U.S. Department of Justice

Office of Justice Programs

Office of Juvenile Justice and Delinquency Prevention 

Access OJJDP publications online at ojjdp.ncjrs.org

Children’s Exposure to Violence

NATIONAL SURVEY OF

Office of Justice Programs Innovation • Partnerships • Safer Neighborhoods www.ojp.usdoj.gov

Jeff Slowikowski, Acting Administrator October 2009

Access OJJDP publications online at ojjdp.ncjrs.org

A Message From OJJDP

Children are exposed to violence 

every day in their homes, schools, 

and communities. They may be 

struck by a boyfriend, bullied by a 

classmate, or abused by an adult. 

They may witness an assault on a 

parent or a shooting on the street. 

Such exposure can cause significant 

physical, mental, and emotional harm 

with long-term effects that can last 

well into adulthood.

In 1999, OJJDP created the Safe 

Start Initiative to prevent and reduce 

the impact of children’s exposure to 

violence through enhanced practice, 

research, evaluation, training and 

technical assistance, resources, and 

outreach. The initiative has improved 

the delivery of developmentally appropriate services for children exposed to 

violence and their families.

Understanding the nature and extent 

of children’s exposure to violence 

is essential to combating its effects. 

Partnering with the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, OJJDP 

has sponsored the most comprehensive effort to date to measure 

children’s exposure to violence. The 

National Survey of Children’s Exposure to Violence is the first survey 

to ask children and caregivers about 

exposure to a range of violent incidents and maltreatment.

As amply evidenced in this Bulletin, 

children’s exposure to violence is 

pervasive and crosses all ages. The 

research findings reported here are 

critical to informing our efforts to protect children from its damaging effects.

Access OJJDP publications online at www.ojp.usdoj.gov/ojjdp

Children’s Exposure 

to Violence:

A Comprehensive 

National Survey

David Finkelhor, Heather Turner, Richard Ormrod, 

Sherry Hamby, and Kristen Kracke

This Bulletin discusses the National Survey of Children’s Exposure to Violence 

(NatSCEV), the most comprehensive 

nationwide survey of the incidence and 

prevalence of children’s exposure to violence to date, sponsored by the Office of 

Juvenile Justice and Delinquency Prevention (OJJDP) and supported by the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention 

(CDC). Conducted between January and 

May 2008, it measured the past-year and 

lifetime exposure to violence for children 

age 17 and younger across several major 

categories: conventional crime, child 

maltreatment, victimization by peers and 

siblings, sexual victimization, witnessing 

and indirect victimization (including exposure to community violence and family 

violence), school violence and threats, and 

Internet victimization. (For more detailed 

information on the types of violence that 

children were questioned about, see 

“Screening Questions” on page 2.) This 

survey is the first comprehensive attempt 

to measure children’s exposure to violence in the home, school, and community 

across all age groups from birth to age 17, 

and the first attempt to measure the cumulative exposure to violence over the child’s 

lifetime.

The survey confirms that most of our 

society’s children are exposed to violence 

in their daily lives. More than 60 percent 

of the children surveyed were exposed 

to violence within the past year, either 

directly or indirectly (i.e., as a witness to 

a violent act; by learning of a violent act 

against a family member, neighbor, or 

close friend; or from a threat against their 

home or school) (for full details on these 

and other statistics cited in this Bulletin, 

see Finkelhor et al., 2009). Nearly one-half 

of the children and adolescents surveyed 

(46.3 percent) were assaulted at least once 

in the past year, and more than 1 in 10 

(10.2 percent) were injured in an assault; 1 

in 4 (24.6 percent) were victims of robbery, 

vandalism, or theft; 1 in 10 (10.2 percent) 

suffered from child maltreatment (including physical and emotional abuse, neglect, 

or a family abduction); and 1 in 16 (6.1 percent) were victimized sexually. More than 1 

in 4 (25.3 percent) witnessed a violent act 
2

and nearly 1 in 10 (9.8 percent) saw one 

family member assault another. Multiple 

victimizations were common: more than 

one-third (38.7 percent) experienced 2 or 

more direct victimizations in the previous year, more than 1 in 10 (10.9 percent) 

experienced 5 or more direct victimizations in the previous year, and more than 

1 in 75 (1.4 percent) experienced 10 or 

more direct victimizations in the previous 

year. 

Reports of lifetime exposure to violence 

were generally about one-third to one-half 

higher than reports of past-year exposure, 

although the difference tended to be 

greater for less frequent and more severe 

types of victimization. (For example, more 

than three times as many respondents 

reported being victims of a kidnapping 

over their lifetimes as did in the past 

year.) Nearly seven in eight children (86.6 

percent) who reported being exposed 

to violence during their lifetimes also 

reported being exposed to violence within 

the past year, which indicated that these 

children were at ongoing risk of violent 

victimization. The reports of lifetime 

exposure also indicate how certain types 

of exposure change and accumulate as 

a child grows up; nearly one in five girls 

ages 14 to 17 (18.7 percent) had been the 

victim of a sexual assault or attempted 

sexual assault, and more than one-third of 

all 14- to 17-year-olds had seen a parent 

assaulted. 

Background

The Problem of Violence 

Against Children

Children in the United States are more 

likely to be exposed to violence and crime 

than are adults (Finkelhor, 2008; Hashima 

and Finkelhor, 1999). In 2005, juveniles 

and young adults ages 12 to 19 were more 

than twice as likely to be victims of violent crimes as the population as a whole 

(Baum, 2005).1 Each year, millions of children and adolescents in the United States 

are exposed to violence in their homes, 

schools, and communities as both victims 

and witnesses. Even if they are not physically present, children may be affected 

by intentional harm done by another 

(for example, the murder of or an assault 

on a family member or close neighbor). 

Children react to exposure to violence in 

different ways, and many children show 

remarkable resilience. All too often, 

however, children who are exposed to 

violence undergo lasting physical, mental, 

and emotional harm. They suffer from 

difficulties with attachment, regressive 

behavior, anxiety and depression, and 

aggression and conduct problems. They 

may be more prone to dating violence, 

delinquency, further victimization, and 

involvement with the child welfare and 

juvenile justice systems. Moreover, being 

exposed to violence may impair a child’s 

capacity for partnering and parenting later 

in life, continuing the cycle of violence 

into the next generation.

Research has found that early identification, intervention, and continued followup 

are valuable strategies to prevent or 

decrease the impact of exposure to violence. Families, teachers, police, judges, 

pediatricians, mental health providers, 

child protection workers, domestic violence advocates, and others who interact 

with children have a responsibility to 

create interventions, both physical and 

psychological, that decrease or prevent 

the harms associated with exposure to 

violence.2

 These include ways of interacting sensitively and expeditiously with 

Screening Questions

The survey asked screening questions about 48 types of victimization in the following categories:

u Conventional crime. Nine types of victimization, including robbery, theft, destruction of 

property, attack with an object or weapon, attack without an object or weapon, attempted 

attack, threatened attack, kidnapping or attempted kidnapping, and hate crime or bias 

attack (an attack on a child because of the child’s or parent’s skin color, religion, physical problem, or perceived sexual orientation).

u Child maltreatment. Four types of victimization, including being hit, kicked, or beaten by 

an adult (other than spanking on the bottom); psychological or emotional abuse; neglect; 

and abduction by a parent or caregiver, also known as custodial interference.

u Peer and sibling victimization. Six types of victimization, including being attacked by 

a group of children; being hit or beaten by another child, including a brother or sister; 

being hit or kicked in the private parts; being chased, grabbed, or forced to do something; being teased or emotionally bullied; and being a victim of dating violence.

u Sexual victimization. Seven types of victimization, including sexual contact or fondling 

by an adult the child knew, sexual contact or fondling by an adult stranger, sexual contact 

or fondling by another child or teenager, attempted or completed intercourse, exposure or 

“flashing,” sexual harassment, and consensual sexual conduct with an adult.

u Witnessing and indirect victimization. These fall into two general categories, exposure to community violence and exposure to family violence. For exposure to community violence, the survey included 10 types of victimization, including seeing someone 

attacked with an object or weapon; seeing someone attacked without an object or 

weapon; having something stolen from the household; having a friend, neighbor, or family member murdered; witnessing a murder; witnessing or hearing a shooting, bombing, 

or riot; being in a war zone; knowing a family member or close friend who was fondled 

or forced to have sex; knowing a family member or close friend who was robbed or 

mugged; and knowing a family member or close friend who was threatened with a gun 

or knife. 

For exposure to family violence, eight types of victimization were assessed: seeing a 

parent assaulted by a spouse, domestic partner, or boyfriend or girlfriend; seeing a 

brother or sister assaulted by a parent; threat by one parent to assault the other; threat 

by a parent to damage the other parent’s property; one parent pushing the other; 

one parent hitting or slapping the other; one parent kicking, choking, or beating up 

the other; and assault by another adult household member against a child or adult in 

the household.

u School violence and threat. Two types of victimization, including a credible bomb 

threat against the child’s school and fire or other property damage to the school.

u Internet violence and victimization. Two types of victimization, including Internet 

threats or harassment and unwanted online sexual solicitation. 
3

children, ensuring protective environments and caregivers, and helping children use positive coping skills. Much 

more research is warranted about what 

works to mitigate the effects of exposure 

to violence.

Too little is known about the numbers of 

children exposed to violence. Although 

several studies have attempted to measure children’s exposure to violence, 

these estimates have varied greatly and 

have often measured only a subset of 

that exposure.3

 Not only does this partial 

measurement fail to reveal the full extent 

of violence against children, it also fails 

to account fully for the multiple victimizations that many children experience; the 

co-occurrence of certain types of violence 

(for example, intimate partner violence 

and child maltreatment or neglect within a 

household); the extent to which exposure 

to one type of violence may make a child 

more vulnerable to other types of violence 

and victimization; and the cumulative 

effects of repeated exposure to violence 

as both a direct victim and a witness. 

Basic epidemiological data are important 

to determine the extent of the public 

health problem, the need for services, and 

a baseline for evaluating progress.

Prior Attempts at 

Comprehensive 

Measurements

There have been many studies on the 

health and behavioral consequences of 

child maltreatment and, to a lesser extent, 

on other forms of violence against children.4

 However, most of these studies 

focused on only one type of violence or 

on a few types within a single category 

such as child abuse.5

 Two notable earlier 

studies attempted to measure children’s 

exposure to violence and its adverse 

effects in a more comprehensive fashion. The Adverse Childhood Experiences 

(ACE) study, cosponsored by CDC and 

Kaiser Permanente, looked at the consequences for future health and well-being 

of exposure to seven types of adverse 

childhood experiences6

 under the categories of abuse, neglect, and household 

dysfunction. Almost two-thirds of those 

surveyed had suffered at least one adverse 

childhood experience, and more than 

one in five respondents reported three or 

more such experiences. The survey found 

increased rates of a number of long-term 

harms to physical, mental, and emotional 

health associated with those experiences, 

including alcoholism, drug abuse, depression, severe obesity, and several chronic 

adult diseases. The survey further found 

that multiple adverse experiences compounded those harms. Although the ACE 

study was one of the first to document 

the long-term consequences of multiple 

childhood victimizations, it had a different 

focus than NatSCEV. For one, the study 

questioned adults on their memories of 

adverse childhood experiences rather 

than surveying children directly, and the 

set of adverse experiences was more limited than those included in NatSCEV.

The other major attempt to examine the 

prevalence and incidence of children’s 

exposure to violence was the Developmental Victimization Survey (DVS), a precursor to NatSCEV. DVS asked a nationally 

representative sample of 2,030 children 

ages 10 to 17 and caregivers of children 

ages 2 to 9 about their past-year exposure 

to crime and violence in five categories: 

conventional crime, child maltreatment, 

peer and sibling victimization, sexual 

assault, and witnessing and indirect victimization (Finkelhor et al., 2005; Kracke 

and Hahn, 2008). DVS was the first survey 

to simultaneously examine these various 

forms of victimization to obtain a comprehensive picture of children’s exposure to 

violence. It was also the first national survey to estimate the incidence of many specific forms of victimization such as bias 

attacks and witnessing physical abuse 

(Finkelhor et al., 2005; Kracke and Hahn, 

2008). DVS generally found a higher rate of 

specific types of victimization than earlier 

studies such as the National Crime Victimization Survey. Nearly three-quarters of 

the respondents (71 percent) reported a 

direct or indirect victimization within the 

past year, and the average young victim 

reported three separate types of victimizations in separate incidents. More than 

one-third of those surveyed reported that 

they witnessed violence or were otherwise 

indirect victims of violence. DVS, however, 

provided only a limited assessment of 

lifetime incidence of exposure to violence; 

did not look specifically at items such as 

threats and Internet victimization; and 

had limited measurement of exposure to 

family violence, exposure to community 

violence, and school violence and threats. 

DVS also did not include children younger 

than age 2. NatSCEV expands on DVS by 

comprehensively assessing lifetime exposure, considering additional forms of violence, and including infants in the sample. 

With its much larger sample size, NatSCEV 

also allows for much more reliable estimates of rarer forms of victimization and 

more accurate rates within different subgroups of the population (Finkelhor et al., 

2009).

History of the 

Current Study

Under the leadership of then Deputy 

Attorney General Eric Holder in June 

1999, OJJDP created the Safe Start Initiative to prevent and reduce the impact of 

children’s exposure to violence. As a part 

of this initiative and with a growing need 

to document the full extent of children’s 

exposure to violence, OJJDP launched the 

National Survey of Children’s Exposure to 

Violence.

Safe Start’s NatSCEV is the first national 

incidence and prevalence study to examine 
4

where the exposure to violence occurred, 

whether injury resulted, how often the 

child was exposed to a specific type of 

violence, and the child’s relationship 

to the perpetrator and (when the child 

witnessed violence) the victim. In addition, the study documents differences in 

exposure to violence across gender, race, 

socioeconomic status, family structure, 

region, urban/rural residence, and developmental stage of the child; specifies how 

different forms of violent victimization 

“cluster” or co-occur; identifies individual, 

family, and community-level predictors of 

violence exposure among children; examines associations between levels/types of 

violence exposure and child mental and 

emotional health; and assesses the extent 

to which children disclose incidents of violence to various individuals and the nature 

and source of assistance or treatment provided (if any).

This study began in 2007 with funding 

from OJJDP’s Safe Start Initiative. OJJDP 

then partnered with CDC to collect additional data on safe, stable, and nurturing 

relationships—a key focus for CDC’s child 

maltreatment prevention activities. The 

combined approach by OJJDP and CDC is 

providing critical national data on levels of 

violence as well as data on key indicators 

of protective factors.

Highlights of the 

Survey Results

NatSCEV estimates both past-year and 

lifetime exposure to violence across a 

number of categories, including physical 

assault, bullying, sexual victimization, 

child maltreatment, dating violence, and 

witnessed and indirect victimization 

(See “Methodology” on page 6 for more 

detailed definitions of these terms). Exhibit 1 illustrates the past-year exposure for 

all survey respondents to selected categories of violence. Some of the more notable 

findings are outlined below (see Finkelhor 

et al., 2009, for more details).

As noted earlier, the NatSCEV survey 

found that children’s exposure to violence 

is common; more than 60 percent of the 

children surveyed had been exposed to 

violence in the past year and more than 1 

in 10 reported 5 or more exposures. This 

exposure occurs across all age ranges of 

childhood and for both genders. In general, however, the types of exposure that 

were most prevalent among younger children were less serious, such as assaults 

without a weapon or without injury, 

assaults by a juvenile sibling, or bullying 

and teasing, all of which were most common among 6- to 9-year-olds and declined 

thereafter. Older adolescents ages 14 to 

17 were the most likely to experience 

more serious forms of violence, including 

assaults with injury, gang assaults, sexual 

victimizations, and physical and emotional abuse, and to witness violence in 

the community. (See exhibit 2 for a list of 

the most common victimizations for each 

age range from infancy to later adolescence.) This is not a hard and fast distinction; some serious forms of victimization, 

including kidnapping and assaults with a 

weapon, were most common among 10- to 

13-year-olds. This age group was also the 

most likely to witness violence within the 

home, including domestic violence involving their parents and assaults by other 

family members.

The following sections provide more details 

about the findings of the study regarding 

children’s exposure to major categories of 

violence, including assaults, bullying, sexual 

victimization, child maltreatment, and 

witnessing and indirect victimization. The 

Bulletin then discusses the study’s findings 

about multiple and cumulative exposures 

0

10

20

30

40

50

60

70

Any 

exposure 

Assault 

with no 

weapon 

or injury

Assault 

with 

weapon 

and/

or injury

Sexual 

victimization

Child 

maltreatment

Witnessing 

family 

assault

Witnessing community assault

Percentage of children exposed

Type of violence

Dating 

violence*

60.6%

36.7%

14.9%

6.1%

10.2%

1.4%

9.8%

19.2%

Exhibit 1: Past-Year Exposure to Selected Categories of Violence for 

All Children Surveyed

* Figures for dating violence are only for children and adolescents age 12 and older.

comprehensively the extent and nature 

of children’s exposure to violence across 

all ages, settings, and timeframes (see 

“Methodology” on page 6). It measures 

their experience of violence in the home, 

school, and community. It asked children 

and their adult caregivers about not only 

the incidents of violence that children 

suffered and witnessed themselves but 

also other related crime and threat exposures, such as theft or burglary from a 

child’s household, being in a school that 

was the target of a credible bomb threat, 

and being in a war zone or an area where 

ethnic violence occurred. It includes both 

the past-year and lifetime exposure to 

violence of children of all ages up to age 

17. The study was developed under the 

direction of OJJDP, and was designed and 

conducted by the Crimes against Children 

Research Center of the University of New 

Hampshire. It provides comprehensive 

data on the full extent of violence in 

the daily lives of children. The primary 

purpose of NatSCEV is to document the 

incidence and prevalence of children’s 

exposure to a broad array of violent experiences across a wide developmental spectrum. The research team asked followup 

questions about specific events, including 
55

highest incidence occurs among 6- to 

9-year-olds, who had rates of 21.5 percent 

past-year incidence and 28.0 percent lifetime incidence.

About 1 in 5 children (19.7 percent) 

reported having been teased or emotionally bullied in the previous year and 

nearly 3 in 10 reported having been teased 

or emotionally bullied in their lifetimes. 

Teasing or emotional bullying followed a 

similar pattern to physical bullying among 

age groups, rising to reach a peak among 

6- to 9-year-olds, nearly one-third of whom 

(30.4 percent) reported having been 

teased in the past year and then falling 

steadily thereafter.

Internet harassment was less common 

than other forms of bullying. Questions 

about Internet harassment were asked 

only of youth age 10 and older, who might 

be most likely to independently use a 

computer. Unlike other forms of bullying, 

the peak risk period for Internet harassment was ages 14 to 17. In this group, 5.6 

percent reported Internet harassment 

within the past year and 7.9 percent during their lifetimes.

Boys were more likely than girls to be 

physically bullied or threatened, but girls 

were more likely to be victims of Internet 

harassment. For past-year rates, there 

were no significant gender differences in 

emotional bullying; however, for lifetime 

rates, girls reported more cumulative 

exposure to emotional bullying than boys 

(Finkelhor et al., 2009).

Sexual Victimization

Overall, 6.1 percent of all children surveyed had been sexually victimized in the 

past year and nearly 1 in 10 (9.8 percent) 

over their lifetimes. Sexual victimizations 

included attempted and completed rape 

(1.1 percent past year, 2.4 percent lifetime); sexual assault by a known adult (0.3 

percent past year, 1.2 percent lifetime), an 

adult stranger (0.3 percent past year, 0.5 

percent lifetime), or a peer (1.3 percent 

past year, 2.7 percent lifetime); flashing or 

sexual exposure by an adult (0.4 percent 

past year, 0.6 percent lifetime) or peer 

(2.2 percent past year, 3.7 percent lifetime); sexual harassment (2.6 percent past 

year, 4.2 percent lifetime); and statutory 

sexual offenses (0.1 percent past year, 

0.4 percent lifetime).7

 Adolescents ages 

14 to 17 were by far the most likely to be 

sexually victimized; nearly one in six (16.3 

percent) was sexually victimized in the 

to violence, including documentation that 

children who are exposed to one form of 

violence are at greatly increased risk for 

being exposed to violence in other forms.

Physical Assault

Nearly one-half (46.3 percent) of all the 

children surveyed were physically assaulted within the previous year, and more 

than one-half (56.7 percent) had been 

assaulted during their lifetime. Physical 

assaults are extremely common across 

the entire span of childhood and peak 

during middle childhood. Assaults by siblings especially show a marked developmental trend, peaking during the middle 

childhood years (ages 6 to 9) and then 

declining. Incidence for the most severe 

assaults, however, rises steadily with age. 

Among 14- to 17-year-olds, nearly one in 

five (18.8 percent) had been injured in the 

past year in a physical assault. New forms 

of violence, such as dating violence, also 

emerge during adolescence, reaching a 

5.6-percent past-year incidence rate and 

an 8.8-percent lifetime rate for the oldest 

adolescents. The lifetime incidence of 

assault victimization generally rose steadily as children grew older, with more than 

7 in 10 14- to 17-year-olds (71.1 percent) 

reporting that they had been assaulted 

during their lifetimes (Finkelhor et al., 

2009). 

In general, boys are somewhat more likely 

than girls to be victims of assault. The 

past-year incidence of assault is 50.2 

percent for boys and 42.1 percent for 

girls, and the lifetime incidence of assault 

is 60.3 percent for boys and 52.9 percent 

for girls. These patterns are consistent 

with other data on criminal victimization, 

which typically show that males are the 

most common targets of physical assault 

(Finkelhor, 2008; Kilpatrick, Saunders, and 

Smith, 2003; Baum, 2005; Rand, 2008).

Bullying

The survey looked at bullying separately 

from assault and asked about multiple 

types of bullying: physical bullying, 

emotional bullying, and Internet harassment. Overall, 13.2 percent of those surveyed reported having been physically 

bullied within the past year, and more 

than one in five (21.6 percent) reported 

having been physically bullied during 

their lifetimes. The risk of bullying peaks 

during middle childhood in a pattern 

similar to that for sibling assault. The 

Exhibit 2: Developmental 

Patterns in Exposure to 

Violence 

Victimization in Infancy 

Most common victimizations during 

this period:

Assault by a sibling

Assault with no weapon or injury

Witnessing family assault

Victimization in the Toddler Years 

(Ages 2 to 5)

Most common victimizations during 

this period:

Assault by a sibling

Assault with no weapon or injury 

Bullying (physical)

Witnessing family assault

Victimization in Middle Childhood 

(Ages 6 to 9)

Peak risk period for:

Assault by a sibling

Assault with no weapon or injury

Bullying (physical)

Emotional bullying/teasing

Victimization in Preteens and Early 

Adolescence (Ages 10 to 13)

Peak risk period for:

Assault with weapon

Sexual harassment (same rate 

 ages 10 to 17) 

Kidnapping

Witnessing family assault

Witnessing intimate partner 

 (interparental) violence

Victimization in Later Adolescence 

(Ages 14 to 17)

Peak risk period for:

Assault with injury

Assault by peer (nonsibling)

Genital assault

Dating violence

Sexual victimizations of all types

Sexual assault

Sexual harassment (same rate 

 ages 10 to 17)

Flashing or sexual exposure

Unwanted online sexual solicitation

Any maltreatment

Physical abuse

Psychological or emotional abuse

Witnessing community assault

Exposure to shooting

School threat of bomb or attack
6

past year, and more than one in four (27.3 

percent) had been sexually victimized 

during their lifetimes. The most common 

forms of sexual victimization were flashing 

or exposure by a peer, sexual harassment, 

and sexual assault. 

Girls were more likely than boys to be 

sexually victimized: 7.4 percent of girls 

reported a sexual victimization within the 

past year, and nearly one in eight (12.2 

percent) reported being sexually victimized during their lifetimes. Girls ages 14 to 

17 had the highest rates of sexual victimization: 7.9 percent were victims of sexual 

assault in the past year and 18.7 percent 

during their lifetimes (Finkelhor et al., 

2009).

Child Maltreatment

Overall, more than 1 in 10 children surveyed (10.2 percent) suffered some form 

of maltreatment (including physical abuse 

other than sexual assault, psychological 

or emotional abuse, child neglect, and 

custodial interference) during the past 

year and nearly 1 in 5 (18.6 percent) during their lifetimes. Both the past-year and 

lifetime rates of exposure to maltreatment 

rose as children grew older, particularly 

for children age 10 and older: one in six 

14- to 17-year-olds (16.6 percent) suffered 

maltreatment during the past year and 

nearly one in three (32.1 percent) during 

their lifetimes. 

Patterns of child maltreatment were similar for girls and boys with the exception 

of psychological or emotional abuse, the 

incidence of which was somewhat higher 

for girls than for boys. Rates of sexual 

assault by a known adult (not limited to 

caregivers) were also higher for girls than 

for boys, in a pattern that was similar to 

other forms of sexual victimization. 

Witnessing and Indirect 

Exposure to Violence

NatSCEV found that witnessing violence 

was a common occurrence for children, 

particularly as they grew older. Overall, more than one-quarter of children 

surveyed (25.3 percent) had witnessed 

violence in their homes, schools, and 

communities during the past year; and 

more than one-third (37.8 percent) had 

witnessed violence against another person during their lifetimes. The proportion 

of children who witnessed violence both 

within the past year and during their lifetimes rose from one age group to the next. 

Methodology

The National Survey of Children’s Exposure to Violence (NatSCEV) was conducted between January and May 2008. Researchers conducted interviews 

about the experiences of a nationally representative sample of 4,549 children 

and adolescents age 17 and younger. They interviewed by telephone youth ages 

10 to 17 and adult caregivers of children age 9 and younger. Because telephone 

interviews afford greater anonymity and privacy than in-person interviews, they 

may encourage those interviewed to be more forthcoming about such sensitive 

matters as being exposed to violence or being victims of crime. 

The interview sample (n = 4,549) consisted of 2 groups: a nationally representative sample of telephone numbers within the contiguous United States (n = 3,053) 

and an oversample of telephone exchanges with 70 percent or greater African 

American, Hispanic, or low-income households to ensure a proportion of minority and low-income households large enough for subgroup analysis. Both groups 

were sampled through random-digit dialing. The cooperation rate for the first 

group was 71 percent and the response rate was 54 percent. The oversample 

had somewhat lower cooperation (63 percent) and response rates (43 percent). 

A nonresponse analysis conducted on households that could not be contacted or 

that declined to participate indicated that the risk of victimization for those households did not differ systematically from the risk for households that took part in 

the survey. 

An adult, usually a parent, provided demographic information for each participating household, including race/ethnicity (one of four categories: white, nonHispanic; black, non-Hispanic; other race, non-Hispanic; and Hispanic, any race) 

and household income. The child in the household with the most recent birthday 

was then selected to be surveyed. Interviewers spoke directly with children age 

10 and older; for children age 9 and younger, the parent or other adult caregiver 

“most familiar with the child’s daily routine and experience” was interviewed. 

Comparison of a number of indicators, including reports of child maltreatment or 

neglect and violence by family members, found no evidence that caregivers who 

answered for younger children failed to report neglect or violence that was occurring in the family. 

Interviews averaged about 45 minutes in length and were conducted in both English 

and Spanish. Approximately 279 caregiver interviews were conducted in Spanish; 

almost all interviews with children and adolescents 10 and older were in English. 

Types of Violent Victimization Surveyed

Interviewers asked the children or their caregivers about their exposure to 

selected types of violence in the past year and over their lifetimes (see “Screening Questions” on page 2). In addition, interviewers asked followup questions 

about the perpetrator, the use of a weapon, injury, and whether multiple events 

Of all forms of victimization measured in 

NatSCEV, witnessing community violence 

showed the strongest age trends. There 

was more than a sevenfold increase in 

rates from toddlers (2- to 5-year-olds) to 

older adolescents (14- to 17-year-olds). 

More than 7 in 10 14- to 17-year-olds had 

witnessed violence against another person 

during their lives. 

These age trends were due mostly to witnessing violence in the community. The 

past-year incidence of witnessing assaults 

in the community rose from 5.8 percent 

among 2- to 5-year-olds to 42.2 percent 

among 14- to 17-year-olds; lifetime incidence 

rose even more dramatically, from 9.0 

percent of 2- to 5-year-olds to nearly twothirds (64.2 percent) of 14- to 17-year-olds. 

Witnessing of shootings also rose sharply 

in both past-year and lifetime incidence 

from one age group to the next. Among 

children younger than 2 years old, 1.1 

percent were exposed to shootings in the 

past year, whereas more than 1 in 10 14- 

to 17-year-olds (10.2 percent) witnessed 

a shooting in the past year. Similarly, 3.5 

percent of 2- to 5-year-olds had witnessed 

a shooting during their lifetimes, whereas 

more than one in five 14- to 17-year-olds 

(22.2 percent) had witnessed a shooting.8

As striking as these age trends are, even 
7

likely to witness violence in the community, murder, and shootings both in the 

past year and during their lifetimes. There 

were no gender differences in witnessing 

family violence (Finkelhor et al., 2009).

Multiple and Cumulative 

Victimizations

A large proportion of children surveyed 

(38.7 percent) reported more than one 

direct victimization (a victimization directed toward the child, as opposed to an 

incident that the child witnessed, heard, 

or was otherwise exposed to) within the 

previous year. Of those who reported any 

direct victimization, nearly two-thirds 

(64.5 percent) reported more than one. A 

significant number of children reported 

high levels of exposure to violence in the 

past year: more than 1 in 10 (10.9 percent) 

reported 5 or more direct exposures to 

violence, and 1.4 percent reported 10 or 

more direct victimizations. (Victimizations that could be counted in more than 

one category, such as physical abuse by 

a parent or caregiver that could also be 

considered an assault, were not included 

in the counting of multiple victimizations. 

See “Methodology” for a discussion of this 

point.)

Children who were exposed to one type 

of violence, both within the past year and 

over their lifetimes, were at far greater 

risk of experiencing other types of violence. For example, a child who was physically assaulted in the past year would be 

five times as likely to also have been sexually victimized and more than four times 

as likely also to have been maltreated 

during that period. Similarly, a child who 

was physically assaulted during his or her 

lifetime would be more than six times as 

likely to have been sexually victimized 

and more than five times as likely to have 

been maltreated during his or her lifetime. 

Implications for 

Policymakers, 

Researchers, and 

Practitioners 

The findings of the NatSCEV study confirm that for many children in the United 

States, violence is a frequent occurrence. 

Of the nationally representative sample of 

U.S. youth who participated in the study, 

more than 60 percent reported that they 

were victims of direct or indirect violence 

in the past year. Furthermore, nearly twothirds of those participants were victimized more than once. Nearly one-half of the 

children surveyed reported that they were 

assaulted during the previous year, and 

more than 10 percent of them were injured 

as a result. More than one-fourth of the 

children witnessed another person being 

violently attacked. More than 10 percent of 

the children surveyed reported that they 

were indirectly exposed to violence. 

More needs to be understood about how 

exposure to individual episodes of violence, repeated exposure to violence, and 

multiple types of exposure affect children 

and families, providing many avenues 

the lower numbers among young children 

are cause for great concern.

In contrast to the patterns for witnessing 

community violence, few age trends in 

exposure can be seen for witnessing violence within the family. Rates for witnessing family violence were fairly constant 

across the span of childhood, with all age 

groups falling in a fairly narrow range of 

approximately 6 to 11 percent. 

Over the course of their lifetimes, boys 

overall were slightly more likely than girls 

to witness violence (40.1 percent of boys 

and 35.4 percent of girls). Boys were more 

Methodology (continued)

occurred together. Because different types of victimization can occur together 

and some events fall into more than one category (for example, physical abuse 

by a parent or caretaker can also be considered an assault), a number of items 

were rescored. A total of 51 victimization items were extracted in the following 

categories: 

u Assaults. These included any physical assault, assault with a weapon, assault with 

injury, assault without a weapon, attempted assault, attempted or completed kidnapping, 

assault by a brother or sister, assault by another child or adolescent, nonsexual genital 

assault, dating violence, bias attacks, and threats. 

u	 Bullying. This included physical bullying, teasing or emotional bullying, and Internet 

harassment.

u Sexual victimization. This included completed or attempted rape; sexual assault by an 

adult acquaintance, an adult stranger, or another child or adolescent; flashing by an adult 

or another child or adolescent; sexual harassment orally or in writing; statutory sexual 

offenses; and unwanted online sexual solicitation.

u Child maltreatment by an adult. This included physical abuse, psychological or emotional abuse, neglect, and custodial interference or family abduction.

u Witnessed and indirect victimization. Witnessed victimization included witnessing the 

following: an assault by one parent or family member against another, an assault by a 

parent on a brother or sister, an assault on a family member by someone outside the 

household, an assault outside the home, or a murder. Types of indirect victimization 

included exposure to shooting, bombs, or riots; exposure to war or ethnic conflict; being 

told about or seeing evidence of a violent event in the child’s household or community; 

theft or burglary from the child’s household; or a credible threat of a bomb or attack 

against the child’s school.

Limitations

The survey methodology has several limitations that may cause it to understate children’s actual exposure to violence. First, because the survey required the cooperation 

of the family, it ran the risk of missing those children who were most vulnerable to being 

exposed either to violence in general or to specific types of violence. Second, parents 

or caregivers who answer for younger children may not know about all of a child’s exposure to violence or may underreport or minimize certain types of victimization. Third, the 

screening and followup questions may miss some episodes of victimization and incorrectly 

classify others. Fourth, children may not recall some exposure to violence, particularly less 

serious exposure, or may not accurately recall the timing of their exposure (i.e., whether 

or not the exposure occurred within the past year). Despite these limitations, NatSCEV 

provides the most detailed and comprehensive data available on youth victimization.
8

for research and policy development. As 

in this study, future research and policy 

development efforts must incorporate 

a broader perspective in documenting 

the full scope of children’s exposure to 

violence. 

Understanding the 

Progression of Violence 

NatSCEV detailed the extent to which 

children in this country are exposed to 

serious violence. The study found that in 

the year prior to being interviewed, 1 in 20 

children witnessed someone being shot, 

1 in 200 witnessed a murder, and 1 in 50 

was sexually assaulted. The survey showed 

that as children grow older the incidences 

of victimization increase. Among 14- to 

17-year-old participants, 1 in 10 witnessed 

a shooting in the past year, 1 in 75 witnessed a murder, and 1 in 20 was sexually 

assaulted. NatSCEV differs from earlier 

studies in that it looks across the full spectrum of violence, examining and comparing 

the incidence of different types of violence 

within broad categories and determining 

which types are more or less frequent. The 

study looks not only at when and how children become more vulnerable to increasingly serious types of violence as they 

grow older, it also tracks the cumulative 

effects of exposure to violence over time. 

For example, although all age groups are 

vulnerable to simple assault, older children 

and adolescents are several times more 

likely to be sexually assaulted or to witness 

a shooting than are younger children. 

The NatSCEV study clearly illustrates the 

cumulative effects on children exposed 

to multiple incidents of violence and how 

exposure to one form of violence may 

make a child more vulnerable to other 

forms. Nearly two in five children surveyed 

were exposed to two or more types of 

violence in the previous year. More than 

1 in 10 was exposed to 5 or more different 

types of violence during that year. These 

children are the most likely to suffer serious long-term physical, emotional, and 

mental harm (Finkelhor, Ormrod, and 

Turner, 2007a, 2007b, 2007c). Many previous studies have shown how exposure to 

violence has damaging consequences for 

the physical and mental health of youth 

(Gilbert et al., 2009; Widom, 1998; Fantuzzo 

and Mohr, 1998; Hurt et al., 2001) and their 

long-term functioning and well-being as 

adults (Fergusson, Boden, and Horwood, 

2008; Fergusson and Horwood, 1998; 

Kendall-Tackett, 2003).

Expanding the Inquiry 

Researchers and practitioners need to ask 

children more specific questions about a 

broader range of victimizations, including dating violence, emotional abuse, and 

exposure to violence within the family. It 

is also critical to ask children who are suffering from one form of victimization about 

additional forms of victimizations they may 

have experienced to fully address their 

mental and emotional health needs. Practitioners also need to investigate victimization across all age ranges with the help of 

instruments geared to younger children 

and (as was done in the NatSCEV study) 

the use of proxies, such as parents and 

caretakers.

NatSCEV differs from earlier studies in that 

it examines and compares the incidence 

of different types of violence within broad 

categories and determines which types of 

violence occur more or less frequently. For 

example, the research team broke assaults 

down into peer and sibling assaults, assaults without weapon or injury, and 

more serious types of assaults. Peer and 

sibling assaults were common across all 

age ranges and across both genders. More 

serious types of assaults included assaults 

with a weapon, assaults with injury, gang 

assaults, attempted assaults, genital assaults, dating violence, and bias attacks 

(which were less common).

Monitoring Exposure 

Over Time 

More research is also needed that follows children into adulthood to assess 

the effects of violence on their long-term 

health and well-being. Such research would 

complement those studies, such as the 

ACE study discussed earlier, that have 

taken a retrospective look at the effects of 

adverse childhood experiences. NatSCEV’s 

findings affirm that more needs to be done 

to measure children’s exposure to violence 

on an ongoing and systematic basis using 

public surveillance mechanisms, including 

followup surveys and long-term monitoring 

(Kracke and Hahn, 2008).

The estimates of specific exposures in 

NatSCEV are roughly equivalent to or 

somewhat higher than the estimates in 

previous community survey studies of 

child physical abuse (Theodore et al., 

2005); sexual victimization (Theodore et 

al., 2005); sexual assault (Kilpatrick, Saunders, and Smith, 2003; Finkelhor, Hammer, 

and Sedlak, 2008); physical assault with a 

weapon (Kilpatrick, Saunders, and Smith, 

2003); witnessing violence (Kilpatrick, 

Saunders, and Smith, 2003); dating violence (Wolitzky-Taylor et al., 2008); and 

bullying (Nansel et al., 2003). Differences 

in age range and definition account for 

some variations between the findings of 

this and other studies. Because this is the 

first national study to ask children and 

their caregivers directly about exposure 

to certain types of family violence, such 

as assaults by one parent on another, the 

exposure rate of 6.2 percent is several 

times greater than estimates obtained 

from cases disclosed to child protection agencies (Administration on Children, Youth and Families, 2004) and law 

enforcement (Federal Bureau of Investigation, 2007).
9

welfare and protection agencies, early 

childhood educators and childcare providers, schools and educational institutions, domestic violence service providers 

and advocates, law enforcement agencies, 

and the justice system). The Safe Start Initiative has worked toward a comprehensive approach across the continuum of 

prevention, intervention, treatment, and 

response for 10 years and has made significant progress in increasing knowledge, 

skills, and awareness of children’s exposure to violence. More work is needed.

The next step in addressing children’s 

exposure to violence and efforts to ameliorate or eliminate the harm it causes is 

to foster and sustain a comprehensive 

approach in both practice and research 

that builds on the groundwork established 

under Safe Start and this study. It is important to develop, implement, and evaluate 

programs and policies designed to prevent 

children’s exposure to violence; to craft 

and implement strategies and interventions to help children who have been 

exposed to violence and their families; and 

to replicate those programs, policies, and 

interventions that prove to be effective in 

preventing and lessening violence against 

children in communities across the Nation.

The NatSCEV study represents the best 

attempt to date to quantify children’s 

exposure to violence. Understanding categories and forms of violence is critical to 

creating appropriate interventions to prevent and suppress violence and to treat its 

victims. This study’s greatest contribution, 

however, is that it highlights the degree 

to which children in this country live with 

violence in their daily lives. Violence takes 

a toll on children whether as victims or 

witnesses. Seemingly minor incidents may 

have long-lasting and far-reaching consequences. If policymakers, practitioners, 

advocates, and the general public are to 

respond effectively to curb the negative 

effects of children’s exposure to violence, 

everyone must look at the problem in its 

totality and make a coordinated effort to 

help the children and their families who 

suffer these effects.

For Further Information

To learn more about the Safe Start Initiative, visit www.safestartcenter.org.

For more information about the 

National Survey of Children’s Exposure to Violence, visit the Crimes 

against Children Research Center 

Web site at www.unh.edu/ccrc.

Reaching Across Disciplines

This study’s findings confirm that more 

needs to be done at all levels of policy 

and practice to reach across disciplines 

to identify children at risk from exposure 

to violence and to coordinate the delivery 

of services to these children. For example, 

first responders and providers who are 

involved in incidents of domestic violence 

and deal with victims in their aftermath 

(e.g., police, emergency room physicians 

and nurses, social workers, domestic violence advocates, and judges) should be 

aware not only of the adult victims but also 

of the children who may have witnessed 

the incident. They may also need to work 

with childcare providers, teachers, and 

school counselors and psychologists to 

assess the effects on a child’s interaction 

with his or her classmates and to provide 

needed help.

Expanding Identification 

Capabilities 

Researchers, practitioners, and policymakers need to collaborate to develop and 

expand effective screening and assessment 

tools that are developmentally appropriate 

for children across all age ranges and types 

of violence. These instruments and tools 

can identify children who are suffering 

emotionally, socially, physically, and developmentally. More importantly, these instruments can aid practitioners, advocates, 

frontline service providers, and responders 

across all service sectors to reach and 

help those children. Understanding the full 

extent of children’s exposure to violence 

and the interactions among multiple types 

of violence more comprehensively can 

further practitioners’ ability to respond to 

those families who need support and to 

alleviate the harmful effects of exposure to 

violence (Kracke and Hahn, 2008).

Coordinating Across Sectors

Finally, just as the NatSCEV study by its 

comprehensive nature addresses the fragmentation that, until now, characterized 

many attempts to look at child victimization and exposure to violence, greater 

coordination of the efforts to combat the 

effects of that victimization are needed. 

For example, recent initiatives have 

formed to separately address bullying, 

dating violence, and sexual harassment. 

At the Federal, State, tribal, and local 

levels, responsibility for dealing with children’s exposure to violence is distributed 

across all service and response sectors 

(e.g., health departments, hospitals, child 

Endnotes

1. According to the 2005 National Crime 

Victimization Survey, 44 per 1,000 juveniles ages 12 to 15 and 44.2 per 1,000 

adolescents and young adults ages 16 

to 19 were victims of violent crime, as 

compared with a victimization rate of 

21.2 per 1,000 for all persons age 12 

and older (Baum, 2005). 

2. Background material adapted from 

information on the Safe Start Center 

Web site. For more detailed information, go to www.safestartcenter.org.

3. Kracke and Hahn (2008) cite studies 

that estimate children’s exposure to 

violence as ranging from 3 million to 

17 million incidents. As they note, 

however, these studies measured only 

children’s witnessing of domestic violence. They did not measure violence 

that was inflicted on children directly 

or violence that children witnessed 

outside the home. 

4. For an overview of these studies, see 

Kracke and Hahn (2008).

5. For an overview of research on child 

abuse and other forms of maltreatment and their long-term health and 

behavioral consequences, see Repetti, 

Taylor, and Seeman (2002).

6. The categories of adverse childhood 

experiences studied were psychological, physical, or sexual abuse; violence 

against mother; or living with household members who were substance 

abusers, mentally ill or suicidal, or ever 

imprisoned. For more information on 

the ACE study, see Centers for Disease 

Control and Prevention (2006) and 

Felitti et al. (1998). 

7. The aggregate figure for any sexual 

victimization did not include unwanted 

online sexual solicitation (Finkelhor et 

al., 2009). 

8. Previous studies have also noted 

that low-income and minority youth 

are many times more likely to have 

witnessed serious violence in the 

community. Kracke and Hahn (2008) 

cite studies noting that only 1 percent 

of upper-middle-class youth had witnessed a murder and 9 percent had 

witnessed a stabbing (Gladstein, Rusonis, and Heald, 1992), whereas 43 percent of low-income African American 

school-aged children had witnessed a 

murder and 56 percent had witnessed 

a stabbing (Fitzpatrick and Boldizar, 

1993).
10

Fergusson, D.M., Boden, J.M., and 

Horwood, L.J. 2008. Exposure to childhood sexual and physical abuse and 

adjustment in early adulthood. Child 

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Fergusson, D.M., and Horwood, L.J. 1998. 

Exposure to interparental violence in 

childhood and psychosocial adjustment 

in young adulthood. Child Abuse & Neglect

22(5):339–357.

Finkelhor, D. 2008. Childhood Victimization: Violence, Crime, and Abuse in the 

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Finkelhor, D., Hammer, H., and Sedlak, A. 

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Finkelhor, D., Ormrod, R.K., and Turner, 

H.A. 2007a. Poly-victimization: A neglected 

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Child Abuse & Neglect 31:7–26.

Finkelhor, D., Ormrod, R.K., and Turner, 

H.A. 2007b. Poly-victimization and trauma 

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D., Williamson, D.F., Spitz, A.M., and 

Edwards, V. 1998. Relationship of childhood abuse and household dysfunction 

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in adults: The Adverse Childhood Experiences (ACE) Study. American Journal of 

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and Hamby, S.L. 2009. Violence, crime, 

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Fergusson, D.M., Webb, E., and Janson, S. 

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F.P. 1992. A comparison of inner-city and 

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Acknowledgments

This Bulletin was written by David Finkelhor, Ph.D., Director, Crimes against Children Research Center, University of New Hampshire; Heather Turner, Ph.D., Professor, Crimes against Children Research Center, University of New Hampshire; 

Richard Ormrod, Ph.D., Research Professor, Crimes against Children Research 

Center, University of New Hampshire; Sherry Hamby, Ph.D., Research Associate Professor, Department of Psychology, Sewanee, University of the South; and 

Kristen Kracke, M.S.W., Safe Start Initiative Coordinator and Program Manager, 

Office of Juvenile Justice and Delinquency Prevention (OJJDP). OJJDP wishes to 

acknowledge the contributions to this Bulletin of James A. Mercy, Ph.D., Special 

Adviser for Strategic Directions, Division of Violence Prevention, National Center 

for Injury Prevention and Control, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention; and 

Rebecca T. Leeb, Ph.D., Epidemiologist, Division of Violence Prevention, National 

Center for Injury Prevention and Control, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. OJJDP also wishes to acknowledge the support of CDC for the National 

Survey of Children’s Exposure to Violence and its partnership in the Safe Start 

Initiative to create safe, stable, and nurturing environments for children and their 

families. The authors wish to thank Brian Higgins, Writer/Editor, Lockheed Martin’s 

Office of Justice Programs Communication and Publication Support Services, for 

his assistance in editing and coordinating the production of this Bulletin.

This Bulletin was prepared under cooperative 

agreement number 2005–JL–FX–0048 from the 

Office of Juvenile Justice and Delinquency Prevention (OJJDP), U.S. Department of Justice. 

Points of view or opinions expressed in this 

document are those of the authors and do not 

necessarily represent the official position or 

policies of OJJDP or the U.S. Department of 

Justice.

The Office of Juvenile Justice and Delinquency 

Prevention is a component of the Office of 

Justice Programs, which also includes the 

Bureau of Justice Assistance; the Bureau of 

Justice Statistics; the Community Capacity 

Development Office; the National Institute of 

Justice; the Office for Victims of Crime; and the 

Office of Sex Offender Sentencing, Monitoring, 

Apprehending, Registering, and Tracking 

(SMART).

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