Defensive Driving Tips for CMV Drivers: 

An Internet-Based Approach 

September 2009
FOREWORD 

The Federal Motor Carrier Safety Administration (FMCSA) awarded a contract to develop a 

web-based training tool. The purpose of this website is to show common driving errors made by 

Commercial Motor Vehicle (CMV) drivers. This website will be available to the public through 

the FMCSA website (http://www.fmcsa.dot.gov/about/outreach/education/driverTips/index.htm), 

and is intended to be used by fleet safety mangers and CMV drivers as part of their training 

process. The purpose of this report was to document the steps taken in developing the website 

and to show the final content. 

NOTICE 

This document is disseminated under the sponsorship of the U.S. Department of Transportation 

in the interest of information exchange. The United States Government assumes no liability for 

its contents or use thereof. 

This report does not constitute a standard, specification, or regulation. 

The United States Government does not endorse products or manufacturers. Trade or 

manufacturers’ names appear herein solely because they are considered essential to the objective 

of this report. 
Technical Report Documentation Page 

1. Report No. 

FMCSA RRT-09-003 

2. Government Accession No. 3. Recipient’s Catalog No. 

5. Report Date 

September 2009 

4. Title and Subtitle 

DEFENSIVE DRIVING TIPS FOR CMV DRIVERS: 

AN INTERNET-BASED APPROACH 6. Performing Organization Code: 

7. Author(s) 

Santosh Gupta, Rebecca Olson, Richard Hanowski 

8. Performing Organization Report No. 

9. Performing Organization Name and Address 10. Work Unit No. 

Center for Truck and Bus Safety 

Virginia Tech Transportation Institute 

3500 Transportation Research Plaza (0536) 

Blacksburg, VA 24061 

11. Contract or Grant No. 

DTMC75-07-D-00006 (Task Order #2) 

13. Type of Report and Period Covered 

Final Report 

July 2007–October 2008 

12. Sponsoring Agency Name and Address 

U.S. Department of Transportation 

Federal Motor Carrier Safety Administration 

1200 New Jersey Avenue, SE 

Washington, DC 20590 14. Sponsoring Agency Code 

15. Supplementary Notes 

This program was managed by the Federal Motor Carrier Safety Administration (FMCSA). 

The Contracting Officer’s Technical Representative was Martin Walker, PhD. 

16. Abstract 

The main objective of this study was to develop a web-based driving tips website to be used by commercial 

motor vehicle (CMV) drivers and fleet safety managers to show common large-truck driving errors and to 

provide tips on how to avoid such errors. The website, hosted on the FMCSA website, is accessible to the 

public. The website is intended to be used as a supplemental CMV driver training tool and is not intended 

to replace any of the current classroom or on-road training methods that are currently being used. The 

website contains real-world video clips of CMV drivers who were recorded making various driving errors. 

It is hoped that the CMV web-based driving tips website, with support from the naturalistic driving video 

clips, will provide drivers with compelling information to support safe driving. 

17. Key Words 

commercial motor vehicle, CMV, defensive 

driving, driving tips, website, naturalistic data, 

internet, training 

18. Distribution Statement 

No restrictions. 

19. Security Classif. (of this report) 

Unclassified 

20. Security Classif. (of this page) 

Unclassified 

21. No. of Pages 

102 

22. Price 

Form DOT F 1700.7 (8-72) Reproduction of completed pages authorized 
SI* (MODERN METRIC) CONVERSION FACTORS 

Table of APPROXIMATE CONVERSIONS TO SI UNITS 

Symbol When You Know Multiply By To Find Symbol 

LENGTH 

in inches 25.4 millimeters mm 

ft feet 0.305 meters m 

yd yards 0.914 meters m 

mi miles 1.61 kilometers km 

AREA 

in2 square inches 645.2 square millimeters mm2 

ft2 square feet 0.093 square meters m2 

yd2 square yards 0.836 square meters m2 

ac acres 0.405 hectares ha 

mi2 square miles 2.59 square kilometers km2 

VOLUME Note: Volumes greater than 

1000 L shall be shown in m3 

fl oz fluid ounces 29.57 milliliters mL 

gal gallons 3.785 liters L 

ft3 cubic feet 0.028 cubic meters m3 

yd3 cubic yards 0.765 cubic meters m3 

MASS 

oz ounces 28.35 grams g 

lb pounds 0.454 kilograms kg 

T short tons (2000 lb) 0.907 megagrams (or “metric ton”) Mg (or “t”) 

TEMPERATURE Temperature is in exact degrees 

°F Fahrenheit 5 × (F-32) ÷ 9 

or (F-32) ÷ 1.8 

Celsius °C 

ILLUMINATION 

fc foot-candles 10.76 lux lx 

fl foot-Lamberts 3.426 candela/m2 cd/m2 

Force and Pressure or Stress 

lbf poundforce 4.45 newtons N 

lbf/in2 poundforce per square inch 6.89 kilopascals kPa 

Table of APPROXIMATE CONVERSIONS FROM SI UNITS 

Symbol When You Know Multiply By To Find Symbol 

LENGTH 

mm millimeters 0.039 inches in 

m meters 3.28 feet ft 

m meters 1.09 yards yd 

km kilometers 0.621 miles mi 

AREA 

mm2 square millimeters 0.0016 square inches in2 

m2 square meters 10.764 square feet ft2 

m2 square meters 1.195 square yards yd2 

ha hectares 2.47 acres ac 

km2 square kilometers 0.386 square miles mi2 

VOLUME 

mL milliliters 0.034 fluid ounces fl oz 

L liters 0.264 gallons gal 

m3 cubic meters 35.314 cubic feet ft3 

m3 cubic meters 1.307 cubic yards yd3 

MASS 

g grams 0.035 ounces oz 

kg kilograms 2.202 pounds lb 

Mg (or “t”) megagrams (or “metric ton”) 1.103 short tons (2000 lb) T 

TEMPERATURE Temperature is in exact degrees 

°C Celsius 1.8C + 32 Fahrenheit °F 

ILLUMINATION 

lx lux 0.0929 foot-candles fc 

cd/m2 candela/m2 0.2919 foot-Lamberts fl 

Force & Pressure or Stress 

N newtons 0.225 poundforce lbf 

kPa kilopascals 0.145 poundforce per square inch lbf/in2 

* SI is the symbol for the International System of Units. Appropriate rounding should be made to comply with Section 4 of ASTM E380. 

(Revised March 2003, Section 508-accessible version September 2009) 

ii 
TABLE OF CONTENTS 

LIST OF ACRONYMS .............................................................................................................. VI 

EXECUTIVE SUMMARY .......................................................................................................VII 

1. INTRODUCTION.................................................................................................................1 

PROJECT OVERVIEW .........................................................................................................1 

OBJECTIVES.........................................................................................................................2 

2. LITERATURE REVIEW ....................................................................................................3 

2.1 WEB DESIGN GUIDELINES ......................................................................................3 

2.1.1 User-Centered Design....................................................................................... 3 

2.1.2 Usability Guidelines.......................................................................................... 4 

2.1.3 ........................................................................................................... 6 Summary

2.2 DRIVER TRAINING ....................................................................................................6 

2.2.1 Purpose of Driver Training ............................................................................... 6 

2.2.2 Driver Improvement Training Sources............................................................. 7 

2.2.3 ........................................................................................................... 8 Summary

2.3 NATURALISTIC DATA AND VIDEO EXAMPLES .................................................9 

2.3.1 Naturalistic Data Availability ........................................................................... 9 

2.3.2 Purpose and Effectiveness of Video Examples .............................................. 10 

2.4 DRIVER ERROR ........................................................................................................11 

2.4.1 Categorizing Driver Error............................................................................... 11 

2.5 NATURALISTIC DRIVING STUDIES .....................................................................12 

2.5.1 Review of CMV Driving Studies.................................................................... 12 

2.5.2 Review of the Large Truck Crash Causation Study........................................ 16 

2.5.3 ......................................................................................................... 17 Summary

2.6 DRIVING TIPS ...........................................................................................................18 

2.6.1 Driver Errors and Associated Preventative Measures .................................... 18 

2.6.2 Non-Performance-Based Driver Errors .......................................................... 19 

2.6.3 Recognition-Based Driver Error..................................................................... 20 

2.6.4 Decision-Based Driver Error .......................................................................... 22 

2.6.5 ......................................................................................................... 26 Summary

2.7 SUMMARY OF LITERATURE REVIEW.................................................................27 

iii 
3.

...............................................................................................29 

A WEBINAR WITH SUBJECT MATTER EXPERTS ON DEFENSIVE DRIVING 

TIPS FOR CMV DRIVERS

3.1 INTRODUCTION .......................................................................................................29 

3.2 PRE-WEBINAR PROCEDURES ...............................................................................29 

3.3 WEBINAR PROCEDURE..........................................................................................29 

3.4 RESULTS ....................................................................................................................30 

3.4.1 Driver Error #1: Traveling Too Fast for Conditions....................................... 30 

3.4.2 Driver Error #2: Unfamiliarity with Roadway................................................ 31 

3.4.3 Driver Error #3: Inadequate Surveillance....................................................... 32 

3.4.4 Driver Error #4: Driver Fatigue. ..................................................................... 33 

3.4.5 Driver Error #5: Illegal Maneuver. ................................................................. 34 

3.4.6 Driver Error #6: Inattention. ........................................................................... 35 

3.4.7 Driver Error #7: External Distraction. ............................................................ 35 

3.4.8 Driver Error #8: Following Too Closely. ....................................................... 36 

3.4.9 Driver Error #9: Internal Distraction. ............................................................. 37 

3.4.10 Driver Error #10: Inadequate Evasive Action. ............................................... 37 

3.5 SUMMARY.................................................................................................................38 

4. WEBSITE TECHNICAL REQUIREMENTS.................................................................39 

4.1 TECHNICAL REQUIREMENTS...............................................................................39 

4.2 SUMMARY.................................................................................................................39 

5. OBTAINING PERMISSION TO USE VIDEOS.............................................................41 

5.1 DRIVER PERMISSION..............................................................................................41 

5.1.1 Review and Selection of Video Data Clips..................................................... 41 

5.1.2 Contacting Drivers.......................................................................................... 41 

5.1.3 Obtaining Driver Permission/Consent to Use Videos .................................... 41 

5.2 SUMMARY.................................................................................................................42 

6. DEVELOPMENT OF THE CMV WEB-BASED DRIVING TIPS WEBSITE ...........43 

6.1 WEBSITE FORMAT...................................................................................................43 

6.2 DRAFT REVISION PROCESS ..................................................................................43 

7. SUMMARY .........................................................................................................................45 

7.1 CMV DRIVER FEEDBACK ......................................................................................46 

7.2 VIDEO NARRATION.................................................................................................46 

7.3 VISOR TIP SHEETS...................................................................................................46 

iv 
v 

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS ........................................................................................................87 

REFERENCES.............................................................................................................................89

LIST OF APPENDICES 

APPENDIX A: INFORMED CONSENT DOCUMENT FOR WEBINAR WITH FLEET 

SAFETY MANAGERS ......................................................................................................47 

APPENDIX B: INFORMED CONSENT DOCUMENT FOR OBTAINING DRIVER 

PERMISSION TO USE VIDEO CLIPS...........................................................................49 

APPENDIX C: COVER LETTER FOR DRIVER INSTRUCTIONS ...................................53 

APPENDIX D: SCREENSHOTS OF FINAL CMV WEB-BASED DRIVING TIPS 

WEBSITE............................................................................................................................55 

LIST OF TABLES 

Table 1. Frequency and Percentage of Potential Driver-Related Factors.....................................14 

Table 2. Driver Error Assigned in Large-Truck Crashes..............................................................16 
LIST OF ACRONYMS 

Acronym Definition 

CDL commercial driver’s license 

CMV commercial motor vehicle 

DAS data acquisition system 

DDWS FOT Drowsy Driver Warning System Field Operational Test 

DMV Department of Motor Vehicles 

FMCSA Federal Motor Carrier Safety Administration 

GVWR gross vehicle weight rating 

HOS hours of service 

IRB Institutional Review Board 

L/SH local/short haul 

LTCCS Large-Truck-Crash Causation Study 

NHTSA National Highway Traffic Safety Administration 

SUV sport utility vehicle 

vi 
EXECUTIVE SUMMARY 

This report presents the work completed for the project titled Defensive Driving Tips for CMV 

Drivers: An Internet-Based Approach. The objective of this project was to develop a driving tips 

website for commercial motor vehicle (CMV) drivers and fleet safety managers to show 

common large-truck driving errors. The website is to be included on the Federal Motor Carrier 

Safety Administration (FMCSA) website as web-based training tool. 

Given the impact of driver error on safety, there has been a keen interest in developing driver 

training programs that focus on driver behaviors, and specifically those programs that train 

drivers to avoid specific driver errors. CMV drivers receive classroom and on-road training in 

order to obtain their commercial driver’s license (CDL). Horn and Tardif (1999) emphasize the 

need for driver improvement training that also focuses on defensive driving. Defensive driving 

programs teach drivers to be patient, to be courteous to others, to anticipate others’ mistakes, and 

to be on constant lookout for potentially hazardous situations and conditions. There are a number 

of sources for driver improvement training programs offered by various organizations. These 

programs focus on educating drivers to drive defensively and to think, see, and react more 

quickly to driving challenges. Though such programs claim to have an impact on driver 

improvement, their biggest limitation is that their training material may not be readily accessible 

to all CMV drivers and fleets. In addition, it is not known if the training information used by 

these programs is based on empirical data. 

Because of the limitations of current driver improvement training programs, this project was 

initiated with the purpose of creating a supplemental defensive driving tips training program that 

would be accessible to the public and based on naturalistic driving data. The goal of the CMV 

Web-based Driving Tips project was to develop a web-based training tool whereby defensive 

driving tips information is supported by real-world video examples of safety-critical events. 

These examples will serve to educate CMV drivers in how to avoid making the same mistakes as 

those shown in the videos. The intent of this project is not to replace existing training programs, 

but to provide supplemental training information to CMV drivers and fleet managers. 

Between May 2004 and September 2005, naturalistic driving data was collected from 103 

volunteer CMV driver participants as part of the Drowsy Driver Warning System Field 

Operational Test (DDWS FOT) (Hanowski et al., 2008). The DDWS FOT produced 46,000 

hours of driving data spanning 2.3 million miles (a distance equivalent to almost 96 trips around 

the world, or 770 coast-to-coast trips across the United States). Video data were continuously 

collected during the DDWS FOT, providing a repository of video examples of driver errors for 

use in driver improvement training. 

The following tasks were completed in order to develop the final website. First, a literature 

review was conducted which detailed information on website usability guidelines, driver error, 

driver training, and naturalistic studies. The literature review resulted in information about 

specific driver behavior errors along with their preventive measures (driving tips). Then a focus 

group was conducted with subject matter experts to further maximize the usability of the driving 

tips content. Upon revision, the new driving tips included key information content, such as the 

importance of each tip and “did you know?” facts. In the content revision phase, some driving 

vii 
viii 

tips were eliminated on the basis of being too elementary, as was indicated by subject matter 

experts’ input in the review group. 

To ensure that the website content was submitted in a format suitable for placement on 

FMCSA’s website, the researchers obtained the website technical requirements from FMCSA’s 

website managers and staff. In addition, to include driver videos for training purposes on a public 

website, special driver permissions were sought. Despite the challenges faced in contacting 

drivers (given their transient nature), permission was obtained from 11 drivers for 16 video data 

clips. Each of the top driver errors was represented by at least one video data clip. Once the 

driver permissions were obtained and video data clips were edited, work began on preparing the 

content for the draft website. The final CMV Web-Based Driving Tips website design was later 

revised again based on the peer review results of the draft website design. 

The final CMV Web-Based Driving Tips website is included on the FMCSA website and is 

accessible to the public. The website includes an introductory homepage and different web pages 

for each driver error category. The homepage welcomes the audience to the website and provides 

a brief overview of the purpose of the website, its organization, and instructions on how to use 

the website. Each of the driver error categories includes key information content. Each category 

first introduces an operational definition of the driver error, followed by the driving tip content 

(such as the importance of each driving tip), “did you know?” fact(s), naturalistic driving video 

example(s), and training exercises. It is expected that the training questions will serve to ensure 

driver attention during the training program, as the questions quiz the driver for each video 

example. It is hoped that this will further assist CMV drivers in retaining the necessary 

information about those specific driver-related behaviors or errors to avoid. 
1. INTRODUCTION 

PROJECT OVERVIEW 

Large trucks, defined as vehicles weighing more than 10,000 lb, are involved in a large number 

of crashes annually. In 2005, when this study was conducted, a total of 442,000 large trucks were 

involved in traffic crashes in the United States, and 4,932 were involved in fatal crashes which 

resulted in 5,212 fatalities (Federal Motor Carrier Safety Administration [FMCSA], 2007). 

Although the overall fatality rate of crashes across all vehicle types dropped 0.6 percent between 

2003 and 2005, the total number of fatalities related to large-truck crashes increased by 4.8 

percent. This is the third highest increase, behind motorcycle and sport utility vehicle (SUV) 

fatalities (FMCSA, 2007). This increase in the number of large-truck-related fatalities 

underscores the need to identify contributing factors associated with critical incidents (i.e., 

crashes and near-crashes). Once such contributing factors are identified and understood, steps 

can be taken to develop countermeasures to reduce the number of crashes and as a result, the 

number of related fatalities. 

To understand fully the large number of factors contributing to crashes, one must take into 

account environmental factors (e.g., weather, other vehicles), vehicular factors (e.g., brakes, tire 

wear), organizational design factors (e.g., hours-of-service regulations, fleet safety management 

practices) and driver factors (e.g., driver behavior, distractibility) (Emery & Trist, 1960). 

However, research has found that driver factors (or driver errors) are the most prominent causes 

of traffic crashes (Treat et al., 1979; Sabey & Taylor, 1980; Wierwille et al., 2002; Craft, 2004). 

For example, Treat et al. determined that human error is the probable cause of 70–90 percent of 

traffic crashes. 

In 2003, FMCSA reported that five common driver errors account for the majority of large-truck 

fatal crashes. These five driver errors are the following: 

 Driver inattention. 

 Running off the road or out of the lane. 

 Failure to yield the right of way. 

 Excessive speed for conditions. 

 Failure to obey traffic lights and stop signs. 

These same errors were found to be predominant in the Large Truck Crash Causation Study 

(FMCSA, 2005), which assessed the causes of, and factors contributing to, crashes involving 

large trucks. The LTCCS found that large trucks were coded with a critical reason in 55 percent 

(78,000) of the crashes (i.e., the large truck was considered to be responsible for the crash) and 

that truck driver errors accounted for 87.3 percent (68,000) of the crashes (FMCSA, 2005). The 

most frequently cited critical reasons were driver recognition errors (28.4 percent) and decision 

errors (38 percent). Specifically, factors such as driving too fast for conditions, driver inattention, 

fatigue, performing illegal maneuvers, and following too closely were cited as the primary 

causes of large-truck crashes, thus supporting the findings of the previously mentioned FMCSA 

(2003) analyses. 

1 
2 

to large-truck safety incidents were driver errors (Hickman et al., in press). This 

included 30.5 percent recognition errors (e.g., not seeing another vehicle), 47.5 percent decision 

these studies 

identified similar, if not identical, associated driver errors/factors, such as driver recognition and 

s would 

tribute 

The goal of this CMV Web-Based Driving Tips project was to develop a web-based training tool 

where behavioral “do’s” and “don’ts” (driving tips) for CMV drivers are demonstrated in video 

segments of actual safety-critical events captured in recently completed naturalistic driving 

studies. The “don’ts” represent video segments demonstrating safety-critical events, and the 

“do’s” represent preventive measures (driving tips) in the form of text appearing alongside the 

videos. Providing real-world examples of safety-critical events, and the behaviors that lead up to 

them, is a useful learning tool, as the examples may serve to motivate CMV drivers to avoid 

making these mistakes themselves. The intent of this project was not to replace existing training 

programs, but to provide supplemental training information to CMV drivers and fleet managers 

regarding defensive driving tips. 

Similarly, a naturalistic (i.e., on-road, or real-world) study found that 91.5 percent of the critical 

reasons assigned 

errors (e.g., misjudgment of another vehicle’s speed), 11.9 percent performance errors (e.g., 

improper turning maneuver), and 1.6 percent non-performance errors (e.g., fatigue). These 

categorizations are discussed in more detail in later sections of this report. 

The studies cited above suggest the same conclusion—driver error is a primary factor 

contributing to large-truck crashes. In addition, it is interesting to note that 

decision errors. Such findings suggest that future driver improvement training program

do well to focus on driver behaviors, and specifically on those which may prevent or con

to crash likelihood. It is recommended that drivers be trained to engage in or avoid these 

behaviors as appropriate. 

OBJECTIVES 
2. LITERATURE REVIEW 

The purpose of this chapter is to identify the most informative content for this web-based 

training tool. The following sections contain information on the following areas: web design 

guidelines, the need for driver improvement training and available training sources, the benefits 

of using naturalistic data, and the justification for the use of video examples to demonstrate 

driver error. Driver error and the various driver error models that are found in the literature are 

also discussed. The final sections of this chapter begin by summarizing information gathered 

from key naturalistic studies, and conclude with synergized information about specific driver 

behavior errors and the measures to prevent those errors (driving tips). 

2.1 WEB DESIGN GUIDELINES 

The Internet has become an increasingly powerful, dynamic, and interactive tool for delivering 

specific information to targeted and widespread audiences. The use of the Internet as an 

educational tool has provided users with a wide range of new and interesting learning 

experiences that may not be obtainable in traditional in-class education (Khan, 1997). The 

FMCSA website “No-Zone” (online at: http://www.sharetheroadsafely.org/noZone/noZone.asp) 

is one such educational site. “No-Zone” aims to provide supplemental training information to 

truck drivers and fleet carriers about the need for driving safety, speed management, distance 

maintenance, and blind-zone awareness, as well as the importance of driver wellness programs. 

The aim of this project was to create a website that would provide training information similar to 

“No-Zone,” along with additional information about naturalistic driver-related factors that 

increase the likelihood of large-truck crashes. The Internet was seen as an ideal medium for this 

project because it makes possible the sharing of large amounts of information with the intended 

audience, in this case fleet managers and CMV drivers. In addition, the use of the Internet allows 

the fleet managers and CMV drivers greater flexibility, as they can access it at their own pace 

and at convenient times. It is important to note, however, that following certain guidelines when 

providing e-learning applications helps to ensure the usability of the developed website. 

2.1.1 User-Centered Design 

In the design of a website, there are many design methods and approaches that require careful 

consideration of usability principles. The most important component is a user-centered design 

approach. Norman (1990, p. 188) defines user-centered design as a, “philosophy based on the 

needs and interests of the user, with an emphasis on making products usable and 

understandable.” It is a philosophy that puts the user “in control,” and seeks to drive 

development and design of the product based on the user’s knowledge, intention, and skills. A 

user-centered philosophy is about understanding the needs of the end-user who will use the 

product. 

An effective user-centered design engages its end-users actively. The need for such a design 

approach is great, especially when introducing a new method or service to users. This CMV 

Web-Based Driving Tips project intended to reach out to its users (fleet managers and CMV 

drivers) through a newly designed website. Since using the Internet is a relatively new approach 

3 
to providing training to CMV drivers and fleet managers, it is necessary to develop a usercentered design methodology that will serve these end-users most effectively. To achieve this, a 

focus group was conducted, via webinar, to understand what information would best serve the 

carriers, managers, and drivers. During the meeting the following topics were discussed, with the 

goal of involving the users directly in the design and development of the proposed website: 

 User profile: A description of specific user characteristics—such as computer literacy, 

expected frequency of use, and level of experience—should be determined for the 

intended user population. This information will aid in creating a tailored user interface 

design (Ratner, 2002, p. 9). 

 User needs: User needs determine the quality of training information and the content that 

users intend to seek. There is a need for different training materials and videos, and they 

should be prioritized based on their relevance to users. The organization of the 

information on the website should also be discussed, along with detailed task analysis of 

users’ navigation-patterns while using the website. 

 Website usability goals: The primary usability goals should be ease of navigation, design 

simplicity and clarity, and ease of accessibility of information and learning. 

 User expectations: The educational background and experience of users should be 

discussed to identify their needs and expectations. For example, in this study, carriers 

who are interested only in video examples will have different expectations from those 

who are also interested in other relevant information about defensive driving. The 

knowledge of end-user expectations should allow designers to later synergize potential 

users’ requirements, if they are identified to be feasible. 

 Platform capabilities and constraints: Ratner (2002, p. 11) states that many times 

designers have to assume users’ hardware and software platforms and capabilities when 

designing user interfaces. For example, screen size and resolution, modem speed, 

browser capabilities, installed applications such as plug-ins, etc. (Ratner, 2002). 

Therefore, this step is necessary to ensure that the designed application is usable on a 

wide variety of platforms. 

The feedback obtained from the webinar meeting about these topics was incorporated in the 

design of the website. This user-centered approach provides a basis for planning how to 

maximize the impact of the provided service/tool. 

2.1.2 Usability Guidelines 

The second most important component of a good website is the usability of its design. Usability 

refers to the ability to use a product without any interference. Website usability not only ensures 

that everything on the designed user interface works, but also enables the user to make use of the 

provided information quickly and easily. 

There are many guidelines in the literature that discuss the usability of a website. The guidelines 

most relevant to this study are website purpose and goals, content relevance and usefulness to 

audience, appealing layout and style, simplicity and clarity, appropriate navigation, engaging 

user-friendly design, and the testing of developed design and final website or website. The 

details of these methods are as follows: 

4 
 Website purpose and goals: It is necessary to identify the goal of the website, namely 

whether the website is intended for education, training, information, business, or 

entertainment purposes. This knowledge helps in determining the type of targeted 

audience, desired content and functionality, and appropriate appearance. 

 Content relevance and usefulness: Usable content is one of the most essential components 

of a website—without it, the site is meaningless. Content refers to information provided 

to intended users. Usable website content is content that provides information that is 

useful, relevant, engaging, and meaningful to targeted users. 

 User-centered design: A user-centered design allows users to make the most of the site’s 

content and resources. Design that is developed around the user ensures that user 

expectations are met either completely or almost completely. To ensure a user-centered 

design, involve users during the design stage. 

 Appealing layout and style: To improve the website’s appearance and layout, the 

following design improvements can be implemented: 

– Page layout: 

 Build short pages that highlight major points and require minimum scrolling. 

 Avoid horizontal scrolling, as it is a tedious process. 

 Avoid text that moves or changes. 

 Use of frames is also discouraged by “usability guru” Jakob Nielsen, who states 

on his website (http://www.useit.com) that frames make user navigation complex 

and separated. In addition, browser capabilities make using frames difficult. 

– Scannable Content: Nielsen states, “People rarely read web pages word by word; 

instead, they scan the page, picking out individual words and sentences” 

(http://www.useit.com/alertbox/9710a.html). As a solution, Nielsen suggests the 

following guidelines: 

 Use highlighted keywords. 

 Use F-shape patterned website design: Nielsen and Pernice (2007) state that “eyetracking visualizations show that users often read web pages in an F-shaped 

pattern: two horizontal stripes followed by a vertical stripe.” 

 Use relevant and meaningful headings/subheadings. 

 Use bulleted lists. 

 Use inverted pyramid style, which starts with the conclusion or the most 

important points first, followed by the less important ones. 

 Use consistent font style and text formatting. 

 Do not use underlines for text unless it is associated with a hyperlink. 

 Use different colors for visited and unvisited links. 

 Use short texts and an informal style of writing. 

 Use dark colors for text on a light background; avoid using dark background 

colors. 

 Font size: Avoid small font sizes. Allowing users to change font size is a preferred 

method. 

5 
– Usable videos: when using videos on a website: 

 State the size of the file if the video is larger than 50 kb. 

 Videos must have captions or associated text. 

 Video previews are preferred (for example, a screenshot of a significant part of 

the video allows users to know what to expect from the video before clicking on 

it). 

– Simplicity and clarity: User interface must be simple, with minimum clutter. 

– Navigation: Persistent navigation is a must. Navigation must be meaningful and 

comprehensively provided between different web pages. Users must be provided with 

a method to go back to the home page. 

– User-friendly design: The user interface must be designed to be compatible with a 

variety of computer configurations and internet browsers. Most important, the userinterface design must be intuitive. Links and website components must be organized 

in those positions where users would most likely expect them. 

– Testing the developed website: A website must be tested by a wide range of users. 

Following testing, recommendations must be implemented in the website design. 

Upon design reengineering, another round of testing must be conducted to ensure that 

users approve of modified changes and find the website user-friendly. 

2.1.3 Summary 

The usability guidelines discussed in this section were noted and implemented in the design of 

the CMV Web-Based Driving Tips website. A combination of usability and user-centered design 

was the major focus of the developed site. The information content, further discussed in later 

sections of this chapter, was prioritized and organized on the site based on its importance to the 

users. Video examples are provided to support the information content. 

2.2 DRIVER TRAINING 

The main purpose of this study was not to replace training programs, but to fill in the gaps in 

existing training programs. Below is a review of existing training programs and their purpose. 

This will help to determine where new recommendations and methods may be helpful. 

2.2.1 Purpose of Driver Training 

CMV drivers undergo several phases of training prior to driving on the road. The first phase is to 

pass the CDL exam. To obtain a CDL, one must pass the CDL knowledge test and skills test. 

However, the trucking industry suggests that once a driver has obtained a CDL from the 

Department of Motor Vehicles (DMV), he or she receive additional classroom and on-road 

training. This helps to ensure that drivers have the additional skills to help improve the safe 

operation of CMVs. This recommendation is one of the reasons that the benefits of supplemental 

driver training have been widely realized. Some CMV carriers offer their own in-house training 

programs to their drivers, designed to meet the safety goals of the company. These training 

programs include formal training for entry-level drivers, driver-finishing training for new hires, 

driver refresher training for all drivers in the fleet, and remedial training for “problem drivers.” 

6 
One of the most popular driver improvement methods used by trucking companies and public 

training schools is a driver-finishing training program. In driver-finishing programs, a veteran 

driver/trainer accompanies the entry-level driver during the on-road part of the training. The 

main task of the veteran driver is to supervise the novice driver, pinpoint bad habits, and provide 

skills training and feedback in the identified problem areas of vehicle operations and inspection. 

It is important to note, however, that knowledge about vehicle operations is not enough. Horn 

and Tardif (1999) emphasize the need for driver improvement training that also focuses on 

defensive driving. Defensive driving principles include driving at a safe speed, anticipating other 

vehicles’ mistakes, staying alert, checking blind spots, maintaining a safe following distance, 

avoiding road rage, being courteous to other vehicles, obtaining adequate sleep, and maintaining 

good health. Defensive driving programs are useful in increasing driver safety, because they 

teach drivers to be patient and courteous to others, to anticipate others’ mistakes, and to be on 

constant lookout for potentially hazardous situations and conditions. Several reviews of 

transportation safety literature show that incorporating defensive driving tips in fleet training 

programs has reduced critical incidents (Cleaves, 1997) and resulted in safety improvements 

(Kiell, 1989). 

2.2.2 Driver Improvement Training Sources 

There are a number of sources for driver improvement training programs, including those offered 

by public, private, and Federal agencies. One of the most popular programs in the trucking 

industry is the Smith System, which is a for-profit organization. According to its website 

(http://www.smith-system.com), Smith System claims “to have reduced collisions and increased 

profits for fleets at over half of today’s Fortune 500 companies.” Most of its driver improvement 

training programs are based on the principles of defensive driving techniques and on 

countermeasures to eliminate driver-related errors. Its programs claim to help CMV drivers 

think, see, and react more quickly to driving challenges. The main focus of the educational 

programs at Smith System is collision prevention. Its training programs are based mainly on 

Smith System’s Five Keys® of Space Cushion Driving principles, which have been designed to 

inform drivers of various ways to prevent collisions. Smith System’s website states that its five 

keys would give drivers “space for the vehicle, visibility for the driver, and time to make 

decisions.” The details of these five keys are as follows: 

 Aim high in steering ®: Defined as recognizing, evaluating, and reacting to avoid an 

incident based on available information. 

 Get the big picture ®: Smith System states that fewer mistakes will be made when the 

driver has a complete mental picture of the traffic situation. For example, drivers should 

anticipate other vehicles ahead of them, while also anticipating the actions of other 

vehicles and how they may affect traffic flow. 

 Keep your eyes moving ®: Referred to as proper scanning techniques (i.e., having constant 

situational awareness by scanning the driving environment). 

 Leave yourself an out ®: Defined as leaving sufficient space to maneuver out of a 

collision-imminent situation. 

 Make sure they see you ®: Referred to as making eye contact with others and 

communicating with other drivers via warning devices (e.g., turn signals). 

7 
Smith System uses these five keys in its training programs. Smith System primarily uses video 

and web-based aids in its training programs, but also provides training books, reminders and 

awards, and audio and video products. Although the driver improvement training programs 

offered by Smith System appear to be effective and relevant to the goals of this study, the 

limitation of the program is that it is proprietary and one must pay a registration fee to use its 

training materials. 

J.J. Keller and Associates is another training organization that offers onsite and online defensive 

driving training programs. Some of their new programs are focused on training drivers to deal 

with different real world scenarios, followed by “what-did-you-see/what-would-you-do” quiz 

questions to improve driver information processing and reaction time. The different programs 

offered are called: “7-Minute Solutions: Defensive Driving,” “Hazard Perception Challenge,” 

“EYE ON Speed and Space Management,” and “Safe SimTM Truck Driving Simulator” 

(http://www.jjkeller.com/index.html). These programs incorporate audio and video examples that 

use a defensive driving training format, and are aimed at providing near real world driving 

scenarios. The programs come equipped with a trainer’s guide containing answers to challenge 

questions, driver booklets that highlight the key concepts of the training program, and video 

scenario descriptions. The critical elements of their defensive driving program, according to their 

on line training materials, are: 

 Visual scanning. 

 Identifying road hazards. 

 Communicating with other motorist. 

J.J. Keller claims that their new program is beneficial not only for novice drivers but also for 

veteran drivers looking to refresh their skills. As with the Smith System, the J.J. Keller training is 

limited in that one must pay a registration fee to obtain the training materials and information. 

2.2.3 Summary 

In this section, two popular defensive driving training programs of interest to the trucking 

industry were discussed. While these programs claim to have an impact on driver improvement, 

they are both limited by the fact that their training material is not freely accessible to all CMV 

drivers and fleets. In addition, it is not clearly known if the training information used by these 

programs is based on empirical data. The CMV Web-Based Driving Tips website is based on 

empirical data and uses naturalistic video data as examples. The video examples were selected 

from naturalistic driving databases for use on the FMCSA website. 

The next section briefly discusses the importance of naturalistic driving data and the availability 

of such data to support the new program. 

8 
2.3 NATURALISTIC DATA AND VIDEO EXAMPLES 

2.3.1 Naturalistic Data Availability 

Crash reports have consistently shown that driver-related factors are the preeminent cause of 

safety-critical incidents (Treat et al., 1979; Sabey, 1980; Wierwille et al., 2002; Craft, 2004). 

However, one limitation of these reports (which are often the primary source of information 

reflected in crash databases) is that they are based on police reports, witness accounts, driverbehavior-questionnaires, and other subjective measures. Such methods are useful in describing 

the type of crash and the primary reason for the crash, but they do not necessarily identify 

associated factors that contributed to the crash. For example, police report data are retrospective. 

Police officers attempt to recreate the crash scene by interviewing drivers and witnesses. Often, 

drivers do not remember details of what happened prior to the crash (e.g., reaching for the radio, 

feeling drowsy), or may be hesitant to report it to the officer for fear of negative consequences 

(e.g., driving violation). Additionally, crashes are rare occurrences compared to near-crashes or 

other close-calls, providing only a limited amount of behavior-specific data to use for 

classification purposes. For the same reasons, the crash databases are also not true 

representations of driver behavior. This fact underlines the need for naturalistic driving data to 

provide a more complete picture of the driver’s behavior prior to a crash. 

Taking the above into consideration, a CMV naturalistic data collection method collects data 

during the normal operations of an instrumented vehicle. In this method, each vehicle contains 

several video cameras (e.g., face, front view, and right/left side view) and vehicle sensors to 

collect data on such variables as vehicle speed, global positioning system position, braking 

intensity, steering patterns, forward range to a lead vehicle, etc. These data are collected 

continuously—that is, the data collection system starts as soon as the vehicle ignition is turned 

on and continues to record until the vehicle is turned off. This data collection method has proved 

to be very beneficial, as researchers can see exactly what the driver was doing prior to an 

incident and what type of driving environment the driver was in (e.g., road type, traffic 

conditions, weather conditions, etc.). 

This continuous data collection approach also provides a greater amount of data for analysis than 

that given in crash databases, as it captures more than just crash data. For example, a continuous 

data collection method enables the recording of near-crashes, as well as baseline data (i.e., 

“normal” driving where a safety-critical incident is not occurring) to be used as a comparison. 

Another significant advantage of using naturalistic data over self- or other-reported data is that 

the availability of video data allows direct viewing of the driver’s normal working environment, 

in addition to the driver’s behavior and environment prior to a critical incident. 

In terms of data collected the DDWS FOT is the largest naturalistic driving study ever conducted 

on long-haul commercial driving, and is among the first to perform systematic analysis of safetycritical events and driver-exposure risks (Hickman et al., in press). The participant sample in the 

DDWS FOT study included two different long-haul operation types (truckload and less-thantruckload) and was intended to be generally representative of the long-haul commercial driver 

population. A total of 103 volunteer CMV driver participants drove 46 instrumented truck 

tractors that were operated by three motor carriers. Three types of data were collected 

continuously by the Data Acquisition System (DAS): video, dynamic sensor, and, occasionally, 

9 
audio data. Low-level infrared lighting illuminated the vehicles’ cabs so the drivers’ faces could 

be viewed during nighttime driving. The drivers drove a total of 2.3 million miles over 46,000 

hours in a 17-month data collection period. No experimenter was present, and data collection 

instrumentation was unobtrusive. Hickman et al. states that, in addition to documenting many 

thousands of hours of generally safe driving, the DDWS FOT database contains many extreme 

cases of driving behavior and performance, including fatigue, judgment error, risk-taking, 

distraction and related behaviors, and traffic violations. In a preliminary analysis conducted by 

Hickman et al. that included only part of the total 2.3 million mile data set, 915 safety-relevant 

events (crashes and near-crashes) were identified. Due to the nature of the data collection effort 

and the richness of the data, a variety of safety-critical events representing different driverrelated errors were available in this database for use in the current project. 

The CMV Web-Based Driving Tips website uses video examples of driver errors to demonstrate 

driver behaviors to be avoided. The next section discusses the benefits of such an observational 

learning approach. 

2.3.2 Purpose and Effectiveness of Video Examples 

In a widely accepted theory of human learning and motivation, Bandura (1977) states that human 

behavior is often motivated by observing the consequences of others’ behavior. For example, if 

one driver watches another driver suffer negative consequences (e.g., a crash) due to a particular 

behavior, then the observer will be motivated to not make the same mistake, thus avoiding 

similar negative outcomes. Conversely, if one driver observes another driver experience a 

positive outcome (e.g., a friendly wave from another motorist who was allowed room to merge in 

front of the driver’s vehicle), then the observer will be motivated to engage in similar behaviors 

to obtain the same reward. 

As part of his Social Learning Theory, Bandura (1977) states that observational learning will not 

occur without the implementation of four components: attention, retention, motor reproduction, 

and incentive and motivation. Regarding attention, Bandura states that observational learning 

will not occur unless the learner is paying attention to the learning environment. To ensure 

attention of drivers in the training program, it is recommended that individuals using the CMV 

Web-Based Driving Tips website be quizzed on each video example. For example, they could be 

asked about behavioral mistakes observed in the video and respective countermeasures which 

may have prevented the crash-relevant situation. According to Bandura, humans store the 

behavioral information they observe in the form of mental images or verbal descriptions, and are 

later able to recall the image or description to reproduce the observed behavior. Based on this 

theory, it is believed that the use of video examples would assist CMV drivers in retaining the 

necessary mental images of those specific driver-related behaviors or errors to avoid. 

10 
2.4 DRIVER ERROR 

This section discusses definitions of driver error, as well as how driver error is categorized in the 

transportation safety research literature. It then discusses several key CMV-related naturalistic 

driving studies that have identified specific driver-related factors as “contributing factors” to 

fatal crashes. 

Reason et al. (1990) divided driver error into two main classes, called “mistakes” and 

“violations.” Mistakes are considered deviations from intended actions which result in 

unintended consequences; for example, underestimating the speed of an oncoming vehicle when 

overtaking it (Reason et al., 1990). Violations are considered deliberate actions, such as 

becoming impatient with a slow vehicle and overtaking it on the wrong side (Reason et al., 

1990). Violations are known to be driven by motivational factors, as risk-taking behavior (such 

as speeding) can reward the individual (when they arrive at their destination early). Because of 

their likelihood to result in road crashes, driver mistakes and violations are of special interest in 

driving research studies. 

2.4.1 Categorizing Driver Error 

Various models of driver error have been developed to describe the fundamental concept and to 

differentiate between types of driver error (e.g., Treat et al., 1979; Reason et al., 1990; Dewar, 

Olson, & Alexander, 2002; Rimmo, 2002). Of these, the driver error model used by Treat et al. 

(1979) is considered the most comprehensive. The details of this model and its relevance to this 

study are discussed in this section. 

The Indiana Tri-Level model developed by Treat et al. (1979) is one of the first driver error 

models, and is still widely used. Data were taken from documented accident cases, on-site 

accident investigation reports, and the case evaluations of a multidisciplinary team of experts. 

The resulting model divided driver error into four main categories, which included several subcategories. The categories are as follows: 

 Recognition Errors: Delayed perception, reaction, and comprehension are recognition 

errors. Driver distraction (internal or external), inattention, and “improper lookout” (i.e., 

looked but did not see) are examples of driver recognition errors. 

 Decision Errors: A conscious decision to take a risk or to otherwise drive unsafely is 

referred to as a decision error. Examples include excessive speed for conditions, 

tailgating, misjudging another vehicle’s speed or distance, taking inadequate evasive 

action to avoid potential conflict situations, etc. 

 Performance Errors: The execution of improper motor responses is referred to as a 

performance error. Examples include driver panicking/freezing, improper directional 

control, overcorrection, etc. 

 Critical Non-Performance Errors: Errors that occur due to impairment, drowsiness, 

fatigue, and poor driver health are examples of non-performance errors. 

Though Treat et al. (1979) developed this error categorization scheme to categorize passenger 

vehicle driver errors, both the LTCCS database and DDWS FOT naturalistic study (Hanowski et 

11 
al., 2008) have found it to be useful in categorizing CMV drivers’ errors. Since this study 

summarizes driving tips based on the findings of the LTCCS and naturalistic studies, the 

categorization scheme developed by Treat et al. is considered ideal for the current project. 

In the next section, the findings from key naturalistic driving studies and the LTCCS will be 

discussed, and will later be classified as driver behavior errors using the error categorization 

scheme described above. 

2.5 NATURALISTIC DRIVING STUDIES 

The association between CMV driver error and crash causation has been investigated in several 

naturalistic driving studies and this section discusses several of these naturalistic driving studies. 

2.5.1 Review of CMV Driving Studies 

In a naturalistic study of local/short-haul (L/SH) truck driving, Hanowski et al. (2000) found that 

driver fatigue and drowsiness (based on both subjective and objective measures) was one of the 

major contributing factors in critical incidents where the driver was judged to be at fault. 

Younger and/or inexperienced drivers were reported to exhibit higher levels of on-the-job 

drowsiness and were involved in more critical incidents than older and/or experienced drivers. In 

addition, several lane-change incidents and traffic violations were reported to be associated with 

driver drowsiness. The study showed that when drowsy, drivers paid attention to relatively 

unimportant sections of their field-of-view and spent less time scanning the environment. The 

study also reported the following additional behavioral errors as contributing factors to critical 

incidents: 

 Driver inattention 

 Improper lane change 

 Driver stress due to time pressure 

 Inadequate surveillance 

 Driver overconfidence 

The L/SH study suggested improved driver sleep hygiene, training, screening, and monitoring as 

preventive measures to improve driver performance. 

In a naturalistic study of long-haul truck driving, Dingus et al. (2002) assessed the impact of 

sleeper berth usage on operator’s alertness. Similar to the L/SH study, driver drowsiness and 

fatigue was found to be one of the major factors contributing to critical incidents. For example, it 

was noted that in conditions where the drivers were rated extremely tired or drowsy, they tended 

to push themselves to continue to drive, thereby increasing their chances of experiencing a 

safety-critical event. 

Other driver behavior errors identified as primary contributors to safety-critical events were: 

 Abrupt changes in steering. 

 Inattention. 

12 
13 

e change. 

losely. 

vers, researchers used 12 months of naturalistic data from the 

 of 

 Improper lan

 Hard braking. 

 Following too c

In another study with CMV dri

DDWS FOT to analyze a total of 14 crashes, 14 tire strikes, 98 near-crashes, and 789 crashrelevant conflicts (Hickman et al., in press). Table 1 below lists the frequency and percentage

different driver-related factors when the monitored truck was assigned fault (i.e., critical reason) 

for the incident. The table lists driver errors using Treat’s (1979) classification scheme. As more 

than one factor could be selected, the column total exceeded 100 percent (the denominator being 

the total number of events). 
Table 1. Frequency and Percentage of Potential Driver-Related Factors 

Critical Reason 

Driver-Related 

Factor 

Crashes - Number 

Crashes - Percent 

Crashes: Tire Strike, 

Number 

Crashes: Tire Strike, 

Percent 

Near-Crashes - 

Number 

Near-Crashes - 

Percent 

Crash-Relevant 

Conflicts - Number 

Critical reason not coded to this vehicle 

N/A 1 7.1% 0 0.0% 29 29.6% 145 

Sleep—that is, actually asleep Critical NonPerformance 0 0.0% 0 0.0% 0 0.0% 1 Heart attack or other physical impairment of the ability to act 

Critical NonPerformance 0 0.0% 0 0.0% 0 0.0% 0 

Drowsiness, fatigue, or other reduced alertness 

Critical NonPerformance 0 0.0% 0 0.0% 1 1.0% 10 

Other critical non-performance Critical NonPerformance 0 0.0% 0 0.0% 0 0.0% 0 Unknown critical non-performance Critical NonPerformance 0 0.0% 0 0.0% 0 0.0% 0 Inattention (i.e., daydreaming) Recognition 0 0.0% 0 0.0% 1 1.0% 22 Internal distraction Recognition 1 7.1% 0 0.0% 15 15.3% 83 External distraction Recognition 1 7.1% 0 0.0% 6 6.1% 50 Inadequate surveillance (e.g., failed to look) 

Recognition 0 0.0% 0 0.0% 8 8.2% 23 

Other recognition error Recognition 0 0.0% 0 0.0% 0 0.0% 10 Unknown recognition error Recognition 0 0.0% 0 0.0% 0 0.0% 6 Too fast for conditions Decision 0 0.0% 0 0.0% 4 4.1% 45 Too slow for traffic stream Decision 0 0.0% 0 0.0% 0 0.0% 0 Misjudgment of gap or other’s speed Decision 1 7.1% 0 0.0% 2 2.0% 49 Following too closely to respond to unexpected actions 

Decision 0 0.0% 0 0.0% 2 2.0% 42 

14 
15 

Critical Reason 

Driver-Related 

Factor 

Crashes - Number 

Crashes - Percent 

Crashes: Tire Strike, 

Number 

Crashes: Tire Strike, 

Percent 

Near-Crashes - 

Number 

Near-Crashes - 

Percent 

Crash-Relevant 

Conflicts - Number 

False assumption of other road users’ actions 

Decision 0 0.0% 0 0.0% 0 0.0% 26 

Apparently intentional sign/signal violation 

Decision 0 0.0% 0 0.0% 0 0.0% 1 

Illegal U-turn Decision 0 0.0% 0 0.0% 1 1.0% 0 Other illegal maneuver Decision 0 0.0% 0 0.0% 0 0.0% 18 Failure to turn on head lamps Decision 0 0.0% 0 0.0% 0 0.0% 0 Inadequate evasive action (e.g., braking only, not braking and steering) 

Decision 0 0.0% 0 0.0% 3 3.1% 125 

Aggressive driving: Intimidation Decision 0 0.0% 0 0.0% 0 0.0% 2 Aggressive driving: Wanton, neglectful, or reckless behavior 

Decision 0 0.0% 1 7.1% 0 0.0% 7 

Other decision error Decision 0 0.0% 1 7.1% 1 1.0% 15 Unknown decision error Decision 0 0.0% 0 0.0% 0 0.0% 0 DRIVER-RELATED: Apparent recognition or decision error (unknown which) 

Decision 0 0.0% 0 0.0% 5 5.1% 0 

Panic/Freezing Performance 0 0.0% 0 0.0% 0 0.0% 0 Overcompensation Performance 0 0.0% 0 0.0% 0 0.0% 15 Poor directional control Performance 2 14.3% 3 21.4% 6 6.1% 18 Other performance error Performance 0 0.0% 0 0.0% 1 1.0% 40 Unknown performance error Performance 0 0.0% 0 0.0% 0 0.0% 3 DRIVER-RELATED: Type of driver error unknown 

Performance 0 0.0% 0 0.0% 0 0.0% 0 

Source: Hickman et al., (in press) 
Table 1 shows that inadequate evasive action accounted for the highest percentage (14 percent) 

of safety-critical events, followed by internal (10.8 percent) and external distractions (6.2 

percent), misjudgment of gap or other’s speed (5.7 percent) and driving too fast for conditions 

(5.4 percent). In a separate analysis of at-fault and drowsiness-related safety-critical events, it 

was found that actually falling asleep or otherwise being drowsy or fatigued accounted for 13 

percent of the safety-critical events identified in this study. 

All three naturalistic studies discussed above show that driver inattention, drowsiness/fatigue, 

and improper lane changes are primary contributing factors to incidences of safety-critical 

events. The larger number of at-fault drowsiness-related incidents committed by younger and 

inexperienced drivers suggests differences in individual defensive driving skills and practices, 

emphasizing the need for driver improvement training. 

2.5.2 Review of the Large Truck Crash Causation Study 

In addition to collecting descriptive data, the LTCCS assessed contributing factors for fatal 

crashes involving large trucks (FMCSA, 2005). This assessment is recognized as the most 

comprehensive safety database for crashes involving large trucks. The LTCCS collected data on 

crashes at 24 sites in 17 states from 2001 through 2003. The investigators traveled to crash sites 

to collect crash scene data, conducted thorough interviews with drivers about their conditions 

before the crash, and conducted inspections of the trucks. For assessing crash risk, LTCCS coded 

for critical events, critical reason, and other crash-associated factors. Table 2 shows, in 

descending order, the top 15 driver-errors that were coded when the large truck was assigned the 

critical reason for the crash. The results shown in Table 2 are national estimates for the 141,000 

large trucks that were estimated by FMCSA to have been involved in fatal and injury-causing 

crashes during the study period. The LTCCS reports that the estimates may differ from the true 

values since they are based on a probability sample of crashes and not a census of all crashes. 

Table 2. Driver Error Assigned in Large-Truck Crashes 

Driver-Related Factor Number of Trucks Percent of Total (%) 

Traveling too fast for conditions 41,000 29 

Unfamiliarity with roadway 31,000 22 

Over-the-counter drug use 25,000 17 

Inadequate surveillance 20,000 14 

Fatigue 18,000 13 

Felt under work pressure from carrier 16,000 10 

Illegal maneuver 13,000 9 

Inattention 12,000 9 

External distraction 11,000 8 

Following too closely 7,000 5 

Jackknife 7,000 5 

Illness 4,000 3 

16 
Driver-Related Factor Number of Trucks Percent of Total (%) 

Internal distraction 3,000 2 

Illegal drugs 3,000 2 

Alcohol 1,000 1 

Source: (FMCSA, 2005) 

Based on the data presented in Table 2, driving too fast for conditions was the most frequently 

reported contributing factor (29 percent), followed by unfamiliarity with roadway conditions 

(22 percent). Driver drowsiness/fatigue is reported to be the fifth-most critical contributing factor 

in large-truck crashes. 

The LTCCS study recommended additional analyses of these data to establish correlations 

between crash liability and driver’s specific crash risk factors. These analyses will aid in 

developing necessary countermeasures to reduce the incidence of large-truck crashes. The key 

takeaway from Table 2 is that it provides useful information for identifying specific key driver 

behaviors (i.e., don’ts). 

2.5.3 Summary 

In this section, the findings of the naturalistic and LTCCS driving studies as related to driver 

error were discussed. The results of these studies suggest steps to address those driver errors that 

are associated with large-truck crashes. 

Although the L/SH study and the sleeper berth study had limited samples of field data, the 

findings of these two studies support the findings of both the DDWS FOT study and the LTCCS 

study. It is noteworthy that all of these studies identified similar driver errors, such as driver 

inattention, inadequate surveillance, drowsiness/fatigue, and improper lane changes, as primary 

contributing factors to large-truck incidents. In addition, the safety-critical events that were 

identified by the DDWS FOT study are also identified in the LTCCS study as having contributed 

to fatal and injury large-truck crashes. 

The LTCCS study is one of the most comprehensive studies ever conducted, and findings from 

other studies support its findings. As a result, the current study has developed driving tips based 

on those driver errors identified by the LTCCS study. In addition, availability of naturalistic 

video examples from the DDWS FOT study was a major consideration in short-listing the most 

frequently occurring driver errors of the LTCCS study. Nine major driver errors detailed by the 

LTCCS study were considered, along with one prominently reported driver error of “inadequate 

evasive action” described in the DDWS FOT study. The list below summarizes the most frequent 

driver errors, which are considered in the next section: 

 Traveling too fast for conditions. 

 Unfamiliarity with roadway. 

 Inadequate surveillance. 

 Fatigue. 

 Illegal maneuver. 

17 
 Inattention. 

 External distraction. 

 Following too closely. 

 Internal distraction. 

 Inadequate evasive action. 

Using this list of driver errors, the preliminary1 content of the CMV Web-Based Driving Tips 

website was established. These are detailed in the next section of this chapter. 

2.6 DRIVING TIPS 

2.6.1 Driver Errors and Associated Preventative Measures 

The driver errors were classified in four categories as identified by Treat et al. (1979). The 

LTCCS study also found this categorization scheme useful in classifying driver errors. Below is 

the categorized list of errors, followed by detailed descriptions of driving tips to help drivers 

avoid these behaviors. 

2.6.1.1 Non-Performance-based driver error: 

 Fatigue. 

2.6.1.2 Recognition-based driver error: 

 Inadequate surveillance. 

 Inattention. 

 External distraction. 

 Internal distraction. 

2.6.1.3 Decision-based driver error: 

 Traveling too fast for conditions. 

 Unfamiliarity with roadway. 

 Making an illegal maneuver. 

 Following too closely. 

 Inadequate evasive action. 

 

1

 It should be noted that the development of the Driving Tips website was an iterative process; some of the driving tips listed in 

this section of the report, and discussed during the webinar with safety fleet experts, were not included in the final website 

content. These 10 driving tips were the starting point for further refinement and are presented here to show the systematic, 

iterative approach taken in developing the web content. 

18 
2.6.2 Non-Performance-Based Driver Errors 

2.6.2.1 Driver Fatigue 

Fatigue is the result of physical or mental exertion that impairs performance (Williamson, Feyer, 

& Friswell, 1996). Thieriez, Radja, and Toth (2002) considered a driver to be fatigued when any 

one of the following conditions was met: 

 The driver had not received adequate sleep. 

 The driver was tired/fatigued due to extended work hours. 

 The driver was tired/fatigued due to strenuous recreational or non-work activities. 

 The driver was tired/fatigued due to a combination of factors. 

The LTCCS (FMCSA, 2005) reported that 13 percent of truck crashes were caused by driver 

fatigue. 

CMV Driving Visual Examples: Visible indicators of driver fatigue include rubbing the face or 

eyes, yawning, nodding head, scratching, moving restlessly in the seat, drifting between lanes, 

tailgating, missing traffic signs, jerking the truck back into the lane, drifting off the road, 

narrowly missing a crash, etc. 

Consequences: Due to lack of driver alertness, the CMV may drift from its intended path of 

travel or the driver may not be able to react to an emergency situation if one arises while the 

driver’s eyes are closed. 

Driving Tips: 

 Get enough sleep before getting behind the wheel. 

 If you get sleepy, stop driving at the nearest safe place. 

 Stay healthy and well rested, or do not drive. 

 Rest during your off-duty times. 

 Recognize the signals and dangers of drowsiness. 

 Do not upset your body clock more than necessary. 

 Avoid any kind of medication and drugs that induce drowsiness (those that have a label 

warning against operating vehicles or machinery). 

 Schedule your driving trips at times when you are normally awake. 

 If you can’t stop for the night, pull off at a safe place and take a nap. 

 Do not rely on coffee, radio, open window, or other tricks to keep you awake. 

References: Hanowski et al., 2000; Share the Road Safely Program, 2007; Accident 

Countermeasures Manual, 2007; Montana Commercial Driver License Manual 2005–2006. 

19 
2.6.3 Recognition-Based Driver Error 

2.6.3.1 Inadequate Surveillance 

Thieriez et al. (2002) described inadequate surveillance as instances where drivers reported that 

they “failed to look or looked but did not see.” Thieriez et al. (2002) gave examples of 

inadequate surveillance incidents that include lane changes and turns at intersections where the 

driver looks in the required direction, but fails to recognize the approaching traffic. The LTCCS 

(FMCSA, 2005) reported that 14 percent of truck crashes occurred due to inadequate 

surveillance. 

CMV Driving Visual Examples: Examples of inadequate surveillance demonstrate that the 

driver is not scanning the driving environment frequently, not checking the mirrors regularly, etc. 

Consequences: Due to inadequate surveillance, drivers may rear-end a lead vehicle or sideswipe/cut off a vehicle in the adjacent lane. In some instances, drivers may engage in abrupt 

steering or hard-braking maneuvers at the last possible moment to avoid a critical incident. 

Driving Tips: 

 Focus your eyes 12–15 seconds ahead. At lower speeds this is about one city block, and 

at highway speeds about a quarter of a mile. 

 Scan far enough ahead to be able to react safely to approaching situations. 

 Shift your attention back and forth, near and far. 

 Learn to recognize driving situations that can be hazardous. 

 Look for vehicles coming onto the highway or into your lane, or turning. 

 Check your mirrors regularly. Use them to spot overtaking vehicles and to know where 

other vehicles are around you. 

 Assume that other drivers will make errors. 

 Scan frequently to the side and rear for passing or approaching vehicles. 

 Scan thoroughly before changing speed or direction. 

 Watch for brake lights from slowing vehicles. 

References: Accident Countermeasures Manual, Michigan Commercial Driver License manual. 

2.6.3.2 Inattention 

Zaidel, Paarlberg, and Shinar (1978) defined inattention as lapses in attention due to “wandering 

of mind” and “recognition failure” due to distraction, misperception, or improper lookout. In an 

effort to distinguish inattention from distraction, Pettit, Burnett, and Stevens (2005) stated that 

“The result of distraction is inattentive driving; however, inattention is not always caused by 

distraction” (p. 3). The authors listed daydreaming and fatigue as some examples of inattention. 

Thieriez et al. (2002) used the inattention category for drivers who were typically focusing on 

internal thoughts (e.g., daydreaming, problem-solving, worrying about family problems, etc.) 

20 
and not focusing attention on the driving task. The LTCCS (FMCSA, 2005) reported that 9 

percent of truck crashes occurred due to driver inattention. 

CMV Driving Visual Examples: An inattentive driver is one who is not looking forward, not 

paying attention to the forward scene, is engaged in a secondary, non-driving-related task, or a 

combination of all of the above. 

Consequences: Consequences of inattention may be not seeing a potential conflict situation in 

time to perform an evasive maneuver, violation of a traffic law, or a lane deviation. 

Driving Tips: 

 Pay attention to the forward scene. 

 Keep eyes on the road, keep them moving. 

 Know where you are going before you leave. 

 Do not engage in secondary non-driving-related tasks. 

 Know what the traffic is doing around you. 

 Watch out for other distracted drivers. 

 Prevent “drift” lane departures. 

References: Smith System, 2007; Virginia Commercial Driver’s Manual, 2007; Accident 

Countermeasures Manual, 2007; Hickman et al., in press. 

2.6.3.3 External Distraction 

Pettit et al. (2005) suggested that “all forms of external distraction could be said to be nondriver-initiated, e.g., the unpredictable behavior of a drunk pedestrian” (p. 6). However, the 

authors stated that a driver’s unfamiliarity with the roadway is one exception to the standard of 

non-driver-initiated external distraction. Some examples as listed by Thieriez et al. (2002) for 

external distraction include searching for a street address, interacting with construction activity, 

looking at a building or scenery, looking at a sign, looking at a previous crash site, etc. It is also 

stated that distractions are distinguished from inattention in that distractions induce the driver to 

focus attention on the distraction (Thieriez et al., 2002). The LTCCS (FMCSA, 2005) reported 

that external distraction was a factor in 8 percent of truck crashes. 

CMV Driving Visual Examples: An externally distracted driver is often looking outside at nondriving-related external objects and not looking forward toward the path of travel. 

Consequences: Dire consequences such as a crash, near-crash, or crash-relevant conflicts could 

result, even with only a few seconds of external distraction. 

Driving Tips: 

 Do not look at an outside person, animal, store, object, or event. 

 Give the drive your full attention. 

21 
 Do not take your eyes off the road. 

 Stop and seek advice on an alternative road if you are diverted from your planned route. 

References: Stutts et al., 2001; Michigan Commercial Driver License Manual, 2007; Hickman et 

al., in press. 

2.6.3.4 Internal Distraction 

Pettit et al. (2005) stated that, “Internal distractions can be categorized as both driver-initiated, 

e.g., making a mobile phone call, or non-driver-initiated, e.g., the unpredictable actions of a 

passenger” (p. 6). Some examples listed by Thieriez et al. (2002) for internal distractions include 

tuning the radio, adjusting the heating/cooling system, engaging in a conversation with a 

passenger, using a cell phone, retrieving fallen objects, reading books/magazines/maps/invoices, 

etc. The LTCCS (FMCSA, 2005) reported that 2 percent of truck crashes occurred due to driver 

internal distraction. 

CMV Driving Visual Examples: Internal distraction examples often demonstrate that the driver 

is preoccupied with cigarettes, maps, food, cell phones, or other objects; is drifting over the lane 

divider lines or within his/her own lane; is traveling at inconsistent speeds; is involved in 

conversation with other occupants, etc. 

Consequences: Similar to other distractions, dire consequences such as a crash, near-crash, or 

crash-relevant conflicts could result, even with only a few seconds of internal distraction. 

Driving Tips: 

 Do not look at or for objects within the cab. 

 Clear the vehicle of any unnecessary objects. 

 Avoid smoking and/or lighting a cigarette while driving. 

 Do not use a cell phone while driving (cell phones and radios are visual and cognitive 

distracters). 

 Do not attempt to read or write while you drive. 

 Avoid eating and drinking while you drive. 

 Review maps and plan your route before getting behind the wheel. 

 Do not engage in complex or emotionally intense conversations with other occupants. 

References: Montana Commercial Driver License Manual 2005–2006; Dingus et al., 2006; 

Hickman et al., in press. 

2.6.4 Decision-Based Driver Error 

2.6.4.1 Too Fast For Conditions 

Thieriez et al. (2002) stated that “driving too fast for conditions” is associated with drivers 

traveling at a speed that is greater than a reasonable standard of safe driving. Examples of “too 

fast for conditions” include traveling at an unsafe speed in conditions such as wet roadway (e.g., 

22 
rain, snow, ice), reduced visibility (fog), uneven road, construction zones, curves, intersections, 

gravel roads, high traffic, etc. The LTCCS (FMCSA, 2005) reported that 23 percent of crashes 

occurred when CMV drivers were traveling too fast for conditions. 

CMV Driving Visual Examples: Speeding in curves, in construction zones, in adverse weather 

conditions, or in high-traffic conditions suggest that the driver is driving too fast for conditions. 

Consequences: Driving too fast may result in hard braking or loss of control of the vehicle due 

to braking or vehicle skid. 

Driving Tips: 

zones, drive at or below the work zone’s posted speed limit before traveling on a 

aking can lock wheels and cause a skid. 

sory because the shifted (high) 

ne-half on packed snow. 

o stop. 

 Safely Program, 

way, Klauer et al. (2006) stated that “Driver’s 

d Usual Examples: Roadway unfamiliarity examples may be indicated by a CMV 

r-crash, or crash 

 In work 

downgrade; downshift and use engine braking. Adjust turning and braking to road surface 

conditions. 

 In curves, br

 In curves, maintain a lower speed than the curve advi

center of gravity of trucks can cause a roll-over. 

 Reduce speed by about one-third on a wet road, o

 In adverse conditions, add extra seconds to your following distance. 

 Drive slowly with a loaded trailer. Loaded trucks take twice as long t

 Drive slowly with an empty trailer. An empty vehicle has less traction. 

References: Accident Countermeasures Manual, 2007; FMCSA Share the Road

2007; Virginia Commercial Driver’s Manual, 2007. 

2.6.4.2 Unfamiliarity with Roadway 

In defining apparent unfamiliarity with road

behavior is consistent with being lost in a particular location. Examples: performing repeate

turns, reading maps/papers, etc.” (p. 87). In discussing distraction and road unfamiliarity, Pettit 

et al. (2005) stated that “When a driver is distracted from the primary driving task because they 

are lost, looking for street signs or buildings, and so on, it could be suggested that they have 

given priority to their route finding task at the expense of the safe control of their vehicle” (pp. 

6–7). Unfamiliarity with roadway resulted in 22 percent of CMV crashes in the LTCCS 

(FMCSA, 2005). 

CMV Driving Vi

driver changing direction suddenly, continuously scanning for something, using brakes often or 

stopping in middle of an intersection, or changing lanes for no apparent reason. 

Consequences: Unfamiliarity with roadway may increase the risk of a crash, nea

relevant conflict with other road users. 

23 
Driving Tips: 

 Check your route before you leave. 

 If you are unfamiliar with where you’re going, study a road map to plan your route. 

 Do not try to read the map while driving. 

 Do not take shortcuts. 

 Do not change direction suddenly or stop without warning. 

References: Montana Commercial Driver License Manual 2005–2006: Michigan Commercial 

Driver License Manual, 2007. 

2.6.4.3 Illegal Maneuvers 

The Motor Carrier Safety Act of 1999, in section 111, describes illegal maneuvers as making 

unsafe lane changes, following too closely, violating traffic laws, and disregarding traffic 

controls. Thieriez et al. (2002) stated that drivers committed an illegal maneuver if, for example, 

they crossed full barrier lines while passing, passed on the right, turned right from the left lane or 

turned left from the right lane, initiated an illegal U-turn, failed to stop for a traffic control 

device, drove the wrong way on a one-way road, etc. Illegal maneuvers resulted in 9 percent of 

CMV crashes in the LTCCS (FMCSA, 2005). 

CMV Driving Examples: Changing lanes without sufficient gap, crossing a solid yellow line in 

a no-passing zone, and making an illegal U-turn are examples of illegal maneuvers. 

Consequences: May result in a crash or traffic violation. 

Driving Tips: 

 When changing lanes, maintain proper spacing. 

 Do not attempt improper or erratic traffic lane changes. 

 Do not change lanes at intersections. 

 Do not drive faster than legal posted speed limit. 

 Do not engage in an illegal U-turn. 

 Go to the next exit if you miss an exit or a turn; do not back up. 

 Prepare to stop when you see a yellow caution traffic light. 

 When going uphill, do not pass other slow vehicles unless you can pass quickly and 

 yield when appropriate. 

; obey all traffic laws. 

safely. 

 Always

 Do not pass in a no-passing zone.

 Do not cross double yellow lines. 

 Read signs carefully and obey them

24 
 Do not drive beside other vehicles; drop back or pull forward. 

 Signal your intentions. 

References: Virginia Commercial Driver’s Manual, 2007; Accident Countermeasures Manual, 

2007; Illinois Commercial Driver License Study Guide, 2007. 

2.6.4.4 Following Too Closely 

Dingus et al. (2006) considered drivers to be following too closely when they were not allowing 

adequate spacing between their vehicle and the lead vehicle. Thieriez et al. (2002) stated that 

following too closely to respond to unexpected situations “is used for situations in which one 

vehicle is following another vehicle so closely that even if the following driver is attentive to the 

actions of the vehicle ahead, he/she could not avoid a collision in the circumstance when the lead 

driver brakes suddenly.” The LTCCS (FMCSA, 2005) reported that 5 percent of large-truck 

crashes occurred when the CMV driver was following the lead vehicle too closely. 

CMV Driving Examples: A truck driver not leaving enough/recommended space between the 

lead vehicle and his/her own vehicle is a good example of following too closely. 

Consequences: Perhaps the most common consequence of following too closely is that the 

driver may not have enough space and time to execute an evasive maneuver if necessary, which 

may result in a crash. 

Driving Tips: 

 At speeds below 40 mi/h, maintain at least 1 second for each 10 feet of vehicle length. 

 At speeds above 40 mi/h, add a second for safety. For example: 

– For a 60-foot truck (under 40 mi/h) = maintain a 6-second time interval. 

– For a 40-foot truck (above 40 mi/h) = 4 + 1 = maintain a 5-second time interval. 

 Leave enough space ahead in case you must suddenly stop. 

 Anticipate lead vehicle driver’s actions. 

 Be prepared and expect the unexpected. 

 If you are going to be later than you expected—deal with it. Take a deep breath and 

accept the delay. 

 Be a cautious and courteous driver. 

References: Virginia Commercial Driver’s Manual, Michigan Commercial Driver License 

Manual; FMCSA Share the Road Safely Program. 

2.6.4.5 Inadequate Evasive Action 

Thieriez et al. (2002) described inadequate evasive actions as instances in which drivers are 

braking only, and/or not braking and steering in response to a conflict situation. Thieriez et al. 

coded drivers with inadequate evasive action in situations when they failed to execute a proper 

evasive maneuver by not using sufficient steering inputs, not using sufficient brake pedal, or not 

using a combination of steering and braking inputs. Hickman et al. (in press) reported that 

25 
14 percent of safety-critical events occurred when the CMV driver executed an inadequate 

evasive action. 

CMV Driving Visual Examples: A CMV driver failing to slow in advance for stopped or 

stopping traffic and, as a result, braking or steering abruptly, represents a good example of 

inadequate evasive action. 

Consequences: Perhaps the most common consequences of inadequate evasive action are 

roadway departure, steering to wrong side of roadway, cargo or trailer-shift, excessive braking 

creating potential hazard, loss of control, and locking of brakes. 

Driving Tips: 

 Watch for brake lights from slowing vehicles. 

 Adjust your speed depending on driving conditions. 

 Stay alert to changing traffic conditions. 

 Adjust your space to conditions. 

 Anticipate other road users’ actions. 

 Slow down in high traffic conditions and at intersections. 

 Be aware of the size and weight of your vehicle when you cross or enter traffic. 

References: Montana Commercial Driver License Manual 2005–2006; Michigan Commercial 

Driver License Manual, 2007. 

driver errors were discussed and preventive countermeasures for such 

ed were done so to reflect frequently encountered 

2.6.5 Summary 

In this section, various 

errors were identified. As a result of this discussion, the first set of defensive driving tips was 

formulated. The Treat et al. (1979) driver-error categorization scheme was used to organize the

driving tips based on driver error classifications. Due to the iterative review process used in this 

study, the driving tips presented above do not represent the final content, which resulted after 

several rounds of modifications were made. 

Based on the literature, the driving tips select

driver errors in CMV driving. To support the new program further, video examples 

demonstrating the driving tips were identified from naturalistic driving databases for use on the 

FMCSA website. 

26 
27 

2.7 SUMMARY OF LITERATURE REVIEW 

As noted earlier, naturalistic data have consistently shown that driver error or driver behavior is 

the major contributing factor in large-truck crashes (Hanowski et al., 2000; Dingus et al., 2002; 

FMCSA, 2005; Hickman et al., in press). Research recommends improving driver behavior and 

safety by implementing driver training programs (Uzgiris & Dilich, 1991; Beilock, Capelle, & 

Page, 1989), thus emphasizing the fact that driver training is key to safety. 

In the trucking industry, numerous driver training programs (e.g., Smith System, 2007; Keller, 

2007) exist that claim to have a significant effect on driver improvement training in the area of 

defensive driving. These programs, however, are not freely accessible to all CMV drivers and 

fleets. The current study aims to develop a supplemental driver program to be used in 

conjunction with current training. The new training information will be made freely accessible to 

the general public through a site hosted on FMCSA’s website. The information in this new 

training program is based on naturalistic data collected during the DDWS FOT study. 

The new program is comprised of two key components. The first component provides training 

information about driver errors and associated driving tips to help prevent these errors, resulting 

in a list of defensive driving tips. Naturalistic driving videos are also included to show real-world 

examples of driving errors that may result if the tips are not followed. 

The second component is the use of the Internet as a means to provide this training program to its 

intended users. The website was designed with CMV drivers and fleet carriers as the intended 

audience. A webinar meeting of subject matter experts, including fleet managers, was conducted 

to obtain relevant information, to ensure usability of the driver training information content, and 

to ensure the program’s user-friendliness. The goal of this study is to provide CMV drivers and 

fleet managers with information about defensive driving techniques and video examples of driver 

driving tips via a user-friendly website accessible from FMCSA’s website. 

3. A WEBINAR WITH SUBJECT MATTER EXPERTS ON 

DEFENSIVE DRIVING TIPS FOR CMV DRIVERS 

3.1 INTRODUCTION 

An integral part of the development of this website was to include feedback/input from subject 

matter experts, who included CMV fleet safety managers. Due to the remote locations of these 

subject experts, an online focus group meeting (webinar) was chosen as the best option for 

reviewing and discussing the contents of the site. A webinar is an Internet-based web 

conferencing application that allows remote users to log in to an Internet site and view 

presentations, conduct meetings and discussions, share applications, and post feedback. As this is 

an efficient and practical method for sharing ideas and soliciting feedback, researchers scheduled 

and conducted a webinar with CMV subject matter experts in January 2008. 

The main objective of this webinar was to obtain expert opinions about the driving tips being 

developed. The driving tips were selected based on the frequency of particular crash precursors 

in large-scale studies (e.g., the LTCCS and the DDWS FOT). In addition, the research team was 

interested in obtaining additional driving tips from the subject matter experts. 

3.2 PRE-WEBINAR PROCEDURES 

Five subject matter experts participated online via a webinar hosting client. The participants had 

expressed interest in participating in such studies previously, when interacting with researchers 

on other projects. 

Prior to the webinar, an informed consent document and webinar materials were e-mailed to the 

participants (see Appendix A). The informed consent document discussed the objectives and 

procedures of the webinar, the risks involved, participants’ responsibilities, and the benefits of 

participation. Participants understood that logging in to the webinar session was considered 

consent to participate. 

3.3 WEBINAR PROCEDURE 

Once all participants were logged in to the webinar session and introduced, the presenters gave a 

brief summary of the webinar procedure. Then, a slide presentation file was uploaded to cover 

the following topics: 

 Background Session: The session began with discussion on the objectives of the Driving 

Tips project and instructions for the webinar. Participants were informed that the entire 

session would be recorded and that they were free to withdraw at any time. 

 Discussion of Top 10 Driving Tips: During the session, an author presented the top 10 

driver errors identified in previous research, along with the associated driving tips for 

avoiding such errors. Each driving error was to be presented with a video example 

obtained from naturalistic driving databases. 

29 
 Detailed Discussion/Critiquing of Driving Tips: The participants were asked for their 

comments on each driving tip and its usefulness to CMV drivers. This step was 

conducted for each driver error individually. Participants were also asked how the driving 

tips could be modified to ensure their usefulness to CMV drivers. All participants 

actively participated in this step and provided comments, ideas, and suggestions. 

 Final Comments: Following the discussion and critiquing of all driving tips for the 10 

driver errors, subject matter experts were asked for final comments and suggestions. 

Participants were informed that they were welcome to send any additional comments and 

suggestions after the webinar. They were then thanked for their participation, and 

dismissed. The entire webinar session lasted approximately two hours. 

3.4 RESULTS 

While reviewing the driving tips, all participants actively participated in the discussions and 

made suggestions to modify the tips to make them relevant and practical for CMV drivers. 

Additional tips were also recommended for each driver error. It is important to note that while 

the driving tips presented to the participants have been supported by research, the suggested 

additional tips are based solely on expert opinion, and have not necessarily been empirically 

validated. 

This section discusses the results of the webinar. The input obtained from the participants during 

Step 3 of the webinar procedure is organized below for each driver error, given in the order in 

which they were discussed. Note that the results from the webinar comprise the first round of 

revisions. 

3.4.1 Driver Error #1: Traveling Too Fast for Conditions. 

Operational definition: Thieriez et al. (2002) stated that “driving too fast for conditions” is 

associated with drivers traveling at a speed that is greater than a reasonable standard of safe 

driving. Examples of too fast for conditions include traveling at an unsafe speed in conditions 

such as wet roadway (rain, snow, ice), reduced visibility (fog), uneven road, construction zones, 

curves, intersections, gravel roads, and high traffic. The LTCCS (FMCSA, 2005) study reported 

that 23 percent of crashes occurred when CMV drivers were traveling too fast for conditions. 

Driving Tip: “In work zones, drive at or below the work zone’s posted speed limit.” 

As a result of the discussion, the following driving tip modifications were agreed upon: 

 Decrease your speed before entering the work zone. This will allow you to enter the work 

zone safely. 

 In adverse road and/or weather conditions, decrease your speed even further below the 

posted work-zone speed limit. Adverse conditions cause reduced traction and reduced 

visibility. 

Driving Tip: “In curves, maintain lower speed than the curve advisory because the shifted 

(high) center of gravity of trucks can cause a rollover.” 

As a result of the discussion, the following driving tip modifications were agreed upon: 

30 
 Decrease your speed before entering a curve. Decrease your speed more than the posted 

curve advisory speed limit. Tests have shown that trucks with a high center of gravity can 

roll over at the posted speed limit for a curve. 

 Do not ever exceed the posted speed limit for a curve. You may roll over. 

Driving Tip: “Reduce Speed by about one-third on a wet road and one-half on packed snow.” 

The participants seemed to disagree with the specifics of this tip. One of the experts suggested 

that stating fractions by which to reduce the speed is not helpful. The following driving tip 

modifications were agreed upon during the discussion: 

 In adverse road and/or weather conditions, “substantially” reduce your driving speed. 

This will help you keep the vehicle under control. 

 Schedule your trip by taking into account the effect of inclement weather on your driving. 

This will keep you prepared in adverse road and/or weather conditions. 

Driving Tip: “Drive slowly with a loaded trailer. Loaded trucks take twice as long to stop.”

As a result of the discussion, the following driving tip modification was agreed upon: 

 A loaded vehicle is more difficult to control in adverse road and/or weather conditions. 

Slowing down will help you maintain vehicle control. 

In addition to the modifications to the original driving tip as listed above, the following 

additional tips were suggested: 

 Reduce speed before entering an on-ramp. A majority of CMV roll-overs occur on ramps. 

Anticipate your approach to ramps ahead of time and adjust your speed as necessary. 

 Identify wet or slick surfaces. When the road is slippery, it will take longer to stop, and it 

will be difficult to turn without skidding. 

 Adjust speed according to traffic in urban driving situations. For example, slow down 

when driving in the vicinity of pedestrians or in a municipal area. 

 Drive at a speed that is comfortable to you. Do not succumb to “chatter from peers on CB 

radio” or pressure from other drivers to increase your speed. 

 Keep your eyes moving to get the “big picture” of your driving environment. 

 Scan the environment for potentially dangerous situations. Be prepared to account for 

others’ mistakes. 

3.4.2 Driver Error #2: Unfamiliarity with Roadway. 

Operational Definition: In defining apparent unfamiliarity with the roadway, Klauer et al. 

(2006) stated that “Driver’s behavior is consistent with being lost in a particular location. 

Examples: performing repeated U-turns, reading maps/papers, etc.” (p. 87). In discussing 

distraction and road unfamiliarity, Pettit et al. (2005) stated that “When a driver is distracted 

from the primary driving task because they are lost, looking for street signs or buildings, and so 

on, it could be suggested that they have given priority to their route finding task at the expense of 

31 
the safe control of their vehicle” (pp. 6–7). Unfamiliarity with roadway resulted in 22 percent of 

CMV crashes in the LTCCS (FMCSA, 2005) study. 

None of the driving tips was modified based on participants’ input. However, the following 

additional driving tips were suggested: 

 Use technology (for example, global positioning systems) to aid you when you are 

unfamiliar with the roadway. However, do not read a map or consult the computer while 

driving. 

 Do not suddenly change your direction of travel if you miss a turn or an exit. Pass the 

turn and find a safe way to change direction. 

 Slow down when traveling on unfamiliar roads. This will provide you more time to 

recognize road signs. 

3.4.3 Driver Error #3: Inadequate Surveillance. 

Operational Definition: Thieriez et al. (2002) described inadequate surveillance as instances in 

which drivers reported that they “failed to look or looked but did not see.” Thieriez et al. gave 

examples of inadequate surveillance that include lane changes and turns at intersection where 

the driver looks in the required direction, but fails to recognize the approaching traffic. The 

LTCCS (FMCSA, 2005) reported that 14 percent of truck crashes are caused by inadequate 

surveillance. 

Driving Tip: “Focus your eyes 12 to 15 seconds ahead. At lower speeds it is about one block in 

the city and at highway speeds it is about one-quarter of a mile.”

The following modification to the above driving tip was agreed upon during the discussion: 

 Focus your eyes at least 15 seconds ahead. This will allow you to react safely to 

approaching situations. 

Driving Tip: “Learn to recognize driving situations that can be hazardous.” 

The following modifications to the above driving tip were agreed upon during the discussion: 

 Keep your eyes moving to get the “big picture” of your driving environment. 

 Scan the driving environment for potentially dangerous situations. Be prepared to account 

for others’ mistakes. 

Driving Tip: “Check your mirrors regularly. Use them to spot overtaking vehicles and to know 

where other vehicles are around you.” 

The participants suggested that this tip would be more useful to CMV drivers if it was modified 

to provide a frequency range for checking mirrors. The following modification to this driving tip 

was agreed upon during the discussion: 

 Check your mirrors every 5 to 6 seconds. Frequent scanning allows awareness of the 

passing and approaching traffic around you. 

32 
Driving Tip: “Assume other drivers will make errors.” 

The following modification to the above driving tip was agreed upon during the discussion: 

 Assume other drivers will make errors. Adjust your speed and allow enough space to 

prevent a conflict with other drivers. 

Driving Tip: “Watch for brake lights from slowing vehicles.” 

The following modification to this driving tip was agreed upon during the discussion: 

 Focus on several lead vehicles ahead. Focusing far ahead helps to anticipate a 

braking/stopping situation. 

In addition to the modifications to the original driving tip as listed above, the following 

additional tips were suggested: 

 Watch the actions of other vehicles around you and expect trouble. Other vehicles may 

drift into your lane or make high-risk maneuvers. 

 Drive defensively. Defensive driving is the ability to avoid accidents caused by the 

actions of others. 

 As a professional driver, you should be checking what is going on around you to help you 

avoid getting in an accident. 

 Check left-right-left before entering an intersection. 

During the webinar session, it was pointed out that the following tip was similar to the driving tip 

of “Focus your eyes 12 to 15 seconds ahead” and that therefore it should be removed: 

 “Scan far enough ahead to be able to react safely to approaching situations.” 

3.4.4 Driver Error #4: Driver Fatigue. 

Operational Definition: Fatigue is the result of physical or mental exertion that impairs 

performance (Williamson et al., 1996). Thieriez et al. (2002) considered a driver to be fatigued 

when it was determined the driver had not received adequate sleep, was tired/fatigued due to 

extended work hours, was tired/fatigued due to strenuous recreational activities or strenuous 

non-work activities, or was tired/fatigued due to a combination of factors. The LTCCS (FMCSA, 

2005) reported that 13 percent of truck crashes occurred due to driver fatigue. 

None of the driving tips for this driver error was modified based on participant input. However, 

during the discussion of driver fatigue, circadian rhythm was discussed. One participant 

mentioned that in his driver training program, trainers regularly educate drivers about the effects 

of circadian rhythm. In light of this discussion, the following additional driving tip was 

suggested: 

 Drive within your body’s normal wake/sleep cycles (i.e., circadian rhythm) and keep 

those cycles in sync by making sure you get enough sleep. The circadian rhythm refers to 

the wake/sleep cycle that the body goes through each day and night. The cycle involves 

the internal clock and controls the daily pattern of alertness in a human body. 

33 
In addition, one participant suggested that it would be meaningful to link driver fatigue with 

impaired states. The participant mentioned a study (Dawson & Reid, 1997) that links fatigueinduced impairments to those caused by alcohol. The study suggests that “a person kept awake 

for 17 hours will perform at a standard comparable to that of someone with a blood-alcohol 

concentration (BAC) of 0.05 percent. After 24 hours without sleep, a person will have 

capabilities similar to someone with a BAC of 0.10 percent” (p. 235). 

Also during the discussions, the following additional driving tip was suggested: 

 Do not drive after a heavy meal. Your body will naturally want to rest after eating. 

3.4.5 Driver Error #5: Illegal Maneuver. 

Operational Definition: Section 111 of the Motor Carrier Safety Act of 1999, described illegal 

maneuvers as making unsafe lane changes, following too closely, violating traffic laws, and 

disregarding traffic controls. Thieriez et al. (2002) state that drivers committed an illegal 

maneuver if, for example, they crossed full barrier lines while passing, passed on the right, 

turned right from the left lane or turned left from the right lane, initiated an illegal U-turn, failed 

to stop for a traffic control device, or drove the wrong way on a one-way road. Illegal 

maneuvers resulted in 9 percent of CMV crashes in the LTCCS (FMCSA, 2005) study. 

Driving Tip: “When changing lanes, maintain proper spacing.” 

The following modifications to this driving tip were agreed upon during the discussion: 

 Use turn signals first to indicate your intent to change lanes; next, visually scan for 

adjacent traffic and road hazards, and then execute a safe lane change. 

 Make smooth and gradual lane changes of at least a 6-second time interval. This will 

allow you to compensate for other drivers’ errors. 

Driving Tip: “Do not drive alongside other vehicles. Drop back or pull forward.” 

The following modification to this driving tip was agreed upon during the discussion: 

 Do not hover beside other vehicles. You could be in the other vehicle’s (or vehicles’) 

blind spot(s) and the driver(s) may not realize that you are there. 

Driving Tip: “Signal your intentions.” 

The following modification to this driving tip was agreed upon during the discussion: 

 Signal your intentions early. This will help you communicate with surrounding drivers 

and safely execute driving maneuvers. 

During the webinar session, it was pointed out that the following driving tips were too 

elementary and therefore should be removed: 

 Do not drive faster than the legal posted speed limit. 

 Do not engage in an illegal U-turn. 

 Always yield when appropriate. 

34 
 Do not pass in no-passing zone. 

 Do not cross double yellow lines. 

 Read signs carefully and obey them. Obey all traffic laws. 

3.4.6 Driver Error #6: Inattention. 

Operational Definition: Zaidel et al. (1978) defined inattention as a lapse in attention due to 

“wandering of mind” and recognition failure due to improper lookout, distraction, or 

misperception. In an effort to distinguish inattention from distraction, Pettit et al. (2005) stated 

that “The result of distraction is inattentive driving; however, inattention is not always caused 

by distraction” (p. 3). The authors list daydreaming and fatigue as some examples of inattention. 

Thieriez et al. (2002) used the inattention category for drivers who were typically focusing on 

internal thoughts (i.e., daydreaming, problem-solving, worrying about family problems, etc.) and 

not focusing attention on the driving task. The LTCCS (FMCSA, 2005) reported that 9 percent of 

truck crashes occurred due to driver inattention. 

Driving Tip: “Pay attention to the forward scene.” 

The following modification to this driving tip was agreed upon during the discussion: 

 Focus on several lead vehicles ahead. Focusing far ahead helps to anticipate a 

braking/stopping situation. 

In addition to modifying the original driving tip listed above, the following additional tips were 

suggested: 

 Keep your mind engaged with driving-related information. This will help you update the 

position of other vehicles around you. 

 Keep your eyes moving to get the “big picture” of your driving environment. 

3.4.7 Driver Error #7: External Distraction. 

Operational Definition: Pettit et al. (2005) suggested that “All forms of external distraction 

could be said to be non-driver-initiated, e.g., the unpredictable behavior of a drunk pedestrian” 

(p. 6). However, the authors also stated that a driver’s unfamiliarity with the roadway is one 

exception to non-driver-initiated external distractions. Some examples, as listed by Thieriez et al. 

(2002), for external distraction include searching for a street address, interacting with 

construction activity, looking at a building or scenery, looking at a sign, looking at a previous 

crash site, etc. It is also stated that distractions are distinguished from inattention in that 

distractions induce the driver to focus attention on the distraction. The LTCCS (FMCSA, 2005) 

reported that 8 percent of truck crashes occurred due to driver external distraction. 

Driving Tip: “Do not look at outside person, animal, store, object or event.” 

The following modifications to this driving tip were agreed upon during the discussion: 

 Do not fixate on non-driving-related objects. External distractions are dangerous. Dingus 

et al. (2006) reported that driver distraction was the most frequent factor in a crash or a 

near-crash. 

35 
 Make eye contact only with those who might be looking back at you. This will help keep 

you prepared to avoid any conflicts. 

Driving Tip: “Do not take your eyes off the road.” 

The following modifications to this driving tip were agreed upon during the discussion: 

 Keep your eyes moving to get the “big picture” of your driving environment. 

 Scan the driving environment for potentially dangerous situations. Be prepared to account 

for others’ mistakes. 

During the discussion, participants pointed out that the following driving tip was too elementary 

and should be removed. 

 Give the drive your full attention.

3.4.8 Driver Error #8: Following Too Closely. 

Operational Definition: Dingus et al. (2006) considered drivers to be following too closely 

when they did not allow adequate spacing between their vehicle and the lead vehicle. Thieriez et 

al. (2002) stated that following too closely to respond to unexpected situations “is used for 

situations in which one vehicle is following another vehicle so closely that even if the following 

driver is attentive to the actions of the vehicle ahead, he/she could not avoid a collision in the 

circumstance when the lead driver brakes suddenly.” The LTCCS (FMCSA, 2005) reported that 

5 percent of large-truck crashes occurred when the CMV driver was following the lead vehicle 

too closely.

Driving Tip: “Leave enough space ahead in case you must suddenly stop.” 

The following modifications to this driving tip were agreed upon during the discussion: 

 Maintain proper following distance to enhance your ability to see further. 

 Leave at least 15 to 20 ft of free space in front of your vehicle when stopped. This will 

prevent you from being “pinned in” in conditions of stopped traffic. 

Driving Tip: “At speeds below 40 mi/h, maintain at least 1second for each 10 ft of vehicle 

length,” and

Driving Tip: “At speeds above 40 mi/h, add a second for safety.” 

The following modification to the above driving tips was agreed upon during the discussion: 

 When following vehicles, maintain at least a 6-second time interval. Rear-end crashes 

lead to automatic liability. 

In addition to modifying the original driving tip listed above, the following additional tips were 

also suggested: 

 In adverse conditions, double your following distance. This will allow you to stop in 

time. 

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 Focus on several lead vehicles ahead. Focusing far ahead helps to anticipate a 

braking/stopping situation. 

3.4.9 Driver Error #9: Internal Distraction. 

Operational Definition: Pettit et al. (2005) stated that “internal distractions can be categorized 

as both driver-initiated, e.g., making a mobile phone call, or non-driver-initiated, e.g., the 

unpredictable actions of a passenger” (p. 6). Some examples listed by Thieriez et al. (2002) for 

internal distractions included tuning the radio, adjusting the heating/cooling system, engaging in 

a conversation with a passenger, using a cell phone, retrieving fallen objects, reading 

books/magazines/maps/invoices, etc. The LTCCS (FMCSA, 2005) reported that 2 percent of 

truck crashes occurred due to driver internal distraction. 

Driving Tip: “Clear the vehicle of any unnecessary objects.” 

The following modification to this driving tip was suggested during the discussion: 

 Place in-cab objects out of reach to avoid internal distraction. 

Driving Tip: “Do not use a cell phone while driving. Cell phones and radios are visual and 

cognitive distracters.”

The following modification to this driving tip was suggested during the discussion: 

 Turn off your cell phone while driving. Cell phones are visual and cognitive distracters. 

Driving Tip: “Avoid eating and drinking while you drive.” 

The following modifications to this driving tip were suggested during the discussion: 

 Minimize eating and drinking behaviors while driving to avoid any distractions. 

 Do not place large drinking cup(s) on the dash. Large cup(s) could block your visibility. 

3.4.10 Driver Error #10: Inadequate Evasive Action. 

Operational Definition: Thieriez et al. (2002) described inadequate evasive action as instances 

in which drivers are braking only, and/or not braking and steering in response to a conflict 

situation. Thieriez et al. coded drivers with inadequate evasive action in situations where they 

failed to execute a proper evasive maneuver by not using sufficient steering inputs, not using 

sufficient brake pedal, or not using a combination of steering and braking inputs. Hickman et al. 

(in press) reported that 14 percent of safety-critical events occurred when the CMV driver 

executed an inadequate evasive action. 

None of the original driving tips presented was modified based on participant input. However, 

the following additional driving tip was suggested: 

 Practice good scanning habits and maintain proper spacing to avoid the need for evasive 

action. 

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3.5 SUMMARY 

During the webinar session, all participants actively joined in the discussion. The comments 

obtained were relevant and useful in the development of the final set of driving tips. 

While discussing the driving tips for each driver behavioral error, participants unanimously 

suggested that the tip include a reason why it is important. Safety managers believed this would 

help CMV drivers remember the driving tips. For some of the driving tips, the safety managers 

thought that they were too elementary and should be replaced with more compelling tips for 

CMV drivers. In discussing the usefulness of various driving tips, the researchers and 

participants agreed that some driving tips could be repeated for different driver errors, where 

applicable. It was also agreed that the CMV Web-Based Driving Tips Website should allow its 

audience to leave feedback, in order to keep the driving tips information content up-to-date with 

current driving practices and safety procedures. 

The safety managers were receptive to many of the driving tips presented. Throughout the 

webinar session, the participants suggested many new creative and thoughtful modifications to 

the driving tips, as well as suggestions for additional ones. Overall, the webinar session was 

successful in terms of receiving valuable input from fleet managers regarding the various CMV 

driving tips. 
4. WEBSITE TECHNICAL REQUIREMENTS 

4.1 TECHNICAL REQUIREMENTS 

To ensure that the Driving Tips website content was submitted in a format suitable for placement 

on FMCSA’s website, site technical requirements were obtained from FMCSA’s website 

managers and staff. On December 14, 2007, a teleconference meeting was conducted between 

project personnel and website staff to discuss and obtain the technical requirements of the CMV 

Web-Based Driving Tips Website from FMCSA’s website managers and staff. Discussion topics 

included: 

 Website Section 508 compliance requirements. 

 HTML coding requirements. 

 Uploading of video content and inclusion procedure. 

 Navigational links. 

 Website search and site meter. 

 CMV Web-Based Driving Tips Website content development. 

4.2 SUMMARY 

The teleconference meeting resulted in a successful discussion and understanding of the required 

website technical requirements and team responsibilities. The information and suggestions 

obtained from this discussion supported the remainder of the project work. 

39 

5. OBTAINING PERMISSION TO USE VIDEOS 

5.1 DRIVER PERMISSION 

One of the key parts of the development of the CMV Web-Based Driving Tips Website was the 

inclusion of include real-world video clips of safety-critical events captured in the DDWS FOT. 

The drivers in the DDWS FOT study signed a consent form that allowed researchers to use their 

videos for research purposes only. This project does not fall under the rubric of research 

purposes. Therefore, to include these videos for training purpose on a public website, special 

driver permission was sought. 

This chapter summarizes the procedure used to contact selected drivers and to obtain permission 

to use videos of them for the CMV Web-Based Driving Tips Website. First, several video clips 

were reviewed and selected to represent various common driver error scenarios that will be 

candidates for the final CMV Web-Based Driving Tips Website. Next, driver permission to use 

the selected video data clips on the website was obtained. The details of these subtasks are 

discussed in the following paragraphs. 

5.1.1 Review and Selection of Video Data Clips 

Based on the top 10 driver error categories identified in Task 3 of this project, video data from 

the DDWS FOT study database was reviewed. As part of the review process, one video for each 

of the 10 error categories was selected. Each video contained a different driver. As a result, a 

total of 10 videos, each with a different driver, was initially selected. However, considering the 

challenge of re-establishing contact with each of these 10 drivers from the study, an additional 20 

videos with different drivers were selected. This strategy was used as a precaution in case some 

of the drivers initially identified could not be contacted or otherwise objected their video being 

used for this purpose. Once the videos were selected, they were edited in preparation for use on 

the CMV Web-Based Driving Tips Website. 

5.1.2 Contacting Drivers 

Next, the drivers shown in the selected video clips were contacted to obtain permission to use 

their videos on the website. Despite the numerous challenges faced in obtaining driver contact 

information from the available sources, contact was established with 13 drivers, although two of 

these drivers indicated that they did not wish to participate. (Note that to ensure company good 

will, each participating driver’s company was contacted beforehand and to secure permission to 

contact their drivers. In response, all companies approached gave permission to contact their 

drivers.) 

5.1.3 Obtaining Driver Permission/Consent to Use Videos 

All drivers granted permission to use their video data clips on the website. Based on legal input, 

the preliminary procedure for obtaining electronic consent was modified to a procedure which 

involved obtaining a signed hard copy of the informed consent document. As per the revised 

method, participants received two hard copies in the mail (one copy for them to keep and the 

other to mail back) of the informed consent document (Appendix B) and instructions explaining 

how to view their password-protected video data clips on a secure website (Appendix C). This 

41 
42 

was necessary to ensure receipt of a signed and valid informed consent document from the 

participants, and to allow participants to view their video data clips at a convenient time and 

location. 

Upon reviewing the videos, the participating drivers completed the informed consent document 

and mailed it back. Due to the limited number of contacts established with drivers, for some 

driver error categories permission to use multiple video data clips was sought from that same 

driver. This was necessary to ensure that each driver error category was supported with an 

example of at least one relevant video data clip. As a result of this effort, 11 consents were 

secured for 16 video clips. 

5.2 SUMMARY 

This section outlined the review, selection, and editing of video data clips, as well as the search 

for permission from drivers to use their selected video data. Despite the challenges faced in 

contacting drivers (given their transient nature), permission was obtained from 11 drivers. 
6. DEVELOPMENT OF THE CMV WEB-BASED 

DRIVING TIPS WEBSITE 

6.1 WEBSITE FORMAT 

Key results gathered from the literature review, focus group research, website technical 

requirements, and selection of naturalistic video examples were used to organize the driving tips 

content in a layout suitable for the FMCSA website. The driving tips content is supported with 

video examples, where applicable. For each video, a brief description was generated which 

preceded a series of training questions, serving as a web-based training tool. 

The website includes an introductory homepage and eight categories of driver error, each with a 

navigation link to a separate web page. The homepage welcomes the audience to the CMV WebBased Driving Tips Website and provides a brief overview of the purpose of the site, its 

organization, and instructions on how to use it. Each of the driver error category web pages 

includes key information content. First, an operational definition of the driver error is provided, 

followed by the driving tip content (such as the importance of each driving tip), “did you know?” 

fact(s), naturalistic driving video example(s), and training exercises. Screenshots of the final 

CMV Web-Based Driving Tips Website are shown in Appendix D. 

6.2 DRAFT REVISION PROCESS 

The draft content of the website was submitted to website staff for coding, so that the content 

could be viewed in the final website format. A review committee was formed, consisting of 

FMCSA staff, five subject matter experts from the original focus group, and project staff. Each 

person was asked to review the website and to provide any feedback on its content. Once all 

feedback was received, all comments were incorporated, and changes were sent to website staff 

for the coding of the second draft of the website. An iterative review process took place until the 

final website was ready. 

43 

7. SUMMARY 

The main objective of this study was to develop a CMV Web-Based Driving Tips Website to be 

used by CMV drivers and fleet safety managers to show common large-truck driving errors and 

to provide tips on how to avoid such errors. The site would be hosted on the FMCSA website 

and accessible to the public. The site is intended to be used as a supplemental driving training 

tool and is not intended to replace any of the classroom or on-road training methods that are 

currently being used. The website contains real-world video clips of CMV drivers who were 

recorded making various driving errors. It is hoped that the CMV Web-Based Driving Tips 

Website, with support from the naturalistic driving video clips, will provide drivers with 

compelling information to support safe driving. 

The following is a brief summary of the tasks completed by to produce the final website. First, a 

literature review was conducted to provide empirical evidence on the importance of the 

suggested driving tips and to show supporting research for each tip. The driving tips categories 

(Too Fast for Conditions, Unfamiliarity with Roadway, etc.) were based on some of the key error 

categories identified in the LTCCS (FMCSA, 2005), which investigated large-truck crashes 

between 2001 and 2003 and determined the main cause of each crash. The most common 

contributing factors were selected as a starting point for the current study. The top 10 

contributing factors from the LTCCS were chosen and supporting evidence was gathered for 

each. In addition, real-world video clips were selected for each category to show drivers using 

the website what mistakes may occur if they do not practice safe, defensive driving. The video 

clips were recorded during the DDWS FOT data collection project, wherein 103 drivers drove 

instrumented trucks over the course of 18 months. The system collected data continuously, 

resulting in a large dataset of safety-critical events. Since the LTCCS data coding manual was 

used during data reduction of the DDWS FOT data, it was possible to find video clips 

representing each of the top 10 categories. Once video clips were selected, special permission 

was obtained from each driver to include his or her video clip(s) on the website. 

Next, a webinar with five subject matter experts presented the preliminary driving tips and 

solicited feedback on what might be most relevant to CMV drivers, optimal ways to present the 

information, and any other suggestions they might have. All notes from the webinar were 

combined to develop a first draft of the website. The draft website content was submitted to 

website staff so that it could be formatted to the FMCSA website specifications and the video 

clips could be inserted. Once the draft site was complete, it went through several iterations, as a 

result of review by FMCSA staff, project staff, and the subject matter experts from the webinar, 

culminating in the final website. The final CMV Web-Based Driving Tips Website is on 

FMCSA’s website: http://www.fmcsa.dot.gov/about/outreach/education/driverTips/index.htm

It is expected that as fleet safety managers and drivers use it, updates and modifications may be 

required. For example, to stay current as new research is conducted, it is recommended that 

relevant results be included and the website be updated. During the project final briefing, a few 

specific improvement areas were identified that could be implemented in the next revision. Each 

of these improvement areas is described in more detail below. 

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7.1 CMV DRIVER FEEDBACK 

As part of the CMV Web-Based Driving Tips Website development, a webinar with five subject 

matter experts was held. This group was comprised primarily of fleet safety mangers from large 

truck fleets. During the webinar, the subject matter experts gave feedback on the content of the 

website and how relevant they believed the information would be to CMV drivers. This 

information was very useful and was used to develop the final version of the site. However, 

feedback was not obtained directly from CMV drivers. One way to obtain such feedback would 

be to include a brief questionnaire on the site, so that users (i.e., CMV drivers and fleet safety 

managers) could provide their feedback on specific areas, such as the look and feel of the 

website and its usability and content. The results from these questionnaires could be used for 

subsequent modifications and improvements. 

7.2 VIDEO NARRATION 

As mentioned previously, real-world video examples are used throughout the website to show 

CMV drivers what may result from specific driving errors. The video examples are followed by a 

brief narrative description describing the situation that unfolds in the video. Because of the 

format of the website and the four camera views in video examples, users may have to watch the 

videos several times to determine what is taking place. In the next revision of the website, it may 

be useful to include video captions (such as closed captioning on a television) in the appropriate 

camera view or a voice-over narration of the video clip, so that users can more easily follow 

what is happening while the video is playing. 

7.3 VISOR TIP SHEETS 

A third suggestion that came from the project final briefing was to develop a “cheat sheet”-type 

resource that CMV drivers could take with them and perhaps clip to their cab visor. An overview 

and brief description of the driver errors from the website would provide drivers with useful and 

easily accessible information. This resource would support the more detailed content available 

on the site and provide drivers with a brief take-along document to support safe driving. 
APPENDIX A: INFORMED CONSENT DOCUMENT FOR 

WEBINAR WITH FLEET SAFETY MANAGERS 

Informed Consent Form 

VIRGINIA POLYTECHNIC INSTITUTE AND STATE UNIVERSITY 

Informed Consent for Participants of Investigative Projects 

Title of Project: Defensive Driving Tips For CMV Drivers: An Internet-Based Approach

Investigators: Rich Hanowski, Santosh Gupta, Stephanie Baker 

I. The Purpose of this Research/Project 

The purpose of this webinar project is to obtain your expert opinions and ideas on driving tips for 

commercial motor vehicle (CMV) drivers. The feedback obtained during this webinar will help 

the Virginia Tech Transportation Institute (VTTI) generate appropriate driving tips that may be 

used to assist CMV drivers and carriers in enhancing driver performance and driving safety. 

II. Procedures 

You will be taking part in a one and one half hour webinar session. During the course of the 

webinar, you will be asked to anonymously provide your ideas and critiques regarding the 

‘Driving Tips and Video examples’ that are presented to you. The discussions occurring during 

the entire webinar session (including your comments) will be continuously recorded by the webhosting client’s software. Video conferencing is not a requirement for participation in the 

webinar. Use of video is left to the discretion of each participant. 

III. Risks 

There are no more than minimal risks involved in participation. As individuals provide their 

opinions and input, some may find that others might not agree completely with them. This may 

cause some mild discomfort. However, to minimize this risk, the facilitator will ensure that the 

discussion remains productive. 

IV Benefits of this Project 

No promise or guarantee of benefits will be made to encourage you to participate. You may find 

participation in the webinar to be interesting and informative and your participation may inform 

the development of driving tips that will benefit CMV drivers and fleet carriers. 

V. Extent of Anonymity and Confidentiality 

Since the primary focus of this study is to discuss/critique the information presented during the 

webinar, all participating members will be able to view other participant’s comments and ideas. 

However, upon completion of the webinar session and dismissal, a code will be created for each 

fleet safety manager to ensure their anonymity and confidentiality. Your name will be separated 

from your personal data and comments. A coding scheme will be employed that will assign a 

47 
48 

unique number to you (e.g., Participant No. 1) that will then be used to identify your comments. 

Data collected will be stored at the Virginia Tech Transportation Institute and access to the data 

will be under the supervision of Dr. Rich Hanowski and Santosh Gupta. 

VI. Compensation 

There will be no compensation for participation in this webinar. 

VII. Freedom to Withdraw 

As a participant in this research, you are free to withdraw at any time for any reason without any 

penalty. 

VIII. Approval of Research 

This research was approved by the Institutional Review Board for Research Involving Human 

Subjects at Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State University. This form is valid for the period 

listed at the bottom of the page. 

IX. Participant Responsibilities 

If you voluntarily agree to participate in this study, you will have the following responsibilities: 

1. Review the Driving Tips PowerPoint presentation prior to the webinar. 

2. Log in to the webinar session at the agreed upon date and time. 

3. Provide responses (i.e., ideas, opinions, critiques, etc.) during the webinar. 

4. Respect the opinions of others. 

X. Participant’s Permission 

I have read and understand this document and the conditions of this webinar project. I have had 

any questions regarding this informed consent document answered via correspondence with 

Santosh Gupta. I hereby acknowledge the above and give my voluntary consent for participation 

in this webinar project. 

By logging in to the webinar session, I understand that I am providing my 

consent to VTTI for participation. 

If I participate, I may withdraw at any time without penalty and may refuse to answer 

any questions. 

Should I have any questions about this research or its conduct, I may contact: 

Santosh Gupta (540) 231-1049 

Rich Hanowski (540) 231-1513 

David Moore (Institutional Review Board Chair) (540) 231-4991 
49 

APPENDIX B: INFORMED CONSENT DOCUMENT FOR 

OBTAINING DRIVER PERMISSION TO USE VIDEO CLIPS 

VIRGINIA POLYTECHNIC INSTITUTE AND STATE UNIVERSITY 

Informed Consent for Participants of Investigative Projects 

Title of Project: Defensive Driving Tips For CMV Drivers: An Internet-Based Approach 

Investigators: Rich Hanowski and Santosh Gupta 

I. The Purpose of this Research/Project 

The goal of this study is to provide large truck drivers with examples of what truck drivers do 

well and what behaviors need to be changed. The ideas and safe driving tips will be useful for 

driver safety programs and training for common large truck safety events. 

II. Procedures 

During the course of this experiment you will be asked to perform the following tasks: 

1. Log in to VTTI’s secure website. 

2. Review your video clip(s) for which the consent is required; alternatively, if you do not 

want to review the video clips, you can consent to our use of the clips without reviewing 

them. 

3. Log out of the website. 

4. Provide your consent to use your video clip(s) for the defensive driving tips website by: 

a. Marking the appropriate checkbox in the ‘Participant’s Acknowledgement’ 

section on page 3 of this document, and 

b. Signing and printing your name in the ‘Participant’s Permission’ section on 

page 3 of this document. 

5. Complete the W-9 form in its entirety and sign it. 

6. Mail back the completed informed consent form and the W-9 form back to VTTI using 

the self-addressed stamped envelope. 

7. Receive your payment for participating in this study. 
50 

III. Risks 

There are risks or discomforts to which you may be exposed by providing your consent for this 

research. They include the following: 

1. Your video clip(s) will be accessible to the general public via the internet. 

2. Your video clip(s) will show your face, the forward view, side views, and your actions in 

response to the driving situation as demonstrated through the video. 

3. Through your video clip(s), you may be identified by those who know you. 

4. There is a risk of the website’s security being breached by a hacker or for the website 

content to be accessed for purposes not related to this study. For example, individuals 

may be able to “hack” the website to allow them to save the video content on their 

personal computer and circulate it for other purposes. 

The following precautions will be taken to ensure minimal risk to you: 

1. The video clip(s) will be posted on the website in “view-only” format. This limits one’s 

ability to save the video content to their computer hard-drive. 

2. The video clip available on the website will be free of content that may create any undue 

risk to your identification. For example, specific areas in the video that may reveal your 

truck company name, your name tag, etc., will be edited out/concealed. 

3. Your video clip(s) will not reveal your name or your affiliation to your employer. 

4. All reasonable and appropriate security and website design measures will be taken to 

minimize the risk of the website being breached by an outside party. 

IV. Benefits of this Project 

While there are no direct benefits to you from this research, you may find the study and its goals 

interesting. Participation in this study may contribute to the improvement of commercial motor 

vehicle driver training. No promise or guarantee of benefits is made to encourage you to 

participate. 

V. Extent of Anonymity and Confidentiality 

Your data in this study will be treated with confidentiality. The researchers will release only that 

data that you consent to use on the public website. If you choose to not give your consent, VTTI 

will not turn over the digital video of your image to anybody. 

VI. Compensation 

You will be paid $100 per video clip that is used. Upon receiving the signed informed consent 

document and completed W-9 form, VTTI will mail a check to you. If your payments are in 

excess of $600 dollars in any one calendar year, then by law, Virginia Tech is required to file 

Form 1099 with the IRS. For any amount less than $600, it is up to you as the participant to 

report any additional income as Virginia Tech will not file Form 1099 with the IRS. Also note 

that you must provide your social security number on the W-9 form to allow us to process your 
51 

payment. For tax recording purposes, the fiscal and accounting services office at Virginia Tech 

requires that all participants provide their social security number on the W-9 form to receive 

payment for participation in our studies. 

VII. Freedom to Withdraw 

If you feel you need to withdraw from this study, you are free to do so without any penalty. Once 

the website is finalized, it will be under the control of the Federal Motor Carrier Safety 

Administration. If at a later time you decide you would like your video(s) removed from the 

website, you may contact the Virginia Tech Transportation Institute at 540-231-1500 (ask for the 

Center for Truck and Bus Safety) and every effort will be made to remove your video clip(s) 

from the website. 

VIII. Approval of Research 

Before data can be collected, the research must be approved, as required, by the Institutional 

Review Board for Research Involving Human Subjects at Virginia Polytechnic Institute and 

State University. You should know that this approval has been obtained. This form is valid for 

the period listed at the bottom of the page. 

IX. Subject’s Responsibilities 

If you voluntarily agree to participate in this study, you will have the following responsibilities: 

1. You will have the opportunity to review your video clip(s) online using the secure 

website. 

2. On the website, you may review your video clip(s) as many times as you like. 

3. On the website, upon reviewing the video clips, you will complete this informed consent 

document by marking the appropriate check-box in the ‘Participant’s Acknowledgement’ 

section and signing and printing your name in the ‘Participant’s Permission’ section 

below. 

X. Participant’s Acknowledgments 

Check the following: 

 I do not have any objections to VTTI using my selected video clip for this project 

and I’ve been informed of the possible risks of signing this consent form. 

 I do have objections to VTTI using my selected video clip(s) on the public 

website and I do not wish to give my consent to participate in this study. 
52 

XI. Participant’s Permission 

I have read and understand the Informed Consent and conditions of this project. I have 

had all my questions answered. I hereby acknowledge the above and give my voluntary 

consent for participation in this project and understand that I must provide a copy containing 

my signature in a manner indicated above. If I participate, I may withdraw at any time without 

penalty and request that my video clip(s) be removed from the website. 

By signing and printing my name below along with today’s date I provide my consent to 

VTTI to use my video data and I agree to abide by the rules of this project. 

Participant’s Signature Participant’s Name (Print) Date 

Experimenter’s Name (Print) Initial Date 

 

Should I have any questions about this research or its conduct, I may contact: 

Santosh Gupta (540) 231-1049 

Rich Hanowski (540) 231-1513 

David Moore (Institutional Review Board Chair) (540) 231-4991 
APPENDIX C: COVER LETTER FOR DRIVER INSTRUCTIONS 

[DATE] 

Subject: Instructions to participate in the defensive driving tips study. 

Dear [Participant’s Name]: 

The Virginia Tech Transportation Institute would like to thank you for agreeing to review these 

materials for our “Driving Tips” study. The purpose of this study is to develop a webpage on 

defensive driving safety information with video examples of “do’s” and “don’ts” for commercial 

motor vehicle drivers. This webpage will be accessible to the general public via the Federal 

Motor Carrier Safety Administration’s (FMCSA) website. 

To view your video clip(s), please go to

https://webdav.hosting.vt.edu/www.secure.vtti.vt.edu/DrivingTips/Truck01 and log in to this 

website by entering the following information in the username and password fields: 

Username: XXXX 

Password: XXXX 

After logging in, you will be given instructions for how to review your video(s) and indicate 

whether you are willing for it/them to be on the website. 

If you wish to give your consent for use of your videos without reviewing them, you have the 

option to do so. Please just complete and return the informed consent form provided. 

Enclosed you will find two copies of Informed Consent Form as well as the W-9 form that was 

mentioned during our telephone conversation. One copy of the informed consent form is for you 

to keep and the other copy is for you to send back to us. Please read the Informed Consent form 

and complete it by marking the appropriate check box either allowing/declining use of your 

video clip(s) on the public website. If you are willing to participate please also complete the W-9 

form providing your name, social security number, address and your signature. This form is used 

for tax purposes only and will enable us to compensate you $100 per video clip used. Please note 

that for tax recording purposes, the fiscal and accounting services office at Virginia Tech 

requires that all participants provide their social security number on the W-9 form to receive 

payment for participation in our studies. 

Once these forms have been completed, please use the self-addressed stamped envelope provided 

to mail them back to us. Your prompt response to this will allow for faster processing of your 

payment. Again, thank you for your time. If you have any questions please feel free to call me at 

540-231-1088, or email me at kstanley@vtti.vt.edu and I will be happy to answer your questions. 

Sincerely, 

Kelly Stanley 

53 

APPENDIX D: SCREENSHOTS OF FINAL CMV WEB-BASED 

DRIVING TIPS WEBSITE 

CMV WEB-BASED DRIVING TIPS 

http://www.fmcsa.dot.gov/about/outreach/education/driverTips/index.htm

55 
CMV WEB-BASED DRIVING TIPS PROJECT BACKGROUND 

http://www.fmcsa.dot.gov/about/outreach/education/driverTips/Project-Background.htm

56 
CMV WEB-BASED DRIVING TIPS: FAILURE TO BUCKLE UP 

http://www.fmcsa.dot.gov/about/outreach/education/driverTips/safetyBelt.htm

57 
CMV WEB-BASED DRIVING TIPS: FAILURE TO BUCKLE UP 

TIP #1: Always Wear Your Safety Belt 

http://www.fmcsa.dot.gov/about/outreach/education/driverTips/safetyBelt.htm

58 
CMV WEB-BASED DRIVING TIPS: FAILURE TO BUCKLE UP 

TIP #2: Safety Belts Prevent Ejection from a Vehicle in a Crash 

TIP #3: Even the Best Drivers Need to Wear Safety Belts at All Times 

http://www.fmcsa.dot.gov/about/outreach/education/driverTips/safetyBelt.htm

59 
CMV WEB-BASED DRIVING TIPS: TOO FAST FOR CONDITIONS 

http://www.fmcsa.dot.gov/about/outreach/education/driverTips/Too-Fast-for-Conditions-all.htm

60 
CMV WEB-BASED DRIVING TIPS: TOO FAST FOR CONDITIONS 

Tip #1: Reduce Your Driving Speed in Adverse Road and/or Weather Conditions 

http://www.fmcsa.dot.gov/about/outreach/education/driverTips/Too-Fast-for-Conditions-all.htm

61 
CMV WEB-BASED DRIVING TIPS: TOO FAST FOR CONDITIONS 

Tip #2: Enter a Curve Slowly 

http://www.fmcsa.dot.gov/about/outreach/education/driverTips/Too-Fast-for-Conditions-all.htm

62 
CMV WEB-BASED DRIVING TIPS: TOO FAST FOR CONDITIONS 

Tip # 3: Reduce Your Speed Before Entering An Exit/Entrance Ramp 

Tip # 4: Drive Slowly With A Loaded Trailer 

Tip # 5: Slow Down In Work Zones 

http://www.fmcsa.dot.gov/about/outreach/education/driverTips/Too-Fast-for-Conditions-all.htm

63 
CMV WEB-BASED DRIVING TIPS: UNFAMILIAR ROADWAY 

http://www.fmcsa.dot.gov/about/outreach/education/driverTips/Unfamiliar-Roadway.htm

64 
CMV WEB-BASED DRIVING TIPS: UNFAMILIAR ROADWAY 

Tip #1: Review Maps and Plan Your Route Before Driving 

http://www.fmcsa.dot.gov/about/outreach/education/driverTips/Unfamiliar-Roadway.htm

65 
CMV WEB-BASED DRIVING TIPS: UNFAMILIAR ROADWAY 

Tip #2: Do Not Suddenly Change Your Direction of Travel 

Tip #3: Signal Your Intentions 

http://www.fmcsa.dot.gov/about/outreach/education/driverTips/Unfamiliar-Roadway.htm

66 
CMV WEB-BASED DRIVING TIPS: INADEQUATE SURVEILLANCE 

http://www.fmcsa.dot.gov/about/outreach/education/driverTips/Inadequate-Surveillance-all.htm

67 
CMV WEB-BASED DRIVING TIPS: INADEQUATE SURVEILLANCE 

Tip #1: Be Aware of Your “No-Zone” 

http://www.fmcsa.dot.gov/about/outreach/education/driverTips/Inadequate-Surveillance-all.htm

68 
CMV WEB-BASED DRIVING TIPS: INADEQUATE SURVEILLANCE 

Tip #2: Always Drive Defensively 

http://www.fmcsa.dot.gov/about/outreach/education/driverTips/Inadequate-Surveillance-all.htm

69 
CMV WEB-BASED DRIVING TIPS: INADEQUATE SURVEILLANCE 

Tip #3: Look Far Enough Ahead 

Tip #4: Check Your Mirrors Often 

Tip #5: Approach & Enter Intersections with Caution 

http://www.fmcsa.dot.gov/about/outreach/education/driverTips/Inadequate-Surveillance-all.htm

70 
CMV WEB-BASED DRIVING TIPS: DRIVER FATIGUE 

http://www.fmcsa.dot.gov/about/outreach/education/driverTips/Driver-Fatigue.htm

71 
CMV WEB-BASED DRIVING TIPS: DRIVER FATIGUE 

Tip #1: Look Far Enough Ahead 

http://www.fmcsa.dot.gov/about/outreach/education/driverTips/Driver-Fatigue.htm

72 
CMV WEB-BASED DRIVING TIPS: DRIVER FATIGUE 

Tip #2: Maintain a Healthy Diet 

Tip #3: Take a Nap 

Tip #4: Avoid Medication That May Induce Drowsiness 

http://www.fmcsa.dot.gov/about/outreach/education/driverTips/Driver-Fatigue.htm

73 
CMV WEB-BASED DRIVING TIPS: DRIVER FATIGUE 

Tip #5: Recognize the Signals and Dangers of Drowsiness 

Tip #6: Do Not Rely on “Alertness Tricks” to Keep You Awake 

http://www.fmcsa.dot.gov/about/outreach/education/driverTips/Driver-Fatigue.htm

74 
CMV WEB-BASED DRIVING TIPS: DRIVER DISTRACTION 

http://www.fmcsa.dot.gov/about/outreach/education/driverTips/Driver-Distraction-all.htm

75 
CMV WEB-BASED DRIVING TIPS: DRIVER DISTRACTION 

Tip #1: Recognize the Signals and Dangers of Drowsiness 

http://www.fmcsa.dot.gov/about/outreach/education/driverTips/Driver-Distraction-all.htm

76 
CMV WEB-BASED DRIVING TIPS: DRIVER DISTRACTION 

Tip #2: Avoid Smoking While Driving 

http://www.fmcsa.dot.gov/about/outreach/education/driverTips/Driver-Distraction-all.htm

77 
CMV WEB-BASED DRIVING TIPS: DRIVER DISTRACTION 

Tip #3: Turn Off Your Cell Phone While Driving 

http://www.fmcsa.dot.gov/about/outreach/education/driverTips/Driver-Distraction-all.htm

78 
CMV WEB-BASED DRIVING TIPS: DRIVER DISTRACTION 

Tip #4: Minimize Eating and Drinking While Driving 

http://www.fmcsa.dot.gov/about/outreach/education/driverTips/Driver-Distraction-all.htm

79 
CMV WEB-BASED DRIVING TIPS: FOLLOWING TOO CLOSELY 

http://www.fmcsa.dot.gov/about/outreach/education/driverTips/Following-Too-Closely.htm

80 
CMV WEB-BASED DRIVING TIPS: FOLLOWING TOO CLOSELY 

Tip #1: Maintain a Safe Following Distance 

http://www.fmcsa.dot.gov/about/outreach/education/driverTips/Following-Too-Closely.htm

81 
CMV WEB-BASED DRIVING TIPS: FOLLOWING TOO CLOSELY 

Tip #2: Double Your Following Distance in Adverse Conditions 

http://www.fmcsa.dot.gov/about/outreach/education/driverTips/Following-Too-Closely.htm

82 
CMV WEB-BASED DRIVING TIPS: INADEQUATE EVASIVE ACTION 

http://www.fmcsa.dot.gov/about/outreach/education/driverTips/Inadequate-Evasive-Action.htm

83 
CMV WEB-BASED DRIVING TIPS: INADEQUATE EVASIVE ACTION 

Tip #1: Watch For Brake Lights From Slowing Vehicles in Front of You 

http://www.fmcsa.dot.gov/about/outreach/education/driverTips/Inadequate-Evasive-Action.htm

84 
85 

CMV WEB-BASED DRIVING TIPS: INADEQUATE EVASIVE ACTION 

Tip #2: Practice Good Scanning Habits 

http://www.fmcsa.dot.gov/about/outreach/education/driverTips/Inadequate-Evasive-Action.htm

87 

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS 

The authors would like to thank Ed Miller and Joon Song, of Wyle Information Systems, who 

also played a key role in the development of this website. In addition, we would like to thank the 

focus group participants—Vern Moore, Tom DiSalvi, Jerry Waddell, Scott Manthey, and 

Del Lisk—who provided valuable feedback and suggestions during the development phase of the 

website. 

This project would not have been possible without the participation of the drivers during the 

Drowsy Driver Warning System Field Operational Test and their giving permission to use their 

video clips on the website. 

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