Land Use/Land Cover 

and Environmental 

Photointerpretation Keys

U.S. GEOLOGICAL SURVEY BULLETIN 1600

Land Use/Land Cover

and Environmental

Photointerpretatlon Keys

By George L. Loelkes, Jr., Gordon E. Howard, Jr., 

Eddie L. Schwertz, Jr., Phillip D. Lampert, 

and Stephan W. Miller

U.S. GEOLOGICAL SURVEY BULLETIN 1600
UNITED STATES DEPARTMENT OF THE INTERIOR 

JAMES G. WATT, Secretary

GEOLOGICAL SURVEY 

Dallas L. Peck, Director

UNITED STATES GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE: 1983

For sale by Distribution Branch 

Text Products Section 

U.S. Geological Survey 

604 South Pickett Street 

Alexandria, Virginia 22304

Library of Congress catalog-card No. 83-600599
PREFACE

In 1975, the U.S. Geological Survey initiated production of 

land use and land cover and associated maps for the United 

States. Documenting the land use categories shown on the maps 

and providing insight into the environmental effects of land use 

have been long-standing user requirements. This USGS publication 

illustrates the various land use categories in order to provide 

the user with a means of interpreting these categories from 

aerial photographs. Comments on potential environmental impacts 

are included.

Geographic areas to be used for this publication were 

reviewed in depth. Missouri was selected because land use and 

land cover map compilation for that area was complete. We 

reviewed and considered several well-known and respected thematic 

maps in an attempt to identify meaningful regions in the State 

which would be viewed as a framework for developing land use and 

land cover category documentation. Among these maps were 

Kuchler's Potential Natural Vegetation map of the United States, 

Lobeck's Physiographic Provinces, Fenneman's Physical Divisions, 

and Hammond's Classes of Land Surface Form in the Forty-Eight 

States. While all of these maps portray basically similar 

themes, each addresses only a specific characteristic relating to 

the surface of the land. None of the maps provides a logical 

framework for all the land use and land cover categories. 

Accordingly, it was decided to use the USGS Land Use and Land 

Cover maps of Missouri to select the locations of specific Tand 

use and land cover patterns illustrated in this publication.

CONTENTS

Page

Preface iii

Abstract 1

SECTION 1 Introduction 1

SECTION 2 Remote sensing for land use interpretation 4

What is remote sensing? 4

Resolution 4

Scale 4

Remote sensing platforms 5

Aerial film types 7

Aerial cameras 9

Photointerpretation 10

Pattern 10

Size 10

Shape 11

Tone and color 11

Texture 11

Shadow 11

Site association - 11

Interpretation aids 11

Reference materials 11

Stereoscopic viewing 12

Magnification 12

Comparative coverage 12

Summary 12

SECTION 3 Land use and land cover classification systems 13

Background 13

U.S. Geological Survey land use and land cover

classification system 13 

Development of the land use and land cover

classification system 13 

Characteristics of the USGS classification

system 14

Summary 18

SECTION 4 Land use and land cover mapping - 19

Background 19

Product preparation 19

Field activities 20 

Land use and land cover minimum size

specifications 20

Land use and land cover delineation 20

Associated maps compilation - 21

Quality control 22

Final reproduction and release 22 

Land use mapping specifications at scales

larger than 1:100,000 22

Summary 26
Page

SECTION 5 Land use and the environment 27 

Urban pollution sources 28 

Agricultural pollution sources 28 

Rangeland pollution sources 28 

Forest pollution sources 28 

Water pollution sources 29 

Wetlands pollution sources 29 

Barren Land pollution sources 29 

SECTION 6 Photointerpretation keys for Missouri 30 

Introduction 30 

Level I, Category 1 Urban or Built-up

Land 30 

Category 11 Residential 30 

Category 12 Commercial and Services 37 

Category 13 Industrial 53 

Category 14 Transportation,

Communications, and Utilities 68 

Category 15 Industrial and Commercial

Complexes 75 

Category 16 Mixed Urban or Built-up

Land 75 

Category 17 Other Urban or Built-up

Land 77 

Level I, Category 2 Agricultural Land 79 

Category 21 Cropland and Pasture 79 

Category 22 Orchards, Groves, Vineyards, 

Nurseries, and Ornamental Horticultural 

Areas 81 

Category 23 Confined Feeding

Operations 83

Category 24 Other Agricultural Land 87

Level I, Category 3 Rangeland 89

Category 31 Herbaceous Rangeland 89

Category 32 Shrub and Brush Rangeland 90

Level I, Category 4 Forest Land 91

Category 41 Deciduous Forest Land 91

Category 42 Evergreen Forest Land 93

Category 43 Mixed Forest Land 95

Level I, Category 5 Water 96

Category 51 Streams and Canals 96

Category 52 Lakes 98

Category 53 Reservoirs 99

Level I, Category 6 Wetland 100

Category 61 Forested Wetlands 100

Category 62 Nonfcrested Wetlands 102

Level I, Category 7 Barren Land 103

Category 73 Sandy Areas Other than

Beaches 104 

Category 75 Strip Mines, Quarries, and

Gravel Pits 105 

Category 76 Transitional Area 107

SECTION 7 Land use and land cover tabulations for Missouri 110 

State of Missouri statistical data land use by

counties 111

Selected references 128

Appendixes 131

A. Sites in numerical order 132

B. List of sites by cities 141

vi
TABLES

Page 

TABLE 1-1. Land use and land cover classification system

for use with remote sensor data 2 

3-1. Standard land use code first and second level

category 15 

3-2. State of Florida Level I, II, and III land use

codes 16 

3-3. Multilevel land use classification system 17

3-4. Level IV forest classification system 18

4-1. Composite editing overlay registration

checklist 23 

4-2. Land use specifications matrix 24

vii

LAND USE/LAND COVER AND ENVIRONMENTAL 

PHOTOINTERPRETATION KEYS

By George L. Loelkes, Jr. , Gordon E. Howard, Jr.2, Eddie L. Schwertz, Jr.-"-, 

Phillip D. Lampert 1 , and Stephan W. Miller 1

ABSTRACT

The preparation of land use maps requires 

a basic understanding of photointerpretation 

principles, land use taxonomy, and the proper 

use of mapping specifications. Each of these 

topics is developed in sufficient detail to 

ensure that the reader is exposed to these 

basics. Since the use of the land can present 

different environmental impacts, the potentials 

for environmental degradation are analyzed. 

Perhaps the most difficult tasks involved in 

land use mapping is recognition of the different land use types. Aerial and ground photographs, when combined with narrative descriptions, can provide a ready reference for the 

photointerpreter. Over 230 illustrations and 

narrative descriptions meet this need.

SECTION 1: INTRODUCTION

This publication has been jointly prepared 

by the U.S. Geological Survey and the 

Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) as a 

means of disseminating information on the 

U.S. Geological Survey land use and land cover 

mapping effort and the potential effects of 

land use on the environment. Primarily, the 

guide is intended for use by land resource and

 ' U.S. Geological Survey, National 

Division, Geographic Investigations 

Rolla, Mo.

Mapping 

Office,

^U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, 

Environmental Photographic Interpretation 

Center, Warrenton, Va.

environmental planners and managers who 

utilize land use and land cover maps in 

decisionmaking.

This guide serves as a learning tool for 

the use of remote sensing technology and land 

use and land cover classification and mapping, 

(table 1-1), as well as an environmental guide 

and photointerpretation key to help users 

better understand the photographic recognition 

features of the various land use and land 

cover categories. It documents the existence 

of various Missouri land use and land cover 

categories as they are portrayed on the maps 

produced by the U.S. Geological Survey. 

Finally, it provides a set of environmental 

keys which can be correlated with various land 

use and land cover categories and patterns 

(figure 1-1).

The guide is designed to demonstrate the 

applicability of land use and environmental 

keys; to develop data acquisition techniques 

for compilation of the keys; and to indicate 

the potential effects of various land uses on 

the environment.

Ultimately, it may be possible to produce 

a series of regionally oriented guides to 

provide land use and land cover and 

environmental keys for the United States.

The State of Missouri was chosen for the 

first guide for several reasons. Missouri 

contains a variety of topographic forms, 

vegetative cover, agricultural practices, and 

urban areas of various sizes and patterns. 

Second, the land use and land cover and 

associated maps of the State of Missouri had 

been completed. Finally, since the authors 

work in Missouri, the cost of acquiring 

photographs and field data could be kept to a 

minimum.
Table 1-1. USGS Land use and land cover classification system for use

with remote sensor data

_____________________(Anderson and others, 1976, p. 8) __

Level I Level II

1 Urban or Built-up Land 11 Residential

12 Commercial and Services

13 Industrial

14 Transportation,

Communications, 

and Utilities

15 Industrial and

Commercial Complexes

16 Mixed Urban or Built-up 

Land

17 Other Built-up Land

2 Agricultural Land 21 Cropland and Pasture

22 Orchards, Groves,

Vineyards, Nurseries 

and Ornamental 

Horticultural areas

23 Confined Feeding 

Operations

24 Other Agriculture Land

3 Rangeland 31 Herbaceous Rangeland

32 Shrub and Brush 

Rangeland

33 Mixed Rangeland______

4 Forest Land 41 Deciduous Forest Land

42 Evergreen Forest Land

43 Mixed Forest Land

5 Water

6 Wetland

7 Barren Land

8 Tundra

9 Perennial Snow or Ice

51

52

53

54

61

62

71

72

73

74

75

76

77

81

82

83

84

85

91

92

Streams and Canals

Lakes

Reservoirs

Bays and Estuaries

Forested Wetlands

Nonforested Wetlands

Dry Salt Flats

Beaches

Sandy Areas other than

Beaches

Bare Exposed Rock

Strip Mines, Quarries,

and Gravel Pits

Transitional Areas

Mixed Barren Land

Shrub and Brush Tundra

Herbaceous Tundra

Bare Ground Tundra

Wet Tundra

Mixed Tundra

Perennial Snowfields

Glaciers
 > L ^ !/ ! RM'f""'i i ' i h' V*. s

.. i « -s. ( ' ......... i.. i : . ^^.'^

^^;;;3iLi.i£^

(49, 50). " V'i*if45.4i

.... . ... I .. . i

"U_.._.. j .1(51-64)

' ' : " - - - - ' ~ ^ . '

;-1------ j i 8 ^ H v : 4c,.,: ., -65; ! : T :

JCDO^O ! r 'l^tWtv <"!*«/ I |

! ^.vn^es'u^! I J ; !

.'),IV.,r tii ! r, c«.V'» 524'H

Figure 1-1. Photointerpretation keys site locations,
SECTION 2: REMOTE SENSING FOR LAND USE 

INTERPRETATION

What is Remote Sensing?

Remote sensing can be defined as the 

acquisition of information by a detection 

device that is not in physical contact with 

the object or phenomenon under study. Remote 

sensors for land analysis are of two major 

types: photographic and nonphotographic.

Photographic sensors produce an image 

directly on a film emulsion from reflected 

electromagnetic radiation of wave lengths in 

the visible and near-infrared portions of the 

electromagnetic spectrum. The common camera 

is the best-known photographic sensor.

In comparison, nonphotographic sensor 

images are captured by a suitable detector and 

stored as electronic impulses by a recording 

device. Nonphotographic sensors operate in 

the ultraviolet, visible, infrared, and 

microwave portions of the electromagnetic 

spectrum.

Nonphotographic sensors can be further 

classified as passive or active. 

Nonphotographic, passive remote sensing 

systems detect energy emitted or reflected as 

radiation from a given scene. The system 

produces, transmits, and records no energy of 

its own. Two of the most frequently used 

nonphotographic, passive remote sensing 

systems are multispectral scanners, such as 

those on board the Landsat satellites, and the 

thermal infrared scanners used to detect 

temperature contrasts in water bodies, forest 

fires, and home insulation efficiency analyses 

(thermograms).

Nonphotographic, active remote sensing 

systems transmit their own electromagnetic 

signals at objects and then record the energy 

reflected or refracted back to the sensor. 

Radar remote sensing devices are the most 

commonly used nonphotographic active remote 

sensors. Radar sensors are particularly well 

suited for imaging landscapes obscured by 

clouds.

The illustrations used in section 6 were 

obtained with conventional photographic 

cameras. The reader should refer to available 

textbooks on remote sensing or photogramme try 

for more specific information or details on 

photographic or nonphotographic sensors (see 

"Selected References").

Resolution

Resolution refers to the minimum separation between two objects at which the objects 

appear distinct and separate on an image. The

greater the ability of the remote sensor 

system to distinguish separate objects, the 

greater the image resolution. Image quality 

is a function of the remote sensor system's 

component resolving powers. The combined 

effect of the system components, such as 

camera focal length, shutter speed, film type, 

and sensor altitude (together with other 

factors such as Earth curvature or atmospheric 

haze), contributes to the overall resolution 

of the image.

Although the term "resolution" is used to 

describe the capabilities of photographic 

sensors to produce sharply defined images, it 

is also used to refer to the capabilities of 

nonphotographic sensor systems to produce 

sharply defined images. However, unlike 

photographic sensor systems in which 

resolution is expressed as line pairs per 

millimeter, nonphotographic sensor resolutions 

are expressed in a variety of ways (see 

Reeves, 1975).

The theoretical maximum resolution of a 

sensor system is rarely achieved in actual 

operation. Although resolution is admittedly 

an important aspect in mission planning, one 

should remember that resolution is the minimum 

separation between two objects for which the 

images appear distinct and separate; it is not 

the size of the smallest object that can be 

seen on an image. With the knowledge of the 

smallest objects that will have to be 

identified and their spacing characteristics, 

one can plan a mission (Sabins, 1978, 

p. 22-25).

Although most planners and natural 

resource agency personnel believe that scale 

is the most important factor in producing 

thematic map products, it should be noted that 

remote sensor system resolution is usually 

more critical than the original photographic 

or nonphotographic scale. The scale of an 

image can be enlarged or reduced; however, 

nothing can be done to increase the degree of 

detail captured as a function of the remote 

sensor system resolution once the mission has 

been completed.

Scale

Scale refers to the mathematical 

relationship between a distance on an image 

and the corresponding distance on the Earth. 

The larger the scale, the closer the image 

size is to the actual size of the object. For 

example, a scale ratio of 1 inch on the 

photograph equals 1 inch on the Earth means 

that an exact one-to-one relationship exists. 

This relationship can be expressed as a ratio
with a colon (1:1) or as a representative fraction, with the numerator referring to the 

measurement on the photograph and the denominator referring to the measurement on the Earth's 

surface. When referring to scale, it is 

important to remember that the relationship 

expressed is a ratio. Therefore, it does not 

matter whether one uses inches, miles, or any 

other unit of measurement; only that the same 

units be used for both the image and its 

corresponding distance on the Earth's surface.

Camera scale is also the ratio of the 

focal length of the camera to elevation of the 

camera above the terrain being photographed. 

Mathematically, the scale is calculated as 

follows:

Scale =

H-h

H = aircraft altitude above mean sea level

h = mean ground elevation

f = focal length

For example, suppose an aircraft is 

flying at an altitude of 22,000 feet above 

mean sea level (msl), with a 6-inch (0.5 foot) 

focal length camera, over an area with a mean 

ground elevation of 2,000 feet. Inserting 

these values into the above equation yields 

the following results. Accordingly, the scale 

of this photograph is 1/40,000.

Scale =

(22,000 ft. - 2,000 ft.) = 20,000

0.5 ft. 0.5 = 40,000

It should be noted that different focal 

lengths or different altitudes of the aircraft 

will result in different photographic scales. 

For example, if the camera focal length in the 

preceding example were increased to 12 inches, 

the scale would become 1:20,000. Suppose it 

was necessary to obtain the larger scale photographs but a 12-inch focal length camera was 

not available. The larger scale photographs 

could be obtained using a 6-inch focal length 

camera by reducing the flying altitude to 

12,000 feet msl. However, every time the 

scale is increased by a factor of two, four 

times as many photographs are required to 

cover the same area.

Remote Sensing Platforms

The term "remote sensing platform" refers 

to objects, structures, or vehicles upon which

remote sensing devices are mounted. Remote 

sensing platforms can range from truck booms, 

to aircraft, to Earth-orbiting satellites. 

The decision to use a particular platform is 

primarily a function of the altitude, 

stability, and temporal requirements for a 

specific remote sensing project.

Although there are three main categories 

of remote sensing platforms ground-based, 

aircraft, and spacecraft only aircraft and 

spacecraft will be addressed in this section.

Even though it is quite common to have 

both photographic and nonphotographic sensors 

(such as multispectral scanners, thermal 

scanners, and radar) mounted on aircraft, 

photographic sensors are carried on board 

spacecraft to a far less extent than on 

aircraft. Some notable exceptions include 

cameras which were carried into space on board 

Apollo flights, Skylab, and the Space Shuttle.

The list of specific types of aircraft 

and spacecraft platforms is very long. The 

reader should refer to the Manual of Remote 

Sensing (Reeves, 1975, pp. 539-588)for 

descriptions of these platforms.

Photographic images are classified 

according to platform type as either aerial 

photographs or satellite photographs. Aerial 

photographs can be further categorized as 

low-, medium-, or high-altitude photographs. 

Although the specific values for each of the 

three ranges differ from user to user, a 

practical method of altitude classification 

takes into consideration aircraft operational 

characteristics and the suitability of the 

final photographs for topographic and/or 

planimetric mapping.

Most fixed-wing propeller-driven aircraft 

operate below 24,000 feet msl. Aerial 

photographs acquired below 24,000 feet msl 

will generally have a medium to large 

photographic scale. Photographs obtained 

below this altitude can be classified as 

low-altitude aerial photographs. Photographs 

acquired above 24,000 ft. msl will have a 

medium to small photographic scale and are 

most often classified as high-altitude 

photographs.

Photographs of the Earth have been taken 

on the Gemini, Apollo, and Skylab missions. 

For example, Skylab was placed in orbit about 

270 miles (435 km) above the Earth. On board 

Skylab was a six-lens multispectral camera 

system with a 6-inch focal length and an Earth 

terrain camera system with an 18-inch focal 

length. Both of the camera systems were used 

extensively to test different film/filter 

combinations from space.

Nonphotographic remote sensors have been 

mounted on a variety of aircraft and 

spacecraft platforms. Since this guide is
aimed toward the use of conventional aerial 

photography and its interpretation, the topic 

of nonphotographic remote sensors will not be 

covered in depth. In addition to the photographic sensors onboard Skylab, five nonphotographic sensors were operated: an infrared 

spectrometer, a multispectral scanner, a 

microwave-scatterometer, an altimeter, and an 

L-band radiometer.

Landsats 1, 2, and 3 have been equipped 

with a return beam vidicon (RBV) television 

camera and multispectral scanning (MSS) system.

Figures 2-1, 2-2, 2-3, and 2-4 illustrate 

scale and ground resolution differences from 

four different remote sensor platforms.2 

Figure 2-1 is an MSS band 5 image from Landsat 

1 taken from approximately 570 miles 

(918 km)--ground resolution approximately 200- 

250 m, approximate scale 1:1,000,000 (Sabins, 

1978, p. 69). Figure 2-2 is a black-and-white 

reproduction of a color-infrared (CIR) satellite photograph obtained from Skylab 2 at 

approximately 270 miles (435 km) with an 

18-inch focal length camera ground resolution 

30-40 m, approximate scale 1:950,000. Figure 

2-3 is a black-and-white reproduction of a 

high-altitude CIR photograph taken from approximately 65,000 feet msl with a 6-inch focal 

length camera ground resolution 4-5 m, approximate scale 1:130,000. Finally, figure 2-4 is 

a black-and-white USGS aerial photograph taken 

from an altitude of approximately 15,000 feet

Figure 2-1. Portion of a Landsat 1 MSS Band 5 

image of St. Louis, Mo., (near center of 

image) October 20, 1972, (approximate scale: 

1:1,000,000).

^Ground resolution refers to the smallest 

object size or distance on the ground which 

can be identified. As a "rule-of-thumb," 

ground resolution is four times the overall 

system resolution (detection resolution).

Figure 2-2. Black-and-white reproduction of a 

portion of a Skylab 2 color-infrared 

satellite photograph of St. Louis, Mo., 

(top-center of photograph) September 6, 1973 

(approximate scale: 1:950,000).

Figure 2-3. Black-and-white reproduction of a 

portion of a NASA high-altitude, 

color-infrared photograph of St. Louis, Mo., 

October 9, 1974, (approximate scale: 

1:130,000).

msl with a 6-inch focal length camera ground 

resolution 1-2 m, approximate scale 1:30,000.

Note that as the remote sensor altitude 

decreases, the photographic resolution 

increases, and the ground resolution (the 

smallest recognizable object size) increases.

At present, detailed land use mapping 

relies most heavily on high-resolution aeria] 

photographs. Satellite photographs and 

spacecraft multispectral scanner images, for
Figure 2-4. Portion of a black-and-white vertical mapping photograph of downtown 

St. Louis, Mo., July 30, 1974, (approximate 

scale: 1:30,000).

example, Landsat images, are used for more 

generalized land cover mapping (see table 1-1, 

Level I categories).

As explained in the following section, 

the primary photographic data source for the 

USGS national Land Use and Land Cover Level II 

mapping program is either NASA "U-2" 

high-altitude color-infrared (1:120,000- to 

1:130,000-scale) photographs or l:80,000-scale 

black-and-white USGS quad-centered photographs.

Aerial Film Types

Photographic film consists of a cellulose 

acetate or polyester base coated on one side 

with a light-sensitive layer (the emulsion) 

and on the other side, with an antihalation 

backing a light-absorbing coating which 

prevents backscatter of the photographic image 

beyond its proper boundaries. Silver halide 

crystals suspended in a gelatin are the main 

active ingredients in the film emulsion.

During the time that the camera shutter 

is open, light strikes the emulsion and the 

image of the scene is recorded on the film as 

a reversed, or negative, image. The amount of 

light reaching the film base determines the 

film density (opaqueness) for any specific 

area of the film. The greater the amount of 

light reflected from an object, the more dense 

the film's area for that object. When 

positive images are printed from the negative 

film, the dense areas of the negative hold 

back light and produce light tones on the 

print, whereas the less dense areas allow more

light to be transmitted to produce darker tones 

on the print.

The resolving power of the film affects 

the final resolution of the photograph. Among 

the factors that affect the film resolution is 

the size of the silver halide crystals or 

grains, which determines the exposure time 

required for correct density and contrast. 

Earlier, it was noted that the amount of light 

reaching the film base determines the film 

density for any specific area of the film. As 

the size of the silver halide crystals in the 

emulsion increases, the amount of light 

required to produce the correct density and 

contrast decreases. A fast film having rather 

large silver halide crystals in its emulsion 

layer requires a short exposure time. However, 

the large silver halide crystals reduce the 

film's ability to produce sharp images (film 

definition) and therefore reduce resolution.

The motion, particularly forward speed, 

of the remote sensor platform also has a 

bearing on choice of film speed. To compensate 

for the degrading effects of image motion, one 

must use a fast shutter speed and therefore a 

fast film to reduce blurring. However, as 

noted above, fast films have lower resolutions.

In general, black-and-white films have 

higher resolution than color or color-infrared 

films of comparable camera speed.

The most common type of film used for 

aerial mapping and photointerpretation is 

panchromatic film (see figure 2-5). Since 

panchromatic film is sensitive to the same 

wavelengths as the human eye (about 0.36 to 

0.72 micrometers) , the relative tonal values 

of objects on panchromatic photographs are 

similar to those seen by the human eye a 

characteristic which facilitates the photoidentification process. Although panchromatic 

film is excellent for distinguishing between 

objects of different colors, it lacks sensitivity in the green portion of the electromagnetic spectrum, thus making distinctions 

between vegetative cover types difficult. 

Panchromatic film is the least expensive of 

the aerial films to process and develop.

Color aerial films are basically of two 

types reversal and negative films. Reversal 

films, after the first stage of developing, 

are positive transparencies. Negative films, 

however, yield a negative transparency. A 

black-and-white reproduction of a color photograph (see figure 2-6) can be used for comparison with a panchromatic print (see figure 2-5).

Today's color aerial films have improved 

speeds, definition, and less granularity. When 

used with appropriate filters to reduce haze 

effects, color aerial films increase the 

photointerpreter's ability to distinguish and 

identify forest types, degree of sediment load
Figure 2-5. Black-and-white mapping photograph of downtown St. Louis. Notice the dark 

gray tones of the buildings and the light gray tones of nearby parking areas.

f'9m'.: fsf' k i" * -..i3*' Jl-i ~m

Figure 2-6. Black-and-white reproduction of a color photograph of downtown St. Louis. 

Notice the lack of vegetation associated with the central business district (CBD).

in water bodies, and other landscape and 

manmade features exhibiting distinctive colors.

Aerial color-infrared (CIR) film, originally known as "camouflage detection film" and 

occasionally referred to as "false-color film," 

is sensitive to both the visible and reflected 

infrared portions of the electromagnetic spectrum (approximately 0.4 to 0.9 micrometers). 

Therefore, instead of being sensitive to blue, 

green, and red reflected light, its emulsion 

is sensitive to green, red, and infrared light 

when exposed through the required yellow 

(minus-blue) filter.

Aerial color-infrared film has excellent 

haze-penetrating capability because the yellow

filter eliminates the scattered blue wave 

lengths comprising most of the haze. In 

addition, since it is more sensitive to the 

near-IR portions of the spectrum, it is very 

useful in distinguishing land cover types based 

on different moisture contents. For this 

reason, it is used to discriminate camouflaged 

areas and diseased vegetation from healthy 

vegetation. Healthy vegetation appears red to 

magenta on CIR photographs whereas diseased 

vegetation appears darker red.

Color-infrared film is also helpful in 

identifying land/water interfaces, deciduous 

versus evergreen forest types, wetland areas 

(grayish-green to dark magenta colors), silt-
Figure 2-7. Black-and-white reproduction of a color-infrared photograph of downtown 

St. Louis taken 3 months later. Note the loss of detail in shadow areas.

laden (light blue to white) versus clear water 

(dark blue to black) bodies, and delineating 

central business district (CBD) areas (bluish 

white) (Sabins, 1978, p. 44; Richason, 1978, 

p. 202-204). A black-and-white reproduction 

of a color-infrared photograph (see figure 

2-7) may be compared for tonal differences with 

the panchromatic print (see figure 2-5) and the 

black-and-white reproduction of a color print 

(see figure 2-6).

Aerial Cameras

Aerial cameras can be classified by use 

(mapping, reconnaissance, or special), type 

(frame, panoramic, strip, or multiband) , 

angular field of view (normal angle up to 75°, 

wide angle 75° to 100°, super-wide angle over 

100°), and focal length (short--up to 6 inches, 

normal 6 to 12 inches, long over 12 inches) 

(see Slatna, 1980, p. 187-277). Probably, the 

most important distinction in cameras concerns 

their use particularly mapping versus 

reconnaissance cameras.

Mapping cameras, often referred to as 

metric or cartographic cameras, are equipped 

with high-quality lenses to obtain the highest 

possible resolution and to reduce photographic 

distortions. Accordingly, the resulting 

photographs allow precise. photogramme trie 

measurements. Aerial mapping cameras generally 

are of the frame type; that is, a camera in 

which an entire frame or format is exposed 

simultaneously through a lens that is a fixed 

distance from the film plane. Their total

field of view (angular coverage) across the 

diagonal is from 90° to 120°; that is 45° to 

60° either side of the vertical position of the 

camera. Aerial mapping frame cameras generally 

use a 9- x 9- inch (23- x 23-cm) film format 

size.

The black-and-white photograph shown in 

figure 2-4 was taken with an aerial mapping 

frame camera. Section 6 of this guide, 

"Photointerpretation Keys for Missouri," 

contains various photographs taken with aerial 

frame mapping cameras.

Reconnaissance cameras are designed to 

provide maximum image resolution and only 

moderately good positional accuracy. These 

cameras are primarily used for intelligence 

gathering, land use change detection, and 

environmental monitoring. Reconnaissance 

cameras can be of the frame type or the 

panoramic type (see Reeves, 1975, p. 282-283). 

The large-scale photographs in the photointerpretation keys (Section 6) were acquired with 

cameras housed in an Enviro-pod. The Enviropod contains two KA-85A panoramic reconnaissance cameras. The cameras have a 3-inch focal 

length, 40° x 130° angular coverage (that is, 

40° front-to-back along the flight line and 

130° side-to-side perpendicular to the flight 

line), and a 70-mm-wide film. The cameras are 

mounted in a two-section aluminum housing. 

The camera in the forward section takes 

vertical photographs, while the camera in the 

rear section takes forward oblique photographs 

45° down from the flight horizon. Figure 2-8 

shows the Enviro-pod camera system strapped to 

a Cessna 172 aircraft.
Figure 2-8. Cessna 172 aircraft with 

Enviro-pod camera system.

Although the cameras exposed color 

reversal film, the illustrations appearing in 

this guide are produced in black-and-white. 

Normally, exposures were made from an altitude 

of approximately 2,500 feet above mean ground 

level. Since the cameras have a 3-inch focal 

length, the scale at the center of each 

vertical photograph is approximately 1:10,000. 

Away from the center of the photograph, 

particularly near the sides, the scale becomes 

smaller and distortions increase significantly.

Since special-purpose cameras such as 

multiband cameras and special-effects cameras 

will not be discussed in this guide, the reader 

may wish to refer to Reeves, 1980, 

pages 187-232, for further information.

Although it is desirable to have mapping 

and/or reconnaissance aerial photographs, one 

should not overlook the utility of the 

hand-held camera. Photographs obtained from 

these cameras can be used to document land use 

changes and to verify photointerpretations. 

The traditional viewing angles offered by these 

cameras are more easily related to the understanding of land use and land cover categories. 

Therefore, the photointerpretation keys will 

often display ground-level or low-altitude 

snapshots of the objects being described to 

further assist the user in recognizing a 

particular land use or land cover type.

Photointerpretation

Photointerpretation is the detection, 

identification, description, and assessment of 

the significance of objects and patterns on a 

photograph. With respect to land use mapping, 

photointerpretation requires that land areas

be identified and assigned (classified) to a 

category in accordance with a land use classification scheme. In addition, the photointerpreter must follow specification guidelines 

for minimum area size and/or width measurements, density of occurrence (for example, four 

structures per 10 acres), and other relevant 

criteria to ensure consistent cartographic 

delineation of land use types.

The U.S. Geological Survey uses the 

classification scheme developed by Anderson 

and others (1976) and the mapping specifications (guidelines) as presented by Loelkes 

(1977).

Almost everyone can recognize and subsequently classify natural and manmade 

(cultural) features or objects from a vertical 

aerial photograph. Through our visual experiences, we unconsciously assemble a mental 

image library of recognition characteristics 

that describe the outward or physical appearance of an object either natural or manmade. 

Typical characteristics are patterns, size, 

shapes, tones (gray-scale values on black-andwhite photographs) or colors, textures (degree 

of roughness as exhibited on the photograph), 

shadows, and site associations.

Pattern. One of the most intriguing 

recognition characteristics of natural and 

manmade features are the patterns they make 

when viewed from the air. For example, an 

orchard planted in evenly spaced rows displays 

a characteristic grid pattern. The pattern of 

houses is significantly different for older, 

inner-city residential neighborhoods when 

compared to newer, suburban residential neighborhoods. Common terms used to describe landscape patterns include linear, circular, rectangular, square, concentric, radial, symmetrical, regular, irregular, random, and busy or 

congested.

Some features may be discernible as 

patterns at only certain scales. For example, 

an orchard becomes a texture at a smaller 

scale and a series of orchards may once again 

reveal a pattern at an even smaller scale.

Size. Both relative and absolute size 

aid in identifying features; for example, note 

the relative size differences between shrubs 

and trees and the absolute size difference 

between two parking lots. Because of the 

number of people who arrive each day, a 

shopping center requires more parking spaces 

than an industrial plant. Relative size 

comparisons are possible from an unsealed 

photograph; absolute size measurements require 

that the photographic scale be known or 

calculated.

10
Shape. Manmade objects tend toward 

straight linear shapes while natural features 

such as rivers or lakes tend toward irregular 

shapes with generally irregular boundaries. 

Easily recognized shapes include tennis courts, 

ball parks, shopping malls, highway cloverleafs, and schools. The terms used to describe 

shapes generally parallel the terms used to 

describe patterns.

Tone and Color. Photographic tone is the 

characteristic shade of gray exhibited by 

black-and-white photographs and is a function 

of light reflectance characteristics. Once a 

photointerpreter learns the different reflectance characteristics of objects, he or she can 

use this knowledge to help identify different 

land use types. For instance, cultivated 

fields tend to be darker than fallow fields, 

deciduous forests are lighter than evergreen 

forests, and commercial areas are lighter than 

residential areas. In general, higher moisture 

content yields darker tones.

Although the human eye can separate only 

200 gray-scale values, it can separate over 

5 million color combinations based on hues, 

values, and chromas (Reeves, 1975, p. 268). 

Because it is harder to learn to recognize 

objects by their tones (values) of gray than 

by color, it is easily understood why many 

interpreters prefer color photography. For 

example, Heller reported that the accuracies 

with which tree species could be identified 

were 17 percent higher on large-scale color 

transparencies than on panchromatic prints of 

the same scale (Lintz, 1976, p. 144).

Texture. Photographic texture is a function of the size of objects photographed and 

the scale of the photograph. Texture refers 

to the degree of roughness exhibited in a 

photograph.

On black-and-white aerial photographs, it 

is the arrangement of tonal repetition in 

objects which produces the texture characteristic. On large-scale photographs (for example, 

1:4,800), individual tree crowns might be 

recognized, while on smaller-scale photographs 

(1:24,000 and smaller), the tree crowns are so 

small that only a texture appear. In general, 

coniferous forests exhibit a smoother texture 

than deciduous forests. Likewise, pasture 

provides a smoother texture than rangeland. 

Commonly used terms for texture are coarse, 

medium, smooth, fine, and mottled.

Shadow. Although most aerial photographs 

are obtained within 2 hours of solar noon, any 

shadows cast by objects can further aid in 

identification of an object. For example, the 

shadow cast by a cross helps to identify a

church, or the shadows cast by communication 

towers, monuments, trees, bridges, or oil tanks 

can also provide information to help verify 

their identity.

Shadows may also help to determine the 

size and height of an object. Knowing the 

scale and Sun angle of a photograph, one can 

measure the length of a shadow and calculate 

an object's height. If a shadow is cast by an 

object of known height (for example, a TV 

tower), a ratio calculation can approximate 

the unknown height of another object.

Site Association. Natural and manmade 

features often occur in certain places or in 

proximity to other objects. For example, 

willow trees are natural occurrences on floodplains or river sandbars. Likewise, cultural 

landscapes follow certain patterns of development. Elementary schools are located away from 

main traffic arteries, while shopping centers 

and other commercial establishments are found 

along or at the junction of major transportation routes. Heavy industry locates near railroads or along navigable waterways. High 

schools frequently have recreation areas and 

sports fields.

Interpretation Aids

The photointerpreter should not restrict 

identification of objects on photographs solely 

to the photographs. Any additional information 

should be used that will aid in the identification process. Reference materials, comparative 

photographic coverage, magnifiers, and stereoscopic viewing can each play a beneficial role 

in photointerpretation and verification.

Reference Materials. Perhaps one of the 

most useful sources of auxiliary reference 

information is the mental image library which 

a photointerpreter acquires by residing in a 

specific geographic area. However, the job of 

the photointerpreter normally extends well 

beyond his own geographic area. Lacking 

personal knowledge, one can refer to available 

planning and resource studies, maps, checklists, photointerpretation keys, or recognition 

manuals.

Planning and resource studies are usually 

available from local or regional agencies. 

Quite often, planning agencies have compiled 

various thematic maps, such as land use maps, 

which can also be of assistance to the 

photointerpreter.

Topographic maps, which present the horizontal and vertical positions of natural and 

manmade features, are readily available from 

the U.S. Geological Survey through its National

11
Cartographic Information Centers (NCIC) and 

through selected dealers in most larger cities. 

Topographic maps are very useful in identifying 

elevation interrelationships; for example, the 

occurrence of wetland tree species in 

low-lying, moist areas. Topographic maps 

further assist the photointerpreter by 

displaying detailed natural and manmade 

features from which additional significant 

information can be derived.

Checklists can give natural or manmade 

features which may occur in a geographic area 

or which are known to occur in proximity to 

one another. For example, Avery (1977, 

p. 24-25) has prepared a list of the kinds of 

features commonly occurring on aerial photographs. In addition, checklists are generally 

available for most natural resource professions 

(for example, see Avery, 1978, p. 13).

Photointerpretation keys illustrate 

recognition characteristics of particular 

features or groups of objects.

There are two types of photointerpretation 

keys: selective and elimination. Selective 

keys, of which this guide is an example, 

provide typical illustrations and descriptions 

of features in a specific category. The 

photointerpreter selects the key example that 

most nearly agrees with the object to be 

identified.

Elimination keys require the photointerpreter to follow a step-by-step elimination 

process from the general to the specific until 

the possible identification has been narrowed 

to one choice. This type of key is also called 

a dichotomous key (Avery, 1977, p. 25-26).

Finally, recognition manuals have been 

used primarily by the military to assist 

photointerpreters with recognition of military 

equipment: airplanes, ships, tanks, etc. More 

recently, recognition manuals have become 

available for natural resource features like 

tree species and for certain types of manmade 

features. For example, the State of Texas 

prepared a recognition manual for use in 

determining substandard housing structures 

(Texas Office of the Governor, 1972).

___________________ Stereoscopic Viewing Stereoscopic 

viewing permits the photointerpreter to view 

objects in three dimensions and, because of 

the magnification of the viewing instrument, 

at a slightly larger size. With binocular 

vision, the photointerpreter views objects from 

slightly different angles with each eye, which

the brain interprets as relative distance. 

People having vision in only one eye are unable 

to view an object from two angles simultaneously, and therefore do not possess stereoscopic depth perception. Binocular vision can 

be simulated through use of aerial photographs 

taken of the same area from two different 

positions. The area common to both photographs 

can then be viewed in three dimensions.

The ability to view an object or feature 

stereoscopically adds yet another dimension to 

photointerpretation, particularly in identifying and differentiating vegetative types. 

Selected stereopairs have been included in the 

photointerpretation keys (section 6) where 

three-dimensional viewing would assist in 

identification.

Magnification. Quite often, even though 

a photograph's resolution has captured sufficient object detail, the photointerpreter is 

unable to recognize an object because of the 

photo's small scale. Magnifying equipment can 

enlarge the object and thereby add to the 

photointerpreter's ability to identify various 

features.

Comparative Coverage. Certain vegetative 

features (for example, deciduous trees) can be 

more easily identified if comparative photographic coverage exists. Since deciduous trees 

lose their leaves, comparative late fall or 

winter photographs faciliate the differentiation of deciduous from coniferous trees.

In addition to using seasonal photography, 

the photointerpreter may have access to color, 

color-infrared, or different-scale photographs. 

Therefore, the availability of comparable 

coverage should always be investigated.

Summary

Land use and land cover interpretation 

from remote sensing products requires knowledge 

of system components and characteristics of 

conventional aerial photographs resolution, 

scale, platforms, and film and camera types. 

An understanding of how components interrelate 

to produce the final product is a key to 

successful photointerpretation.

Land use and land cover interpretation 

requires assignment of features to land use 

and land cover categories. The following 

section is devoted to this topic.

12
SECTION 3: LAND USE AND LAND COVER 

CLASSIFICATION SYSTEMS

Development of the Land Use and Land Cover 

Classification System

Background

Development of a regional comprehensive 

plan for natural resources is based, at least 

partially, on such factors as land use, soils, 

slope zones, geology, and drainage areas. Land 

use information, a main ingredient to the 

planning function, is an example of data 

generally not contained in a form suitable for 

correlation. Since land uses change faster 

than any other factor usually included in the 

planning process, land use information must be 

made available as quickly as possible.

Federal, State, and local agencies, as 

well as private consultants, have been producing land use and land cover maps for many 

years. These maps were compiled for specific 

programs or projects and have used a variety 

of land use and land cover classification 

schemes. These classification schemes were, 

for the most part, designed to meet the 

requirements of a particular program or 

project, and have such a diversity of content 

as to make them difficult to combine into a 

single comprehensive map.

U.S. Geological Survey Land Use And 

Land Cover Classification System

Knowledge of the character and utilization 

of land resources must be available if land 

resource-related problems are to be understood 

and controlled. In order to adequately inventory land resources, however, a classification 

system is needed to ensure that the data on 

cover characteristics and discernable activities related to land resources are objectively 

and consistently classified. Such a classification system has been developed by the U.S. 

Geological Survey for the national land use 

and land cover mapping program.

Land use surveys have been conducted for 

centuries, primarily for taxation. Agencies 

at all levels of government currently collect 

land use-related data for planning and analysis 

of land resource utilization. Such data are 

necessary if problems related to environmental 

degradation, loss of agricultural lands, 

wetlands, and wildlife habitats are to be 

reconciled with the need for sustained economic 

growth and energy development. Unfortunately, 

the result of many past inventory efforts has 

been duplication of effort and, conversely, 

data that subsequent to its first use, are of 

very limited value even when used for similar 

purposes.

The need for standardization among various 

agencies and recent developments in remote 

sensing and data processing technologies 

precipitated the U.S. Geological Survey's 

involvement in formulating a land use and land 

cover classification system. In 1971, an 

Inter-Agency Steering Committee on Land Use 

Information and Classification was formed 

including representatives from USGS in the 

Department of the Interior, the National 

Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA), 

the Soil Conservation Service (SCS) of the 

Department of Agriculture, the Association of 

American Geographers, and the International 

Geographical Union.

The Committee sought to develop a classification system that would accommodate data 

from remote sensors on high-altitude aircraft 

as well as from conventional sources such as 

topographic maps or ground surveys. Although 

the Committee was formed to standardize classification used by Federal agencies, it was 

clear that a standard system could also provide 

a base for local, regional, State, and other 

agencies to use in formulating more detailed, 

compatible classification systems.

From the work of the Committee, as well 

as from consultation with States and other 

public agencies that had worked with classification systems employing remotely sensed data, 

the late James R. Anderson, USGS, developed a 

prototype for a national system. The system 

was designed with consideration of other 

classification systems and inventory efforts 

in use by the Federal government. This 

included the land use coding scheme promulgated by the Bureau of Public Roads in 1965, 

the Inventory of Major Land Uses conducted by 

the Economic Research Service of the Department 

of Agriculture, and the Conservation Needs 

Inventory of the SCS. The original version of 

the USGS classification system was published 

in Circular 671 in 1972.

Previously, the USGS had tested several 

classification systems in a series of pilot 

projects including the Census Cities Project, 

the Central Atlantic Regional Ecological Test 

Site (CARETS) study, the Phoenix Pilot Project, 

and the Land Use Mapping Project for the Ozarks 

Regional Commission. The latter project 

utilized high-altitude photographs and 

1:250,000-scale topographic maps for the 

mapping effort. Many of the techniques 

involved in this project evolved into those 

used in the national land use and land cover 

mapping program now carried on by the USGS.

13
The categories of land use and land cover 

in Circular 671 were delineated to the second 

level of detail. Land use was defined as man's 

activities related to land resources, and land 

cover, as vegetation or artificial structures 

covering the landscape. The distinction is 

important, particularly for this classification 

system which, in contrast to other systems, 

attempted to cover all elements of the 

landscape in an equitable degree of detail.

Circular 671 suggested that Level I land 

use and land cover categories could be mapped 

using satellite imagery alone. Level II 

categories would require high-altitude aerial 

photographs (1:40,000 to 1:120,000) and the 

supplemental data which could be obtained from 

topographic maps. Level III categories would 

require medium-altitude photographs (1:20,000) 

combined with information from detailed topographic maps and other supplemental data 

sources. Level IV categories would require 

low-altitude large-scale photographs (larger 

than 1:20,000), but actually most data would 

be obtained from supplemental sources such as 

detailed large-scale maps or ground surveys.

The classification system proposed in 

Circular 671 was revised after several years 

of additional testing and research. The 

revised system is presented in USGS 

Professional Paper 964 (Anderson and others, 

1976; see table 1-1 preceding). Like the 

prototype system, the revised classification 

system provides a Level II delineation of land 

use and land cover categories. General 

criteria for m developing the classification 

system include the following considerations:

(1) The minimum level of interpretation 

accuracy in identifying land use and land cover 

categories from remote sensor data should be 

at least 85 percent.

(2) The accuracy of interpretation for 

the several categories should be about equal.

(3) Repeatable or repetitive results 

should be obtainable from one interpreter to 

another and from one time of sensing to 

another.

(4) The classification system should be 

applicable over extensive areas.

(5) The categorization should permit 

vegetation and other types of land cover to be 

used as surrogates for activity.

(6) The classification system should be 

suitable for use with remote sensor data 

obtained at different times of the year.

(7) Effective use of subcategories that 

can be obtained from ground surveys or from 

using larger scale or enhanced remote sensor 

data should be possible.

(8) Aggregation of categories must be 

possible.

(9) Comparison with future land use and 

land cover data should be possible.

(10) Multiple uses of land should be 

recognized when possible.

The categories of land use and land cover 

presented in Professional Paper 964 (Anderson 

and others, 1976) are being used for the 

national land use and land cover mapping 

program. Operational definitions of the 

classes and specifications for the national 

land use mapping effort are provided in USGS 

Open File Report 77-555 (Loelkes, 1977).

Characteristics of the USGS 

Classification System

The USGS classification system is compatible at the more generalized levels with 

previously developed classification systems 

and inventory efforts. An important difference 

between the USGS system and others is the fact 

that the system is designed to support extensive surveys of land use and land cover with 

consistent and uniform delineation of all 

elements of the landscape. This is in contrast 

to other systems in which one or a few land 

use and land cover types are differentiated in 

great detail while others are omitted or 

classified as miscellaneous.

An example of such a system is the 

Standard Land Use Coding (SLUG) system 

developed by the Bureau of Public Roads in 

conjunction with the Urban Renewal 

Administration (see table 3-1). This system 

based its classes upon economic activity and 

utilized, insofar as possible, the codes and 

description activities employed by the standard 

classification system of the U.S. Department 

of Commerce. The resultant system was 

extremely detailed so that groups of classes 

could be formed to meet the specific needs of 

different communities. Data for this system 

were generally collected through field survey 

methods or local knowledge of an area.

The SLUG system has been employed successfully in urban areas for community, transportation, and other forms of urban planning. 

Unfortunately, this classification system does 

not provide enough categorical detail for land 

areas which do not have an established economic 

activity related to the land resource. Such 

areas are simply aggregated into the category 

of "undeveloped land and water areas." For 

the purpose of land resource management and 

environmental impact assessments, this 

obviously does not provide enough detail. 

Wetland areas, wildlife habitat areas

14
Table 3-1. Standard land use code (SLUC)-first and second level categories 

(U.S. Urban Renewal Administration, 1965, p. 30)

Code Category Code Category

Manufacturing 26 Paper and allied products manufacturing

27 Printing, publishing, and allied industries

28 Chemicals and allied products manufacturing

29 Petroleum refining and related industries

Manufacturing (continued) 31 Rubber and miscellaneous plastic 

products manufacturing

32 Stone, clay, and glass products 

manufacturing

33 Primary metal industries

34 Fabricated metal products manufacturing

35 Professional, scientific, and controlling

intruments; photographic and optical goods; 

watches and clocks manufacturing

39 Miscellaneous manufacturing; NEC*_________

Transportation, communication, & utilities41 Railroad, rapid rail transit, and street 

railway transportation

42 Motor vehicle transportation

43 Aircraft transportation

44 Marine craft transportation

45 Highway and street right-of-way

46 Automobile parking

47 Communication

48 Utilities

49 Other transportation, communication, and 

utilities, NEC*___________________

Trade 51 Wholesale trade

52 Retail trade building materials, hardware, 

and farm equipment

53 Retail trade general merchandise

54 Retail trade food

55 Retail trade automotive, marine craft, 

aircraft, and accessories

56 Retail trade-apparel & accessories

57 Retail trade furniture, home furnishings, 

and equipment

58 Retail trade eating and drinking

59_____Other retail trade, NEC*_______ ___

Services 61 Finance, insurance, and real estate services

62 Personal services

63 Business services

64 Repair services

65 Professional services

66 Contract construction services

67 Governmental services

68 Educational services

69 Miscellaneous services

Cultural, entertainment, & recreational

71 Cultural activities & nature exhibitions

72 Public assembly

73 Amusements

74 Recreational activities

75 Resorts and group camps

76 Parks

*Not elsewhere coded.

15
associated with particular vegetative cover 

types, and other diverse types of land cover 

conditions are not differentiated in the SLUC 

system.

A second major distinguishing characteristic of the USGS system is that it is a 

hierarchical system. Numerical codes are used 

for the various categories in the USGS system 

and the number of digits reflects the level of 

detail in the classification system being used 

(table 1-1). The first digit identifies the 

Level I class, the second digit the Level II 

class, and so on.

With a hierarchical scheme, the derivation and definition of the categories are more 

easily understood. Also, the hierarchical 

nature of the USGS system helps promote 

development of more detailed classification 

systems. At Level III, for example, the Level 

II category "Cropland and Pasture" (21) can be 

divided into two additional categories 211 

(Cropland) or 212 (Pasture).

The State of Florida developed such a 

system which it adopted for use by State and 

regional agencies (see table 3-2).

Table 3-2. State of Florida Level I, II, and III, land use codes 

(Extracted From Florida Department of Administration, 1976, p. 12.)

Le ve 1 I Level II Level III

100 Urban or Built-up 170 Recreational 171 Swimming Beaches & 

Shores

172 Golf Courses

173 Parks, Zoos

174 Marinas

175 Stadiums

176 Fairgrounds

177 Community Recreational 

Facilities

178 Racing Tracks

179 Other Recreational

180 Mixed Any mixture of 

Urban or Built-up 

where no single use 

predominates

190 Open Land and Other

200 Agriculture 210 Cropland and 

Pastureland

220 Orchards, Groves

(except citrus), 

Vineyards, Nurseries 

and Ornamental 

Horticultural Areas

230 Citrus Groves

191 Undeveloped Land Within 

Urban Areas

192 Inactive Land with

Street Patterns but 

Without Structures

193 Land Undergoing Active 

Development Without 

Indication of 

Intended Use

211 Row Crops

212 Field Crops

213 Improved Pasture

221 Tropical Fruit Orchards

222 Deciduous Fruit Orchards

223 Nurseries

224 Ornamental Horticultural

225 Vineyards

231 Orange

232 Grapefruit

233 Other Citrus

16
Table 3-3. Sample multilevel land use classification system 

(Developed by Geographic Investigations Office, Mid-Continent Mapping Center, Roll

Commercial & Services^ SIC' 

121 Wholesale Trade

1211

1212

1213

Motor Vehicles & Automotive

Parts 

Drugs, Chemical, & Allied

Products 

Food & Farm Products

1214 Dry Goods & Apparel

1215 Electrical

1216 Hardware, Plumbing,

& Heating Supplies 

1219 Other Wholesale Trade

122 Retail Trade

1221 Building Materials, Hardware, 

& Farm Equipment

1222 General Merchandise

1223 Food Stores

1224 Automotive, Marine, & Aircraft

1225 Apparel & Accessories

1226 Furniture, Home Furnishings, 

& Equipment

1227 Eating & Drinking 

1229 Other Retail Trade

123 Commercial Services

1231 Business Services

1232 Construction Services

1233 Finance, Insurance, & Real 

Estate Services

501

512, 516

O91, 097, 514, 515,

518, 5194

513

506

507, 5198 

502-505, 508, 509, 

511, 517, 5191, 5199

521, 523, 525-527 

531, 533, 539 

541-546, 549 

551-557, 559 

561-566, 568, 569

571-573

581

591-594, 596, 598, 599

075, 731-737, 

739, 893

152-154, 161, 162, 

171-179 601-605, 

611-616, 621-623, 

628, 631-633 

635-637, 639, 641, 

651, 653-655, 661

-'-Only the Commercial and Services categories are

developed

2U.S. Executive Office of the President, 1972 

^U.S. Urban Renewal Administration, 1965

presented here; however, a complete clas
The USGS also worked with the Water 

Pollution Control Department of Kansas City, 

Kansas, to develop a classification system for 

land use at Level IV (table 3-3). In 

addition, the system was cross-referenced to 

the Standard Land Use Coding Manual and the 

Standard Industrial Classification scheme.

It should be noted that a complete subdivision of all categories is not essential.

Table 3-4. Sample Level IV forest 

classification system

(Same categories would be repeated for 

Evergreen Forest Land and Mixed Forest Land; 

from Cook, 1980, exhibit 3, p. 1-2)________

41 Deciduous Forest Land

411 10 - 39 Percent Canopy

4111 Sawtimber

4112 Poles

4113 Reproduction

4114 Mixed

412 40 - 69 Percent Canopy

4121 Sawtimber

4122 Poles

4123 Reproduction

4124 Mixed

413 70 - 100 Percent Canopy

4131 Sawtimber

4132 Poles

4133 Reproduction

4134 Mixed

Flexibility of the system allows modifications 

of the system to support a wide range of 

applications. For example, for forest management applications, it may be necessary to 

further subdivide the Level II categories of 

Deciduous (41), Evergreen (42), and Mixed 

Forest Land (43). These subcategories could 

be based on such factors as average stand 

height, crown closure density, or diameter of 

trees as indicated by their economic classes 

(see table 3-4).

For other applications, categories within 

the classification system can also be 

aggregated. In these cases, all lower level 

codes and categories can be grouped together 

to provide data for more general codes and 

categories. As an example, acreage statistics 

for Level II categories 21, 22, 23, and 24 can 

be grouped together to provide statistics for 

Agricultural Land (Level I, code 2).

Summary

Inventories of land use and land cover 

require a standard classification system to 

ensure that data are objectively and 

consistently classified.

The USGS has fully defined a classification system to the second level of detail for 

the national land use and land cover mapping 

program. All elements of the landscape are 

provided consistent categorical detail. In 

addition, since the classification system is 

hierarchical in nature, it can be expanded to 

accommodate the need for greater detail.

With a viable land use and land cover 

classification system and suitable photographic 

source materials, one may proceed with the task 

of compiling a land use and land cover map.

18
SECTION 4: LAND USE AND LAND COVER MAPPING

Background

Land use and land cover mapping may be 

defined as "the systematic delineation of man's 

activities and the surface cover of the land." 

The maps produced by the USGS are specialized 

in that they use a unique set of mapping specifications and a classification system. They 

depict the land use and land cover classification categories and associated maps uniformly 

for the entire United States (see table 1-1).

The national land use data base was 

developed with three constraints in mind:

(1) the mapped data should be compiled and 

published at the largest scale possible;

(2) the map series utilized as a base must be 

complete for the entire United States; and

(3) the map series used as a base must have a 

geographical format suitable for computer 

application.

The standard l:250,000-scale topographic 

map series is the largest scale available that 

also meets the other requirements. Therefore, 

the l:250,000-scale map series was selected as 

the standard base map for land use and land 

cover mapping. Certain areas, however, have 

been mapped at the l:100,000-scale using the 

same specifications used as for the 1:250,000- 

scale map compilations.

For future efforts, it has been decided 

that revision of land use/land cover maps will 

be completed on the l:100,000-scale map bases 

wherever possible. There have also been 

demonstration projects completed at a scale of 

1:24,000. These large-scale land use and land 

cover mapping projects were limited in size 

and designed to test utilization of the land 

use and land cover classification system and 

specifications at larger scales.

When the land use and land cover program 

was initiated, the USGS determined which other 

types of map overlays should be correlated with 

the land use and land cover maps to provide the 

user community the greatest effectiveness in 

problem solving. From the multitude of maps 

considered, ranging in complexity from county 

boundaries to detailed soil types, the following map themes were selected: (1) political 

boundaries, (2) hydrologic units, (3) census 

county subdivision, (4) Federal land 

ownership, and (5) State land ownership.

The last two are only prepared when an 

entire State is compiled. Also, the State land 

ownership overlay is compiled only when a 

State furnishes the data.

The associated maps portray natural or 

administrative information and provide the user 

with the opportunity to utilize, either individually or collectively, the land use and land 

cover maps and data to produce graphic or 

statistical data for the areas portrayed on 

the associated maps. The mapping system is 

constructed in such a way that the graphical 

and statistical land use and land cover data 

can be related to other resource data sets such 

as soils, geologic, and hydrologic data as well 

as demographic and socioeconomic data.

Product Preparation

The Geological Survey's land use and land 

cover and associated maps are compiled in the 

Western Mapping Center, Menlo Park, Calif.; 

Rocky Mountain Mapping Center, Denver, Colo.; 

Mid-Continent Mapping Center, Rolla, Mo.; or 

Eastern Mapping Center, Reston, Va.

Before an area is authorized for compilation, it is necessary to determine the availability of source materials for the area. The 

prime source materials for small-scale land 

use mapping are aerial photographs which meet 

the following specific requirements: (a) the 

photographs should not be more than 3 years 

old; (b) there should be no more than 10 

percent cloud or snow cover; (c) photographic 

scale should be 1:80,000 or smaller; 

(d) photographs must be tilt correctable when 

necessary; and (e) photographs should be 

acquired during leaf-off conditions.

Although all photographic source materials 

are examined for possible use, the most 

commonly used in the national land use mapping 

program are:

1. Color-infrared photographs taken at 

altitudes between 60,000 and 65,000 feet (scale 

between 1:120,000 and 1:130,000).

2. Black-and-white panchromatic photographs taken from altitudes of approximately 

40,000 feet (scale of 1:78,000).

3. The National High-Altitude Photography 

(NHAP) program; scheduled to provide highaltitude photographic coverage for the entire 

United States every 7 years. The photographs 

collected consist of color-infrared photographs 

from a camera with an 8.25-inch focal length, 

and panchromatic high-resolution photographs 

taken with a 6-inch focal length camera.

For small areas not having photographs 

meeting the requirements, searches are made 

from other sources such as the Agricultural 

Stabilization and Conservation Service of the 

U.S. Department of Agriculture.

19
When mapping land use and land cover at 

intermediate scales of 1:24,000 to 1:100,000, 

the photographs should be less than 18 months 

old at completion of compilation and range in 

scale from 1:20,000 to 1:60,000, depending on 

the scale of compilation. The remaining photographic requirements are the same as those for 

the 1:250,000-scale mapping program.

The source materials needed to compile 

the associated maps are gathered from various 

State and Federal agencies. The information 

needed to compile the political units map and 

the census county subdivision maps are obtained 

from Geological Survey topographic maps and 

the Bureau of the Census. The Geological 

Survey, Water Resources Division, provides 

published Hydrologic Unit State Maps at a scale 

of 1:500,000 from which the hydrologic units 

maps are compiled. State land ownership maps 

are compiled under a cooperative agreement with 

a State only if the source material is 

furnished by the State in a format acceptable 

for compilation. The Federal Land Ownership 

maps are compiled from data obtained from the 

various Federal agencies whose data will be 

shown on the finished map.

Other types of maps can be added to this 

set, such as soils, geology, utilities, 

highways, and floodplains. When adding other 

mapped data sets to the original land use and 

land cover data sets, data should be compatible 

in scale and content.

Field Activities

Field activities support two distinct 

phases of compilation of land use and land 

cover maps. These are (1) precompilation 

fieldwork, and (2) field checking of compiled 

sheets*

To accomplish precompilation field activities, the area is reviewed to determine the 

types and extent of land use patterns to be 

mapped. Air traverses, flown in a light 

aircraft at low altitudes (500 to 1,500 ft.) 

provide the opportunity to obtain low-altitude 

oblique photographs of the land uses. Data 

from the photographs are then plotted on a 

1:250,000-scale topographic map and used along 

with a written report to brief the compiler on 

the area by comparison of the large-scale 

photographs with the vertical mapping 

photographs.

Post-compilation field checks allow the 

interpreter to classify difficult-to-interpret 

areas and to check the general accuracy of the 

map. If classification of problem areas cannot 

be resolved from an aircraft at a low altitude, 

a ground visit to the site is made. The areas

covered by field check photographs are plotted 

and a field report is written. The necessary 

corrections are made, and the map is forwarded 

for final reproduction.

Land Use and Land Cover Minimum Size 

Specifications

The minimum size specifications for 

delineation of the 1:250,000- and 1:100,000- 

scale land use polygons are as follows.

Polygons to be delineated must meet minimum size requirement, regardless of whether 

they were published at 1:250,000 or 1:100,000. 

The following categories must have a minimum 

area of 4 hectares (10 acres): all Urban or 

Built-up Land (11-17); Confined Feeding 

Operations (23); Other Agricultural Land (24); 

Water (52-54); Strip Mines, Quarries, and 

Gravel Pits (75); and Transitional (76), if 

urban. All other categories of land use and 

land cover have a minimum area of 16 hectares 

(40 acres).

In all categories mapped using a 4-hectare 

(10-acre) minimum mapping unit, the minimum 

width of a feature must be 200m (660 ft.). 

This minimum width precludes delineation of 

very narrow or very long 10-acre tracts. All 

categories mapped using the 40-acre minimum 

mapping size use 400m (1,320-ft.) minimum 

widths. Exceptions to this specification are 

limited access highways and all "double-line" 

streams on the 1:250,000-scale base map. Such 

areas have to have a minimum width of 100 m 

(300 ft.).

Land Use and Land Cover Delineation

Interpretation of the detail on aerial 

photographs and transferral of this information 

to the map base is accomplished by stereocompilation techniques or direct detail transfer. 

When stereocompilation techniques are used, 

maps are compiled at 1:250,000 or 1:100,000 

scale with the use of a pantograph attached to 

a photogrammetric instrument (see figure 4-1).

The direct detail transfer technique (also 

known as monoscopic compilation) uses a modified microfiche viewer with 20x magnification 

(see figure 4-2). Using this technique, the 

photograph is scaled to fit the base map. In 

the case where the scale of a block of photography does not differ in scale by more than 3 

percent, it is simpler to enlarge the base map 

to the average scale of the photograph. 

Transfer of land use polygon data from the 

photograph to the base map can be completed by 

sliding the photograph under the base map and

20
Figure 4-1. Photogrammetric land use and land 

cover compilation.

Figure 4-2. Direct detail transfer land use 

compilation.

aligning the photographic detail with the map 

detail. The detail viewed on the screen of a 

microfiche viewer can then be transferred to 

the map transparency by coordinating the image 

with the same image on the photograph 

positioned under the base map.

Generally, compilation by photogrammetric 

methods can be completed more quickly than by 

direct detail transfer; however, more time and 

effort are required for editing. With editing, 

the overall time required to compile any given 

area is found to be approximately equal for 

monoscopic and stereocompilation methods.

Associated Maps Compilation

Associated maps are compiled on scribe 

coats at publication scale.

Political units map boundaries follow 

those county boundaries shown on the base map 

but must be verified with the County 

Subdivisions-Townships and Places maps from 

the Bureau of the Census. Political units map 

polygons are identified by five-digit codes 

obtained from the Geographic Identification 

Code Scheme (U.S. Bureau of the Census, 1972b).

Hydrologic unit boundaries and identifying 

eight-digit codes follow those shown on the 

State Hydrologic Unit Maps prepared by the 

U.S. Geological Survey. A legend of polygon 

unit names and codes is also compiled at this 

time from the USGS lists of "Boundary 

Descriptions and Names of Regions, Subregions, 

Accounting Units, and Cataloging Units," Water 

Resources Division, USGS, 1982.

The Census County Subdivision Map portrays 

census county subdivisions for nonmetropolitan 

counties and census tracts for Standard 

Metropolitan Statistical Areas (SMSA) as 

defined in the 1970 or 1980 Census of 

Population. Maps compiled prior to the 1980 

census use 1970 census data, those compiled 

after the 1980 census use 1980 data. The 

political units boundaries from the Political 

Units Maps form the framework for delineation 

of the census county subdivisions. The County 

Subdivisions-Townships and Places map, and the 

maps from the appropriate Census Tracts: SMSA 

publications of the Bureau of the Census are 

used to obtain boundaries for this map. A 

legend of census county subdivision names and 

codes is also compiled at this time from the 

Geographic Identification Code Scheme (U.S. 

Bureau of the Census, 1972b).

The Federal land ownership map is compiled 

showing only surface areas of federally owned 

land occurring in units of 40 acres or more. 

A two-digit code is used to identify parcels 

of federally owned land.

The State Land Ownership map is completed 

only for those States which have a cooperative 

agreement with the National Mapping Division. 

Under this type of agreement, the agency must 

furnish the necessary compilation source 

information for compiling such maps. The code 

referencing system is designed separately for 

each State.

During the compilation process, all maps 

are checked with adjacent maps to ensure 

continuity. Map editing consists of an overall 

review of the manuscript for cartographic 

errors, such as missing identification numbers, 

broken lines, improper fittings, and any other 

obvious cartographic errors. In addition, a 

comparative review is made with the source

21
materials to ensure that map compilation meets 

specified requirements for photographic 

interpretive accuracy and delineation of 

polygons.

Quality Control

Quality control consists of an in-depth 

review of the map manuscript to determine if 

category definitions and specifications for 

interpretation and compilation have been 

consistently followed. A complete cartographic 

review includes reviewing the accuracy of 

interpretation, proper placement of identification numbers, adherence to specified minimum 

sizes for the land use and land cover categories and use of specified line weights. Errors 

are noted for correction on a stable-base 

overlay or diazo copy of the manuscript.

Three types of accuracy checks are 

performed. The first accuracy check is for 

interpretation. Various field validation 

techniques and processes are used to establish 

the accuracy of land use and land cover interpretations. The second accuracy check concerns 

delineation of polygons compared to boundaries 

existing on the Earth's surface. Since delineations are taken from photographic source 

materials, the outline is as precise as the 

scale of the photograph will allow. The third 

accuracy check is for positional accuracy. 

The positional accuracy of the maps must be 

consistent with that of the published map used 

as the compilation base.

In addition to quality control of individual sheets which make up the land use and land 

cover and associated map set, there must be a 

composite quality control of all sheets in the 

set. Table 4-1 shows some of the types of 

correspondence which must be achieved.

Final Reproduction and Release

After a final review, reproductions are 

made and the maps are released to open file in 

the appropriate regional mapping center along 

with a copy of the planimetric base. Copies 

are also sent to the various State cooperators 

and USGS outlets as required.

Land Use and Land Cover Mapping Specifications 

at Scales of 1:100,000 and Larger

Regional and / local natural-resource 

managers often require that their land use and 

land cover maps be more detailed and at a 

larger scale. For more detailed and larger

scale land use maps, the source photographs 

must be more recent and larger scale and the 

minimum polygon size and minimum polygon width 

must be smaller. Table 4-2 illustrates the 

relations among the levels of land use and land 

cover classifications, base map scales, 

photographic scales, minimum polygon sizes and 

widths, and sources required for delineation 

of land uses.

To further illustrate these relationships, 

several land use and land cover maps at various 

scales and classification levels follow.

Figure 4-3 illustrates the Level I land 

uses around Lebanon, Mo. Figure 4-4 shows the 

same geographic area at a Level II land use. 

Specifications used for both compilations were 

those detailed in Open-File Report 77-555 for 

1:250,000-scale compilations.

Scale 1:250,000 

LEVEL I EXPLANATION

1. Urban or Built-up Land

2. Agricultural Land

3. Rangeland

4. Forest Land

5. Water

Figure 4-3. Level I land use and land cover 

map, Lebanon, Mo.

22
LAND USE

AND 

LAND COVER

HYDROLOGIC 

UNITS

NJ 

U)

FEDERAL

LAND 

OWNERSHIP

POLITICAL 

UNITS

CENSUS

COUNTY

SUBDIVISIONS

Table 4-1. Composite editing overlay registration checklist 

(From Loelkes, 1977, p. 60.)

LAND USE

AND 

LAND COVER

HYDROLOGIC 

UNITS

FEDERAL

LAND 

OWNERSHIP

POLITICAL 

UNITS

Check joins

with surrounding

map compilations.

No set pattern.

Check unit

boundaries to

ensure lines

only cross large

rivers. Close

units along

shorelines.

Check Category

12 occurrence

within Federal

land ownership

boundaries

For map sheets

along coastline, check

compilation

for specification compliance.

No set pattern.

Map sheets

along coastlines must

comply with

compilation

specifications.

No set pattern.

No set pattern.

No set pattern.

Those boundaries for

ownership

should encompass Category

12. Where

delineated

boundaries are

same, lines

must coincide.

No set pattern.

Many times,

county & State

lines are used

for Federal land

ownership.

No set pattern,

except where

political units

form boundaries.

Map sheets

along coast

boundaries

must be in

compliance

with compilation specifications.

Be sure all

areas of other

than inland

water have been

properly coded.

Many times

county & State

lines are used

for Federal land

ownership.

All common lines

must coincide:

county-State

CCS-county

SMSA-county

CCS-State

SMSA-State
Table 4-2. Land use/land cover specifications matrix

Levels of 

Land Use/Land Cover Base Map 

Classification Scale

smaller than

I 1:250,000

1:250,000

II to

1:100,000

1:63,360

III to

1:24,000

1:24,000

IV to

1:6,000

1:6,000

V and

larger

Effective 

Photo 

Source 

Scale

smaller than

1:125,000

1:125,000

to

1:60,000

1:60,000

to

1:20,000

1:20,000

to

1:6,000

1:6,000

and

larger

Minimum 

Polygon 

Size? 1 )

greater than

40 acres

40 acres

and

10 acres

2.5 acres

2.5 acres

and

1 acre

1 acre

and

smaller

Minimum 

Polygon 

WidthC 1 )

greater than

660 feet

1,320 feet

and

660 feet

125 feet

125 feet

and

50 feet

50 feet

and

smaller

Source

for La

Deline

100 pe

ph

98 pe

2 pe

so

75 pe

25 pe

so

25 pe

50 pe

so

25 pe

10 pe

40 pe

so

50 pe

-' Since different minimum polygon size and width values are recommended for urban versus ru

two values are listed in these columns.
Scale 1:250,000 

LEVEL II EXPLANATION

11 Residential

12 Commercial and Services

13 Industrial

14 Transportation, Communications, 

and Utilities

17 Other Urban or Built-up Land

21 Cropland and Pasture

24 Other Agricultural Land

41 Deciduous Forest Land

53 Reservoirs

76 Transitional Areas

Figure 4-4. Level II land use and land cover 

map, Lebanon, Mo.

Figure 4-5 depicts a Level II land use 

and land cover map of Lebanon at the 

l:24,000-scale, while figure 4-6 of the same 

area was compiled at Levels II and III.

Scale 1:24,000 

LEVEL II EXPLANATION

11 Residential

12 Commercial and Services

13 Industrial

14 Transportation, Communication, 

and Utilities

17 Other Urban or Built-up Land

21 Cropland and Pasture

24 Other Agricultural Land

41 Deciduous Forest Land

43 Mixed Forest Land

53 Reservoirs

76 Transitional Areas

Figure 4-5. Level II land use and land cover 

map, Lebanon, Mo.

25
121

Scale 1:24,000 

LEVEL II AND LEVEL III EXPLANATION

111 One and under dwelling units per hectare 

	(DU/hectare)

112 Two to eight DU/hectare

113 Nine and over DU/hectare

121 Retail and wholesale

122 Commercial outdoor recreation

123 Education

124 Hospitals, rehabilitation centers and

	other public facilities 

126 Other public institutions and facilities

	(other than educational) 

132 Light industry

141 Highway

142 Railway

146 Sewage treatment

172 Cemeteries

173 Parks

174 Open space-urban

41 Deciduous forest land

43 Mixed forest land

53 Reservoirs

The l:24,000-scale map compilations are 

the same areas as those set off by the heavy 

black rectangles in figures 4-3 and 4-4. The 

classification system used for the compilation 

of figure 4-5 followed a multilevel classification system prepared for the Kansas City, 

Kan., land use test and demonstration project 

as shown in table 3-3 (Sosinski, 1980). 

Figure 4-6 followed a classification system 

used by San Mateo, Calif. The specifications 

used for compilation were as follows: 

(1) polygons to be delineated had to have a 

minimum size of 2.5 acres for Levels II and 

III, (2) all categories mapped with this 

mapping unit size had to have a minimum width 

of 125 ft.

Summary

Compilation procedures and techniques used 

by the U.S. Geological Survey for land use and 

land cover mapping at a scale of 1:250,000 or 

1:100,000 can be used to compile any scale 

natural resource thematic map. Specifications 

to compile mapped data, the level of classifications, and the different types of social and 

natural resource data input requirements, all 

fall under these procedures and techniques. 

The items must, however, be compatible in 

scale, detail, and specifications. Time spent 

in project planning to ensure compatibility of 

the project data will assure successful 

completion of a mapping project. Table 4-2 

showed the relationship of these various 

aspects of land use mapping. The information 

contained in this table was prepared primarily 

for land use and land cover mapping; however, 

it can be expanded or modified to include other 

types of natural resource data requirements as 

well.

Figure 4-6. Level II & III land use/cover map, 

Lebanon, Mo.

26
SECTION 5: LAND USE AND THE ENVIRONMENT

As the Earth's population has increased 

and man has become technologically more 

advanced, his needs for natural resources and 

space have also increased. These needs, 

although economically and socially beneficial, 

have often had an adverse effect on the 

environment. The shift from an agrarian to an 

industrialized society has at times changed a 

pristine environment to an environment of 

polluted air, water, and soil. Some areas have 

been polluted to the extent that they are no 

longer useful.

All uses of land and types of cover either 

produce or are impacted by some form of pollution. This may range from air quality problems 

caused by the natural decomposition of organic 

matter in forested areas, to the illegal 

disposal of hazardous waste materials. Some 

forms of pollution have purely aesthetic 

impact, while others are lethal. Recent 

episodes, such as the Love Canal area near 

Buffalo, N. Y., have dramatically shown the 

far-reaching implications of the improper 

disposal of chemical wastes. One of the 

purposes of this guide is to provide the user 

with some insight to the use of remote sensing 

and land use and land cover maps and to aid in 

the understanding of environmental/land use 

relationships.

Since most types of pollution result from 

the activities of man, it is easily understood 

why many of these pollution types are a direct 

result of man's use of the land. Consequently, 

an existing land use map, compiled from recent 

aerial photographs, can be an invaluable tool 

in attempting to access real or potential 

environmental problems. The products available 

through the U.S. Geological Survey's national 

land use and land cover mapping program can 

greatly assist environmental specialists and 

natural-resource planners by narrowing their 

geographic search area to those land use 

categories most likely to create pollution 

problems.

Application of remote sensing for 

environmental monitoring is well established 

and documented. Many governmental agencies 

whose mission involves resource management and 

mapping have utilized aerial photographs since 

the mid-1930's. Because of the time-consuming 

nature of ground investigations, it became 

readily apparent that only aerial images could 

provide information in a timely, efficient, 

and cost-effective manner.

Of the many agencies employing remote 

sensing, the Environmental Protection Agency 

(EPA), realized in the late 1960's the benefits 

which could be derived from imaging sensors.

Since that time, a variety of remote sensor 

studies have been made of regulated pollution 

sources.

A very basic type of study, an inventory 

of pollution sources, can be easily carried 

out using aerial photographs. While the 

majority of stationary point sources require 

permits, there are many nonpoint sources which 

do not. A nonpoint source is an area type 

source; examples include junkyards, construction sites, landfills, feedlots, and freshly 

tilled agricultural fields. The major problem 

associated with nonpoint sources is degradation 

of water quality caused by surface runoff 

entering both ground and surface water 

supplies. Aerial photographs provide an ideal 

means of analyzing large geographic areas for 

this type of pollution source.

A new analytical technique developed by 

EPA for detection of failing septic tank fields 

uses large-scale color and color-infrared 

photographs. The technique, used successfully 

in various regions of the country, is based on 

the fact that a failing system increases the 

nutrient levels and available moisture to 

surface vegetation thereby causing vigorous 

growth which can be readily observed on colorinfrared photographs. It is believed that this 

technique has saved hundreds of thousands of 

dollars over conventional field investigations. 

Data from these studies are used to determine 

the need for new or expanded waste water 

treatment facilities.

Aerial images have also been effective in 

monitoring oil and hazardous materials spills. 

In such episodes, the images are obtained, 

processed, and analyzed in the shortest possible time usually less than 24 hours to 

provide information directly to cleanup personnel. A recent development has been installation of a color television camera in the 

oblique position of the Enviro-pod camera 

system (see figure 2-8). The aircraft's ground 

track is recorded on videotape and played back 

at the spill command post shortly after the 

plane lands. The vertical Enviro-pod camera 

photographs are retained for documentation and 

more detailed analysis at a later time. The 

television system has also been used to monitor 

aerial spraying of pesticides. A direct 

air-to-ground transmission system is presently 

being developed.

Environmental surveys using aerial 

imagery have proven invaluable in intensive 

site analyses of known potential hazardous 

waste sites. In addition to recent imagery, 

historical photographic coverage can often be 

obtained and analyzed, thereby providing a 

comprehensive site picture. The types of 

information extracted include areal extent, 

types of wastes disposed, presence of liquid

27
storage areas, offsite contamination, vegetation damage or stress, surrounding land use, 

and onsite or offsite drainage.

Use of imaging systems for environmental 

monitoring is, as yet, still in its infancy. 

The vast majority of pertinent data are 

presently collected using conventional photographic imagery. The Environmental Protection 

Agency, along with other governmental agencies, 

is investigating a number of other remote 

sensing monitoring methods such as laser 

fluorosensing; light intensification, detection, and ranging systems (LIDAR); and multispectral imaging systems. However, for detection, location, and analysis of pollution 

sources, the use of conventional photographs 

has been the most consistent and reliable 

me thod.

The basic types of pollution attributable 

to the Level I land use and land cover categories are discussed in the following paragraphs to facilitate an understanding of the 

sources of these pollutants and their potential 

effect on the environment.

Urban Pollution Sources

The main types of pollution in the urban 

environment are water, air, and noise. The 

first, water pollution, is caused primarily by 

improperly treated sewage and waste-water 

discharges. In residential areas, failing 

septic tank systems or overloaded sewage 

disposal plants are sources of water pollution. 

In commercial areas the large expanse of 

concrete and asphalt used for street paving 

and parking areas provide an impervious surface 

which allows rainfall runoff to convey 

residual tar, automobile fluids, and litter 

into streams and rivers. The predominant 

waste-water problem associated with industrial 

areas is brought about by the outdoor storage 

of raw materials and finished products. In 

addition, improper disposal of waste products 

can become a major source of pollution. Land 

used for transportation and utilities contributes to urban pollution primarily from the use 

of fossil fuels. Both the burning of fossil 

fuels and the storage and transportation of 

these fuels are potential pollution sources. 

Burning coal has also been directly connected 

to "acid rain." Runoff from highways, railroads, and airports is also among the list of 

potential water-pollution sources.

The other types of pollution, air and 

noise pollution, are generally caused by such

activities as railroads and airports as well 

as vehicular operation, industrial plant operations (especially plants burning various types 

of fossil fuels), and heavy construction operations. Although man's activities in the urban 

environment do constitute a wide range of 

potential pollution sources, not all of the 

Urban or Built-up Land uses are sources of 

pollution. Public parks, golf courses, lakes, 

and various other types of greenbelt areas are 

generally not urban pollution sources.

Agricultural Pollution Sources

The primary source of pollution from 

agricultural areas are nonpoint, or areal, in 

nature. Since agricultural practices require 

large field patterns to be economically efficient, it is of little surprise that these 

areas are, or at least may become, sources of 

nonpoint pollution.

Nonpoint pollutants are most often associated with chemical or physical water quality 

degradation. Following periods of moderate to 

heavy precipitation, overland runoff passes 

through agricultural areas, and chemical (such 

as pesticides and fertilizers) and physical 

(primarily surface soil particles) contaminants 

are carried to nearby water bodies.

Accordingly, farmers should be encouraged 

to use agricultural practices which will lessen 

the magnitude of nonpoint pollution.

Rangeland Pollution Sources

Rangelands are natural areas by definition 

and generally are not pollution sources.

Forest Pollution Sources

Forested areas, like agricultural areas, 

are prime candidates for nonpoint pollution 

contaminants. These contaminants, primarily

loose soil particles and residual herbicides, 

insecticides, and fertilizers, like nonpoint 

pollution contaminants from agricultural areas, 

are transported to nearby water bodies by 

overland runoff.

Of the above contaminants, soil erosion 

is by far the greatest nonpoint pollution 

source resulting from silvicultural practices. 

Clear cutting activities and use of heavy 

machinery to construct logging roads are the 

main offenders.

28
Water Pollution Sources

Water bodies generally are not pollution 

sources. However, they serve as the transfer 

mechanism for chemicals, soil particles, and 

other organic pollutants that can impact the 

Earth's ecosystems.

Wetland Pollution Sources

Wetland areas can be subjected to a number 

of adverse environmental hazards created by 

human activities. Drainage systems act as 

transportation routes for distributing 

pollutants; dumping and filling activities may 

introduce toxic substances into nearby wetland 

areas; and adjacent agricultural activities 

may introduce fertilizers, pesticides, and 

animal wastes into nearby wetland areas.

Barren Land Pollution Sources

The only Barren Land categories that occur 

in Missouri are Sandy Areas other than Beaches; 

Strip Mines, Quarries, and Gravel Pits; and 

Transitional Areas. Of these categories, the 

Strip Mines, Quarries, and Gravel Pits category 

is the most frequent source of pollution. In 

addition to contributing to air and noise 

pollution, these areas are often a source of 

chemical and/or physical contaminants which 

can enter nearby water bodies.

The above pollution source descriptions 

are only generalizations. However, as each 

Level II land use and land cover category is 

covered in section 6 of this guide, more 

detailed environmental considerations will be 

included for that category.

29
SECTION 6: PHOTOINTERPRETATION KEYS 

FOR MISSOURI

INTRODUCTION

This section presents the land use and 

land cover photointerpretation keys and the 

possible environmental impact of each type of 

land use or land cover in Missouri. The 

interpretation keys follow the land use and 

land cover categories as shown in table 1-1. 

Each of the Level I land use and land cover 

categories has a brief general discussion 

followed by the Level II categories. Each 

Level II land use and land cover category 

includes a general description and the possible environmental impact of the category, and 

is illustrated by a number of sites. Each 

site is identified by (1) a site number, the 

general location of which is shown on a map of 

Missouri (figure 1-1), (2) a short title for 

the site, (3) the name of the nearest populated place, county, and State name, and (4) 

the location of each site by latitude and 

longitude.

In addition to the photographic illustrations, a more complete discussion of the category, and, where appropriate, an environmental 

statement are included with each of the sites.

In those cases where a second level land 

use and land cover category can best be represented by the most predominant type, only one 

site example is presented. In some cases, 

several examples are provided because of the 

need for more complete recognition and 

description of the category. For example, 

land use categories such as category 41 

(Deciduous Forest) may be illustrated well 

with only one or two examples. However, category 11 (Residential) involves single-family 

homes, duplexes, garden apartments, trailer 

parks, high-rise apartments, and inner-city 

housing. The predominant example of this 

category, however, is the suburban 

single-family home. The prime illustration 

for this category is an area of single-family 

homes. However, because the category includes 

the other residential types, they are also 

illustrated with a very brief description.

Appendix A lists all site information by 

site number.

LEVEL I, CATEGORY 1 - URBAN OR 

BUILT-UP LAND

The areas which comprise Urban or 

Built-up Land are those of intensive use. 

These areas have a predominance of the land 

covered with structures. These structures are

associated with cities and towns, and other 

developments such as industrial and commercial 

areas. It is not necessary that the 

structures which comprise this category be 

within, or adjacent to, towns and villages; in 

fact, they may be completely isolated from 

urban areas.

As development progresses, land having 

less intensive or nonconforming use may be 

located in the midst of Urban or Built-up 

areas and generally will be included in this 

category. Agricultural land, forest, wetland, 

or water areas on the fringe of Urban or 

Built-up areas will not be included "except 

where they are surrounded and dominated by 

urban development. The Urban or Built-up 

category takes precedence over others when the 

criteria for more than one category are met. 

For example, residential areas that have sufficient tree cover to meet Forest Land 

criteria will be placed in the Residential 

category.

Category 11 Residential

Category Description. Residential land 

uses range from high-density multiple-unit 

structures to low-density single-family houses 

on large suburban lots. Included in this 

category are single-family residences, apartments, condominiums, mobile homes, recreational homes, and any other building or structure used as a residence. The most common 

residential type of this category is the 

single-family home.

Environmental Considerations. The residential category has potential for impacting 

the environment in several ways. Among these 

are sewage, waste-water, air, and noise 

pollution.

Sewage and waste water are a major source 

of water pollution directly linked to residential development. Direct sewage outfalls and 

the introduction of untreated sewage effluent 

into surface and ground-water sources are 

major pollution problems. Residential areas 

that are not served by collector sewers must 

rely on subsurface, on-site, sewage disposal 

systems (septic tanks) which may malfunction 

due to soil and geologic problems or adverse 

seasonal conditions. When septic systems fail 

towards the ground surface, the runoff of 

untreated or partially treated sewage effluent 

can be a major source of surface-water contamination and lake eutrophication, as well as 

being an immediate health problem to the 

community. When septic systems are used in 

areas where the soil is sandy and/or very 

permeable, ground-water contamination may

30
occur as the septic effluent moves too rapidly 

through the soil resulting in inadequate 

attenuation and filtration of biodegradable 

particles prior to reaching ground-water level.

Even in residential areas where collector 

sewer service is available, the waste-water 

treatment facilities may be inadequate or 

overloaded and cause the discharge of an 

effluent that does not meet water quality 

standards.

Other water pollution sources associated 

with residential areas include runoff from 

driveways, parking lots, and solid waste 

disposal areas (landfills). Surface waters 

may also be contaminated from runoff 

containing fertilizers and pesticides used in 

lawn and garden care.

Additional pollution sources associated 

with residential areas include air pollution 

from auto emissions, home heating furnaces, 

and flourocarbons in aerosol sprays. Changes 

in microclimates can occur as a result of 

thermal discharges. Noise pollution can 

result from construction activity and nearby 

highways.

Interpretation Keys. Six residential 

sites are illustrated ranging from high-rise 

apartments in an urban renewal area to recreational houses on a lake in rural Missouri. 

The principal example of this category is a 

recent suburban residential development of 

single-family homes on the periphery of a 

large metropolitan area.

Site No. 1 (Single-Family Homes) 

Location: Manchester

St. Louis County, Missouri 

Geographic Coordinates: 38°36'N

90°31'W

The small-scale vertical mapping photograph, figure 6-1, shows an expanded view of 

this area of single-family residential homes. 

Most single-family residences exhibit the same 

photographic signature of pattern, tone, size, 

and symmetry. In the upper left portion of 

the photograph is a subdivision under 

construction (point A, figure 6-1). Notice 

how the ground is cleared of vegetation before 

construction is started.

In the design of subdivisions, there are 

always areas which cannot be developed because 

of the topography or hydrologic conditions. 

These areas are generally left as undisturbed 

areas of natural vegetation. Two such 

dark-toned areas, without streets and houses, 

are shown at A and B in figure 6-2.

Figure 6-1. Small-scale mapping photograph of 

suburban residential area in Manchester, Mo.

Figure 6-2. Low-level oblique photograph of 

wooded areas left undeveloped.

Streets with circular drives and cul-desacs are easily identified by their pattern and 

light tones.

Ranch-style homes with attached garages 

of various sizes and shapes can be seen equidistant and symmetrical to the streets (figure 

6-3). Upon close examination, sidewalks and 

driveways are visible. Many of the driveways 

are probably made of a blacktop material as 

they are darker in tone than the streets.

In the center foreground of the largescale vertical photo (figure 6-3, point A) a 

small park can be identified with its small 

pool, tennis courts, parking area, and lake.

31
Figure 6-3. Large-scale vertical photograph of 

a subdivision layout and park.

Site No. 2 (Inner-City Residential) 

Location: St. Louis

St. Louis County, Missouri 

Geographic Coordinates: 38°36'N

90°14'W

Figure 6-5. Large-scale photograph of 

inner-city residential area, St. Louis.

In most inner-city residential areas, 

particularly in the older sections of cities, 

residences are either duplexes or multi-family 

structures. A typical duplex is shown in 

figure 6-6.

The key identification features of 

inner-city multiple-family residences are the 

rectangular street patterns, closely spaced 

buildings with little or no yard space, 

garages behind the buildings accessable only 

by the alleys in each block, and the 

similarity of the shape of the buildings (see 

figures 6-4 and 6-5).

Figure 6-4.--Small-scale photograph of innercity residential area, St. Louis, Mo.

Figure 6-6. Ground photograph of multi-family 

inner-city residential area in St. Louis, Mo.

Many of the older sections of town have 

local commercial shops and schools intermixed 

with the residential areas. In figure 6-7, a 

commercial area is shown at A while a school 

is located at B.

32
Figure 6-7. Low-altitude oblique photograph of 

inner-city residential area with commercial 

and school areas.

Site No. 3 (High-Rise Residential) 

Location: St. Louis

St. Louis City, Missouri 

Geographic Coordinates: 38°31'N

90°13'W

High-rise residential areas may be either 

apartments or condominiums. These structures 

are generally 4 to 12 stories in height and 

may be found within the city limits or in the 

adjacent suburbs. The buildings, if more than 

one, are constructed in a geometric pattern 

(see figure 6-8).

RMfB&M

Figure 6-8. High-rise apartments in an urban 

renewal area. The stereogram gives an excellent view of the height of the buildings and 

their similar shapes and sizes.

For convenience of the residents, the 

parking facilities are located next to the 

building and around the periphery of the 

building area (figure 6-9).

Figure 6-9. High-rise residential apartments 

with internal and external parking facilities.

These high-rise residences are located in 

an area of urban renewal. The area has 

undergone change since the photograph in 

figure 6-8 was taken in July 1974. The change 

is illustrated by the absence of buildings at 

A in figure 6-10, taken June 1980.

Figure 6-10. Urban renewal area undergoing 

change.

The play area for the building tenants is 

shown in figure 6-11. This figure also 

illustrates the size of the buildings and the

33
walkways which connect each of the floors in 

adjacent sections of the complex.

Figure 6-11. Ground photograph of high-rise 

recreational area, St. Louis, Mo.

Site No. 51 (Garden Apartments) 

Location: Springfield

Greene County, Missouri 

Geographic Coordinates: 37°11'N

93°19'W

Garden apartments are generally found in 

the suburban area on the outer fringes of 

larger cities (figure 6-12).

The structures are generally one to three 

stories in height. They are generally 

constructed in a rectangular pattern but can 

be almost of any design, from circular to star 

shaped. They are referred to as garden apartments because of large grass areas surrounding 

the buildings and separate entrances (figure 

6-13).

Figure 6-13 illustrates garden apartments 

at A and common entrance apartments at B. 

Notice the proximity of parking to the garden 

apartments as compared to the common parking 

areas provided for the apartments at the right.

In figure 6-1A, which shows garden apartments in midst of single-family homes in 

Springfield, Missouri, the dark-toned apartments can be identified by their size, shape, 

and similarity. Parking areas in front of each 

building make the streets look wider. On the 

right side of the photo, four separate parking 

lots are visible at B. Garden apartments 

usually include recreational facilities within 

the building complex area.

Figure 6-15 is a ground photograph of 

typical garden apartments.

Figure 6-12. Small-scale photograph of garden 

apartments, Springfield, Mo.

Figure 6-13. Large-scale photograph of garden 

apartments in Springfield, Mo.

Figure 6-14. Low-level oblique photograph of 

garden apartments in Springfield, Mo.

34
streets in the court. This practice 

facilitates the maximum utilization of a 

limited area. Mobile homes are long and 

narrow as compared to a house, lighter in 

tone, and are usually arranged in a regular 

pattern (figure 6-17).

Figure 6-15. Garden apartments in 

Springfield, Mo.

Site No. 52 (Mobile Homes) 

Location: Springfield

Green County, Missouri 

Geographic Coordinates: 37°11'N

93°22'W

Mobile homes can be found throughout the 

countryside, however, they are primarily 

located in suburban areas in courts or parks 

(figure 6-16).

Figure 6-17. Large-scale vertical photograph 

of mobile home park, Springfield, Mo.

Utilities are generally run between the 

backs of the mobile homes, with a gas or oil 

tank and an electric meter for each home. The 

water and sewage lines also run between the 

homes. The general method used for sewage 

disposal outside the city limits is usually a 

sewage lagoon (A, figure 6-18). Figure 6-19 

presents a ground perspective of a typical 

mobile home park.

Figure 6-16. Mapping photograph of mobile 

home park at Springfield, Mo.

Most mobile homes are secured on a 

permanent foundation and usually parked in a 

trailer court or park. Large mobile homes are 

parked perpendicular to or at an angle to the

Figure 6-18. Mobile home park and sewage 

lagoon near Springfield, Mo.

35
Figure 6-19. Ground photograph of a typical 

street in a mobile home park.

Site No. 89 (Recreational Homes) 

Location: Trenton

Grundy County, Missouri 

Geographic Coordinates: 40°06'N

93°44'W

Recreational homes are frequently very 

close to water bodies, or in wooded areas, and 

provide outdoor recreational activities easily 

accessible to their occupants. This recreation area borders Lake of the Woods. The key 

identification features of recreational home 

areas are the road patterns and the different 

sizes and shapes of the buildings, boathouses, 

and docks. The general scattering of houses 

and vacant lots are also common. Figure 6-20 

illustrates a rectangular road pattern 

which gives way to separate access roads to 

each residence as one approaches the lakeshore.

The various shapes and sizes of the 

buildings are indicative of recreational 

homes. These homes can be year-round 

residences or seasonal cabins. Boathouses and 

boat docks are visible at every lakeshore 

lot. Wooded areas are considered an asset in 

recreational developments and therefore are 

usually not removed during construction (see 

figure 6-21).

Figure 6-20.--Small-scale mapping photograph of 

recreational homes at Lake of the Woods, Mo.

Figure 6-21. Large-scale vertical photograph 

of Lake of the Woods residential area.

Figure 6-22 illustrates a recreational 

home site area with the scattering, almost 

random, placement of structures.

This particular site is associated with a 

rather large lake. There are large numbers of 

recreational areas developed in mountain-type 

terrain. The lot layout and building type are 

mainly the same as for lake development. The 

recreational facilities, however, are in the 

form of smaller lakes and golf courses which 

tend to be more centrally located within the 

development.

These examples illustrate a cross section 

of the various types of dwelling units which 

comprise the residential category. There are 

many other types which are variations of the 

examples shown, but these examples can be 

considered typical.

36
Figure 6-22. Low-altitude oblique photograph 

of recreational home area.

Category 12 Commercial and Services

Category Description. Areas which contain 

structures predominantly used for the sale of 

products or services are classified as commercial. Included in this category are central 

business districts, shopping centers, commercial strip developments along highways, and 

junkyards. The main buildings, secondary 

structures, and supporting areas--office buildings, parking lots, landscaped areas, and 

waste-disposal areas--are also included in this 

category. Institutional land use, such as 

educational, religious, health, correctional, 

and military facilities are likewise included 

in this category. Cultural and recreational 

areas that can be identified on aerial photos, 

and included in this category, are commercial 

sports arenas, drive-in theatres, amusement 

parks, and commercial campgrounds. At military 

bases and institutional facilities, areas not 

specifically related to the purpose of the 

institution should be placed in the appropriate 

category.

Environmental Considerations. Commercial 

and Services land use areas share the following 

general potential for environmental effects. 

Extensive concrete and asphalt coverings cause

high rates of surface water runoff which can 

affect water quality and quantity. The runoff 

is capable of carrying residual tar, oil, 

automobile fluids, litter, and other solids 

into storm sewers and eventually into nearby 

streams. The extent to which water quality is 

affected depends upon where the water has 

traveled during its course. Quantity is 

influenced by the impervious layers blocking 

the percolation and absorption of water into 

the Earth to replenish the ground water aquifier supplies. Excessive runoff can cause 

flooding during heavy rainfalls in commercial 

areas or in nearby residential communities. 

Commercial areas in general have high rates of 

consumption and discharge of water. This 

results in large sewage volumes and depletion 

of local water reserves. Specific pollution 

hazards to water quality from commercial land 

uses include chemical contamination, thermal 

contamination, and over nutrification. Of all 

the commercial establishments in land use 

category 12, the activity which has one of the 

largest potentials for pollution is salvage 

yards. Salvaging of batteries and autos can 

contaminate soil, water, and air with toxic 

chemicals, lead, and iron oxides. The burning 

of auto interiors pollutes the air and can 

spread noxious odors to nearby communities.

Air quality is also affected by activities 

of commercial districts. High-volume traffic 

contributes exhaust emissions, dust levels are 

higher, and power generators can contribute 

particulate matter into the air. Airborne 

lint and debris can also effect air quality in 

these regions.

A noticeable byproduct from high-density 

commercial areas is excessive noise. Vehicles, 

heavy machinery, loudspeakers, and loading 

areas all contribute to abnormally high noise 

levels. These noises can be intensified by 

nonabsorbing building materials which can 

create echos. Noise levels may also be high 

at certain times in the neighborhood of concert 

halls, sports arenas, and fairgrounds.

The most noticeable detrimental environmental effect of a commercial area is its 

high-density land use. Sparse vegetation is 

common and "heat islands" are likely in 

sections devoid of greenery. The alteration 

of the terrain by heavy urbanization affects 

hydrology, vegetation, climate, and habitat.

Not all commercial land uses should be 

considered detrimental. Hospitals, schools, 

and other institutions provide open areas 

which, for the most part, are nonpolluting and 

aesthetically pleasing.

Interpretation Keys. Presented on the 

following pages are examples of Commercial and 

Services land uses in Missouri.

37
Site No. 4 (Shopping Center) 

Location: Mehlville

St. Louis County, Missouri 

Geographic Coordinates: 38°31'N

90°20'W

with the shopping center, they will generally 

build with a characteristic design which will 

be evident in all shopping centers the store 

occupies 

Large shopping centers are usually located 

in the suburbs of urban areas. The key identification features are large or interconnected 

buildings surrounded by well-paved parking lots 

and its location near an interchange or a fourlane divided highway for easy access and exit.

The small-scale mapping photograph 

(figure 6-23) shows the location of a Mehlville 

shopping center. The intersection of two 

interstate highways and major arterial streets 

provide easy and convenient access to the 

facility. Some of the surrounding residential 

and commercial development served by this 

shopping center is also visible. Since the 

date of the mapping photograph, July 1, 1974, 

the shopping center has expanded as evidenced 

in the photograph in figure 6-24, taken in June 

1980. The dark rough-textured area to the west 

of this complex at A, is an area of trees which 

may eventually be converted to additional 

parking or other commercial activities. The 

photograph shows the large retail building 

completely surrounded by well-marked paved 

parking facilities.

Figure 6-23. Small-scale mapping photograph 

of shopping center near St. Louis, Mo.

Figure 6-25 provides a ground perspective 

of the complex and some of the well-marked 

paved parking facilities.

Large shopping centers such as this site 

are built to have large covered malls. The 

various stores within the building open onto 

the outside of the building as well as the 

malls. When major chain stores are involved

Figure 6-24. Large-scale vertical photograph 

of shopping center at Mehlville, Mo.

Figure 6-25. Ground photograph of shopping 

center.

38
Site No. 53 (Shopping Mall) 

Location: Springfield

Greene County, Missouri. 

Geographic Coordinates: 37°10'N

93°16'W

The small-scale photograph shown in 

figure 6-26 locates a Springfield shopping 

mall in relation to major traffic arteries, 

surrounding residential structures, and other 

commercial land uses.

Figure 6-26. Small-scale mapping photograph 

of shopping mall at Springfield, Mo.

The mall, Battlefield Mall, is more 

clearly shown in figure 6-27. In this 

large-scale photograph the building and 

parking lot can be easily identified by their 

lighter tones. The major traffic arteries 

provide easy access to the mall. Unlike 

shopping centers, malls have all of the stores 

under one roof with a walkway (mall) serving 

all stores.

Figure 6-28. Battlefield Mall's main entrance 

and parking lot.

Figure 6-28 shows the main entrance to 

the mall and associated parking facilities.

Site No. 79 (Central Business District) 

Location: Kansas City

Jackson County, Missouri 

Geographic Coordinates: 39°06'N

94°35'W

The stereogram presented in figure 6-29 

provides an excellent perspective of the 

height of the buildings and the extent of 

parking within this central business district 

(CBD). Metropolitan CBD's have a large number 

of high-rise buildings. They usually are 

easily accessed by interstate bypass routes.

Figure 6-30 illustrates the built-up 

nature of CBD's. The CBD is the heart of the 

office/commercial activity of the city. The 

photograph clearly shows the high-rise 

buildings surrounded by large, lighter tone 

parking lots. Most of the lots are full; 

therefore, it's evident that these photographs 

were taken during business hours.

WASlHBSaEiaB8r^

Figure 6-27. Low-level oblique photograph 

of Battlefield Mall, Springfield, Mo. Figure 6-29. Stereogram of portion of the 

Kansas City, Mo., central business district.

39
traffic intersection. The central business 

district originally developed along the railroad and is now expanding in all directions.

Figure 6-30.--Forward oblique photograph of 

Kansas City CBD.

Figure 6-31 presents a more familiar view 

of the Kansas City CBD.

Figure 6-31. Ground-level view of central 

business district, Kansas City, Mo.

Site No. 49 (Medium-Size City CBD) 

Location: Lebanon

Laclede County, Missouri. 

Geographic Coordinates: 37°41'N

92°40'W

Figure 6-32 shows the central business 

district's growth away from the city's main

Figure 6-32. Medium-size city central 

business district, Lebanon, Mo.

Figure 6-33, a large-scale vertical 

photograph, more clearly illustrates some of 

the recognition features of a medium-size town 

CBD. Notice the angle parking at A and the 

dark roofs of the three and four-story 

buildings at B.

Figure 6-33. Large-scale vertical photograph 

of CBD, Lebanon, Mo.
Site No. 40 (Small-Town CBD) 

Location: Ironton

Iron County, Missouri 

Geographic Coordinates: 37°36'N

90°38'W

Site No. 46 (Commercial Strip Development) 

Location: St. Robert

Pulaski County, Missouri 

Geographic Coordinates: 37°49'N

92°10'W

The main section of the central business 

district of Ironton is shown in figure 6-34. 

Small-town CBD's usually parallel the main 

traffic artery. Two- or three-story buildings 

line the street. Also shown in figure 6-34, 

in the west-central sector of the circle is 

the Iron County Court House. Notice the proximity of the residential structures to the CBD 

area. This is common in small-town CBD's.

Figure 6-35 provides a more traditional 

view of this small-town CBD.

Figure 6-34. Large-scale oblique photograph 

of Ironton, Mo.

Commercial development along major traffic 

arteries and access routes is often referred 

to as "commercial strip development." These 

areas provide retail goods and services to 

nearby residents. Figure 6-36 identifies two 

commercial strip development areas at A and B 

which serve the residents of St. Robert and 

military personnel from Fort Leonard Wood. 

Area A provides motel accommodations, fast food 

services, a general merchandise store, a car 

dealer, and other similar goods and services. 

Area B, particularly near the bottom of the 

photograph, provides services normally found 

to exist near military bases bars, dry 

cleaners, groceries, general merchandise 

stores, a bank, and a TV repair shop.

Fig. 6-35. Ground view of CBD area, 

Ironton, Mo.

Figure 6-36. Mapping photograph of commercial 

strip development, St. Robert, Mo.

Figure 6-37 is a forward oblique photograph of the commercial strip development near 

the Fort Leonard Wood main gate. Notice the 

small parking lot facilities associated with 

the establishments at A, B, and C. In 

contrast, look at the large shopping center 

parking lot for the grocery/general merchandise 

complex at D. This particular example of 

commercial strip development illustrates how 

these types of retail goods and services can 

be provided without adversely affecting the 

traffic flow of a major traffic artery. Most 

larger urban examples of commercial strip 

development are characterized by commercial 

structures and parking lots abutting the 

street.

41
Figure 6-37. Low-level oblique photograph of 

commercial strip development near main 

entrance of the army base at Fort Leonard 

Wood, Mo.

Site No. 54 (Motels) 

Location: Springfield

Greene County, Missouri 

Geographic Coordinates: 37°15'N

93°16'W

Figure 6-38. Mapping photograph of motels 

along Glenstone Avenue in Springfield.

Figure 6-39. Forward oblique photograph of 

Springfield motels.

A ground-level photograph of one of the 

motels is shown in figure 6-40. Note the 

restaurant facilities nearby.

Figure 6-38 identifies an area of motels 

paralleling one of Springfield's major arterial 

streets (Glenstone Avenue). To the north of 

the area lies Interstate Highway 44. Motels 

are frequently located along major traffic 

arteries in proximity to interstate highways.

The key to identifying motels on smallscale photographs such as figure 6-38, in 

addition to their proximity to major transportation routes, is their linear structure, 

swimming pools, and individual parking 

facilities adjacent to the structures.

The large-scale photograph in figure 6-39 

identifies swimming pools at A and two areas 

with swimming pools and tennis courts at B. 

Individual motel parking facilities are noted 

at C. Also identified in figure 6-39 is the 

North Park Mall at D.

Figure 6-40.--Motel and restaurant on 

Glenstone Avenue in Springfield, Mo.

42
Site No. 55 (Suburban Office Building) 

Location: Springfield

Greene County, Missouri 

Geographic Coordinates: 37°11'N

93°16'W

Suburban office buildings range from twoto three-story structures to high-rise structures. Firms seeking facilities away from the 

central business district usually select lessexpensive suburban locations with easier 

traffic access. Site 55 is a suburban office 

building (figure 6-42) in southeast Springfield 

which was recently constructed in place of a 

drive-in theater (figure 6-41). If one were 

categorizing land use as of the date of the 

mapping photography (January 1975), the 

drive-in movie theater would also fall under 

land use category 12.

Figure 6-42. Office building with parking 

lots.

Figure 6-41. Mapping photograph of drive-in 

theater, January 1975.

Modern office buildings may take on a 

variety of shapes and designs. Figure 6-42 

presents a modern office building nearing final 

construction phases. The photograph was taken 

on a weekday in July 1980. Since there are no 

cars in the parking lot at A, one can assume 

that the office building was not yet ready for 

occupancy. Also visible, at B, were several 

construction trailers. The alternating rows 

of white and black of the building structure 

infer that the structure is multi-story. This 

fact is supported by the ground-level photograph shown in figure 6-43 taken in January 

1981. Notice the cars parked in front of the 

building. Also notice in figure 6-42 at C the 

well kept grounds at the front of the building, 

the circular drive, and the area for temporary 

parking.

Figure 6-43. Ground photograph of office 

building.

Site No. 69 (State Capitol Building) 

Location: Jefferson City

Cole County, Missouri 

Geographic Coordinates: 34°50'N

92°10'W

All Federal, State, and local government 

buildings and adjacent facilities and grounds 

are placed in land use category 12. Circled 

in figure 6-44 is the Missouri State Capitol 

Building and other nearby State office buildings and grounds. Situated adjacent to the 

Missouri River in Jefferson City, the Capitol 

and surrounding facilities and grounds are well 

maintained.

43
Figure 6-44. State Capitol Building, 

Jefferson City, Mo.

As with many State capitol structures, 

the Missouri State Capitol Building structurally resembles the Nation's Capitol 

Building. Figure 6-45 more clearly presents 

the building with its graciously adorned 

cupola, elevated main entrance and steps, and 

legislative wings for the Senate and House. 

Also common among State capitol buildings and 

grounds is the circular traffic pattern 

surrounding the structure.

Since parking is always a problem around 

State capitols, many States construct parking 

garages nearby. Figure 6-45 shows a 

multi-level parking garage at A. Also shown 

in this large-scale photograph at B is just 

one of many of the State's office buildings.

Site No. 76 (Warehouses) 

Location: Kansas City

Jackson County, Missouri 

Geographic Coordinates: 39°06'N

94°32'W '.

Warehouses are normally large flat-roof 

buildings located near rail and/or highway 

transportation facilities. Although seldom 

located adjacent to major traffic arteries, 

they usually are located on secondary arterial 

streets to facilitate access by large semitrailers. Figure 6-46 is a forward oblique 

photograph of a major general merchandise warehouse in east Kansas City. Notice the highway 

at A, the rail facilities at B, and the new 

warehouse structure at C. Unlike shopping 

centers which are seldom over two stories, 

large warehouses such as this one often have 

more than two stories. Also notice in this 

photograph the ease of access provided by the 

surrounding local streets (D).

Figure 6-45. Large-scale oblique photograph 

of Missouri State Capitol.

Figure 6-46. Low-level oblique photograph of 

warehouse facility in east Kansas City.

Another recognition factor which can be 

employed in the identification of warehouses 

is the amount and location of parking 

facilities. Unlike shopping centers which have 

large, well-marked parking facilities adjacent 

to the retail structure, warehouses have much 

smaller parking lots located away from the 

structure (see figure 6-47, point A). Since 

most of the goods stored in the warehouse are 

moved by mechanized equipment, few employees 

are needed to operate a warehouse.

44
Figure 6-47. Large-scale photograph of 

warehouse facility and employee parking area.

Figure 6-47 also shows the areas used to 

load and unload semitrailers (B). Additional 

semitrailers not in use are parked at C. A 

shopping center at D is just east of the 

warehouse.

A number of semitrailer units are parked 

at the warehouse loading dock in figure 6-48.

Figure 6-48. Tractor semitrailers parked at 

loading dock.

Site No. 77 (Warehouse) 

Location: Kansas City

Jackson County, Missouri 

Geographic Coordinates: 39°07'N

94°34'W

Shown in figure 6-49 are just a few of 

some of the larger regional distribution warehouses located to the northeast of the Kansas 

City central business district. Notice the 

railroad facilities at A and the Missouri River 

at B.

Figure 6-49.--Mapping photograph of warehouse 

area in Kansas City.

As with the photorecognition characteristics noted earlier for site 76, figure 6-50 

shows two other warehouses in which tractor 

semitrailer units play a major role. The warehouse at A is primarily served by tractor semitrailers, while that at B receives, and 

possibly ships, goods by rail as well as 

tractor semitrailers. Notice the six railroad 

boxcars at the loading docks on the east side 

of warehouse B. Also note the semitrailers 

parked on the north side of warehouse A and on 

the west side of warehouse B.

Figure 6-50. Large-scale photograph of 

warehouse.

45
Site No. 72 (Auto Salvage Yard) 

Location: Columbia

Boone County, Missouri 

Geographic Coordinates: 39°58'N,

92°26'W

Auto salvage yards, such as the one shown 

in figure 6-51, are included in land use category 12. This particular auto salvage yard is 

well organized with autos lining both sides of 

dirt access roads. If not careful, particularly on small-scale mapping photography, a 

photointerpreter may at first glance believe 

the area is one of residential development 

because of the road patterns. However, on 

closer inspection, one realizes that the roads 

are too narrow and the rectangular objects 

(cars) too small and too close together to be 

houses or mobile homes. At the top of figure 

6-51, at A, is the salvage yard office and 

workshop.

Most communities consider auto salvage 

yard operations to be eyesores. Therefore, 

they require auto salvage yard owners to shield 

their yards from direct view. In urban builtup areas most auto salvage yards are surrounded 

by high wooden fences. In rural areas, such 

as site 72, the yards are surrounded by trees. 

The shielding trees can be seen in figure 6-51 

at B and in the ground-level photograph of 

figure 6-52 at A.

Figure 6-52. Ground photograph of auto 

salvage yard.

Site No. 45 (Auto Salvage Yard) 

Location: St. Robert

Pulaski County, Missouri 

Geographic Coordinates: 37°A8'N

92°09'W

Figure 6-53 presents another example of 

an auto salvage yard. This yard is located 

near the Fort Leonard Wood U.S. Army base just 

west of the four-lane access road to the base. 

As with the previous example, notice how the 

autos are placed in tightly packed rows with 

dirt access roads. Also notice the sales 

office/workshop located at A.

Situated in a heavily wooded area, the 

yard is obscured from view, particularly from 

the access road. Notice how the owner/operator 

of the yard is clearing some of the trees near 

B to make way for more wrecked or junked autos.

Figure 6-51. Large-scale vertical photograph 

of auto salvage yard near Columbia, Mo. Figure 6-53. Auto salvage yard at Fort 

Leonard Wood, Mo.

46
Site No. 7 (Sports Stadium) 

Location: St. Louis

St. Louis City, Missouri 

Geographic Coordinates: 38°38'N

90°12'W

Commercial sports complexes such as stadiums, field houses, racetracks, and other 

recreational complexes such as amusement parks 

and golf-course clubhouses are included in land 

use category 12. Such complexes are characterized by well-organized grounds and/or 

structures with ample parking facilities. Most 

of the larger complexes, such as sports stadiums, are located near major traffic access 

routes in metropolitan areas.

Site 7, Busch Memorial Stadium in downtown 

St. Louis, is typical of sports complexes 

included in land use category 12. Figure 6-54 

shows a sports stadium with parking facilities 

at A and major traffic access routes at B.

Figure 6-54. Busch Memorial Stadium in 

downtown St. Louis, Mo.

Also notice at C the pedestrian walkways 

extending to the stadium at C from the parking 

facilities. The stadium, which seats over 

50,000, is the home for professional football, 

baseball, and soccer teams.

This sports facility in the downtown area 

of St. Louis is surrounded by many open air 

parking facilities. These facilities are also 

used by the people employed in the area during 

the weekdays. Multistoried parking facilities 

developed in the area, however, they are very 

difficult to identify on the photography.

Figure 6-55 shows the walkramps to the 

stadium.

Figure 6-55. Ground photograph of Busch 

Memorial Stadium.

Site No. 78 (Sports Stadiums) 

Location: Kansas City

Jackson County, Missouri 

Geographic Coordinates: 39°03'N

94°29'W

The Harry S. Truman Sports Complex, 

figure 6-56, is a unique twin sports stadium 

located on the east side of the Kansas City 

Metropolitan area at the junction of Interstate 

70 and the 1-435 bypass. The baseball stadium 

at A is the home of the Kansas City Royals; 

the football stadium at B is the home of the 

Kansas City Chiefs. Notice the extensive area 

of parking surrounding the stadiums. Also 

notice the additional parking facilities at C, 

which have been added since completion of the 

complex.

As with all major sports complexes, ease 

of traffic access is very important. Notice 

the numerous parking access points at D.

Figure 6-56. Small-scale photograph of 

Harry S. Truman Sports Complex, Kansas City.

47
Figure 6-57 is a large-scale photograph 

of the sports complex. Notice the walkramps 

for both the baseball stadium at the top of 

the photograph and the football stadium in the 

foreground. The VIP parking area is shown at 

A. The dark circular areas surrounding the 

football stadium are shrubbery areas. Also 

notice the lighter strips on the football 

field. At the time of this photograph (June 

1980) the artificial turf was under repair.

Figure 6-57.--Low-level oblique photograph of 

sports complex.

Figure 6-58 presents a ground-level view 

of the sports complex--the football stadium on 

the left, and the baseball stadium on the 

right. Notice the spiral walkramp at A.

Site No. 59 (Regional Fairgrounds) 

Location: Springfield

Greene County, Missouri 

Geographic Coordinates: 37°15'N

93°18'W

Fairgrounds, including associated exhibition buildings, grandstands, racetracks, rodeo 

arenas, corrals, paddock areas, and midway 

areas are included in land use category 12. 

Circled in figure 6-59 is the Ozark Empire 

Regional Fairgrounds in east Springfield. 

Originally located away from the Springfield 

urbanized area, urban encroachment is quite 

evident in this small-scale photograph. Notice 

residential structures to the south, Central 

Bible College to the east, and Hillcrest High 

School to the north. Figure 6-59 also shows 

Dickerson Park Zoo, west of the fairgrounds.

Figure 6-59. Mapping photograph of Ozark 

Empire Regional Fairgrounds at Springfield.

The facilities associated with this 

regional fairground area are shown more clearly 

in figure 6-60. Exhibition buildings are 

located at A, the racetrack at B, the midway 

area at C, and the grandstand at D. Notice 

the lack of parking facilities at the 

fairgrounds.

Figure 6-58. Harry S. Truman Sports Complex

Figure 6-60. Large-scale photograph of 

Ozark Empire Fairgrounds.

48
Figure 6-61 shows one of the exhibition 

buildings at the fairgrounds.

Pictured in figure 6-63 is a ground-level 

photograph of the Barnes Hospital complex. 

Notice the interconnecting walkways at A.

Figure 6-61. Exhibition building at Ozark 

Empire Fairgrounds. Figure 6-63.--Barnes Hospital, St. Louis, Mo.

Site No. 5 (Hospital) 

Location: St. Louis

St. Louis City, Missouri 

Geographic Coordinates: 38°38'N

90°16'W

Medical and health facilities, such as 

Barnes Hospital in figure 6-62 are included in 

land use category 12. Since this particular 

site is adjacent to other Commercial and 

Services structures it is difficult to 

identify the site as a medical complex from 

aerial photographs. One must rely on 

ancillary data or ground investigations to 

identify the site as a hospital.

Some features which should be noted in 

figure 6-62 are the parking facilities at A, 

the underground parking facilities at B (where 

the tennis courts are located), and the 

interconnecting walkways between the buildings 

such as those at C.

Site No. 57 (Hospital) 

Location: Springfield

Greene County, Missouri 

Geographic Coordinates: 37°11'N

93°17'W

Figure 6-64 depicts another regional 

medical complex Springfield's St. John's 

Hospital serving southwest Missouri. Unlike 

Barnes Hospital in St. Louis, this medical 

complex is more easily identified since it is 

surrounded by residential structures. As with 

most medical complexes, the multistory buildings and wings are interconnected. Prominent 

in figure 6-64 is the main entrance to the 

hospital with the circular drive and covered 

entrance. A more recent addition to the 

hospital an east wing is shown at A. Ample 

parking is available at B.

A ground-level view of the hospital is 

shown in figure 6-65. Notice the cross on top 

of the complex at A, and the newer wing at B.

Figure 6-62. Low-level oblique photograph 

of Barnes Hospital in St. Louis, Mo.

Figure 6-64. Forward oblique photograph of 

St. John's Hospital in Springfield, Mo.

49
Figure 6-65. St. John's Hospital, 

Springfield, Mo.

Figure 6-66. Mapping photograph of Federal 

Medical Center at Springfield, Mo.

Site No. 56 (Federal Hospital) 

Location: Springfield

Greene County, Missouri 

Geographic Coordinates: 37°10'N

93°19'W

Federal and State prisons and medicalcorrectional institutional areas are also 

included in land use category 12. Figure 6-66 

identifies the Federal Medical Center in southwest Springfield. Once located away from the 

built-up area, urban expansion has produced 

residential encroachment.

Even though there has been residential 

encroachment in the area around the institution, there will be maintained a clean buffer 

zone between the institution and the nearest 

built-up area.

The Federal Medical Center is a minimum 

security complex devoted primarily to mental 

health care and incarceration of individuals 

convicted of "white-collar" crimes.

Figure 6-67 provides a clearer view of 

many of the photorecognition characteristics 

associated with such an institution. Note the 

double chain link fence at A, the guard towers 

at B, and the structural similarity of the 

buildings at C. Also notice the baseball field 

at D. This particular area is enclosed by yet 

another wall (point E). A more secure area of 

the institution is shown at F. Employee and 

visitor parking facilities are shown at G.

Institutions such as this normally maintain some of their own fuel and water. Behind 

the double chain link fence to the west is a 

water tower at H and a storage tank at I. Also 

visible is a maintenance building at J.

The main entrance to the institution is 

shown in figure 6-68. Notice the guard tower 

at A.

Figure 6-67. Large-scale vertical 

photograph of Federal Medical Center.

Figure 6-68.--Main entrance to Federal 

Medical Center at Springfield, Mo.

50
Site No. 58 (University) 

Location: Springfield

Greene County, Missouri 

Geographic Coordinates: 37°12'N

93°16'W

All buildings, grounds, and parking lots 

associated with educational institutions are 

included in land use category 12. The physical 

layout of Southwest Missouri State University 

in Springfield is shown in figure 6-69. Identified in this stereogram are the football stadium at A, tennis courts at B, newer, high-rise 

dormitories at C, and older classroom buildings 

at D. Note the relative height differences 

between the high-rise dormitories at C and the 

older classroom buildings at D.

Figure 6-69. Stereogram of Southwest Missouri 

State University campus in Springfield, Mo. 

(Note that this photograph is oriented with 

east at top.)

A large-scale vertical photograph of the 

campus is shown in figure 6-70. Again, note 

the football stadium at A, the tennis courts 

at B, and the high-rise dormitories at C. Also 

note the availability of parking at D. This 

photograph was taken in July 1980. Had it 

been taken during the fall or spring, the 

parking lots would have been full. Other 

facilities visible in figure 6-70 include the 

gymnasium and swimming pool at E, the library 

at F, the student union at G, and the administration building at H. Finally, note the maze 

of walkways which link the campus structures.

Also shown in figure 6-70 is a practice 

field at I. Although it is unlikely, these 

areas may also fall victim to construction 

someday.

Figure 6-71 presents a ground-level view 

of Carrington Hall--the administration building 

on campus.

Figure 6-70. Low-altitude vertical photograph 

of Southwest Missouri State University campus 

in Springfield, Mo.

Figure 6-71. Administration building at 

Southwest Missouri State University.

Site No. 6 (Intermediate School) 

Location: Webster Groves

St. Louis County, Missouri 

Geographic Coordinates: 38°34'N

91°22'W

Elementary and secondary schools are roost 

frequently located in residential neighborhoods

51
away from high traffic-volume areas. As with 

other institutional land uses, scholastic 

buildings, grounds, and associated facilities 

are included in land use category 12.

Elementary schools usually consist of one 

building with limited recreational facilities. 

Junior high schools may consist of several 

buildings and may even have their own football 

field or stadium. Intermediate and high 

schools, however, can be characterized as 

rather large campuses with several separate 

buildings (normally connected by covered walkways) or with interconnected buildings, large 

football/athletic fields with viewing stands, 

and parking facilities for the faculty and 

staff as well as for the students.

Figure 6-72 is a mapping photograph of 

Webster Groves Intermediate School southwest 

of St. Louis. The intermediate school is shown 

at point A. At point B can be seen a municipal 

park and recreation area two ballfields, a 

swimming pool, and some tennis courts. This 

latter area should be classified as land use 

category 17. Also shown in figure 6-72, just 

north of the school, is Interstate 44.

Figure 6-72. Small-scale photograph of intermediate school campus and municipal park and 

recreation area, Webster Groves, Mo.

Figure 6-73 is a vertical photograph of 

the intermediate school campus. The school 

building is shown at A, the football/athletic 

field at B, and faculty parking facilities at 

C. Also notice the controlled traffic access 

at D.

The front entrance to the school and 

covered passenger loading and unloading area 

are shown in figure 6-74. . «..,- 

Figure 6-73. Large-scale vertical photograph 

of Webster Groves Intermediate School.

Figure 6-74. Main entrance and passenger 

loading area for Webster Groves Intermediate 

School.

Site No. 48 (Military Installation) 

Location: Fort Leonard Wood

Pulaski County, Missouri 

Geographic Coordinates: 37°46'N

92°08'W

Figure 6-75 shows several key identification features of most military installations. 

Point A identifies the main parade ground. 

Although this particular site is not surrounded 

by buildings on all sides, most military base 

parade grounds are surrounded by administrative 

buildings. Point B, site of the original 

parade grounds, is now an athletic field. 

Basic training quarters and instructional 

buildings are shown at C. On-base, dependent 

housing facilities are shown at D. A general 

merchandise warehouse area can be seen at E. 

Also shown at F is the airfield which serves 

the base. Point G identifies advanced training 

barracks and training buildings. Although not 

shown on this photograph, firing ranges and 

bivouac areas are located just to the south.

Figure 6-76 presents a large-scale photograph of the main parade grounds at A, the 

basic training building at B, the base training 

barracks at C, the base theater at D, and athletic fields at E. Notice the viewing stands 

on the west side of the parade grounds. Also 

note the whitish tone of the training area at 

B where the recruits have denuded the area.

52
Figure 6-75. Mapping photograph of Fort 

Leonard Wood Army base.

"feyJMLri- ^JK^ *' ' '- -- . .. 1*'.i

^JS^'Tif %>i:''-"

aB^-jAwlji,

Figure 6-76. Low-level oblique photograph of 

main parade grounds and basic training 

facilities at Fort Leonard Wood, Mo.

Category 13 Industrial

Category Description. Probably no other 

category in the classification system has such 

a diversity of structure types as the industrial category. This category covers a wide 

variety of land uses, from installations 

involved with product design, assembly, finishing, processing, and packaging to steel mills, 

cement plants, chemical plants, electric power 

generators, oil refineries, and mining. In 

all of these industrial activities, the buildings, parking and shipment areas, and stockpiles of raw materials and waste products are 

all included in the delineation of the area. 

For mining, only the surface manifestation of 

the mining is delineated. That is, the

buildings, mine shafts, and spoil material are 

included. Underground mining activities are 

not delineated as industrial but rather are 

shown by the type of surface cover (i.e., 

agricultural land, forest land).

Different classification systems separate 

industries into different sub-categories in a 

variety of ways. The Standard Industrial 

Classification Manual, for example, describes 

industrial categories by the generic type of 

industry as listed below:

Division A - Agriculture, forestry, and

fishing

Division B - Mining 

Division C - Construction 

Division D - Manufacturing

Many metropolitan areas use this classification scheme; however, there are several other 

schemes used to classify industries (processing 

industries, manufacturing industries, and 

fabrication industries). Industries, by 

whatever classification term is used, have 

identification features unique to each type. 

Professional Paper 964 (Anderson and others, 

1976) only used the term "industrial;" however, 

in the descriptive text, it refers to a 

breakout of light and heavy industries.

To illustrate the difference between 

light and heavy industries, the following 

descriptions have been used.

Light Manufacturing. "These light industrial activities are focused on design, 

assembly, finishing, and packaging of products 

rather than processing of raw materials. 

Materials used have generally been processed 

at least once. Included are facilities for 

administration and research, assembly, storage 

and warehousing, shipping, and associated parking lots and grounds. Land held in reserve may 

also be evident. Among the industries in this 

category are research laboratories, small 

textile mills, electronics firms, trucking 

companies, and even such large industries as 

automobile assembly plants.

"In comparison with heavy industries, 

these are relatively 'clean 1 contributing 

considerably less smoke, noise, dust, other 

effluents, and visual 'pollution.'

"Identification of these industries can 

be based on type of buildings, parking and 

shipping arrangements, and location in relation to cities or villages. Unlike shopping 

centers, large commercial establishments or 

schools, outdoor storage of materials may be 

discernible along with trailer trucks parked 

on the premises. Rail lines may be present. 

Loading docks and power sources (large transformers, power lines, smokestacks, or large

53
fuel storage tanks) may suggest a manufacturing 

process rather than retail sales.

"Occasionally, inactive plants are found. 

Some have been converted to other uses such as 

retail sales. Where these uses could be 

detected, they were mapped accordingly. Otherwise, inactive plants are classified by their 

apparent former use."l

Heavy Manufacturing. These industrial 

activities may be thought of as dirty, being 

devoted to heavy fabrication, making and assembling parts which are, in themselves, large 

and heavy, or to the processing of basic raw 

materials, including ore dressing operations.

The following description of heavy 

processing industries is taken from the Manual 

of Photographic Interpretation.

"Processing industries subject to accumulated raw materials to treatment by mechanical 

or chemical means or by heat to render them 

suitable for further processing, or to produce 

materials from which finished products can be 

made. Characteristic facilities for storing 

and handling bulk materials are useful clues 

to the identity of these industries. Blast 

furnaces, kilns, chemical processing towers, 

and large chimneys or stacks are usually 

visible and serve to indicate the kind of 

processing being carried on.

"Processing industries usually require 

large quantities of power; coal piles, fuel 

tanks, boiler houses, or transformer yards may 

indicate the source of power. The buildings 

which house processing equipment are often 

large and usually complex in outline and roof 

structure. Since processing usually includes 

refinement of raw materials, piles and ponds 

of waste are common; they have to be 

distinguished from stored raw materials.

"Processing industries can be subdivided 

according to function into mechanical processing, chemical processing, and heat processing 

industries. A few industries depart from the 

functional classification, but this departure 

does not interfere with the utility of the key.

"Mechanical processing industries are 

those engaged in sizing, sorting, separating, 

or otherwise changing the physical form or 

appearance of the raw materials. They can be 

identified by the presence of bulk materials 

stored in piles, ponds, or reservoirs, outdoor 

equipment such as silos, bins, bunkers, and 

open tanks, or handling equipment such as 

conveyors, launders, cranes, and railroad cars. 

A great deal of power is generally required, 

and boiler houses or transformer yards are

quite common. Buildings are likely to be 

large and complex. Piles or ponds of waste 

are also common.

"Mechanical processing industries differ 

from other processing industries in that they 

have few pipelines, closed or tall tanks or 

stacks except those on boiler houses. They do 

not have kilns.

"Typical mechanical processing industries 

are ore reducers, sawmills, and grain mills. 

Plants for hydroelectric power production, 

water purification, and sewage disposal also 

fall in this class. Aluminum refining is one 

of those industries whose images place them in 

this class although the processes are not 

mechanical.

"Chemical processing industries separate 

or rearrange the chemical constituents of the 

raw materials. Pressure, heat, and catalysts 

or other chemicals are usually employed. 

Closed vessels for handling liquids, gases, or 

suspensions of solids in liquids or gasses are 

typical of these industries, as is the use of 

fluid flow in processing. Closed tanks, pipelines, and towers for cracking or distillation 

are usually visible in photographs of chemical 

processing industries.

"Heat processing industries refine, separate, or reform the raw materials, or derive 

energy from them. Large quantities of coal or 

other fuel, chimneys, stacks, blast furnaces, 

and kilns are characteristic of these industries. Pipelines and tanks are sometimes used 

but are never abundant, and their presence, 

which might be taken to indicate chemical 

processing, is outweighed by the abundance of 

objects evidencing the use of heat. Industries 

typical of this class are thermal electric 

power plants, iron and copper smelters, cement 

plants, and clay products plants."^

Environmental Considerations. Industrial 

land use category (13) contains the greatest 

number of potential sources of pollution. 

Environmental problems can arise from the open 

storage of raw materials, the manufacturing of 

the products, the storage of the finished 

products and byproducts, and the disposal of 

waste materials.

The most frequent environmental impact is 

the deterioration of water quality and soil 

contamination. These conditions occur because 

of runoff from the raw materials, improper or 

careless storage practices for finished 

products, and improper disposal of harmful 

waste byproducts.

^Description of light industry is taken 

from the Land Use and Natural Resource Classification Manual (Swanson, 1972), p. 14-15.

description of heavy processing 

industries is taken from the Manual of 

Photographic Interpretation, American Society 

of Photogrammetry (1960), p. 701-702.
Open storage of raw materials can lead to 

runoff containing heavy metals, phosphates, 

and other harmful substances which can find 

their way into surface and ground-water 

resources. Contamination from finished 

products can occur from faulty and leaking 

storage tanks, unrevetted storage tanks, and 

careless cleanup practices when a spill or 

leakage occurs.

The most damaging conditions which occur 

are the result of improper disposal of waste 

byproducts. Burying of drums containing toxic 

chemicals in unsafe landfills; directly 

discharging toxics into waterways or onto the 

ground; and unlined, poorly constructed waste 

lagoons all contribute to the deterioration of 

both ground and surface water quality.

At the local level, industries also 

contribute to air and noise pollution. Depending on the type of industry, the air quality 

in the surrounding area may deteriorate. Some 

of the air pollution is caused by auto emissions from employee autos and company trucks. 

Additional air quality problems may arise if 

the industry uses processes which require the 

emission of pollutants into the air.

Noise pollution by industry is generally 

confined to the plant and immediate area, 

effecting mostly those employed by the industry 

and nearby residents.

Interpretation Keys. The following 

examples illustrate various types of industry. 

These examples by no means cover all the 

various industrial types, but they do present 

a good cross section of the Industrial 

category.

Site No. 8 (Rolling Mills-Steel) 

Location: St. Louis

St. Louis City, Missouri 

Geographic Coordinates: 38°37'N

90°18'W

This site is an example of a steel rolling 

mill. The installation would be classified as 

a heavy or processing industry if compared to 

the definitions given in the category description. The stereogram, figure 6-77, shows the 

plant layout, the high-sided buildings, and 

the raw materials yard.

These types of mills have stacks along 

the sides of one of the buildings (point A, 

figure 6-78) which are probably soaking pits 

where the ingots of metal are heated to the 

point where the rolling process can form the 

required steel pieces.

Figure 6-77. Stereogram of a steel rolling 

mill, St. Louis, Mo.

Figure 6-78. Large-scale vertical photograph 

of building layout and stacks, St. Louis, Mo.

The identifying features of this type of 

installation are the long, high-sided buildings 

with the skylights (figure 6-79). The buildings are constructed in this manner to allow 

room for the heavy travelling cranes. These 

cranes move the steel to various processing 

stations within the buildings.

This installation is serviced by both 

truck and railroad. There is marked difference 

in the plant as shown in the small-scale 

stereogram, dated 197A, (figure 6-77) and the 

large-scale oblique photograph taken in 1980 

(figure 6-80). In figure 6-80, tanks have been 

removed from A. Lack of raw materials in the

55
 ;V v ? T:TTw1

raw materials yard, point B, and absence of 

finished products would lead one to believe 

that the mill is no longer active.

Figure 6-79. Ground photograph of high-sided 

building with skylights.

Figure 6-80. Low-altitude oblique photograph 

of steel mill.

Site No. 9 (Barge Building) 

Location: St. Louis

St. Louis City, Missouri 

Geographic Coordinates: 38°32'N

90°15'W

This installation 

St. Louis waterfront 

(figure 6-81).

is located 

south of

on the 

mid-town

Figure 6-81. Barge building and repair, 

St. Louis, Mo.

This installation is a barge-building and 

barge-repair or refitting operation. There are 

several identifying features for this installation. Among these are the number of barges in 

proximity to the installation. The barges are 

not moored in any systematic manner as they 

would be if they were being loaded or unloaded.

The primary identifying features of this 

type installation are shown in figure 6-82. 

Notice the shipways (marine railings) which 

are used to launch the vessels at A. The barge 

is built on the steel tracks, and when the hull 

is completed, it slides down the ways into the 

river. After the barge hull is launched, there 

remains a number of items to be completed, 

such as the decks and hatches. These jobs are 

generally completed while the barge is moored 

in the river. The travelling crane, point B, 

figure 6-82 and point A, figure 6-83, is used 

to move steel into position for welding during 

construction. The raw materials used in barge 

construction, steel, are shown in the form of 

rolls at point C, figure 6-82, and at point A, 

figure 6-84. Directly behind these rolls, at 

point B, figure 6-84, is a large building 

where fabrication of pieces of steel for the 

barges takes place.

In addition to the barges and tugboats 

moored next to the installation, there are two 

drydocks which are used to raise the vessel 

out of the water so that the hull is exposed 

for repair. At D, figure 6-82, is a tugboat 

in one drydock, being repaired or refitted.

This installation, although small in 

comparison to the large shipbuilding yards 

found in the major port cities, has the same 

identifying features. The size and length of 

the shipways will be larger in proportion to 

the size of the ship being constructed. The 

crane will be larger as will be the storage 

and fabrication areas. All of these identifying features will be recognized as a boat or 

shipbuilding area.

56
Figure 6-82. Low-altitude oblique photograph 

showing plant components.

Figure 6-84. Storage yard and fabrication 

building.

Site No. 21 (Cement Plant and Quarry) 

Location: Cape Girardeau

Cape Girardeau County, Missouri 

Geographic Coordinates: 37°16'N

89°32'W

Figure 6-83. Travelling crane.

Located near the southern city limits of 

Cape Girardeau, very near the Mississippi 

River, the plant shown in figures 6-85 through 

6-89 has all of the recognition characteristics 

of a cement plant. Raw materials for the plant 

are obtained from the adjacent quarry shown in 

figure 6-85.

Figure 6-85. Cement plant with quarry, 

Cape Girardeau, Mo.

57
Since the quarry meets minimum size parameters (10 acres), it should be classified as 

category 75. The raw materials are transported 

from the quarry to a cement plant by means of 

a complex conveyor-belt system (figure 6-86).

Additional features associated with cement 

plants are identified in figures 6-87 and 6-88. 

Roasting kilns are shown at A in figure 6-87. 

Actually there are two kilns; however, one is 

obscured by the construction activity at C. 

Also shown at B in figure 6-87 are 10 large

silos. Several silos are shown in figure 

6-88, as well as several cement trucks at A.

Figure 6-86. Conveyor belts used for 

transporting materials to the plant area.

Figure 6-88. Ground photograph of silos and 

cement trucks.

Figure 6-89, presents a good view of the 

entire layout of the cement plant. Notice the 

quarry at A, the conveyor belts at B, storage 

silos at C, and the railroad at D. Although 

not shown on this photograph, port facilities 

are located just east of the plant area.

Figure 6-87. Low-level photograph of 

cement plant.

Figure 6-89. Low-level oblique photograph 

of cement plant with associated features.

58
Site No. 35 (Mine) 

Location: Bunker

Reynolds County, Missouri 

Geographic Coordinates: 37°32'N

91°09'W

The primary purpose of the installation 

in figure 6-90 is to mine lead ore, process it, 

and concentrate it for smelting. This mining 

and the concentration processes that the ore 

is subjected to are generally the same for 

other mines in this area. Building arrangement 

and style of structures may be different; however, the identifying features will be the 

same. Identifying features of the mine are 

shown in figure 6-91: one or more shafts at A, 

an ore crusher building at B, and the concentration building at C. Since the mine uses 

water floatation, it has its own reservoir.

Figure 6-92 shows the plant layout. The reservoir is at A, the mine shafts at B, the crusher 

and concentrating buildings at D, and dewatering tanks at C. The processing buildings, 

built on a hillside, allow for gravity flow 

throughout the processing system.

All above-ground structures and features 

associated with mining activity, such as the 

reservoir, shafts, processing buildings, and 

tailings pond, should be included in category 

13. Figure 6-93 shows the spatial relationship 

of these characteristics: point A the reservoir, point B the mine shafts and processing 

buildings, and point C, the tailings pond.

Figure 6-90. Mapping photograph of a 

mining installation at Bunker, Mo.

Figure 6-92. The mine area, Bunker, Mo.

Figure 6-91. Mine shaft and processing 

building. Figure 6-93. Mine layout, Bunker, Mo.

59
Site No. 36 (Metal Processing) 

Location: Buick

Reynolds County, Missouri 

Geographic Coordinates: 37°3A'N

91°08'W

This is a mine and ore concentration site. 

The final product from this mine is the same as 

that at site 35. This installation is larger 

than site 35 and the individual operations are 

separated. The tailings pond is rather far 

removed from the mine itself, as can be seen 

in figure 6-94, where point A is the mine and 

point B is the tailings pond.

The various components of the installation 

are connected by conveyors. The layout of the 

site is shown in figure 6-95. The mine shafts 

(A) at this mine do not look like the shafts 

at site 35, however, they serve the same 

purpose. The primary crusher (B) has a 

conveyor to the secondary grinder and screener 

(C) also shown at this operation. Also, there 

is a feed back to the primary crusher from the 

secondary grinder. The conveyor then moves 

the material to the silos (D) for storage 

awaiting the concentration process (E). The 

dewatering tanks are shown at F. Since this 

type of mining operation requires considerable 

electric power, a transformer yard was 

constructed at G. Point H indicates the 

location of piles of ore concentrate.

Figure 6-95. Mine layout indicating 

component points.

The ground photograph (figure 6-96) shows 

a close view of one of the mine shafts (A), 

the secondary grinder and screens (B), the 

storage silos (C) , the concentrator and 

processing building (D), and the transformer 

yard (E). This mine, like site 35, is 

serviced by truck and railroad.

Figure 6-94. Small-scale photograph of 

mine area.

Figure 6-96. Ground photograph of mine 

area, Buick, Mo.

60
Site No. 37 (Mine and Smelter) 

Location: Buick

Reynolds County, Missouri 

Geographic Coordinates: 37°34'N

91°08'W

Shown in figure 6-97 is the area covered 

by the mine, smelter, and tailings pond of a 

large new installation near Buick, Missouri.

Figure 6-98 shows a low-level oblique 

photograph of the mining and concentrator area 

at A and the smelter area at B. The mining 

and concentration of lead ore were previously 

illustrated in sites 35 and 36. Therefore, 

the description given here is for the smelting 

area only.

The smelting areas are labeled in figure 

6-99. The concentrate and flux begins the 

smelting process at A where the ingredients 

for smelting are mixed together. Then, by 

conveyor, they are transported to B, the 

sintering building. Sintered material is 

transported to C, the blast furnace. From the 

blast furnace the material moves into the 

refinery building at D. The lead bullion 

awaits shipment at E. Sulfuric acid is a 

byproduct of the smelting process. The fumes 

from the smelting process are piped through 

the bag house (F) to the acid plant (G) where 

they are converted to sulfuric acid.

Figure 6-97. Mapping photograph of mining 

and lead smelting plant at Buick, Mo.

Figure 6-98. Low-level photograph of the mining and smelter areas.

61
- '! « T'

jiTp'srj'rTSv'jl

Site No. 50 (Stave Company) 

Location: Lebanon

Laclede County, Missouri 

Geographic Coordinates: 37°40'N

92°40'W

Site No. 85 (Sawmill) 

Location: Potosi

Washington County, Missouri 

Geographic Coordinates: 37°55'N

90°51'W

These two sites are lumber-related industries and therefore will be considered 

together. Site 50 is a stave mill which, in 

addition to producing barrel staves, also 

produces walnut fixtures. The stave mill is 

located in the town of Lebanon (figure 6-101). 

The sawmill (site 85) is located in a heavily 

forested area (see figure 6-102) and also 

produces pallets.

Figure 6-99. Low-level photograph of lead 

smelter.

Figure 6-100 shows a ground-level photograph of the mixing building (A), the smelting 

building (B), the blast furnace building (C), 

the refinery (D), and the stack for the bag 

house (E).

Figure 6-101. Mapping photograph of the 

stave company, Lebanon, Mo.

Figure 6-100. Ground photograph of the 

smelter area at Buick, Mo. Figure 6-102. Mapping photograph of the 

lumber mill near Potosi, Mo.

62
Raw materials for both plants are wood. 

However, the sawmill uses logs while the stave 

company uses processed lumber. Figure 6-103 

shows lumber piles stacked at A and stave 

processing at B. Figure 6-104 identifies the 

location of the storage area for logs (B) to 

be processed at the sawmill (A).

The logs, before processing, are shown in 

the ground shot at A in figure 6-105, while 

the finished pallets are shown at B.

Figure 6-105. Sawmill and raw materials.

The one identifying feature which is 

identical for both of these industries is the 

sawdust burner. The sawdust burners for the 

stave factory can be seen in figure 6-106, 

while the sawdust burner for the sawmill is 

shown in figure 6-107.

Figure 6-103. Stave factory, Lebanon, Mo.

Figure 6-106. Sawdust burners at the 

stave factory, Lebanon, Mo.

1

Figure 6-104. Sawmill, Potosi, Mo. Figure 6-107. Sawdust burner at the 

lumber mill, Potosi, Mo.

63
 ». i¥

Site No. 60 (Light Industry) 

Location: Springfield

Greene County, Missouri 

Geographic Coordinates: 37°15'N

93°12'W

This plant is located just east of Springfield, Mo., an area surrounded by cropland and 

pasture (figure 6-108). The features which 

identify light processing industries are large 

expansive flat top buildings with low profiles, 

ventilation outlets on the roof, and silos, at 

C, for storage of raw materials (figure 6-109). 

This installation is serviced by rail (A) and 

by truck (B). Truck loading docks are shown at 

E and F. The largest concrete apron and truck 

loading dock (E) is probably the shipping dock, 

while the railroad and truck loading docks at F 

are most likely used for delivery of raw materials. Also note the employee parking at D.

Figure 6-108.--Mapping photograph of light 

processing industry east of Springfield, Mo.

Figure 6-109. Low-level oblique photograph 

of light industry.

Also notice in figure 6-110 the rail tank 

car at A. With light industry, the silos may 

not always be present, but the remaining 

identifying features will be.

Figure 6-110. Ground shot of 

building shows low profile, 

and storage silos.

light industry 

loading docks,

Site No. 66 (Dam-Hydroelectric) 

Location: Table Rock Reservoir

Taney County, Missouri 

Geographic Coordinates: 36°36'N

93°19'W

Site No. 71 (Nuclear Power Plant) 

Location: Reform

Callaway County, Missouri 

Geographic Coordinates: 38°45'N

91°45'W

Site No. 96 (Thomas Hill Power PlantThermal) 

Location: Thomas Hill Reservoir

Randolph County, Missouri 

Geographic Coordinates: 39°33'N

92°38'W

Sites 66, 71, and 96 are power plants. 

These sites represent the three major types of 

power generation plants: hydroelectric, 

nuclear, and thermal. Some of the identifying 

features are the same for all (transformer 

yards and transmission lines), while other 

identification features are unique.

Site No. 66 is a hydroelectric plant. 

Although there is machinery and equipment 

associated with this plant, it is housed within 

the dam. The identifying features associated 

with this industry are shown on figure 6-111, 

particularly the dam (A). The electrical 

generator area is identified by tailraces at 

B. The water in the reservoir is funneled past

64
a set of turbines which are rotated by water 

pressure. The turbines are in turn attached 

to generators for developing electric current. 

The transformer yard, at C, is a starting point 

for transmitting the electric current. In 

addition to using the dam as a means of generating electric power, the reservoir provides 

recreational activities. At D, a fish 

hatchery uses cold water from a reservoir.

Figure 6-111. Table Rock hydroelectric 

power generation dam.

Site No. 71 is a nuclear power plant under 

construction. Figure 6-112, photographed in 

July 1980, shows the plant under construction. 

There are many features which can be used to 

identify a nuclear plant. Among these features 

are the cooling tower (A) and the nuclear 

reactor building (B) . In this particular 

photograph, because these items are under 

construction, they are difficult to identify. 

Nuclear power plants require a source of cooling water (C) as do thermal power plants (site 

96). In the nuclear plant, the nuclear reactor 

creates the heat to convert the water to superheated steam which drives the turbines which 

turn the generators. Prior to discharge, water 

must be cooled and purified for further use. 

The ground photograph (figure 6-113), taken in 

June 1981, clearly shows the cooling tower (A) 

and the nuclear reactor building (B).

Site 96 is a thermal power plant. Figure 

6-114, taken on April 11, 1977, shows the plant 

prior to recent expansion. The plant is 

located next to a reservoir so that water 

needed for cooling is readily available. Also, 

note that it is located in an area where there 

is a great deal of surface mineable coal for 

fuel. Features which identify the installation

Figure 6-112. Nuclear plant under 

construction near Reform, Mo., July 1980.

are shown in figure 6-115: the coal pile (A) 

to be used for fuel and the conveyor belt 

which transports the coal to the main plant (B 

and C). In the plant, the coal is put through 

tube or ball mills to grind it into a fine 

powder. This coal powder is used to fire the 

boiler which heats the water and converts it 

to steam to turn turbines that run the generators. The water is then cooled (D). Another 

identifiable feature is the transformer yard 

(E).

Figure 6-113. Ground photograph of the 

same nuclear power plant, June 1981.

65
The installation is served by both railroad and highway. The rectangular pattern of 

stock pens at A, figure 6-117, is one of its 

identifying features. The buildings at B are 

also divided into pens; this can be clearly 

seen only from the ground (figure 6-118).

Figure 6-114. Mapping photograph of thermal 

power plant at Thomas Hill Reservoir, 

April 1977.

The photograph in figure 6-115 was taken 

in 1981. Construction has produced a great 

deal of change since the time the photograph 

was acquired for figure 6-114.

Figure 6-116. Mapping photograph of 

the stockyards in Kansas City, Mo.

Figure 6-117. Low-altitude oblique 

photograph of the stockyards in Kansas City,

Figure 6-115. Low-level oblique photograph 

of the thermal power plant, 1981.

Site No. 81 (Stockyards) 

Location: Kansas City

Jackson County, Missouri 

Geographic Coordinates: 39°06'N,

94°37'W

This land use type (figure 6-116) is a 

unique type of industrial installation which 

does not exist to the extent of the others 

previously illustrated. If the installation 

was in the countryside, it probably would be 

confused with confined feeding category 23.

Figure 6-118. Ground photograph of stockyards.

66
Site No. 90 (Coal Processing Plant) 

Location: Hartford

Putnam County, Missouri 

Geographic Coordinates: 40°29'N

92°52'W

This coal processing plant, figure 6-119, 

is located in the coal surface mining area of 

northern Missouri. Its function is to receive 

the coal, crush it, and grade it into specific 

sizes. The coal is either mined nearby or 

trucked in from more distant areas for 

processing. At this installation, the coal is

Figure 6-119. Low-altitude oblique photograph 

of a coal processing plant near Hartford, Mo.

f s

primarily obtained from the surface mine area 

at point A. At the plant, the coal is moved to 

the crusher house (figure 6-120), and transported by conveyors to various areas of the 

yard where it awaits shipment (figure 6-121) 

to truck loading chutes (B, figure 6-120).

Figure 6-120. Low-altitude vertical 

photograph of processing plant, Hartford, Mo.

Figure 6-121. Coal in bin awaiting 

transshipment.

Site No. 100 (Chemical Plant) 

Location: Louisiana

Pike County, Missouri 

Geographic Coordinates: 39°41'N

91°19'W ;

This chemical plant, figure 6-122, is 

divided into various sections which constitute 

different types of processing. The features 

which identify this installation as a chemical 

plant are visible on both the large-scale 

photograph and the ground photograph. The 

fractionating towers may be seen in several 

areas of the plant (A, figures 6-122, 6-123, 

and 6-124). There are also cooling towers in 

each area of chemical processing (B, figures 

6-122, 6-123, and 6-124). The various types of 

storage tanks, spherical and cylindrical, are 

seen throughout the plant (C, figure 6-122 and 

6-123). Also visible is numerous piping used 

for specific processing, as well as for connecting the various parts of the plant. A 

coal-fueled power plant is located at D, figure 

6-122. The plant is served by river, truck, 

and railroad, as shown at E in figure 6-122.

These Industrial category illustrations 

are but a few of the land use classification 

types in the State of Missouri, and represent 

the categories of light and heavy industry 

described in U.S. Geological Survey 

Professional Paper 964 (Anderson and others, 

1976).

67
Figure 6-122. Vertical photograph of the chemical plant at Louisiana, Mo.

Figure 6-123. Fractionating columns and tanks.

Category 14 Transportation, 

Communications, and Utilities

Category Description. Major transportation routes and areas greatly influence other 

land uses. The types and extent of routes 

determine the degree of access and thus affect 

the present and potential use of an area.

Linear areas of highways and railroads 

are among the land use types included in this

Figure 6-124. Fractionating columns and 

cooling towers.

category. The highways include rights-of-way, 

interchanges, and service and terminal 

facilities. Rail facilities include stations, 

parking lots, roundhouses, repair and switching yards, and related areas. Also included 

are overland track and spur connections of 

sufficient width for delineation at mapping 

scale.

Airports, seaports, and major lake and 

river ports are also included in this category.

68
Airport facilities include all the runways, 

intervening land, terminals, service buildings, 

navigation aids, fuel storage, parking lots, 

and limited buffer zones. Port facilities 

include docks, shipyards, drydocks, locks, and 

waterway control structures.

Finally, communications and utilities 

areas are included in this category. Communications and utilities areas are those involved 

with the processing, treatment, and transportation of water, gas, oil, electricity, and areas 

used for airwave communications. Included are 

pumping stations, electric substations, and 

areas used for radio, radar, or television 

antennas.

Environmental Considerations. Transportation facilities such as highways, railroads, 

airports, and riverports are potential water 

pollution sources. The pollution occurs as a 

result of runoff and leakage of fossil fuels 

associated with these facilities. River and 

lake ports have a high potential for pollution. 

Leakage and spillage of raw chemicals, petroleum products, coal, and other cargo handled 

and distributed in ports can be detrimental to 

water quality and aquatic life, and cause 

health problems for adjacent communities. 

Toxic substances such as polychlorinated 

biphenyl (PCB), used in diesel locomotive 

transformers and motors, are often stored at 

railroad yards and repair shops. The land 

around airport facilities is often used for 

solid waste disposal, creating a potential for 

soil and water contamination. Accidental 

discharge of toxic chemicals in transport via 

highways and railways can release these 

poisons to the soil, water, and air. The toxin 

can sterilize the soil, reduce air quality, 

and contaminate ground water. Almost all major 

transportation facilities, especially those 

with heavy traffic, are generally associated 

with unacceptable levels of noise and inferior 

air quality.

Waste-water treatment plants can be a 

major source of water pollution. Obsolete, 

inadequate, and overloaded facilities result 

in the discharge of effluents that do not meet 

water quality standards, and at times raw 

sewage may be discharged into the natural 

drainage system.

When ecologically sensitive areas such as 

wetlands and forestlands are altered, the 

whole ecosystem may be changed. Facilities 

associated with the distant transport of 

communications and electricity have rights-ofway clearing through forest and other natural 

areas which can also have adverse impacts on 

the environment. Rights-of-way are usually 

sprayed with pesticides and herbicides which 

can have a detrimental effect on wildlife and

contribute to water pollution by surface 

runoff.

Interpretation Keys. The following nine 

sites illustrate the land use types associated 

with the Transportation, Communications, and 

Utilities category.

Site No. 10 (Highway Intersection) 

Location: St. Louis

St. Louis City, Missouri 

Geographic Coordinates: 38°38'N

90°17'W

Figure 6-125 shows the intersection of 

U.S. Highway 40 and Hampton Avenue in 

St. Louis, Missouri. It is an excellent 

example of a major urban arterial road and a 

controlled-access highway. The cloverleaf-type 

intersections, dividing medians, and the rightof-way, are all included when delineating 

highways. However, they must meet the minimum 

width requirements of the land use and land 

cover specifications (300 feet wide for 

controlled-access highways). On the aerial 

photograph, the highway is easily recognizable 

by its lighter, smooth texture and ribbonlike 

appearance. The dividing medians between 

lanes are identified by their darker tone and 

position. The rectangular images on the road 

surfaces are cars and trucks.

Figure 6-125. A low-level photograph of a 

highway cloverleaf, St. Louis, Mo.

Site No. 11 (Truck Terminal) 

Location: St. Louis

St. Louis City, Missouri 

Geographic Coordinates: 38°31'N

90°12'W

69
Truck terminals generally provide maintenance and serve as a transfer point for shifting loads between trucks. They are classified 

as category 14 whenever they meet minimum mapping size requirements. Such a truck terminal 

has been circled in figure 6-126. Notice its 

proximity to a major transportation route 

Interstate 55 to its left. The transfer 

building is the long, narrow, white structure 

in the circle on the photograph. Near the top 

center of the circle at A is a smaller square 

maintenance and repair building.

Rail facilities in this land use category 

include stations, roundhouses, repair shops, 

switching and storage yards, and related 

areas, as well as surface track and spur 

connections of sufficient width for map 

delineation.

Rail facilities circled in figure 6-128 

are representative of those in land use 

category 14. Often single- and double-track 

railroad beds are too narrow for delineation 

on small-scale land use maps.

Figure 6-126. Mapping photograph of 

a truck terminal, St. Louis, Mo.

Truck terminal facilities can be seen 

more clearly in the vertical photograph shown 

in figure 6-127. Notice the transfer building 

at A, the maintenance and repair shop at B, 

and parking facilities at C. The volume of 

business activity at this terminal is 

reflected by the size of its parking space and 

the number of trailers parked at the transfer 

building.

Figure 6-128.--Mapping photograph of 

rail facilities, St. Louis, Mo.

The southern choke-point for these yards 

is shown at point A in figure 6-129. The 

choke-point is that point in the yards where 

the main line branches out into the rail yards. 

Figure 6-129 also shows related rail facilities 

(switching and storage yards at B, repair shops 

at C, and a warehouse at D). Notice the tracks 

entering the repair shops. At D, notice the 

truck trailers backed up to the warehouse 

loading docks (docks not visible).

Figure 6-127. Truck terminal, St. Louis, Mo.

Site No. 12 (Railroad Yards) 

Location: St. Louis

St. Louis City, Missouri 

Geographic Coordinates: 38°35'N

90°12'W

Figure 6-129. Low-level oblique photograph 

of rail facilities on St. Louis waterfront.

Railroads, with their yards, tracks, and 

repair facilities, are easily recognized by 

their linear pattern. The yards all emanate 

from a choke-point on the main tracks, the

70
spurs usually parallel storage buildings, and 

repair shops have tracks entering or running 

through them.

Site No. 61 (Railroad Yards and Repair

Shops) 

Location: Springfield

Greene County, Missouri 

Geographic Coordinates: 37°13'N

93°20'W

Figure 6-130 presents another view of a 

railroad yard with repair shops. As with site 

12, this railroad facility exhibits the common 

photorecognition characteristics a widening 

area of parallel tracks emanating from a 

choke-point on the main tracks, large repair 

buildings with tracks entering the structures, 

and an irregular track pattern in the repair 

area of the railroad yard.

Figure 6-130. Mapping photograph of 

the railroad yard at Springfield, Mo.

Site details are seen in figure 6-131. 

Located at Springfield, the site is part of 

the Burlington Northern railroad line. Repair 

shops are located at A, while the main switching and car storage area is at B. Notice the 

irregular track pattern of the repair area. 

The repair shop and employee parking lot are 

shown from ground level in figure 6-132.

Figure 6-131. Low-altitude oblique photograph 

of the switching yard and repair shops.

Figure 6-132. Burlington Northern diesel 

repair shop.

Site No. 42 (Airport) 

Location: Vichy

Maries County, Missouri 

Geographic Coordinates: 38°08'N

91°46'W

Airports, with their runways, hangars, 

shops, and associated facilities, are included 

in land use category 14. Airports vary in 

size from grass landing strips to vast 

complexes in urban areas. The key identifying 

photographic feature of an airport is an area 

cleared of vegetation and other obstructions 

and with long, linear runway surfaces. If the 

airport is more than just a grass landing strip 

(which are not shown on l:250,000-scale U.S. 

Geological Survey land use and land cover 

maps), it will normally have smaller parallel 

taxi strips, aircraft parking aprons, hangars, 

and passenger terminals. The primary runways 

are normally oriented into the prevailing wind.

Figure 6-133 is a stereogram of the Rolla 

National Airport at Vichy. This stereoscopic 

image illustrates level terrain of the airport.

The airport's primary function is to 

provide maintenance and storage facilities for 

general aviation aircraft. Charter flights 

are also common; however, at the time of this 

writing, there were no scheduled commercial 

flights. This accounts for the lack of large 

terminal buildings and other built-up facilities in figure 6-134. The main runways are 

located at A and B, the main hangars at C, and 

taxi strips at D.

71
Figure 6-135 shows three DC-3 aircraft 

parked in front of one of the main hangars.

Site No. 62 (Downtown Airport) 

Location: Springfield

Greene County, Missouri 

Geographic Coordinates: 37°13'N

93°15'W

Figure 6-136 shows the Springfield Downtown Airport. Like most downtown airports, 

open areas which once surrounded the facility 

are now occupied by residential (A) or commercial structures (B). Frequently, these airport 

facilities are abutted by other land use categories. As residents become more and more 

concerned about potential aircraft accidents, 

more attempts are made to close the facilities.

Figure 6-133. Stereogram of airport 

at Vichy, Mo.

Figure 6-136. Mapping photograph of 

Downtown Airport, Springfield, Mo.

Figure 6-137, depicts the single paved 

runway at A, taxi strip at B, parking aprons 

(grass rather than hard surface), and hangar 

facilities at C.

Figure 6-134. Low-level oblique of Rolla 

National Airport at Vichy, Mo.

Figure 6-135.--DC-3 aircraft parked on 

apron at Rolla National Airport, Vichy, Mo.

Figure 6-137. Downtown airport, 

Springfield, Mo.

Site No. 14 (Municipal Water Treatment

Plant) 

Location: St. Louis

St. Louis City, Missouri 

Geographic Coordinates: 38°45'N

90°11'W

72
One of the two municipal water treatment 

plants in St. Louis, Missouri, is pictured in 

figure 6-138. This plant, the Chain of Rocks 

Waterworks, uses the Mississippi River for its 

water source. The water is pumped into 

settling tanks where, after a period of time, 

heavier particulate materials and impurities 

settle out. Later the water is filtered, 

chlorinated, and then distributed to the 

city's water mains. The settling tanks and 

water treatment areas are more clearly shown 

in figure 6-139. The settling tanks appear as 

the larger rectangular tanks at A, the water 

treatment tanks are square tanks at B, and the 

treatment plant is shown at C.

Figure 6-138. Mapping photograph of 

Chain of Rocks Waterworks in St. Louis, Mo.

Figure 6-140. Ground-level photograph of 

Chain of Rocks Waterworks.

Site No. 63. (Water Treatment Plant) 

Location: Springfield

Greene County, Missouri 

Geographic Coordinates: 37°10'N

93°13'W

This plant, just newly constructed, 

supplements the supply of water provided by 

the plant at Fullbright Spring. The water for 

the plant is pumped from the James River, 

treated, then pumped into the city's water 

mains. The low-level vertical photograph shown 

in figure 6-141 was taken in July 1980, near 

the final phases of construction. Notice the 

rectangular shape of the treatment tanks.

A visit to the site in January 1981 

revealed that the plant had been placed in 

operation (see figure 6-142) .

...4

Figure 6-139. Oblique photograph of 

Chain of Rocks Waterworks.

Figure 6-140 presents a ground-level 

photograph of the settling tanks in the 

foreground with the treatment plant in the 

background.

Figure 6-141. Water treatment plant under 

construction, July 1980, Springfield Mo.

73
secondary tanks are shown at B. The tanks at 

C are newly constructed and were not in operation at the time of the photograph (June 1981).

Figure 6-142. Water treatment plant in 

operation, January 1981, Springfield, Mo.

Site No. 13 (Sewage Treatment Plant) 

Location: Lemay

St. Louis County, Missouri 

Geographic Coordinates: 38°32'N

90°17'W

Site No. 91 (Sewage Treatment Plant) 

Location: Kirksville

Adair County, Missouri 

Geographic Coordinates: 40°09'N

92°34'W

Sewage treatment plants are found in or 

around most medium or large cities. There are 

many different processes by which sewage can 

be treated, however, the identifiable features 

are nearly the same for all plants.

Site 13, figure 6-143, shows a sewage 

treatment plant for St. Louis City prior to 

expansion. The array of rectangular tanks is 

a typical identifying feature. The large-scale 

oblique photograph (figure 6-144), taken June 

1980, shows the expanded plant. There are two 

types of tanks visible in this photograph; 

initial processing tanks are shown at A and

Figure 6-144. Low-altitude oblique photograph 

(1980) of sewage treatment plant undergoing 

additional construction, St. Louis, Mo.

Site 91 is a small sewage treatment plant 

just south of Kirksville, Missouri. The plant 

has circular tanks, as opposed to the rectangular tanks at site 13. Figure 6-145 shows the 

plant layout and several identifying features. 

Point A is the area of initial processing 

where the screening and grinding of raw sewage 

occurs. At B are two primary settling tanks. 

The tone of the liquid in the tanks is a clue 

to the process flow. The darker tanks at C 

contain water which has been treated, while 

the lighter tanks at B hold raw sewage. The 

two circular white tanks at D are probably 

digester tanks where the material that settles 

out by the settling process is converted to 

sludge. Point E is the outlet where the 

treated effluent flows into a nearby stream.

Figure 6-143.--Small-scale photograph of 

St. Louis sewage treatment plant, 1974.

Figure 6-145. Low-altitude oblique photograph 

of sewage treatment plant, Kirksville, Mo.

74
Category 15 Industrial and Commercial 

Complexes

Category Description. The Industrial and 

Commercial Complexes category includes those 

industrial and commercial land uses that typically occur together or in close functional 

proximity. These areas are commonly referred 

to as "Industrial Parks." The major types of 

business establishments located in these 

planned industrial parks are light manufacturing, printing, distributing, research and 

development facilities, and computer systems 

companies, in addition to warehousing, 

wholesaling, and retailing.

Environmental Considerations. Industrial

and Commercial Complexes are a minimum source 

of pollutants. The clean industries and 

commercial establishments in these "parks" 

generally are nonpolluting types. However, 

improper disposal of wastes and spillage of 

working materials will produce adverse 

environmental effects. Excessive surface 

water runoff from buildings and hard-surfaced 

parking areas creates the potential for flash 

flooding.

Interpretation Keys. Areas which meet 

specifications for Industrial and Commercial 

Complexes are not widespread. The following 

example, however, is representative of land 

use category 15.

Site No. 15 (Industrial and Commercial

Complexes) 

Location: Robertson

St. Louis County, Missouri. 

Geographic Coordinates: 38°46'N

90°23'W

The photograph at figure 6-146 shows an 

industrial/commercial area just north of 

Lambert-St. Louis Airport. The buildings are 

modern in design with ample parking for 

employees. The warehouse and manufacturing 

buildings are serviced by railroad for transportation of raw materials and finished 

products. The ground photograph, figure 6-147, 

provides a closeup of one of the buildings and 

the well-kept grounds.

Industrial and Commercial Complexes are 

usually located in suburban or rural areas. 

The key identifying feature is the planned 

layout of buildings exhibiting the same or very 

similar construction. The lack of smokestacks, 

storage tanks, raw materials or finished 

products, and wastes signifies that no heavy 

industries are present.

'' - '.<- " t U « ">= ,. H f ~ £"

T F '" -| I* - r ~~ U '" - JL^ujiy11 J -" ' ; ' "'* i- -' \ \9.

Figure 6-146. Low-altitude oblique photograph 

of an Industrial and Commercial Complex, 

St. Louis County, Mo.

Figure 6-147. Ground photograph of Industrial 

and Commercial Complex.

Category 16 Mixed Urban or Built-up Land

Category Description. The Mixed Urban or 

Built-up Land category is used when a mixture 

of urban uses cannot be separated into individual categories at mapping scales. Where 

more than one-third intermixture of another 

use or uses occurs in a specific area, it is 

classified as Mixed Urban or Built-up Land. 

This category includes developments along 

transportation routes and in cities, towns, 

and built-up areas where separate land uses 

cannot be mapped individually at map scale.

Environmental Considerations. This category, a mixture of urban land uses, such as 

residential, industrial, and commercial has 

the same potential for pollution as the land 

use categories which comprise it. Excessive 

runoff can affect water quality and produce a 

potential for flooding during heavy rainfalls.

75
Air quality and noise levels can be affected 

by this land use category as well.

Interpretation Keys. The following are 

examples of Mixed Urban or Built-up Land 

category 16.

Site No. 16 (Mixed Urban or Built-up Land) 

Location: St. Louis

St. Louis City, Missouri 

Geographic Coordinates: 38°38'N

90°15'W

Figure 6-148, an urban area east of Forest 

Park is an excellent example of Mixed Urban or 

Built-up Land. This site has several hotels 

and motels, apartments, duplexes, hospitals, 

schools, churches, office buildings, and other 

commercial activities. The main land uses are 

commercial and residential, but in areas where 

more than one-third is mixed, it is classified 

as Mixed Urban or Built-up Land.

The oblique photograph in figure 6-149 

shows height of the buildings, irregular 

building pattern, rectangular streets, and 

various sizes and shapes of the buildings. 

The key identifying feature of Mixed Urban or

Figure 6-148. Mapping photograph of Mixed 

Urban or Built-up Land area, St Louis, Mo.

Built-up Land is its combination of both 

residential and commercial structures.

Site No. 64 (Mixed Urban or Built-up Land) 

Location: Springfield

Greene County, Missouri 

Geographic Coordinates: 37°12'N

93°17'W

Figure 6-150 shows an example of the Mixed 

Urban or Built-up Land in Springfield. This 

area is adjacent to the central business 

district; the small lighter tones and images 

are single-family residences or duplexes. The 

residential and commercial categories are too 

small to separate at the mapping scale; therefore, the area should be classified as a 

"mixed" category. On the small-scale mapping 

photograph (figure 6-150) it is evident that 

the "mixed" category is a transitional 

category between residential and commercial.

Figure 6-150. Mapping photograph of a Mixed 

Urban and Built-up Land area, Springfield, Mo.

The large-scale photograph (figure 6-151) 

shows the complex intermixture of the various 

sizes and shapes of the buildings which make 

up this category.

Figure 6-149. Low-altitude oblique photograph 

of Mixed Urban or Built-up Land area.

Figure 6-151. Large-scale photograph of Mixed 

Urban and Built-up Land area.

76
Category 17 Other Urban or Built-up Land

Category Description. Other Urban or 

Built-up Land consists of such land uses as 

parks, cemeteries, waste dumps, water control 

structures and spillways, golf courses and 

driving ranges, and undeveloped land within 

the urban area.

Environmental Considerations. Landfills 

are the main potential pollution sources in 

this category. Uncontrolled waste dumps are 

becoming obsolete since most communities 

dispose of waste in sanitary landfills or 

recycle it. (Note that sanitary landfills are 

classified as land use category 76 rather than 

17.) Parks, public lands, golf courses, zoos, 

and undeveloped land all provide open areas 

which for the most part are nonpolluting.

Interpretation Keys. The next four sites 

are land use examples included in category 17.

Site No. 17 (Forest Park) 

Location: St. Louis

St. Louis City, Missouri 

Geographic Coordinates: 38°38'N

90°17'W

Key recognition features of parks are 

irregular road patterns, the coarse photographic texture which results from tree cover, 

and various athletic fields. Larger parks 

usually have a pond or lake, while others have 

museums and bandstands. Urban parks are 

usually surrounded by residential or commercial 

areas.

Figure 6-152, Forest Park in St. Louis, 

illustrates a large urban park in a metropolitan area. It is a good example of this 

category. There is a diversity of activity 

visible within the confines of the park. In 

this photograph are parking lots (A), ball 

diamonds (B), tennis courts (C), golf courses 

(D) , a zoo (E), and the Muny Opera (F) with 

its separate parking lot and seating area.

This site is indicative of the larger 

metropolitan parks. There are, however, 

smaller parks throughout the State in the 

medium and small towns which do not have all 

of the activities associated with them that 

the larger parks have. Many times without 

auxiliary source material, the park area may 

appear as a grove of trees and not be 

decernible as a park. Since most parks are 

generally surrounded by built-up area, by 

definition, they will generally fall in this 

category.

Figure 6-152. Mapping photograph of 

Forest Park in St. Louis, Mo.

In the vertical photograph of figure 

6-153 can be seen the zoo with its animal 

shelters, enclosures, aquatic animal ponds, 

and walkways between the different exhibits.

Figure 6-153. Large-scale photograph of 

the St. Louis Zoo.

Site No. 47 (Golf Course) 

Location: Fort Leonard Wood

Pulaski County, Missouri 

Geographic Coordinates: 37°44'N

92°05'W

Golf courses are also included in the 

Other Urban or Built-up Land category. Often 

they are located within urban areas, in parks, 

and on outskirts of suburban residential areas.

77
If the golf course is part of an athletic 

complex, the built-up area consists of the 

clubhouse, swimming pool, and parking lots, 

and if these facilities meet minimum size 

requirements, they are mapped as category 12. 

If they are not large enough, they are 

included in category 17.

Figure 6-154, a small-scale photograph, 

shows the layout of the Fort Leonard Wood golf 

course. With proper magnification, the fairways, bunkers, and greens can be identified. 

However, in this photograph, all that can be 

detected is the general cleared fairways and 

white spots sand traps.

Figure 6-154. Mapping photograph of the golf 

course at Fort Leonard Wood, Mo.

The fairways, darker in tone and smoother 

in texture than the "rough", are clearly visible on the large-scale photograph (figure 

6-155). At the end of each fairway, the 

greens, with their associated light-toned sand 

traps, are easily identified. The fairways 

are cleared of trees or when retained, line 

the fairways on one or both sides.

Site No. 18 (Cemetery) 

Location: Mehlville

St. Louis County, Missouri 

Geographic Coordinates: 38°30'N

90°17'W

Cemeteries are likewise included in 

category 17. Most larger cemeteries are 

within or close to an urban area. Many of the 

smaller rural cemeteries are too small to 

delineate at land use mapping scales. Cemeteries may have regular or irregular road 

patterns with the area generally open with 

shade trees bordering the roads. Figure 6-156 

is a mapping photograph of the National 

Cemetery at Jefferson Barracks in south 

St. Louis County.

Figure 6-156. Mapping photograph of National 

Cemetery near Mehlville, Mo. >:?

Under magnification, figure 6-157 illustrates symmetrical patterns of the gravestones.

Figure 6-155. Large-scale photograph of 

Fort Leonard Wood golf course.

Figure 6-157. Large-scale photograph of 

road pattern and gravestones.

78
Site No. 92 (Cemetery) 

Location: Kirksville

Adair County, Missouri 

Geographic Coordinates: 40°10'N

92°34'W

Figure 6-158 is a smaller cemetery near 

Kirksville, Missouri, located in the northern 

part of the State. The light-toned road 

pattern, the scattered shade trees, and lack 

of buildings help identify this site as a 

cemetery. In the vertical photograph, figure 

6-158, the light-toned dot-shaped images are 

gravestones. Notice the linear arrangement of 

the graves.

The ground photograph, figure 6-159, shows 

the well-kept grounds and regular spacing of 

the grave markers.

Figure 6-158. Large-scale photograph of 

the cemetery layout at Kirksville, Mo.

Figure 6-159. Ground photograph of cemetery.

LEVEL I, CATEGORY 2 - AGRICULTURAL LAND

Agricultural Land may be defined broadly 

as land used primarily for production of food 

and fiber, or, as in the case of farmsteads, 

built-up service areas associated with

agricultural practices. In Missouri, 

approximately 63 percent of the land is used 

for agriculture most of which is either 

cropland or pasture.

On aerial photographs, particularly 

high-altitude photographs, the primary 

recognition characteristics of agricultural 

activity are the distinctive geometric field 

and road patterns on the landscape, the traces 

produced by livestock or mechanized equipment, 

and the variations in photographic tones (gray 

levels) of the adjacent land parcels. 

Compared with the Urban or Built-up Land 

categories previously discussed, the number of 

building complexes is less and the density of 

the road and highway network is much lower in 

Agricultural Land areas. Finally, there is a 

marked deficiency of woodland vegetation.

The Level II categories of Agricultural 

Land are: Cropland and Pasture; Orchards, 

Groves, Vineyards, Nurseries, and Ornamental 

Horticultural Areas; Confined Feeding 

Operations; and Other Agricultural Land.

Category 21 Cropland and Pasture

Category Description. The Cropland and 

Pasture category includes harvested croplands, 

summer-fallow and idle croplands, croplands in 

soil-improvement grasses and legumes, croplands 

used for pasture in rotating crops, and 

improved as well as idle pasture. Approximately 62 percent (28 million acres) of 

Missouri is used as cropland or pasture. Of 

this amount, roughly two-thirds is cropland. 

The majority of Missouri's croplands are 

located in northern Missouri north of the 

Missouri River. The remaining croplands are 

located in the bootheel area of the State and 

along alluvial flood plains.

It is also important to note that the 

U.S. Geological Survey's classification system 

does not separate cropland from pasture in the 

Level II land use and land cover mapping. Even 

at Level III, it is difficult to separate the 

two categories. Generally, a Level III 

differentiation between cropland and pasture 

areas required excessive field validation.

Concerning the separation of cropland from 

pasture, most croplands exist where the slopes 

are less than 10 percent. However, with 

certain conservation management practices, such 

as terracing, croplands may occur on slopes 

slightly greater than 10 percent. In the 

latter case, the terracing practices help to 

identify the areas as croplands. Accordingly, 

as the slope of the land increases beyond 10 

percent, one finds less cropland and more 

pasture.

79
Environmental Considerations. Cropland 

and Pasture areas are most frequently associated with nonpoint pollution. Since the farmer 

must first prepare the land for planting, 

fertilize it, and then use pesticides to 

protect the crops, there are many pollution 

possiblities.

If tillage farming is used, loosened soil 

particles become prime candidates for transport 

to nearby water bodies. If medium to heavy 

precipitation follows shortly after a field 

has been plowed, numerous particles of soil 

can be transported to nearby water bodies as 

part of the surface runoff. The term used to 

refer to the condition of soil particles 

suspended in water is "sediment load." When a 

farmer does not take precautions to lessen the 

amount of surface soil loss which can occur 

with surface runoff, the number of soil 

particles entering nearby water bodies may 

increase significantly. When the sediment 

load becomes 1,000 parts per million or 

higher, there is a greater probability that 

aquatic plant and animal life may be adversely 

affected. The increase in sediment load 

reduces sunlight penetration, thereby reducing 

plant growth. Reduced plant growth reduces 

the level of oxygen plant production which 

affects the ability of certain fish species to 

survive in these waters.

In addition to soil erosion from plowed 

areas, pasture areas may also become a source 

for transportable soil particles, particularly 

where livestock overgrazing has denuded the 

landscape. However, the extent of soil 

particle contribution from overgrazing is much 

less than that which occurs from plowing.

In Missouri, soil loss and the subsequent 

increase of sediment load is by far the 

greatest surface water quality contaminant.

Besides the potential for increased sediment loads in nearby streams, cropland areas 

are also a source for such chemical pollutants 

as fertilizers and pesticides. As with loose 

soil particles, any residues from fertilizer 

or pesticide applications may be carried to 

nearby streams with surface runoff. Accordingly, the farmer must exercise care in the 

application of such materials to reduce the 

potential for water quality degradation.

Interpretation Keys. Cropland and Pasture 

areas are depicted in several examples which 

follow.

Figure 6-160 illustrates the characteristic checkerboard pattern of cropland areas in 

northwestern Missouri near Plymouth. The 

checkerboard pattern results from different 

crop stages (exhibited by varying gray tones) 

and differences in tillage directions. Cropland areas, generally devoid of trees, possess 

a smoother texture than pasture land areas. A 

small pasture area lies just south of the 

east-west road to the west of a small 

farmstead in figure 6-160 at point A. Note 

the mottled texture of this area. The oblique 

photograph (figure 6-161) shows more clearly 

the characteristic checkerboard cropland 

pattern and the general lack of trees in 

cropland areas.

Figure 6-160. Mapping photograph of cropland 

near Plymouth, Mo.

Figure 6-161. Low-level photograph of 

cropland near Plymouth, Mo.

Site No. 93 (Cropland) 

Location: Plymouth

Livingston County, Missouri 

Geographic Coordinates: 39°37'N

93°43'W

Site No. 44 (Pasture) 

Location: Jerome

Phelps County, Missouri 

Geographic Coordinates: 37°58'N

91°59'W

80
Figure 6-162, along the Gasconade River, 

presents an interesting pasture land photographic image. The white dots (or small 

circles) identify former locations of hay 

bales. Figure 6-163, of the same area but 

taken in winter, does not exhibit the dot 

pattern. Notice also the differences in gray 

values for the two figures. The winter scene 

in figure 6-163, shows the pasture area as a 

much lighter gray than in figure 6-162. 

Although the area may be in pasture at the 

time of figure 6-162 (June 1980), chances are 

that it will revert to cropland in the near 

future. This highlights another important 

point using aerial photography, one must 

delineate the land use of an area according to 

its use at time of photographic acquisition.

Figure 6-164 shows another cropland area 

near Chamois along the Missouri River. The 

linear pattern of cropping techniques is easily 

recognized and the fact that the area is devoid 

of trees supports classification as cropland. 

Figure 6-165 provides a better illustration.

Figure 6-164. Mapping photograph of cropland 

near Chamois, Mo.

Figure 6-162. Low-level photograph of 

pasture land near Jerome, Mo., June 1980.

Figure 6-163. Mapping photograph of pasture 

land near Jerome, January 1976.

Site No. 68 (Cropland) 

Location: Chamois

Osage County, 

Geographic Coordinates:

Missouri

38°40'N

91°45'W

Figure 6-165. Oblique photograph of 

cropland near Chamois, Mo.

Category 22 Orchards, Groves,

Vineyards, Nurseries, and Ornamental

Horticultural Areas

Category Description. Category 22 includes 

orchards, groves, vineyards, nurseries, and 

ornamental horticultural areas which produce 

various fruit and nut crops ; nurseries and 

horticultural areas are used permanently for 

such purposes. Included in these land use 

categories are floricultural and seed-and-sod 

areas, and some greenhouses. Tree nurseries, 

which provide seedlings for plantation forestry, are also included in category 22 when 

they meet the minimum acreage requirements.

81
Orchards and groves are some of the more 

easily recognized land use types on aerial 

photographs, particularly during the growing 

season. The primary recognition feature is 

the grid pattern exhibited by the equally 

spaced rows of trees or bushes. Although the 

grid pattern is more easily identified on 

large-scale photographs, it is also discernible 

on high-altitude aerial photographs when they 

are appropriately magnified.

Environmental Considerations. Potential 

environment impacts from orchards, groves, and 

vineyards are very similar to those associated 

with cropland areas. Surface runoff can transport loose soil particles and various residual 

fertilizers, pesticides, and herbicides to 

nearby water bodies. To a lesser extent, 

nursery areas may also yield the same type of 

pollutants. Except for a possibility of pollution contaminants associated with the improper 

disposal of waste, ornamental horticultural 

areas are seldom a source of pollution.

Interpretation Keys. Presented below are 

three examples of orchards and a vineyard.

Site No. 23 (Orchard) 

Location: Kelso

Scott County, Missouri 

Geographic Coordinates: 37°11'N

89°33'W

Circled in figure 6-166, just south of 

Kelso, is an apple orchard. Because of the 

small scale of the photograph, one would have 

to view the area under magnification to clearly 

discern the orchard grid pattern. The orchard 

is seen more clearly in the oblique photograph 

(figure 6-167). Note the open spaces in the 

orchard. Apparently, the owner has lost some 

of the trees to disease or severe weather.

Figure 6-167. Low-level photograph of an 

apple orchard south of Kelso, Mo.

Site No. 41 (Orchard) 

Location: Bonne Terre

St. Francois County, Missouri 

Geographic Coordinates: 37°55'N

90°32'W

Another orchard is shown in figure 6-168 

near Bonne Terre. This oblique photograph 

illustrates well the equally spaced rows common 

to orchards. Notice the various tones exhibited by the orchard. This is caused by growth 

stage differences and by differences in the 

crop types. The area just to the right of the 

pond (A) is an area of more mature apple trees. 

Just to the west of the pond are younger app]e 

trees (B). The four rows just above the 

younger apple trees, the lighter gray area, are 

peach trees. The next four rows are vineyards.

Figure 6-166. Mapping photograph of an 

apple orchard south of Kelso, Mo.

Figure 6-168. Low-level photograph of 

orchard at Bonne Terre, Mo.

82
Figure 6-169, a ground photograph of the 

orchard, shows three rows of apple trees to 

the right of the pickup (with camper), and 

four rows each of peach trees and grapevines.

Site No. 43 (Vineyard) 

Location: St. James

Phelps County, Missouri 

Geographic Coordinates: 38°02'N

91°34'W

Finally, just east of St. James, large 

vineyards are shown in figure 6-171. It is 

difficult to identify vineyards on small-scale 

aerial photography after the frost season. 

Even with large-scale imagery, positive identification is difficult. The photointerpreter 

must be aware of the existence of vineyards in 

an area, and even then, must take advantage of 

ancillary data such as topographic maps to 

identify these areas.

Figure 6-169. Orchards at Bonne Terre, Mo.

Site No. 73 (Orchard) 

Location: New Franklin

Howard County, Missouri 

Geographic Coordinates: 39°02'N

92°43'W

The equal spacing of orchard rows is also 

illustrated by this orchard near New Franklin. 

However, notice in this low-level photograph 

(figure 6-170) the gentle curved pattern of 

the rows. These patterns result when orchards 

are planted in hilly areas as opposed to the 

linear pattern exhibited by orchards planted 

on flatter terrain (see figure 6-168).

Figure 6-170. Oblique photograph of an 

orchard northeast of New Franklin, Mo.

Figure 6-171. Oblique photograph of vineyard 

northeast of St. James, Mo., June 1980.

Category 23 Confined Feeding 

Operations

Category Description. Confined Feeding 

Operations are large, specialized livestock 

production enterprises; chiefly beef cattle 

feedlots, dairy operations with confined 

feeding, large poultry farms, and hog 

feedlots. Confined Feeding operations have 

large animal populations restricted to 

relatively small areas. Confined Feeding 

Operations exhibit a built-up appearance, 

chiefly composed of animal shelter buildings, 

fencing, access paths, and waste-disposal 

areas.

Environmental Considerations. Confined 

Feeding Operations, as noted above, tend 

toward large animal populations restricted to 

relatively small areas. If not properly maintained they can become a source for air and/or

83
water pollution. If animal waste is allowed 

to accumulate beyond acceptable levels, foul 

odors and various insects can become windborne. 

Areas downwind, such as urban residential, are 

subjected to high levels of air pollution.

In addition to the potential for air 

pollution, Confined Feeding Operations are 

often a source of water pollution. Since the 

ground surface is often denuded, periods of 

moderate to heavy precipitation can produce 

intense surface runoff which can transport such 

organic nutrients as phosphates and nitrates 

and/or loose soil particles to nearby water 

bodies. If the magnitude of the nutrients 

reaching nearby water bodies, particularly 

lakes or reservoirs, is significant, 

eutrophlcation can be greatly accelerated.

In some cases the trophic state of some 

of these water bodies is enhanced so much that 

they are overtaken by decaying aquatic plants 

to the extent that they fill up and become 

Nonfcrested Wetland areas.

In those instances where significant 

amounts of soil particles are transported to 

nearby water bodies, the increase in sediment 

load will often lessen the amount of sunlight 

penetration and thereby reduce aquatic plant 

production. A reduction in plant production 

results in a reduction in dissolved oxygen 

levels which may then cause these water bodies 

to become less suited as habitats for certain 

fish species.

Interpretation Keys. A cattle Confined 

Feeding Operation, a combination hog/cattle 

operation, a chicken operation, and a turkey 

farm are shown in the following illustrations.

Site No. 29 (Chicken Houses) 

Location: Bloomfield

Stoddard County, Missouri 

Geographic Coordinates: 36°53'N

89°55'W

Perhaps one of the more easily recognized 

types of confined feeding operations are 

chicken houses. Chicken houses are long, 

narrow wood or metal structures and most 

frequently occur in groups of three. Even on 

high-altitude photographs (figure 6-172), this 

characteristic pattern can be easily detected. 

The pattern is even more easily discerned from 

the oblique photograph shown in figure 6-173. 

Whitish tones of the chicken house roofs result 

from use of corrugated metal roofs which 

reflect a great deal of the Sun's rays.

Figure 6-174 provides a ground-level 

photograph of two of the three chicken houses 

shown in the center portion of figure 6-173.

Figure 6-172. Mapping photograph of chicken 

houses east of Bloomfield, Mo.

Figure 6-173. Low-level photograph of chicken 

houses east of Bloomfield, Mo.

Figure 6-174. Chicken house east of 

Bloomfield, Mo.

84
Site No. 87 (Confined Cattle Feeding) 

Location: Spickard

Grundy County, Missouri 

Geographic Coordinates: 40°15'N

93°13'W

Another type of confined feeding which is 

easily recognized is that of confined cattle 

feeding. Circled in figure 6-175 is a confined 

cattle feeding operation at Spickard, Missouri. 

Lack of vegetation is shown clearly on the 

vertical photograph of figure 6-176. Note the 

whitish areas near the animal shelter 

buildings. These areas are devoid of vegetation. Also notice the rectangular shape of 

the fenced feedlots. Just to the northwest of 

the larger animal shelter buildings are a 

series of smaller buildings and narrower 

feedlots. The feedlots at A are not presently 

in use. Examination of the smaller feedlots 

reveals that a distinct texture difference 

exists. The smooth-textured area lots are 

used more frequently. The less frequently 

used lots (A) have grown up with vegetation 

and therefore, exhibit a coarser texture.

Figure 6-175. Mapping photograph of confined 

cattle feeding near Spickard, Mo.

Site No. 86 (Confined Hog and Cattle

Feeding) 

Location Ravenwood

Nodaway County, Missouri 

Geographic Coordinates: 40°25'N

9A°AO'W

Another example of confined feeding is 

illustrated in the oblique and vertical photographs shown in figures 6-177 and 6-178. Two 

types of confined feeding operations are 

apparent. In figure 6-178, eight rather large 

rectangular feedlots are shown in the middle 

of the photograph. They are very similar in 

appearance to the feedlots shown earlier in 

figure 6-176; therefore, one would expect to 

find cattle here. However, when the imagery 

was enlarged, it appeared as though the 

eastern feedlots were also being used for 

hogs. To the west of these feedlots, just 

north of a small pond, are located 12 smaller 

hog feedlots. The whitish area leading away 

from the feedlots to the pond is used during 

cleanup operations. The pond serves as a 

settling pond.

The differences in tone and texture can 

be used to identify the various stages of use 

for the larger feedlots. The fourth feedlot 

from the north at A in figure 6-178, as shown 

by its courser texture and spotted tone, has 

not been used recently. However, note that 

the second feedlot from the north has a 

smoother texture and more even gray tones. 

Under appropriate magnification, more than a 

dozen hogs are visible in the second feedlot. 

Another item commonly associated with confined 

feeding operations, in addition to the animal 

shelter buildings, are feed storage tanks. 

Located at the extreme top of figure 6-178, at 

B, can be seen five feed storage tanks.

Figure 6-176. Low-level photograph of confined 

cattle feeding operation near Spickard, Mo.

Figure 6-177. Low-level oblique photograph of 

confined feeding operation north of Ravenwood.

85
Figure 6-178. Low-level vertical photograph of 

confined feeding operation north of Ravenwood.

Site No. 95 (Turkey Farm) 

Location: Winigan

Sullivan County, Missouri 

Geographic Coordinates: 40°02'N

92°56'W

Also included in land use category 23 are 

turkey farms. Turkey farms are rather 

difficult to identify on high-altitude aerial 

photographs. Therefore, prior knowledge of 

their existence in an area is normally 

required to increase the probability of 

correct photographic identification. Four 

turkey farm areas are shown in the oblique 

photograph of figure 6-179. The turkey farms 

are located just west of Winigan, Missouri. 

Two of the areas are active (A and B), two are 

inactive (C and D). The inactive areas appear 

whitish in tone with small, darker squares 

indicating the former locations of portable 

range shelters now located at A and B.

Although open range feeding of turkeys is 

an identification feature of this category, 

the areas in which the birds feed would not be 

delineated as confined feeding. The brooder 

houses themselves and auxiliary structures 

would be the only area to be delineated.

Figure 6-179. Low-level oblique photograph 

of a turkey farm near Winigan, Mo.

The vertical photograph of figure 6-180 

clearly illustrates the practice of relocating 

turkey farm areas once an area has been 

denuded of vegetation. Note the small darker 

gray rectangular spots paralleling the road 

(A). These spots mark the former positions of 

the range shelters. The range shelters, as 

well as most of the turkey feeders, have been 

moved to a new position just to the south of 

their old location (B). The range shelters, 

without sides, are constructed to allow the 

turkeys to get out of the sun during the hot 

summer months. During winter, the turkeys are 

housed in large, long poultry houses such as 

those seen in the ground-level photograph of 

figure 6-181 just east of the area shown in 

figure 6-180.

Figure 6-180. Low-level photograph of 

turkey farm area near Winigan, Mo.

86
Figure 6-181. Turkey brooder house 

near Winigan, Mo.

Category 24--Other Agricultural Land

Category Description. The Other

Agricultural Land category includes farmsteads, 

holding areas for livestock such as corrals, 

farm lanes and roads, ditches and canals, small 

farm ponds, fish farms and hatcheries, horse 

farms, and other similar associated built-up 

features adjacent to and closely associated 

with agricultural resource management.

Environmental Considerations. The pollution potential from Other Agricultural Land 

areas is very similar to the other Level II 

categories of Agricultural land previously 

discussed; that is, Other Agricultural Land 

areas may become sources for nonpoint water 

pollution. However, primarily because of 

their relatively small areal extent, the 

pollution potential from these areas is less 

than that from the more extensive Agricultural 

Land Level II categories.

Also included in the Other Agricultural 

Land category are fish hatchery operations. 

After a period of time, fish hatchery ponds 

may become saturated with waste (such as 

phosphates and nitrates) and various disease 

organisms. If there is a discharge of fish 

pond waters due to flooding, breaching, 

leaching, or a deliberate release, several 

conditions may ensue: eutrophication of 

nearby water bodies may occur; disease 

organisms may spread; or the escape of 

non-native fish species into nearby water 

bodies may lead to the depletion of natural 

stocks by predation or competitive exclusion.

Fish hatchery operations may also generate foul odors, particularly from a fish kill 

which will attract insects and cause diseases

to spread. Abandoned fish ponds, left filled 

with water, are also possible insect breeding 

areas.

Interpretation Keys. The Other

Agricultural Land category is illustrated by a 

fish farm and farmstead.

Site No. 38 (Fish Farm) 

Location: Montreal

Camden County, Missouri 

Geographic Coordinates: 37°53'N

92°31'W

Fish farms are shallow manmade water 

bodies maintained for the purpose of raising 

fish for wholesale trade. Quite often, due to 

differences in water depths or sediment loads 

and algae concentrations, the adjourning irregularly shaped water bodies exhibit a variety 

of shades from gray to black. Figure 6-182 

illustrates this well. The differences in the 

shades of gray are illustrated even more 

clearly in the oblique photograph (figure 

6-183) of the southernmost fish farm ponds 

shown in figure 6-182. A ground-level 

photograph (figure 6-184) further illustrates 

the shape of the individual fish farm ponds 

and provides the reader with an appreciation 

for the widths of the holding levees 

separating the ponds. The levees provide the 

owners access to the ponds for maintenance and 

harvesting.

Figure 6-182. Mapping photograph of a fish 

farm southeast of Montreal, Mo.

Most fish farms will be found in stream 

valleys. The stream water will flow directly 

through or be directed into the ponding areas. 

In southeast Missouri in rice production areas, 

reservoirs used to store water for the fields 

are used part of the year for fish production. 

These types of fish ponds are impossible to 

delineate without ground observation.

87
1ft

Farmsteads are built-up service areas 

associated with agricultural practices. In 

order for farmsteads to be shown on a land use 

map, they must meet the minimum mapping size 

requirements for the scale of the map. On land 

use maps at a publication scale of 1:250,000, 

farmsteads must be at least 10 acres in size to 

be shown. Circled in figure 6-185 is a farmstead approximately 6 miles south of Maitland, 

Missouri. The built-up photographic signature 

of the farmstead, surrounded by cropland and 

pasture, is easily identified. The oblique 

photograph (figure 6-186) further illustrates 

the extent of the built-up features associated 

with this farmstead. Noted on the photograph 

are residential structures at A, B, and C; feed 

storage tanks at D; tractors at E; and several 

rectangular shelter/storage buildings at F. In 

addition to the built-up signature displayed by 

the farmstead, the lighter gray tone of the 

farmstead draws the attention to the site.

Figure 6-183. Low-level photograph of fish 

farm ponds southeast of Montreal, Mo.

Figure 6-185. Mapping photograph of a 

farmstead south of Maitland, Mo.

Figure 6-184. Fish farm ponds near 

Montreal, Mo.

Site No. 99 (Farmstead) 

Location: Maitland

Holt County, Missouri 

Geographic Coordinates: 40°07'N

95°04'W

Figure 6-186. Low-level oblique photograph 

of the farmstead near Maitland, Mo.

88
LEVEL I, CATEGORY 3 - RANGELAND

Historically, Rangeland has been defined 

as land on which the potential natural vegetation is predominately grasses, grasslike 

plants, forbs, or shrubs and where natural 

herbivory was an important influence in its 

precivilization state. Generally, management 

practices do not include fertilization, cultivation, or irrigation. Instead, Rangeland 

management practices follow ecological 

principles of resource management.

In Missouri, what little Herbaceous 

Rangeland there is, primarily is located in 

the west-central and southwest portions of the 

State. Shrub and Brush Rangeland, specifically 

eastern brushland vegetation, is found in the 

same areas as Cropland and Pasture; namely, 

north of the Missouri River and along the 

Mississippi River floodplain.

Category 31 Herbaceous Rangeland

Category Description. Herbaceous Rangeland encompasses lands dominated by naturally 

occurring grasses and forbs as well as those 

areas of natural rangeland which have been 

modified to include grasses and forbs as their 

principal cover, when managed for rangeland 

purposes and not managed using typical 

pastureland practices.

As noted earlier, the Herbaceous Rangeland 

areas of Missouri occur in the west-central and 

southwestern portions of the State. Unlike the 

more expansive Herbaceous Rangeland areas found 

from the Texas Panhandle northward to the 

Dakotas, Missouri Herbaceous Rangeland areas 

are boxed in by Cropland and Pasture; Therefore, it is difficult to accurately identify 

Herbaceous Rangeland areas on high-altitude 

photographs. The boxed-in shape of these areas 

robs the photointerpreter of one of the most 

important photorecognition characteristics of 

the more expansive Herbaceous Rangeland areas 

the irregularly shaped natural landscape. Not 

only are there so few areas of Herbaceous 

Rangeland in Missouri, but add to this the 

fact that these areas are difficult to 

identify on high-altitude aerial photographs, 

and it can be realized why there is a high 

potential for an understatement of the total 

Herbaceous Rangeland acres in the State.

Environmental Considerations. Herbaceous 

Rangeland areas are, by definition, areas which 

are managed by ecological resource management 

principles rather than by fertilizing, cultivating, or irrigation. Therefore, such areas 

are not a potential pollution source.

Interpretation Keys. Since Herbaceous 

Rangeland areas are of limited extent in 

Missouri, there are few good examples of this 

land use category. However, the forb prairie 

just west of Kingdom City, Missouri, provides 

an excellent example.

Site No. 102 (Forb Prairie) 

Location: Kingdom City

Callaway County, Missouri 

Geographic Coordinates: 39°57'N

92°00'W

Most of the Herbaceous Rangeland that 

exists in Missouri is owned and/or protected 

by the Missouri Department of Conservation. 

As of 1978, the State had 23 public prairies 

totaling over 6,000 acres. These prairies were 

owned by either the Missouri Department of 

Conservation, the Missouri Prairie Foundation, 

the Nature Conservancy, the University of 

Missouri, or a combination of the above. One 

of these sites, Tucker Prairie, is circled in 

figure 6-187. Under appropriate magnification, 

one can discern a difference in the Cropland 

fields surrounding the prairie and the prairie 

itself. The Cropland fields retain signs of 

tillage, while the prairie areas do not. Had 

the surrounding areas been Pasture rather than 

Cropland, it would have been more difficult to 

identify prairie areas.

Even the use of low-level imagery adds 

little to assisting the photointerpreter in 

identifying the area as Herbaceous Rangeland 

(see figure 6-188). Only when verified by 

ground observations can one be confident of an 

accurate classification of Herbaceous Rangeland 

in Missouri (see figure 6-189). This photograph illustrates a field of black-eyed 

Susans, a typical forb vegetation.

Figure 6-187.--Mapping photograph of 

forb prairie west of Kingdom City, Mo.

89
Figure 6-188. Oblique photograph of forb 

prairie west of Kingdom City, Mo.

Figure 6-189. Tucker (forb) Prairie west of 

Kingdom City ground observation.

Category 32 Shrub and Brush Rangeland

Category Description. Shrub or scrub 

vegetation, characteristic of arid or semiarid 

regions, is not found in Missouri. Eastern 

brushland areas, however, do occur primarily 

north of the Missouri River and adjacent to 

the Mississippi River north of Cape Girardeau.

Eastern brushlands are typically former 

croplands or pasture lands (cleared from original forest lands) which are being allowed to 

revert to their natural state. Accordingly, 

these areas, grown up in brush, are in transition back to forest land to the extent that 

they are no longer identifiable as cropland or 

pasture. Many of these areas are extensively 

grazed by livestock and provide wildlife

habitat. More often, they are retained as part 

of the farm, but are not used at their former 

levels of intensity. Traditionally, botanists 

have not included eastern brushland areas in 

the Rangeland category because of their 

original forested state prior to clearing for 

cropland or pasture; therefore, they have been 

summarized statistically with pasture land. 

However, since they primarily function as 

grazing land, they are included in the U.S. 

Geological Survey's classification system's 

Rangeland category. Following sufficient 

reforestation, these areas should be classified 

as Forest Land.

Environmental Considerations. Eastern

brushland areas, particularly in their early 

stages of development, may reduce water quality 

as surface runoff transports loose soil particles to nearby water bodies. However, as these 

areas mature and are retained in Rangeland, 

there are few, if any, contaminant sources 

associated with eastern brushland areas.

Interpretation Keys. Examples of eastern 

brushland can be found in many areas of the 

State. The following example, near New 

Hampton, is illustrative of this land use 

category.

Site No. 84 (Eastern Brushland) 

Location: New Hampton

Harrison County, Missouri 

Geographic Coordinates: AO°16'N

94°10'W

Circled in figure 6-190, just east of New 

Hampton, is an example of eastern brushland as 

it appears on mapping photographs. Notice the 

slightly darker gray tone and coarser texture 

exhibited by the presence of the brushland

Figure 6-190. Mapping photograph of eastern 

brushland area near New Hampton, Mo.

90
vegetation. Vegetation nearest the railroad 

(the southern boundary of the area) is actually 

too dense to be classified as eastern brushland. However, because the strip does not meet 

minimum mapping width criteria at the 1:250,000 

scale, this more heavily vegetated strip should 

be combined with the eastern brushland to the 

north and shown as eastern brushland.

Figure 6-191 illustrates more clearly the 

characteristic vegetation pattern of eastern 

brushland. Notice the denser strip of trees 

near the bottom of the photograph.

Figure 6-191. Oblique photograph of eastern 

brushland area near New Hampton, Mo.

LEVEL I, CATEGORY 4 - FOREST LAND

Areas of trees capable of producing timber 

and other wood products, which exhibit a treecrown areal density (crown closure percentage) 

of 10 percent or more, and exert an influence 

on the climate or water regime, are classified 

as Forest Land. Although the precise boundary 

between Forest Land and other categories of 

land use may be difficult to delineate, 

generally Forest Land areas can be identified 

rather easily on high-altitude aerial photographs. The majority of the Forest Land in 

Missouri is located south of a line extending 

from Joplin in the southwest through Columbia 

to Hannibal in the northeast. Statewide, over 

15 million acres of Forest Land cover Missouri.

Also included in the Forest Land category 

are lands from which trees have been removed to 

less than 10 percent crown closure but which 

have not been developed for other uses. These 

areas often have been clear cut and are 

scheduled for blockplanting. This practice is 

commonplace in our national forest lands.

Not included in the Forest Land category 

are those areas which would otherwise be

classified as Forest land if it were not for 

the fact that the water table was at or near 

the ground surface. Since the wetland condition is of much interest to land managers and 

planning groups, such lands are classified as 

Forested Wetland.

At Level II, Forest Land is separated 

into three categories: Deciduous, Evergreen, 

and Mixed. From small-scale aerial photographs, the photointerpreter must rely on site 

association knowledge, tone, and texture 

analysis to differentiate these cover categories. In addition, the availability of 

photographs obtained during the period when 

deciduous trees are bare can be very helpful 

in separating Deciduous and Evergreen Forest 

cover types.

Prior to initiating Forest Land photointerpretation, the photointerpreter should be 

familiar with the various tree species known 

to exist in the area. This task can be facilitated by consulting silviculture handbooks 

normally available from State or Federal 

service agencies for the area.

Photographic tone can also be used to 

help identify forest cover types. Generally, 

evergreen trees exhibit a darker tone (dark 

green) than deciduous trees. On colorinfrared winter photographs, evergreen trees 

are generally magenta in color.

Concerning photographic texture, even-aged 

coniferous trees generally exhibit a smooth, 

carpetlike texture. Deciduous trees, on the 

other hand, exhibit a rougher texture as a 

result of their varying heights and rounded 

crowns, particularly when the stands are of an 

uneven-aged nature.

Category 41 Deciduous Forest Land

Category Description. Deciduous Forest 

Lands include all forested areas with a predominance of trees that lose their leaves at the 

end of the frost-free season or at the beginning of the dry season. Nearly 94 percent of 

Missouri's 15 million acres of Forest Land is 

of the deciduous cover type mostly oak.

The geographic extent of the Deciduous 

Forest Land parallels that of Missouri's Forest 

Land; that is, the majority of the Deciduous 

Forest Land occurs south of a line extending 

from Joplin to Columbia to Hannibal.

Environmental Considerations. Deciduous 

Forest Land areas exert a strong influence on 

local water supplies and microclimatic conditions. Silvicultural management practices may 

effect both the quantity and quality of nearby 

water bodies. Since the types of pollution 

which may occur from Deciduous Forest Lands

91
would be the same for Evergreen Forest Lands 

and Mixed Forest Lands, a detailed description 

of environmental considerations is presented 

only for the Deciduous Forest Land category 

rather than each Level II Forest Land category.

Thinning and harvesting operations may 

increase water quantity by reducing existing 

transpirational surface areas and decrease 

water quality as a consequence of the transport of chemical (primarily herbicides, insecticides, and fertilizers) and physical (loose 

soil particles) contaminants to nearby water 

bodies with surface runoff.

The use of herbicides for plantation 

clearing, site preparation, right-of-way 

maintenance, and other uses may contaminate 

the soil, wildlife, and surface or ground-water 

supplies. Insecticides, used to check the 

spread of harmful pests, can cause both air 

and water pollution not to mention the possibility of adversely affecting certain 

beneficial species such as honey bees.

Forest fertilization, if improperly administered, can increase the nutrient load of 

nearby water bodies and thereby increase existing trophic states. Logging road construction 

and maintenance activities can lead to erosion 

and increase nearby water course sediment 

loads. Repeated passes of logging equipment 

over the area can result in soil compaction, 

reduce percolation rates, and as a consequence, 

intensify surface runoff rates even to the 

extent that it may cause minor flooding and 

the loss of tree vigor.

Interpretation Keys. The Deciduous Forest 

Land areas at Windsor (west-central Missouri) 

and Kirksville (northeast Missouri) illustrate 

land use category 41.

Site No. 74 (Reforested Strip Mine) 

Location: Windsor

Henry County, Missouri 

Geographic Coordinates: 38°34'N

93°35'W

A number of areas in the State which have 

been strip mined have been allowed to return 

to Forest Land vegetation. One such area, 

approximately 6 miles west of Windsor, is 

circled in figure 6-192. Notice the alternating rows of white (ridges) and dark (forested 

troughs) in the upper left portion of the 

circle. Figure 6-193, an oblique photograph 

of the same area, reveals the extent to which 

additional deciduous tree growth has occurred 

between 1972 and 1980. Just to the southwest 

of the strip mines shown in figure 6-192 is an 

excellent example of a larger strip mined area

Figure 6-192. Mapping photograph of strip mine 

area west of Windsor, Mo., undergoing natural 

reforestation, 1972.

Figure 6-193. Low-level oblique photograph 

of reforested strip mine area, 1980.

Figure 6-194. Low-level vertical photograph of 

mature, natural reforestation of former strip 

mine area southwest of Windsor.

92
after more than 30 years of natural reforestation. Notice the two types of forest cover 

shown in figure 6-194. The smoother textured, 

area, circled, is an area of coniferous forest 

cover. The remaining area is covered by 

deciduous trees.

Site No. 94 (Deciduous Trees) 

Location: Kirksville

Adair County, Missouri 

Geographic Coordinates: 40°11'N

92°38'W

Another example of Deciduous Forest is 

shown in figure 6-195. This site, at Thousand 

Hills State Park just west of Kirksville, 

Missouri, also provides an excellent example 

of coniferous evergreen trees adjacent to 

deciduous trees. Although coniferous trees 

are not native to the area, Boy Scouts voluntarily planted some scotch pines in several 

places in the park about 25 years ago. The 

coniferous trees stand out as the darker tone 

areas in figure 6-195.

Figure 6-196, an oblique photograph taken 

6 years later, shows an area of defoliated 

trees at A. A recent forest fire has destroyed 

some of the scotch pines. To the east of the 

defoliated area are the deciduous trees with 

their characteristic, more rounded tree crowns 

(B). Notice that the deciduous trees generally 

have a lighter tone on black-and-white photographs. Had frost-season photography been 

available, it would have also been helpful in 

separating the deciduous from the evergreen 

trees.

Figure 6-195. Mapping photograph of deciduous 

and evergreen forest cover in Thousand Hills 

State Park, 1974.

Figure 6-196. Low-level 1980 oblique photograph of a portion of the area shown in 

figure 6-195.

Category 42 Evergreen Forest Land

Category Description. Forest areas in 

which the trees are predominately those which 

remain green throughout the year are classified 

as Evergreen Forest Lands. Included in this 

category are both coniferous and broadleaved 

evergreens. Evergreen species commonly associated with Wetland areas are not included in 

this category.

The two most common species of evergreens 

occurring in Missouri are the shortleaf pine 

(pinus echinata) and the eastern redcedar 

(juniperus virginiana). The former is found 

primarily in the southeastern part of the State 

while the latter can be found in extreme 

east-central Missouri and in some east-central 

counties.

Environmental Considerations. The environmental description presented earlier for 

land use category 41, Deciduous Forest Land, 

applies to Evergreen Forest Land areas as well; 

therefore, refer to land use category 41 for 

information on the potential pollution contaminants most likely to be associated with 

Evergreen Forest Land.

Interpretation Keys. Presented below are 

examples of planted pine at New Madrid and 

eastern redcedar near Bradleyville 

(south-central Missouri).

93
Site No. 25 (Plantation Pine) 

Location: New Madrid

New Madrid County, Missouri 

Geographic Coordinates: 36°32'N

89°26'W

Located about 3 miles southeast of New 

Madrid is a rectangular area of planted shortleaf pine. Photographed in 1974, notice the 

height differences between the planted pine 

and the adjacent deciduous trees in figure 

6-197. Figure 6-198, an oblique photograph of 

the same area in 1980, illustrates both the 

rapid rate of tree growth exhibited by this 

species in southeast Missouri and the characteristic carpetlike texture common to even-aged 

coniferous tree cover. Although not the case 

with this particular pine plantation, many pine 

plantations are actually planted in rows. When 

viewed from the air, or on an aerial photographs, row pine plantations are easily 

identified.

Figure 6-197. Mapping photograph of 

planted pine near New Madrid, Mo., 1974.

Site No. 65 (Eastern Redcedar) 

Location: Bradleyville

Taney County, Missouri 

Geographic Coordinates: 36°46'N

92°57'W

The second most prevalent type of Evergreen Forest Land, eastern redcedar, is shown 

in figure 6-199 at A. This area barely meets 

the minimum mapping size of 40 acres required 

for 1:250,000-scale land use and land cover 

mapping. The photograph, taken on January 23, 

1976, allows the photointerpreter to easily 

separate deciduous and evergreen trees. The 

darker tone areas are eastern redcedars (evergreens) while the lighter tone areas, particularly on the right side of figure 6-199 at B, 

are deciduous trees which have lost their 

leaves. In the upper-left portion of figure 

6-199 is an area of Mixed Forest Land; that 

is, an area of evergreen and deciduous trees 

where neither predominates. Figure 6-200, an 

oblique photograph, illustrates the darker 

tone of the cedar trees. Notice how the cedar 

trees parallel the limestone bedding plains as 

they curve around the hillsides. The areas 

devoid of tree cover have been cleared for 

pasture. A comparison between figure 6-199 

and figure 6-200 reveals the extent of 

additional clearing that occurred at A between 

1976 and 1980.

Figure 6-199. Mapping photograph of eastern 

redcedar forest cover southwest of 

Bradleyville, January 1976.

Figure 6-198. Low-level oblique photograph 

of planted pine near New Madrid, 1980.

94
Figure 6-200. Low-level oblique photograph of 

eastern redcedar forest cover near 

Bradleyville, July 1980.

Category A3 Mixed Forest Land

Category Description. A Forest Land area 

is classified as Mixed Forest when more than 

one-third intermixture of either evergreen or 

deciduous tree species occurs in a specific 

area. In actuality, this division of the 

Forest Land category is a function of the land 

use and land cover mapping specifications and, 

therefore, will be less often used at some 

mapping scales than others, particularly at 

larger mapping scales.

Environmental Considerations. The environmental description presented earlier for 

land use category 41, Deciduous Forest Land, 

applies to Mixed Forest Land areas as well; 

therefore refer to land use category 41 for 

information on the potential pollution contaminants most likely to be associated with Mixed 

Forest Land.

Site No. 39 (Mixed Deciduous and

Evergreen Forest Cover) 

Location: Edgehill

Iron County, Missouri 

Geographic Coordinates: 37°37'N

90°54'W

An example of Mixed Forest Land is illustrated by figure 6-201. This area, approximately 3 miles north-northeast of Edgehill, 

has varying degrees of deciduous (lighter tone 

areas) and evergreen (darker tone areas) trees. 

Notice the small, but more homogeneous, stands 

of darker tone evergreen trees (circled on the 

photograph) surrounded by deciduous trees. 

Because this photograph was taken during the 

frost season (photo date March 9, 1980), the 

deciduous trees exhibit an even lighter tone 

than had the photo been taken during the 

frost-free season. Quite often, frost season 

(leaf-off) photographs are not available. In 

such cases, if color-infrared photographs are 

available, the task of separating deciduous 

and evergreen trees or delineating Mixed Forest 

Land areas is facilitated. Figure 6-202, a 

black-and-white reproduction of a high-altitude 

color-infrared (CIR) photograph taken in 

September 1974, illustrates the benefits to be 

gained from the use of CIR photographs even 

when they are reproduced in black-and-white. 

The evergreen trees appear as darker tones on 

the photograph. Notice the dark tone of the 

purer stands of evergreen trees at A. The 

deciduous trees are lighter in tone. Also 

notice, particularly along stream segments, 

the lighter tone of the deciduous trees which 

have begun to lose their leaves. In such 

cases these linear areas appear whitish to 

gray in tone. The lighter, almost white, 

areas in the photograph are rock outcroppings.

Interpretation Keys. Site 39, near

Edgehill, presents an example of Mixed Forest 

Land.

Figure 6-201. Black-and-white reproduction of 

a mapping photograph of mixed forest cover 

near Edgehill, March 1980.

95
Figure 6-202. Black-and-white reproduction of 

a color-infrared mapping photograph of mixed 

forest cover near Edgehill, September 1974.

LEVEL I, CATEGORY 5 WATER

Water areas, as defined by the Bureau of 

the Census, include all areas within the land 

mass of the United States that are 

persistently covered by water, at least 40 

acres in size, and if linear, are at least 1/8 

mile wide. However, for most purposes, 

agencies require the identification of water 

bodies smaller than 40 acres. The U.S. 

Geological Survey land use and land cover maps 

include all water bodies greater than 10 acres 

which are at least 300 feet wide and shown as 

double-line streams on the 1:250,000-scale 

base map. Water included in this category are 

streams and canals, lakes, reservoirs, and 

bays and estuaries.

At the 1:250,000-scale land use and land 

cover mapping for Missouri, only major rivers, 

such as the Mississippi, Missouri, and Osage, 

and major canals, such as those near Kennett 

in southeast Missouri, are shown. Natural 

lakes are rare with less than 17 square miles 

of this land use type in the State. More 

common are the State's many reservoirs. 

Reservoirs such as Clearwater, Pomme de Terre, 

Stockton, and Table Rock account for over 

232,000 acres of State's reservoirs. Bays and 

estuaries are not found in Missouri.

The above acreage figures reflect water 

area totals based on Level II land use and 

land cover mapping at the 1:250,000 scale. At 

a larger mapping scale and a greater level of 

land use detail, these acreage totals increase 

somewhat.

It is important to note that all water 

bodies should be delineated as they exist at 

the date (time) of the photography, except 

areas in an obvious state of flood.

Category 51 Streams and Canals

Category Description. Included in the 

Streams and Canals category are rivers, creeks, 

canals, and other linear water bodies. Where 

the water course is interrupted by a control 

structure, the impounded area is placed in the 

Reservoir category.

Environmental Considerations. Streams

and canals are not in themselves pollution 

sources. Instead, it is the discharge from 

point sources and surface runoff from nonpoint 

pollution sources, such as agricultural and 

silvicultural areas, which reduce stream and 

canal water quality. Perhaps flooding is the 

most serious detrimental effect which can occur 

from streams. When streams overflow their 

banks they can, and have, caused significant 

damage to manmade structures and crops.

Interpretation Keys. Two sites, site 70 

and 26, follow which depict rivers and canals.

Site No. 70 (Missouri River) 

Location: Jefferson City

Cole County, Missouri 

Geographic Coordinates: 38°35'N

92°11'W

Rivers and streams are easily recognized 

on aerial photographs. As shown in figure 

6-203, natural water courses consist of 

somewhat parallel land/water interface 

boundaries which quite often vary in width as 

a function of normal fluvial processes. Water 

bodies are most often characterized by medium 

gray tones on aerial photographs. Figure 

6-204 is an oblique photograph of the same 

section of the Missouri River at Jefferson 

City. Notice the bridge over the river and 

the barges docked on the northern shore.

Figure 6-203. Mapping photograph of Missouri 

River at Jefferson City, Mo.

96
Figure 6-204.--Oblique photograph of 

Missouri River at Jefferson City, Mo.

Site No. 26 (Canals) 

Location: Kennett

Dunklin County, Missouri 

Geographic Coordinates: 36°10'N

90°01'W

Canals, or ditches, are constructed for 

one of two purposes: to drain or to irrigate 

an area. Around the turn of the century, a 

number of drainage ditches were constructed in 

southeast Missouri extending from south of Cape 

Girardeau to across the Missouri/Arkansas State 

line. This area, once swampy and marshy, is 

now very productive cropland. From a weblike 

network of ditches north of Gideon, many of the 

smaller ditches finally enter one of five main 

ditches about 3 miles southeast of Gideon 

where the five ditches extend southwest for 

almost 35 miles. Pictured in figure 6-205 is 

a segment of the five main drainage ditches 

about 4.5 miles southeast of Kennett. Unlike 

natural linear water courses (streams and 

rivers), canals and ditches have parallel 

land/water interface boundaries of nearly 

constant separation. Three of the ditches in 

the photograph appear medium gray in tone the 

two westernmost ditches and the easternmost 

one. The two other ditches are lighter gray, 

almost white. The difference in tone can be 

explained by slight differences in water 

levels, camera angles, and subsequent Sun 

reflections. The lighter gray tone ditches 

are reflecting more sunlight and therefore 

show up as light gray in the photograph.

Figure 6-206, an oblique photograph of 

the same area, also shows differences in gray 

tone values for the ditches; however, in this 

case, only one ditch reflects more sunlight.

Figure 6-205. Mapping photograph of 

canals near Kennett, Mo.

Figure 6-206. Oblique photograph of 

canals near Kennett, Mo.

Figure 6-207. Ground shot of drainage 

canal near Kennett, Mo.

97
Figure 6-207 is a ground-level photograph 

of one of the ditches taken from a bridge 6 

miles northwest of the location shown in 

figures 6-205 and 6-206. Notice how straight 

the water course is and its constant width.

Category 52 Lakes

Category Description. Lakes are naturally 

enclosed standing water bodies, including regulated natural lakes but excluding reservoirs. 

Only lakes 10 acres or greater at the time of 

photoacquisition are delineated on the U.S. 

Geological Survey 1:250,000-scale land use and 

land cover maps. If the photointerpreter has 

source material which provides the name of a 

water body, he should not necessarily classify 

the water body from this information because 

many reservoirs in Missouri have lake names. 

Accordingly, the majority of Missouri's 

nonlinear water bodies are reservoirs and not 

lakes. It is important to remember that lake 

water levels are maintained by the seepage of 

ground water and the direct surface runoff of 

precipitation, whereas reservoir water levels 

are the result of manmade impoundments and the 

subsequent accumulation of surface runoff, 

primarily by contributing linear water courses.

For the most part, Missouri lakes are 

found in the flood plains of the State's two 

largest rivers the Mississippi and the 

Missouri. These lakes, called oxbow lakes, 

are formed by sealing off the meanders of 

alluvial streams. As alluvial streams mature, 

their meanders (snake-like patterns) grow 

until the channels bend to meet themselves, 

causing the meander loops to be pinched 

(sealed) off and abandoned therefore, oxbow 

lakes can be found all along the Missouri and 

Mississippi Rivers.

___________________________ 

Environmental Considerations. Like 

streams and canals, lakes are not in themselves pollution sources. The same types of 

point and nonpoint pollution sources which 

affect linear water bodies also affect lakes. 

However, unlike linear water bodies, lakes do 

not possess the same flood hazard potential. 

Therefore, one is more likely to find manmade 

construction, namely houses and businesses, 

closer to the land/water interface boundaries 

of lakes than streams or rivers.

Interpretation Keys. Site 83, an oxbow 

lake west of Fortescue, Missouri, characterizes 

Missouri lakes.

Site No. 83 (Oxbow Lake) 

Location: Fortescue

Holt County, Missouri 

Geographic Coordinates: 40°05'N

95°21'W

Located west of Fortescue, Big Lake is one 

of Missouri's many oxbow lakes. In figure 

6-208, it appears as a crescent shape with the 

cresent ends pointing west toward the Missouri 

River. Close inspection of the photograph 

reveals a series of meander scars to the east. 

Figure 6-209, an oblique photograph of the 

northern half of the lake, shows the extent to 

which resort-type residential structures rim 

the land/water interface boundary.

Figure 6-208.--Mapping photograph of an 

oxbow lake west of Fortescue, Mo.

Figure 6-209.--Oblique photograph of a 

portion of Big Lake west of Fortescue.

98
Category 53 Reservoirs

Category Description. Manmade impoundments of water used for such purposes as irrigation, flood control, municipal water 

supplies, recreation, and hydroelectric power 

generation are classified as reservoirs. On 

aerial photographs, reservoirs are identified 

by their overall nonlinear shape and associated 

manmade water-control structures such as dams 

or levees. It is the manmade water-control 

structures which key the photointerpreter to 

classify a nonlinear water body as a reservoir. 

As with land use category 52 (Lakes), only 

reservoirs 10 acres or greater at the time of 

photoacquisition are delineated on 1:250,000- 

scale land use and land cover maps. Accordingly, many farm ponds in Missouri are not 

included in the acreage figures for reservoirs 

presented in Section 7. Of the State's 377,022 

acres of water, 232,559 acres (61 percent) are 

represented by the Reservoir category. This 

category includes reservoirs such as Table 

Rock Lake, Stockton Lake, Lake of the Ozarks, 

Clearwater Lake, Clarence Cannon Lake, and 

many more smaller reservoirs around the State.

Environmental Considerations. Comments

previously presented as environmental considerations for lakes hold true for reservoirs. 

Concerning flood hazard potential, the most 

dreaded occurrence would be a dam break. 

Fortunately however, such occurrences are rare.

Interpretation Keys. The Clearwater Lake 

Reservoir exemplifies many Missouri reservoirs.

Site No. 33 (Clearwater Lake Reservoir) 

Location: Piedmont

Wayne County, Missouri 

Geographic Coordinates: 37°08'N

90°46'W

Located approximately 4 miles west of 

Piedmont, Clearwater Lake Reservoir is one of 

Missouri's excellent recreational areas. 

Around the reservoir's perimeter are a number 

of public access points and use areas. Some 

of these areas are identified in figure 6-210 

at A, B, and C; also shown is the dam at D. 

Note the straight land/water interface formed 

by the dam and the water.

Figure 6-211 shows more clearly the back 

side of the dam and some of the recreational/ 

camping facilities. In figure 6-212, several 

campers and trailers can be seen parked at the 

site. Also shown in figure 6-211, at A, is a 

boat ramp. Figure 6-213 shows a ground 

photograph of the boat ramp area.

Figure 6-210. Mapping photograph of Clearwater 

Lake Reservoir near Piedmont, Mo.

Figure 6-211. Oblique photograph of 

Clearwater Dam near Piedmont, Mo.

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Figure 6-212. Camping area at 

Clearwater Dam near Piedmont, Mo.

Figure 6-213. Public use area and boat ramp at 

Clearwater Lake Reservoir near Piedmont, Mo.

flooded irrigation overflow areas. Not 

included in the Wetland category are 

agricultural lands where seasonal wetness or 

short-term flooding provides an important 

component of the total annual soil moisture 

necessary for crop production; for example, 

flooded fields associated with rice production 

or developed cranberry bogs.

Uncultivated Wetland, from which wild 

rice, cattails, or wood products, and other 

crops are harvested, or Wetland grazed by 

livestock, are placed in the Wetland category.

Wetland areas drained for any purpose 

belong to the land use and land cover category 

for which they are being used. If, however, 

drainage is discontinued and such use ceases, 

classification may revert to the Wetland 

category. Wetland managed for wildlife 

purposes may exhibit short-term land use 

changes as different management practices are 

used; however, such areas should be classified 

as Wetland.

With regard to the delineation of Wetland 

areas, two separate boundaries are important: 

the upper wetland boundary above which almost 

any non-wetland category of land use or land 

cover may exist, and the boundary between 

wetland and open water beyond which the 

appropriate Water category should be 

utilized.

Wetland areas in Missouri occur primarily 

along the Mississippi and Missouri River flood 

plains, the upper reaches of reservoirs, and 

in the Missouri bootheel counties of Wayne, 

Stoddard, Bollinger, Mississippi, and 

Dunklin. These five counties account for 

slightly more than one-third of all of 

Missouri's 66,862 acres of Wetland.

The Level II categories of Wetland are 

Forested Wetland and Nonfcrested Wetland. 

Approximately two-thirds (46,585 acres) of 

Missouri's Wetland areas are Forested Wetland.

LEVEL I, CATEGORY 6 WETLAND

Wetland areas are areas where the water 

table is at, near, or above the land surface 

for a significant part of most years. The 

hydrologic regime is such that aquatic or 

hydrophytic vegetation is established, however, 

alluvial and tidal flats may be nonvegetated. 

Examples of wetlands include swamps, marshes, 

mudflats, and portions of streams, lakes, 

reservoirs, and bays which exhibit surface 

aquatic or hydrophytic vegetation. Shallow 

water areas where aquatic vegetation is 

submerged are classified as open water and not 

included in the Wetland category.

Extensive parts of some river flood 

plains qualify as Wetland, as do regularly

Category 61 Forested Wetland

Category Description. Wetlands dominated 

by woody vegetation are classified as Forested 

Wetland. In Missouri, the Forested Wetland 

category is primarily represented by bottomland 

oaks such as pine; swamp, white, and shingle 

oaks; and tupelo, blackgum, sweetgum, and 

cypress species.

Extensive Forested Wetland areas are usually more easily identified on color-infrared 

(CIR) photography than on color or black-andwhite photography. These areas exhibit a 

bluish cast on CIR imagery as opposed to the 

red colors of deciduous trees and magenta 

colors of the evergreens.

100
If available, ground surveys of soil types 

or the duration of flooding can provide supplemental information to assist the photointerpreter in delineating Forested Wetland areas. 

Many times photographs acquired with low Sun 

angles will aid in detecting standing water 

areas where tree crown closure values are not 

too great.

Environmental Considerations. Like water, 

Forested Wetland areas do not cause pollution. 

These areas, however, can become victims of a 

range of man's activities which can ruin an 

otherwise balanced ecosystem. In Missouri, the 

greatest potential pollution source for 

Forested Wetland areas is nonpoint pollution, 

primarily runoff from adjacent agricultural 

areas. If proper precautions are not taken, 

agricultural areas may introduce such pollutants as livestock manure, fertilizers, and 

pesticides.

Interpretation Keys. Two sites, both in 

southeast Missouri, are described below to 

illustrate Forested Wetland areas.

Site No. 31 (Swamp) 

Location: Puxico

Stoddard County, Missouri 

Geographic Coordinates: 37°01'N

90°10'W

Figure 6-214, a black-and-white reproduction of a color-infrared photograph of a 

portion of the Mingo National Wildlife Refuge 

(approximately 3 miles north of Puxico), 

depicts both land use categories 61 (Forested 

Wetland), at A, and 62 (Nonfcrested Wetland), 

at B. Notice the dark areas as opposed to the 

lighter area just above A. The dark areas are 

wetter areas of woody vegetation, while the 

lighter areas are higher, drier areas of forest 

land. The lighter area at B, Nonfcrested 

Wetland, is discussed later.

On color-infrared photography, the 

Forested Wetland areas appear bluish in color 

while the drier deciduous forest areas appear 

red in summer. During the frost season, 

deciduous trees appear as blue-green when the 

leaves are brown, yellow when the leaves are 

red, and white when the leaves are yellow. 

The photograph shown in figure 6-214 was taken 

in November 1974, when the leaves had already 

turned brown; therefore, on the color-infrared 

photography, the trees at C appeared 

blue-green.

Figure 6-214. A black-and-white reproduction 

of a color-infrared mapping photograph of 

swamp and marsh areas in Mingo National 

Wildlife Refuge near Puxico, Mo.

Figure 6-215, a forward oblique photograph 

of the same area, also suggests slight differences in moisture levels. Notice the slightly 

lighter tone exhibited in the area just to the 

right of A. Apparently there has been an 

increase in water levels since 1974 when the 

photograph shown in figure 6-214 was obtained. 

The increased water levels have increased the 

size of the wetland area which existed in 1974.

Figure 6-215. Low-level photograph of swamp 

area in Mingo National Wildlife Refuge near 

Puxico, Mo.

101
Site No. 32 (Swamp and Marsh) 

Location: Wappapello

Wayne County, Missouri 

Geographic Coordinates: 36°58'N

90°23'W

Located approximately 6 miles west of the 

Mingo National Wildlife Refuge lies Wappapello 

Lake actually it is a reservoir since this 

water body was formed following the construction of a dam on the St. Francis River near 

Wappapello in 1941. Many of the upper reaches 

of the reservoir now exist as Forested and 

Nonforested Wetland areas. Site 32, noted by 

the circle on figure 6-216, illustrates the 

wetland nature of just one of these areas. 

Notice the dark gray tone of the Forested 

Wetlands area in the southwest quadrant of the 

circle. Also notice the lighter gray tones of 

adjacent deciduous trees.

Figure 6-217 provides a closer view of 

the area. Note the difference between the 

Forested Wetland vegetation at A and B as 

compared to the Nonforested Wetland area at C.

At the time of this photograph, September 

1980, water level of the reservoir was down 

somewhat. Accordingly, some of the areas, 

such as just above the B and below the A in 

the photograph, were not water covered. 

Although they can be seen more clearly on the 

original large-scale color photograph, these 

areas can be identified as the lighter gray 

areas on this photograph. Marsh areas, at C, 

appear as even lighter gray areas on the 

photograph.

Figure 6-216. Forested Wetlands on upper 

reaches of Lake Wappapello reservoir west of 

Wappapello.

Figure 6-217. Oblique photograph of forested 

wetlands near Wappapello.

Category 62 Nonforested Wetland

Category Description. Nonforested

Wetlands are areas dominated by herbaceous 

wetland vegetation or are nonvegetated. In 

Missouri, these areas include fresh marshes 

and nonvegetated flats. As suggested in the 

introductory comments, the Nonforested Wetland 

category accounts for only one-third of the 

State's 66,862 acres of wetland. Of this 

amount, approximately 20,000 acres, almost half 

is situated in numerous reservoir hollows. 

The remainder occurs mostly in alluvial flood 

plains of the Mississippi and Missouri Rivers.

Environmental Considerations. As with

Forested Wetlands, Nonforested Wetland areas 

are not pollution sources. Likewise, since 

Nonforested Wetland areas are often situated 

adjacent to Forested Wetland areas, the 

environmental consideration comments presented 

earlier for Forested Wetlands hold for 

Nonforested Wetlands as well. Therefore, no 

further comments are presented here.

Interpretation Keys. Site 31, in

southeast Missouri, and site 82, in northwest 

Missouri, illustrate the types of Nonforested 

Wetland areas found in the State.

Site 31 (Marsh) 

Location: Puxico

Stoddard County, Missouri 

Geographic Coordinates: 36°59'N

90°10'W

102
Figure 6-214, presented earlier in the 

descriptions for Forested Wetland, identifies 

the area of the Mingo National Wildlife Refuge 

to be described here. Water levels have 

increased since 1974 and, consequently, the 

area immediately below point A in figure 6-214 

now exists as Nonforested Wetland. Figure 

6-218, a 1980 photograph of the same area, 

illustrates the surface appearance of a 

Nonforested Wetland area. Note the overall 

mottled tone of the area. The lighter areas 

at A and B are small water areas, the darker 

areas at C and D are Forested Wetlands. The 

remaining nonvegetated area is Nonforested 

Wetland.

Figure 6-218 . Oblique photograph of 

Nonforested Wetland in Mingo National 

Wildlife Refuge near Puxico, Mo.

Site No. 82 (Nonforested Wetland) 

Location: Mound City

Holt County, Missouri 

Geographic Coordinates: 40°04'N

95°15'W

Site 82, located approximately 4 miles 

south of Mound City, is located near the 

southern end of the Squaw Creek National 

Wildlife Refuge. Figure 6-219, taken in 1975, 

shows the area at a time of relatively high 

water levels. Notice the light gray tone of 

the water area. In contrast, figure 6-220, 

taken in September 1980, was obtained near the 

end of a prolonged drought. Notice how aquatic 

vegetation has replaced much of the water area 

that existed in 1975. Also note the overall 

mottled appearance of the area. The mottled

appearance results from differences in algal 

growth and herbaceous vegetation. The complete 

lack of woody vegetation in the area should 

also be noted since this rarely occurs in 

Missouri.

Figure 6-219. Mapping photograph of 

Nonforested Wetland area near Mound City, Mo.

Figure 6-220. 1980 Oblique photograph of 

Nonforested Wetland area near Mound City, Mo.

LEVEL I, CATEGORY 7 BARREN LAND

Barren Land is land with limited ability 

to support plant life with less than one-third 

of the area in vegetation or other cover. In 

general, it is an area of thin soil, sand,

103
or rocks. Vegetation, if present, is widely 

spaced and scrubby. Barren Land is more often 

found in nature; however, land also may become 

barren because of man's activities. The Level 

II categories of Barren Land are: Dry Salt 

Flats; Beaches; Sandy Areas Other Than Beaches; 

Bare Exposed Rock; Strip Mines; Quarries and 

Gravel Pits; Transitional Areas; and Mixed 

Barren Land. Barren Land categories found in 

Missouri are Sandy Areas Other Than Beaches 

(mostly islands and sand bars created by the 

currents in the larger rivers of the State), 

Strip Mines, Quarries and Gravel Pits, and 

Transitional Areas.

The geologic structure of Missouri allows 

mining of coal in the northern portion of the 

State, while Quarries and Gravel Pits occur 

throughout the State.

When land clearing occurs, either in rural 

or urban areas of the State, and the former or 

future use of the land cannot be discerned, the 

area is said to be in transition. Accordingly, 

in order to avoid inferential errors in classification, it is considered to be a Transitional 

Area. This transitional classification is also 

used when forest land is cleared for agriculture, wetland is drained for development, or 

where areas become temporarily bare, such as 

construction for highways, residences, shopping 

centers, industrial sites, or suburban and 

rural residential subdivisions. Land areas 

altered by filling, such as sanitary landfills, 

are also included in the Transitional Area 

category. These areas in Missouri are mostly 

forest lands converted for agriculture purposes 

and areas cleared for new construction.

Category 73 Sandy Areas Other Than 

Beaches

Category Description. There are approximately 4,000 acres of Sandy Areas Other Than 

Beaches in Missouri. Most of these sandy areas 

occur in the channels and banks of the Missouri 

and Mississippi Rivers, and are formed by sand 

deposited by their currents. These sandbar 

islands and tow heads are in a constant state 

of change every time the current increases, 

they are subject to being washed away, and the 

sand deposited in another location. Because 

of this instability, vegetation does not have 

a chance to become established.

Environmental Considerations. Sandy Areas 

Other Than Beaches, formed by natural process, 

are not a source of pollution.

Interpretation Keys. The following site 

indicates the types of areas to be delineated 

under this category.

Site No. 24 (Sandbar)

Location: 10 miles northeast of Hayti

Pemiscot County, Missouri 

Geographic Coordinates: 36°20'N

89°36'W

Figure 6-221, a mapping photograph taken 

in 1974, shows an area in the Mississippi River 

channel which would be delineated under this 

category. Because of their inherent instability, the size and shape of the islands, sandbars, and tow heads are in a constant state of 

change. Since vegetation hasn't had a chance

Figure 6-221. Sandy area along the 

Mississippi River.

Figure 6-222. Low-altitude oblique photograph 

of unstable sandy area in Mississippi River.

104
to become established, these areas are much 

lighter in tone than the surrounding areas. 

The instability of this feature is shown in 

figure 6-222, a low-altitude oblique photograph taken in 1980 of the same area shown in 

figure 6-221. The photograph shows the 

light-toned sandy areas in the river and 

adjacent to the dark-toned shoreline.

Category 75 Strip Mines, Quarries, 

and Gravel Pits

Category Description. Surface mining 

activities that have significant surface 

expressions are included in this category. 

Vegetative cover and overburden are removed to 

expose deposits of extractive material such as 

coal, limestone, iron ore, or copper. Quarrying of stone and the recovery of sand and 

gravel also result in large open pits. All 

surface expressions of this type of mining, 

including active, inactive, and unreclaimed 

quarries and gravel pits, are included in this 

category. When other land use or land cover 

types have been established, these areas are no 

longer included in this category. Missouri 

contains approximately 75,177 acres of land in 

category 75.

Environmental Considerations. Strip

mines, quarries, and gravel pits are often a 

source of significant pollution. Extraction 

of minerals is often accompanied by careless 

disposal of spoil materials containing heavy 

metals and toxic chemicals. Runoff from these 

waste products may sterilize local soils and 

contaminate surface and ground water. Surface 

runoff can collect large concentrations of 

sulfur and iron resulting in "acid drainage."

Strip mining activities and their 

associated removal of topsoil increase the 

erosional potential of an area and may result 

in increased sediment loads in nearby streams.

Quarries and gravel extraction activities 

can create excessive noise levels and lower 

air quality. The use of heavy machinery, 

vehicles, and intermittent blasting results in 

increased local noise levels. Dust and debris, 

caused by heavy machinery and crushing operations, affect local air quality and can create 

health hazards to nearby residents.

Improper reclamation methods, or the lack 

of them, can create a site which continually 

affects the environment. These sites, especially quarries, have been used as landfill 

sites for both residential and industrial 

wastes, which if not properly controlled may 

lead to ground-water contamination. Land 

collapse, subsidence, and increased erosion 

result in increased loss of land. The drainage

pattern and hydrology of large regions may also 

be altered, as well as water quality. Removal 

or burying of topsoil under spoil material also 

affects the future productivity of extraction 

sites.

Interpretation Keys. Presented below are 

examples of a strip mine, quarry, and gravel 

pit.

Site No. 97 (Coal Strip Mine) 

Location: Thomas Hill Reservoir

Randolph County, Missouri 

Geographic Coordinates: 39°32'N

92°38'W

Identification features for strip mining 

are the spoil banks of overburden, the lack of 

vegetation on active mines, and deep 

trenches. The last trench in a sequence of 

strips is usually water filled. The outer 

edge of the mining area is called the highwall 

or headwall. Active strip mines use power 

shovels for stripping overburden or mining.

This strip mine is just south of the 

Thomas Hill Reservoir in Randolph County, 

Missouri. The mapping photograph, figure 

6-223, shows the layout of the mined area. 

New mining is occuring at A, a newly reclaimed 

mine is at B, and an older reclaimed area at C.

Figure 6-223. Mined area near Thomas Hill 

Reservoir, Mo.

Figure 6-224 shows mounds of overburden, 

newly mined coal, and a power shovel removing 

overburden. The overburden is removed, the 

coal removed, and the trench where the coal

105
was extracted then filled with overburden. 

This process is repeated until the coal 

deposits are depleted. The ground photograph, 

figure 6-225, shows a mining shovel in the 

process of stripping coal. This photograph 

provides insight into the size of the shovel 

and the depth of the trenches and excavation.

The key identifying photographic features 

of quarries is the large open pits, usually 

lighter in tone than adjacent areas, with 

steep walls. An active quarry will have roads 

to the pit and loading and crushing facilities.

Quarries are open pits where building 

stone such as slate, granite, marble, and 

limestone are extracted. The mapping photograph in figure 6-226, shows two quarries used 

in producing cement at points A and B. These 

limestone quarries, south of Cape Girardeau, 

are owned and operated by a cement company. 

The limestone is removed and transported to a 

cement plant nearby. The oblique photograph 

in figure 6-227 shows the layout of the quarry 

and the roads leading into the quarry area. 

The ground photograph, figure 6-228, shows the 

nearly vertical walls and provides an 

appreciation for the depth of the quarry.

Figure 6-224. Strip mining in progress.

Figure 6-226. Mapping photograph of two limestone quarries south of Cape Girardeau, Mo.

Figure 6-225. Ground photograph of 

stripping process.

Site No. 22 (Quarries) 

Location: Cape Girardeau

Cape Girardeau County, Missouri 

Geographic Coordinates: 37°16'N

89°34'W

Figure 6-227. Low-altitude oblique 

photograph of quarry area.

106
Figure 6-228. Ground photograph of quarry.

Site No. 30 (Gravel Pit) 

Location: Dexter

Stoddard County, Missouri 

Geographic Coordinates: 36°49'N

89°58'W

Key identifying features of gravel pits 

are the light tones and rough-textured areas 

where gravel is being excavated, lack of 

vegetation in the areas being worked, and the 

presence of access roads leading to the area.

The gravel pit shown in figure 6-229 is a 

mile and a half northwest of Dexter, in southeast Missouri. Topsoil and overburden are 

removed and the gravel scooped up by shovels 

and loaded on trucks for hauling to its destination. Many times, gravel pits are only 

operated during road construction. The 

absence of vegetation and the rough texture of 

the excavation area is exhibited on the photograph shown in figure 6-230. This ground 

photograph also shows the active gravel pit 

and the depth of the excavation.

Figure 6-230. Ground photograph of gravel pit 

near Dexter, Mo.

Category 76 Transitional Areas

Category Description. The Transitional 

Area category is used for those areas which 

are in transition from one land use activity 

to another. This transitional phase occurs 

when forest lands are cleared for agriculture, 

wetlands are drained for development, or when 

any type of land use ceases as areas become 

temporarily bare preceding construction for 

future uses such as residences, shopping 

centers, industrial sites, or suburban residential subdivisions. Land altered by filling, 

such as sanitary landfills, is also included 

in the Transitional category.

Environmental Considerations.

Figure 6-229. Low-altitude oblique photograph 

of a gravel pit near Dexter, Mo.

__________________________ The 

Transitional land use and land cover category 

in urban areas has the same potential pollution 

sources as the category to which it belongs. 

Urban, suburban, and rural areas undergoing 

conversion to residential and commercial uses 

exhibit the potential pollution sources associated with construction excessive noise, dust, 

and debris, and runoff and erosional possibilities. Following completion of construction, 

the main environmental concern will be surface 

runoff and possible localized flooding.

A forested area being cleared for agriculture will exhibit pollution potentials 

similar to a forested area being harvested or 

a right-of-way being cleared.

Forested areas undergoing conversion to 

agriculture are usually sprayed with herbicides 

to kill trees and brush. Effects of these 

herbicides on wildlife are controversial, and 

immediately after spraying, runoff can carry 

these herbicides into nearby streams and other 

surface water bodies.

107
Landfills and spoil dumps are also potentially dangerous sources of water pollution. 

Landfills are often situated in abandoned pits 

or quarries. If the geologic structure is 

unfavorable, or the bedrock permeable, ground 

water can be contaminated by the disposed 

wastes. Dust, debris, and noxious fumes from 

decaying waste can lower air quality in these 

areas and in adjacent communities.

Interpretation Keys. Two sites, one urban 

and one rural, are presented to illustrate 

Transitional Areas.

Site No. 20 (Urban Renewal) 

Location: St. Louis

St. Louis City, Missouri 

Geographic Coordinates: 38°39'N

90°12'W

The oblique photograph in figure 6-231 

shows an urban renewal area in "inner city" 

St. Louis. Buildings have been removed and 

future use is unknown, so the area is 

classified as a Transitional Area. In many 

urban renewal projects, deteriorating 

buildings are torn down and modern apartments 

or civic buildings constructed.

Figure 6-232. Buildings slated for removal 

in a urban renewal area, St. Louis, Mo.

Site No. 28 (Rural Transition) 

Location: Piedmont

Wayne County, Missouri 

Geographic Coordinates: 37°13'N

90°30'W

Site No. 28, four and a half miles northeast of Piedmont, is a Rural Transition area. 

The trees were sprayed with a herbicide and 

bulldozed into windrows. The larger trees were 

used for firewood and the remaining debris 

either burned or left to rot. The cleared 

areas are then tilled, fertilized, planted in 

grass, and used for pasture.

Figure 6-233 illustrates various phases 

of the transition: forested area at A, cleared 

area at B, and land already in pasture at C.

Figure 6-231. Urban renewal in St. Louis, Mo.

Figure 6-232, a ground photograph, shows 

some of the buildings in an urban renewal 

area. These buildings will be removed, and 

until another land use can be identified, the 

area is considered Transitional.

Figure 6-233. Low-level photograph of 

forest clearing near Piedmont, Mo.

108
The ground photograph in figure 6-234 

shows the pasture, the windrows, and a few 

scattered trees in the background.

Figure 6-234. Ground photograph of 

forest clearing process.

Site No. 19 (Sanitary Landfill) 

Location: Peerless Park

St. Louis County, Missouri 

Geographic Coordinates: 38°32'N

90°36'W

Landfills are usually located on the 

periphery of urban areas in abandoned pits, in 

low-lying areas, or in other areas of low 

economic importance. The photographic 

signatures of landfills can be as varied as 

the landscape itself. A key identifier of 

landfills is the lack of trees. The landfills 

are lighter in tone than the adjacent 

landscape and tend to have a rough texture 

(because of the constant repositioning of the 

waste materials and overburden).

Landfills are included in category 76, 

Transitional. The mapping photograph, figure 

6-235, shows a landfill area at A with lighter 

tones exhibited in the area of disturbed earth. 

Also shown, at B, is a drive-in theater which 

should be placed in land use category 12.

Figure 6-235. Landfill area, 

St. Louis County, Mo.

Figure 6-236 shows the inverted "L-shaped" 

landfill area with its various gray tones and 

rough texture. When the area is filled to 

capacity, it will be leveled and developed for 

another land use such as commercial or 

residential.

Figure 6-236. Low-altitude photograph of 

landfill area near Peerless Park, Mo.

109
SECTION 7: LAND USE AND LAND COVER 

TABULATIONS FOR MISSOURI

The graphic maps of land use and land 

cover, and associated maps, can be used to 

tabulate the distribution of land use and land 

cover categories for various regions of 

concern (e.g., land use by county). Manual 

methods of computing acreage statistics from 

maps (e.g., random dot grid counting) are often 

effective for small project areas, but cannot 

be used economically over large regions.

In order to meet the need for acreage 

statistics of large regions, computer methods 

are used to calculate and cross-tabulate map 

data. To do this, lines from the maps representing boundaries which separate adjacent 

polygons must be converted into a computerreadable or digital form. Specialized computer 

equipment, referred to collectively as digitizers, have been developed to facilitate the 

conversion of data from graphic to digital 

form.

There are many varieties of digitizers 

and methods of representing the map data in a 

computer. Very often, lines on the map are 

approximated by line segments defined as a 

series of x,y coordinates. A group of line 

segments, or vectors, define closed polygon 

areas corresponding to poylgons on the maps. 

While polygons on the political units outline 

counties, polygons on the land use and land 

cover map outline areas with homogenous land 

use or cover characteristics. Associated with 

each polygon is an attribute code. For 

example, the land use and land cover attribute 

code "11" describes a homogeneous area of 

residential land use. Together, the x,y 

coordinates and associated attributes form a 

basic unit for computer processing. Once the 

map information is digitized, the data are 

processed and edited by a computer system 

developed by the U.S. Geological Survey. The 

system, the Geographic Information Retrieval 

and Analysis System (GIRAS), is utilized to 

convert and edit the digital x,y-coordinate 

data (Mitchell, 1977). To compare digital 

data between maps, the x,y-coordinate data 

defining the polygon boundaries are converted 

into uniform sized grid cells. Once gridded, 

the maps are registered for orientation and 

alinement (Guptil, 1978).

The land use and land cover maps use a 

square grid size of 200 meters. This size (4 

hectares, approximately 10 acres) is the same 

as the minimum-sized polygon portrayed on the 

land use and land cover maps at a scale of 

1:250,000.

After the data are converted from x,y 

coordinates to a regular matrix of grid cells,

subsequent programs merge the grid cells of 

the individual maps into a single computer 

file, then count and cross-tabulate the 

coincidence of attribute codes from two of the 

maps for each grid cell. In this manner, 

acreage statistics of land use by county or 

land use by hydrologic units (or any other 

associated maps) can be obtained.

The land use and land cover and associated 

maps for the State of Missouri have been 

processed through the GIRAS programs and 

statistical tabulations generated. A listing 

of the preliminary land use and land cover 

acreage data by county cross-tabulations 

follows. The county codes are standard FIPS 

(Federal Information Processing Standards) 

codes which are utilized by all Federal 

agencies. The five digits in these codes 

consists of a State code (i.e., the leftmost 

two digits) and a county code (odd numbers 

only such as 001, 003, 005, etc.). The 

complete list of codes in ascending order 

correspond to an alphabetized list of county 

names for the State (e.g., 29001=Adair county, 

29229=Wright county).

Care should be taken in comparing figures 

from the land use and land cover inventories 

with other inventories of resources or areal 

statistical figures. The classification system 

and methods employed in land use and land cover 

mapping are explained in this and other documents and it is essential that users understand 

and critically evaluate the methodologies and 

data sources used in the various inventories 

being compared. For example, often-quoted 

areas of counties may or may not include 

internal water bodies less than 40 acres, while 

the land use and land cover maps provide a 

complete enumeration of all land and water 

surfaces 10 acres or larger. Estimated areas 

may be based on manual computations or by more 

accurate methods employing digitizing. 

Methodologically, some inventories are based 

on sampling methods utilizing air photos 

supplemented with selected field-checks. The 

land use and land cover maps, by comparison, 

are based upon precompilation field-checks and 

interpretation of high-altitude aerial 

photographs. Basically, differences in 

inventory results are usually attributable to 

definable differences for map categories and 

criteria used in classifying and/or mapping 

the land surface. Other frequently 

contributing factors are the dates, scales, 

and types of photographs used in resource 

inventory and the scale, methods, and 

specifications employed in mapping the data. 

A major objective of this publication has been 

to aid users in their understanding of the 

land use and land cover mapping compiled by 

the U.S. Geological Survey. A better

110
understanding of land use classification 

schemes and compilation methods should help 

users better understand land use and land cover 

maps and products derived from these maps, 

such as the area! statistics. Statistical 

acreage data for the counties and the State of 

Missouri follow.

State of Missouri Statistical Data 

Land Use By Counties

The following pages present land use 

acreage values by land use type for each of 

Missouri's 114 counties and St. Louis City. 

The number shown beneath each county and 

St. Louis City is the Bureau of the Census* 

geographic identification code.

Presented below are the land use codes 

and their respective explanations. Please 

note that categories for tundra and perennial 

ice and snow have been omitted from this list 

since they do not occur in Missouri. For a 

more complete listing of the Anderson classification system, refer to table 1-1 in this 

publication.

10 Urban or Built-up Land

11 Residential

12 Commercial and Services

13 Industrial

14 Transportation, Communications, 

and Utilities

15 Industrial and Commercial 

Complexes

10 Urban or Built-up Land cont.

16 Mixed Urban or Built-up Land

17 Other Urban or Built-up Land

20 Agricultural Land

21 Cropland and Pasture

22 Orchards, Groves, etc.

23 Confined Feeding Operations

24 Other Agricultural Land

30 Rangeland

31 Herbaceous Rangeland

32 Shrub and Brush Rangeland

33 Mixed Rangeland

40 Forest Land

41 Deciduous Forest Land

42 Evergreen Forest Land

43 Mixed Forest Land

50 Water

51 Streams and Canals

52 Lakes

53 Reservoirs

54 Bays and Estuaries

60 Wetland

61 Forested Wetland

62 Nonforested Wetland

70 Barren Land

71 Dry Salt Flats

72 Beaches

73 Sandy Areas Other Than Beaches

74 Bare Exposed Rock

75 Strip Mines, Quarries, and 

	Gravel Pits

76 Transitional Areas

77 Mixed Barren Land

111
State of Missouri Statistical Data Land Use By Counties in Acres

LUCODE

10

11

12

13

14

15

16

17

20

21

22

23

2k

30

31

32

33

40

41

42

43

50

51

52

53

54

60

61

62

70

71

72

73

74

75

76

77

Adai r

29001

3814

2471

771

59

38500

128

243339

24331900

20

0

000

115606

11560600

731

00

7310

208

0

208

168

0000

109

590

Andrew

29003

3518

1275

3660

10870

316

474

257236

256732

316

10

178 0 000

18918

1891800

257

148

10

990

0

00

485

0000

48500

Atchison

29005

2581

998

297

40

11070

109

30

336171

3358550

128

188

306

0

3060

11614

1161400

1414

13050

1090

267

2670

30

00000

300

Audrain

29007

5506

3074

959

850

1190

79

425

413337

4127440

148

445

801

0

8010

24009

2400900

1136

00

11360 0 00

909

0000

850

590

Barry

29009

43«9

2768

583

208

1580

504

168

263562

262899

386

70

207

415

0

4150

22870

190083

583

38104

6909

00

69090 0 00

1483

0000

89

13940

Barton

29011

2707

1364

366

138

490

573

217

340155

3400760

49

30

0

000

27112

269640

148

899

00

8990 0 00

10892

0000

10032

8600
State of Missouri Statistical Data Land Use By Counties in Acres

LUCODE

10

11

12

13

14

15

16

17

20

21

22

23

2k

30

31

32

33

40

41

42

43

50

51

52

53

54

60

61

62

70

71

72

73

74

75

76

77

Bol 1 i nger

29017

979

484

129

109

30

0

217

10

194393

194264

0

30

99

128

0

128

0

195125

194600

30

495

603

0 .

10

593

0

2906

2501

405

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

Boone

29019

14975

7581

3874

178

1938

0

297

1107

311333

311135

0

128

70

0

0

0

0

104545

103132

49

1364

3361

2303

0

1058

0

0

0

0

5604

0

0

0

0

5209

395

0

Buchanan

29021

19363

11149

2026

V819

2945

0

20

1404

219153

218866

158

20

109

0

0

0

0

23979

23979

0

0

3391

1908

0

1483

0

1236

257

979

257

0

0

0

0

173

79

0

Butler

29023

7294

5258

1305

0

198

69

217

247

282816

282599

0

49

168

0

0

0

0

155715

137993

7907

9815

1008

346

0

662

0

247

247

0

712

0

0

0

0

178

534

0

Cal dwell

29025

1781

1008

178

0

70

0

475

50

258806

258471

49

59

227

119

0

119

0

14066

14066

0

0

149

0

.20

129

0

0

0

0

276

0

0

0

0

276

0

0

Cal laway

29027

6137

2224

781

217

1987

10

543

375

323441

323174

0

59

208

227

0

227

0

202954

193217

1246

8491

4092

3064

0

1028

0

0

0

0

2106

0

0

0

0

1750

356

0
State of Missouri

LUCODE

10

11

12

13

14

15

16

17

20

21

22

23

2k

30

31

32

33

40

41

42

43

50

51

52

53

54

60

61

62

70

71

72

73

74

75

76

77

Carrol 1

29033

2649

1720

237

33600

287

69

416036

41561100

425

198

0

1980

24552

2455200

4675

4181

336

1580

1028

929

99

128

00

1280000

Carter

29035

771

435

590

690

2080

21784

21784000 0 000

303444

292572

5229

5643

70

00

700

0

00

0

0000000

Cass

29037

12513

6474

1473

316

2916

59

544

731

413455

413080

12.80

247

1680

0

16800

20411

2041100

1206

0

10

11960

79

790

1463

0000

662

8010

Cedar

29039

4044

1 196

287

139

2080

163

2046

201311

20125200

59

0

000

99000

97300

356

1344

13403

00

134030

59

590

464

0000

158

3060

Char i ton

29041

2560

1334

336

163

1190

484

119

437415

4372570

30

128

346

0

3460

42443

4244300

6099

1700

1216

31830

1957

593

1364

623

00000

6230

Chr i st ian

29043

3054

2036

494

20

490

158

297

192712

192594

590

59

0

000

163770

157603

593

5574

20

00

200

0

00

356

0000

119

2370
State of Missouri Statistical Data Land Use By Counties in Acres

LUCODE

10

11

12

13

14

15

16

17

20

21

22

23

24

30

31

32

33

40

41

42

43

50

51

52

53

54

60

61

62

70

71

72

73

74

75

76

77

Cl i nton

29049

3844

2115

494

0

1166

0

0

69

256060

255912

0

79

69

0

0

0

0

9469

9469

0

0

425

0

0

425

0

138

0

138

880

0

0

0

0

267

613

0

Cole

29051

7532

4616

1423

79

119

0

771

524

158453

158394

0

0

59

0

0

0

0

83580

67568

1285

14727

4221

3855

20

346

0

0

0

0

989

0

0

0

0

99

890

0

Cooper

29053

4260

1097

415

20

2115

0

435

178

312587

312034

415

0

138

0

0

0

0

43649

40318

0

3331

2589

2342

10

237

0

0

0

0

50

0

0

0

0

40

10

0

Crawford

29055

3530

2343

119

89

415

0

495

69

11 1919

111751

0

30

138

356

0

356

0

359766

351186

1053

7522

583

0

0

583

0

0

0

0

514

0

0

0

0

0

514

0

Dade

29057

3569

1295

188

0

59

0

208

1819

249369

249309

0

20

40

0

0

0

0

62122

60313

59

1750

8006

0

0

3006

0

79

. 79

0

424

0

0

0

0

365

59

0

Da 1 las

29059

2264

1127

356

0

198

0

455

128

176383

176097

59

59

168

0

0

0

0

168891

166124

148

2619

30

0

0

30

0

0

0

0

99

0

. 0

0

0

30

69

0
State of Missouri Statistical Data Land Use By Counties in Acres

Dent 

29065

LUCODE 

10

11

12

13 

lit

15

16

17

20

30

4o

50

60

70

21

22

23 

2**

31

32

33

41

42

43

51

52

53

54

61

62

71

72

73

74

75

76

77

Doug las

29067

1383

692

158

49

89

0

267

128

169544

169317

0

10

217

0

0

0

0

349141

344781

80

4280

40

0

0

40

0

0

0

0

316

0

0

0

0

79

237

0

Dunkl in

29069

8571

5140

1433

248

732

0

563

455

317293

314900

2234

40

119

0

0

0

0

15410

15281

20

109

3311

3054

0

257

0

1344

1255

89

248

0

0

0

0

109

139

0

Frankl i n

29071

11298

5911

2125

465

484

0

1285

1028

280574

280168

89

40

277

178

0

178

0

293175

265855

1117

26203

5189

3983

0

1206

0

820

820

0

3529

0

0

0

0

801

2728

0

Gasconade

29073

2085

1394

148

49

0

0

425

69

116535

1 1 6535

0

0

0

109

0

109

0

213222

205819

395

7008

1750

1315

0

435

0

0

0

0

425

0

0

0

0

119

306

0

 Gentry

29075

1720

1354

168

0

40

0

109

49 

290556

290487

0

0

69

1858

0

1858

0

20342

20233

0

109

168

0

0

168

0

0

0

0

208

0

0

0

0

208

0

0
State of Missouri Statistical Data Land Use By Counties in Acres

LUCODE

10

11

12

13

14

15

16

17

20

21

22

23

2k

30

31

32

33

4o

41

42

43

50

51

52

53

54

60

61

62

70

71

72

73

74

75

76

77

Har r i son

29081

3756

1789

355

0

1463

0

60

89

417074

416787

30

20

237

1631

0

1631

0

40792

40792

0

0

415

0

0

415

0

0

0

0

1147

0

0

40

0

237

870

0

Henry

29083

4342

3272

485

99

40

0

248

198

383903

383774

0

40

89

188

30

158

0

60363

60056

208

99

3025

0

633

2392

0

287

0

287

14480

0

0

0

0

14391

89

0

Hi ckory

29085

4152

2689

247

0

109

0

178

929

107847

107758

0

0

39

0

0

0

0

145002

133427

1483

10092

5852

0

0

5852

0

0

0

0

346

0

0

0

0

79

267

0

Holt

29087

1957

1008

178

0

653

0

49

69

272636

272497

0

20

119

69

0

69

0

18206

18206

0

0

4666

220^

2175

287

0

3044

0

304**

385

0

0

0

0

237

148

0

Howard

29089

1780

1 127

178

30

138

0

198

109

239326

233397

613

267

49

356

0

356

0

57556

57556

0

0

2719

2274

0

445

0

287

287

0

59

0

0

0

0

59

0

0

Howel 1

29091

4212

2462

1009

109

227

0

257

148

258995

258916

0

0

79

59

59

0

0

332090

323313

4636

4141

425

0

0

425

0

0

0 

0

286

0

0

0

0

138

148

0
State of Missouri Statistical Data Land Use By Counties in Acres

LUCODE

10

11

12

13

14

15

16

17

20

21

22

23

2k

30

31

32

33

4o

41

k2

k3

50

51

52

53

5k

60

61

62

70

71

72

73

7k

75

76

77

Jasper

29097

22011

12256

2787

1888

1779

474

890

1937

320298

320189

0

89

20

0

0

0

0

56834

56834

0

0

880

0

0

880

0

0

0

0

7986

0

0

0

0

7393

593

0

Jef fe rson

29099

23851

14945

2352

1097

1631

0

2768

1058

98723

98466

0

0

257

0

0

0

0

294223

244110

959

49154

6237

4557

89

1591

0

218

208

0

2649

0

0

0

0

741

1908

0

Johnson

29101

8412

3954

3459

20

702

0

99

178

484534

484148

109

30

247

267

0

267

0

38242

37797

0

445

652

0

0

652

0

0

0

0

988

0

0

0

0

870 '

118

0

Knox

29103

1375

959

138

0

30

0

159

89

278072

277924

0

0

148

0

0

0

0

41099

41099

0

0

326

0

0

326

0

0

0

0

267

0

0

0

0

267

0

0

Laclede

29105

7423

2916

890

79

3262

0

128

148

216316

215693

0

0

623

0

0

0

0

267022

260281

1364

5377

49

0

0

49

0

0

0

0

149

0

0

0

0

30

119

0

Lafayette

29107

6543

2896

909

109

2155

0

158

316

378931

377319

1305

40

267

0

0

0

0

13837

13679

99

59

5180

3657

198

1325

0

197

49

148

761

0

0

0

0

227

534

0
State of Missouri Statistical Data Land Use By Counties in Acres

LUCODE

10

11

12

13

l^t

15

16

17

20

21

22

23

2k

30

31

32

33

40

i*l

42

43

50

51

52

53

54

60

61

62

70

71

72

73

74

75

76

77

Li ncol n

29113

4982

2639

1631

80

20

0

484

128

284962

283341

722

316

583

524

0

524

0

107856

107698

79

79

6632

0

731

5901

0

2659

2659

0

534

0

0

0

0

158

376

0

Li nn

29H5

3252

2116

306

0

158

0

623

49

369145

369135

0

0

10

0

0

0

0

24562

24562

0

0

455

0

119

336

0

830

0

830

148

0

0

0

0

0

148

0

Li v i ngston

29117

3084

2016

346

59

148

109

198

208

301636

301349

188

0

99

514

0

514

0

34456

34456

0

0

504

0

267

237

0

2600

267

2333

435

0

0

0

0

336

99

0

McDonald

291 19

2392

1067

524

208

30

0

484

79

147897

147225

49

366

257

0

0

0

0

195213

194363

593

257

89

0

0

89

0

0

0

0

188

0

0

0

0

20

1,68

0

Macon

29121

3066

1967

376

99

40

0

287

297

419397

419367

0

0

30

119

0

119

0

91113

91113

0

0

2452

0

0

2452

0

0

0

0

3568

0

0

0

0

3563

0

0

Mad i son

29123

1642

969

188

148

109

0

119

109

80062

80062

0

0

0

0

0

. 0

0

237458

233336

494

3628

415

0

0

415

0

0

0

0

791

0

0

0

0

603

188

0
State of Missouri Statistical Data Land Use By Counties in Acres

N5

o

LUCODE

10

11

12

13

14

15

16

17

20

21

22

23

2k

30

31

32

33

4o

k]

k2

43

50

51

52

53

5k

60

61

62

70

71

72

73

7k

75

76

77

Mercer

29129

989

791

49

0

4o

0

69

ko

249833

249754

0

0

79

336

0

336

0

38113

38113

0

0

524

0

0

52k

0

0

0

0

415

0

0

69

0

237

109

0

Mil ler

29131

2718

1631

494

0

1 98

0

217

178

147699

147472

0

0

227

0

0

0

0

230766

224470

820

5476

4458

2333

0

21 25

0

0

0

0

69

0

0

0

0

59

10

0

Mi ss i ss i ppi

29133

3103

1759

445

109

543

0

79

168

248924

248785

0

20

119

0

0

0

0

7433

7433

0

0

9755

9676

0

79

0

4903 .

4903

0

810

0

0

751

0

0

59

0

Moni teau

29135

2134

1186

415

79

0

0

306

148

217394

217186

0

0

208

0

0

0

0

47938

46011

59

1868

1196

1147

0

49

0

0

0

0

50

0

0

0

0

20

30

0

Mo n roe

29137

1662

999

267

0

10

0

326

60

363521

363442

0

20

59

306

0

306

0

61914

61914

0

0

139

0

0

139

0

0

0

0

228

0

0

0

0

119

109

0

Montgomery

29139

3804

1611

197

138

1275

0

465

118

228621

228196

59

109

257

89

0

89

0

110743

107441

297

3005

1909

1147

30

732

0

30

30

0

633

0

0

0

0

406

227

0
State of Missouri Statistical Data Land Use By Counties in Acres

LUCODE

10

11

12

13

14

15

16

17

20

21

22

23

24

30

31

32

33

40

41

42

43

50

51

52

53

54

60

61

62

70

71

72

73

74

75

76

77

Newton

29145

9578

5871

1404

603

830

20

386

464

284152

282678

198

158

1018

0

0

0

0

106157

106127

30

0

79

0

0

79

0

0

0

0

1819

0

0

0

0

643

1176

0

Nodaway

29147

3459

2283

890

0

59

0

128

99

544975

544609

0

158

208

870

0

870

0

10349

10349

0

0

406

0

40

366

0

139

119

20

287

0

0

0

0

287

0

0

Oregon

29149

1167

820

267

0

30

0

10

40

162487

162457

0

0

30

0

0

0

0

342478

324538

4161

13779

69

0

0

69

0

0

0

0

59

0

0

0

0

59

0

0

Os age

29151

1246

573

109

20

0

0

544

0

144666

144626

0

0

40

40

0

40

0

242044

219854

2283

19907

2917

2857

0

60

0

0

0

0

69

0

0

0

0

0

69

0

Ozark

29153

1315

534

178

20

79

0

455

49

148174

148075

0

20

79

0

0

0

0

327483

273199

12266

42018

5199

30

0

5169

0

277

0

277

1898

0

0

0

0

40

1858

0

Pemi scot

29155

7454

2718

890

198

3104

0

267

277

301014

300895

10

0

109

0

0

0

0

4438

2876

0

1562

13976

13660

0

316

0

188

188

0

1196

0

0

1196

0

0

0

0
State of Missouri Statistical Data Land Use By Counties in Acres

LUCODE

10

11

12

13

14

15

16

17

20

21

22

23

2k

30

31

32

33

4o

41

42

43

50

51

52

53

54

60

61

62

70

71

72

73

74

75

76

77

Phelps

29161

7068

3074

771

148

2066

0

495

514

142461

142372

0

20

69

0 .

0

0

0

278972

273407

2718

2847

593

267

0

326

0

0

0

0

790

0

0

0

0

178

612

0

Pike

29163

3567

2194

613

257

148

0

217

138

320672

310101

731

356

484

89

0

89

0

106651

106651

0

0

5199

0

198

5001

0

722

633

89

811

0

0

0

0

811

0

0

Platte

29165

12770

7136

563

297

4161

0

356

257

220625

220358

188

30

49

0

0

0

0

32361

32361

0

0

2975

1730

128

1117

0

455

257

198

1848

0

0

0

0

751

1097

0

Polk

29167

3776

2580

712

20

128

0

69

267

284912

284467

0

20

425

0

0

0

0

120380

110772

534

9074

2471

0

0

2471

0

0

0

0

247

0

0

0

0

158

89

0

Pulaski

29169

20046

5427

11100

0

2679

0

316

524

85162

84945

0

0

217

0

0

0

0

247332

242291

534

4507

168

0

0

168

0

0

0

0

840

0

0

0

0

89

751

0

Putnam

29171

1057

890

59

49 

0

0

10

49

246334

246304

0

0

30

0

0

0

0

83077

83077

0

0

1097

0

0

1097

0

0

0

0

1641

0

0

0

0

1028

613

0
State of Missouri Statistical Data Land Use By Counties in Acres

LUCODE

10

11

12

13

14

15

16

17

20

21

22

23

2k

30

31

32

33

40

41

42

43

50

51

52

53

54

60

61

62

70

71

72

73

74

75

76

77

Ray

29177

4557

3005

306

40

217

0

445

544

303307

302457

0

0

850

247

0

247

0

54225

54176

49

0

1957

978

544

435

0

741

642

99

1136

0

0

0

0

415

721

0

Reynolds

20179

989

306

30

99

109

0

445

0

48887

48828

0

0

59

0

0

0

0

468215

456838

1661

9716

2225

0

0

2224

0

0

0

0

722

0 ~ 0

20

0

79

623

0

Ripley

20181

1721

1315

267

0

20

0

20

99

109557

109557

20

0

10

277

277

0

0

291950

279120

4992

7838

109

0

0

109

0

0

0

0

0

0

o -

0

0

0

0

0

St. Charles

20183

19937

10151

4596

554

2204

0

1 127

1305

244417

244071

0

0

346

0

0

0

0

80567

79825

188

554

20667

9014

850

10803

0

12791

8916

3875

1315

0

0

0

0

366

949

0

St. Clair

29185

1938

1473

227

20

109

0

89

20

254814

254745

0

10

59

158

0

158

0

186742

185319

267

1156

316

0

99

217

0

1631

1295

336

2304

0

0

0

0

2304

0

0

St. Francois

29187

7372

5268

820

247

237

0

454

346

117750

117602

0

10

138

79

0

79

0

157387

150438

2412

4537

1493

0

30

1463

0

0

0

0

7285

0

0

0

0

2313

4972

0
State of Missouri Statistical Data Land Use By Counties in Acres

LUCODE

10

11

12

13

14

15

16

17

20

21

22

23

24

30

31

32

33

40

41

42

43

50

51

52

53

54

60

61

62

70

71

72

73

74

75

76

77

Sa 1 i ne

20195

6207

2758

415

79

21840

741

30

450403

449662

178

49

514

198

0

1980

25492

23900

30

1562

5317

4754

99

4640

484

257

227

277

0000

27700

Schuyler

29197

970

890

40000

20

20

163514

16350400

10

0

000

32885

3288500

89

00

890

0

00

49

00000

490

Scotl and

29199

1305

880

2270

590

99

40

248035

24783700

198 0 000

30700

3070000

188

00

1880 0 00

89

0000

8900

Scott

29201

8787

4498

1196

326

23030

89

375

246393

246186

49

30

128 0 000

14470

1447000

2501

2244

119

1380

347

139

208

267

0000

257

100

Shannon

29203

1068

761 .

99

3000

119

59

75506

7529800

208 0 000

563429

534241

682

28506

109

00

1090

128

1280

367

00

200

60

2870

She 1 by

20295

1770

1098

326

3000

227

89

280869

28081000

59

0

000

37293

3729300

534

00

5340 0 00

128

0000

12800
State of Missouri Statistical Data Land Use By Counties in Acres

LUCODE

10

11

12

13

14

15

16

17

20

21

22

23

24

30

31

32

33

4o

41

42

k3

50

51

52

53

54

60

61

62

70

71

72

73

7k

75

76

77

Sul 1 i van 

29211

1156

840

49

0

30

0

217

20

348042

347963

0

0

79

376

0

376

0

64435

64435

0

0

316

0

0

316

0

0

0

0

257

0

0

0

0

89

168

0

Taney 

29213

4499

2748

633

40

208

0

534

336

75505

75505

0

0

0

198

0

198

0

320585

17636**

16922

127299

11901

0

0

11901

0

0

0

0

3222

0

0

0

0

138

3084

0

Texas 

29215

310**

1601

50k

228

168

0

425

178

276828

276531

0

20

277

158

0

158

0

471733

427956

1967

41810

109

0

0

109

0

0

0

0

266

0

0

0

0

79

187

0

Vernon 

29217

5476

1789

1117

346

732

0

1334

158

437228

437139

0

0

89

237

237

0

0

83383

83343

0

40

978

0

197

781

0

2432

356

2076

3380

0

0

0

0

3380

0

0

Warren 

29219

3094

1008

178

109

1147

79

524

49

122465

122386

0

0

79

0

0

0

0

151159

142520

524

8115

3083

2352

0

731

0

316

316

0

721

0

0

0

0

138

583

0

Washington 

29221

1818

1018

69

168

69

0

494

0

79361

79301

0

20

40

0

0

0

0

394320

311036

6513

76771

2422

0

20

2402

0

0

0

0

10003

0

0

0

0

9963

40

0
State of Missouri Statistical Data Land Use By Counties in Acres

LUCODE

10

11

12

13

14

15

16

17

20

21

22

23

2/1

30

31

32

33

40

41

42

43

50

51

52

53

54

60

61

62

70

71

72

73

74

75

76

77

Worth

29227

652

455

128

0

0

0

59

10

160331

160272

0

0

59

672

0

672

0

9667

9667

0

0

109

0

0

109

0

0

0

0

148

0

0

0

0

148

0

0

Wright

29229

2659

1720

494

30

99

0

237

79

20301 1

202606

69

217

119

0

0

0

0

230588

217541

840

12207

69

0

0

69

0

0

0

0

119

0

0

0

0

99

20

0

St. Louis City 

29510

38756

8629

10724

3746

2402

0

9242

4013

257

257

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

2955

2886

0

69

0

0

0

0

415

0

0

0

0

306

109

0
Total Area, in Acres, by Land Use 

For Missouri

Land Use Code

11

12

13

14

15

16

17

21

22\

23

24

31

32

33

41

42

43

51

52

53

54

61

62

71

72

73

74

75

76

77

Level I Totals

10

20

30

40

50

60

70

Nonresidential

Agriculture

Forest Land

TOTAL

Area

(Acres)

494275

134077

35748

106232

3953

51690

70079

27990118

11001

4634

20573

2273

17584

128

14143510

105290

771635

133151

11312

232559

0

46585

20277

0

0

4003

0

95177

54087

0

896054

28026326

19985

15020435

377022

66862

153267

280010

28001119

15067020

44559951

127
Selected References

American Society of Photogramme try, I960, 

Manual of photographic interpretation: 

Menasha, Wis., George Banta Company, 868 p.

Anderson, J. R., Hardy, E. E., Roach, J. T., 

and Witmer, R. E., 1976, A land use and land 

cover classification system for use with 

remote sensor data: U.S. Geological Survey 

Professional Paper 964, 28 p.

Anderson, J. R., Hardy, E. E., and Roach, 

J. T., 1971, A land-use classification 

system for use with remote-sensor data: 

U.S. Geological Survey Circular 671, 16 p., 

ref s.

Avery, T. E., 1977, Interpretation of aerial 

photographs (3rd ed.): Minneapolis, Burgess 

Publishing Company, 392 p.

_____1978, Forester's guide to aerial photointerpretation, revised, U.S. Department of 

Agriculture Handbook 308: U.S. Department 

of Agriculture, Forest Service, 41 p.

Coleman, A., and Maggs, K. R. A., 1968, "An 

explanation of the second land use survey of 

Britain on the scale of 1:25,000," Land use 

survey handbook: London.

Cook, E. A., 1980, Development and application 

of a geographic information system (CIS) for 

Missouri conservation lands: a preliminary 

investigation: Missouri Department of 

Conservation, 35 p.

Fenneman, N. M., 1928, Physiographic divisions 

of the United States: Annals Assoc. Amer. 

Geographers, v. 18, p. 261-353, with map.

Florida Department of Administration, 1976, The 

Florida land use and land cover classification system: a technical report: 

Tallahassee, Fla. , Department of 

Administration, Division of State Planning, 

50 p.

General Electric Space Division, no date, Earth 

resources technology satellite reference 

manual: Philadelphia, General Electric 

Space Division, 201 p.

Guptill, S. C., 1978, The impact of computer 

graphics, data manipulation software, and 

computing equipment on spatial data 

structures, in Dutton, G., ed., First 

International Advanced Study Symposium on 

Topological Data Structures for Geographic 

Information Systems: Cambridge, Mass., 

Harvard Papers on Geographic Information 

Systems, v. 2, p. 71-80.

Hammond, E. H., 1964, Classes of land surface 

form in the forty-eight States, U.S.A.: 

Annals Assoc. Amer. Geographers, v. 54, 

No. 1, map supp. No. 4, 1:500,000.

James, T. H., 1977, The theory of the photographic process (4th ed.): New York, 

MacMillan, 714 p.

Kuchler, A. W., 1964, Potential natural vegetation of the conterminous United States: 

Amer. Geog. Soc., Special Publication 

No. 36, 116 p.

Lintz, J. L., Jr., and Simonett, D. S., eds.,

1976. Remote sensing of environment: 

Reading, Mass., Addison-Wesley Publishing 

Company, 694 p.

Lobeck, A. K., 1932, Physiographic diagram of 

the United States (rev.): Madison, Wis. 

Geog. Press, small-scale ed., 8 folio 

pages, 1:34,000,000.

Loelkes, G. L., Jr., 1977, Specifications for 

land use and land cover and associated 

maps: U.S. Geological Survey Open-File 

Repprt No. 77-555, 115 p.

Mitchell, W. B., Guptill, S. C., Anderson, 

K. E., Fegeas, R. G., and Fallam, C. A.,

1977. GIRAS: A geographic information 

retrieval and analysis system for handling 

land use and land cover data: U.S. 

Geological Survey Professional Paper 1059, 

16 p.

128
National Aeronautics and Space Administration, 

1974, Skylab earth resources data catalog, 

JSC 09016: Wash., D.C., U.S. Government 

Printing Office (Stock No. 3300-00586), 

359 p.

National Research Council, 1970, Remote sensing 

with special reference to agriculture and 

forestry: Wash., D.C., National Academy of 

Sciences, 424 p.

Reeves, R. G., ed., 1975, Manual of remote 

sensing, 2 volumes: Falls Church, Va., 

American Society of Photogrammetry, 2144 p.

Richason, B. J., Jr., ed., 1978, Introduction 

to remote sensing of the environment: 

Dubuque, Iowa, Kendall/Hunt Publishing 

Company, 496 p.

Robinson, A., Sale, R., and Morrison, J., 1978, 

Elements of cartography (4th ed.): New 

York, John Wiley and Sons, 448 p.

Rudd, R. D., 1974, Remote sensing: a better 

view: North Scituate, Mass., Duxbury Press, 

135 p.

Sabins, F. F., Jr., 1978, Remote sensing principles and interpretation: San Francisco, 

W. H. Freeman and Company, 426 p.

Scherz, J. P., and Stevens, A. R., 1970, An 

introduction to remote sensing for environmental monitoring: Madison, Wis., Remote 

Sensing Program, University of Wisconsin, 

80 p.

Slama, C. C., 1980, Manual of photogrammetry 

(4th ed.): Falls Church, Va., American 

Society of Photogrammetry, 1056 p.

Sosinski, T., 1980, Kansas City, Kans., land 

use test and demonstration project. Kansas 

City, Kans., Water Pollution Control 

Department, 53 p.

Swanson, R. A., 1972, Land use and natural 

resource classification manual, land use 

and natural resources inventory of New York 

State: Albany, New York State Office of 

Planning Coordination, 33 p.

Texas Office of the Governor, 1972, Housing 

report: results of comprehensive survey of 

Texas housing conditions and occupant attitudes: Austin, Office of the Governor of 

Texas and Texas Department of Community 

Affairs, 79 p.

Thomas, W., Jr., ed., 1973, S.P.S.E. handbook 

of photographic science and engineering: 

New York, John Wiley and Sons, 1416 p.

U.S. Bureau of the Census, 1970a, Areas of the 

United States: U.S. Department of Commerce, 

Bureau of the Census, Area Measurement 

Report Nos. 1-52.

_____1970b, Census tracts 1970 census of 

population and housing: U.S. Department of 

Commerce, Bureau of the Census Final Report 

Nos. PHC(1)-1-241.

_____1972a, County and City data book: U.S. 

Department of Commerce, Bureau of the 

Census, 1020 p.

_____1972b, Geographic identification code 

scheme: U.S. Department of Commerce, Bureau 

of the Census Final Report Nos. PHC(R)-l-4.

U.S. Executive Office of the President, Office 

of Management and Budget, 1972, Standard 

industrial classification manual: 1972: 

Wash., D.C., 649 p.

U.S* Geological Survey, 1982, Boundary 

descriptions and names of regions, 

subregions, accounting units, and cataloging 

units: unpublished data on file, Reston, 

Va., Water Resources Division.

U.S. Urban Renewal Administration, Housing and 

Home Finance Agency, and Bureau of Public 

Roads, 1965, Standard land use coding 

manual, a standard system for identifying 

and coding land use activities: Wash., 

D.C., 111 p.

Wolf, P. R., 1974, Elements of photogrammetry: 

New York, McGraw-Hill, 562 p.

129

APPENDIXES
APPENDIX A 

SITES IN NUMERICAL ORDER

SITE LAND USE CATEGORY PAGE

Site No. 1 (Single-Family Homes) ...... 11 ..... 31

Location: Manchester

St. Louis County, Missouri 

Geographic Coordinates: 38°36'N, 90°31'W

Site No. 2 (Inner-City Residential) .... 11 ..... 32 

Location: St. Louis

St. Louis City, Missouri 

Geographic Coordinates: 38°36'N, 90°14'W

Site No. 3 (High-Rise Residential) ..... 11 ..... 33 

Location: St. Louis

St. Louis City, Missouri 

Geographic Coordinates: 38°31'N, 90°13'W

Site No.' 4 (Shopping Center) ........ 12 ..... 38

Location: Mehlville

St. Louis County, Missouri 

Geographic Coordinates: 38°31'N, 90°20'W

Site No. 5 (Hospital) ........... 12 ..... 49

Location: St. Louis

St. Louis City, Missouri 

Geographic coordinates: 38°38'N, 90°16'W

Site No. 6 (Intermediate School) ...... 12 ..... 51

Location: Webster Groves

St. Louis County, Missouri 

Geographic Coordinates: 38°34'N, 91°22'W

Site No. 7 (Sports Stadium) ........ 12 ..... 47

Location: St. Louis

St. Louis City, Missouri 

Geographic Coordinates: 38°38'N, 90°12'W

Site No. 8 (Rolling Mills - Steel) ..... 13 ..... 55 

Location: St. Louis

St. Louis City, Missouri 

Geographic Coordinates: 38°37'N, 90°18'W

Site No. 9 (Barge Building) ........ 13 ..... 56

Location: St. Louis

St. Louis City, Missouri 

Geographic Coordinates: 38°32'N, 90°15'W

Site No. 10 (Highway Intersection) ..... 14 ..... 69 

Location: St. Louis

St. Louis City, Missouri 

Geographic Coordinates: 38°38'N, 90°17'W

132
Site No. 11 (Truck Terminal) ........ 14 ..... 69

Location: St. Louis

St. Louis City, Missouri 

Geographic Coordinates: 38°31'N, 90°12'W

Site No. 12 (Railroad Yards) ........ 14 ..... 70

Location: St. Louis

St. Louis City, Missouri 

Geographic Coordinates: 38°35'N, 90°12'W

Site No. 13 (Sewage Treatment Plant) .... 14 ..... 74 

Location: Lemay

St. Louis County, Missouri 

Geographic Coordinates: 38°32'N, 90°17'W

Site No. 14 (Municipal Water Treatment

Plant) ....... ..... 14 ..... 72

Location: St. Louis

St. Louis City, Missouri 

Geographic Coordinates: 38°45'N, 90°11'W

Site No. 15 (Industrial and Commercial) ... 15 ..... 75 

Location: Robertson

St. Louis County, Missouri 

Geographic Coordinates: 38°46'N, 90°23'W

Site No. 16 (Mixed Urban or Built-up Land) . 16 ..... 76 

Location: St. Louis

St. Louis City, Missouri 

Geographic Coordinates: 38°38'N, 90°15'W

Site No. 17 (Forest Park) .......... 17 ..... 77

Location: St. Louis

St. Louis City, Missouri 

Geographic Coordinates: 38°38'N, 90°17'W

Site No. 18 (Cemetery) ........... 17 ..... 78

Location: Mehlville

St. Louis County, Missouri 

Geographic Coordinates: 38°30'N, 90°17'W

Site No. 19 (Sanitary Landfill) ....... 17 ..... 109

Location: Peerless Park

St. Louis County, Missouri 

Geographic Coordinates: 38°32'N, 90°36'W

Site No. 20 (Urban Renewal) ......... 76 ..... 108

Location: St. Louis

St. Louis City, Missouri 

Geographic Coordinates: 38°39'N, 90°12'W

Site No. 21 (Cement Plant and Quarry) .... 13 ..... 57 

Location: Cape Girardeau

Cape Girardeau County, Missouri 

Geographic Coordinates: 37°16'N, 89°32'W

133
Site No. 22 (Quarries) ........... 75 ..... 106

Location: Cape Girardeau

Cape Girardeau County, Missouri 

Geographic Coordinates: 37°16'N, 89°34'W

Site No. 23 (Orchard) ............ 22 ..... 82

Location: Kelso

Scott County, Missouri 

Geographic Coordinates: 37 0 ll'N, 89°33'W

Site No. 24 (Sand Bar) ........... 73 ..... 104

Location: 10 miles northeast of Hayti

Pemiscot County, Missouri 

Geographic Coordinates: 36°20'N, 89°36'W

Site No. 25 (Plantation Pine) ........ 42 ..... 94

Location: New Madrid

New Madrid County, Missouri 

Geographic Coordinates: 36°32'N, 89°26'W

Site No. 26 (Canals) ............ 51 ...... 97

Location: Kennett

Dunklin County, Missouri 

Geographic Coordinates: 36°10'N, 90°01'W

Site No. 27 (Not Used)

Site No. 28 (Rural Transition) ....... 76 ..... 108

Location: Piedmont

Wayne County, Missouri 

Geographic Coordinates: 37°13'N, 90°30'W

Site No. 29 (Chicken Houses) ........ 23 ..... 84

Location: Bloomfield

Stoddard County, Missouri 

Geographic Coordinates: 36°53'N, 89°55'W

Site No. 30 (Gravel Pit) .......... 75 ..... 107

Location: Dexter

Stoddard County, Missouri 

Geographic Coordinates: 36°49'N, 89°58'W

Site No. 31 (Swamp) ............. 61 ..... 101

Location: Puxico

Stoddard County, Missouri 

Geographic Coordinates: 37°01'N, 90°10'W

Site No. 31 (Marsh) ............. 62 ..... 102

Location: Puxico

Stoddard County, Missouri 

Geographic Coordinates: 36°59 f N, 90°10'W

Site No. 32 (Swamp and Marsh) ........ 61 ..... 102

Location: Wappapello

Wayne County, Missouri 

Geographic Coordinates: 36°58'N, 90°23'W

134
Site No. 33 (Clearwater Lake Reservoir) ... 53 ..... 99 

Location: Piedmont

Wayne County, Missouri 

Geographic Coordinates: 37°08'N, 90°46'W

Site No. 34 (Not Used)

Site No. 35 (Mine) ............. 13 ..... 59

Location: Bunker

Reynolds County, Missouri 

Geographic Coordinates: 37°32'N, 91°09'W

Site No. 36 (Metal Processing) ....... 13 ..... 60

Location: Buick

Reynolds County, Missouri 

Geographic Coordinates: 37°34'N, 91°08'W

Site no. 37 (Mine and Smelter) ....... 13 ..... 61

Location: Buick

Reynolds County, Missouri 

Geographic Coordinates: 37°34'N, 91°08'W

Site No. . 38 (Fish Farm) ........... 24 ..... 87

Location: Montreal

Camden County, Missouri 

Geographic Coordinates: 37°53'N, 92°31'W

Site No. 39 (Mixed Deciduous and Evergreen Forest

Cover) ............ 43 ..... 95

Location: Edgehill

Iron County, Missouri 

Geographic Coordinates: 37°37'N, 90°54'W

Site No. 40 (Small Town CBD) ........ 12 ..... 41

Location: Ironton

Iron County, Missouri 

Geographic Coordinates: 37°36'N, 90°38'W

Site No. 41 (Orchard) ............ 22 ..... 82

Location: Bonne Terre

St. Francois County, Missouri 

Geographic Coordinates: 37°55'N, 90°32 f W

Site No. 42 (Airport) ............ 14 ..... 71

Location: Vichy

Maries County, Missouri 

Geographic Coordinates: 38°08'N, 91°46'W

Site No. 43 (Vineyard) ........... 22 ..... 83

Location: St. James

Phelps County, Missouri 

Geographic Coordinates: 38°02'N, 91°34'W

Site No. 44 (Pasture) ............ 21 ..... 80

Location: Jerome

Phelps County, Missouri 

Geographic Coordinates: 37°58'N, 91°59'W

135
Site No. 45 (Auto Salvage Yard) ....... 12 ..... 46

Location: St. Robert

Pulaski County, Missouri 

Geographic Coordinates: 37°48'N, 92°09'W

Site No. 46 (Commercial Strip Development) . 12 ..... 41 

Location: St. Robert

Pulaski County, Missouri 

Geographic Coordinates: 37°49'N, 92°10'W

Site No. 47 (Golf Course) .......... 17 ..... 77

Location: Fort Leonard Wood

Pulaski County, Missouri 

Geographic Coordinates: 37°44'N, 92°05'W

Site No. 48 (Military Installation) ..... 12 ..... 52 

Location: Fort Leonard Wood

Pulaski County, Missouri 

Geographic Coordinates: 37°46'N, 92°08'W

Site No. 49 (Medium Size City CBD) ..... 12 ..... 40 

Location: Lebanon

Laclede County, Missouri 

Geographic Coordinates: 37°4l'N, 92°40'W

Site No. 50 (Stave Company) ......... 13 ..... 62

Location: Lebanon

Laclede County, Missouri 

Geographic Coordinates: 37°40'N, 92°40'W

Site No. 51 (Garden Apartments) ....... 11 ..... 34

Location: Springfield

Greene County, Missouri 

Geographic Coordinates: 37°ll f N, 93°19'W

Site No. 52 (Mobile Home) .......... 11 ..... 35

Location: Springfield

Greene County, Missouri 

Geographic Coordinates: 37°11'N, 93°22'W

Site No. 53 (Shopping Mall) ......... 12 ..... 39

Location: Springfield

Greene County, Missouri 

Geographic Coordinates: 37°10'N, 93°16'W

Site No. 54 (Motels) ............ 12 ..... 42

Location: Springfield

Greene County, Missouri 

Geographic Coordinates: 37°15'N, 93°16 f W

Site No. 55 (Suburban Office Building) ... 12 ..... 43 

Location: Springfield

Greene County, Missouri 

Geographic Coordinates: 37°11'N, 93°16'W

Site No. 56 (Federal Hospital) ....... 12 ..... 50

Location: Springfield

Greene County, Missouri 

Geographic Coordinates: 37°10'N, 93°19'W

136
Site No. 57 (Hospital) ........... 12 ..... 49

Location: Springfield

Greene County, Missouri 

Geographic Coordinates: 37°11'N, 93°17'W

Site no. 58 (University) .......... 12 ..... 51

Location: Springfield

Greene County, Missouri 

Geographic Coordinates: 37°12'N, 93°16'W

Site no. 59 (Regional Fairgrounds) ..... 12 ..... 48 

Location: Springfield

Greene County, Missouri 

Geographic Coordinates: 37°15'N, 93°18'W

Site No. 60 (Light Industry) ........ 13 ..... 64

Location: Springfield

Greene County, Missouri 

Geographic Coordinates: 37°15'N, 93°12'W

Site no. 61 (Railroad Yards and Repair

Shops) ............ 14 ..... 71

Location: Springfield

Greene County, Missouri 

Geographic Coordinates: 37°13'N, 93°20'W

Site No. 62 (Downtown Airport) ....... 14 ..... 72

Location: Springfield

Greene County, Missouri 

Geographic Coordinates: 37°13'N, 93°15'W

Site No. 63 (Water Treatment Plant) ..... 14 ..... 73 

Location: Springfield

Greene County, Missouri 

Geographic Coordinates: 37°10'N, 93°13'W

Site No. 64 (Mixed or Built-up Land) .... 16 ..... 76 

Location: Springfield

Greene County, Missouri 

Geographic Coordinates: 37°12'N, 93°17'W

Site No. 65 (Eastern Redcedar) ....... 42 ..... 94

Location: Bradleyville

Taney County, Missouri 

Geographic Coordinates: 36°46 ! N, 92°57'W

Site No. 66 (Dam - Hydroelectric) ...... 13 ..... 64

Location: Table Rock Reservoir

Taney County, Missouri 

Geographic Coordinates: 36°36'N, 93°19'W

Site No. 67 (Not Used)

Site No. 68 (Cropland) ........... 21 ..... 81

Location: Chamois

Osage County, Missouri 

Geographic Coordinates: 38°40'N, 91°45'W

137
Site No. 69 (State Capitol Building) .... 12 ..... 43 

Location: Jefferson City

Cole County, Missouri 

Geographic Coordinates: 34°50'N, 92°10'W

Site No. 70 (Missouri River) ........ 51 ..... 96

Location: Jefferson City

Cole County, Missouri 

Geographic Coordinates: 38°35 ! N, 92°11'W

Site No. 71 (Nuclear Power Plant) ...... 13 ..... 64

Location: Reform

Callaway County, Missouri 

Geographic Coordinates: 38°45'N, 91°45'W

Site No. 72 (Auto Salvage Yard) ....... 12 ..... 46

Location: Columbia

Boone County, Missouri 

Geographic Coordinates: 39°58'N, 92°26 f W

Site No. 73 (Orchard) ............ 22 ..... 83

Location: New Franklin

Howard County, Missouri 

Geographic Coordinates: 39°02'N, 92°43'W

Site No. 74 (Reforested Strip Mine) ..... 41 ..... 92 

Location: Windsor

Henry County, Missouri 

Geographic Coordinates: 38°34'N, 93°35'W

Site No. 75 (Not Used)

Site No. 76 (Warehouses) .......... 12 ..... 44

Location: Kansas City

Jackson County, Missouri 

Geographic Coordinates: 39°06'N, 94°32'W

Site No. 77 (Warehouse) ........... 12 ..... 45

Location: Kansas City

Jackson County, Missouri 

Geographic Coordinates: 39°07'N, 94°34'W

Site No. 78 (Sports Stadium) ........ 12 ..... 47

Location: Kansas City

Jackson County, Missouri 

Geographic Coordinates: 39°03'N, 94°29'W

Site No. 79 (Central Business1 District) ... 12 ..... 39 

Location: Kansas City

Jackson County, Missouri 

Geographic Coordinates: 39°06'N, 94°35'W

Site No. 80 (Not Used)

Site No. 81 (Stockyards) .......... 13

Location: Kansas City

Jackson County, Missouri 

Geographic Coordinates: 39°06 f N, 94°37'W

138
Site No. 82 (Nonforested Wetlands) ..... 62 ..... 103 

Location: Mound City

Holt County, Missouri 

Geographic Coordinates: 40°04'N, 95°15'W

Site No. 83 (Oxbow Lake) .......... 52 ..... 98

Location: Fortescue

Holt County, Missouri 

Geographic Coordinates: 40°05 f N, 95°21'W

Site No. 84 (Eastern Brushland) ....... 32 ..... 90

Location: New Hampton

Harrison County, Missouri 

Geographic Coordinates: 40°16'N, 94°10'W

Site No. 85 (Sawmill) ............ 13 ..... 62

Location: Potosi

Washington County, Missouri 

Geographic Coordinates: 37°55'N, 90°51'W

Site No. 86 (Confined Hog and Cattle

Feeding) ...... ..... 23 ..... 85

Location: Ravenwood

Nodaway County, Missouri 

Geographic Coordinates: 40°25'N, 94°40'W

Site No. 87 (Confined Cattle Feeding) .... 23 ..... 85 

Location: Spickard

Grundy County, Missouri 

Geographic Coordinates: 40°15'N, 93°13'W

Site No. 88 (Not Used)

Site No. 89 (Recreational Homes) ...... 11 ..... 36

Location: Trenton

Grundy County, Missouri 

Geographic Coordinates: 40°06'N, 93°44'W

Site No. 90 (Coal Processing Plant) ..... 13 ..... 67

Location: Hartford

Putnam County, Missouri 

Geographic Coordinates: 40°29'N, 92°52'W

Site No. 91 (Sewage Treatment Plant) .... 14 ..... 74 

Location: Kirksville

Adair County, Missouri 

Geographic Coordinates: 40°09'N, 92°34'W

Site No. 92 (Cemetery) ........... 17 ..... 79

Location: Kirksville

Adair County, Missouri 

Geographic Coordinates: 40°10'N, 92°34'W

Site No. 93 (Cropland) ........... 21 ..... 80

Location: Plymouth

Livingston County, Missouri 

Geographic Coordinates: 39°37'N, 93°43'W

139
Site No. 94 (Deciduous Trees) ........ 41 ..... 93

Location: Kirksville

Adair County, Missouri 

Geographic Coordinates: 40°11'N, 92°38'W

Site No. 95 (Turkey Farm) .......... 23 ..... 86

Location: Winigan

Sullivan County, Missouri 

Geographic Coordinates: 40°02 ! N, 92°56'W

Site No. 96 (Thomas Hill Power Plant -

Thermal) ........... 13 ..... 64

Location: Thomas Hill Reservoir

Randolph County, Missouri 

Geographic Coordinates: 39°33'N, 92°38'W

Site No. 97 (Coal Strip Mine) ........ 75 ..... 105

Location: Thomas Hill Reservoir

Randolph County, Missouri 

Geographic Coordinates: 39°32'N, 92°38'W

Site No. 98 (Not Used)

Site No. 99 (Farmstead) ........... 24 ..... 88

Location: Maitland

Holt County, Missouri 

Geographic Coordinates: 40°07'N, 95°04'W

Site No. 100 (Chemical Plant) ........ 13 ..... 67

Location: Louisiana

Pike County, Missouri 

Geographic Coordinates: 39°4l'N, 91°19'W

Site No. 101 (Not Used)

Site No. 102 (Forb Prairie) ......... 31 ..... 89

Location: Kingdom City

Callaway County, Missouri 

Geographic Coordinates: 39°57'N, 92°00'W

140
APPENDIX B 

LIST OF SITES BY CITIES

Bloomfield 

Bonne Terre 

Bradleyville 

Buick

Bunker

Cape Girardeau

Chamois

Columbia

Dexter

Edgehill

Ft. Leonard Wood

Fortescue 

Hartford 

Hayti 

Ironton 

Jefferson City

Jerome 

Kansas City

Kelso 

Kennett 

Kingdom City 

Kirksville

Lebanon

Lemay

Louisiana

Maitland

Manchester

Mehlville

Montreal 

Mound City 

New Franklin

Land Use Category Site No.

23 29

22 41

42 65

13 36

13 37

13 35

13 21

75 22

21 68

12 72

75 30

43 39

12 48

17 47

52 83

13 90

73 24

12 40

12 69

51 70

21 44

12 76

12 77

12 78

12 79

13 81

22 23

51 26

31 102

14 91

17 92

41 94

12 49

13 50

14 13

13 100

24 99

11 1

11 4

17 18

24 38

62 82

22 73

84

82

94

60

61

59

57

106

81

46

107

95

52

77

98

67

104

41

43

96

80

44

45

47

39

66

82

97

89

74

79

93

40

62

74

67

88

31

38

78

87

103

83

141
City Land Use Category Site No,

New Hampton 

New Madrid 

Peerless Park 

Piedmont

Plymouth

Potosi

Puxico

Ravenwood

Reform

Robertson

St. James

St. Louis City

St. Robert

Spickard 

Springfield

Table Rock Reservoir 

Thomas Hill Reservoir

Trenton

Vichy

Wappapello

Webster Groves

Windsor

Winigan

32

42

76

53

76

21

13

61

62

23

13

15

22

11

11

12

12

13

13

14

14

14

14

16

17

76

12

12

23

11

11

12

12

12

12

12

12

12

13

14

14

14

16

13

13

75

11

14

61

12

41

23

84

25

19

33

28

93

85

31

31

86

71

15

43

2

3

5

7

8

9

10

11

12

14

16

17

20

45

46

87

51

52

53

54

55

56

57

58

59

60

61

62

63

64

66

96

97

89

42

32

6

74

95

90

94

109

99

108

80

62

101

102

85

64

75

83

32

33

49

47

55

56

69

69

70

72

76

77

108

46

41

85

34

35

39

42

43

50

49

51

48

64

71

72

73

76

64

64

105

36

71

102

51

92

86

. GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE : 1983 - 381-61 4/569

142