment. The several arrangements (using two luminaries per task area) furnish a lighting level averaging 50 footcandles,

over areas of approximately 75 sq. ft. to include the desk, a side table or typewriter, and a back table.

17
Since we have not assumed any general lighting in this example, the task

lighting furnishes all of the lighting, and the required power for two luminaires is calculated at: 2 x 72 watts/75 sq. ft. = 1.92 watts/sq. ft./50FC

= .038 watts per sq. ft. per task footcandle. A corresponding conversion

factor can be developed for general lighting. The general lighting factor

will be more efficient because the supplementary effects of other nearby

luminaires can be included. This permits the factor to be reduced to .03

watts/sq. ft. per footcandle, at a plane three foot above the floor.

Thus, for example, if general lighting is to be provided, and is to be 20

footcandles, then the budget for general lighting should be 20 x .03 = .6

watts/sq. ft. If part of the general lighting is provided in a task area

also, it is only necessary to supplement the task area with a single twolamp luminaire (30 additional footcandles on the task) requiring an additional 1.2 watts per square foot* to meet the total 50 footcandle task

lighting requirements, or a total of 1.8 watts/sq. ft.

As an example of how these factors compare to state-of-the-art (1977):

With advanced luminaire design, open-plan office space, lighted with good

quality lighting, providing 50 FC throughout , can be achieved with .9

watts/sq. ft., or about 1/2 of the power required by the criteria above.

Table 3 lists the unit lighting power for general areas, derived from

the recommended illumination levels and the conversion factor for general

lighting.

3.2.5 Duration (Hours of Use) for Office Lighting

3. 2. 5.1

Annual-hour s-use-of-demand [1] for lighting in office buildings has been

estimated to be 2,500 hours for the average of all office space [2]. This

value increases to approximately 3,450 hours for the more active multi-tenant

office buildings. (These values, incidentally, compare with 3,750 hours and

4,000 hours-use-of-demand , respectively, for the total electrical use in the

buildings.) If there is available an average value in watts/sq. ft. for

lighting for the entire building, it can be multiplied by the hours-use-ofdemand to determine an annual lighting energy budget.

*30 FC x .038 watts/sq. ft./FC -1.2 watts/sq. ft.

[1] Annual hours-use-of-demand is a number derived by dividing the total

kilowatt-hours used for lighting per year by the average peak billing

demand for lighting (in KW) that occurs during the year.

[2] Ross & Baruzzini, Inc., Energy Conservation Principles Applied to

Office Lighting, Lighting and Thermal Operations, Conservation Paper

Number 18, Federal Energy Administration, April, 1975.

18
TABLE 3. LIGHTING POWER BUDGETS FOR GENERAL OFFICE BUILDING AREAS

FUNCTION OR TYPE OF AREA

ALLOWANCE

WATTS PER

SQ. FT.

Emergency System

Exitways

Stairways

Exit Signs

General Lighting for

Lobbies, Corridors, Stairs,

and Landings

Janitor, Storage, and

Maintenance Space

Outside

Task Circulation Areas

Daylighting Contribution

(deduct)

.1

.6

1.0

7 .5 watt per

linear foot

not less

than 1.0 kW

.9

( 0 . 6 )

Parking - indoor

- outdoor

0.3

0.05

* Based on typical buildings

** Use same area as for building general lighting - do not add

into total area.

*** Includes elevator shafts and utility risers.

AREA*

**

16% of

building

area***

4% of

building

area

use 20% of

building

floor

area, min.

area

19
3.2.6

If component power budgets are developed; i.e., for task areas, general

areas, equipment rooms, etc., then each component power unit in watts/sq.

ft. should be multiplied by the respective hours of use of that area to

determine the annual energy budget. Some examples are given below. However, when specific operating data are available, they should be used in

each case.

3. 2. 6.1 Task lighting example

Assume that the task lighting will supplement the general lighting and can

be switched off when the worker is not present for at least a portion of

the time. Then for one-shift operation, typical of most office space:

8 hours/day x 5 days/week x 50 weeks/yr. = 2,000 hours/year duration of task lighting.

The task duration suggested in Part 3.3.2 (Simplified Procedure) is more

liberal and assumes that the lights will not be switched off, except when

the worker is not present at all during the day. Hence,

9 hours/day x 52 weeks/yr. x 5-1/2 days/week = 2,574 hrs./yr.

which is then rounded off to 2,600 hours/year. However, it is assumed that

a diversity factor of .9 occurs to account for absences from the work location for a portion of the people.

3. 2. 6. 2 General lighting example

14 hours/day x 5 1/2 days/week x 52 weeks/yr. = 4,000 hrs./yr.

3.2.7 Natural Lighting

3. 2. 7.1 Natural Lighting and HVAC

The use of natural light is recommended whenever energy can be conserved.

It should be noted that in terms of lumens per watt, natural light, even

including a direct beam of sunlight entering through a glass window, is more efficient than flourescent lighting (but not quite so efficient as high

pressure sodium). This means that if the brightness and intensity can be

controlled, daylighting has less effect on an HVAC system than does the

usual artificial lighting system. The problem is one of control, so that

only as much light as may be required is introduced during the cooling

season. During the heating season, the additional heat associated with

excess light may be welcome.

20
3.2.8 Natural lighting - energy allowance

3. 2. 8.1 General

The following paragraphs provide an approach for determining the lighting

energy to be conserved by substituting daylight for artificial light for an office building. It is assumed for budget purposes that this daylighting will be suitable for general lighting only and cannot be relied

upon for task lighting. The energy thus calculated is used to offset the

general light energy budget requirements (subtracted from the energy calculated to provide the artificial lighting).

The energy saved by daylighting should be reviewed for interaction with

the HVAC system to determine annual net building energy gain or loss.

3. 2. 8. 2 Floor areas exposed to fenestration

Determine the area exposed to normal fenestration for general lighting

purposes by calculating the area within a depth of 12 feet from the outside

fenestrated wall (if not blocked) and 10 feet on each side of the source along the wall, (i.e., 240 sq. ft. per window opening, but such areas are not

additive if fenestration occurs more frequently than at 20' intervals

along the wall).

For overhead skylights, etc., use the area illuminated by the light,

encompassed within a contour approximately 1/10 the maximum level.

Consider only fenestration that is not effectively shaded by uncontrolled

outside obstructions.

Total the above areas for "fenestrated areas." If the total is less than

that in 3. 2. 8. 3, use the value obtained from 3. 2. 8. 3.

3. 2. 8. 3 Minimum fenestrated floor area for budget purposes

In the event that no fenestration is included in the building (without

justification), it may be desirable to impute a certain percentage of the

total wall area and roof area as a fenestrated minimum floor area and

base the daylight energy conservation on this minimum floor area; for

example, the following assignment seems appropriate:

3. 2. 8.

4

Duration of daylighting

Use average annual hours from 1/2 hour after sunrise to 1/2 hour before

sundown, at building location (precise portion of time zone).

Area of walls x 18%

Area of roof x 5%

Minimum fenestrated floor

area for budget purposes:

sq . ft

sq. ft

sq. ft

21
Subtract from this value the average annual daylight hours that the outdoor

horizontal illumination is less than 300 footcandles because of cloud cover.

3. 2. 8. 5 Duration of occupancy

Compute the hours building is occupied.

Determine the coincidence of hours occupied and the daylight hours from

above.

3. 2. 8. 6 Calculation of daylighting energy allowance

Assume daylighting will replace general lighting (20 fc) in fenestrated

area. 20 fc x .03 watts/fc/sq. ft. = .6 watts/sq. ft. for general

lighting, replaced by daylighting.

Then, .6 watts/sq. ft. x fenestrated area x coincident daylight hours = annual daylighting energy credit. This energy is used to offset general

lighting budget. The daylight power is NOT used to offset the power budget.

22
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23
3.3 METHODOLOGY FOR OFFICE LIGHTING BUDGET

3.3.1 Detailed Procedure

A worksheet for the detailed procedure to be used to calculate an office

building lighting energy budget is illustrated in Figure 3.2. The detailed

procedure permits introduction of quantities for each factor required in

developing the budget. Suggested values are already entered for appropriate

items where these have been determined for prototypical office buildings.

Quantities are based on buildings used primarily 51/2 days per week, for 40

plus hours per week of normal work, per occupant. Where these recommended

values are to be changed, a calculation shall be included on the worksheet

(with identification of the block being changed) to demonstrate the rationale

used for the change.

Allowance is made for outdoor lighting for building facade and circulation,

in addition to outdoor parking if required. An energy credit is taken for

daylighting. The daylighting power is not deducted from the connected load,

but is only used to compute the energy credit.

The factor listed under Column H, "Diversity Factor" corrects for the

decreased load caused by a portion of all loads not being on simultaneously.

This factor could be accounted for in Column G, "Duration of Use" in equivalent full-load hours per year, but it is believed that the distinction is

useful.

In selecting the value for Column C, "Unit Lighting Power", it should be

borne in mind that this may be less than the total connected lighting load.

This is particularly the case where supplementary task or mood lighting of one type is turned off whenever another type is turned on, when excess lighting is connected, but not switched on for future task relocation, or for

emergency lighting that may not be energized until the normal source fails,

for example.

It is not required to complete Columns E and I; these columns mainly serve to

identify areas of tasks using disproportionate amounts of energy per square

foot, if adjustment is necessary.

Block 12J indicates the total annual lighting energy budget for the building.

Dividing by the gross building area (Block 8D) provides the energy used per

square foot per year, while dividing by the total power (Block 12F) provides

the annual hours use of demand. As noted earlier, for the prototypical

office building, this should be near 2,500 hours, with a range of from 2,000

minimum to 3,000 maximum. The expected value for annual prototypical building

lighting energy use, excluding exterior lighting, when using the guidelines,

is 3.8 kWhr/sq. ft./yr. When including exterior lighting, this value can

range from approximately 3.9 kWhr/sq. ft./yr. for large buildings without any

special occupancies, up to 4.8 kWhr/sq. ft./yr. for smaller office buildings.

24
OFFICE

BUILDING

LIGHTING

ENERGY

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25
No contingency factor has been included to adjust these results. In the

abstract, an increase of perhaps 10% should be considered. It is believed,

however, that this factor should be applied to the entire building energy

budget, rather than just to the lighting portion, so that it has been

excluded here.

3.3.2 Simplified Procedure for Calculating

3. 3. 2.1 Annual Lighting Energy Budget

The worksheet for the simplified lighting energy budget is illustrated

in Figure 3.3. The values tabulated on this sheet are pro-rata combinations of the values in Figure 3.2. This formulation permits entires

to be made where blanks are shown. It is recommended that no alteration

to the values on this form be permitted, except for Column D, "Duration

of Use", and these should be justified if changed.

The simplified procedure is based closely upon the detailed procedure, and

should yield similar budgets in most cases. Calculation effort is reduced

by consolidation of building functions into fewer categories, basing the

daylight energy debit on floor area instead of wall/roof dimensions, and

absorbing the lighting power conversion factors and diversity factors into

the pro-rata figures. Allowances for special tasks and occupancies are still available.

26
REFERENCES

1. IES Handbook , 5th Edition, Illuminating Engineering Society of

North America.

2. IES Code for Interior Lighting , Illuminating Engineering Society

(British) January 1973.

3. Lighting Systems Study , General Services Administration, Public

Buildings Service, March 1974.

4 . Energy Conservation Principles Applied to Office Lighting , Conservation Paper No. 18 , Federal Energy Administration Lighting & Thermal Operations, April 15, 1975, NTIS No. PB 244154/AS.

5. NAVSHIPS, Display Illumination Design Guide , February 1973,

U. S. Superintendent of Documents, p II-7

.

6. Human Engineering Guide to Equipment Design , Revised Edition 1972,

Chapter 3, American Institute for Research, Washington, DC, Library

of Congress Card No. 72-600054.

7 . Proceedings of The Basis for Effective Management of Lighting

Energy Symposium, D. K. Ross, editor, October 29-30, 1976, NTIS No.

PB-256 070.

8. D. K. Ross, Energy Conservation Applied to Task Lighting , IEEE

Transactions on Industry Applications, Vol. IA-13, January/February

1977.

9. D. K. Ross, Task Lighting - Yet Another View , Lighting Design & Application, May 1978, p 37.

27
4. BUILDING TYPE STUDY - SCHOOL

4.1 GENERAL

In determining the approach for illumination performance standards for

schools, it is necessary from the beginning to recognize the great diversity

in school buildings, school programs, school teaching methods and objectives.

Therefore, the methodology employed in developing the standards must always

be apparent and accessible for modifications to suit specific requirements.

While this approach avoids oversimplification, the danger at the other end of

the spectrum is that in attempting to respond to this diversity no standards

that have any broad meaning or applicability will evolve.

According to the classification system developed for the HUD baseline study

by the AIA Research Corporation (ref. 5.), the school category is divided

into three major classifications and each of these is further subdivided.

The lower grade schools are combined under elementary schools with subcategories: day care, nursery school, elementary school. The next category

is secondary schools with sub-categories: junior high school, high school,

vocational school. The next category is college with two subcategories:

junior college and college/university. It is obvious that even within this

detailed breakdown, there are further sub-categories that could very well be

introduced. For example, all of college/university is grouped as a single

classification. In actuality this includes classroom buildings, laboratory

buildings, gymnasiums, dormitories, administration buildings and research

centers. It includes colleges with highly individualized methods of teaching,

and those with primarily lecture-type of presentation. In other words, merely

listing the classification for a building cannot be the basis for determining

what a reasonable illumination budget would be for that particular building.

An alternative approach is to rely entirely on rule of thumb, power budget

figures and reported energy usage from various schools and consider these to

represent the state of the art in school illumination. Either by computation

or by assumption of a certain built-in extravagance, a percentage reduction

can be applied to these figures, and the new figure can be considered as a starting energy budget. This approach, which has strong champions, still

gives no information as to whether the original assumptions in any way reflect

an efficient use of ilumination, an essential idea if energy budgets are to

be effective in reducing energy use in buildings to those levels that are necessary for the satisfactory performance of the activities that take place

within those buildings. In order to determine these levels, there must be

an actual computation using a lighting approach which is in fact energy efficient, reasonable, and within the working knowledge of the profession and the

technical capacity of the industry that provides the components. It is this

latter approach that was taken in the sample energy budget analysis for

illumination in schools.

A typical elementary school building was selected as a vehicle for establishing a target budget. This school had a variety of different kinds of teach28
ing spaces and administrative and service spaces. The assumed schedule for

the school was a typical elementary school schedule that probably characterizes the vast majority of elementary schools throughout the country.

The size of the school and the variety of spaces make the recommendations

applicable for most elementary schools. Smaller schools would have fewer

spaces and might not have some of the spaces provided in the program.

Larger schools would have more spaces but probably not more types of

spaces. Open classroom schools in general would have larger area spaces,

but these would have illumination requirements substantially similar to

the more typical classrooms

The illumination was laid out based on the performance characteristics of

reasonably well-designed, commercially available luminaires. The computations are not that marginal that there is no leeway either in fixture type

or in lighting arrangement. It is assumed that as fixture design improves

throughout the industry, and as the light quality and output of the lamps

themselves improve, the illumination called for can be provided with a lower power budget and energy budget.

The sample computations that were made for an elementary school situation

would have to be tested and amplified for secondary schools, and for

colleges and universities. These buildings, which are inherently more

complex, also tend to be less typical and more specialized. Nevertheless,

both the approach and the analysis of many of the components would be

applicable to these buildings.

Central to the determination of any budget is the determination of appropriate light levels to be provided. The performance criteria are related

to the Federal Office Building criteria accepted by FEA and GSA for those

buildings. They are above the IES recommendations that pertained prior

to 1958 and are above the recommendations of the British Government in

their Bulletin No. 33 on "Lighting in Schools" (ref. 6).

There has been a three-level approach to the lighting standards in the

present study. For the greatest number of spaces—the classrooms —a background level of 30 footcandles (325 lux) is provided. A task lighting

level would increase this to approximately 60 footcandles (650 lux)

at critical areas such as chalkboards and bulletin boards which are provided with higher light levels. Circulation areas are designed

for not over 10 (110 lux) footcandles, average. While specific room

configurations provided the basis for the computation and detailed layouts,

none of these were so unusual or uncharacteristic as to prevent the

transfer of the conclusions to rooms of other dimensions and other

configurations. The tasks assumed were typical but were not so special

to the layouts that other requirements could not have been met within the

connected allowances provided. A minimal credit was taken for the contribution of outside light, and only in those kinds of rooms where its provision could reasonaly be expected.

29
I

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00

•H

Pn

I

30

Methodology

flow

chart

with

decimal

references

to

work

format.
It is important to realize that with an energy budget based on task lighting,

the opportunity for selected use of the task lighting when the task is being

performed is fundamental to the design approach and the computations. If

the task lighting were considered to be on at all times, the power load and

the energy budget could well be greater than a system with only minimally

satisfactory area lighting. The layouts must therefore provide for extensive

individual switching, and we must assume that the user will be sufficiently

in sympathy with the intent of the installation to use the system as intended.

It is therefore important in accepting the connected loads that were developed

in the study to keep them coupled to the provision of the related control

switching in order to keep the annual use within the energy budget. In the

specifications for illumination design, it is necessary to maintain the distinction between the connected power load for area lighting and the connected

power load for task lighting. In other words, the application of these standards will not be a single power load per square foot as carte blanche for the

designer, but rather a power load for area lighting, a power load for task

lighting, and a requirement for adequate switching.

The methodology is based on the graphic flow diagram developed by the Task

Force with decimal references that tie into the step-by-step work format

described below (See figure 4.1). The format includes information that that

may be pertinent for some locations but not all. (For example, a school

designed for primarily winter use in Nome Alaska would have less access to

natural light as a replacement for artifical light, particularly during the

November, December, January months. The hours for utilizing certain lights

would be modified in relation to this information). Where the information is

unessential, it has been considered not applicable but has not been deleted

from the methodological sequence.

The information that follows describes limitations on the use of the methodology.

1. Further investigation and verification of the various assumed levels

and quality of delivered illumination for the tasks to be performed.

2. Modifications of requirements to satisfy the actual building under

study versus the model building.

3. Addition of site illumination (site considerations vary widely

for actual buildings).

4. Modification of schedule to satisfy the intended use of the actual

building versus the model building.

5. Determination of the latitude of the building and its location (East

or West) in its time zone, for inclusion in program.

6. Special spaces not covered in the model building would have to be

added.

31
7. The master program applicable as a base for all buildings of its

type would be in catalog form with all assumptions and limitations

described for each generic space.

Outline of the Methodology

1. General project information

1.1 Building type e.g. school

1.11

sub categories e.g. elementary, k-6

1.2 Location (geographic)

1.21 position in time zone - E or W (re daylight hours)

and latitude

1.22 building orientation

1.3 Schedule - hours of operation - extent of operation

1.4 Population served

1.41 special characteristics

2. List of spaces by type - general description

2.01 Type 01 space

2.011 area of unit

2.012 number of units

2.013 orientation

2.014 fenestration

2.015 special requirements

2.016 space utilization patterns (see 6.1)

2.02 Type 02 space

2.03 Etc.

3. List of spaces by type - illumination requirements

3.01 Type 01 space

3.011 basic illumination (general lighting)

3.0111 Purpose A (Amount and quality of light required)

(Illumination Utilization factor)

3.0112 Purpose B (Amount and quality of light required)

(Illumination utilization factor)

3.012 supplemental illumination (task lighting)

3.0121 Purpose A (same as above)

3.0122 Purpose B (same as above)

3.0123 Etc.

3.013 security illumination

3.014 no illumination

3.02 Type 02 spaces

3.03 Etc.

32
4 . Hours of use for required illumination described in 3.00 per KEY to

ANNUAL HOURS DESIGNATION* 4.01

Type 01 space - Annual hours of use for various illuminations

4.011 Hours for general lighting

4.0111 Hours for Purpose A

4.0112 Hours for Purpose B

4.012 Task lighting

4.0121 Hours for Purpose A

4.0122 Hours for Purpose B

4.0123 Etc.

4.013 Hours for security lighting

4.02 Type 02 space - (See type 01 space)

4.03 Etc.

5. Light delivery components - power and performance characteristics

5.11 Component A (power and performance characteristics)

5.12 Component B ( " "

"

) 5.13 Component C ( ” "

”

) 5.14 Etc.

6. Light delivery components - utilization hours

hours of use = (Annual hours of space use) x (illumination

utilization factor, 3.00).

Annual hours of space use = sum of hours for listed Space

Utilization Patterns, 2.006

6.1 Space Utilization Patterns

6.11 Pattern A (in hours/yr)

6.12 Pattern B (in hours/yr)

6.13 Etc.

* Month Week Day Hours

1 a.m.

1 1 1 1 -

2 25 -

3 49 -

4 73 -

5 97 -

6 121 -

7 145 -

2 8 169 -

9 193 - Etc.

Normal School

Midnight Illumination Hours

24 8 16

48 32 40

72 56 64

96 80 88

120 104 112

144 128 132

168

192 176 184

216 200 208

KEY to ANNUAL HOURS DESIGNATION

33
6.2

Utilization hours - calculation

6.201 Space type 01

6.202 Space type 02

6.203 Etc.

7. Lighting design for each space - in terms of illumination requirements

(3.00) given as component type (5.00) and number of components.

7.01 Space type 01

7.011 Basic illumination

7.0111 Purpose A (component type & No.)

7.0112 Purpose B (component type & No.)

7.012 Supplemental illumination

7.0121 Purpose A (same as above)

7.0122 Etc.

7.02 Space type 02

7.03 Etc.

8. Energy Consumption Calculation (kWh/hr)

Space Energy Consumption = sum for all illumination purposes

of (Lighting Design, 7.00) x (Utilization hours)

8.01 Space type 01

8.011 Basic illumination

8.0111 Purpose A

(component power char.)x(No. of components) = load

(load)x(utilization hours) = energy consumption

8.0112 Purpose B (same as above)

8.012 Supplemental illumination

8.0121 Purpose A

8.0122 Purpose B

8.0123 Etc.

9.

Establishment of Annual Lighting Energy Budget

I of all spaces Energy Consumption

total SF of bldg area Annual Lighting Energy Per

Unit Area, kWh/ft^*yr (J/nr*yr)

34
NBS School Worksheet Description

A worksheet for each space has been made (see Figure 4.2) that:

1. restates the space type, size, and number (from 2.00)

2. gives the space use patterns and total space use hours (this could be

added to information given in the example outline).

3. lists illumination requirements for each lighting use (this could be

included in the example outline).

4. establishes lighting design for each use with a diagram (this also could

be included in the example outline).

5. calculates the load for each lighting use.

6. totals the above to give the connected load for the space.

7. calculates actual illumination hours for each lighting use from information given in 2 and 3 above: (annual space use) x (illumination utilization factor).

8. calculates energy consumption for each lighting use from information

established in items 5 and 7 above: (load) x (actual illumination hours).

9. totals energy consumption for each lighting use to give the energy con- sumption for each space.

4.2 APPLICATION OF METHOD

Since the methodology is based on determining the energy budget required for

performance of teaching and learning tasks in a school under redefined criteria for providing this illuminated environment, it is not possible merely

to extrapolate from previous installations in a so-called state-of-the-art

exercise. Rather, it is necessary to understand the complete set of educational requirements in a school and understand how each of these makes its

own unique demands for lighting. This was the approach and the test both

for the methodology and for the resulting recommended figures.

Using the methodology described under IV-A, the typical school was analyzed.

The worksheets developed for space-by-space analysis are included in Appendix III.

35
SCHOOL

WORKSHEET -

Space

Ty|>e

Kindergarten

Q • a W N L Z tM 3 CN z • 33 r C 4H o u on •H x U-I KH

a o> z AJ

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a)

a q.X

a 00 rH rH

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r\.

—

OJ E o PS C o o -h a u •• 0) c cj • • eg u j z a a CL NO N 3 3 < UJ

a) CT E X

r

CO f4J c. c z r C X c 0 a c. a o << o ON X NA X f— 2 4J I—1

4-1 0J rH CVJ

m r^.

L V- c E— cd

x

a >3-

m rH NA rH 0 c 01 < X rH

u^ u_ c CN • 1h o E O 0) o c c. J 3 4J CJ c G E HH CJ CO i CN C H —1 3 C X in u 33 m t a

4-1

a aj UQ a o o < on an z m 3 3 o •— a

4J

X 00 00 <r o /—V y«—S

"X5 4-) 00 o 00 o X

X c

cn r*> 3 <3 in 0J .CVJ NA •O'

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c. 3 4-i E 0 <3 Z c a. 3

00 o HH u3 Cd 4J o Q c X 03 C C 0) ^ f-H rH NA CVJ 00 NA Z O Cl cn o o O O o

\D 1— C. >A ^ • • • • • H X m m m rH o

ii CJ

u # X

Xa

na o NO NA •o <r rH rH z

i\j

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U

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cvJ ooON oX o co

4J *H

M

CO 4-1 o o O o o o CJ CD o c a 4_i 00 NA rH cu rH JQ c •rt N o • • • • • • E co m 3 r-4 Ul rH *H

rH 4J CJ

a cj

v

r

X rH V3

N*-*' E—Z

01 Um

aX z cj o o o 1 i X

a .U X X U-i NA NA X 1 i •H OS

4H c 0) rHL a) •H 3 o x 'O O c nj O' u X 4J a ( — )

U-j Cl LU 01 X. o o

<u o an PS 4H rH a> c <+- dj CO a •i—) > o l> rH z E a X o H 01 m o •i-i 4J CJ M •»

tt Xi 3 HH

U CL

m

0) 0) E C

H o> 0) i 1 1 CVJ

'J

U 3 c < CO rH CL

tt < Z <2 Z X CO E E E

c. HH

u i rH rH rH

to 0) CL CL CL

r- PM NO s Ca CL CL CL • • o o o X 0) <v 3 3 3 X o o o X 00 00 CO CO CO o • • • >—» 3«

PM CN CN >1

a • 0) < rsj CD X o X OJ wQ

36

Fig.

4.2-

Example

of

school

worksheet
Example

1. General Project Information

1.1 School

1.11 elementary - kindergarten through sixth grade

2. List of Spaces by type, number, and area

2.01 Kindergarten Classroom

2.02 Classroom 1-3 grade

2.03 Classrooms, 4-6 grade

2.04 Special tutorial rooms

2.05 Music Room

2.06 Instrument Storage

2.07 Cafeteria

2.08 Food prep & Service

2.09 Gymnasium

2.10 Gymnasium Office

2.11 Gymnasium Lockers

2.12 Gymnasium Toilet Rooms

2.13 Gymnasium Showers

2.14 Auditorium Seating

2.15 Auditorium Stage

2.16 Auditorium Dressing Room

2.17 Auditorium Toilets

2.18 School Offices

2.19 Principal's Office

2.20 Teachers' Room

2.21 Library

2.22 Librarian's Office

2.23 Entrance - Lobby

2.24 All Corridors

2.25 All Stairs

2.26 Boiler Room

2.27 Fan Rooms

2.28 Storage

2.29 Toilet Rooms

2.30 Janitor's Closets

TOTAL

4 @ 900 SF 3,600

12 @ 750 SF 9,000

12 @ 750 SF 9,000

4 @ 375 SF 1,500

1 @ 900 SF 900

1 @ 150 SF 150

1 @ 6,000 SF 6,000

1 @ 2,000 SF 2,000

1 @ 4,800 SF 4,800

1 @ 100 SF 100

1 @ 300 SF 300

1 @ 300 SF 300

1 @ 200 SF 200

1 @ 3,000 SF 3,000

1 @ 1,000 SF 1,000

1 @ 200 SF 200

1 @ 100 SF 100

1 @ 2,000 SF 2,000

1 @ 200 SF 200

2 @ 200 SF 400

1 @ 1,200 SF 1,200

1 @ 300 SF 300

1 1,500 SF 1,500

LS 9,000 SF 9,000

LS 1,500 SF 1,500

1 @ 3,000 SF 3,000

LS 800 SF 800

1 @ 1,800 SF 1,800

5 @ 300 SF 1,500

(Included in 2.29)

65,350 SF

37
3 List of spaces by type - Illumination Requirements

(see worksheets in Appendix III)

4. Not applicable

5. Light Delivery Components

W/SF to Obtain

Type Source Reflector Diffuser W 10 FC 30 FC 60 FC

5.01 2-4' fluor aluminum none 96 0.3 1.0 1.6

5.02 1-8' fluor aluminum none 96 0.3 1.0 1.6

5.03 1-4' fluor aluminum none 52 0.3 1.0 1.6

5.04 1-4' fluor aluminum acrylic 52 0.6 1.6 3.3

5.05 incandescent desk lamp none 60 - - - 5.06 incandescent downlite none 150 1.9 5.7 11.4

5.07 mercury vapor aluminum none 700 0.4 1.1 2.2

5.08 projector - - 400 - - - 5.09 incandescent RLM none 150 1.6 4.8 9.6

5.10 incandescent RLM none 200 1.1 3.2 5.6

5.11 incandescent RLM none 300 0.9 2.8 5.2

5.12 2-4' fluor aluminum acrylic 96 0.6 1.6 3.3

5.13 spotlights metal - 200 - - -

6. Light Delivery Components - Utilization Hours

6.1 Space Utilization Patterns

Season (see note)

6.01 winter

6.02 winter

6.03 winter

6.04 winter

6.05 winter

6.06 winter

6.07 winter

6.08 winter (night)

6.09 winter

6.10 winter (night)

6.11 summer

6.12 summer

6.13 summer

6.14 summer

days/wk hrs/day hrs/yr

6 7 1,819

5 1/2 9 2,145

5 1/2 7 1,667

5 1/2 5 1,191

5 1/2 3 714

5 1/2 2 476

5 8 1,732

2 3 260

1 5 216

1 3 130

5 1/2 4 191

5 1/2 3 144

5 1/2 2 96

3 3 78

note: winter = Sep to Jun = 10 mo = 43.3 wks/yr

summer = Jul to Aug = 2 mo = 8.7 wks/yr

6.2 Utilization Hours - Calculation

(see worksheets in Appendix III)

38
7. Lighting Design for Each Space

(see worksheets in Appendix III)

8. Energy Consumption Calculation

(see worksheets in Appendix III)

9.

Establishment of Lighting Requirements

kWh/

SF SF kWh W/SF W

2.01 Kindergarten classrooms 3,600 1.34 4,828 2.06 7,424

2.02 Classrooms, 1-3 grades 9,000 1.68 15,132 2.35 21,120

2.03 Classrooms, 4-6 grades 9,000 1.38 12,432 2.35 21,120

2.04 Special tutorial rooms 1,500 0.55 824 2.60 3,904

2.05 Music room 900 1.19 1,068 1.62 1,456

2.06 Instrument storage 150 0.12 18 0.35 52

2.07 Cafeteria 6,000 0.51 3,078 0.99 5,952

2.08 Food prep & serving 2,000 1.16 2,328 1.15 2,304

2.09 Gymnasium 4,800 1.79 8,615 1.23 5,900

2.10 Gymnasium office 100 1.43 143 1.56 156

2.11 Gymnasium lockers 300 0.66 197 0.35 104

2.12 Gymnasium toilets 300 1.87 561 0.99 296

2.13 Gymnasium showers 200 1.82 364 0.96 192

2.14 Auditorium seating 3,000 0.15 457 0.29 864

2.15 Auditorium stage 1,000 1.55 1,551 3.88 3,876

2.16 Auditorium dressing room 200 0.27 54 1.44 288

2.17 Auditorium toilets 100 0.65 65 3.00 300

2.18 School offices 2,000 1.74 3,474 1.64 3,288

2.19 Principal's office 200 1.28 256 1.26 252

2.20 Teachers ' rooms 400 1.60 638 1.52 608

2.21 Library 1,200 1.67 2,009 1.71 2,056

2.22 Librarian's office 300 1.27 382 1.16 348

2.23 Entrance - Lobby 1,500 3.16 4,735 2.18 3,276

2.24 All corridors 9,000 0.84 7,560 0.32 2,912

2.25 All stairs 1,500 1.08 1,620 0.42 624

2.26 Boiler room 3,000 0.22 672 0.40 1,212

2.27 Fan rooms 800 0.25 203 0.44 348

2.28 Storage 1,800 0.06 113 0.32 576

2.29 Toilets 1,500 1.93 2,890 1.19

65,350 1.17 76,267 1.42 92,598

Lighting Energy Budget = H

J Wo SF^

= 1,17

39
This resulted in an overall Power Budget of 1.42 watts per square foot

and an overall Energy Budget of 1.17 kilowatt hours per square foot. By

going back to the worksheets, a further breakdown by space type or unit

permits the separation into General lighting and Task lighting, with W

and kWh for each unit. Using these watts and kilowatt hours per square

foot and multiplying by the number of square feet of each unit in the

school, new totals were computed, which showed watts and kilowatt hours

per square foot for the entire school divided between General lighting

(0.81 W/SF and 0.91 kWh/SF) and Task lighting (0.60 W/SF and 0.26 kWh/SF).

It can be seen that the connected load for General lighting is used about

1,120 hours a year, but the load for Task lighting is used only for about

420 hours on the average. (See Figure 4.3)

For wider applicability, all spaces have been grouped in more generic

categories (see figure 4.3 for category assignments):

Teaching spaces

Administrative and Office spaces

Auditorium

Gymnasium

Cafeteria

Service, Circulation and Mechanical Spaces

These in turn have been examined to determine watts per square foot con- nected load for Power Budgets, and kilowatt-hours per square foot for

Energy Budgets in both General and Task Lighting Categories (see Table 1 below). The resulting Power and Energy Budgets for these categories form

the basis for a simplified procedure to determine Annual Lighting

Budgets

.

TABLE 1. SUMMARY OF ILLUMINATION REQUIREMENTS BY MAJOR EDUCATIONAL CATEGORIES

CATEGORY AREA CONNECTED ANNUAL POWER ENERGY

LIGHTING ELECTRIC BUDGET BUDGET

LOAD (W) USE (kWh) (W/SF) (kWh/SF)

GEN TASK GEN TASK GEN TASK GEN TASK

TEACHING 25,350 25,492 31,640 26,710 9,601 1.01 1.25 1.05 0.38

OFFICE, ADMIN 3,000 2,976 1,676 3,216 1,677 0.99 0.56 1.07 0.56

AUDITORIUM 4,300 2,160 3,168 860 1,267 0.50 0.74 0.20 0.29

GYMNASIUM 5,600 6,388 104 9,540 197 1.14 0.02 1.70 0.04

CAFETERIA 8,000 6,720 1,536 4,014 1,392 0.84 0.19 0.50 0.17

SERV, CIRC, MECH 19,100 9,330 1,408 15,170 2,623 0.49 0.07 0.79 0.14

40
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41 i

Fig.

4.3"

Tabulation

of

General

and

Task

lighting

requirements,

with

category

assignments
4.3 SIMPLIFIED PROCEDURES FOR DETERMINING SCHOOL ILLUMINATION BUDGET

A simplified procedure has been developed to permit the design of lighting

layouts which conform to the criteria established in the previous section,

without duplicating the analytical process. The procedure is based on a description of building conditions and square foot energy budgets that can be

used either on an overall or a department-by-department basis. For a specific

school, the energy budget can be directly determined from the information

developed for the prototype or can be modified if the school varies significantly from the prototype either in facilties, program, or schedule. If

schedule is the one difference between the specific school and the prototype,

the power budget would remain the same, but the annual energy budget would be

modified to accommodate this variation. The prototype school is based on a programmed use of 1,667 hours per year (or 43 weeks at 38 1/2 hours). The

lighting layout must provide at least one switch for the general illumination

for each 300 square foot of floor area and a separate switch for each task

light. For initial budget puposes, this can be considered one control per

50 watts of task lighting power budget.

The prototype school is a K-6 school for 700 pupils at approximately 100

square feet per pupil. The following chart (Figure 4.4), "A Short Method for

Determining Illumination Budgets (Power and Energy) for Elementary Schools,"

gives values in watts per square foot for general and task budgets according

to teaching spaces and kilowatt hour per square foot for general and task

uses for an energy budget.

The short method can be used in its simplest form by applying the overall

power and energy densities for general and task lighting to the gross area of

the school. This would result in total power and energy densities of 1.6

watts per square foot and 1.3 kilowatt-hours per square foot respectively,

somewhat higher than the detailed analysis yielded for the prototype (1.41

and 1.17). Should the schools distribution of space by category vary significantly from the prototype, new figures can be developed by applying the new "percent of space per category" figures to the tabulated densities, and

summing to obtain the four density values. For example, a space distribution

of 60% Teaching, 5% Office, no Auditorium, 10% Gymnasium, 5% Cafeteria, and

20% Service, Circulation and Mechanical would yield total densities of 1.77

watts per square foot and 1.40 kilowatt-hours per square foot. Should the

schedule for the school vary significantly from the prototype, the energy

budget can be modified by the ratio of annual operating hours of the two

schools

42
A SHORT METHOD FOR DETERMINING ILLUMINATION BUDGETS

(POWER AND ENERGY) FOR ELEMENTARY SCHOOLS

SPACE

CATEGORY

POWER BUDGET ENERGY BUDGET % OF SPACE

PER CATEGORY

IN PROTOTYPE

Gen

W/SF

Task

W/SF

Gen

kWh/SF

Task

kWh/SF

Teaching Spaces 1.0 1.3 1.1 0.4 39%

Office & Admin 1.0 0.6 1.1 0.6 5

Auditorium 0.5 0.8 0.2 0.3 7

Gymnasium 1.2 0.1 1.7 0.1 8

Cafeteria 0.9 0.2 0.5 0.2 12

Serv, Circ, Mech 0.5 0.1 0.8 0.2 29

Overall 0.9 0.7 1.0 0.3 100%

Fig. 4.4 Short method for school illumination budgets.

43
4.4 CONCLUSIONS

In order to set up energy budgets, three steps were undertaken. First was

the determination of an acceptable difinition of the energy budget; second,

the development of a methodology that could be applied for all conditions,

and third, a detailed utilization of that methodology to test its applicability to several different building types. Based on the detailed study for

schools, a simplified procedure was developed and conclusions were drawn in

regard to the widest possible use of the resulting recommended standards.

The Energy Budget is the amount of energy permitted annually for the operation of the systems within buildings. Since artificial illumination represents a part of the building's electrical use, and both modifies and is

modified by other systems, its budget can be looked at only as a component in an overall budget.

From the designers' point of view, while the budget describes the annual functioning of the installed system, it is the installed system which is actually

detailed and specified on the architectural and engineering documents. The

installed system has a connected load that represents the Power Budget, but

until a time of use factor is added, the Energy Budget is purely theoretical.

Users' housekeeping patterns, schedule of usage, and maintenance procedures

can produce large variations in energy usage without changing power load.

Moreover, verification is difficult, and in most cases, impossible. The

source for verification of a lighting budget would be the monthly electric

utility bills. The problems in policing these and comparing the results

against projected energy budgets are immense—technically, politically, and

constitutionally. There is also the problem of identifying which part of the

electric bill is related to lighting. Even if the lights were metered separately, task lighting, a major component in an energy-efficient lighting

scheme, is often provided through the convenience outlet circuits, along with

electricity for office machines, water coolers, vacuum cleaners and television

sets. Where the various energy budgets for different systems are combined

into a single annual electrical energy budget, there is the assumption that

the building user can determine trade-offs—more illumination can be provided

if there is less ventilating fan usage, for example.

Since the initial control, and probably the most effective one, takes place

when the school building is designed and filed for government approvals, the

buildings filed will have to be assumed to be capable of being operated at

the energy budget assigned. Since this is dependent on a low level of general light plus extensive dependence on task illumination, the filing must

differentiate between the connected loads in the power budget in each category and must also have a demonstrated capability of allowing the selective

operation on which the energy budget depends. This means that control mechanisms, switches, must be installed or provided for generally in the amount

noted under IV-C above. Simplified Procedure.

44
Ultimately, after schools have been designed and built to these criteria, the

situation will have been established where performance can be measured. As

has been mentioned frequently, the illumination use of electricity cannot be

separated from all the other electrical usages even with separate metering

because of the use of the convenience outlet circuits for task lighting. It

is therefore obvious that the budget can be verified only as part of the

total electrical use budget which includes the electrical use for mechanical

equipment, connected equipment and the discretionary electrical uses that

must be provided for all times.

Based on these projections, the school would use about 1.17 kilowatt hours

per square feet per year. By way of comparison, a detailed examination of

New York City public schools, conducted in 1974 and using the recorded

experience of 1,000 schools in the systems, indicated an electric use that

averaged 3.86 kilowatt hours per square foot for oil-heated schools and 3.11

kilowatt hours per square foot for the older, coal-heated schools; an NBS

analysis of these figures indicated that 61 percent of the electrical use was

for lighting. This would be 2.35 kilowatt hours for lighting in the oilheated schools and 1.90 kilowatt hours per square foot in the coal-heated

schools. A study made at that time of an efficient lighting scheme indicated

a 60 percent savings in the oil-heated category or an energy use of 1.41 kilowatt hours per square foot per square foot per year. The hours of usage were

somewhat greater than those in a prototypical case which suggests that the

1.17 kilowatt hours is, in fact, a realistic and achievable annual energy use

per square foot for schools.

45
REFERENCES

1. Low Energy Utilization School Research, Phase I: Interim Report , Richard Stein and Carl Stein, U.S. Government Printing Office,

Washington DC 20402, Stock No. 3800-00194, August 1974. Research

for the New York City Board of Education.

2. Low Energy Utilization School Phase 2 Report , Richard G. Stein,

Carl Stein, Paul F. Deibert, U.S. Department of Commerce, National

Technical Information Service, Springfield, Virginia 22161,

PB-269 407/3WE. NSF/RA-77/0032 , March 31, 1977. For the New York

City Board of Education.

3. IES Lighting Handbook , Illuminating Engineering Society, Fifth

Edition, 1972.

4. Architecture and Energy , Richard G. Stein, FAIA. Anchor Books,

Anchor Press/Doubleday, Garden City, New York 1978.

5 . Building Classification System Phase One - Base Data for the

Development of Energy Performance Standards for New Buildings , U.S. Department of Housing and Urban Development, Office of Policy

Development and Research, November 10, 1977.

6. Lighting in Schools , Department of Education and Science Building

Bulletin 33. London: Her Majesty's Stationery Office, 1967

Tillotson (Bolton) Ltd. S. 0. Code No. 27-373-33.

46
5. BUILDING TYPE STUDY - RESIDENCE 5.1

GENERAL

This section describes how the methodology of Chapter 2 can be used to determine the annual lighting energy budget for residences on unit building area

basis, so that the lighting energy budget can be combined with the energy

budget of other building subsystems to constitute a single building energy

budget.

5.1.1 Residential Building Classifications

Residential buildings can be divided into the following classifications.

For purpose of this study, hotels and dormitories are excluded.

1.1 Single family detached

1.2 Single family attached (flats, duplex, townhouses, etc.)

1.3 Multi-family, low-rise (condominiums, apartments, etc.)

1.4 Multi-family, high-rise (condominiums, apartments, etc.)

5.1.2 Characteristics of Lighting Energy Consumption in Residential

Buildings

Insofar as lighting energy consumption is concerned, there should be no difference between the living spaces, such as bedrooms, living rooms, kitchen,

dining areas, bathrooms, etc., for all classes of residential buildings.

However, the lighting usage in residences is more "people" oriented than

"area" related. It can be readily identified that a large residence will

normally require more energy for heating and/or air conditioning, but a larger residence with few people may consume less lighting energy than a smaller residence having more people. The difference could be further amplified by a number of people-oriented factors, such as:

2.1 No. of occupants in residence

2.2 Mix of occupants—adults vs. children

2.3 Age of adult occupants—retired, working age, etc.

2.4 Age of children—pre-school, elementary school, high school

and college age groups

2.5 Working habit of adults—husband or wife work only, both work

or not working

2.6 Social habit of occupants—stay more at home, have frequent

visitors or guests, seldom stay at home, etc.

2.7 Use of residence—permanent home, summer or winter home, etc.

2.8 Economic background of occupants

2.9 Educational background of occupants

When all factors identified above are taken into consideration, it is not

difficult to conclude that the annual lighting energy consumption of two

identical residences could have extreme differences even if both families are energy conscious.

47
Attempts have been made to study the behavior of a "typical" American family,

but who is a typical American family? There is so much individuality among

people that neither a so-called "typical" or "average" family, based on national census data, can be used to establish a realistic lighting budget

for all families. It would appear that the energy budget for residential

buildings should be based on a combination criteria of building size and

character of occupants. Since the character of occupants may change from

year to year, the budget for residences would have to be modified annually,

if necessary.

Fortunately, lighting energy consumption is normally small when compared to

other uses. For example, take a 1000 sq. ft. single family residence of a middle income family, total lighting installed would probably be between

2,000 to 3,000 watts operating not more than 2 hours per day on the overall

basis. In the meantime, the total amount of electrical appliances could

exceed 20,000 watts for televisions, range, oven, toaster, refrigerator,

washer and dryer, not counting electrical power for heating, air conditioning,

or hot water.

The energy per square foot basis is the simplest workable solution for non- residential buildings. For the sake of a unified approach to determine

annual energy consumption of all building types, this same methodology to

determine lighting energy consumption on a square foot basis will also be

tested on residential buildings.

5.2

METHODOLOGY

5.2.1

General Project Information

5. 2.

1.1

Building Type - Residential

5. 2. 1.1.1 Single Family - Detached and Attached

5. 2. 1.1. 2 Multi-family - Low-rise and High-rise

5. 2. 1.2 Geographic location - Minimum impact

5. 2. 1.3 Occupancy - Varies

5. 2. 1.4 Time of Use - Varies

5. 2. 1.5 Orientation - Minimum impact

5.2.2 Spaces by Type - General Description

5. 2.

2.1

Living Spaces

5. 2. 2. 1.1

5. 2. 2. 1.2

5. 2. 2. 1.3

5. 2. 2. 1.4

5. 2. 2. 1.5

5. 2. 2. 1.6

5. 2. 2. 1.7

Living and Family Room

Dining Room

Kitchen

Bedrooms

Bath Rooms

Hallways

Laundry

48
5. 2. 2.

Other Spaces

5. 2. 2. 2.1

5. 2. 2. 2.

5. 2. 2. 2.

5. 2. 2. 2.

5. 2. 2. 2.

5. 2. 2. 2.

5. 2. 2. 2.

5. 2. 2. 2.

5. 2. 2. 2.

5.2.2.2.10

5.2.2.2.11

5.2.2.2.12

5.2.2.2.13

5.2.2.2.14

Attic Spaces - unfinished and finished

Basement - unfinished and finished

Deck, Porch or Patio

Driveway or walkway

Entrances - front and rear Garage

Hallways or Public Corridors

Laundry - community or public

Mechanical Room

Parking Lot

Stair, public

Public or Community Spaces - Lounge, Game, Dining,

Storage

Etc.

etc.

5.2.3 Spaces by Type - Illumination Requirements

5. 2. 3.1 Living Spaces - Lighting installation of most living spaces in residences are generally on task lighting basis employing a variety of

lighting equipment and concepts. Thus, lighting power required can

be best evaluated on an overall layout basis. For this purpose,

five residential plans ranging from a 580 sq. ft. efficiency apartment to a 2,000 sq. ft. 2-story house have been selected as illustrated in Figures 5.1 through 5.5 (Reference 4). The unit power

density (UPD) of all these plans fall consistently btween 2.2 and

2.5 watts/sq. ft. It can be concluded that 2.3 watts/sq. ft. should

be a reasonable UPD for living spaces for all residential sizes and

classes

5. 2. 3. 2 Other Spaces - Lighting requirements for other spaces identified in

5. 2. 2.varies widely in size and use. These could be determined individually as follows:

UPD POWER

TASKS /AREAS (W/SF) ALLOWANCE (W) REMARKS

1 . Attic, unfinished 0.1 - Average 2 fc

2. Basement, unfinished 0.25 - Average 5 fc

3. Basement, finished 0.5 - Average 10 fc

4. Deck, Porch or Patio - 200 (2) 100-watt

5. Driveway or Walkway - 100 per 50 linear feet

6 . Garage 0.25 - ASHRAE 90-75 (R)

7. Hallways/Public Corridors 0.25 - ASHRAE 90-75 (R)

8. Laundry, Public 0.25 - ASHRAE 90-75 (R)

9. Mechanical Room 0.25 - ASHRAE 90-75 (R)

10. Parking Lot 0.05 - Minimum 1 fc

11. Stair, Public - 100 200 SF per floor

12. Public (community) 2.0 — Lounge, Lobby,

Cafeteria, etc.

13. Storage 0.25 - ASHRAE 90-75 (R)

14. Etc. - - as required

49
24 '- 0

'

i

TOTAL FLOOR AREA = 580 S.F.

FLOOR PLAN OF A TYPICAL EFFICIENCY APARTMENT

a 2 4 3 U~1 f 1

NOMINAL LIGHTING POWER LOADS

ROOM AREA (sf) LOAD (w) REMARKS

LIVING ROOM 144 350 (3) TABLE

DINING ROOM 108 175 (1) TABLE. (1) CEILING KITCHEN 72 320 ASHRAE 90-75R BEDROOM 120 325 (31 TABLE BATHROOM 40 160 ASHRAE 90-75R

MISCELLANEOUS 96 HALLWAY 60 (1) CEILING ENTRANCE LIGHT 60 (1) WALL

TOTAL 580 sf 1450 w

UPO 2.5 w/sf

Fig. 5.1 - Efficiency apartment50
30*-0"

TOTAL FLOOR AREA = 900 S.F.

FLOOR PLAN OF A TYPICAL 2-BED ROOM APARTMENT OR HOUSE

0 2 4 g LSI I 1

NOMINAL LIGHTING POWER LOADS

ROOM AREA (sf> LOAD (w) REMARKS

UVING ROOM 210 425 (4) TABLE

KITCHEN/DINING 156 400 ASHRAE 90-75R 8EDROOM 1 154 350 (3) TABLE 8EDROOM 2 132 32S (3) TA8LE

BATHROOM 40 160 ASHRAE 90-75R BATHROOM 40 160 ASHRAE 90—75R

MISCELLANEOUS 168 HALLWAY 60 (1) CEILING ENTRANCE LIGHT SO (1) WALL

TOTAL 900 rf 1940 «v UPD 2.2 w/rf

Fig. 5.2 - Two-bedroom dwelling.

51
28"<r

*r-cr

TOTAL FLOOR AREA = 1,180 S.F.

FLOOR PLAN OF A TYPICAL RANCH HOUSE

0 2 4 8

NOMINAL LIGHTING POWER LOADS

ROOMS AREA (sf) LOAD (w) REMARKS

LIVING ROOM 190 475 (3) TABLE, (11 FLOOR

DINING ROOM 168 32S (21 TABLE, (1) CEILING KITCHEN 126 400 ASHRAE 90—75R BEDROOM 1 156 350 (3) TABLE BEDROOM 2 120 2S0 (2) TABLE BEDROOM 3 120 32S (3) TABLE BATHROOM 40 160 ASHRAE 90—75R BATHROOM 50 160 ' ASHRAE 90—75R

MISCELLANEOUS 210 HALLWAY 120 (2) CEILING ENTRANCE LIGHT 60 (1) WALL

TOTAL 1180 sf 2625 w

UPD 2.2 w/if

Fig. 5.3 Ranch house 52
jr-o"

i, TOTAL FLOOR AREA - 1,320 S.F.

UPPER FIOOR PLAN Of A TYPICAL TOWNHOUSE LOWER FLOOR PLAN OF A TYPICAL TOWNHOUSE

NORMAL LIGHTING POWER LOADS ROOM AREA (If) LOAD (wl REMARKS

LIVING/DINING ROOM 240 960 (41 TABLE. (1) CEILING

ICJTCHEN 90 400 ASHRAE 90—75R FAMILY ROOM 90 200 (11 CEILJNG. (1) FLOOR BEDROOM 1 170 460 (A) TABLE. (1) FLOOR BEDROOM 2 90 250 12) TABLE SCOROOM 3 90 250 (2) TABLE BATHROOM 40 ICO ASHRAE 90—75R BATHROOM 40 190 ASHRAE 90-75R

1/2 SATH 19 100 ASHRAE 90-75R

MISCELLANEOUS 482 HALLWAY ISO (3) CEILING CLOSET SO (1) CEILING STAIRS 200 (2J CEILING ENTRANCE LIGHT SO (11 CEILING

TOTAL 1320 if 3020 w

URO 12 w/t#

1

Fig. 5. A - Townhouse.

53
TOTAL FLOOR AREA = 2,000 S.F. IOWER FLOOR PLAN OF A TYPICAL 2-STORY HOUSE UPPER FIOOR PUN OF. A TYPICAL 2-STORY HOUSE

t i < I 0 7 4 1 i_n i 1 i_n—i

1

NOMINAL LIGHTING POWER LOADS ROOM AREA (if) LOAD (wi REMARKS

UVING ROOM 280 450 (3) TABLE. (1) CEILING

DINING ROOM 168 350 (21 TABLE. Ill CEILING KITCHEN 154 400 ASHRAE 90-75R FAMILY ROOM 154 325 (3) TABLE BEDROOM 1 260 500 (41 TABLE. (11 PLOOR BEDROOM 2 ISO 43S (3) TABLE BEDROOM 3 100 250 (2) TABLE BEDROOM 4 100 250 (2) TABLE BATHROOM (2-GROOMING SPACES) 40 22S ASHRAE 90-75R BATHROOM 40 160 ASHRAE 90-75R % BATH 24 100 ASHRAE 30-75*

1 MISCELLANEOUS 520 1 HALLWAYS i 240 141 CEILING CLOSETS 240 141 CEILING

STAIRS 300 (31 CEILING ENTRANCE LIGHT 120 '21 WALL

1

1 TOTAL 2000 ri 434S w | UPD « 1

i

1

Fig. 5.5 Two-story house.

54
5.2.4

Duration of Use

5. 2. 4.1 Living Spaces - The use of living spaces by occupants of a residence is expected to vary widely. Furthermore, occupants move about

the different living spaces depending on time of day and the many

occupancy factors identified in paragraph 5.1.2. Evaluating the living habits of a number of families with diversified background indicates that a 2-hour average, based on all living spaces, is a reasonable assumption for a median use pattern.

5. 2. 4. 2 Other Spaces - The use of other spaces is quite different, thus must

be assumed individually. The following assumptions are patterns of

median usage.

ASSUMED USAGE

TASKS/AREAS (Hrs/Day) REMARKS

1 . Attic, unfinished Nil

2. Basement, finished 2 Based on 720 hours per year

3. Basement, unfinished 1 Based on 360 hours per year

4. Deck, Porch or Patio 1 Based on 360 hours per year

5. Driveway/Walkway 10 Average from dusk to dawn

6. Garage, private Nil

Garage, Underground 12 24 hours at 50% demand

7. Hallways /Corridors 12* For public security

8. Laundry, public 8 For standby use by tenants

at 50% demand

9. Mechanical Room 1 Based on 360 hours per year

10. Parking Lot 6 Average from dusk to mid-night

11. Stair, private 1 Based on 360 hours per year

Stair, public 12* For public safety

12. Public (community) spaces 6 From 10 AM to 10 PM average

at 50% demand

13. Storage 1 Average 360 hours per year

* Assuming daylighting available

5.2.5 Light Delivery Components - Power and Performance Characteristics

Consolidated with Paragraph 5.2.3

5.2.6 Light Delivery Components - Utilization Hours

Consolidated with Paragraph 5.2.4

5.2.7 Lighting Design for Each Space

Consolidated with Paragraph 5.2.3

55
5.2.8 Energy Consumption Calculations

5. 2. 8.1 Living Spaces - shall be equal to the gross area of living spaces

times UPD (2.3 watts/sq. ft.), times average hours of operation per

day, times 365 days/year.

5. 2. 8. 2 Other Spaces - shall be the power required (watts) of each task or area, times the hours of usage per year.

5.2.9 Establishment of Unit Energy Budget for Lighting (UEB-L) - kWh/SF/YR

The Unit Energy Budget for lighting (UEB-L) can be calculated by

using the UEB/L table shown in Figure-5.6. The procedure is as follows:

5. 2. 9.1 Annual Energy of Space - Wh/YR

Multiply size of space, number of units, UPD or Power allowance, and

annual duration of use.

5. 2. 9.

2

Gross Annual Energy of Spaces - Wh/YR

Summation of annual energy of all spaces including a (1.1) contingency

factor.

5. 2. 9.

3

Building Areas - SF

The total of all spaces for living and basement, but excluding

garage and other not normally integral with the building.

5. 2. 9.

4

Unit Energy Budget for Lighting (UEB-L) - kWh/SF/YR

The quotient of Gross Energy divided by the Building Area.

5.3 APPLICATIONS OF METHODOLOGY

Two residential buildings were selected to illustrate the method for determining the Unit Energy Budget for Lighting (UEB-L). The procedures of 5.2.9

were followed, using the unit power densities of 5.2.3 and the duration values

of 5.2.4. The calculations for a single-family residence and a 200-unit apartment building are shown on the following pages.

56
zo<za

Vi

UJQ >

ffi

aQ

-J

03 I QQ

LUXoz

1-X0 C/5 -J OzQj

h" 5

LU

m 0 _i QX <

i-z

CQ UJo >

CO

LU 0 cr X CE LU O Z

ll LU

1-ZX

00 REMARKS

cc

—n > O I X s -

kWh/yr

PHCO

kWh/SF/yr

n

COXs

ANNUAL ENERGY

IWH/YR x

103)

II

CN 0 a <X

COLUMN 8

LIVING +

BSMT +

PUBLIC

SPACE

ANNUAL

ENERGY

BUILDING

AREA

<o

DURATION

OF

USE

ANNUAL TOTAL (HRS.)

GROSS

ANNUAL

ENERGY =

1.1 X

GROSS ENERGY [ii J

'** auD

LD DAILY AVERAGE (HRS.)

UUILUINU AREA 1

xavwwns

40

POWER

BASE ALLOW -

ANCE

(W)

4A UPD (W/SF) n NO. OF UNITS

CN SIZE (SF) - SPACE

<0 JS o ^5 « sxavw 3a I

v£> in

60

•r-l pH

57

UEB-L

table

for

calculating

residential

energy

budgets.
C. WORK PROBLEMS

Two residential buildings were selected to illustrate the method for determining

Unit Energy Budget for Lighting (UEB/L) .

UNIT ENERGY BUDGET / LIGHTING

FOR RESIDENTIAL BUILDINGS UEB/L

BLDG. DESIGNATION VJOfsK fTCfe NO. 1 DATE O'/IZ/78

MADE BY WILLIAnTT TAP

1 2 3 4A 4B 5 6 7-2x3

x 4 (A or B) x 6

8

SPACE

SIZE

(SF)

NO. OF

UNITS

POWER BASE DURATION OF USE REMARKS UPD

(W/SF) ALLOWANCE (W)

DAILY AVERAGE

(HRS.)

ANNUAL

TOTAL

(HRS.)

ANNUAL

ENERGY

(WH/YR x TCP

)

LIVING OThOC& ZJ*CO 1 2,3 Z 7JC 4,OZJ7 ,<2> sakt unFir-iiAHet? ) 'ICC 1 0.25 — 1 lO^ .&> (20

(SCO 1 0. 25 — ML, — O

( 1 ) / — toe? to ^>05

WALKWAY (0 f — <oc> to OC'O

rATio 0) 1 — levy t 73

GROSS ANNUAL ENERGY = 1.1 X t = _ . WH/YR

(J, 10J|

§ uruATE. iJEP/L. WHEM FINIAHHC?

b Ar&A fee ex^i-juoeo

cd

0

GROSS

ENERGY

BUILDING AREA

UEB/L

COLUMN B

LIVING + BSMT

+ PUBLIC SPACE GROSS ENERGY

BUILDING AREA

5A36.3 kWh/yr

3600 SF

1.51 kWh/SF/yr

58
2.00 Work Problem No, 2 - Apartment Building

An apartment building consisting of 20 floors

with 10 apartments per floor has the following spaces:

Apartments (living spaces) -(200) @ 900 SF

Hallways 22,000 SF

Stairs (3) @ 200 SF per Floor

Mechanical S Storage (20) @ 200 SF

Public Spaces (first floor) 20,000 SF

Basement and Storage 10,000 SF

Garage (underground) 30,000 SF

Parking Surface 60,000 SF

[_ 1

APARTMENTS

(2-211

FIRST FLOOR (PUBLIC)

GARAGE

GARAGE

UNIT ENERGY BUDGET / LIGHTING

FOR RESIDENTIAL BUILDINGS UEB/L

BLDG. DESIGNATION WPPK FT’oe r-AO, 2. DATE ^/l2/7&

MADE BY WlU_)Af-T TAO

1 2 3 4A 48 5 6 7-2x3

x 4 (A or B) x 6

8

SPACE

SIZE

(SF)

NO. OF

UNITS

POWER BASE DURATION OF USE REMARKS UPD

(W/SF) ALLOWANCE (W)

DAILY AVERAGE

(HRS.)

ANNUAL

TOTAL

(HRS.)

ANNUAL

ENERGY

(WH/YR x 103) APArTME/TT UVIH^ TOO zoo 2.3 — z 730 302,120

HALL-WAYA 1 IPO 20 0.2*5 — 12. HOOO 2-4, 0*7©

3TAIK3 /O <£3 — \C*=> IZ 73*50 27, W (C)

MEOH. ZOO 20 0.25 — / e=&5 3^7

ru&uo 20, coo / 2.0 — <2> 2.\5*5 e>i} &eo

&-=YTT. ATOKAHf 10,000 f 0. 25 — 1 7/2

^o.rco / O.Z’S — 12. (-Z2&50)

6*9,CCO / 0.25 — 4* 2.1 no (^510) (&

GROSS ANNUAL ENERGY =1.1 X 7V2 ,7e>i = ua-y&n WH/YR

jf*T\ (x10.,, to te t&o

emef^y to tutas-e or OP 45»TA\ K to te PESED 25

0

GROSS

ENERGY

BUILDING AREA

UEB/L

COLUMN 8

LIVING + BSMT

+ PUBLIC SPACE GROSS ENERGY

BUILDING AREA

487,059 kWh/yr

248,600 SF

1.96 kWh/SF/yr

59
5.4 CONCLUSIONS

5.4.1 There are little or no data available regarding the connected power

load for residential lighting. Starting from energy conserving

lighting layouts of typical residences, it was concluded that the

connected lighting power for various spaces falls between 2.2 to

2.5 watts/SF. A median value of 2.3 watts/SF was considered as a reasonable basis for lighting power budget.

5.4.2 Lighting energy consumption in residential buildings is related more

to "people” rather than to "square foot." When all of these peopleoriented factors are taken into consideration, annual lighting energy

consumption of two identical residences could have extreme differences.

5.4.3 Based on a number of assumptions, UEB/L for a random residence and

a high-rise apartment were calculated to be 1.51 kWh/SF/Yr for the

residence with unfinished basement and 1.96 kWh/SF/Yr for the apartment. If one representative value must be selected to express the

impact of lighting energy consumption in residential buildings,

1.75 kWh/SF/Yr would be the logical choice.

60
REFERENCES

1. ASHRAE Standard 90-75 (R): "Energy Conservation in New Building Design,"

American Society of Heating, Refrigerating and Air Conditioning Engineers

Inc.

2. IES Lighting Handbook, 5th Edition: Section 9-"Lighting Calculations,"

and Section 15-"Residential Lighting," Illuminating Engineering Society

of North America.

3. Tao, William, "Systems Approach for Energy-Conserving Power Budget,"

Lighting Design & Applications (LD&A), March 1978.

4. Hastings, S. Robert, "Three Proposed Typical House Designs for Energy

Conservation Research," NBSIR-77-1309 , National Bureau of Standards,

U.S. Department of Commerce, October 1977.

5. Task Force on Illumination: "Performance Criteria for Energy Conserving

Building Illuminations Systems - Phase I Report," National Bureau of

Standards, U.S. Department of Commerce.

6. Gajjar, Jagdish: "Automated Individual Area Energy Control in Commercial

and Residential Building," ERDA Conference on Technical Opportunities for

Energy Conservation in Buildings Through Improved Controls, May 10, 1976.

7. Lewis, Stephen A., and Degelman, Larry 0., "Single Family Dwelling

Natural Resource Consumption Effects and Energy Budget," presented at

ASHRAE Annual meeting in Boston, Masachusetts on June 25, 1975.

8. Energy Resources Center, Honeywell, Inc., "Mixed Strategies for Energy

Conservation and Alternative Energy Utilization (Solar) in Buildings,

Final Report, Volume III - Appendix," U.S. Department of Energy, Nov 1977

9. Department of Housing and Urban Development: "Residential Energy

Consumption, Phase I report "Report No. HUD-HA1-1, March 1972.

61
6. DISCUSSION, CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS

6.1 DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSIONS

The performance criteria developed by the NBS Task Force on Illumination

includes (1) the methodology for analyzing the illumination requirements of

the building, (2) the illumination parameters inserted into this analysis,

and (3) the energy and power budgets of typical buildings which result from

the analysis.

The essence of the criteria is the Methodology of Chapter 2. The illumination requirements of a specific building (actual or prototype) are examined

in detail, without reliance upon past practice. Task and General lighting

are treated separately in terms of power requirements and hours of use. Both

power and energy budgets are determined. The methodology is an innovative

approach to a realistic determination of the energy and power required for a building to perform its function with efficient energy consumption.

The application of the methodology requires the selection of appropiate

illumination parameters, including light levels and lighting power conversion

factors (these may bfe combined into unit power densities), daylight contributions, and usage hours. No complete scientific basis for the specification

of illumination levels exists at the present time; the levels used in these

applications were chosen to provide a balance between visual performance

requirements and the need for energy conservation. Power conversion factors

are based on the use of efficient luminaires. Daylight contributions and

usage hours are in line with accepted practice.

The energy and power budgets for office, school, and residential buildings

were derived by application of the same methodology, although the approach

and choice of parameters varied in the three cases. The specific budget

values result from the choice of parameters and, to some extent, the specific

building used as a prototype; however, the format of the criteria readily

allows adjustment for a building with space distributions or operating hours

which differ from the prototypes. Thus, the simplified procedures developed

for each building class allow the calculation of power and energy budgets for

actual buildings, while the budgets derived for the prototypes provide criterion values for comparison.

In the application of the methodology to residential buildings, described in

Chapter 5, it became evident that lighting energy consumption in residences

is more dependent upon the type of occupacy than upon the size of the unit,

and that there is a wide range in occupancy type (e.g., working couple, "stayat-home" retired couple, family with many students, etc.). This suggests

that the lighting energy budget for a residence should be based on a combination

of occupancy and size parameters. The power budget is more size-related,

but the large use of various electrical applicances and portable lights,

all connected to the same convenience outlets, seriously dilutes the signifi- cance of the lighting power budget. The problem is compounded by the scarcity of data on residential energy usage. These factors dictate the need for

further research on residential energy patterns and the development of a modified methodology for residential performance criteria.

62
The application of the methodology to the office (Chapter 3) and the elementary school (Chapter 4) indicate that the process is well matched to these

buildings. The simplified procedures, developed to minimize the time and

effort of the budget calculations, could readily serve in their present

formats as the basis for interim standards for these building types. Further

work is required to extend the methodology to other building types.

These performance criteria are intended to serve as the basis for voluntary

consensus standards for building illumination. Although intended as interim

criteria, pending the development of a widely accepted basis for illumination

requirements, the format of the criteria allows for ready adaptation as advances are made in the knowledge of visual needs and the efficiency of

illumination systems.

The greatest limitation on this lighting performance criteria is the

lack of corresponding methodologies and criteria for the remaining

building subsystems. Only when these subsystem criteria are developed,

and integrated with the lighting criteria into a total building energy

budget, will the energy performance of the building be measurable.

6.2

RECOMMENDATIONS

6.2.1 The Energy Budget Procedures and Performance Criteria for Energy

Conserving Building Illumination Systems presented in this document

should be used as the basis for development of a voluntary consensus

standard through the processes of the American National Standards

Institute.

6.2.2 The criteria for residences should be developed as a separate

standard from commercial buildings, with adequate provision for

occupancy-related factors.

6.2.3 The feasibility of establishing similar performance criteria for

retrofit of illumination systems in existing buildings should be

determined.

6.2.4

Task Forces should be formed to develop performance criteria for

the remaining building sub-systems and to integrate such criteria

into a Total Building Energy-conserving Performance Criteria.

6.2.5

Expanded research efforts should be undertaken in seven areas:

6. 2. 5.1 Development of an acceptable definition for quality of

lighting, related to visual tasks.

6. 2. 5.

2

Vision research to develop an acceptable basis for quantity of illumination.

6. 2. 5.

3

Field studies to differentiate between needs and preferences for Task and General lighting environments.

6. 2. 5.

4

Determination of the range of lighting requirements

related to physiological differences among people.

63
6. 3. 5.

5

Development of laboratory and field methods to measure

accurately the delivered quantity and quality of illumination.

6. 3. 5.

6

Development of predictive techniques to assure the pro

vision of the required illumination.

6. 3. 5.

7

Illumination usage patterns in residences.

64
APPENDIX I

Performance Criteria for

Energy Conserving Building Illumination Systems

Phase I Report

Prepared for

National Bureau of Standards

U.S. Department of Commerce

Prepared by

Task Force on Illumination

August 1977

INTRODUCTION

The task force, consisting of William Tao, Chairman, Richard Stein, and

Donald Ross, was invited by the National Bureau of Standards under Agreement

No. 62237 to develop a model performance criteria for energy-conserving building illumination systems. The primary objective of the performance criteria

is to achieve energy conservation with good visual performance. An optimized

illumination system subject to an energy conservation constraint may not

provide the same illumination as a system optimized for other considerations.

In addition to information exchanges among members, the task force met in

St. Louis on May 9 and in Washington, D.C., May 25 and June 22, 1977.

Albert T. Hattenburg, Project Manager, (462.03) for NBS participated in all

meetings and Gary Yonemura (463.03) of NBS in the second and third and

Jim Heldenbrand (465.00) of NBS in the first two meetings.

The purpose of Phase I was to recommend an approach and methodology for developing performance criteria; and the purpose of Phase II will be to prepare a draft version of the performance criteria in a format that will serve as the

framework for developing a consensus standard suitable for application as a mandatory minimum requirement. The standard would cover both natural and

artificial lighting for new residential and commercial buildings.

Up to the present, standards developed to meet energy conservation goals,

including NBSIR-74-452 and ASHRAE 90-75 (IES/EMS-1), generally approach the

issue on a "power budget" basis. While this approach provides an interim

solution, it is recognized that only an "energy budget" and not a "power

budget" can fulfill the final objective in conservation, since controlling

the duration of use is as important as limiting the power input to a building

system. In order to establish a realistic energy budget, the occupancy, size,

geographic location, and time of use for each building must be taken into

consideration. NBS is currently developing a building classification method,

and it would be desirable to use the same classification scheme as a basis

for specifying the energy budget for all buildings.

As a result of the Phase I effort, the task force was able to develop:

1. A methodology for determining lighting energy budget,

2. Detailed work statements for Phase II effort, and

3. Qualifications for a consensus-developing body to convert the performance

criteria into consensus standard.

William Tao, P.E., Chairman

William Tao & Associates, Inc.

Consulting Engineers

Richard G. Stein, FA1A

Richard G. Stein and Partners

Architects

Donald K. Ross, P.E.

Ross & Baruzzini, Inc.

Consulting Engineers

- 1 -
METHODOLOGY

Annual energy consumed in a building depends on the varying power demand of

building subsystem times the duration of use. This fundamental principle

applies to the lighting subsystem as well as systems for heating, air conditioning, hot water, and processing.

Most all energy consumed by lighting systems eventually converts into heat,

thus will have pronounced effect on the thermal performance of the building.

Therefore, lighting energy budget must be interfaced with that for other

subsystems. An isolated lighting energy budget is difficult, if not impossible, to enforce since electric circuits for lighting are commonly intermixed with other appliance and equipment circuits. Furthermore, trade-offs

between building subsystems to account for specific conditions and potential

reduction in overall energy consumption of the building should be encouraged.

For these reasons, the taks force recommends that a coordinating committee be

established to integrate the efforts of the task forces for various building

subsystems in order that an annual energy budget for the building as a whole

can eventually be determined.

For energy budgeting purposes, it was concluded lighting may be divided into

two categories—General Lighting and Augmented Task Illumination. General

Lighting includes ambient or background lighting for areas for visual tasks

and minimum security lighting for areas with no specific visual tasks.

Energy budget for general lighting can be budgeted directly on electrical

energy basis without the need of complex calculations. The Augmented Task

Illumination is defined as additional illumination required to augment the

general lighting for visual task performance. Since there are diversified

visual tasks in hundreds of building classifications, the energy budget for

augmented task illumination must be calculated independently.

The methodology can be illustrated by the following block diagram.

be elaborated as follows:

- 2-
Building Fenestration, geographic location, type of occupancy, time

of use, orientation, and shading by trees and buildings.

Task Lighting

Illumination

Tasks, extent of natural lighting, required quality,

efficacy of light sources and luminaires, room characteristics, maintenance procedures and duration of use of

individual tasks.

General

Lighting

Background and security lighting, unit power data, and

duration of occupied and unoccupied hours of the building.

A detailed methodology flow diagram was developed to illustrate the energy

budget determination procedures for lighting as well as the interrelationship

with other building subsystems. The diagram consolidates background and

security lighting into a general lighting energy budget using an equivalent

duration factor, inasmuch as energy consumed by security lighting is usually

small compared to that of background lighting.
4

AUGMENTED

ILLUMINATION

-

TASK

ILLUMINATION

-

GENERAL

ILLUMINATION
CONSENSUS STANDARD DEVELOPING ORGANIZATION

It is recognized that once the framework of performance criteria is proven by

the Phase II effort on some prototype buildings, additional effort to complete

the criteria should be continued by a consensus-developing organizations

)

over ensuing years to convert it into a national consensus standard. It is

a long-term process involving both research and consensus activity. The task

force agrees the consensus developing organizations ) should posess all of the

following qualifications:

1. An organization having scientific credibility.

2. Which is recognized as authority in research and development.

3. Which is broad-based with membership makeup from diversified disciplines,

some related to the art and science of vision and illumination.

4. Which is permanent, having established continuity and longevity

potential—not an ad hoc group.

5. With balanced objectivity—an organization which will not represent the

interest of one specific segment of society but will act in the national

interest.

6. Which is familiar with the procedure of generating consensus standards.

7. Willing to support and improve the proposed task force effort.

8. Capable of revising the standards in response to feedback.

9. Related to the building industry, building designers, and users in the

application of illumination.

10. Responsive to improved human performance constrained by the need of

energy conservation.

- 5-
WORK STATEMENT FOR PHASE II EFFORT

Based on the experience of Phase I effort, the Task Force agrees that scope

for phase II effort could be described by the following work statements:

1. To test, evaluate and modify methodology for energy conservation illumination performance criteria recommended in Phase I.

2. To demonstrate the feasibility of performance criteria on 2 or 3 model

building classes and to determine the annual energy budget for same. One of these shall be in the residential category and the other non- residential.

3. To review pertinent literature and research data related to lighting

performance.

4. To make recommendations for futhering research efforts leading to

better understanding of vision and human performance.

5. To make recommendations for selecting a consensus-developing organization^) to fully develop the energy budget on all categories of

buildings

6. To make recommendations as to procedure for obtaining consensus by the

consensus-developing organizations )

7. To interface with task forces on other building subsystems for determining energy budgets of these model building categories.

With the present task force, it is estimated the above scope of work can

be accomplished in three months. During the three month period, the task

force should convene five times at preliminary, intermediate, progress,

conclusion, and final presentation meetings. Occasionally special consultants may be desired to provide input during one or more of the scheduled

meetings. To successfully conduct the Phase II effort, it will require

participation of a project manager from NBS specifically assigned as liaison

with the task force and the availability of expert support from other NBS

staff members.

- 6 -
APPENDIX II

LIGHTING DESIGN FACTORS FOR

ENERGY CONSERVATION

APPENDIX II. LIGHTING DESIGN FACTORS FOR ENERGY CONSERVATION

1. GENERAL

This appendix discusses a number of factors which are important in the design

of lighting systems to provide adequate illumination for visual performance

while consuming modest amounts of energy. These factors have been utilized

in the development of Chapter 3 of this report.

2. TASK LIGHTING

2.1

ANALYSIS OF VISUAL TASK REQUIREMENTS

2.1.1 Task Visual Difficulty

Presently, there is no generalized measure of task visibility demonstrated

to predict performance as a function of illumination. A literature search

relative to good lighting practice has resulted in the Visual Difficulty

Factors for office tasks, which are included in Table 2 of Chapter 3.

2.1.2 Error Penalties

The amount and quality of illumination has been shown to be one of many

factors affecting performance errors. The cost-benefits ratio associated

with an improved error rate from illumination is one of the criteria used in

design. This factor is generally of importance when a worker is under con- siderable and continuous time pressure, and is dealing with material of poor

visual quality.

2.1.3 Time for Performance

Within limits, there is a trade-off between time available to observe a task

and the required illumination quantity and quality. If a visual task consistently requires performance that limits observation of the more difficult

portions to less than 1/4 second, then greater emphasis on illumination is

indicated.

2.1.4 Task Orientation

If the task is fixed in location; i.e., the observer cannot pick it up and

reorient it, as he could by picking up a piece of paper, or cannot readily

shift his head to observe it from a slightly different angle, for example,

then lighting quality is of greater importance.

2.1.5

Visual Surround

If large differences in contrast (greater than approximately 10 to 1) subtend wide angles of the normal viewing direction, or if bright glare occurs directly in the line of sight necessary for task observation, changes in

1
the required viewing angles are recommended. The conventional solution to

this problem, increasing task illumination to within 1/3 to 1/10 the intensity of the glare source, could be quite wasteful of energy.

2.1.6 Overall Task Evaluation

The elements shown in Table 1 of Chapter 3 comprise most of the ones

of importance in performing office tasks. Each task should be categorized

for these elements (formally or informally), noting any which are believed

to be substantially more visually difficult than normally occuring office

tasks. If only one (or two) elements are believed to cause visual difficulty,

it is quite possible it may be offset by another factor "easier” than normal

that will compensate.

For example, a deficiency in elements such as contrast, acuity, required

field of view, or observation time can be compensated by an increase in one of

the others, within limits. It is of interest to note that performance is much

less sensitive to changes in brightness above 10 footlamberts than any of the

other factors.

Determine also that task performance is not limited by other features

(cognition, for example) such that the visual portion is of little actual

consequence. As a similar case in point, it is not always necessary to have

a high fidelity stereo reproduction of sound in order to respond properly to

the stimulus.

2.1.7 Operator Analysis

The performance of individuals with normal eyesight and up to about 40

years of age does not improve for normal office tasks when the average task

background luminance exceeds approximately 10 to 15 footlamberts. For individuals over the age of 50, there appears to be improvement in performance up

to approximately 20 footlamberts. Thus, for tasks with lower reflectivity,

(near 40%), an increase in illumination of up to 50% greater than recommended

in Table 2 may be warranted.

Many experiments have demonstrated that older persons do not perform

visual tasks as well as do younger persons; however, for normal older eyes,

increasing the illumination level above 20 to 30 footcandles improves performances only very slightly, if at all, and no amount of extra illumination can cause the older persons to perform as well as younger ones.

There are many abnormalities of the eye. Some of them are such that

increased illumination is of benefit (as, for example, for presbyopia with

eyes not properly refracted). In other cases, increased illumination can be

detrimental. For most older persons with properly refracted eyeglasses,

there is a 50-50 chance as to which alternative is better. In these cases,

if the visual performance requirements are continuous and time pressure is

considerable, the advice of a physician is recommended. Alternatively, the

individual can be given local control of task illumination.

2
2.2

SUGGESTED COST EFFECTIVE TASK MODIFICATIONS

Once the task has been examined for potential visual difficulties, but

before designing an appropriate lighting system, modification of difficult

tasks should be considered. It is often possible to revise the task in a cost-effective manner so that lighting systems and associated energy costs

for operation can be minimized.

2.2.1 Paper and Printing

If a task requires a considerable amount of reading, is it possible to

change the paper from glossy to matte? (Matte finish is generally less

expensive than polished paper!). Is it possible to increase the size of the

printing or its legibility? Is it possible to go from hard pencil to felttip pen; or is it possible to use originals or better copies rather than poor

copies for the actual working papers?

2.2.2 Visual Surround

The direction of view of the worker while performing his task is important. It should contain no bright sources such as very bright windows, bright

lighting, or surfaces that refect bright images into the eyes of the observer.

Contrasts should preferably be in the range of 3 to 1 for large areas of view;

however, 10 to 1 is not unacceptable.

2.2.3 Ability to Reorient Task

If a task is visually difficult, it can often be made substantially easier

to see if it can be reoriented, preferably by being picked up in the worker's

hands. Dramatic improvements are often obtained by changing the angle of the

paper with respect to the available lighting, bringing the task closer to the

eyes, or holding the task normal to the viewing direction. If this flexibility

is available, visual performance can often be made acceptable, even though the

visual materials and the lighting systems are deficient. For some kinds of tasks,

polarized lighting may improve visibility at viewing angles that would otherwise

present problems.

2.2.4 Performance Time

When portions of the task are difficult, if the operator is given sufficient

time, say perhaps one or two seconds to perform the operations or to change the

location of his head with respect to a fixed task, satisfactory performance can

often be obtained. If the task is uniformly visibly bad, this expedient would

probably lead to unacceptable performance time. Alternate solutions are required; the most effective probably being to improve the task, since

increased lighting levels could only make a bad task brighter.

2.3 Determination of Appropriate Task Lighting Requirements

After the task has been optimized as may be cost-effective, then an appropriate type of artificial lighting can be designed. Tasks can be differen3
tiated into two types: Those requiring reading from paper or similar material

(two dimensions), and those requiring observation of three dimensional objects

such as equipment, warehousing, and requirements for personnel recognition

and security.

2.3.1 Two-dimensional Tasks

2. 3. 1.1 Lighting angles

Lighting shall be so positioned related to tasks and observers that shadows

are minimized on the object being observed and conditions causing glare are

reduced. In particular, the type of lighting that leads to veiling reflections being reflected from the object being observed should be avoided.

2. 3. 1.2 Illumination levels

Normal office tasks are visually satisfied above a background luminance of

20 f ootlamberts, provided that the illumination from the surround does not

create excessive direct or reflected glare, or cause the more specular tasks

to be unduly reduced in contrast by reflected glare. As previously noted,

to the extent that glare causes problems and cannot be eliminated, the task

background luminance should be increased to permit the eye to see the task

with at least approximately 1/5 the same intensity as the glare source. Normally the effects of glare, where troublesome, are eliminated or at least

greatly offset by simply changing the relative geometric relationship between

the observer, the task, and the source, and not increasing the task luminance

level. This is usually done almost unconsciously by the observer moving

position, since in most cases only very slight adjustment is required.

Many, if not most, office tasks involve reading from paper. An appropriate

reflectivity for the background of these tasks can be considered to be no

less than 75%. Hence, an illumination level of 27 footcandles (20

f ootlamberts/ .75) should be quite adequate for seeing. However, to allow

for less than optimum lighting, and to adjust brightness for levels "remembered" from outdoor daylighting or when exposed to fenestration, we recommend

that office task lighting be designed to provide approximately 50 (+10)

footcandles at the workplace (desk or table). This approximate doubling of

intensity should be more than enough to allow for the average run of even

the most difficult types of tasks.

Should a task require special consideration when reviewing the factors

listed in the Task Analysis section, revise the illumination system in that

task area only.

Guidance that may be beneficial for justification of increasing levels above

50 footcandles is given in Table 2 of Chapter 3. This information was developed by a careful review of the literature relative to good lighting

practice in many countries throughout the world. More recent experiments

relating actual task performance to illumination is given in "Task Lighting

- Yet Another View," D.K. Ross, LD&A, May 1978, pp. 37-43.

4

H

PH

Ml
The total Illumination furnished for the task includes the sum of the general illumination provided for the space, plus additional or augmented task

lighting as may be required. This task lighting should be separately

controlled and switched off when not required. 2.3.2

Three-dimensional Tasks

Three-dimensional tasks, such as equipment operation, recognition, various

types of social and business intercourse, etc., require illumination with

different consideration than for two-dimensional task performance.

2. 3. 2.1 Modeling required

In the case of three-dimensional objects, shadowing is important to

bring out texture and features. Since there is normally a certain amount

of motion permitted between the viewer and the object being viewed, the

source of illumination for three-dimensional objects can have a component

of glare that would not otherwise be desirable, since positions can be

changed to minimize its effect. It is also important to have a lighting

source that can be oriented into the depth of the task for maintenance or for viewing of interiors if this is required. Modeling is optimized by

directional lighting.

2 .3 .2 .2 Motion

If motion of the object being observed is of consequence in task

performance, the source must be relatively free of flicker that might

synchronize with the motion or otherwise make the observation difficult.

2. 3. 2. 3 Illumination levels

Identification of detailed human facial expression in satisfactory

detail is considered to begin at about 5 footcandles.

Various safety codes promulgate levels of from 1 to 5 footcandles for

illumination of areas with movement and moving machinery, although values

much lower are actually quite satisfactory for many applications. For

example, most people can easily read a newspaper at arm's length with an intensity of only 1/2 footcandle.

Photopic vision, which includes the ability to distinguish colors, begins

at approximately 1 footlambert, while the eye can readily detect objects in

bright moonlight at .01 f ootlamberts

5
These levels describe the lower end of suggested lighting levels for threedimensional tasks.

It is suggested that building corridors be lighted to an average value of

10 footcandles, 4' above the floor; maintenance rooms, 30 footcandles,

average, at 3* above the floor; and other areas should be within these

ranges

.

For repair of machinery requiring high intensity lighting infrequently and

at various locations, a portable trouble lamp is appropriate, depending on

the frequency of use.

There may be an advantage in some cases to providing light sources located so that the illumination in the vertical plane exceeds that in the horizontal,

which is not the case for most installations. Where this consideration is

important, the illumination level specification should so indicate.

2.4 TASK LIGHTING SYSTEMS FOR SELECTED TASKS AND AREAS

2.4.1 Conventional Office Space

Consider the use of ceiling-mounted fluorescent troffers specifically located

with reference to the task to minimize veiling reflections. Use special

lenses, polarizing filters, or parabolic reflectors where appropriate. These

might take the form of the bat-wing distribution for larger offices. Alternately, a pod-mounted metal halide lighting system, each approximately 250

to 400 watts, might be used to furnish indirect lighting. The pods should be

mounted with the top surface approximately 2-1/2 feet to 3 feet (or more)

below the surface of the ceiling.

Whatever lighting system is selected, the illumination should be of good

quality to minimize direct glare and veiling reflections.

2.4.2 Open-plan office space

Flexible ceiling lighting of fluorescent troffers or pod-mounted metal halide

is suggested, with luminaires again located to provide lighting at the tasks

with lighting dropping off in other areas. Pod-mounted, moveable, metalhalide fixtures with up-light are particularly suitable and can be used

effectively in these layouts. Task lighting located directly in furniture or on moveable partitions is also suggested as an application here, but considerable care is required to insure effective lighting from furniture-mounted

sources. An important use of ceiling-mounted lighting or colored lighting

in open-plan offices encompassing large areas, can be to give directions for

orientation purposes for visitors or for traffic control. For example, walkways could be of a certain type of ceiling-mounted fixture or of a certain

hue that can be readily identified, in what otherwise might be a maze. Similar direction can be given by the use of color, painting on ceiling or walls

or on carpets, or by significant features in the landscape that can be identified.

6
2.4.3 Conference Rooms

Again, the pod-mounted metal halide or ceiling-mounted fluorescent lights

are recommended. Levels of approximately 30 footcandles are believed suitable with special lighting for blackboards, film presentation, etc. Special

conference rooms may require dimming systems.

2.4.4 Public Circulation

Since these areas primarily require lighting for modeling of three-dimensional

characteristics, some glare will be permissible. Incandescent lighting

should be avoided in these areas, since the lights are on for long periods of

time. The lighting should also have automatic control so that when natural

light is present, the artificial light is turned off. This could

be either by time clock or photocell, or both.

2.4.5 Shipping, Receiving and Storage

These areas require special consideration, depending upon ceiling height and

function. Lighting levels from 5 footcandles to 30 footcandles are appropriate, with lights being off when not required. If frequent switching is

required, fluorescent is most suitable. If lamps are only on for short

periods, incandescent may be acceptable.

2.4.6 Computer Rooms, Equipment Rooms, etc.

These areas have primarily two functions, one involving continuing interaction of people and equipment, and the other involving relatively infrequent

maintenance of equipment. In those locations where operating personnel are required to interface with machinery, task lighting is required that can be

either equipment-mounted, console-mounted, desk-mounted, or ceiling-mounted.

Lighting should be designed so that it does not cause excessive glare when

the primary function of working with the equipment is taking place, and in

particular there should be no reflections caused by the lighting system

reflecting off of the equipment into the eyes of the operator in the normal

operating position. It is recommended that lighting for operator consoles

be dimmer-controlled with a range of from 15 footcandles to approximately

100 footcandles. For those portions of the area where there is required

to be man/machine interface only for maintenance or trouble-shooting, the

lighting can generally be switched off. If this is the case, it is recommended that these areas be isolated visually by means of partitions.

Lighting can be ceiling-mounted with fluorescent fixtures so located with

respect to the equipment and the operating locations required for maintenance

that light is allowed to impinge within the interiors of the cabinets, for

example. A uniform lighting layout IS DISCOURAGED. Luminaries should be

installed appropriately for the locations of equipment, aisles, etc. Provision could be made, when working on interiors of cabinets, for trouble lights

to be plugged in that are brought to the location by the operator.

7
General lighting levels of from 30 to 50 footcandles, depending on the

application, are recommended when the lights are on. Switching should be

provided to maintain some minimal level, say 5 footcandles, in the area. This could be provided as part of the emergency exit lighting system, if

personnel must pass through the area to perform other functions for safety,

if appropriate.

If these areas are seldom used, and only occasionally visited by personnel,

incandescent lighting is recommended, as it should be switched off most of

the time. If, on the other hand, equipment is regularly visited by people

and lighting is on for longer periods of time, stem- or chain-suspended

industrial type fluorescent fixtures are recommended with about 25% up-light.

Lighting levels of 30 footcandles to 50 footcandles are appropriate, except

for special tasks which may require a different kind of lighting. If incandescent lamps are used, time switches may be applicable, or indicator lamps

located outside the space that glow when the lamps are on.

3. BUILDING LIGHTING

3.1 CIRCULATION AREAS - AROUND AND NEAR DESK TASKS

3.1.1 Provide 20 to 30 footcandles generally on areas surrounding task,

and on task if practical, to supplement task lighting.

3.1.2 Minimize glare on task areas, and in visual field of pedestrians.

3.1.3 Minimize shadows on task.

3.1.4 Switch off when not required, or when daylight will provide lighting.

3.1.5 For open-plan office, use different color sources for area of pathway

indentification, if practical.

3.2

SECURITY LIGHTING

3.2.1 Exit Lighting

Provide adequate illumination to meet code requirements.

3. 2. 1.1 Use internally lighted (electrically-operated) exit signs only

when lighting from exitway is not adequate to illuminate sign.

3. 2. 1.2 Turn off exit lighting if building or major areas are unoccupied.

3.2.2 Exitway and Stairway Lighting

Provide circuity to keep separate from normal corridor and stairway lighting

(or use separate system that switches on only when normal power fails).

Leave on only when building is occupied. Turn off when daylighting is

adequate. Furnish approximately 3 footlamberts of lighting on important

safety features, steps, etc. Minimum of 1 footlambert, or code required,

whichever is greater.

8
3.2.3 Outdoor Security Lighting

Provide lighting at doorways, stairs, and walkways as may be required.

Control on with photcell, off with time clock, if not required until daylight. Use 1 footlambert on important safety factors.

3. 2. 3.1 For area lighting to detect persons, moving traffic, etc., use principles of silhouette lighting to greatest extent possible, unless

indentification is necessary.

3.2.4 Corridor Lighting

Use 5 to 10 footlamberts at face level, 3 to 5 footlamberts at floor level.

Switch off when daylight is available or after building is unoccupied.

3.2.5 Maintenance Areas, Storerooms, Closets

Use 15 to 20 footlamberts, higher if required for machinery, etc. Switch

off when unoccupied.

3.2.6 Parking

3. 2. 6.1 Indoor Parking

Design for an average of approximately 5 footcandles, 4* above the floor.

Higher intensity should be provided in the aisles, dropping off to lower

footcandles in the parking stalls.

3. 2. 6. 2 Outdoor Parking

Should be designed to use no more than .05 watt per square foot.

4 . LIGHTING COMPONENTS

4.1 EFFICIENT SOURCES

For artificial lighting that is to be operating for long periods of time,

the most efficient sources of light should be selected. For offices we would limit consideration to metal halide, high-pressure sodium, and fluorescent sources. The particular embodiment selected will depend upon ceiling

height, type of fixture, and specific application, but in each case the lamp

and ballast combination should be selected to provide maximum lumens per

watt based on life-cycle cost considerations. This will include lamp life,

lamp efficacy, ballast efficiency, and ballast life, together with firstcosts of each of these elements. Fluorescent lamps should be selected if

important savings can be realized by switching lamps off and on during the

day, keeping in mind it takes about 5 minutes for the HID lamps to come up to full intensity when switched on. Incandescent lamps can be considered

for application where lights are required to be operated only for short

periods of time (i.e., closets, certain equipment spaces, trouble lights,

desk lamps, dimmer-controlled task lighting of high intensity), or for

limited use access lighting.

9
4.2

EFFICIENT FIXTURES

Fixtures should be selected that have a high efficiency in distributing the

total number of lumens available from the lamps to the task without causing

visual discomfort. For task lighting, the use of manufacturers' published

coefficients of utilization are not satisfactory. Point-by-point calculation are required. In particular, it is found that task lighting is not

sensitive to room size and reflectivity nearly to the extent that occurs for

general lighting. This is because task lighting is much more affected by

the direct component of the luminaire than by the interreflection components.

4.3 OPEN-PLAN OFFICE FLEXIBILITY

Open-plan fixtures may be mounted in furniture, on pods directed upward

toward the ceiling, on desks or file cases, or in the ceiling. In all cases,

it is essential to the concept of open-plan layout that the equipment be readily moveable, and it is suggested that it be plugged into outlets for this

purpose. Ceiling-mounted fixtures should have similar flexibility and the

ceiling system should permit relatively easy relocation of the fixtures to

correspond to changing task locations, but again it is recommended that these

fixtures be associated with an electrical distribution system that permits

unplugging the fixtures from the electrical system and reconnection without

requiring the services of an electrician. (Local switching is required.)

4.4 CONTROL

All lighting should be capable of being switched off when not required to

perform a task or to provide supplementary lighting for the general area.

4.5

RELIABILITY

Equipment shall have the capability of performing for long periods without

maintenance and shall be serviceable as to finish and ability to be relocated

without damage. It is of particular importance when designing for energy con- servation that an extra degree of reliability be provided because a substantial amount of redundancy previously present in lighting systems, which con- tributed to excess use of energy, is being eliminated and the lack of a single

light source has a greater consequence than it previously would have had.

4 .

6

APPEARANCE

Fixtures should be compatible with the interior environment. The use of

artificial lighting for artistic effect should be used sparingly, with

greater emphasis being placed upon color, texture, and geometry so as not to consume energy for this effect.

4.7

ACOUSTICS

Lighting equipment should be selected so that the noise level emanating from

the equipment is not objectionable in the environment in which it is located.

Secondly, the exposed surface of ceiling-mounted lighting fixtures should be

10
be selected, particularly in open-plan offices, so as not to compromise the

acuostical treatment by reflecting sound from hard surfaces in an otherwise

acoustically controlled area.

4.8 FLICKER

Sources such as mercury, high-pressure sodium, and fluorescent lamps require

lead-lag ballasts, or the operation of adjacent fixtures from alternate

electrical phases in order to minimize the effects of flicker. Metal halide

lamps appear to suffer the least in this regard and can be operated from a single-phase source withought lead-lag ballasts. This is a particularly

important consideration where motion is to be observed.

5 . NATURAL LIGHTING

5.1 NATURAL LIGHTING AND HVAC

The use of natural light is recommended whenever energy can be conserved.

It should be noted that in terms of lumens per watt, natural light, even

including a direct beam of sunlight entering through a glass window, is more

efficient than fluorescent lighting (but not quite so efficient as highpressure sodium). This means that if the brightness and intensity can be

controlled, daylighting has less effect on an HVAC system than does the usual

artificial lighting system. The problem is one of control, so that only as much light as may be required is introduced during the cooling season. During

the heating season, this additional heat asociated with excess light may be

welcome.

5.2 SKYLIGHTS

The use of skylight concepts to introduce light into the interior is encouraged. Systems should be provided to maintain the skylights clean and free

of accumulation of dirt. Regular cleaning is required.

5.3 WINDOWS

The use of windows around the perimeter for introducing light is encouraged, provided this treatment is compatible with all other considerations.

5.4 INTENSITY

One of the problems with daylighting is the change in intensity, sometimes

too intense, and other times not sufficient. Systems such as Venetian blinds

or gauze drapes are effective in controlling the intensity of lighting.

Another technique is the use of reflecting glass or even reflecting shades

to transmit a portion of the spectrum and reflect a substantial amount. The

shades can be raised or lowered for control. The shades would be in position

during the bright summer days and could be removed by being rolled up during

winter months, for example. They can further be incorporated as thermal

barriers during cold winter nights.

11
5.5 CONTROL

The advisability of providing automatic control to maintain proper lighting

conditions is recommended; particularly if skylights are incorporated into

the design. This control might take the form of moveable shutters or shades,

design of suitable overhangs to block the direct sunlight, etc. It is further recommended that the artificial lighting systems be automatically con- trolled by means of photoelectric control to adjust for changes in the

naturally occurring light caused by cloud cover or diurnal or other changes.

5.6 EYE ADAPTATION

The normal eye adjusts to reductions in brightness by two principal mechanisms: More quickly by changes in the size of the iris, and then more slowly

by chemcal changes in the eye itself, causing it to be less sensitive. The

first reaction takes place in fractions of a second, and can accommodate

brightness levels of 30 to 1. The second requires about 1/2 hour to be

complete, and can accommodate changes in level of about 3,000,000 to 1.

This latter reaction, because of its lag, tends to "remember" conditions such

as the outside brightness levels when one comes indoors, or bright windows

that may be in the field of view from time or time. When the eye still

retains the integrated effects of this very bright scene, indoor lighting

during daylight hours may appear dim; whereas, the same level of indoor

lighting at night appears bright.

When lower levels indoors are to be used effectively, very bright outdoor

sources must be properly controlled to minimize the integration effect. This

requires some amount of skill if it is to be done properly. These design

techniques are well within the capability of the knowledgeable lighting

designer, but are often lacking in many of today's installations.

It is important that where daylighting is introduced over large areas, and

workers are required to move from these areas to substantially less brilliant

ones, that time be permitted for eye adaptation to occur. This is particularly the case when traveling from outdoors to indoors.

12
APPENDIX III

WORKSHEETS FOR SCHOOL ANALYSIS
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NBS-114A (REV. 9-78)

U.S. DEPT. OF COMM.

BIBLIOGRAPHIC DATA

SHEET

1. PUBLICATIONOR REPORT NO. NBSIR 80-20522. Gov't Ac 3. Rectoient’s Accession No.

4. TITLE AND SUBTITLE

PERFORMANCE CRITERIA FOR ENERGY CONSERVING BUILDING

ILLUMINATION SYSTEMS

5. Publication Date May 1980

7. AUTHOR(S)

Albert T. Hattcnburg and Jim L. Heldenbrand

8. Performing Organ. Report No.

t/Work Unit No. 742 6507

9. PERFORMING ORGANIZATION NAME AND ADDRESS

NATIONAL BUREAU OF STANDARDS

DEPARTMENT OF COMMERCE

WASHINGTON, DC 20234

11. Contract/Grant No.

12. SPONSORING ORGANIZATION NAME AND COMPLETE ADDRESS (Street, City, State, ZIP)

Technology and Consumer Products Branch

Office of Buildings and Community Systems

U. S. Dept, of Energy Washington, DC 20545

13. Type of Report & Period Covered

15. SUPPLEMENTARY NOTES

| | Document describes a computer program; SF-185, FIPS Software Summary, is attached.

16. ABSTRACT (A 200-word or less factual summary of most significant information. If document includes a significant bibliography or

literature survey, mention it here.) This report covers subsystem energy budget development procedures and performance

criteria for building illumination which were developed by a consultant team of

practitioners experienced in building illumination systems. A general procedure

is described wherein the energy required for efficient illumination of a building

is examined and corresponding power and annual energy budget guidelines are developed.

This methodology is applied to three classes of building-=offices , schools, and

residences--to illustrate the method. Representative power and energy budgets are developed.

The model performance criteria and illumination energy budget methodology are recommended as the basis for development of national consensus standards, covering

the principal classes of new buildings designed primarily for human occupancy.

17. KEY WORDS (six to twelve entries ; alphabetical order; capitalize only the first letter of the first key word unless a proper name;

separated by semicolons)

Building illumination systems; energy budget; energy conservation;

energy performance criteria; illumination; lighting; power budget.

18. AVAILABILITY ^Unlimited

| | For Official Distribution. Do Not Release to NTIS

|

! Order From Sup. of Doc., U.S. Government Printing Office, Washington, DC

20402, SD Stock No. SN003-003-

[X] Order From National Technical Information Service (NTIS), Springfield, VA. 22161

19. SECURITY CLASS

(THIS REPORT)

UNCLASSIFIED

20. SECURITY CLASS

(THIS PAGE)

UNCLASSIFIED

21. NO. OF

PRINTED PAGES

120

22. Price

$9.00

USC O MM- D C