NBSIR 75-678

Analysis of Construction

Systems for the Thermal

Classification of Residential

Buildings

Stanley T. Liu

Center for Building Technology

Institute for Applied Technology

National Bureau of Standards

Washington, D. C. 20234

November 24, 1975

Final Report

Prepared for Division of Energy, Building Technology and Standards

Office of Policy Development and Research

Department of Housing and Urban Development

Washington, D. C. 20410

NBSIR 75-678

ANALYSIS OF CONSTRUCTION

SYSTEMS FOR THE THERMAL

CLASSIFICATION OF RESIDENTIAL

BUILDINGS

Stanley T. Liu

Center for Building Technology

Institute for Applied Technology

National Bureau of Standards

Washington, D. C. 20234

November 24, 1975

Final Report

Prepared for Division of Energy, Building Technology and Standards

Office of Policy Development and Research

Department of Housing and Urban Development

Washington, D. C. 20410

U.S. DEPARTMENT OF COMMERCE, Rogers C.B. Morton, Secretary

James A. Baker, III. Under Secretary

Dr. Betsy Ancker-Johnson, Assistant Secretary for Science and Technology

NATIONAL BUREAU OF STANDARDS. Ernest Ambler, Acting Director

Analysis of Construction Systems for the

Thermal Classification of Residential Buildings

Stanley T. Liu

Thermal Engineering Section

Building Environment Division

Center for Building Technology

Institute for Applied Technology

ABSTRACT

This report is the result of a study to classify various kinds of

residential buildings in relation to their thermal behavior. A collection of various building data and construction systems taken from the

proposals of 18 of the 22 Housing System Producers participating in the

Department of Housing and Urban Development (HUD) Operation BREAKTHROUGH

Program is presented. Thermal performance parameters of buildings, such

as; U-value, thermal mass, thermal time constant, and mass per unit area were computed and analyzed. The report recommends one way in which con- struction systems could be classified. Since the housing systems studied

represented a cross section of the conventional residential construction

systems in the building industry, it is felt that a realistic classification procedure for typical residential buildings can be established and

based upon the parameter: mass per unit area. A more refined procedure

of subdividing the building within each mass class on the basis of the

building thermal time constant is also discussed.

Key Words: Building classification; building thermal mass;

building themal performance; building thermal

time constant; housing systems; industrialized

housing; mass per unit area; Operation BREAKTHROUGH; U-value

i
TABLE OF CONTENTS

Page

1. Introduction 1

2. Type of Building Data Compiled 3

3. Method of Data Presentation 4

4. Analysis of Data and Discussion 8

5. Conclusions 15

6. References 16

7. Appendix - Conversion Factors to SI Units 17

Tables ' r

Table 1 Sample of Typical Construction and Thermal Property

Data Building Enclosures la

Table 2 a. Sample Computation for the Thermal Performance

Parameters in Table 2b 4a

b. Summary of Pertinent Thermal Performance Parameters of Various Building Enclosures 6a

Table 3 Sample of Typical Geometric Data, Room-by-Room, of a Dwelling Unit 18a

Table 4 Summary of Pertinent Thermal Performance Parameters

and Geometric Data Associated With Various Dwelling

Units 22a

ii
Analysis of Construction Systems for the

Thermal Classification of Residential Buildings

1. Introduction

It has been well established that heating/cooling loads, or energy

requirements of buildings, are directly affected by the structure of the

exterior walls and roof, and the type and area of windows. The role that

the building thermal mass* plays with respect to the heating/cooling re- quirement, however, is not so well understood. Even less appreciated is

the fact that the building thermal performance is influenced not only by

the value of the thermal mass but also by the relative position of the

thermal mass and insulation in the structure.

Because of the periodically varying solar radiation and the large

fluctuation in external environment temperatures, steady-state heat transfer through the enclosing walls into the interior space of a building rarely occurs, and the heat storage effects of the walls and the internal objects must be taken into account in order to estimate accurately the cooling load or the variations of the indoor environment. The overall heat

transfer coefficient GJ-value) of a wall, which gives a direct indication

of the resistance to heat flow under steady-state conditions, is not the

only major indicator of the heat flow through the walls into the inside

environment under transient conditions. The mass of the wall, which governs the energy storage capacity, is also an important parameter to be

considered.

J. F. van Straaten [1]**, of the Building Research Institute of South

Africa, reports the results of an experimental study wherein small A-room

single story structures of different materials and with approximately

A6.45 m^ (500 ft^) floor area were built. These unoccupied structures

were not air conditioned, but adequately instrumented to observe the indoor environment as a function of time. The experiments were conducted

at Pretoria and Durban in South Africa. The climate at Pretoria was warm

and dry with a daily temperature variation between 30.56 °C (87 °F) and

16.11 "C (61 °F) while the climate at Durban was warm and humid with a much smaller daily temperature variation between 28.33 °C (83 ''F) and.

22.22 °C (72 °F) . The experiments showed that under warm arid conditions

with a large daily temperature variation massive brick buildings proved

to be superior in minimizing the daily variation of the indoor temperature. The reason is that the large energy storage capacity of the massive structure causes a "time lag" or "flywheel effect" on the indoor

* In this report, the name thermal mass is defined as the thermal storage capacity per unit area of a construction component.

** Numbers in square brackets refer to bibliographical listing at the

end of this report.
temperature. The Indoor environment remained reasonably cool during the

day (26.11 °C (79 °F) compared with 28.89 °C (84 °F) outside temperature

at noon) and reasonably warm during the night (23.33 °C (74 °F) compared

with 16.11 °C (61 °F) outside temperature at 5:00 a.m.). Conversely,

light timber structures with essentially no "time lag" effect allowed

the indoor temperature to increase significantly during the day (33.89

"C (93 °F) compared with 30.56 °C (87 °F) outside at 2:00 p.m.), and to

become cool during the night (16.67 °C (62 °F) compared with 16.11 °C

(61 °F) outside at 5:00 a.m.). On the other hand, under warm and humid

conditions with a much smaller daily temperature variation, the experiments showed that the massive buildings were a distinct disadvantage.

The wall could not cool down sufficiently during the night to provide

reasonably comfortable temperatures in the enclosures during the day.

The indoor temperature remained high during the night (27.78 °C (82 °F)

compared with 22.22 °C (72 °F) outside temperature at 5:00 a.m.), and

also high during the day (30 "C (86 "F) compared with 27.22 °C (81 °F)

outside temperature at 4:00 p.m.). While the light timber structures

followed the outside temperature variation closely and resulted in more

comfortable indoor temperature (22.78 °C (73 °F) at 5:00 a.m. and 28.89

°C (84 °F) at 4:00 p.m.). An experiment sponsored jointly by the Department of Housing and Urban Development (HUD) and the National Bureau of

Standards (NBS) was conducted at NBS, where a small test building of masonry construction was placed in a large environmental chamber and subjected to a diurnal temperature cycle from 7.22 °C (45 °F) to 38.89 °C

(102 °F) , showed the damping and time lag effects due to the position

of insulation. The measured indoor temperature fluctuation showed a range of 5.83 °C (10.5 "F) when no insulation was placed in the wall,

3.06 °C (5.5 °F) when insulation was placed inside the masonry surface,

and 1.11 °C (2 °F) when insulation was placed outside the masonry surface. It is apparent from these types of investigations that the building thermal mass and thermal time constant (to be defined later) , in addition to the thermal resistance, are two of the basic parameters that

govern the building thermal performance.

This report, as part of the overall effort in the HUD-sponsored research project for the determination of air-conditioning criteria, presents a collection of various building construction data relevant to the

thermal performance of buildings, based on residential housing design.

The idea in the development of air-conditioning criteria is to give

architectural design engineers some guidelines as to whether a building

of a particular design in a specific geographical location will require

air-conditioning to maintain a comfortable indoor environment. The conditions under which air-conditioning is required depend on both the outdoor weather conditions and the construction materials of the building

shell. The first step in the establishment of the air-conditioning criteria is to classify the weather and the building construction into different groups so that a finite but adequate number of tables or charts

containing the criteria can be prepared. Details in the development of

the air-conditioning criteria will be described in another report. This

report covers the study on the construction of residential buildings lead2
ing to the classification of these buildings based on their thermal performance .

Construction data were taken from the proposals of 18 of the 22 participating Housing System Producers in the HUD Operation BREAKTHROUGH

program. Since the contractors involved in that program represent a cross section of the housing system producers in the building industry,

data contained in their proposals would provide meaningful information

about the practice, and the state of the art, in housing design. Consequently, it is felt that a realistic classification procedure based upon

analysis of the thermal parameters of composite structural components of

these buildings will be a realistic classification procedure applicable

to typical contemporary residential buildings.

2. Type of Building Data Compiled

From the drawings and specifications submitted by the Housing System Producers in the HUD Operation BREAKTHROUGH program, two types of

data were collected. The first concerned the method of construction and

materials used for the exterior enclosures and interior partitions of a building, and the associated thermophysical property data of the materials. Pertinent thermal performance parameters associated with the structural components such as the U-value, mass per unit area, thermal mass,

and the thermal time constant were then computed. Their computation,

physical meaning and usefulness will be discussed later in this report.

The second type of data was of a geometric nature and involved the following :

1. Total floor area of a dwelling unit.

2. Floor area for each of the rooms in a dwelling unit.

3. Type of walls and openings, windows, doors, and their

areas for each of the rooms in a unit.

4. Total glass area of a dwelling unit.

5. Crack length of the windows and doors. These data are required in order to know air movement and infiltration

characteristics

.

6. Shading coefficient for the glazed area.

3
3. Method of Data Presentation

Data collected from the drawings and specifications were processed

by the NBS UNIVAC 1108 computer and printed out in a uniform manner in

tabular form. Two types of tables are presented corresponding to the

two types of data discussed in Section 2. They are given as Tables 1 to

4 at the end of the report. The various building types were first classified in the following four categories related to height and number of

families per structure:

1. Single Family Detached (SFD) : Residential buildings con- sisted of a single family unit, ranging from 1- to 3-story

high, with or without basement.

2. Single Family Attached (SFA) : Residential buildings con- sisted of a group of family units with at least one side

wall in each unit shared with another unit, townhouse, duplex, etc. 5 are included in this group.

3. Multi-Family Low Rise (MFLR) : Residential buildings less

than 6-story high, with each floor composed of one or more

family units. Occasionally a family unit may take more

than one floor such as a 3-bedroom unit occupying 2 floors

(2S/3-BR) . Garden type apartments or condominiums are included in this group

.

4. Multi-Family High Rise (MFHR) : Apartment buildings or con- dominiums 6-story or more in height.

Table 1 gives a sample of the typical building construction and material data for the 18 HSP's surveyed. It is included as an example of

the type of basic data needed for the analysis . This table contains a typical layer by layer description and the thermophysical properties of

the materials used in the construction of the structural components (exterior walls, interior partition, party wall, floor/ceiling, roof /ceiling, ground floor, basement wall, basement floor, window). The order of

the layers is from the outside of a room toward the inside for side walls

and from top to bottom for roofs and floor/ceilings. The thermal property values were taken from the contractor's drawings and specifications

and from the 1967 ASHRAE Guide and Data Book [3]. Occasionally data for

the specific heat capacity (Cp) of certain materials were not available

and a value of .200 was assumed. Since the value of Cp does not vary

greatly for most of the building materials (on the order of .150 to .400

with a major portion of the materials in the lower range of the spectrum)

,

the value of .200 was chosen. The surface air film resistance values

were taken from the ASHRAE Guide and Data Book [3] based on summer design

conditions since this project was established for the purpose of determining summer air-conditioning criteria. For those layers which had a negligible mass, such as an air space, carpet and glass, only the thermal resistance value was given.

4
Table 2 gives sample calculations and summaries of the four relevant

parameters associated with and affecting the thermal performance of a building. They were computed from the data given in Table 1. A brief

description follows:

1. U-value: The U-value is the overall heat transfer co- efficient including the surface air film resistance (at

3.35 m/s (7.5 mph) wind outside and still air inside)

under steady-state conditions. This is the major factor used by designers in estimating the cooling load of

a building. As mentioned previously, under unsteadystate conditions the U-value is not the only controlling factor in heat flow through walls since it does

not take into account the energy storage effect of the

walls. However, it does give an indication of the

amount of resistance the wall offers to heat flow and

therefore, acts as one of the parameters in determining the overall heat transfer through the walls.

2. Thermal Mass, pCpL: The thermal mass is a counterpart

of the U-value and gives an indication of the energy

storage capacity of the walls. It is computed from

the following equation:

pC L =

P

N

E1=1

P.C .L.

i pi 1

(1)

where p^, Cp-j^, are the density, specific heat ca- pacity, and thickness, respectively, of the i^'^ layer

in a multi-layer wall. N is the total number of layers in the wall.

3. Mass per unit surface area, pL: Because of the small

variations in the magnitude of the specific heat capacity for most building materials, the energy storage ca- pacity of a wall is almost directly proportional to the mass per unit surface area of the wall. This parameter

is, therefore, closely related to the thermal mass of

the wall. It has the advantage over the thermal mass

in that a knowledge of the values of the specific heat

capacity, which are not available for certain materials,

is not required. The mass per unit area of a wall is

computed by

N

pL = Z p L (2)

1=1

5
4. Thermal Time Constant (Th.T.C.): The Th.T.C. is a function of the thermal dif f usivities of the layers in a multi-layer wall and is defined [A] as the heat stored per

unit of heat transmitted. It is, therefore, a combination of the thermal mass and the thermal resistance of

the wall. It is derived on the basis of the analogy between the heat flow represented by a thermal circuit and

the time constant of an R-C electric circuit (Figure 1)

,

and is given by Givoni [4]

N

Th.T.C. = Z (t ) i=l

where

T . = (R + Ljk. +

1 OS 11 (3)

where Rqq and R^g are the outside and inside surface air

film resistance, respectively, and k^^ is the thermal con- ductivity of the material of the i^h layer. In the case

of an air space, L^/k^ is substituted by the resistance

of the air space.

RoS -SR 5R| .SRp .5Rp .5R3 .5R3 R,

FIG. I A THREE- LAYER R-C CIRCUIT

REF -

Similar to the thermal diffusivity of a homogeneous single layer wall, the thermal time constant is a measure

of the thermal damping capacity of a multi-layer wall

on the amplitude and time lag of the inner surface temperature, or indoor air temperature, with respect to a periodically varying outdoor temperature. It should be

pointed out that the TH.T.C. given by equation (3) also

takes into account the order the layers of materials are arranged. A change in the order of the arrangement will

change the rate of heat flow through the wall under transient conditions. This is because the outside surface tem6
peratures of the walls with different orders of arrangement in their layers will be different during the transient states. For example, during the day, the outside

surface temperature of a wall with an insulation layer

next to the external surface layer will be higher than

a wall constructed of the same layers of materials but

with the insulation layer placed further away from the

external surface layer. The former construction will

result in more heat being transferred back to the ex- ternal environment by convection and radiation, and con- sequently less heat being transferred into the interior

space. It is noted that this phenomenon is not accounted

for by either the U-value or the thermal mass where the

order of arrangement of the layers is not considered.

Table 3 gives a sample of the typical geometrical data for one of

30 dwelling units ranging in size from 1-bedroom to 4-bedrooms . The 30

units were chosen randomly from six of the 18 HSP's in the Operation

BREAKTHROUGH program, with the purpose of obtaining some average values

of unit size, floor area, and window area for a normal dwelling unit.

The table gives a room by room tabulation of the areas of the floor,

ceiling, and the enclosing walls and openings of a room. The orientation of the unit is not specified since this is one of the factors that

is influenced by site location, terrain, units group plan, etc. as much

as by thermal performance considerations . For a group of attached units

(single family attached, multi-family low rise or high rise), the unit

at the ends, or comer, of the group was chosen since it has the largest

wall area exposed to the outside environment and consequently results in

the most severe indoor temperature variation, or the largest cooling

load, among the group, and therefore represents the worst case as far as air-conditioning is concerned. Table 3 also gives the crack lengths of

the windows and doors which are required in the air infiltration study.

Data for lighting (as internal heat source) and furniture (as internal

heat sink) were not available. The data for the shading coefficient on windows are assumed values for regular sheet glass with light indoor Venetian blinds shading. These data would, of course, be of different values for other types of glass and shading.

Table A gives a summary of dimensional values and thermal properties associated with the 30 dwelling units, plus three parameters that

can be used for the classification of dwelling units on a geometrical

basis. These three parameters are:

1. Floor Area: The floor area represents the total amount

of living space in a dwelling unit and gives an indication of the size of the unit among the same type of

building.

7
2. Ratio of Exterior Wall Area to Floor Area: This ratio

gives an indication of the complexity of the shape of

the unit. For example, a simple rectangular unit will

have a lower ratio than a complex geometrically shaped

unit.

3. Ratio of Window Area to Exterior Wall Area: This ratio indicates the relative amount of glass area in a unit which has a direct bearing on the amount of solar

radiation transmitted directly into the interior space.

It is noted that in Table 4, only U-value was given for the windows

and doors since they are considered as fast response elements with negligible thermal inertia*. Also, for those constructions where a particular parameter did not apply or was not required, the spaces were filled

with either blank or asterisk.

In general, data contained in Tables 1 and 3 are required by the com- puter program "NBSLD" [5] developed by the Thermal Engineering Section

of the NBS Building Environment Division for indoor temperature or load

prediction purposes.

4. Analysis of Data and Discussion

A study of the data compiled in Tables 1 thru 4 indicates the following:

1. Unit Size: The range and average size of the dwelling

units in terms of total sq. meter and sq. ft. of floor area are tabulated below:

Min.

2 m

Area

ft2

Max.

2 m

Area

ft2

Average m ft

Total

Units

Used

4- Bedroom Unit 98.9 1065 161 1740 124.5 1340 11

3- Bedroom Unit 84.5 910 137.5 1480 102.2 1100 16

2- Bedroom Unit 65.0 700 111.5 1200 84.1 905 15

1- Bedroom Unit 53.9 580 89.2 960 68.3 735 8

If required, the thermal time constants of windows and doors can be

computed by 1/UM where U is the overall heat transfer coefficient and

M the total weight of windows or doors per unit area. Th.T.C. of windows and doors are usually less than one hour.

8
It is noted that the total number of units upon which

the average values are based is not statistically significant. However, for the study of an air-conditioning criteria where a typical sized unit is to be used,

slight variation from the above listed average values

would not have any significant influence on the re- sults .

2. Glass Area: The total glass area in a dwelling unit

ranges from 10% to 26% of the total floor area (obtained by multiplying the area ratios of window to ex- terior wall by exterior wall to floor in Table 4), with

an average value of 17% for the 50 units studied (data

for 20 of the units are from the HUD Total Energy Project at the Jersey City, New Jersey Operation BREAKTHROUGH

prototype site and were not included in Table 4). The

variation of 10 26% occurs in both the large and small

units (FHA Minimum Property Standards requires 10% minimum for light). It can, therefore, be said that the size

of a dwelling unit has no effect on the relative amount

(with respect to floor area) of the glass in the design

of a typical housing unit.

3. Individual Room Size: The variations in the sizes of

the major rooms in the dwelling units are quite large,

and are listed below for reference:

Range, Range, Average, Average,

sq. ft. m^ sq . ft.

Living Room 13. 0 25. 1 140 270 18. 6 200

Dining Room 8. 8 % 11. 6 95 125 10. 2 110

Kitchen 4. 6 13. 9 50 150 8. 8 95

1st Bedroom 11. 6 20. 4 125 220 15. 3 165

2nd Bedroom 9. 3 20. 4 100 220 12. 5 135

Other Bedrooms 7. 4 16. 7 80 180 10. 7 115

Bathroom 3. 3 4. 2 35 45 3. 7 40

Normally, the larger living room is associated with a

3- or 4-bedroom dwelling unit. Generally the lower

limits in the above list are controlled by the FHA Minirnxan Property Standards.

9
4. U-value: The U-values for the different designs of the

wall and roof /ceiling constructions by the 18 HSP's are fairly uniform within each weight class of construction.

The ranges and average values for the exterior wall and

the roof /ceiling elements are,

Exterior wall = .352 '^^ 1.010 J/s • m • K, average

value = 0.590 (.062 ^ .178 Btu/hr-f t^-^F , averj ii age value = .104)

Roof/ceiling = .233 .647 J/s • m • K, average

value = .352 (.041 ^ .114 Btu/hr-f t^-°F average

value = .062)

In general, for the exterior wall system, the higher

than average U-values are associated with the heavy

type construction such as concrete wall. For light

weight construction such as wood frame walls and sandwich panel walls with various cores and facings , the

U-values are all comparable.

5. Mass Per Unit Area: As stated previously, the mass per

unit area and the thermal mass are closely related, having an almost linear relationship because of the moderate variation in the values of the specific heat capacity for different building materials. This linear relationship is shown in Figure 2. The mass can, therefore,

be used to indicate the thermal storage capacity of a wall or roof /ceiling system. For the 18 HSP's studied,

the ranges of the mass of different building enclosures

are

,

Exterior wall:

Roof /ceiling

:

Floor/ceiling:

Ground floor

Party wall

:

The type of construction of the buildings included:

wood frame, sandwich panel with various cores and facings, metal frame, brick wall, and concrete wall systems. A classification based on the mass of the ex- terior wall system is recommended as follows:

17.1 % 478.4 Kg/m (3.5 98 p.s.f.)

12.2 ^ 336.8 Kg/m^ (2.5 ^ 69 p.s.f.)

19.5 ^ 419.8 Kg/m^ (4 ^ 86 p.s.f.)

9.8 ^ 439.4 Kg/m^ (2 90 p.s.f.)

24.4 351.5 Kg/m^ (5 72 p.s.f.)

(including load bearing interior

wall)

10
Figure 2 Relation of Theraal Mass vs. Mass (Exterior Wall)

11
Light mass (wood frame, sandwich panel): Less

than 100 Kg/m^ (20.5 p.s.f.)

Medium mass (wood frame with face brick, brick,

light weight concrete: 100 250 Kg/m^ (20.5 ^ 51.2 p.s.f.)

Heavy mass (brick, concrete): Higher than 250

Kg/m2 (51.2 p.s.f.

)

6. Thermal Time Constant: The ranges of values for the

different building enclosures are.

Exterior Wall: 3. 2 115 HRS.

Roof /Ceiling: 4. 1 165 HRS.

Floor/Ceiling: 3. 4 86 HRS.

Ground Floor: 2. 2 96 HRS.

Party Wall: 6, 2 % 44 HRS.

Interior Partitions: 1. 7 10 HRS.

It can be seen that the range of values for the thermal time con- stant are quite large and are comparable with the range for the mass of

the structures. Figures 3 and 4 show the relationship between the thermal time constant and the mass of exterior wall and roof /ceiling systems

respectively. As mentioned previously, the large scattering of the data

points shows the effect of the arrangement of the layers of different ma

terials and the placement of insulations and/or air spaces in a wall sys

tern. However, Figures 3 and 4 also show that even though the local scat

tering of data points is large, the overall trend of increasing Th.T.C.

with increasing mass is preserved, and the classification of buildings

by mass may be sufficient for constructions of conventional design as compiled in this report.

For a more refined classification, the Th.T.C. might be used within

each mass class with designations such as low, moderate, and high. The

dividing points for those designations should be determined by actually

running a number of typical cases within each mass class on the computer

program "NBSLD" [5] and examining the resulting indoor environment varia

tions under identical external environment conditions*.

* Although the discussion given in this Section deals with Th.T.C. of

various subelements of the building construction, the overall or total

thermal time constant of a building can be estimated by using the data

developed herein. The details of the total building thermal time con- stant is given by Givoni and Hoffman [6].

12
-

ICr9

EXTERIOR WALL ® ®

® -

8 -

7 -

6

1 Hr = 3,600 s

5 1 Lb/ft^ = 4.882 Kg/m^ ®

4

3

_

I ®

-

(1-Z

<

®

(O

8't (§)®

® ®

^ 8

1— ' ®

®^ ^®

® ®

®® ®

®

®

®

5 ®

4 - ® -

3 ®

2

1

-

1 III II 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 I 1

-

1 1 1 1 1 1 2 3 456789 lO' 2 3 4 56789 lO^ MASS /AREA ~ LB/FT^

Figure 3 Relation of Thermal Time Constant vs. Mass (Exterior Wall)

13
2

®

9

8

-7

6

5

1 Hr = 3,600 s

1 Lb/ft^ = 4.882 Kg/m^

ROOF/ CEILING

®

®

X

2 -

<

coSO 9 ^ 8 P 7

6

(s) ®

®

®

3-

®

J L J I I I I L J I L 6 7 8 9 10 MASS /AREA LB/Fr

6 7 8 9 10^

Figure 4 Relation of Thermal Time Constant vs. Mass (Roof /Ceiling System)

14
5. Conclusions

Through the analysis of the data presented herein, a criterion for

the classification of construction system for residential buildings on the basis of their thermal performance was established. This criterion,

based on the mass per unit area of a building enclosure, can be used to

classify residential buildings of various structural systems according

to the behavior and variations of their indoor thermal environment under

identical external environmental conditions. Specifically, it is suggested that on the basis of mass per unit area of a building exterior

wall, the following classification be made:

2 2 Light Mass Structure: less than 100 Kg/m (20.5 lb/ft )

Medium Mass Structure: 100 ^ 250 Kg/m^ (20.5 to 51.2 Ib/ft^)

2 2 Heavy Mass Structure: greater than 250 Kg/m (51.2 lb/ft )

For the HUD-sponsored research effort on the determination of a design criterion for air-conditioning of residential buildings based on some indoor comfort indices, the classification discussed above can be

used as a first approximation in grouping the buildings into various

classifications. The air-conditioning design criterion is to be established by studying the thermal performance of selected buildings in se- lected geographical locations using a thermal simulation model (computer

program such as "NBSLD" [5]). In order to minimize the computational

effort, the division of buildings into groups of similar constructions

is a necessity.

It should be pointed out that for a more refined and accurate classification of buildings, with respect to indoor thermal environment, the

thermal time constant (Th.T.C.) might be used as a second criterion within each mass class. This would particularly be true if insulation is

placed in the medium and heavy mass class walls in an innovative way as shown in reference 2. Within each mass class, the designation low, medium, and high (or moderate and high) can be used. This should, however,

be verified by further work, using data on a variety of selected typical

residential units of different design as input to the computer program

"NBSLD" [5], and comparing the results under identical external environmental conditions at various geographical locations throughout the country.

Finally, it should be mentioned that in the above suggested method

of classification of buildings, the effects of glass (amount, orientation, type) with respect to conduction of heat and solar radiation on

the indoor environment are not taken into account. For those buildings

having a large amount of glass area, a subdivision within each mass class

with respect to percentage of glass area might have to be used.

15
6. References

J. F. van Straaten, "Thermal Performance of Buildings", Elsevier Publishing Company, 1967.

B. A. Peavy, F. J. Powell, and D. M. Burch, "Dynamic Thermal Performance of an Experimental Masonry Building", NBS Building Science Series 45, July 1973.

ASHRAE Guide and Data Book, Vol. 1, Handbook of Fundamentals, 1967

and 1972.

B. Givoni, "Man, Climate, and Architecture", Elsevier Publishing Company, 1969.

T. Kusuda, "NBSLD" , Heating and Cooling Load Calculation Program",

NBS Building Science Series, 1974 (in review).

B. Givoni, and M. E. Hoffman, "Prediction of the Thermal Behavior of

Full Scale Buildings", Building Research Station, Technion Haifa,

February 1972.

16
7. Appendix

Conversion Factors to SI Units

The source data presented in graphs and tables in this report were

collected from handbooks and drawings which are all in English units of

measurement because of the present accepted practice in this country for

building technology. In recognition of the position of the United States

as a signatory to the General Conference on Weights and Measures, which

gave official status to the metric SI system of units in 1960, appropriate conversion factors have been provided in the table below.

Report Units Multiply By To Obtain SI Units

in 0.0254 m

ft 0.3048 m

ft^ 0.0929

hr 3,600. s

mph 0.447 m/s

Ib/ft^ 4.882 Kg/m^

Ib/ft^ 16.018 Kg/m^

Btu/lb-F 4,184. J/Kg • K

Btu/ft^-F 20,427.5 J/m^ • K

2 2 Btu/hr-ft -F 5.6744 J/s • m • K

Btu-in/hr-ft^-F 0.1441 J/s • m • K

Hr-ft^-F/Btu 0.1762 K • m^ • s/.T

17

Table 1

Sample of T3rplcal Construction and Thermal Property

Data Building Enclosures

For readers interested in converting data in this table to SI units

conversion table is provided in the Appendix.

la
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3*
Table 2a

^ Sample Computation for the Thermal Performance

Parameters in Table 2b

Data from Table 1 are used as an example for this computation. In

particular, the exterior wall in the table is chosen. This wall consists

of 5 (N = 5) layers excluding air films on both sides of the wall. The

four pertinent thermal performance parameters are computed as follows:

1. Mass Per Unit Area:

By equation 2, pL = Z Pj^j

i=l

.\ = (.024 X 169 + .375 X 34 + 3 X 3 + 0 + .50 X 50) /12

^ = 4.23 LB/sq. ft. (20.65 Kg/m^)

2 . U-value : ? ^

•

The U-value is computed by j;'.

, 5

U = 1/R, where R = R + (Z R . ) + R^

OS i is

R = .250 + 0 + .470 + 11.000 + 3.280 + .450 + .680 = 16.130

Therefore, U = 1/R = .062 Btu/hr-sq. ft.-F

Where Rqq and Rj^g are the resistance of the outside and inside air

film, respectively.

4a
3. Thermal Mass

:

5

By equation 1, pCL=Zp.C,L

P 1 pi 1

= (.024 X 169 X .208 + .375 x 34 x .550 +3x3

X .157 + 0

= 1.31 Btu/sq. ft.-F

4. Thermal Time Constant:

5

By equation 3, Th.T.C. = Z x i=l

^1 =

<^os ^ h^^h^ ^ViSi)

= (.250 + 0) (.024 X 169 x .208)/12 = .0176 hr.

= (.250 + 0 + .375/2 x .80) (.375 x 34 x .550)/12 = .282 hr.

In the same manner

= .740 hr.

T, = 0. hr.

4

= 8.21 hr.

Therefore, Th.T.C. = .0176 + .2820 + .740 + 0 + 8.21 = 9.25 Hrs,

5a
Table 2b

Summary of Pertinent Thermal Performance Parameters

of Various Building Enclosures

The abbreviations used in this table, besides those that are clearly

defined

,

are

:

E. Wall: Exterior wall ^

I. Wall: Interior wall or partition

P. Wall: Party wall (for multi-family structure)

B. Floor: Basement floor

B. Wall: Basement wall

I. Door

:

Interior door

E. Door: Exterior door

For readers interested in converting the data to SI units, a con- version table is provided in the Appendix. Also, in the following table,

the meaning of weight per unit area is equivalent to mass per unit area.

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17a
Table 3

Sample of Typical Geometric Data, Room-by-Room

,

of a Dwelling Unit

The abbreviations used in this table, besides those that are clearly

defined

,

are:

E. Wall

:

Exterior wall

I. Wall: Interior wall or partition

P. Wall: Party wall (for multi-family structure)

B. Floor: Basement floor

B. Wall: Basement wall

I. Door: Interior door

E. Door: Exterior door

SI, S2, S3, S4: Indicating the four sides of a room

For readers interested in converting to SI units, a conversion table

is provided in the Appendix.

18a
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Table 4

Summary of Pertinent Thermal Performance Parameters

and Geometric Data Associated With Various Dwelling Units

The abbreviations used in this table, besides those that are clearly

defined

,

are

:

E. Wall:

' I. Wall:

P. Wall

:

B. Floor:

B. Wall:

I. Door

:

E. Door

:

Basement wall

Interior door

Exterior door

For readers interested in converting to SI units, a conversion table

is provided in the Appendix. Also, in the following table, the meaning

of weight per xinit area is equivalent to mass per unit area.

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NBS.114A (REV. 7-73)

U.S. DEPT. OF COMM. BIBLIOGRAPHIC DATA

SHEET

1. puim.ic:ation or report no. NBSIR 75-678

2. Gov't Accession

No.

3. Recipient's Accession No.

4. TlTI.n: AND SUBTITLE

Analysis of Construction Systems for the Thermal Classification of Residential Buildings

5. Publication Date

6. Performing Organization Code

7. AUTHOR(S)

Stanley T. Liu

8, Performing Organ. Report No. NBSIR 75-678

9. PERFORMING ORGANIZATION NAME AND ADDRESS

NATIONAL BUREAU OF STANDARDS

DEPARTMENT OF COMMERCE

WASHINGTON, D.C. 20234

10. Pro|ect/Task/Work Unit No.

11. Contract/Grant No.

12. Sponsoring Organization Name and Complete Address (Street, City, State, ZIP)

Division of Energy, Building Technology and Standards

Office of Policy Development and Research

Department of Housing and Urban Deveiopuient

Washington, D.C. 20410

13. Type of Report & Period Covered

Final Report

14. Sponsoring Agency Code

15. ^UPPLEMENTARY NOTEb

16. ABSTRACT (A 200-word or less factual summary of most si^ificant information. If document includes a significant

bibliography or literature survey, mention it here.)

This report is the result of a study to classify various kinds of residential

buildings in relation to their thermal behavior, A collection of various building

data and construction systems taken from the proposals of 18 of the 22 Housing System Producers participating in the Department of Housing and Urban Development (HUD)

Operation BREAKTHROUGH Program is presented. Thermal performance parameters of buildings, such as; U-value, thermal mass, thermal time constant, and mass per unit area were computed and analyzed. The report recommends one way in which construction systems could be classified. Since the housing systems studied represented a cross sec- tion of the conventional residential construction systems in the building, industry,

it is felt that a realistic classification procedure for typical residential buildings can be established and based upon the parameter: mass per unit area. A more

refined procedure of subdividing the building within each mass class on the basis of

the building thermal time constant is also discussed.

17. KEY WORDS (six to twelve entries; alphabetical order; capitalize only the first letter of the first key word unless a proper name; separated by semicolons ) t>.ijj i jjtj.j <.•,. . , Building classification; building thermal mass; building thermal performance; building thermal time constant; housing systems; industrialized housing; mass per unit area; Operation BREAKTHROUGH; U-value

18. AVAILABILITY Unlimited

I ! For Official Distribution. Do Not Release to NTIS

I I Order From Sup. of Doc, U.S. Government Printing Office Washington, D.C. 20402, SD Cat. No. C13

I y! Order From National Technical Information Service (NTIS)

Springfield, Virginia 22151

19. SECURITY CLASS

(THIS REPORT)

UNCL ASSIFIED

20. SECURITY CLASS

(THIS PAGE)

UNCLASSIFIED

21. NO. OF PAGES

58

22. Price

4.50

USCOMM-DC 29042-P74