TECHN~ AL ~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~

USER PERFORMANCE UNDER SEVERAL

~ 

AUTOMATED APPROACHES TO CHANGING

DISPLAYED MAPS

Franklin L. Moses and Richard E. Maisano

HUMAN FACTORS TECHNICAL AREA

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U. S. Army

Rescarch Institute tor the B& h ivioral and S~ciaI Sciences

June 1979

Ap prov ud for public role•~

.; dè .t ributs on un him itsd.

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U. S. ARMY R ESEARCH INSTITUTE

FOR TH E BEHAVIORAL AN D SOCIAL SCI ENCES

A Field Operat ing Agenc y under the Jurisdiction of the

Deputy Chief of St aff for Personnel

WILLIAM L. HAUSER

J OSEPH ZEIDNER Colonel , US Army

Technical Director Commander

NOTICES

DISTRISUTION: Primsry disuibutton of this rsport hau bssn mi~~ by ARI. Pliuss Iddvus corrsspondsncs

concerning distribution of reports to: U. S. Army Rs,surc$i Institute for ths Sof~

sviorsI m d Sociul Scisnc.s.

ATTN. PERIP. 5001 Eissnho~*r Avenue. Akxsndria, Virgini. fl333

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NDER SEVERAL ~~UTOMATED

— APPROACHES TO CHANGING DISPLAYED MAPS • -- _____ 

__________________________ 5. PERFORMING ORG. REPORT NUMBER

-. S. CONTRACT OR GRANT NUMBER(.)

Franklin L1 Moses ~~~ kich~~~~~j

Maisano /

5. PERFORMING ORGANIZATION NAME AND ADDRESS 10. PROGRAM ELEMENT. PROJECT . TASK

. . AREA S WORK UNIT NUMBERS U.S. Army Research Institute for the Behavioral / and Social Sciences

5001 Eisenhower Avenue , Alexandria , VA 22333 2Ql62722A76~~] II. CONTROLLING OFFICE NAME AND ADDRESS

Army Deputy Chief of Staff for Personnel // Jun~~~~~79

Washington , DC 20310 IS. NUMBER OF PAGES

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IS. SUPPLEMENTARY NOTES

Ii. KEY WORDS (Cm,tInu. on ii. ,.. aid. II nc ~a ay ond id.ntIt~

. bi block numb.r) ~~~

User/computer interaction Map displays ~~~~~~~~

Graphic display applications Military systems /1

~‘r Computer graphics Tactical displays ‘V

.

~ display design Tactical Operatio~~~~~~tem (TOS)

A~~~TRACT fVom~~ a. — ,,v ~ on ~~~ N ...~~~ . .y id.~~lfy b

~ block monb.r)

~erforntance in a route selection task was used t

~.~

4ca1uate automated methods fo:

changing from one displayed segment of a map~~.e’~another . Participants were 24

Army officers , who chose successive 6.7~~j

~ 9 km map segments (1:50,000 scale)

for solving 12 problems . Each problem requested the fastest road route between

pairs of cities within a 60 x 81 km region. Participants solved problems by

electronically marking road routes across map segments . Methods for changing

map segments were (a) continuous map scanning and (b) discrete map segments

using three different amounts of border overlap (0%, 25% and 50%).. Results

DO ~~~~~~ W3 ED~

TIOIS OF I NOV 51 IS OOSOLETE Unclassified ~~~~~ /

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SECURITY CLAISIFICATION OF THIS PAGE(WINO Data tnt.r.d)

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F

owed that different map change conditions did not significantly affect the

quality of routes chosen. The least time for problem solutions occurred when

map segments with 50% overlap were used , although 25% overlap produced similar

data . Designers of map display systems for the military could optimize user

performance time with discrete map segments that overlap by about 25% .

H

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Unclassified

SCCUNITY CL ASSI~~

ICATIO N OF THIS PAGt(I ~~.n bat. Ent.r.d~I
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TECHNICAL PAPEII 366

USER PERFORMANCE UNDER SEVERAL

AUTOMATED APPROACHES TO CHANGING

DISPLAYED MAPS

Franklin L. Moses and Richard E. Maisano

Raymond C. Sidorsky, Team Chief

Submitted by:

Edgar M. Johnson, Chief

HUMAN FACTORS TECHNICAL AREA

Approved By:

Frank J. Harris , Acting Director

ORGANIZATIONS AND SYSTEMS

RESEARCH LABORATORY

Joseph Zeidner

TECHNICAL DIRECTOR

U.S. ARMY RESEARCH INSTITUTE FOR THE BEHAVIORAL AND SOCIAL SCIENCES

5001 Eisenhower Avenue, Alexandria, Virginia 22333

Office, Deputy Chief of Staff for Personnel

Department of the Army

June 1979

Army Project Number Tactic al Operations 20162722A765 & Displays

Approved for public rulesss; distribution unlimited. 

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I

ARI Research Reports and Technical Papers are intended for sponsors of

R&D tasks and other research and military agencies. Any findings ready for

implementation at the time of publication are presented in the latter part of

the Brief. Upon completion of a major phase of the task, formal recommendations for official action normally are conveyed to appropriate military

agencies by briefing or Disposition Form. 

_-_- ~~~ - .~~~~~~ -.-
I

1•

FOREWORD -

The Human Factors Technical Area of the Army Research Institute

for the Behavioral and Social Sciences (ARI ) is concerned with the demands of the increasingly complex battlefield for improved man—machine

systems to acquire, transmit, process, disseminate, and utilize information. The research focuses on the interface problems and interactions

within command and control centers and concerns such areas as topographic

products and procedures, tactical syxnboiogy, user-oriented systems, information management, staff operations and procedures, and sensor systems

integration and utilization .

One area of special research interest involves the application of

automated display systems to analyze and model the dynamic battlefield .

Graphic display methods, including aids and modeling concepts, potentially

can enhance the ability of the command staff, at both division and corps

levels, to make timely and comprehensive analyses and projections of battlefield information. The present research evaluated methods for using

interactive computer graphics to show map displays . The research is part

of a continuing effort to provide the command staff with improved capability for coping with the modern battlefield ’s increased flow of tactical events, by developing methods using computer graphics to transmit information . Such research provides a necessary technological base for effective design of the user/systems interface.

Research in the area of graphic analysis of tactical dynamics is

conducted as an in—house effort augmented by contracts with organizations

selected for their specialized capabilities and facilities. These efforts are responsive to general requirements of Army Project 2Q162722A765.

The present research is also related to special requirements of the

u.s. Army Combined Arms Combat Development Activity , Fort Leavenworth ,

Kans., and the U.S. Army Intelligence Center and School, Fort Huachuca,

Ariz. Special requirements are contained in Human Resource Needs 78-100

(ADP Methods for the Utilization of Analytic Aids and Logic Models in Intelligence Pr.tcessing) and 78-151 (Staff Methods and System Aids for Bat—

tie Management Processing and Problem Solving Aids in Tactical Automated

Systems).

o EPH ZEII~~~R

chnical Director
USER PERFORMM~

CE UNDE R SEVERAL AUTOMATED APPROACHES TO CHANGING DISPLAYED

MAPS

BRIEF

Requirement:

To evaluate the impact on task performance of two automated methods

for changing from one displayed segment of a map to another.

Procedure :

Participants were 24 Army officers, who used successive 6.75 x 9 km

map segments (1:50,000 scale) to determine the fastest road route between

two points in a 60 x 81 km region. Each road route problem specified a

city of origin, a destination city, and the relative map coordinate locations of each. Two types of presentation methods were evaluated: (a)

continuous map scanning and (b) discrete map segments using three different amow~ts of border overlap (0%, 25% and 50%). Using the continuous

method, participants could explore the map and stop on any area of interest. The discrete method limited the amount of new map area that could

be accessed in any single change. Participants solved problems by selecting map display changes and electronically marking chosen road routes.

Performance was measured for quality and speed on each of 12 problems

divided among presentation methods.

Findings:

Problems took the least time when discrete map segments with 50%

overlap were used; however, 25% overlap produced similar data. The participants who changed map segments more often took less time to work problems. Overall , different map change methods did not significantly affect

the quality of routes chosen.

Utilization of Findings :

The usefulness of automated displays for showing maps is limited by

display resolution and size. One map segment after another has to be

shown in order to display details over any large area. To optimize user

performance time, the designer of a military map display system shoula .begin with discrete map segments that overlap by about 25%. The percentage

can vary somewhat without affecting performance . The 25% guideline for

overlapping adjacent map segments is based upon both user performance and

preference ; however, this approach requires fairly frequent map changes,

which increases demands on hardware .

~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~
T TITT ~~~~~~~~

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USER PERFOR~~ NCE UNDER SEVERAL AUTOMATED APPROACHES TO CHANGING DISPLAYED

MAPS

CONTENTS

I

Page

BACKGROUND 2

METHOD 3

Participants 3

Design 3

Apparatus 4

Procedure g

Performance Measures 9

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION 10

Performance Data 10

Performance Strategy 13

Participant Opinions 14

System Design Tradeoffs 16

CONCLUSION 17

REFERENCES 19

APPENDIX A. QUESTIONS USED IN RESEARCH 21

B. AUTOMATED MAP DISPLAYS POST-EXERCISE QUESTIONNAIRE. 23

C. DISCUSSION OP ALTERNATIVE SCORING METHODS 27

DISTRIBUTION 29

LIST OF TABLES

Table 1. Data summary for different map change conditions . . . 11.

2. Analysis of variance for performance time 12

3. Analysis of variance for frequency of map changes . . 12

4. Number of participants generating idea]. or alternate

problem solutions 14
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Page 

1

LIST OF FIGURES

Figure 1. Overlap parameters for two adjace::t map segments

‘1 (not to scale) 5

2. Block diagram of major apparatus components 6

3. Work station with two CRTs , intercom, trackball ,

and special keyboard 7

4. Right-hand CRT display (not to scale ) 8

5. Diagramed examples of solutions to problem one . . . . 15
USER PERFORMANCE UNDER SEVERAL AUTOMATE D APPROACHES TO CHANGING

DISPLAYE D MAPS

Topographic information is a major component of understanding battlefield situations. Maps provide the background for plotting uni t positions and are required for analyzing the likely effects of terrain,

vegetation, and weather on unit movements , important offensive/defensive

positions, and potential avenues of approach . The feasibility of automated displays for tactical analyses depends upon user-efficient methods

for viewing automated maps. Hardware for such displays has received

some consideration (Cannon , 1973 , 1977) , but display resolution limits

the size of map segments that can be shown . The present research evaluated user performance under two different methods for changing from one

displayed map segment to another.

There are at least three approaches for developing automated map

displays. One approach is to determine what detail (if any) can be eliminated or reduced to make present maps more compatible with current display technology (Granda, 1978). A second approach is to provide for

changing the scale of a displayed map so that more or less detail can be

presented, as required. A third approach , considered here , is to sequentially display map segments at a common scale with enough detail to satisfy many of the user’s needs.

A potential application of automated graphics is the determination

of optimal traffic routes. This application can be used to evaluate alternative methods for changing displayed map segments . An Army officer

choosing a route manually may require several hours for a thorough solution, depending on problem complexity . Numerous hard—copy maps, which

cover a large geographical area and emphasize various aspects of terrain

and road characteristics, are often required . Selecting the optimum route

involves close examination of several similar possibilities and detailed

consideration of road types, population densities, and other obstacles to

quick travel. A computer display system could make map information more

easily available without requiring extensive hard-copy map storage.l In

addition, criteria for performance on route selection problems with automated map displays can be obtained from computer algorithms designed for

such tasks (Cooper et al., 1974).

1

Other automated aids could include distance/time calculations , record

keeping, prompts, etc. However, the focus of the current research is on

the display of map information as a basic feature of such systems.

L A ~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~ ~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~
BACKGROUN D

Use of a computer for displaying maps is a potentially valuable component of both military and nonmilitary information retrieval systems

(Berman et al., 1977; Carlson et al., 1974; Cooper et al., 1974; Moellering ,

1977). A major problem, however, is that state-of-the-art displays are

limited in screen size and resolution. (The availability of an adequate

map data base is not considered in this paper.) The potential detail required for displays is illustrated by conventional hard-copy maps , which

are designed not for accurate presentation by electronic devices but for

reading by the human eye . For example , a single grid box (about 4 cm2)

of a standard 1:50 ,000 scale military map requires an entire 525-line

color television screen to show the smallest printed detatls. For many

tasks, users require the display of a larger map area in more detail than

is electronically possible . The likelihood is that electronic display

resolution and size will only slowly catch up with such user needs. Therefore, methods are needed for displaying segments of maps without unduly

isolating ore segment from another. These methods must help users to integrate individual map displays into a cohesive picture of the area being

studied.

The problem of using map segments for convenient presentation is not

new. Hard—copy maps represent only subdivisions of larger areas. For

many tasks, the user often needs several map sheets. As an example , for

long—dis’~ince driving in the United states, a traveler must use several

State and city highway maps. When using different maps, the user needs

map-to-map continuity of various features, including roads and topography .

Several ways of maintaining orientation from one map sheet to another are

available: one map sheet can be placed next to another, related points

can be marked on adjacent sheets , sheets can be flipped back and forth,

and so on. Looking at map sheets one after the other, however , adds the

burden bf remembering related factors on adjacent sheets.

Previous research suggests that integrating information across the

boundaries of map sheets presented sequentially requires considerable cog—

nitive processing time (Shimron , 1975; Layman , 1968). Shimron (1975)

asked participants to learn a simple line-drawing map. The map showed a

river, a mountain range, 3 major roads, and 10 cities. Cities were located at road intersections , and roads were given names. Participants

remembered local connections between map elements (e.g., most northern

city; city in the mountains) after only a short 6-minute leari4ing period.

Overall integration of map units, however, such as naming the order of

cities along a particular road or remembering the orientation between

cities (e.g., what city is south of city A?), produced only 50% accuracy

after 12 minutes of learning time .

2

~~~~~~~
Research by Layman (1968) supports the idea that map segments are

harder to use than single maps of an entire area. Layman asked part.....

ipants to use a map for locating an aerial photograph and the position

of a particular photographed object. The time to perform the tasks increased significantly when participants had to use map segments rather

than a single map sheet. Layman suggested that the primary problem occurs when the area of interest lies along the border of two adjacent

map segments that cannot be viewed simultaneously. The user requires

more time for map reading when forced to depend on memory for a map

segment not in view.

A computer display of map information may be considered the electronic equivalent of using a hard-copy map segment . The ease with which

map information can be retrieved and the provision for continuity of one

map display with another are important human factors issues. Using dis- = crete sour ces of maps in the form of slides is a convenient way to store

and retrieve such information . However , the user may have trouble combining information across boundaries of sequentially presented map

segments.

One possibility for improving map presentations is to allow some

percentage of map area to overlap between adjacent segments. Such overlap may provide better user orientation than nonoverlapping segments.

Both overlapping and nonoverlapping map segments are referred to in this

paper as “discrete” presentation methods. An alternative, referred to

in this paper as a “continuous” method, is to allow continuous map scanning where the display is a “window” for a large map area. The user can

explore the map and stop on any area of interest. Intuitively , the continuous method might seem to be the most flexible and promising for the

future. The user , however, might be served more quickly , less expensively ,

and equally well by discrete map displays. The purpose of this research

was to test the ease and accuracy of map use with (a) displays of discrete predetermined segments with both overlapping and nonoverlapping

areas and (b) displays allowing continuous map scanning.

METHOD

Participants

Participants were 24 Army officers, 03 to 06 in rank, with military

map reading experience .

Design

The task was to use 6.75 x 9 km map segments (1:50,000 scale) within

a 60 x 81 km region to determine the fastest road routes between cities.

Participants were required to solve four sets of three problems (Appendix

A). Each problem set was solved with one of four display presentations :

continuous map scanning or viewing of discrete segments (see Figure 1)

with 0% , 25% , or 50% overlap. Map scale was kept constant , and standard

military Universal Transverse Mercator (UTM) coordinates were used as a
reference system. Each problem specified a city of origin , a destination

city, and the relative map locations of each, using the general form:

“You are presently at (city name, map coordinates) and have to go to

(city name, map.coordinates) . What roads would get you. there fastest?”

Participants were divided into four groups of six people each. Each

= - of the six participants in a group was assigned randomly to one of four

unique sequences of problem sets and map change me thods forming a Greco—

Latin square design (Winer , 1971 , p. 719) . The coun terbalanced design

controlled for time delays, practice effects, and presentation differences

in the problem sets, and map change methods.

Apparatus

Figure 2 shows the principal apparatus. The display generator consisted of a computer graphic system (Anagraph by Datadisc, Inc.2), a color

television camera (GBC CTC 3XP) , and a map . The computer system generated

cathode ray tube (CRT) displays of all alphanumeric and graphic information

except the map . The map image was transmitted to a display by cable from

a color television camera . The stationary camera framed a segment of the

entire map , which was mounted on a 4 x 6 foot movable vertical surface .

This surface was equipped with a separate motor, clutch , and drive system

for movement along both x and y axes; digital encoders to read the board’s

position on each axis; and a control system interfaced with the computer.

At the work station (see Figure 3), participants had two 19-inch raster scan color CRTs (Conrac, Inc.), a keyboard, and a trackball, all of

which were interfaced with the computer. The left-hand CRT showed map

segments with roads marked by black dots at intervals along their lengths.

The right-hand CRT (see Figure 4) showed two types of information: (a)

the top of the screen presented the problem, and (b) the rest of the

screen showed a grid and coordinate system representing the total map area

of interest. When the left screen showed a map segment, the right screen

used a red rectangle to show a segment’s location on the grid and an arrow

to show the direction of the change in displayed map area. Dashed lines

and letter codes corresponded to the displayed map’s coordinate system.

The only other materials provided to participants were a booklet of instructions, a participant-experimenter intercom , and pencil and paper for

notes. The experimenter had CRT monitors linked to the participants’

displays.

2

Trade names are used only for precision in reporting and do not constitute endorsement by the Army or ARt .
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YOU ARE PRESENTLY AT (CITY NAME), (MAPS COORDINATES ) AND HAVE TO GO TO

(CITY NAME), (MAP COORDINATES). WHAT ROADS WOULD GET YOU THERE FASTEST?

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Figure 4. Right-hand CRT display (not to scale). (The darkened rectangle represents a 0% overlapping condition .

)8
Procedure

Participants read instructions which explained the task, introduced

the CRT displays, reviewed the UTM coordinate system for the specific map

area, and required practice on techniques necessary for solving problems.

Participants also had a description of a general tactical situation that

provided a context for the route selection problems . As part of the in-

- 

• 

structions, participants learned how to pursue a problem solution by marking road routes on the displayed map and changing segments as necessary.

They used a trackball-guided cursor, appearing on the map display , to mark

each black dot along a chosen route with a computer-generated green asterisk. Green asterisks could be replaced (“erased”) by a red asterisk to

show that a spot had been abandoned. Participants were instructed to mark

only the black dots on red (primary) and red-dashed (secondary) roads when

indicating problem solutions.

Participants controlled map changes by using four direction keys (N,

S, E, W) on a specially marked keyboard (see Figure 2). Entering “N,” for

example, was a request to look at the map north of the current display .

Angular moves were not allowed. The map board in front of the TV came~ra

moved for both the continuous and discrete methods for changing map displays. The map was always readable for continuous displays. However, between discrete map presentations, while the map was moving, the display

was completely covered by a computer—generated blue mask . The computer

limited the amount of change during discrete methods, whereas for continuous changes, participants controlled starting and stopping of the map .

Participants were told what change method would be used for a problem set

and, as appropriate, the percentage overlap for a discrete method.

The apparatus caused a delay of about 8 seconds between map changes

in the discrete presentations; a similar wait after a move request in the

continuous method insured that the 8-second interval was constant for all

change methods. The delay in changing segments may have strained the participants’ immediate memory, but it was considered reasonable for laboratory evaluation of a map display system.

The research session for each participant lasted between 4 and 7

hours with rest and lunch breaks. Participants could report equipment

malfunctions by using the participant—experimenter intercom .

Performance Measures

Performance measures for each problem were (a) time to solution, (b)

number of map changes, and (c) quality of route selected . The solution

= time equaled the overall time for a problem solution minus the time spent

waiting for new map information to appear. Times when the screen was

blacked out during map changes by discrete methods were not considered to

be part of solution time . For continuous scanning, the time that the map

could be viewed while it was moving was part of solution time . Number of

9

_____________
map changes equaled participant requests to move the map in any of the

four available dj.rections. Quality of solution was determined by comparing points in a participant’s solution with points in an “ideal” solution

selected by computer algorithm (Cooper et al., 1974). The proportion of

ideal points was used as the index of solution quality . The computer algorithm evaluated the fastest road sections between points in a network, • 

• including corrections for average travel speeds along different road types • and the effects on travel speeds of city and terrain factors.

A final source of data was responses to a written questionnaire (Appendix B) that asked participants to evaluate research instructions, system operation, and task requirements . The questionnaire was given after

a session was over and the project’s purpose had been discussed.

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

A user-efficient system for sequentially displaying maps should be

accepted easily and should allow quick problem solutions of high quality .

In the current research , user preferences for map change methods were not

in perfect harmony with performance data. Results showed a first-place

preference for continuous scanning of maps and a second—place preference

for 25% overlapping segments. Performance data favored overlapping segments as most efficient. These differences were resolved by considering

(a) performance data along with the solution strategies which generated

them, (b) rationale for the preferences offered by participants, and (c)

cost tradeoffs for system design. Conclusions were weighted toward optimizing user performance , since this could be done without any major

effects on other criteria for an automated map change system.

Performance Data

Performance time and frequency of map changes varied systematically

among the four map change methods (Table 1). In contrast, the quality of

road route solutions remained consistent for the different map change

methods. Analyses of variance (Tables 2 and 3), based on the Greco-Latin

square design , showed significant performance differences for solution

time (F = 4.23; df = 3, 60; p < .01) and for frequency of map changes

(F = 2.78; df = 3, 60; p < .05). There also were significant small decreases in performance time over successive trials (i.e., learning effect) as well as significant differences in the difficulty of problem

sets. Performance differences for trials and problem sets were unimportant, because the Greco—Latin square counterbalanced differences across

presentation conditions .

An analysis of significant differences among means (Newmann Keuls

Test) obtained for map changes and solution time revealed that (a) the

number of map changes with 25% and 50% overlapping conditions is about

1.15 times greater than the number of changes with 0% overlap, and (b)

the shortest solution time, by a factor of about .25 , was produced by map

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Table 2

Analysis of Variance for Performance Time

Degrees Mean

Source of variation of freedom square F ratio P

Between participants

Group 3 137714 1.30 NS

Parts. within groups 20 105955

Within participants

Successive trials 3 88568 2.99 .05

Change methods 3 125262 4.23 .01

Message sets 3 248221 8.38 .001

Residual 3 76661 2.59 NS

Error 60 29610

Total 95

Table 3

Analysis of Variance for Frequency of Map Changes

Degrees Mean

Source of variation of freedom square F ratio P

Between participants

Group 3 385.43 1.12 NS

Parts. within groups 20 343.63

Within participants

Successive trials 3 23.52 .35 NS

Change methods 3 189.74 2.78 .05

Message sets 3 389.25 5.73 .001

Residual 3 87.53 1.29 NS

Error 60 67.98

Total 95

12 

~~

_ _

~~~~ .-----~~~~ - - - • A -
~~~~~~~~~ITTT~~ TT -

segments with 50% overlap (although data from segments with 25% overlap

were not statistically different). Overall, an increase in the frequency

of map changes necessary to solve a problem is associated with decreased

problem solution times.

Frequency of map changes and time data can be stressed in the results

only -because the quality of route solutions remained consistent for all

map change methods. However, the apparently low quality of route solutions, averaging only about 50%, requires some explanation. These findings are due to the rule used for obtaining results (see Appendix C),

which did not include reasonable alternatives to an ideal solution .

Routes that were similar or even parallel to the ideal route were numer—

ous (Table 4) but were scored as incorrect. In addition, participants

frequently marked a route compatible with the algorithm ’s solution and

later erased it. Examples of routes are illustrated in Figure 5. Visual

examination of solutions showed that participants prefetred alternative

routes to ideal routes for most problems. A check of solution time and

travel time efficiency of selected ideal routes versus other routes revealed no consistent differences.

Performance Strategy

Performance strategy is a primary determinant of the time and number • of map changes needed for solving problems. Participants appear to have

used different strategies for the alternative map change methods. For example, solutions with the continuous map change method, in which users

could scan new areas easily, were not expected to take as much time as with

discrete methods. The problem—solving strategy most participants adopted,

however , seemed to increase solution time. Participants spent much more

time exploring possible routes during continuous scanning than during any

discrete method. They first viewed large areas with a single map change,

to try to locate the best route . Later, once a route definition was

started, participants tended to move the map only far enough to keep the

last marked point (green asterisk) in view. The outcome was few map

changes, long performance times, and no improvement in the quality of problem solutions.

The strategies adopted by participants with the three discrete methods (0%, 25% and 50% overlap) also contributed to the resultant time and

map change data. Participants exposed to the 25% and 50% overlap methods

usually proceeded from the origin to the destination without first exploring the whole route. They would continue along a path as long as it

proved useful, and when it stopped going in the right direction , they

tried another route. Having any overlap usually enabled participants to

keep at least one previously marked point (green asterisk) in view when

they changed map segments . This seemed to provide sufficient orientation

and allowed participants to make choices without having to search. Thus,

with 50% overlap, less overall area was viewed than with 25% overlap, and

for both these methods less overall area was viewed than for 0% overlap.

13

—— --.---~

-- _ - • ~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~ ~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~ --,-~~~-

~~.- 

-

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---

~

-— _ ~~~~~~~~~~~~~ ~~~~~~~ - - _ -.

~ —----- - —~~~
Table 4

Number of Participants Generating Ideal or Alternate Problem Solutions

Problem solution frequency

Common Unique

Problem sets Ideal alternative alternative

1 9 12 3

2 1 16; 5

a 

2

3 0 24 0

4 0 17 7

5 24 0 0

6 0 20; 2

a 

2

7 2 19 3

8 7 15 2

9 1 19 4

10 0 12; 10a 2

11 2 8; 5; 8

a 1

12 24 0 0

a

Multiple entries refer to more than one common alternative for a problem solution.

In contrast, fewer moves were produced with 0% overlap than with either 25% or 50%. Of course , 0% overlap created a problem of memory and

• orientation, because a completely new area appeared with each move . Most

participants dealt with the orientation problem by carefully studying a

display of new information and sometimes reversing to view the previous -

segment. This reversing occurred m~~;.iy when a path was not obvious and

the participant wished to check nis work. Overall, results suggest that

using a discrete me thod with overlap is important for minimizing time for

problem solutions.

Participant Opinions

User opinion should be considered in selecting display system characteristics. A final source of data was the written questionnaire completed after the research by 24 participants. Responses showed that 19

participants preferred continuous scanning ; 5 preferred discrete changes,

3 participants preferred discrete changes with 25% overlap; and 12 others

made it their second choice . There was only one second choice preference

for continuous scanning. Participants ’ comments indicated that continuous

14 

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scanning provided quicker understanding of the relevant map area and easier orientation as displays were changed. These opinions contrast with

data showing that the continuous method resulted in the highest average

problem-solution time. The opinion agrees, of course, with the extensive

map exploration that participants often performed under continuous changes.

— The discrete change method with 25% overlap was preferred almost as well

because it provided continuity without too much or too little redundancy .

In addition , 25% overlap resulted in a near tie for shortest problem—solution time . The implication is that many users could accept a discrete

system with some overlap.

Preference data suggest that discrete changes with around 25% overlap

would be a good choice for displaying map information . Nevertheless , the

strong preference expressed for a system whereby the user can continuously

scan the map should not be ignored.

System Design Tradeoffs

The results provide information that designers of military map change

systems should consider in making tradeoffs among efficient user performance, equipment characteristics, and user satisfaction . One set of potential tradeoffs is between performance times and hardware requirements for

changing map segments. The most cost-effective and durable hardware design probably would minimize the percentage of overlap and the number of

changes needed to encompass a map . If designers use 25% as a guideline

for overlapping segments, the demands on equipment should be reasonable

without negative effects on user performance.

Another set of potential tradeoffs involves user performance versus

user satisfaction with a map change system. In spite of the efficient performance times with overlapping map segments , the majority of participants

made continuous scanning their first choice; their second choice was 25%

overlapping discrete segments. The extensive map exploration possible with

continuous scanning seemed to improve confidence in problem solutions while

lengthening performance time. Users could perhaps be taught to work more

rapidly with continuous scanning. However, the effect of such training on

user preference , number of map changes, and even solution accuracy is uncertain. In addition, the training costs and even the system development

costs for continuous scanning may be higher than those for discrete presentations with overlapping map segments . -Based on the current research,

a discrete system that uses about 25% overlapping map segments appears superior to the other tested alternatIves.

Design tradeoffs also should take into account the type of task to be

performed with a map. A request to find a quick route “from here to there”

can be reasonably satisfied by sequentially presented segments . But a system that can skip over segments would be convenient for a user who has become familiar with a geographical area. In a task that requires studying

of both map details and overviews, a system with zoom (i.e., change of

scale) capability would be convenient.

16

-- - - _—I-_ -.-~~--~---- ~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~ —s — W~~~~~~~~ _ ___2~ .. .1. - ~.. p
__

A flexible map change system would help users determine the optimal

sequence of travel among several cities and integrate scattered route

details such as flood conditions and destroyed bridges. The required

characteristics of a flexible system that would allow skipped segments

and zooming need to be determined. One suggested method for selecting

segments would be to use a UTM map reference system for calling up a lo—

cation of interest; another way would be to use a number and letter grid

similar to the locator system on many civilian maps. In a zoom system,

map changes could be handled with either a discrete or a continuous display. Whatever the procedures, a system user should be allowed to select alternative map areas for viewing with different map scales. When

sequential map changes of a constant scale are required, then overlapping

segments are suggested as the display method.

CONCLUSION

To optimize user performance time , the designer of a map display systern for military use should begin with discrete map segments that overlap

by about 25%. The percentage can vary somewhat without affecting performance . The 25% guideline considers user preference but requires fairly

frequent map changes, which increase demands on hardware. Performance

criteria, user satisfaction, and equipment design all have a place in determining the most appropriate map display system.
REFERE NCES

Berman , R., & Stonebreaker, M. GEO-QUEL-—A System for the Manipulation

and Display of Geographic Data. SIGGRAPH ‘77 Proceedings (published

by Computer Graphics), 11, 1977, 186-191.

Cannon, B. Maps for Display Systems. Research and Development Technical

Report No. 4147, U.S. Army Electronics Command , August 1973.

Cannon , B. Map Cassette for Data Display . Research and Development Technical Report No. 4501, U.S. Army Electronics Command, June 1977.

Carlson , E., Bennett, J., Giddings, G., & Mantey , P. The Design and

Evalue~

tion of an Interactive Geo-data Analysis and Display System.

Proceedings IFIP Congress, 1974, 1057-1061.

Cooper, G., Moore, M., & Halpin, S. MOVANAID: An Analytic Aid for Army

Intelligence Processing. Proceedings, Thirteenth Annual U.S. Army

Operations Research Symposium, 1974, 696—707.

Granda, T. M. An Evaluation of Visual Search Behavior on a Cathode Ray

Tube Utilizing the Window Technique . ARI Technical Paper 283,

February 1978, (AD A05 3352).

Layman, R. S. An Experimental Comparison of Two Map Display Modes.

Human Factors, 10(5), 1968, 497—503.

Moellering, H. Interactive Cartographic Design. American Congress on

Surveying and Mapping Proceedings, 1977, 516-530.

Shimron, J. On Learning Maps. Center for Human Information Processing,

UCLA , San Diego, Calif., (ARPA Order No. 2284), 1975.

Wiser, B. 3. Statistical Principles in Experimental Design (second ed.),

New York: McGraw—Hill, 1971.

L ____________
____ J

~~~~~~IT~TT

APPENDIX A

QUESTIONS USED IN RESEARCH

Practice Problem (repeated before each problem set)

You have been ordered to advance to the town of Falkenstein,

UR135945, in preparation for an upcoming offensive. You are presently located at Oelsnitz, TR995892 . Find the route that will get you to your new

position the fastest.

Problem Set I -

1. You know that supplies are being stockpiled at Saalburg, PA939983.

— You have been ordered to take Saalburg and capture/destroy the stockpiles.

What roads would you take to get to your objective from your present location (vic) Asch, TR993678?

2. Your position has been tenuous. The OPFOR (Opposing Force) is advancing much more rapidly than expected. You must retreat from your present

location at Georgen, UR202832, to the occupied town of Planitz, US220179.

What roads would get you there the fastest?

3. Your BN has been reassigned from (vic) Oelsnitz (II), US375216, to

(vic) Breitenbrunn, UR412939. You are to move out immediately by the

fastest roads. Find them.

Problem Set II

4. A vital bridge at Elsterberg , TS998102 , is be ing held by OPFOR . You

have been assigned to retake the bridge . You are presently at Johann—

— georgenstadt, UR386890. What roads would you take to get there the

quickest?

5. Your unit has been assigned a supply mission to Tanna , QAO349 78. It

is important that the supplies make their destination as soon as possible .

• What roads will accomplish this? Your present position is Luby , UR150701.

6. An important crossroads exists at Zeulenrod , QBlO8l5l. You have been

tasked with protecting it. You are to move from Aue , US373064, by the

quickest roads. Mark them.

Problem Set III

7. You are assigned to take part in an offensive on Reichenbach , USO93ll3 ,

at 0100 hours tomorrow . Your present location is Krajkova, UR243657. Find

the roads you would take to reach the objective most quickly.

21
— 8. Your unit is presently assigned to Hirschberg, QA004877. New orders

have been received reassigning you to Markneukirchen , UR1O2768. What

roads would you take to get there in the - shortest time?

9. You have been assigned to Schauenstein, PA950735, from your present

position of Xlingenthal, UR199815. What roads would you take to reach

your destination as quickly as possible?

Problem Set IV

• 10. You have received orders to move from your present location at

Zwickau, US232220, to (vic) Bramback , UR080666. What roads would get

you there in the shortest time?

11. The 2nd Tank BN is being heavily pressed at Schonlind , QA114944.

You are presently at Rehau , TR887707. What roads would you take to be

able to reinforce the 2nd in the shortest amount of time?

12. An air drop of medical supplies is scheduled to be made to (vic)

Moschlitz, PB945051. You are assigned to recover the supplies. Move

from your present position of Werdau, USl47226, to the drop point at

Moschlitz as quickly as possible. What roads would you take?

22
- • - ~ --- -—--- ----.- , 

~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~

APPENDIX B

AUTOMATED MAP DISPLAY S

POST-EXERCISE QUESTIONNAIRE

Your responses to the following questions will aid us in evaluating the approaches to map displays which you have worked with at the

Army Research Institute.

1. Today’s exercise ran for a number of hours during which you were

required to undertake a series of tasks. Do you feel that your performance was adversely influenced by the factor of fatigue 3nd that the time

is too long to expect a user to operate with our system? Yes_No_

Comments:

2. Was the time for changing a map display overly long? Yes No_

Comments:

3. Do you have any suggestions for improving the instructions?

Please comment:

4. Did you have suff icient time to learn to operate the system and genera lly become familiar with the contents and configuration of the map information? Yes_No Comments:

23

___ -•-•- - --~~ -- - — 
5. Did you have any “mechanical” problems with the task that seriously

hampered your ability to obtain and manipulate the map information?

(for examp le , getting information , using the keyboard , etc.) Yes____

No____ 

Comments :

6. Did you like the trackball as a device for interacting with the system? Yes No Comments :

7. Were the grid and the red locator box on the second display he lpful?

Yes_No_ Would you suggest any changes?

8. Was the t.JTM coordinate system adequate for use with the displayed

maps? Yes No What changes (if any) might you suggest for use with

the displayed maps?

9. Were any problems too long (i.e., too many display changes)?

Yes No Comments :

10. Were the roads difficult to follow on the displayed maps? - Yes_

No_ Comment on any bothersome aspects-—if any . 

~~ •-— ~~~~~ ~~~~- ---- ~~~~— 

~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~
11. What would you have liked the system to do for you that wasn’t available in the present task?

12. Were the problems similar to those that an S3 might deal with in

the real world? Yes No_ In what ways?

Please comment as appropriate--There were two basically different map

presentations in this research: slides versus continuous changes of the

map display . Did you prefer one over the other? Why? Did the degree

of overlap between adjacent slides affect your ability to use the map?

Please do not discuss details of your participation in this task with

others who may work with us at a later date.

25

/ 

— -a ~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~ —--~

—~~~~~~-

~~~~~ • —~~~~~~~—-~~

- - ~~~~~~~~ - -- -- —-~~~~~ — Ll~~
APPENDIX C

DISCUSSION OF ALTERNATIVE SCORING METHODS

The scoring method used in the present research to compare actual

- 

• 

routes with ideal routes was not the only one that could have been devised. However, it allowed consistent evaluation of possible routes and

strict comparisons among map change conditions.

Development of any method for scoring road routes is complicated by

the traditional rationale used for route selection. Often an officer’s

choice of different routes depends on the nature of the mission assigned.

If speed is essential, then the commander may decide to take risks which

normally would be avoided. But, if safely arriving with needed reinforcements or supplies is the requirement, then a slower, more secure route

might be chosen. Although there are certain general principles which all rf military officers follow (e.g., avoid cities), the actual selection is

based more on experience, knowledge of the overall situation, and intuition than on any hard and fast rules.

Individualized route solutions could be studied by using a multiattitudinal or multi-dimensional approach. This would break the solutions down into their component parts and provide an idea of which components are most important. However, the integration of data into “textbook” solutions would be difficult and would represent a questionable

basis for scoring performance.

Scoring rules in the present research focused on determining the

fastest route because this was the primary performance requirement. However , this requirement did not simplify scoring. Consider that the fastest route is not necessarily the shortest route; differences in road quality can significantly affect speed of travel. For example, a unit traveling a longer distance on a ç-rimary road can reach a destination more

quickly than a similar unit traveling on a secondary road. Thus, length

of route taken , one possible scoring rule for the problems, is inadequate .

Another possible scoring method would be to compare travel time instead of travel routes. The computer algorithm used as a criterion in

the research can determine the shortest time a unit would take to travel

frbm an origin to a destination . Travel times for routes chosen by par— • ticipants could be calculated and compared to the “ideal” time. However ,

each unique route segment requires separate time calculations, which can

become voluminous. Whereas travel time calculations are practical for

sampling different solutions, they are not practical for an exhaustive

treatment of the data without specially designed software. 

~~~-- - - ---—-~~ -——- —~~~~~~~~~ • - -—
~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~ TIT ~~~TTT

~ 

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1 USA Agcy for Aviation-Safety. Ft Ruckar , AIIN: Library of Defense. Maw Delhi

1 USA Agcy for Aviation Safety, Ft Pucker, AIIN: (due Advisor 1 Pars Rich Ofe Library, AKA, Israel Defense Forces

I USA Aviat ion Sets , Ft Rueliar, AIIM: P0 Drawer o I Ministuris van Defends. 000P/KL Afd Sociaal

1 HOUSA Aviation Sys Cmd, St Louis, AIIM: AMSAV—ZDR Psydsologlicts. Zaken, Th. Hague, Netherlands

2 USA Aviat ion Syt lest Act., Edwards AFB, AIIM: SAVTE—T

1 USA Air Dat 5th, F t Bliss , Aim: ATSA TEN

1 USA Alt Mobi lity Rids & 0ev Lab, Moffett FM, AIIM: SAVD(. -AS

I USA Aviati on 5th. Rae Trig MgI, Ft Pucker, Aim: ATST—I—RTM

I USA Aviation Sets, CO. Ft Puck er, AIIM: AISI—O—A

1 HO, DARCOM. Alexandria , AIIM: AMX CD—Tk

1 HO, DARCOM . Alexandria , AIIM: COP

1 US Military Academy, West Point . AIIM: Serials Unit

1 US Military Academy, West Point, ATTN: Ole of Mitt Ldrshp

1 US Military Academy . West Point , AIIM: MAO R

1 USA Standardization Gp, UK , FPO MY. AIIM: MA SE—GC

1 Ole of Naval Reds, Arlington, AIIM: Code 452

3 Ole of Naval Rich . Arlington . AIIM: Cods 458

1 Ole of Naval Rids, Arlington, ATTN: Code 450

1 Ole of Naval Pacts , Arlington , AIIM: Code 441

1 Naval Aerospc Med Re, Lab. Pensacola, AIIN: Acorn 5th Div

1 Naval Mottic Med Ret Lab. Pensacola, AIIM: Cods L51

1 Naval Asrospc Med Re, Lab, Pensacola, AIIM: Code 15

1 Chief of lOaFers. ATTM: Pers-OR

1 NAVAIRSTA . Norfolk, ATTN: Safety Cu

1- Nay Omanogriphic. DC, AIIM: Code 6251, Charts & Tseh

1 Center of Naval Anal, AIIM: Doe Ctr

I MavAirSysCom, AIIM: A IR—531 3C

1 Nay BriMed, AIIM: 713

I NavHsllcoptarSubSqus 2, FPO SF 99601

I AFHRL (Fl) WIlliams AFB

I AFHRL (II)Lossey AFB

1 AFHRL IAS) WPAFB.OH

2 AFHRL (OOJZ) Brooks AFB

1 AFHR L (DOJN) Lackland AFB

1 HOUSAF (INYSD)

1 HOUSAF (DPXXA) —

1 AFVIG (AD) Randolph AFE

3 ANAL (HE) WPAFB . OH

2 AF Inst of Tech, WPAFB, OH, AIIM: EME/SL

I AIC IXPID) Randolph AFB

1 USAF AeroMed Lib, Brooks AFB (SUL—4), Aim: DOC SEC

1 AFOSR (NI), Arlington

1 AF Log Crnd, McClellan AFB, Aim: ALC/DPCRR

I Air Force Academy, CO. AIIM: Dept of Bit Sen

5 NavP,rs & Dsv Ctr, San Diego

2 Navy Med Neuropsychiatric Rsth Unit, Sirs Diego

I Nay Electronic Lab. San Diego, AIIM: Rae Lab

1 Nay IrngCen, San Diego, AIIM: Code 9000- Lib

1 NavPo,tGra$ch, Monterey, Aim: Cods EMs

I NavPostGraSch, Monterey, AIIM: Cods 2124

I Nav irngEquipCtr , Orlando , AIIM: Tech Lib

I US Dept of Labor, DC, A IIM: Manpower Admin

1 US Dupe of Justice. DC, AIIM: Drug Enforce Admin

1 Nat Bur of Standards. DC, AIIM: Computer Info Section

I Nat Clearing House for MH—Info , Rockvllls

I Denver Federal Ctr , Lakewood, AIIM: ELM

12 Defense Documentation Canter

4 DIr Psych, Army Hg. Russell Ofca, Canberra

1 Scientific Advir, Nil Ed, Army Hg, Ruu.ll Ofcs, Canberra

I Nil and Air Atticts.. Austrian Embassy

I Centre dv Ractsercts. bus Facisur,, Humalne da le Defense

Nationals, Brussels

2 CanadIan Joint Staff Washington

1 C/Air Staff , Royal Canadian AF, AIIM: Pan Std Anal Br

3 Chief, Canadian Del Rich Staff , AIIM: C/CNDS(W)

4 British Del Staff , British Embauy, Waitslngeon

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