,-1 n.mu of Standaras

19

NBS MONOGRAPH 113, VOLUME 2

Research and Development

in the Computer

and Information Sciences

Volume 2. Processing, Storage, and Output Requirements

in Information-Processing Systems—

A Selective Literature Review
NATIONAL BUREAU OF STANDARDS

The National Bureau of Standards ' was established by an act of Congress March 3, 1901. Today,

in addition to serving as the Nation's central measurement laboratory, the Bureau is a principal

focal point in the Federal Government for assuring maximum application of the physical and

engineering sciences to the advancement of technology in industry and commerce. To this end

the Bureau conducts research and provides central national services in four broad program

areas. These are: (1) basic measurements and standards, (2) materials measurements and

standards, (3) technological measurements and standards, and (4) transfer of technology.

The Bureau comprises the Institute for Basic Standards, the Institute for Materials Research, the

Institute for Applied Technology, the Center for Radiation Research, the Center for Computer

Sciences and Technology, and the Office for Information Programs.

THE INSTITUTE FOR BASIC STANDARDS provides the central basis within the United

States of a complete and consistent system of physical measurement; coordinates that system with measurement systems of other nations; and furnishes essential services leading to accurate and

uniform physical measurements throughout the Nation's scientific community, industry, and commerce. The Institute consists of an Office of Measurement Services and the following technical

divisions:Applied Mathematics—Electricity—Metrology—Mechanics—Heat—Atomic and Molecular Physics—Radio Physics -—Radio Engineering -—Time and Frequency -—Astrophysics -—Cryogenics.-

THE INSTITUTE FOR MATERIALS RESEARCH conducts materials research leading to im- proved methods of measurement standards, and data on the properties of well-characterized

materials needed by industry, commerce, educational institutions, and Government; develops,

produces, and distributes standard reference materials; relates the physical and chemical properties of materials to their behavior and their interaction with their environments; and provides

advisory and research services to other Government agencies. The Institute consists of an Office of Standard Reference Materials and the following divisions: Analytical Chemistry—Polymers—Metallurgy—Inorganic Materials—Physical Chemistry.

THE INSTITUTE FOR APPLIED TECHNOLOGY provides technical services to promote

the use of available technology and to facilitate technological innovation in industry and Government; cooperates with public and private organizations in the development of technological standards, and test methodologies; and provides advisory and research services for Federal, state, and local government agencies. The Institute consists of the following technical divisions and

offices: Engineering Standards—Weights and Measures — Invention and Innovation — Vehicle Systems Research—Product Evaluation —Building Research—Instrument Shops—Measurement Engineering—Electronic Technology—Technical Analysis.

THE CENTER FOR RADIATION RESEARCH engages in research, measurement, and application of radiation to the solution of Bureau mission problems and the problems of other agencies and institutions. The Center consists of the following divisions: Reactor Radiation—Linac Radiation—Nuclear Radiation—Applied Radiation. THE CENTER FOR COMPUTER SCIENCES AND TECHNOLOGY conducts research and

provides technical services designed to aid Government agencies in the selection, acquisition, and effective use of automatic data processing equipment; and serves as the principal focus

for the development of Federal standards for automatic data processing equipment, techniques,

and computer languages. The Center consists of the following offices and divisions: Information Processing Standards—Computer Information — Computer Services — Sys- tems Development—Information Processing Technology.

THE OFFICE FOR INFORMATION PROGRAMS promotes optimum dissemination and

accessibility of scientific information generated within NBS and other agencies of the Federal Government; promotes the development of the National Standard Reference Data System artd a system of information analysis centers dealing with the broader aspects of the National Measure- ment System, and provides appropriate services to ensure that the NBS staff has optimum accessibility to the scientific information of the world. The Office consists of the following

organizational units:

Office of Standard Reference Data—Clearinghouse for Federal Scientific and Technical Information ' —Office of Technical Information and Publications—Library—Office of Public Information—Office of International Relations.

' Headquarters and Laboratories at Gaithersburg, Maryland, unless otherwise noted; mailing address Washington, D.C. 20234.

- Located at Boulder, Colorado 80302.

•' Located at 5285 Port Royal Road, Springfield, Virginia 22151.
UNITED STATES DEPARTMENT OF COMMERCE • Maurice H. Stans, Secretary

NATIONAL BUREAU OF STANDARDS • Lewis M. Branscomb, Director

Research and Development in the Computer

and Information Sciences

2. Processing, Storage, and Output Requirements

in Information Processing Systems:

A Selective Literature Review

Mary Elizabeth Stevens

Center for Computer Sciences and TechnologyNational Bureau of Standards

Washington, D.C. 20234

\J, ' National Bureau of Standards, Monograph 113, Vol. 2

4 • * Nat. Bur. Stand. (U.S.), Monogr. 113 Vol. 2, 125 pages (May 1970)

CODEN: NBSMA

Issued May 1970

For sale by the Superintendent of Documents, U.S. Government Printing Office Washington, D.C. 20402 (Order by SD Catalog No. C13.44:113/Vol. 2), Price gl.2S.
MAY 2 2 1970

Library of Congress Catalog Card No. 70-603263
Foreword

The Center for Computer Sciences and Technology of the National Bureau of Standards

has responsibility under the authority of Public Law 89-306 (the Brooks Bill) for automatic data

processing standards development, for consultation and technical assistance to Federal agencies,

and for supporting research in matters relating to the use of computers in the Federal Government.

This selective literature review is the second in a series intended to improve interchange of

information among those engaged in research and development in the fields of the computer and

information sciences. Considered in this volume are the specific areas of information processing,

storage, and output.

Names and descriptions of specific proprietary devices and equipment have been included

for the convenience of the reader, but completeness in this respect is recognized to be impossible.

Certain important developments have remained proprietary or have not been reported in the open

Uterature; thus major contributors to key developments in the field may have been omitted.

The omission of any methodor device does not necessarily imply that it is considered unsuitable

or unsatisfactory, nor does inclusion of descriptive material on commercially available instruments,

products, programs, or processes constitute endorsement.

Lewis M. Branscomb, Director

III

Contents

Page Foreword Ill

1. Introduction 1

2. Processor system considerations 3

2.1. General considerations 3

2.2. Management of multiple-access systems 4

2.2.1. General considerations and examples 4

2.2.2. Scheduling, queuing, and priorities in multiple-access systems 5

2.2.3. "Swapping," dynamic memory allocation, and pagination 7

2.2.4. Client and system protection 8

2.3. System control and performance evaluation 9

3. Storage, file organization, and associative memory requirements 10

3.1. Hierarchies of storage, data compression, and data consolidation 11

3.1.1. Hierarchical memory structure 11

3.1.2. Data compression and consolidation 11

3.2. Problems of file organization and structure 12

3.3. Associative memory considerations 14

4. Mass Storage Considerations... , 16

4.1. Digital vs. facsimile storage 16

4.1.1. Facsimile storage 16

4.1.2. Document store compacting by digital storage techniques 18

4.1.3. Combined facsimile-digital storage 19

4.2. Examples of relatively direct access file storage and retrieval systems 19

4.2.1. Retrieval and reproduction of microforms 19

4.2.2. Digital data storage techniques 20

5. Output and post-processing requirements 20

5.1. Direct output and display applications 21

5.1.1. Graphic outputs and displays 22

5.1.2. Machine-aided design 23

5.1.3. Computer-assisted instruction and problem-solving 26

5.2. Multiple output modes 26

5.2.1. Audio outputs, speech synthesis and speech compression 27

5.2.2. Three-dimensional, color, and motion picture outputs 28

5.2.3. Multi-media and special purpose outputs 29

6. System output to microform and hard copy 30

6.1. Microform recording and direct output transmission 30

6.2. Printing, photocomposition and computer-controlled character and symbol generation. . . 31

6.2.1. Line printers 33

6.2.2. Photocomposition and electronic character generation techniques 33

6.2.3. Computer-controlled typographic composition 34

6.3. Hard copy reproduction 35

6.4. Post-processing operations and special forms of output 35

7. System use and evaluation 36

8. Conclusion 37 Appendix A. Background notes on research and development requirements in information

processing, storage, and output 39 Appendix B. Bibliography 114

Additional references 114

V
Figures

Page Figure 1. Functional diagram of a generalized information processing system 2 Figure 2. Information processing system management functions 3 Figure 3. Aging blemishes on microfilm 17 Figure 4. Microcite equipment 17 Figure 5. Output and post-processing functions 21 Figure 6. The "co-planner" outputs 24

Figure 7. Proposed microform reader 32

Figure 8. Schematic diagram of Bush rapid selector 72

VI
Research and Development in the Computer and Information Sciences

2. Processing, Storage, and Output Requirements in Information Processing

Systems: A Selective Literature Review

Mary Elizabeth Stevens

Areas of concern with respect to processing, storage, and output requirements of a generalized information processing system are considered. Special emphasis is placed on multiple-access systems. Problems of system management and control are discussed, including hierarchies of storage levels. Facsimile, digital, and mass random access storage media and techniques are considered. A variety

of output mode requirements are also considered, including direct recording to microforms; on-line display systems: printing, photocomposition, and automatic character generation; and three- dimensional, color, and other special-purpose display systems. Problems of system use and evaluation

are also briefly noted. A bibUography of approximately 480 cited references is included, together with supplemental notes and quotations from the literature.

Key words: Computer-assisted-instruction; information display; information recording; machineaided design; memory allocation; microforms; multiple-access systems; on-line systems; output modes; photocomposition and typesetting; storage hierarchies; time sharing.

1. Introduction

This is the second in a series of reports concerned

with research and development requirements and

areas of continuing concern in the computer and

information sciences and technologies. In the first report of this series, "Information Acquisition,

Sensing, and Input: A Selective Literature Review,"

background considerations and general purposes

intended to be served by the series are discussed.

In addition, the general plan of attack and certain caveats are outlined.*'-' In general, we shall attempt to consider first the areas of research and development concern in the

computer sciences and technologies with reference

to a schematic diagram of a generalized information

processing system, as shown in Figure 1.'-^ In the

first report of the series, we considered various

implications of Boxes 1,2, and 3 in Figure 1. In this report, we are concerned primarily with some of

the R&D implications involved in the receipt of

processing service requests from clients of the

system and in the management of the processing

operations themselves (especially in terms of

multiple-access systems), with efficient and eco- nomical storage, with output considerations, and

with post-processing operations on output.

Many hardware, design, and theoretical considerations necessarily arise with respect to the development of processing specifications, matching and

processing operations, search and selection, and

retrieval. We shall defer most of the aspects of

information storage, selection and retrieval systems

for discussion in later reports in this series. In this report, we will concentrate first on certain aspects

of processor system planning and management

requirements, with particular reference to multiple- access systems. It is noted, however, that priority

scheduhng requirements, precedence interrupts,

and the like, are as apt to apply to a batch-job

system as to one that is operated in an on-line

conversational-mode. (See, for example, Nicholson

and PuUen, 1968).**

Appendix A of this report contains notes and quotations pertinent to the running **See Appendix B for bibliography of references cited in this report,

text. For the convenience of the reader. Notes "1.1" and "1.2" in Appendix A recapitulate some of the considerations discussed in the first report.

1
1. Information

Acquisition

2. Information)

p — •« Sensing anc Input

3. Prep rocessing

4. Processing

Operations

1 2. Retrieval

5. Direct

Outputs

13. Postprocessing

14. Outputs

15. Use and

Evaluation

I .J7. Processing

Client Service

Requests

Preprocessing — -j

9. Processing

Specifications

1

J

Legend: process flow

feedback flow

Figure 1. Functional diagram of a generalized information processing system.

2
2. Processor System Considerations

Referring to Figure 1, we see that in some cases

the processing operations of Box 4 resuh in direct

outputs (Box 5) and/or archival storage (Box 6) as in the case of preservation of input records for subsequent reconstruction if required. In most

cases, however, processing service requests are received from cHents of the system, from the system

itself, or by impHcations in the incoming data

received in Box 2. In parallel with the input data

transformations shown in Box 3, we may find reductions or translations of processing service

requests to forms or formats that can be processed

by the system in Box 8, which may also involve

preprocessing operations that are required by

priority and scheduling considerations in multiple access systems. Processing specifications developed

in Box 9 may be exemphfied by controls imposed

by measures taken to provide both chent and system

protection. These specifications, and others, will then be matched (Box 10) to the performance capabihties of the processing system itself and used to control the actual processing operations.

2.1. General Considerations

Processor system planning and management

activities must effectively interlace the requirements

of multiple inputs of service requests (Box 7), the handling of queuing and job scheduling priorities

(Box 8), the provision of suitable means for both

client and system protection (Box 9), the requirements of matching the processing service requests

to the main processing system capabilities by

appropriate supervisory and executive control

routines (Boxes 10 and 4), and the orderly flow of both programs and data to and from various levels of storage (Box 6). In Figure 2 we show those functions of Figure 1 that are most directly involved in the requirements

for efficient planning and management of information processing systems as such, together with

indications of areas of current and continuing

R&D concern. We may consider more particularly

here the system design requirements for computerbased multiple access or "time-sharing" systems.
"Time-sharing" is the most prevalent and popular

terminology for the concept of information processing systems used by many different clients, with

effectively simultaneous response to their diversified

processing service requests, w^ith at least the

apparent effect that the processing facilities are "on-line" to them when they desire to use them and

with certain sharing of both data and programs

among different users.--^ In fact, some of this terminology is misleading,

and the processing system capabilities are not so much shared as divided among many users, with

considerable swapping of system resources between

them, and with only intermittent access between

any individual user and the processor-storage

system and its procedures. Thus, we generally

prefer to use the more comprehensive term

"multiple-access system" to mean "a system in which multiple independent users are provided

service by the computer via remote consoles which

asynchronously communicate with the computer

on a demand liasis." (Morenoff and McLean, 1967,

p. 19). In general, the systems so-called do not provide ^ime-sharing capabilities, but they do offer system- sharing capabilities.

2.2. Management of Multiple-Access Systems

Considerable current progress can certainly be

shown in the development and experimental use

of computer-based multiple-access or "timeshared" systems.'-''^ Nevertheless, many difficult problems remain, including questions of responsive

scheduling, effective monitoring, fail-safe private

file or data protection, languages of access, and

efficient supervisory control.-- A complex inter- mixture of hardware, software, and human be- havioral factors is typically involved.

It is particularly to be noted that major R&D

efforts may be required to implement the diversified

functions of man-machine reactive procedures with

appropriate degrees of client convenience, system

efficiency, and economy.^-^ Licklider suggests

further that "industry has not devoted as much

effort to development of devices and techniques for on-line man-computer interaction as it has to development of other classes of computer hardware

and software." (Licklider, 1965, p. 66.) Those

responsible for R&D program planning in the

computer and information sciences should therefore

be urgently concerned with the problems raised by

the potentials for increasing use of multiple-access

systems, generally.

2.2.1. General Considerations and Examples

Phenomenal growth is promised in the use of

such multiple-access systems over the next few

years.^-^ Continuing difficulties are predicted,

however, with respect to such areas as adequate

programming languages, the appropriate design

of small inexpensive but versatile consoles for personal use, and the provision of effective privacy

and protection facilities. From the system design

and management point of view, the challenges are

to take an overall planning approach, to look toward

the integration of many processes that are now

distinct, to seek maximum gains from all multipurpose processing opportunities that are available,

and to undertake a drastic rethinking of possible

trade-offs between benefits and costs.--^^ Sutherland (1965) considers six varieties of on-line

information processing systems: (1) processing

control systems, where in manufacturing applications the potentialities range from feedback control

to the optimization of profit expectancies; (2) inquiry

systems, such as those currently used for airline reservation purposes; (3) specialized on-line systems

for specific military applications but also for engineering and design; (4) on-line programming systems;

(5) on-line problem-solving systems; and (6) on-line

instrumentation designed to bring a better understanding of the interplay of the programs and data

within the computer.

As examples of experimental developments and

applications of multiple-access systems whose

facilities are shared by different users, we may cite

first the case of mechanized documentation operations and secondly that of on-line problem-solving.

The "reactive typewriter plan", proposed by Mooers

at least as early as 1959,^-5 foresaw not only inter- library cooperation and interchange of records,

but tie-ins to a remotely located library or information center for the individual user as well. Inputs

from remotely located typewriters or consoles via teletype, telephone, and other communication links,

with or without secondary mode transmission via voice channels, are the heart of remote-access timesharing systems already in experimental operation.

Among these experimental systems we note in particular those that provide responsive and selective access to files of bibliographic data involving

scientific and technical literature. A first example is that of the use of the M.I.T. Compatible TimeSharing System (CTSS) in Project MAC.^-^ This has

been used both by Kessler and in the experimental

SMART system developed by Salton and associates

at Harvard.'-'' Kessler's application involves

machine access, in a variety of selection-retrieval

modes, to a corpus consisting of bibliographic

references to periodical literature in the field of physics. Recent developments include the implementation of a "more-like-this" request feature and

a provision for delayed service.^-* Brown 1966

describes the use of this system for updating a book

on the basic data of plasma physics. For the future,

Wooster in a 1968 report proposes the Bibliographic

On-Line Organized Knowledge System, or BOOK.

At the System Development Corporation, the

Q-32 time-sharing system is used both for experimental application of question-answering procedures

to reasonably terse, relatively well-structured data

(robbery reports of the Los Angeles Police Department) and for more generalized natural language

text processing with respect to the Golden Book

children's encyclopedia.^-^

4
The BOLD (bibliographic Organization for

Z,ibrar\" Display) Project initiated at SDC by Borko.

involves a number of user stations equipped ^\"ith CRT display console. Hght pen. and teletypewriter.

The light pen is used to designate document cate- gories (all members of which are displayed), to specify data to be furnished in hard copy form,

and to reject data displayed during document

search. The keyboard is used to enter desired author

or index tag selection criteria. (Borko. 1965: Carter

et al.. 1965. pp.

62-63).2-io

Lockheed Missiles and Space Company's on-hne

document reference retrieval system was designed

for the in-house report collection of some 100.000

items as covered in the ^L\TICO (.Uachine-.-iided

Technical /nformation Center Operations! system.

Search and retrieval procedures, on-line, are based

upon such access points as personal and corporate

author names, keywords in title, subject headings

as assigned, report and contract numbers, and date

of pubhcation.- " Search restrictors such as an- nouncement media may be employed and associational displays of index terms used in the system

may also be provided.-- ^- Further details are provided by Summit (1967).

who describes the development of COX^ ERSE into DIALOG, a system developed to investigate experimentally the effectiveness of a user-directed

language designed to provide flexible means for reference retrieval.- A resource-allocation scheme

for this Lockheed multiple-access library reference

retrieval system is discussed by Reiter (1967).

Other relatively recent examples include applications at the Moore School of the Lniversity of

Pennsylvania, such as Project CIDS (Chemical

/nformation Data System), which deals with

formulas, names and properties of chemical com- pounds that match a chent's query, and Project V ector which provides Hbrary information retrieval services: an experimental system which has

been developed by Bunker Ramo for NASA: - '^ the

augmented catalog of project Intrex-'^^ and

SAFARL an on-line text processing system at the

MITRE Corporation.-^'' It has already been claimed

that "there is a general feeling that on-hne retrieval

is the next major development in information

retrieval, and represents the retrieval system of the

future." (Drew et al.. 1966. p. 341).

It will be noted that many of the proposed applications of such systems imply on-Hne problemsolving capabilities on the part of the cHent in the

special case of retrospective literature search.-"'^

More generally, on-hne problem-solving possibihties

are claimed to provide one of the most challenging

areas for the further improvement and increased

use of multiple-access systems.-"'*'

Such general systems will need to meet system

design requirements especially suited to the creative

user. They require consideration of the convenience

to such clients in learning to use, in using, and in modifying their use of the capabilities offered.--^' In particular, such systems may be designed to some extent as 'teaching' machines-'* and as

systems that provide for "mutual training" of the

man and the machine.- '^ Sutherland suggests that on-hne problem-solving systems "will require

techniques for pattern recognition, process control,

and heuristic programming, and will unite them

meaningfully."" (1965. p. 9.) In the general case, however, these potentials are closely related to far-ranging prospects for graphical manipulation and display, especially for applications to machine-aided design operations.

These prospects, however, will be considered in a

later section of this report (5.1.2). Let us next consider here, then, the preprocessing of chent

service requests in terms of job scheduhng. queuing,

and priorities.

2.2.2. Scheduling, Queuing, and Priorities in Multiple- Access Systems In general, it is noted that "computer time-sharing

attempts to phase the simultaneous execution of two or more programs so that the execution of any

one of the programs occurs during the natural

dormancy period of the others " (Brown. 1965. p. 82)

and that, "typically, a particular user's program

will be allowed to use a processor for a period of time, will be stopped so that another user's program

can run. and then at some later time will be

continued from the point where it was stopped."

(Scherr. 1965. p.

1).--'"^ It has been appropriately

observed that effective time-sharing thus involves

Xime-slicing.'--'^

This is a problem area in which both theoretical

assumptions and pragmatic considerations based

upon relatively limited experience to date require

further detailed investigation and evaluation,

experimental exploration of alternatives, and study

of the design requirements for judicious balancing

of hardware and software contributions to an effective system solution.- -' The responsive scheduling of both client access and job-processing requirements will necessarily

involve effective queuing procedures, routing

service and priority allocations, and on-hne monitoring of system operations (whether or not cost accounting and billing requirements are also involved.) Coffman and Kleinrock provide a 1968

survey of priority policies and scheduling methods

in use and. in addition, they discuss some of the means by which various users may try to beat the

system. Lampson (1968) notes further problems of management-control enforcement.- -'^ Some number of different user-control modes

should be typically available. For example, in terms

of commerical service-center operations. Adams

(1965, p. 487) suggests that: "The scheduhng method

used in the KEYDATA system . . . allows conversational users to reserve a level of service for minutes or hours at a time and guarantees that they will receive at least the agreed level of services on a minute-by-minute basis." In other situations,

chents may wish to control whether their jobs are

to be processed by remote batch operations or in a conversational mode.- --

5
In the EDUNET planning conferences (sponsored

by the Inter-University Communications Council),

it was pointed out that both priority allocations

(including pre-emptive priorities) and reservation

mechanisms would be needed in order to assure

different classes of users their desired levels of

service.- In particular. Caffrey stressed the

following: "Priority is not a simple matter; there are several kinds and issues:

# entry into the system (being able to plug in); # preferential treatment in the stack or queue;

# quality of response;

# efficiency of operation;

# user-priority vs. job-type priority;

# levels of hardware, including storage capacity." (Brown et al., 1967, p. 214).

Early evidence of R & D concern in many of these

areas was presented at the 1963 Fall Joint Computer Conference (Aoki et al., and Critchlow, for example). Of the early JOSS (Johnniac Open-Shop

System) developments, beginning in 1963-1964,

Bryan reports that considerable effort was devoted

to instrumentation measures to record not only the use of the system as a whole but also the characteristics of usage by different users.'^-^''^ Kleinrock

(1966) discusses the theory of queues in relation to experience of usage in time-shared computer sys- tems. Some SDC developments include those of Coffman and Kirshnamoorthi (1964), Fine et al. (1966), Krishnamoorthi and Wood (1965) and

Totschek (1965).

Where there are many system chents for whom

effectively simultaneous access should be provided,

appropriate scheduhng and queuing provisions

must be made. To date, such provisions typically

range from first-come-first-served and round-robin

arrangements (after a given processing interval,

if the first client's problem has not been completed,

his programs, data, results to that point, and status and re-start information are transferred out of the

active part of the system. Then the processingservice requests and data of the next client in line are swapped in, the system returning to the first client only after all waiting clients have had an equal

opportunity for processing service) to procedures

based upon considerations of length of running

time required (e.g., short jobs first), with or without

priority-interrupt considerations.'-^'* In the latter case, overall system efficiency may

have a built-in self-improvement facility through

the training or discipUning of the typical chent.

Scherr (1965, p. 105) suggests that: "it seems that scheduhng, if properly executed, could be used to 'mold' the users to some extent by assigning priority on the basis of job type, program size, program

running time, user think time, etc., etc. Then the

user, in trying to 'beat the system', will tend to conform to the image of what the writers of the

scheduhng program considered to be the ideal user." Further, "if the scheduhng procedure gives

low priority to a user's program because of one of

its characteristics (e.g., program size), users seem

to try to eliminate these 'objectionable' features

from their programs and interaction usage."

On-line access scheduling may be arranged on

either an a priori or a dynamic basis.- Typical

system design and operation questions also arise as to scheduling and queuing with respect to multiple

system components and as to the number of multiple

components necessary to maintain effective service

for the clientele.- -^ Areas of specific needs for further R&D investi- gation include the following types of questions:

(1) Whether the specific time interval (or "quantum") allowed to the active client in the

waiting line allows, for most clients, an

acceptable delay-tolerance and, at the same

time, good system utilization?-^''

(2) Whether mean-response-time is a good

criterion of either probable client-acceptance

or of system utilization? '- -^

(3) Whether overhead time-and-cost requirements

have been effectively assessed? '^--^

(4) Whether comparison of program sequences

and data units is sufficiently systematic to decide which priority choices will best contribute to effective utiUzation?

In general, it has been claimed that "the major

issues involved in time management are those of

selecting a queue discipline, determining optimum

quantum size, and dealing with system overhead."

(Schwartz and Weissman, 1967, p. 264.) On-hne

monitoring, it should be noted, will often be required

in order to adjust for different input and service

requirements "mixes" and to guard against such

phenomena as a number of different clients "getting

into phase with each other." '^-^^ Then there is the difficult question of scheduling

in multiprocessor, multiprogrammed '^^"^ networks

and, more generally, in systems incorporating the

concept of the "information processing utility". ^-^"^ Stanga (1967) discusses the performance advantages

developed for the Univac 1108 multiprocessor sys- tem in terms of multiple processing units and

multiple access paths to a variety of input-output

and peripheral storage devices. Manacher (1967)

considers the special problems of multiprocessor

control in the case of a 'hard' real-time environment—that is, one where there are rigid timing

bounds (both start-times and deadlines) upon

system performance.

Dennis and Van Horn (1965, pp. 3-4) discuss

various major characteristics of multiprogrammed,

multiprocessor systems in terms of the following

factors: (1) computational processes are run con- currently for more than one user, (2) many processes

must share resources in a flexible way, (3) individual

processes post widely varying demands for computing resources in the same time period, (4) separate

processes make frequent references to common

information, and (5) the system itself must be

capable of flexible adjustments to changing require- ments.

6
Multiprocessor networks may be required with

respect to a large, time-shared, computer-utility

system. In particular, such networks may often

involve relatively small or relatively inexpensive

processors to intercede for and to modify processing

requests addressed to the control system.^ •''^ Multi-level processors may also be involved in routing, screening, analyzing, and consohdating

query and response traffic to and from the various

areas and levels of storage.--^'*

The assurance of such access, effectively on an

on-line or '"realtime" basis, however, imphes a sophisticated supervisory control and monitoring

system plan, a flexible system language, and a

versatile system execution procedure.-^^^ Techniques of dynamic swapping, memory allocation

and relocation and of pagination are directed, often

with a high degree of interdependence, toward

solutions of this type of problem.

2.2.3. "Swapping," Dynamic Memory Allocation, and

Pagination

With respect to Box 4 of Figure 2, there are shown

questions of dynamic memory allocation, pagination,

and "swapping". These questions obviously involve

highly interdependent relationships with the sys- tem design problems that are involved in inputoutput for multiple user systems, in the servicing

of client-submitted processing requests, and in the

effective management of hierarchies of storage.--''-^ We have seen in the case of queuing and

scheduling of client interchanges with a multiple- access system that, in accordance with various

processing specifications, one client's program is typically run for a certain interval and then replaced

by that of the next client to be served. When this occurs, it is necessary to preserve the status of the

first client's program, to make way for the requirements of the next client, and, at a later time,

to restore the displaced client's program to active operation. This is the process known as "swapping." '--^^

It is noted that the size of the programs and data

sets being interchanged between active and inactive

status will have considerable effect upon the

efficiency of the swapping process.--^^ Improved

efficiency may result if both programs and data

sets are effectively modularized so that only those

parts actually needed for the new operation are loaded into main memory.--^^ For another example,

at Wayne State University, Abramowich (1967)

considers special problems of central core storage

allocation in the case of iterative processes where

input data items once chosen are never again

needed. At Project MAC, an "onion skin algorithm"

is used so that only those parts of memory are dumped as are actually necessary to make room

for the incoming program. (Scherr, 1965, p. 36). The problems of pagination relate in particular

to the size of the blocks (or pages) of information

that may be swapped between various levels of storage and to the management of transfers of such

blocks in terms of processing efficiency. While

paging typically relieves the programmer of the

need to know and manage the actual physical

storage of his programs and data,'- '^^^ the size of the

available page may be critical.--'^**'' Other problems

involve questions of periodic "garbage collec- tion" -•^^'^ and of projected time-inactive considerations.--^^'* A pioneering approach to these problems in terms of both pagination and of dynamic interchange

with respect to both program and data-set accessibility was provided in the system design of Atlas.--^^

It is noted, in addition, that "pioneering work on

the concepts of segmentation and the use of predictive information to control storage allocation was

done in connection with project ACSI-MATIC."

(Randell and Kuehner, 1968, p. 299). Such problems,

in general, continue to occupy the attention of

system designers.'--^" "Since the effectiveness of a system increases as the service facilities are shared,

a major goal of future research is a system with

multiple access to a vast common structure of data

and program procedures; the achievement of multiple access to the computer processors is but

a necessary subgoal of this broader objective."

(Corbato, "System Requirements . . .", n.d., p. 3). In addition, hierarchies of storage as physical

facts, but of virtually infinite file-memory access from the user's point-of-view, are implied.-^'

Problems of dynamic memory allocation and relo- cation, of "placement" and "fetching",-^'^ are thus

involved at a number of levels of storage.--^- However, many current difficulties are to be noted. For

example, Wagner and Granholm state that as of 1965 no executive or software system has satis- factorily solved the problems of treating the storage

hierarchy as though there were only a single store.'-^^ In general, dynamic storage allocation techniques

are intended to provide flexible means for antici- pating demand on the part of either the client or the executive control mechanisms of the system

itself,-^^ to optimize the utilization of primary access

memory,'-"*^ and to provide for the calling up of programs, subroutines, and the data to be processed

only when, and to the extent, that these are operationally required.-"*^

An obvious problem arises in terms of variable

data structures with respect to the flow of programs

and data to and from the various levels of access.--^^ Such exchanges need also to be accomplished with

minimum delay not only for overall system efficiency

but also in terms of chent patience with respect to the time-scale of response to his requirements.-^^

Specific system design suggestions include the

development of special processors operable in parallel with the main system-'*^ and the use of a

unified approach to the interlocking problems of

allocation, relocation, address indexing, and pro- tection devices.- Ramamoorthy (1966) discusses

"look ahead" considerations with specific reference

to multiprogramming situations. Walter and

Wallace (1967) discuss problems of program lengths,

execution time requirements, average time to

7
process, and loading times in terms of operations

at academic computer centers. There will be, in addition, need for the most

careful analyses of typical requirements for pagination or segmentation both of data blocks and files and of programs, including the use of grouped or clustered pages.^-^^ Again, we must consider and

evaluate the most effective lead-times and critical path schedules for foresighted transfers of data

and programs between the various levels of

storage.--^'^

For such reasons, Opler concludes: "the achievement of dynamic flow through hierarchical storage

will not be easy. Interdevice channels and control

mechanisms must be developed. Requirements for development of control programs will be heavy.

The devising of new system analysis and description

tools is also required." (Opler, 1965, p. 276).

Evans and Leclerc (1967) claim that interactive

response systems are typically mere adaptations of

conventional systems and techniques and are thus

"far from ideal in many respects". They are therefore concerned with developing improved mechanisms for protection, address mapping and subroutine linkages.

Problems of efficient storage allocations in terms

of hierarchies of access and of dynamic flow

between levels of storage are interrelated in many

ways.-^- Nevertheless, while techniques of dynamic

storage allocation and pagination as currently

available solve certain problems of processor

system management and control, they also raise

continuing problems of more effective overall system design.--^^ For example, studies at System

Development Corporation have shown that a variety

of programs may require "considerable reorganization to operate efficiently in a demand-paging en- vironment." (Fine et al., 1966, p. ll).--^'^^ It may be

noted further that "an examination of the 'spacetime' product for a program illustrates the dangers

of demand paging in unsuitable environments."

(RandeU and Kuehner, 1968, p. 303).

So, too, there are problems of "pagination constraints". With many of the systems so far designed

for dynamic memory relocation applications, the

"pages" of either program-control or data constituting fixed-length blocks used for rapid automatic

transfer between different levels of storage and

processing-access are arbitrarily fixed, perhaps

generously. Thus, for many applications, a "page"

of say 2,000 machine words is generally adequate for subroutine callup or file subsection processing.

However, requirements for certain types of experimental investigations and for many practical

graphical data processing operations typically

involve the processing of two-dimensional arrays of

data for immediate and simultaneous access of areas exceeding fixed pagination limitations. For example, in the case of a 30,000+ quantized

bit scan of a 2 x 2" photograph, the input may well

exceed the limitations of say, a 2,000-computer-word

"page". Perhaps the input may be judiciously

juggled to fit within a 4-page reserved area (with both

programming and processing penalties), but, in other cases, nine of such pages would be required,

with even more severe penalties. Beyond this, there

is the question of the programming effort and computer processing time necessary to achieve, over

pagination boundaries, bit manipulation tests and

improvements for the total input image area. Another area of current difficulty is discussed by

Head as follows: "Often such read-in and relocation

schemes divide core memory into fixed blocks which

form a repository for programs of a standard size. This, of course, forces the programmer to make

a rigid segmentation of his program into one or more chunks which will fit into the arbitrarilydefined core blocks at read-in time. In a higher-level

language, each statement written by a programmer

will produce a fairly large yet unknown number of

actual machine instructions. This is almost certain

to (1) aggravate the read-in problem by producing a greater total number of instructions than would onefor-one machine coding, and (2) prevent the pre- planned division of programs into relocatable seg- ments of standard length." (Head, 1963, p. 40). Finally we note that continuing R&D concern

should be directed to the problems of providing

adequate protective devices in multiple-access

systems, to be considered next.

2.2.4. Client and System Protection

The R&D problems involved in the general area

of development of processing specifications (Box 9

of Figure 2) will be considered in more detail in a

later report in this series with respect to the complicated requirements of truly flexible information

search, selection and retrieval procedures. Similarly,

background considerations for system design in- volving problems of privacy, confidentiality, or security will be covered in a separate report.

However, we may consider here as specialized

processing specification requirements the provision

of means to protect the system from the client,

the client from the system, the system from its own malfunctioning, one client from another, and the

client from himself.

Scheduling and priority-interrupt features come

first to mind, but at a more advanced stage of system

planning and design we need to look at very real requirements of protection from unauthorized

access, as well as those of system efficiency.--^^'' In particular, multiple-user systems require the

provision of adequate protective devices for in- dividually owned files and data banks and programs

and "custom" subroutines for shared data, programs,

and program segments, and for the executive,

supervisory control, and accounting programs of the

system itself. First is the need to shield the system

from inadvertent errors, clumsiness, and un- authorized access on the part of a particular client. Thus, regardless of the degrees of privacy required

for different clients, the system itself needs protection. This type of situation is especially acute

in situations involving user debugging of new pro- 8
grams or. even more critically, the insertion of new

routines into existing programs.

Then there are the questions not only of system

protection from the user, but also of client pro- tection from the system. We note that in the de- bugging situation, in particular,--^^*^ programs still under development by some users should not, by

error, interfere with procedures being run, simultaneously, for other clients of the system.--^^

For the protection of the user from himself. on-Hne

debugging programs require efficient supervisory

and monitoring control programs (see, for example,

Evans and Darley, 1965). In other cases, a combination of hardware and software techniques may be

used. Thus, in a project at the University of Pennsylvania, "a small computer [PDP—5] has been used

between the questioner and the central processor

to act as a filter, so that before a question gets

through to the big computers, it is stated correctly."

(Electronics 38, No. 18. 36 (1965).)

Next, the various clients need reasonable assur- ance that the material they have stored in the

system, both programs and data, will be retained

without loss, or that it can be recaptured or restored. However, with respect to this aspect of the protection of the client from the system, it is noted

that, for example at Project MAC, while system

malfunctions have caused some losses of client programs (and even of data), this experience has

not apparently discouraged continued use.--^'^ In

Kessler's apphcations of the M.I.T. system, monitoring programs have been developed to check the

continuing integrity of the data on file.--^^ Typically,

the client of a multiple-access system will also require protection from various types of on-line

instrumentation techniques.'-'''

Where several users' programs and/or data are simultaneously held in main memory, adequate measures of mutual memory protection must be

employed.--^* It is necessary that such measures

should be extremely flexible because of the rapidity

with which swappings and relocations can occur and multi-level spheres of protection may be

required.-^"

Beyond these questions are the problems of access to shared processor-systems and to multiple- use, consolidated program facilities, common-use

and centralized data banks. "The most delicate

aspect of the operation of a multiple-access system

of the MAC type is the responsibility assumed by

the system managers with respect to the users' programs and data that are permanently stored in the disc files. Elaborate precautions must be taken

to protect the contents of the disc files against

malfunctioning of the system, as well as against

actions of the individual users." (Fano, 1964, p. 18). Notwithstanding the urgency of these requirements,

however, much remains to be done. For example,

"in present-day on-line systems, protection among

processes performing different tasks is either

*In this case, obviously, ihe "client" may well be a programmer on the staff of the processing system facility.

absent or confined to one level of object processes

that run under the egis of a master control pro- gram." (Dennis and Glaser, 1965, p. 9).

2.3. System Control and Performance

Evaluation

Closely related to the problems of scheduling,

dynamic memory management, and protection

mechanisms are the questions of effective supervisory control and performance evaluation of sys- tems under various conditions of use.--^"^^ In

particular, "the total system should be designed

to do its own bookkeeping and accounting functions—keeping track of usage, hours, volumes,

times, etc. — both for evaluation of the system and

management of costs." (Brown et al., 1967, p. 219).

Concurrently, however, the client "needs control over the generation, revision, naming and execution

of his job-oriented processing routines, as well as the storage and retrieval of such processing routines

as part of his data base. He needs to be able to manipulate logical and arithmetical operators,

planning factors and parameters, models and pro- jections of relevant job-oriented operations."

(Bennett et al, 1965, p. 437.)

Special problems of system design and control,

including processor and program developments,

on-line debugging and instrumentation, and system

simulation will be reviewed in another report in this series (on overall system design considerations).

We note here, however, that "the burden of establishing proper control procedures falls on the

system designer who must in so doing use tech- niques of information theory, quality control,

information redundancy control, error detection

and correction, numerical analysis, queuing theory,

sampling theory, statistical reliability, data reduction, cross correlation, display theory, decision

processes, etc." (Davis, 1964, p. 468). Further,

"suitable provisions for performance monitoring,

trouble detection, and quality control should be

included as part of the system design." (Israel,

1967, p. 203).

Examples of various diagnostic and monitoring

systems include QUIK TRAN as used in the inter- pretive mode,^-^"*^ the General Electric GECOS II [General Comprehensive Operating System] pro- grams,2 «o^' the PILOT system at M.I.T.,2 «o" and a computer "Time Monitor" available from Applied

Logic Corporation of Princeton, New Jersey.^-^*^*^ Hornbuckle (1967) describes a combined hardware/

software monitoring system for graphic display

applications in the Project Genie time-sharing

system of the University of California.

Among the types of system performance factors

of interest to system managers or users (or both)

are measures of memory, paging, and subrouting

activity loop factors and trap activity queue

length and work profiles. ^

"^^ Coggan (1967) suggests

other measures as well.^^^ Randell and Kuehner

(1968) stress the significance of the "space-time

9
product". It is noted that "users very often want

to know whether and how many channels or storage areas are available, how many other users there are, whether they can schedule use of the system at predetermined times, how much of their allotted time has been expended, etc." (Caffrey, in Brown

et al., 1967, p. 219).

An M.I.T. example is the TTPEEK command

"which allows a user to inspect both the allotments

and usage of his central processor time, as well

as his disc, drum, and tape records." (Corbat('), 1967,

p. 95). A monitor program described by Fiala (1966)

displays for all users the size of programs, priority

information, and information as to memory space

activity, among other factors.-*''' However, "it is generally agreed that, constrained by cost, the aver- age response time is the single most objective per- formance measure to the user at present." (Estrin

and Kleinrock, 1967, p. 86). A simulation program developed by Blunt (1965)

dealt primarily with first-come, first-served queue

unloading strategy, but consideration was also given to selecting data units with the shortest

servicing time, and other factors. ^

''^ Other examples

in the literature include the studies of Krishnamoorthi and Wood (1965) with respect to a hmiting

distribution of user congestion and of Kleinrock

(1966) involving the use of a queuing theory model

for the analysis of sequential processing machines.

as well as his 1966 and 1967 theoretical studies of

systems.

For his Ph. D. dissertation at UCLA, Coffman

(1966) has investigated various stochastic models

of multiple and time-shared computing operations.

Elsewhere, Coffman and Wood (1966) have reported

further on inter-arrival statistics for the SDC

system and Coffman and Varian (1968) consider

problems of page relocation algorithms. ^-^^^ Wilkes

(1967) reviews a variety of page turning and related

problems. Chang (1966) provides a queuing

model for non-priority time-sharing such that queue length and response time and their distribu- tions can be readily estimated. Another theoretical

investigation of both round-robin and priority

scheduling systems is provided by Shemer (1967).

Then there are studies by Martin and Estrin

(1967) showing that a priori estimates of computation times for given problems on given systems can

be generated by modelling these computations with

transitive directed graphs. Other theoretical models

are exempHfied by Kleinrock's (1967) treatment

of time-shared computing facihties as stochastic

queuing system under priority service discipline,

and with the performance measure based upon the

average time spent in the system. Nevertheless,

many questions of comparative efficiency remain to be explored. '"^'^^

3. Storage, File Organization, and Associative Memory Requirements

Returning to Figure 2, it is to be noted that the

development of efficient and economical storage

techniques is the area of continuing R&D concern

with respect to Box 6. Many of the specific problems

of organization and input of material for storage,

questions of file management, digital yersus facsimile

storage, and availability of improved storage media

(including microforms) will be covered in other

reports in this series (e.g., with respect to the

domain of information storage, selection, and

retrieval research, or, in the case of advanced developments in storage media, to overall system design

considerations). Here, we shall emphasize some of those aspects of information storage functions and

techniques that are most closely related to the problems of management and use of multiple-access

information processing systems. More particularly, we are concerned here with hierarchies of storage

systems, with some of the factors in efficient file organization, and with questions of associative

(or "content-addressable") memory requirements.

In general, the processing of large volumes of

data to provide varied forms of efficient and eco- nomical storage is becoming more and more feasible

technically, operationally, and economically. As a consequence, more attention needs to be paid to multilevel representations of the information contents of stored items as well as to suitable hierarchies

of access, search, matching, selection, and retrieval procedures.

As of 1968, magnetic core techniques are still the

principal media for main -computer, rapid-access,

information stores. Because of multiple-user

demands, as we have seen in the previous section

of this report, such "memories" (even although they

may have typical capabilities of a million bits storage and cycle times of a microsecond or less), require considerable "swapping" and "pagination"

requirements for time-shared, time-slicing usage. However, it is noted that "memory paging, or pro- gram segmentation, reduces the size of the main

memory but increases that of the bulk storage",

(Riley, 1965, p. 74) and that therefore increasing concern should also be directed to the management

of such secondary storage. It is further to be noted

that the effective management of secondary or

auxiliary storage has been a recurrent problem for both system designers and programmers over the

years.'*' Efficient and economical storage will involve the

interdependence of a number of different factors. Among them are the following:

(1) The development and utiHzation of storage

media at many levels of access, density of of information packing, and storage capacity.^ -

(2) The effective organization of multi-level

storage in terms of hierarchical access

provisions.^-^

(3) The effective organization of multi-level

storage in terms of parallel processing.

10
(4 ) The integrated systems design of programming

control, processor capabilities, and storage

accessing for dynamic internal memory allo- cation and relocation.^"*

(5) The organization of the file or files at any given

level of storage, with due consideration to the

most harmonious balancing of maintenance

and up-dating,^"*^ indexing and cross-referencing, multiple copy deposits, statistical data on

usage, usage-expectancy factors requirements,

and the extent to which typical users require

responses at such-and-such thresholds (immediacy of response, comprehensiveness

versus pertinency, volume of response).

(7) The provision of useful guides, indexes,

dehmitors (or restrictors) and identifiers,

content-indicating clues, and access-priority

scheduling, to various sections, compartments, or stratifications of the file or files.'* -^

(7) The provision of adequate memory protection

devices, including write-protect, read-protect,

and overwrite protection. * ^^'^

3.1. Hierarchies of Storage, Data

Compression, and Data Consolidation

Just as dynamic memory allocation is increasingly

demanded in processor systems involving multiple- access usage, so dynamic space allocations between

levels of storage require a new concentration of system design efforts.''-^ As of today, conflicting

demands of fast access and retrievability on the one hand and of compact and economical storage of very large masses of data and recorded information, on the other hand, dictate compromises based upon

multiple levels of storage.^

'' The trend toward more versatile and convenient means for man-machine interaction in time-sharing

and remotely accessed systems where more than mere text-message processing is desired can be

expected to continue its current momentum. New

emphases in multiple-access systems planning are therefore being directed toward the problems of

providing large capacity data storage banks or files organized in hierarchies of accessibility, especially

where different users have differing need-to-know

privileges.

It is likely in many potential applications that file organization strategies should be geared to either

on-line and multiple-access or to batch operations

and/or to suitable admixtures of client-controlled

and job-shop-controlled priorities of access and

processing. In such circumstances, Benner (1967)

considers certain minimal file design considerations

involving security, recovery, optimal location/

addressing, flexibility for meeting changing requirements, and compatibility with the programming

system and language(s).'' ''^

*See also the separate report in this series on some of the background considerations

affecting problems of privacy, confidentiality, or security in information processing systems and networks.

3.1.1. Hierarchical Memory Structure

Hoagland'*** notes that hierarchical memory

structures, with various levels set by access-time

characteristics are needed to balance costs,

capacities, and access requirements, that the

"main" memory size is tied to processor rate in such way that the faster the latter, the larger and

faster the memory must be to keep pace, and that economical mass-memory systems represent the

key to many new appHcations.

We envisage, first, hierarchies of storage with

appropriate balancing of capacities, access time

considerations, and usage-demand probabiHties.

The total storage facilities would be compartmentalized as appropriate by the various types of data to be stored, by usage considerations, and by

other criteria conductive to effective maintenance

and manipulation. They would be organized in such way as to enable adaptive change to new or modified processing requirements. An important

consideration here is that of the provision of "streaming", or equivalent techniques.'^ ' Hierarchies of storage, especially those involving

large bulk memory devices, also suggest the use of

redundant recording techniques for improved

random access. For example, if fully adequate

techniques for machine translation were available,

it is not necessarily the case that significant improvements in either mass storage capacity or speed of access would be required before production use

could become practical. First, advantage might be

taken of Zipfs law respecting the distribution of

word frequency possiblities, to organize a hierarchy

of dictionary storage and access. Bowers (1966)

discusses as one example a dictionary stored for machine translation applications where perhaps 35

percent of the accesses might be to less than 20 of

100,000 entries. He suggests that "in most cases, some combination of different redundancy fractions

for several subsets of the store will achieve the

minimum access time." (p. 44)

Again, hierarchies of storage may be used to improve the efficiency of list-processing operations

as described, for example, by Cohen of the University of Grenoble (1967). This investigator con- cludes that the best strategy for selecting the least active pages is that of time of inactivity. (See also Bobrow and Murphy (1967) for discussion of adaptations of the LISP programming system to a two-level

store.)

Then there are questions of efficient and eco- nomical storage with respect to the items themselves, including compression, truncation, use of

the information contained in a record to determine

automatically its proper storage address, and use

of storage addresses as the surrogates for search

and retrieval of the stored item itself. 3.1.2. Data Compression and Consolidation

System organization of central processors and of

storage systems can be expected to become increasingly modular, and with maximum provisions for

11

366-108 O - 70 - 2
compatibility (or at least convertibility) as between

large and small system configurations available at different locations. However, we may also consider,

with respect to system requirements for efficient and economical storage, not only the problems of

hierarchies of access but also those of compression

of the data actually to be filed. A typical instance is that of pictorial data representation. Beyond the photographic (or equivalent) means for full, conservative, input data storage

(a copy, microfilm or otherwise, for the facsimile

representation of the input item) lie possibilities of

reductive transformations.* Here, the continuing R&D requirements with respect to information

processing system design involve fact-finding and

technical analyses. In particular, we need to learn whether such

reductive storage can be so developed as to provide

the appropriate type of reproducibility. A given

system may require either reduced facsimile of the

original, giving only pre-defined significant features, or an enhanced facsimile eliminating noise or re- dundancy and emphasizing features such as boundaries and edges, or a complete replica of the

initial input image. In other situations, processes

of re-computation and re-creation to produce a reasonable reconstruction of the original input

may suffice. We would also look forward to increased use of

redundancy eliminating fact-correlations, duplicate

checking, and validation techniques applied to items available as input for potential retrieval in order to keep storage requirements within manageable bounds. In addition, as Mooers (1959) has

pointed out,^ '" the achievement of a minimal

redundancy store is of considerable significance

from the client's standpoint and from that of overall system effectiveness. In particular: "The . . . [more compelling] reason to avoid redundancy and

filler matter is that putting such matter into the

store is not the end of it, if the retrieval system is any good. The text, with all its filler and redundancies

will keep coming out of the system, time after time,

with a consequent vast waste of human effort that

will be continued indefinitely into the future."

(pp. 27-28)

The basic procedures for storage in the overall system should obviously be simultaneously effective,

efficient, and economical. Effectiveness and econ- omy combined may relate, for example, to storage

of textual messages in facsimile-reproducible form

but with brief, independently searchable, contentindicia and with appropriate selection-retrieval

addresses as typical query-output. Yet many considerations of user-acceptance, user-convenience,

availability of suitable microform readers, queuing

considerations, and other factors may well affect the economics of the situation. For example, cost considerations (specifically

including considerations of total storage require-

*See also Section 3.4 of the first report in this series. Information Acquisition, Sensing, and Input.

ments, including those of an archival nature), may

well dictate microform storage, yet the effectiveness

and efficiency of the system may be lowered because

of client low-usage or dissatisfaction with microform

outputs generally.'^- The economics of storage for subsequent selection and retrieval of specified

items relate then, first, to the costs and problems

of storage as such and, secondly but not least as

critically, to the problems of selective recall and

effective utilization. The obvious requirements here

are therefore those of effective file organization

both for purposes of economical storage and for those of efficient search, selection, and retrieval. Beyond these are possibiUties for adaptive reor- ganizations of the file based upon various types of

system feedbacks.

Prywes comments that "file organization, which

in the past has been given a secondary position in overall system performance, should instead be the

kernel of future systems", and, further, that "the

sharing of the information in the common store is technically one of the most demanding, and intel- lectually the most intricate, functions of the system.

Continuous enhancement of this capability must be

provided through reindexing and reclassifying the

changing organization of the total information."

(Prywes, 1966, p. 460).

3.2. Problems of File Organization and

Structure

Problems of file organization again involve the

need for dynamic memory allocation facilities for the hierarchy of storage systems so that files may

be set up in layers of segmentation and be rapidly

re-organized according to frequencies of usage. Thus, "the system must have dynamic memory

allocation, alternate forms of data structure, and

a data management and transfer mechanism so

that the same data can be used in all aspects of the

problem solution." (Roos, 1965, p. 423).

For whatever purpose machine-searchable files are used (record-keeping, inventory control, documentary-item-surrogate storage, or data-, record-,

item-, and fact-retrieval), there is a commonality of three principal kinds of operations upon the files. These three types of file processing are those of

file input and organization, file search and selection,

and file maintenance and up-dating.'^""^ An example

of multilevel file organization for a dynamic system

is provided by ver Hoef (1966) with respect to the

INTIPS (/n^egrated /nformation Processing System)

of the Rome Air Development Center.^ '**'' The design of effective file organizations will involve first the consideration of the levels of

storage required in terms of items of different size and of different type. Similarly, consideration should

be given to frequencies of estimated usage. This

may take the form of either activity analysis ^ " or

of estimates based upon the age, currency or likely

usefulness of items stored in the file.^-'- Possible

self-adaptive features should also be considered.

12
In particular, file organization must be capable

of changing in response to changes in needs for information and also in response to both qualitative

and quantitative changes in the contents of the file. There exists therefore a requirement to explore

concepts and techniques that will make feasible

self-adaptive features in both file organization and

in search strategy. (J. Blum and J. Guy, private

communication).

There is a wide variety of alternatives with

respect to different methods of file organization,

whether these are planned with reference to most

efficient storage-retrieval operations or whether they

are designed with reference to presumed searchselective effectiveness. We may find relatively ran- dom file organizations or arbitrary orderings of the

records to be stored in the file; for example, in libraries or document collections, by physical di- mensions of the stored items, by date of accession,

by age class, by journal volume identification, and

the like. Partially arbitrary orderings of the files may be

imposed in the form of alphabetical sequences of

stored items by their source or author, or by whether

or not they fall within certain prescribed chronological time periods, as in many typical correspond- ence files. Then, in the case of uneven file distributions as determined by continuing activity analysis,

there are possible random orderings based upon

such assumptions as the foDowing: 'The generally

accepted solution is to pick a storage location

capacity (bucket), which tends to make overflows

hkely and empty buckets rare. The storage method

then goes on to dispose of the overflows by a second

rule, e.g., chaining, storing overflow addresses in the bucket, or by assignment to another area." (Dumey. 196.5, pp. 258-259).

Hierarchically ordered files typically involve

classification schemes and structures of various

types and, where it is not possible to determine an

exclusive classification for a stored item, the use

of cross-reference techniques including the placement of multiple copies of a particular item under

several different classification categories, thus

providing multiple parallel access to different sections of the file. This is the practice, for example,

not only in the hard copy files of the U.S. Patent

Office, but in microform storage and retrieval sys- tems such as the Eastman Kodak Minicard

developments.^^^^

In the case of a partially ordered file organization,

there are frequently to be found broad groupings of stored items with perhaps random or arbitrary

orderings within each group (e.g., a "bin" approach)

or orderings by frequency of usage and the like. The latter type of organization is designed to be

particularly responsive to a specific clientele or usage environment.'^ '^ Next to be considered in generahzed information

processing system design and use are problems of

input-output with respect to the files involving considerations of volume and processing time requirements and questions of efficient space allocation

and utilization. Then there are problems of whether new material may be substituted for or used to re- place other material in whole or in part, updating

problems generally, and questions of whether incoming items require transcriptions, re-recordings, en- codings, reductive transformations of various types,

or reproduction as microforms, and the Hke.

A special problem with respect to efficient and

economical storage of items to be searched and

retrieved is that of the encoding of pictorial and

graphic information for compact storage, but with

full-scale facsimile reproduction capabilities avail- able upon demand. In this area of pictorial data

coding, a special case is that of two- or three-dimensional representations of chemical structure information. As has been noted in the first report in this series, (on information acquisition, sensing, and

input) a number of coding, ciphering, and notation

schemes have been under development for linear

representations of such structural data in machineuseful form.

Holm (1965) notes that: "Much work is under way

to store pictorial representation, such as the chemical structure, in packed coded or binary form, with

the reproduction of the original pictorial form upon

request either as a display on film, or printed."

However, other pictorial data, such as photographs,

may probably be stored most efficiently in their original form, in reduced facsimile such as microform, or as TV recordings.^

Other design requirements relate to problems of access to physical storage and to withdrawals and

replacements of items to and from the store. There

are maintenance problems including questions of

whether or not the integrity of the files must be

maintained (i.e., a master copy of each original item

accessible at all times), and whether provisions

should be made for the periodic purging of obsolete

items and revisions of the file organization in ac- cordance with changing patterns, of usage or re- sponse requirements.^-'^^ Other design questions

relate to requirements for display of all or part of an

item and/or indications of its characteristics prior

to physical retrieval. With respect to storage media and equipment

considerations, the information processing system

designer must not only be concerned with the characteristics of materials suitable for storing information (to be discussed in another report in this series, on overall system design requirements), but also with those characteristics affecting the selected

methodology of file organization and the total sys- tem design. For example, he must carefully consider

the interaction between such variables as the size of the file, its organization, the search strategy or

strategies to be used, and equipment speed. (See

Blunt, 1965, p. 14). We shall return to these and other R&D considerations in other reports in this series when we

discuss the more specialized problems of information storage, selection, and retrieval systems as such, but we note here that many levels of file organization and file compartmentalization may be

13
used to speed search processes, to conduct multiple

searches in parallel, and the like. In particular,

data bank management design requirements create

file organization problems of increasing severity.^ ''*'' In general, where there are increasing opportunities

for the establishment and multiple-access use of

large-scale data banks, there are increasingly diffi- cult R&D problems in file organization, file mainte- nance, and file protection.

As Orchard-Hays has emphasized: "Probably

the knottiest problem facing system designers today

is how to set up, maintain, control and protect huge

libraries of heterogeneous data, uH changing at different rates and in different ways . . . It is clear

that the systems designs of the past are entirely

inadequate . . ." (Orchard-Hays, 1965, p. 240).

Moreover, it is claimed that "unfortunately little research has been done on methods of organizing

and structuring large files. As a result, the available

concepts are primitive. One principle is clear: our needs for information are changing; therefore, our

file organization must be capable of changing."

(Borko, 1965, p. 24).

3.3. Associative Memory Considerations

The concept of associative or content-addressable

memories ^-^^ has been hailed for well over a decade ^-^^ as the potential, panacea for many inter- locking, multiple-aspect processing problems,

specifically including those of information storage,

selection and retrieval systems.^^^ As of 1967-1968,

however, little practical realization has been

achieved except on a very small scale ^ and some

observers predict that this condition wiU continue

for some time to come.'^ '^'* Large-scale associative memories have, on the

other hand, been simulated on computers, notably

in Fuller's 1963 dissertation investigations,^-^'' at the Moore School by Prywes and associates,^-^" by

Landauer and by Feldman.^ In particular,

Prywes and Gray (1963) claim that the use of an

addressable memory to carry out an associative

memory scheme provides a flexibility that would be

difficult to achieve with built-in associative hardware.

In a 1967 state-of-the-art review, Minker and

Sable comment: "It was refreshing to see the

Government support studies leading to quantitative

results in the study of hardware vs. software implementation of associative memories. We note that these studies did not show the hardware associative

memories to be significantly advantageous. Additional quantitative studies are needed to define the

types of problems for which hardware associative

memories of various sizes could be useful." (Minker

and Sable, 1967, p. 151).

The following desiderata, however, are indicative

of continuing R&D concern with respect to memory

system design: "Features of the memory structure desirable for a complex processing system are

listed below:

1. The number of different fists of items of in- formation, length of lists, and length of information of the item in the memory should be perfectly flexible (except for the total memory

size).

2. It should be possible to add, delete, insert and

rearrange items of information in a list at any

time and in any way . . . 3. The nature of the items in a list should not be

restricted. An item may be a symbol, a number,

a combination of both in any length or an

arbitrary list. 4. It should be possible for the same item to appear on any number of lists simultaneously."

(Hormann, 1960, p. 4). The area of "associative" or "content-addressable"

memories will thus require considerable further

R&D effort in both hardware and software, including new approaches to file organization.

Starting on the software side, we note the emerg- ence of list-processing languages intended to facili- tate symbol manipulation directly and thereby

problem-solving activities more generally.^ Limitations with respect to multiply-associated data have

led to variations involving threaded-lists, inverted

lists, and multilist program structures,^-^^ and

special systems such as Rover.^ A deliberate at- tempt to compromise between fixed file organization

and list-processing techniques, providing for the

building of associative sublists if and only if needed, was indicated in the relatively early NBS model of "selective recall". (Stevens, 1960).

For multiply-related, multiply-associated data in a large file, the problems of efficient storage, selection, and access may involve considerable emphasis

upon formal modellings of the possible system

parameters and configurations. Here, considerations

of efficient machine manipulations of graph-theoretic techniques, input-output economics in the

most general sense, control system theory, and

studies of the problems of aggregation and partial

aggregation may have considerable pertinence.

New technologically-feasible approaches to truly

massive direct access file media and to file struc- turings of the associative memory type point to significant alleviation of some of these problems

in the not too distant future. On the other hand, it is not yet clear that enough is now known about

multiply-related and associated data to establish

organizational schemas that would take best ad- vantage of these promised technological advantages.

Other questions as yet largely unresolved include

those of the development of performance measures

adequate to depict the appropriate trade-offs be- tween storage economy and selection and retrieval effectiveness for a particular application. A familiar

question in the literature of the information storage,

selection and retrieval field relates to the relative efficiency of "linear" or "unit record" or "term- on-term" as versus "inverted" or "item-on-term"

files, and combinations of these two approaches. ^^^^ Some investigators who are concerned with

problems of efficient file organization and file structuring from the points of view of effective

14
compartmentalization and efficient search strategies

have never-the-less tended to neglect the problems

and prospects of screening or sieving devices as an important contribution to search tactics.^'*^'' An example of compartmentalization and screening techniques has been suggested in the case of

fingerprint identification as follows: "If each fingerprint in a set is simply classified according to whether it conforms to a particular type of fingerprint

pattern, e.g.. 'whorl', the file can immediately be

divided into 1,024 separate file sections representing

the different possible combinations of the 10 fingers.

More detailed analysis permits further refinement of

the groups. With over a thousand file sections and

the potential for easy subdivision within each section, the searching of even a multimillion-print file

is not too forbidding." (Cuadra. 1966, p. 7). On the hardware side, we are faced with severe problems of economic and practical feasibility in achieving large-scale, relationally associated data

files to date. Small, very fast (e.g., tens of nano- seconds performance), memories of the associative

or content-addressable type are beginning to appear

in operational systems, primarily as "scratchpad"

memories, which are defined as "small uniform

access memories with access and cycle times

matched to the clock of the logic" of the main

processor. (Gluck, 1965, p. 662).

These scratchpad memories are" typically used

for such purposes as reducing time of access to instructions, microprogramming, buffering of

instructions or of data that is transferable in small

blocks (as in the "four-fetch" design of the Bur- roughs B 8500 system),^-^^ storage of intermediate

processing results, table lookup operations, use as index registers,'^ '-^^ and, to a limited extent, content

addressing.'' '''* Gunderson et al.,of Honeywell (1966),

discuss associative memory techniques as used for control functions in a multiprocessor system — more

specifically, to provide dynamic control over proc- essor assignments, to mechanize automatic page

turning schemes, and to provide other functions

relating to I/O executions and to parallel

processing.^-^"

Other than such scratchpad memory usage,

several special-purpose and experimental associative memory developments may be of interest. One

is Librascope's APP (/issociative Parallel Processor), as described by Fuller and Bird (1965), intended

for use in such tasks as pattern-property-extraction

and pattern classification. ^-^^^ Another example is the Pattern Articulation Unit and related parallel

processing capabilities of the ILLIAC III computer.^"''

In a 1966 survey, Hanlon reports that "memory

cycle times have been reported as low as 50 nano- seconds" and that "although the majority of re- search to date has been with small memories (up

to 1000 cells), projections are indicated in the

10^-10* bit range, (p. 519)" Hobbs in one of a series of state-of-the-art reviews (1966) concurs in the

opinion that advantages can be attained and disadvantages lessened by the use of a relatively small

associative memory coupled to a large capacity

random access store. There may be other, as yet inadequately explored,

alternatives, however. At Sylvania, for example,

a reference-pattern-p/ane organization for the

processing of unknown pattern inputs against many

stored reference pattern property-criteria, has been

experimentally realized in a combination of auto- matically processed plastic sheets affecting the

behavior of a solenoid-transformer array for char- acter recognition purposes. There are possibilities that the same addressed, transformer-sheet arrays, addressed in parallel searching mode, can be

utilized as a practical associative memory of some- what larger capacity, but slower speed, than those

techniques available for internal ^

'^^ scratchpad

auxiliaries. In the light of present limitations of associative

memory developments, Giuliano (1965) suggests

this alternative: "In my opinion ... it would pay to look further

into the area of large capacity, inexpensive per- manent memory devices which would handle associative processing in a special-purpose manner",

(p. 260) Wilkes (1965) suggests still another possibility: "So far the slave principle has been applied

to very small super-speed memories associated

with the control of a computer. There would, however, appear to be possibilities in the use of a normal

sized core memory as a slave to a large core memory . . ." (p. 270)

Climenson comments: "A basic organization con- cept receiving little attention recently is King's

photostore, where a large read-only disc memory is considered a logical extension of the stored program

concept. The store is content-addressed, using a longest-match principle; the function found can be

data or instructions, or both. The photostore is mentioned here because of the ultimate influence such

devices could have on file organization. There may

be renewed interest with the announcement of

ITEK's version of the photostore: the Memory Centered Processor (MCP). ITEK's view is that the MCP

is eminently suitable for sorting, compiling, file conversion, typesetting, and a host of other applications beyond the usual table lookup and file search."

(Climenson, 1966, p. 112).

Present use of large-capacity associative memory

techniques, however, has been limited not only by

technological constraints but also by the even more

difficult problems of deciding, in advance, what as- sociations in a given body of data are most likely to be valuable for future processing service requests.

Similarly, there are questions of how to represent

efficiently the multiple cross-associations and inter- dependencies that may be identifiable. For example,

in a 1966 study, Dugan et al. conclude that considerations involving the interrelationships between

associative memories and general-purpose computers in various system configurations are the

most important from the standpoint of system

effectiveness.

15
Licklider has remarked that: "Associative, or content-addressable, memories are beginning to make their appearance in the computer technology.

The first generation is, of course, too small and too expensive for applications of the kind we are in- terested in here, but the basic schema seems highly

4. Mass Storagi

Turning next to very-large-capacity storage re- quirements, especially for permanent or archival

information storage (such as record files, document

collections, and libraries), we note the questions of

digital as against facsimile storage media and tech- niques, the problems of document miniaturization

or compacting of the document store, and the avail- ability of so-called random access devices and sys- tems. (The development of general purpose file management procedures and programs will be con- sidered in a later report in this series).

4.1. Digital vs. Facsimile Storage

In the general area of efficient and economical

storage, there is considerable continuing controversy

with respect to digital as against facsimile storage,

especially for documentary items to be maintained

in files, with various levels of possible compromise

also to be considered. There are, indeed, many considerations indicating that paper records, documents, and books will be always with us (the most

obvious form of facsimile storage being that of stor- ing the physical item itself), notwithstanding the

possibilities for future development of new forms

and media of information recording, publication, and

dissemination."*^

Furthermore, "the storage of the massive amounts

of lexical material in libraries in digital (machine

readable) form such as on the card catalogs, not to mention citations, abstracts, tables of contents or

full text, requires memories of a size and organization not being met elsewhere in the data-processing

industry." (King, 1965, p. 91). On the other hand,

however, it has also been suggested that "it will not be long before it will be cheaper to store english text

in the mass memory of a computer system than on paper in cabinet files." (Fano, 1967, p. 32). In general, there are both advantages and disadvantages

in the choice of either digitalized or facsimilereproducible storage for documentary items.

4.1.1. Facsimile Storage

Let us consider first the more conventional case

of facsimile storage which may consist of the storage

of one or more copies of the original record or document itself (e.g., carbon copies in correspondence

files or bound volumes of printed pages and books

on library shelves). Even in the most conventional

library case, however, critical system considerations may arise in terms of the questions of whether,

and when, to bind or to film."*^

relevant." (1965, p. 64). He adds a caveat, however,

as follows: "Only when the relative merits of var- ious associative-memory organizations are understood in relation to various information-handling

problems, we believe, should actual hardware memories be constructed." (p. 65).

Considerations

With respect to problems of document miniaturization for more compact facsimile-reproducible

storage, the solutions of preference, to date, are those

involving the use of microforms.^-^ The actual

microform used may be roll microform; ^-^ cassettes,

cartridges, or strips; microfilm aperture cards,^-^ or microfiche. "^-^ Beyond the conventional microform having typical

reduction ratios of 35-50 : 1 or less, a few systems

involve 100 : 1 or greater reduction ratios, but typically only for very large, and very expensive, experimental systems. ""-^ Other factors are technological

and involve, for example, the effects of size, contrast,

media, resolution and other factors on the usefulness

of microcopy, especially at high reduction ratios.^-* Another approach to document miniaturization

with facsimile image reproduction capabifities in- volves the use of video tape, but areas of continuing R&D concern are generally similar to those of the

photographic-media microform techniques. In addition, it appears that video tape has the disadvantage

of allowing only a hmited number of replays (on the

order of 100 or less). Continuing system design problems in the handling and use of conventional microforms include

questions of quality control of copy reproduction

through several generations from a master ^ ^ and of

aging and preservation, (Fig. 3) especially of rare or irreplaceable items.^ *" In general, system and cli- entele requirements continue to point to needs for higher quahty and higher resolution, with greater

accessibility and convenience of use, but at lower

overall costs both to the system management re- quirements and to the individual user.

It may be noted in passing that an earher claim for microform storage and retrieval advantages —

namely, the convenience of using integral index

techniques where content-indicating and other selection criteria codes are recorded physically adjacent

to the item image(s) and where matching of query

and item codes automatically triggers selection and

reproduction of the indicated images^"— is cur- rently somewhat out of favor. A major reason for this

is the developing sophistication of search strategy

and multiple index manipulation techniques which

may nevertheless be coupled with direct and auto- matic retrieval from microform files, but there are other reasons as well.'* '- An unusual example combining microform storage

of document identifications, citations, and abstracts

with coordinate indexing and Peek-a-boo type search

and retrieval techniques is provided in the Microcite

developments at the National Bureau of Standards.

16
Figure 3. Aging blemishes on microfilm.

Figure 4. Microcite equipment.

Peek-a-boo systems use term entry, aspect, or index

term cards to index literature for later search. That

is, coordinate locations on the card corresponding to document acquisition or identifier numbers are punched out as holes in just those index cards that represent the index terms applicable to that partic- ular document. In searching, the cards corresponding to the terms used in a query or search prescription

are superimposed and visually inspected for coincidences of punched-out holes. When such a coincidence exists, the document corresponding to the

hole position meets the parameters of the search.

The output of such systems is usually a list of the

document identification numbers, with a separate

retrieval operation being required to select the cor- responding documents from file, but the Microcite

equipment (shown in Fig. 4) provides means for display and output copy of abstracts of documents

17
or of other data. These abstracts or data are stored

as microimages on a film matrix. The location of

each indicated hit is used as the reference point

from which to position and project the image of each

abstract for visual inspection by the searcher.'* '-^ One major advantage of microform facsimile

storage is the relative ease with which copies of

information items of interest can be made available

to the individual at his desk.^-'^ Another advantage

beginning to be claimed for certain of the microform

media is that of erasability and therefore of at least limited potentials for updating, correction, or

re-use.*-^^ Among the media with this potential

capability are some of the photosensitive dyes and

thermoplastics.^- An important feature of photochromic techniques is the capabiUty provided for on-hne inspection and opportunity for limited cor- rection of errors.''- (These and other advanced

techniques for high density storage will be discussed

in more detail in the third report in this series).

Questions of standardization and avoidance of

duplication of effort are of concern to designers and

users of new or improved microform storage sys- tems. A significant advance toward systematic

efforts in greater cooperation and compatibility was

noted in the adoption, first by the U.S. Government,^-^^ and second by the United States American

Standards Institute, of microfiche standards.''-'^

It is to be noted that technological quality control

standards are also of importance (e.g., the NBS

Microcopy Resolution Test Chart, or line density

standards),^^" that the National Microfilm Association continues to be interested in a variety of

standards and standard specifications,''-'^^ and that "two of the three most important objectives of

standardization are already being realized, i.e., (1) recipients of microfiche from the four principal

report-producing agencies are able to interfile microfiche, and (2) users are able to use the same

equipment for viewing or otherwise processing such

microfiche." (Schwelling, 1966, p. 36^'^^). Avoidance of duplication of effort in the preparation and use of items stored in microform media

involves current awareness of both existing standards and of availability of microcopies of various

items in various forms.^-'-'^ The National Register

of Microform Masters, issued by the Library of Congress beginning in September 1965, provides a bibliographic record listing titles for which master

microcopies exist, thus serving to minimize duplications of microcopying operations.^ -- National and

international guides to the availability of microform

equipment provide additional sources of information.*-^ In terms of the conversion of hard copy to fac- simile storage media, one particular problem area

is that of the range of quality of source items for input to the microform store.*-* Another is the

question of satisfactory reproduction of multilevel gray scale and of color.*-^*^ Handling problems are

particularly severe in the case of microcopying from

bound books.* However, as examples of recent

developments, two models of portable cameras

introduced by Data Reproduction Systems in 1965

allow for placement directly over the pages of an opened bound volume,*^^ and competitive capabilities are claimed for a Houston Fearless microfiche camera-processor.*-^^ Page turners remain a problem. Questions remain as to the relative merits

of positive vs. negative images from the point of view

of the user.*--^** For archival storage, however, studies

at NBS have led to recommendations for storing

positive copies together with careful periodic in- spections of the filmed records (NBS Tech.

Note 261).

4.1.2. Document Store Compacting by Digital Storage

Techniques

As opposed to facsimile storage of documentary

items and other extensive record collections, document compacting may also be achieved by digitaliza- tion of the information contained in the original

item or record. The advantages of digital data

storage are several fold. First is the advantage of

direct accessibility. Accessibility to digitally stored

data by an on-line combination of search, retrieval,

and display techniques is an important new area of man-machine interaction, as noted in Section 2.2.1 of this report.

Significantly, direct accessibility to digitally

stored data can be provided both for machines and

for communication links without the need for manual

or manual-mechanical handling. This capability

leads to a second major advantage: that of manipulatability. Direct machine manipulation of

digitally stored data can provide for reformatting of the information stored, for re-orderings of the store

itself, for automatic transliterations, and for interconvertibility with respect to multiple modes of

input-output and data transmission. Machine

analyses of a wide variety of types and automatic

report generation techniques are directly available.*-29 A third advantage might be termed "re-computability", which could provide for encoding and

decoding of records and messages received (Schatz,

1967, p. 3), stored, retrieved, and re-transmitted.

This capability is also available for direct application

of error detection and error correction techniques,

for machine reconstruction and display of digitized

graphic images, and for image enhancement and

information enhancement operations such as the

cleaning-up of noise in a pattern recognition system,

the automatic correlation of synonyms occurring in

text, or the resolution of homographic ambiguity by

machine examination of contextual clues. (These

topics are discussed in other reports in this series).

Automatic machine control of the redundancy of

digitally stored information is also in prospect,

especially with respect to duplicate checking,

validation, and data correlation and consolidation.

Such operations may be directed first toward the

reduction of duphcation as between items stored and

with respect to the information contents of various

18
1 items. Secondly, such consolidation or correlation

i may be designed to provide for the validation and

verification of information contained in several

messages or items. A third purpose of data consolidation is to provide, through aggregation or

partial aggregation, protection of the identity of individual reporting units from unauthorized

disclosure.*-^^^

4.1.3. Combined Facsimile-Digital Storage

Since there are both advantages and disadvan-

' tages to either facsimile or digital storage, some

. ' information processing system design considerations

' involve various possible combinations of storage

media and retrieval techniques. The classic prece- dent is the Bush Rapid Selector, where the facsimile

image on microfilm is directly associated with a

digitally recorded selection-criteria encoding and

where machine matches of selection-criteria codes

in a query with those recorded for stored items

automatically trigger the reproduction of the

facsimile images of the selected items."*-^" In relatively small-scale and inexpensive systems,

a wide variety of digital codes (in edge-notching,'' -^' color coding,^-'*'^ and so forth) are used for "homing"

on subsets of items recorded for storage and re- trieval in facsimile form or for direct selection of the individual item itself. Similar techniques are employed in some of the more reoent large-scale

j microform retrieval systems, such as Magnavue

(to be discussed below).

Then it is to be noted that . . the photographic

i emulsion can also be used to store digital infor-

[

j mation. If this is done, a reel of film acquires all

I of the functional virtues of digital tape while avoidf ' ing its information storage limitations. Optical

f

J; means, such as flying spot scanner techniques, can

E

j be used to read the digital information at rates

P 1 which compare favorably with the electronic reading

of digital tape." (Condon, 1963, p. 137). An advanced

I technique involves laser recording of digitally

I [ encoded identification, content-indication, and other

i ' selection information on high resolution micro-

;. ' forms.''-^"' Another approach to multi-bit storage is that of

^ Lamberts and Higgins of Eastman Kodak who use

, the recording of diffraction grating patterns on high-

!

j resolution film involving composites of the grating

i'. patterns of seven spatial-frequency components of

a character. These investigators point out that this

1. I approach is closely' similar to that of holography:

' "In fact, it turns out that a composite grating is

i essentially a Fraunhofer-type hologram of a series

r of bright points." (Lamberts and Higgins, 1966,

p.

730).''-3'^- In general, however, advanced techniques for

truly high density storage, promising such possiIbilities as 13 million bits in a photochromic film memory plane two inches square (Reich and Dorion,

196.5), or Honeywell developments indicating

potential storage of "two million bits ... on a surface the size of a dime" (Commun. ACM 11, 66,

Jan. 1968) will be discussed in the next report in

this series, concerned with overall information

processing system design requirements.

4.2. Examples of Relatively Direct Access

File Storage and Retrieval Systems

The terminology "random access" as applied to mass data and file storage and retrieval techniques

is generally misleading. What is usually meant is that the access time to items or records wherever

located in the storage medium or device is approximately the same for all items and "very much

shorter than the initial access time of serial memories". (Lickhder, 1965, p. 16). Further, as Poland emphasizes, "only with direct-access, massstorage equipment can randomly related references

to data files be made in an economical and expeditious manner." (Poland, 1965, p. 249).

4.2.1. Retrieval and Reproduction of Microforms

A wide range of equipment is available for the

manual, semiautomatic, or automatic (e.g., computer-manipulated '^-) retrieval, re-enlargement,

display, and copy reproduction of conventional

microforms such as roll microfilm, microfilm strips

and microfilm aperture cards. In addition, systems

such as LODESTAR "^-^^ and other current developments involve the use of cartridges, cassettes, and

magazines to improve access. Relatively recent examples include the VSMF (Visual Search Microfilm Files) System of Information Handling Services,

Inc.,4-34 3M's Filmac 400,*35 and Recordak's

Miracode Microstrip Systems.^-^^ Other relatively

small-scale systems include Remstar,^-^^ the

Randomatic Data System's equipment for keyboarded indexing and retrieval of edge-notched

paper, plastic or film cards, the Randtriever

System, and Mosler Safe Company's

Selectriever.''^^ Examples of commercially available retrieval

devices for microfiche in particular include the

Houston Fearless Film CARD (Compact Automatic

Retrieval-Display) desktop reader, which provides

4-second (or less) random access to approximately

70,000 pages in any one of a number of inter- changeable magazines; the Itek 18.24 ReaderPrinter which handles aperture cards, roll film,

microfilm jackets, and microfiches up to 5" x

8" with selective masking, variable size print and high- contrast opaque or translucent copies (Systems 6,

No. 6, 39 (1965).), DuKane's desktop viewer for microfiche in various sizes also up to 5" x 8" at 15 X

magnification; Recordak FILMCARD readers; a desktop reader from Data Reproduction Systems;

the Microcard EL-4 Automatic Enlarger-Printer,

and others. Advanced or large-scale systems are also beginning to come into operation, at least on an experimental basis. Among these are the DARE (Documentation Automated Retrieval Equipment), the

Ampex Videofile system, the high-resolution Micro19
Vue, and SDC's Satire system. Thus, at the U.S. Army Missile Command, the DARE system utilizes Magnavox Magnavue equipment, under computer

control, for a large file of engineering drawings

recorded on film chips.^-^' Also under U.S. Army

sponsorship, at Huntsville, developments include

combined usage of Alden/Miracode techniques

with the semi-automatic generation of Miracode

film. The Videofilm techniques involve the storage,

retrieval, and reproduction of microforms in the

special sense of recordings on video tape. The initial videofile approaches to these techniques at Radio

Corporation of America have apparently been at least temporarily abandoned, because of probable

high costs, in favor of RACE, techniques involving

the use of relatively large-sized magnetic cards with

apertures for optical images.^^^ However, Ampex

has embarked on a program of development and

marketing of a somewhat more modest Videofile

system, including remote query capabilities.'*^^

The Micro-Vue system developed by the Republic

Aviation Division of Fairchild Hiller Corp., involves

reduction ratios up to 260:1, so that as many as 10,000 page images can be recorded on a single

4" X 5" microfiche. These "ultrafiches" can be

loaded into 20-chip holders with random access to any one of the 200,000 stored images in, at most,

30 seconds. (Systems 8, No. 1, 6 (Jan. 1967).)»«

Photochromic materials (as discussed elsewhere

in this series of reports) also promise high reduction ratios. For example, developments at NCR

include the recording of up to 3,000 microimages

on a single microform convenient for multiple distri- bution, i.e., as a microform publication medium.^ ''^^ Other experimental developments in microform

storage include work at Aeroflex Laboratories,*-*^

and further improvements in both photoplastic

recording and the Photocharge recording process

at CE.**"^ Then there are the successive Walnut,

Cypress, and 1350 systems developed by IBM,

although there is some doubt that any of these will continue to be available for graphic storage.**^

The IBM 1360, a film chip system discontinued after the delivery of two models to the Atomic Energy

Commission, was described by Kuehler and Kerby,

1966.* However, the high density photographic

storage technique has considerable promise for very large capacity digital data storage, to be

considered next.

4.2.2. Digital Data Storage Techniques

The media and methods available for digital data

storage include high-resolution photographic

materials, magnetic media, advanced developments

using laser recording techniques, and other special

materials and techniques. For high density digital

data storage, magnetic technique developments

include larger and higher-speed bulk core storage,

especially with new types of tiny cores;* *^ discs and

disc pack units with capacities ranging to billions of

bits of data and access times of 100 or less milli- seconds;*-^" drums,*-^^ and magnetic cards and

data cells.*-^^ Pyke summarizes the current situation with

respect to magnetic media as follows: "A large

effort is now being expended on the development of mass storage devices. Larger and faster bulk cores

are being designed. Drums operating with parallel

transfer and with logic for queuing access requests,

thus optimizing drum operation, are forthcoming.

Disk units with an individual head per track are becoming available and devices such as data cells promise many billions of bits of storage at a reasonable cost." (Pyke, 1967, p. 162).

From an applications standpoint, Bonn emphasizes

that "the currently used devices are drums, disk

files, magnetic card devices, and tape loop units. These machines all store large amounts of data,

from 6.5 million to 4.8 billion bits, on-line in one

device at any one time. Any of the stored information can be retrieved without reading the intervening data between two desired records. Any record can be written or modified without operation on any

other record. Records in mass storage devices can be updated in place." (Bonn, 1966, p. 1861). In the area of advanced developments for digital

data storage involving electron or laser beam recording onto photographic media, semiconductor films, or thin metallic foils, examples include the Dove

Data Storage and Retrieval System,*^^ IBM's

"trillion-bit" memory recently deUvered to the

Atomic Energy Commission,*-^* and the UNICON

technique developed by the Precision Instrument

Company.*^^ In addition, Kump and Chang (1966)

provide a discussion of a thermostrictive recording

technique for Permalloy films, achieved by the

application of local stresses induced by laser or electron beam, which is claimed to promise future mass memories with storage efficiencies of a million

bits per square inch.

Then we note, on the one hand, that portable

digital data storage modules are under development

that will enable interchangability on standard input/

output equipment, much as magnetic tapes reels are now handled,*-^^ and that, on the other hand,

"breakthroughs we seek in mass memory may come

from the molecular engineers, who can develop

improved materials with which we can fully exploit

the inertialess properties of light and electron beams

to write and read data bits closely approaching

molecular size." (Hoagland, 1965, p. 57).

5. Output and Post-Processing Requirements

Referring back to Figure 1, we see that system

outputs may occur directly (Box 5) or, in Box 14, as the result of file searches or as subjected to a

variety of post-processing operations (Box 13).

In Figure 5, we show some of the areas of continuing

R&D concern with respect to the output and postprocessing functions. It has been claimed that,

in general, too little attention has been given to 20
Reactive outputs

and displayMachine- aided

design techniques

5. Direct

Outputs

13. Post

Processing

Operations

14. Output

Formatting

Transliteration

Translation

Consolidation

Advanced Printing

developm ents Photocomposition

and Character

generation

Hard copy and

facsimile

reproduction

Multiple output

modes

Figure 5. Output and post-processing functions.

output requirements in information processing

system design.^ '^ Further, it is noted that "the

completeness, accuracy, and accessibility of system

outputs are each individually dependent upon

system design and can be improved through

improvement in system design." (Davis, 1967, p. 8). First, advanced developments of direct output

modes with interactive man-machine response may

be considered, especially with respect to graphic

displays, to applications such as computer-assisted

instruction and machine-aided design, and to prospects of color, three-dimensional and motion

picture outputs.

5.1. Direct Output and Display Applications

Direct output and display requirements for the

foreseeable future encompass a wide variety of

user-oriented capabilities, some of which are commercially available on at least a limited basis today

and some of which will require further research,

development, and production engineering. Application areas of current R&D concern include those

of computer-aided instruction, machine-aided

design, and machine-aided problem-solving systems.

For each of these purposes, if the computer out- puts are direct, they should in the first place be

responsive to the processing service requests, they

should be presentable in terms of legibility and

convenience, and they should be produced with

capabilities for on-line modification within a reasonable time scale. Bauer presents a concise statement

of a minimum of four capabilities that a responsive

display system should have in order to provide

assistance to the human partner in many manmachine interactive situations. They are:

"1. Correct an input

2. Accept a query or the specification of an

operation, then perform the required or desired operation which should provide the

proper information to the user necessary to accomplish the next step.

3. Accept and appropriately handle information

to enable the computer to interpret correctly

future information which it may receive from

the user, or

4. Direct, on a step by step basis, a procedure

for information input and output." (Bauer,

1965, pp. 17-18).

21
In addition, console capabilities for "soft" (or

transient) displays should provide flexible and con- venient editing and control facilities including

insertions, deletions, corrections, rearrangements,

scale-changing, size and rotational transformations,

automatic multiple copying, and the like. Still other uses of on-line reactive displays are for pur- poses of text editing, sorting, and printing as for example in programs under development at Bell

Laboratories (Mathews and Miller, 1965) and at the University of Pittsburgh. (Roudabush et al., 1965).'^^'' When such techniques are applied to a complete publication cycle, by feeding the corrected

tape products either off-line to automatic composing

machines or on-line to a computer typesetting pro- gram, the loop is closed from original data to finished

output product.

5.1.1. Graphic Output and Display

At least as early as 1953, a CRT display system was available on the lUiac.'' - Similarly, "Whirlwind

(at MIT) had a cathode ray tube and light pen in the early 1950's. A prototype of the APT system

(computer controlled machine tool) was programmed

on Whirlwind in 1955." (Wigington, 1966, p. 86). Reactive display for purposes of air traffic control

applications was investigated in the early 1950's

at the National Bureau of Standards. A combination

of the DYSEAC computer, special display equipment, control devices including a joystick serving a

light pen funtion, and a radar link to the Washington

National Airport provided the basis for on-line,

real-time experimentation. With actual radar data

being displayed on one scope, the operator was able

to indicate targets of special interest which should be

marked or brightened for him, and a second scope

displayed the results of computer predictions of expected positions of target aircraft within specified

time intervals. The same equipment could also be

used for problem-solving simulations, such as war

gaming.'^

By 1962, an advertisement asked, with appropriate

illustrations, "Would you believe a Calcomp plotter

and any computer can draw pictures like these in seconds? ... A perspective sketch of your new

plant. . . . Statistical trend charts . . . molecular

structure diagrams . . . apparel patterns, graded

for sizes . . . and even the Mona Lisa". (Commun.

ACM 10, A9 (1962).)

The development of full-scale graphical inputoutput communication and processing systems, with

particular emphasis on man-machine problemsolving is of course represented first by M.I.T.'s Sketchpad. This was publicly introduced at the 1963

Spring Joint Computer Conference where Coons

outlined the requirements for a computer-aided

design system; Ross and Rodriguez discussed

the theoretical foundations of such systems, with

emphasis upon appropriate languages and data

structures; Stotz described the man-machine

console facilities, specifically including the display

requirements; Sutherland outlined the Sketchpad

graphical communication system itself,^-^ and an

extension to three-dimensional drawing applications. Sketchpad III, was outlined by Johnson. The

latter investigator remarked: "General three- dimensional graphical communication, which deals

with arbitrary surfaces and space curve intersections, presents many difficult problems; the beginning has been modest and much work remains

before the complete graphical communication

problem is solved." (1963, p. 347).

Organizations neighboring M.I.T. have also been

engaged in the development and utilization of

graphic input-output equipment for man-machine

reactive display in problem-solving applications,

notably. Bolt, Beranek and Newman and the

MITRE Corporation.''** More recently, it is to be

noted that: "Computer-made maps presenting physical, economic and social data in easily understood

graphic form will be produced, along with similar

diagrams, charts and graphs, in a new Laboratory

for Computer Graphics at Harvard's Graduate

School of Design." (Commun. ACM 9, 310 (1966).)

Chasen and Seitz (1967) consider not only the early

sketchpad developments, but also those of

Lockheed-Georgia, IBM, Control Data Corporation,

and General Motors.'^ Other experimental on-line data analysis and

display systems include APEX at M.I.T.'s Lincoln

Laboratory (Forgie, 1965), and the similar capabilities of the SDC Variable Display system

(Schwartz et al., 1965) and its Graphic Tablet

Display.''^'' A West German example involves a Telefunken combination of a display console and

its TR-4 computer for air traffic control applications. (Stevens, 1968, p. 9) In this system, a manually

controlled moving ball permits the translation of displayed images and the multidirectional scanning

of different areas shown on the display scope. At

the National Bureau of Standards, developments in graphic input-output, such as ACCESS and MAGIC,

are designed for differing types of requirements in U.S. Government organizations.^-^

Then there is the time-sharing facility for experiments in man-machine interaction at the Computer

Center of the University of California, Berkeley,

which is described by Lichtenberger and Pirtle

(1965). In effect, the user has available to him a

Scientific Data Systems (SDS) 930 computer with

16,000 words of fast memory, modified to exclude

his direct access to input-output instructions (which,

instead, are carried out for him by the system executive) and by additional software-interpreted in- structions. Remote access facilities include tele- types, CRT display keyboards and a small DPP-5

processor equipped both with a CRT display unit and a RAND Tablet. In addition to the Digital Equipment Corporation's

graphic input/output equipment used in many of

the pioneering and continuing responsive-output

applications,^ '" a relatively wide variety of graphic

output and display devices is also offered by various

other suppliers. Examples include, but are obviously

22
not limited to Bell Laboratories' "Glance";^"

Benson-Lehner developments;^^- Bunker-Ramo

equipment: ^-'^ Datatronics Engineers, Inc.;^^^ Gerber Scientific Instrument Co.;^^^ Information

Displays, Inc.;^'^ Informatics' DOCUS (Display

Oriented Compiler L sage System) for the Rome Air

Development Center; ITT Federal Laboratories: ^ Minnesota Mining and Manufacturing

(^Q . 5.19 Philco; Sanders Associates: '^ -' Stromberg-Carlson (especially the SC-1100 Display

Inquiry Station and the SC-1200 Digital to Video

Display for computer applications involving multiple access to data at remote locations), and the Tasker

Instruments Corp.^-^- In general, as of 1967, the

majority of computer manufacturers also offer graphic input-output capabiUties via peripheral

equipment that can be connected on-line to the

central processing facihties. Obvious examples

include UNIVAC, IBM, Honeywell, Control Data,

and others.^ -^ Some of the new applications of user-controUed

graphic input and output devices include the on-line

alteration of a PERT (Program £'valuation and

/?eview Technique) network display to determine

the effects of setting different target dates; ^ -^ Control Data Corporation's computer-directed

construction drawing system involving long distance

telephone lines for transfer of problem and solution

data (Business Automation 12, Nq. 7, 55, July,

1965). and the Comex (Command Executor) system

which allows "several simulated commanders to use a subset of English to control the flight of simulated objects on the system's display console. Heading, course, range, altitude, velocity, and destination can each be controlled by English statements typed

into Comex on-line." (Schwartz et al., 1965, p. 29). Walter (1967) claims that "immediate application

of graphic data processing to solve a variety of

problems is both physically possible and eco- nomically desirable. Graphic data processing can be

effectively applied in mathematics, engineering,

banking, education, communications, medicine,

management information systems, programming,

and many other fields." (Walter, 1967, p. 107).

Similarly, Prince reports that "a number of industrial, government, and university laboratories are exploring various applications of graphical computer-aided design. Applications receiving primary

attention include the preparation of digital tapes for numerically controlled cutting tools, trajectory

studies, structural analysis, aircraft and automotive

shape design, shipbuilding, flight test data reduction, circuit analysis, and printed circuit board

layout. Most of these must be considered as experimental programs; only a very few are in a production status." (Prince, 1966, p. 1701).

Yet, there are many areas of continuing R&D

concern with respect to character sets and remote

terminal design (to be considered in the next report

in this series), hardware limitations, and human

engineering considerations.^ -^^ For example, Walter

of Honeywell, Inc. (1967) asks: "Can mathematical

techniques be used to improve the accuracy of a

computer graphic output device despite its hardware

limitations? This developmental research problem

involves discriminatory analysis, differential equations, and simulation." (p. 107).

Then we note that: "Davis has stated that because of the universality of pictures the 'improvement of display techniques has gone hand-in-hand

with man's progress in every field of human en- deavor.' Unfortunately, the road to good displays has

not been smooth. In her paper, which surveys the

history of displays, she points out how disorganized,

spasmodic and even serendipitous has been the

improvement in displays." (Davis, 1966, p. 236).

Mills reports that "a very thorough treatment of computer-driven displays and their use in manmachine interaction is given by Van Dam. This

paper — really a mongraph — includes a brief history, a thorough treatment of display technology at a very

satisfying level of technical thoroughness and depth,

and a survey of some of the applications of man- machine interactive systems involving display

terminal devices. Sixty bibliographic citations are included. This is one of the few papers to recognize

that imaging techniques other than those based on

cathode ray tubes may have an apphcation in graphic

terminal devices; some half-dozen non-CRT

techniques are mentioned. The communication

problems raised by moving the display terminal

to a remote location are not considered. Sutherland

treats the state of the art in computer graphics and

indicates some further requirements. The paper is not reaUy limited to the issues of computer graphics

but considers them within the context of manmachine coupling." (Mills, 1967, p. 231).

5.1.2. Machine-Aided Design

One of the most challenging areas of information

processing system output is unquestionably that of reactive display and response between man,

machine, and data banks in machine-aided design

applications.^"--^ Graphic input-output capabilities,

together with man-machine-interactive on-line

modifications, are essential to the machine-aided

design procedures. A pioneering type of application

to problems of hospital and architectural design,

discussed by Licklider and Clark (1962) several years before the General Motor's DAC (Design

Augmented by Computers) system's claim for a

"first", (as of Fall, 1964, see Hargraves et al.) has

had continuing development and expansion by Bolt,

Beranek and Newman personnel. (Fig. 6) The DAC

system, on the other hand, includes rapid-response

microfilming and microfilm re-display, also ev- idenced in such developments as an IBM graphic

data processing system ^-^^ and the D-200 equipment offered by Strand Division of Datatronics

Engineers, Inc.^-^^ There are a number of isolated, but intriguing,

examples of machine-aided design applications

ranging from the design of ships ^-^^ to the CADET

(Computer-^ ided /design fi'xperiment Translator)

system described by Lang et al. (1965), which has

23
WHAT TYPE GRAPH ? WHAT MODE ?

1 . TIME SERIES

2. HISTOGRAM

3. EAR GRAPH

1 . FREQUENCIES

2. PERCENT OF TOTAL

3. CUMULATIUE FREQ.

^. LINE GRAPH 4. CUMULATIUE PERCENT

T Y P E I N N U N E R A y

Figure 6. The "co-planner" outputs. 24

TYPE IN NUMERAL
been designed for such processing tasks as three- dimensional shape description and the development

of non-Hnear electronic circuit designs.^-^ Other

areas of applicability include aerospace research,^ '''' design of aircraft and automobiles,^-^' other archi- tectural developments ^-^'^ and civil engineering

and highway design, including the design of a super-highway interchange in a brief ten minutes by

an engineer using a remote communication Unk to MIT's MULTICS (Multiplexed /nformation and

Computing Service) system.'^-^'^ Machine-aided

design has also been extended to the fields of the

arts and crafts, notably in the area of textile

design.^-^- In addition, at the University of California at Santa Barbara there is the Culler-Fried system for "computer displaying and of transforming mathematical functions in their pathologic intervals"

(Cheydleur, 1965, p. 175) and Engelman states that "W. A. Martin . . . [is] working on input from scopes

achieved by signifying with a light pen an interesting

subexpression of a previously 'printed' expression,

as well as anticipating using the scopes for handwritten input".^^-^ Ruyle et al., provide a 1967

status report on systems developed for on-line mathematical problem-solving including AMTRAN,^-^^''

Culler-Fried,^^-'^ the Lincoln Reckoner,^''-''

IViAP,5 32e and MATHLAB.-32f The work at Hudson

Laboratories, Columbia University, is also to be

noted.-^-^-'* A general survey of computer applications to design of computers is provided by Breuer (1966),

who cites some 287 references. Also in the area of "shoes for the shoemaker's children", reactive

display and input devices are already being applied

to machine-aided programming, flowcharting and

system design operations.^•'^'^ It is noted also that Anderson has used an IBM 1620 together with a Calcomp digital incremental plotter to produce

annotated flow charts on line ^-^^ and commercial

packages for this purpose, such as AUTOFLOW,^^^

or Autodigrammer ^

•'^^^ are now available. Then it is claimed that Bell Lab's FLOWTRACE can produce

"flowcharts written in 'almost any' programming

language." (Sherman, 1966, p. 845). Other examples

include the IBM System/360 Flowchart ,^•35'' and

the Usercode Documentor and Flowlister,^-^^'^

while Abrams (1968) discusses a number of systems.-^-'^'^'' Developments have been reported in machineaided circuit analysis, schematic circuit design, and

system block diagram construction.^-''^ LeVier

(1965) describes a program for the circuit design of

a transistorized flip flop. Wall and Falk (1966)

describe an IBM program for electronic circuit analysis, and Shalla (1966) reports a mapping from

block diagrams of electronic digital circuits into list structures and the use of a list processing program

for the Control Data 3600 to carry out circuit

analysis. In particular, some examples of actual

hardware for an Argonne National Laboratory

computer were tested. Then there are the CIRCAL

(CIRCuit AnaLysis) programs available on the

Project MAC faciUties (Dertouzos, 1967). Ninke

(1965, p. 846) describes an IBM 7094 application in which "a system block diagram composed at the

console can be used as input to a special compiler,

the compiled program can be run and the results viewed at the console." However, "we are only

just beginning to explore systems where the computer asks questions of the programmer to resolve

ambiguities in what it is told." (Sutherland, 1965,

p. 11). Hardware, software, and systems planning considerations involving human engineering considerations and human behavioral factors, come especially

to the fore in experimental applications, such as the

following:

(1) "A few users have experienced the delight of

sketching and printing to the computer and

having it 'clean up the input' and then generate

labeled graphs and drawings in response . . ." (Licklider, 1965, p. 182).

(2) "In the study of computer-aided design . . . graphical communication should be a two-way

process, for the designer wishes to enter drawings of objects into the computer for analysis and likewise he wishes to see computer-generated or modified drawings."

(Langet al.,1965,p. 1).

(3) "The engineer must do more than use the

computer. He must actively participate in the

computer solution. To do this he needs a language to communicate with the computer,

physical accessibility to the computer, and a mechanism for obtaining engineering-oriented

results from the computer." (Roos, 1965,

p. 423).

(4) "We are therefore witnessing the first inroad

of machine assistance into the human decision areas of printing design. It is ironical that only a few years after printers and designers

threw up their hands in horror at the idea of

machines robbing them of their traditional

role in printing practice, we should see them

being actively taken back into a partnership

with the machine in which their specialised

talents are being very much enhanced by

machine assistance." (Duncan, 1967, pp. X—xi).

(5) "An engineer may, for example, substitute

different values of components in a circuit and

observe the effect in the form of a picture of

the output wave that would be produced by

the circuit in question under any combination

of conditions. He may also record the various

changes on microfilm and observe them later via a projection device at the same console.

He may magnify sections of a diagram for detailed study and manipulation, retaining the

ability to return the original picture to the screen at any time." (Silveira, 1965, p. 37).

25
Next, therefore, we may ask how conveniently the

potential system client may thus interact with the

machine.

What processing operations are automatically

available to the user as he watches and wishes to modify the data pertinent to his problem displayed

for him? In systems such as Sketchpad he may apply

scaling and rotational transformations of the image

displayed,^ 38 in CALCULAID^ or MAP* he may

call directly for regression or Fourier transform

operations,^-39 and, in general, he needs to be able

to request as directly as possible the performance of

a specified operation, a display of the consequences

of his proposed modifications, and the re-input of specifications of the next processing operations to be performed which he has determined on the basis

of the previous results.^"*" Finally we note that utilization of direct outputs,

whether by man or machine or by both, involves

also the possibility of reactive control and of in- terruptibility and re-direction of source data

automation, intermediate processing, intrapolation

and extrapolation of results. Feedback of various

types is an important concern.^"*"^ The problems of

man-machine interactive situations at the levels of

terminal design, user-oriented languages, human

engineering, and behavioral or attitudinal factors wiU thus require continuing R&D attention.^^"''

5.1.3. Computer-Assisted Instruction and ProblemSolving

The problems of computer-aided instruction

present, at least in the general literature surveyed,

somewhat less in the way of continuing R&D

implications than is the case for machine-aided

design or machine-aided inference. Nevertheless,

the field of CAI represents an important area of

development and application.^"*' In its computer

directory issue of June 1968, Computers and Auto- mation provides a roster of 40 CAI centers and

laboratories. Silvern and Silvern emphasize that: "CAI, computer-assisted instruction, developed

from dissatisfaction with simple text formats and

teaching machines which did Httle more than

automatically turn pages for the student. Early

investigators saw, in the digital computer's capability, the seeds of two-way, learner-machine

dialogues which would lead a student along a path

which more primitive methods failed to travel.

" (Silvern and Silvern, 1966, p. 57). ^-^'^ Examples of CAI systems include the PLATO

(Programmed Logic for /Automatic Teaching

Operations) system developed by the Coordinated

Science Laboratory of the University of Illinois,^-^^ the CLASS (Computer-Based Laboratory for^^utomated School Systems) facilities developed at System Development Corporation,-^ ''^ PLANIT

(Programming Language for /nteraction and Teach-

*See note 5.32a.

ijig)5A3a g^^^ Socratic System as described by

Muerzeig in 1965. IBM has developed the 1500

Instructional System '^^ and Engvold and Hughes

of IBM describe (1967) adaptation of the 7044

Graphic System to a teaching system which can be

interleaved with programming problems to be handled in a variety of languages at the display console.

Still other examples include the simulation by

students of experiments in chemical analysis ^-^^ and a Bolt, Beranek and Newman development

where the computer deliberately introduces ambiguities into an interactive system designed to teach medical diagnosis. (Science, Oct. 29, 1965,

pp. 572-576). Byproduct advantages of CAI tech- niques include automatic performance measure- ments of student progress.^'*^ Then it is pointed

out that "remote terminals used for CAI can also be used to provide instructions for leading the

student to appropriate supplementary material

stored on microform." (Burchinal, 1967, p. 4). Crowell and Traedge, 1967, provide a review and

bibliography of developments in computer-assisted

instruction. In addition, they suggest areas for continuing R&D efforts. They conclude, in particular, that "before assigning system functions to either man or computer . . . much research is needed in analyzing the decision-making process. When such information is added to our present

store of knowledge concerning man-machine factors,

greater efficiency in CAI systems will be realized."

(p. 423).

Other commentators similarly suggest that a

great deal of work remains to be done (Adams, 1966),

that, "without discredit to the good work now under

way, . . . the total level of the effort is unacceptably

small" (Mills, 1967, p. 237), and that "akhough

man-machine interaction may eventually revolutionize problem-solving, even the leaders in the

field are just taking their first hesitant steps into the

deep unknown of joint human-computer problemsolving techniques." (Davis, 1966, p. 243).

5.2. Multiple Output Modes

For information processing systems generally,

output, like input, should be available in a variety of modalities — visual, as in printing and in graphic

displays; voice and other audio signal outputs;

control signals, mechanical displacements of pointers and plotting devices, and the Hke. Output

results may be presented immediately to the operator or user, recorded photographically, or fed to various types of communication links, including

telephone, coaxial cable, and facsimile transmission

lines. Before discussing the more conventional forms

of output, such as the use of printers and plotters,

and hard copy requirements generally, let us consider in this section audio outputs; three-dimensional, color, and motion picture outputs, and some

examples of systems using various combinations of I output techniques. ! 26
5.2.1. Audio Outputs, Speech Synthesis and Speech

Compression

Unlike the problem of voice inputs, audio output

devices are already available, at least for somewhat

limited sets of response messages.^-^^^ Examples

are the IBM 7770 device with a fixed, pre-recorded

vocabulary of up to 128 response words and the

IBM 7772 audio unit which by vocoder techniques can generate several thousand distinct words (in one or more languages) ^-^^^ as auditory

outputs, the Cognitronic's Speechmaker ^-^^ an RCA unit designed for use with Spectra systems,^-^*'

developments by Burroughs.'-^"'^ equipment de- veloped by \^ estinghouse Electric for computerstudent communication at Stanford Lniversity,^-^'

and an early model developed at the Rome Air

Development Center.^-^'^ Application areas of interest range from direct

assistance not only to students ^ but also to practicing physicians:^ •^'^ to the systems developed for the New York Stock Exchange (Proctor. 1966). for banking operations.-^ and for engineering design

information recall at North American Aviation.'-^' Gentle suggests that "voice answerback systems

will increase in number as more computer manufacturers build the capabiUty into their equipment.

The increasing availabiUty of tone diahng telephones w ill also hasten the use of these systems because the use of the regular telephone for inquiry and voice

answerback permits almost anyone in any location

to use the service." (Gentle, 1965, p. 81)?-^°^ The closely related areas of speech synthesis and

vocoding techniques are also important w ith respect

to improved communication and processing systems

of the future because of the potentialities offered

for significant compression of speech signals to be

transmitted via various communication links. R&D objectives at the BeU Telephone Laboratories

and elsewhere are to reduce the typical bandwidth

of 78.000-56.000 bits per second for direct digital

encoding of analog speech signals to 2.400. 1.200

or even fewer bps. more closely approximating the

probable information content of digital speech

signals (i.e.. about 50 bits per second).^-^-^^ Examples of current and continuing R&D efforts

in the areas of speech synthesis and speech compression are to be found at the Royal Institute of Technology in Sweden,^-^^ at the University of Manchester. England:^-^''^ at M.I.T.,^-^' and at the

Haskins Laboratories.^-^* In aU of these cases, and

in other organizations as well, there is considerable R&D interest in the design of improved aids to the handicapped. For example, at R.I.T.. Risberg

has demonstrated speech analysis hardware with

rapid response displays of both spectrum and

frequencies so that the deaf child can see the results

of his attempts at speech, and can therefore make

instantaneous adjustments. At M.I.T., a recent example involves developments in reading aids

for the blind.-^ -^^ Similarly. Lee reports of a computer

speech generation technique designed for transliteration of connected speech as related to reading

machines for the blind. Problems of formant amplitudes in synthesis of

natural-sounding speech have been studied by Fant

and his associates.5-^^^- while Woodward has been

concerned with formant persistence and with

intonation.^-5^^^ AUen (1968) points to a number of R&D problems remaining in the area of the synthesis and output of connected speech. These

include problems of stress, punctuation and phrase

boundaries, intonation, and the hke.^-^"'' This

investigator is exploring a syntactic bracketing ap- proach to the solution of some of these problems.^^^'^ Becker and Poza (1968) are investigating natural

rather than synthetic speech for computer-controlled

output and are concerned with the significant reduction of storage requirements for natural speech

w^aveforms. More particularly, they are concerned

with dyads (that is. the last half of one sound and

the first half of a following sound). These dyads

may be manually inspected and marked out from

displays of typical speech segments and subsequently recombined to provide at least some of the

natural transitions of speech for large vocabularies,

but requiring only a relatively few number of dyads

to be stored (e.g.. 800 for monotonic and 8.500 for intonated speech).^-^^*^ In terms of audio output and speech synthesis,

Bhimani et al. (1966) stress the importance of

developing efficient means for automatic conversion

from the character sequences necessary for or- thographic representation of a word to the phonetic

equivalent of that w'ord.^-^^ Other examples in this area include the work of Rabiner ^-^^^ and that of

5.5Hg -pj^g converse of this problem, that of "spelled speech" is also being investigated. In the area of speech compression, in addition

to examples cited in an earlier report on information

acquisition, sensing, and input, the following is to be noted: "Although audio communications is a slow form of information exchange, advances have

been made in the production of audio tapes that permit more information to be recorded per unit of

time. The President's Committee on the Employment of the Handicapped, through the Division

of the Blind of the Library of Congress, is encouraging compressed speech research because it promises

to provide a method for recording two to three times

as much information per linear inch of tape without

distortion or loss of comprehension. Direct access

to stores of audio information in libraries offers inexpensive and practical method for updating

information frequently and distributing it to both

the sighted and the blind over estabhshed telephone

networks." (Becker. 1967, p. 8). Two final special cases of audio output should also be mentioned. They are those of the use of the

computer to produce musical tones ^-^"^ and of computer-assisted music research and composition.

In a recent review, Forte (1967) indicates the fol- lowing principal areas of interest: experiments in auditory perception, the study of musical "gram366-108 O - 70 - 3 27
mars" in order to produce "new" music in a

specified styple, music analysis as applied, for example, to pattern recognition procedures for the

determination of the style characteristics of a

particular composer or period, and the computer

development of original musical compositions.^ ''"'^ A

somewhat less exotic example is provided in ex- periments designed to use computer audio output

to teach correct pitch to singers.

A specific example of multiple input-output modes

as applied to music research is provided by Teitel- man as follows: "The standard teletype of the DEC

PDP-6 has been augmented by an 88 key piano

keyboard which is connected directly to the computer. Thus the user can play a melody, hear what it sounds like — as performed by the PDP-6 — and

also see the score displayed visually on the screen. He can then edit the score, using the Hght pen, the

teletype, or the piano keyboard, and hear it played

again. Programs are being written to allow the user

to request the computer to fill in harmony to a particular melody, or to construct variations on a theme and to play them back to the user." (Teitelman, 1966, pp. 16-17). Still other intriguing possibilities lie in the development of three-dimensional

data processing and display techniques, color, and

motion picture outputs, to be considered next.

5.2.2. Three-Dimensional, Color, and Motion Picture

Outputs

It is noted first that "motion pictures, 3D, and

multicolor displays via color separation represent

practical capabilities in addition to the more com- mon forms of plotting and printing." (Peterson,

1966, p. 131). Three-dimensional data processing,

manipulation and display is of considerable current

interest not only for machine-aided design purposes,^*''"^ but also for direct scientific and engineering findings. For example, a paper by Serhn

(1966) considers the use of three-dimensional computing and plotting techniques in terms of the partial differentail equations involved in the cooling of a

thick glass slab. Levinthal (1966) has developed techniques for sequential display of two-dimensional output images

in such way as to simulate the on-line presentation

of the three-dimensional model of a protein molecule. Again, a computer-display system may be

used in studies of human perception, such as perceptual masking phenomena in sequential

perception. (Mayzner and Tresselt, 1966). Tate

comments: "Understanding of three-dimensional

structure is an essential part of the growth of science. Greatly increased attention must be focused on developing the needed systems for storing the

data available in the literature and manipulating

the stereochemical details for study." (Tate, 1967,

p. 296).

Output representations of three-dimensional data

may be either mechanical, as in a spatial data

plotter,^ *^^ or they may be two-dimensional graphic

displays involving variable perspective views and

systematic rotation about an indicated axis.^^^ In i the latter case, there may be interesting require- i ments for handling problems of 'hidden lines'. ^-^^ The hidden line problem has been further attacked

by Loutrel (1967) and Appel (1966), among others.

| In addition, Appel (1968) has reported on techniques ' for machine-generated shading or toning of drawj ings.^-^*^ Perspective manipulations, shading, and

display also provide representations of the variable

depths of objects in space. ^-^^

ji Investigations into three-dimensional data dis- I plays include questions of applicability to air

traffic control operations,^-^^ to the possibility of |i creating half-tone, 3-D photographs of conceptual- I ized shapes and objects,''''*'^ to visual simula- i tions,^-^^'' and to the plotting of three-dimensional I contour maps of the moon's surface. ^•^'^ Denil

(1966) reports on the development of a design

language (DLI), which involves a prototype computer system to handle the design of three-dimensional objects. ^^^^ Beyond this, there are possi- ' bilities for n-dimensional display of hyperobjects.

In the latter case, the investigator concludes: "The i importance of the techniques presented ... is the use of a digital computer to generate visual displays i of the three-dimensional projections of the hyper- ^ objects. Such displays of rotating hyperobjects

could be produced most efficiently by a computer i since the projections and drawing would be too | tedious and impractical to produce by any other

method. Although no actual mental visualization of i the fourth dimension resulted from the computergenerated displays, it was at least possible to visually display the projections and be puzzled in attempting to imagine the rigid four-dimensional

hyperobjects." (Noll, 1967, p. 473). ^ As of several years ago, Rosa reported that ques- ' tions of color, three-dimensional data display, and ' size of display were matters of continuing controversy and concern. For effective radar and ' sonar screen displays, many different colors may be

required. On the other hand, as Hobbs points '

out, difficult design compromises may be required

to achieve good performance,^-^^^ and Baker and .. Rugari indicate that desired capabilities have yet

to be achieved. ^-^^"^ • A color display device, developed by the Digital > Equipment Corporation for the Air Force Cahibridge

Research Laboratories, uses a 3-gun tube to plot

designated points on a 512 x 512 raster. Mazzarese \ (1965) reports that: "Color has proven particularly

useful at AFCRL in filter design studies, which

require overlaying graphic information corresponding to different ways of manipulating raw data. Different colors can code different parameters, or varying intensities of one color can show the changes

with time of one value." '

Further, "the National Aeronautics and Space

Administration has awarded the Philco Corp., two i contracts to develop an experimental color tele- vision display system for possible use in the mission

control center of the Manned Spacecraft Center in 28
Houston." (Electronics 38, No. 18, 40 (1965).)

Mahan (1968) reports on developments at ITT,

Philco-Ford, General Electric, and Sylvania ^-^^ while Hartsuch (1968) mentions RCA and Crosfield

Electronics. ^^^'^ Then there are possibilities for hybrid displays,

such as the following: "One intriguing prospect is a hybrid display — a wall type panel made of solid

state materials that emit light when activated by

a light beam that is deflected electrically. Such a system would combine the advantages of the two

principal approaches to optoelectronic display: the

higher resolution and more modest switching requirements of light-beam 'writing', plus the multicolor

capability, higher reliability, brighter light and

lower power consumption of panel displays.

" (Soref and McMahon, 1965, pp. 56-57).

Knowlton (1964) describes an ingenious technique

for computer generation of animated movies, such

as those that might be desired for psychological

experiments or for expository educational films or

for visual display of computer processing results including the dynamic drawing of flow charts or wiring diagrams.^ "" Another example of motion picture output is cited

by Gomolak in connection with "electronic drafts- man" applications.^ More recently, at BeU Laboratories, animated movies have been machinegenerated with respect to the effects of different gyroscope constraints on satellites.' (NoU, 1966,

p. 143).^ Then there is the VISTA system (Visual

Information for Satellite Telemetry Analysis).^-^^''

It is to be noted with respect to three-dimensional

and dynamic displays that: "General three-dimensional graphical communication, which deals with

arbitrary surfaces and space curve intersections,

presents many difficult problems; the beginning has

been modest and much work remains before the

complete graphical communication problem is solved" (Johnson, 1963, p. 347), and that: "The

matter of three-dimensional displays is closely allied

to the problem of dynamic display and is still a matter of concern." (Rosa. 1965, p. 413).

5.2.3. Multi-media and Special Purpose Direct Outputs

In a 1967 lecture, Mayeda discusses as a new

objective of system design the development of multimedia networks, pointing out that, with the exception of certain military and intelligence applications,

most information processing systems have been

"single path", but that new network requirements

wiU necessitate the use of information processing

technologies in combination as well as the "mixing

of normally incompatible media into one information

transfer system." (p. 4).-^

''^ In addition to the varied combinations of textual,

visual, and audio output presentations stressed by

Mayeda (1967), a special purpose output mode may

be required, involving encoded tactile-pattern

messages. For example, equipment providing tactile means for the reception and perception of speech

dates back to the "Teletactor" developed by Gault

and Crane at the BeU Telephone Laboratories in 1928. Following the development of vocoder tech- niques (Dudley, 1936) a tactile output vocoder was

built by Levine and others at M.I.T., in the period

1949-1951.

A tactile vocoder at the Royal Institute of Technology is designed along lines that are similar to these earlier lines. First, it uses an amplifier to enhance the speech signal as it is received and then

passes it through a differentiator to provide highfrequency emphasis. The signal is next divided by means of overlapping filters into ten channels of

different center frequencies. The output signals

from each channel are rectified and smoothed to provide a control voltage. Next, in turn, each of the

ten control voltages modulates the amplitude of a 300-cycle per second sinusoidal signal. When these

signals have been amplified and adjusted for channel sensititivity, they are fed to ten bonetransducers serving as vibrators to stimulate the

tips of the user's fingers from left to right across both hands in the order of the lowest to the highest

channel. (See Pickett, 1963).

Then we note that: "Researchers at Stanford

Research Institute under Dr. James C. Bliss have

devised a 12 x 8 array of air jets which, under

control of a CDC 160-A, is capable of transmitting

a perceptible message." (Datamation 9, No. 11,

61 (1963).)

The potential multipHcity of different inputoutput modalities may be illustrated by two ex- amples. First, the future potentialities of manmachine interchanges between verbal and graphic

representations of chemical structure and other

diagrammatic information are just beginning to be

explored. Such possibilities are of considerable

interest in such areas of application interest as studies of interactions of chemical structures with

biological effects. Some of the possibilities may be

exemplified by the following case: Without having

undertaken a prior literature search, the researcher

has synthesized a new steroid compound in the

laboratory. He prepares a chemical code notation

and/or structure-connection-table listing as input.

As a result, he receives:

a. An indication as to whether or not his presumably "new" compound has been previously

reported in the literature and, if not, whether

it is possibly patentable.

b. A two- and preferably three-dimensional dis- play of the structure he has described. This

may or may not be over-written in terms of

coincidences with previously recorded infor- mation. By pointing at specific subsets of the

diagram, he will direct the system to retrieve

and report all available data with respect to observed physical characteristics and bio- logical effects of known compounds containing

this specified subset structure.

c. He may then add to or delete from listings of multiple-substituent possibiUties at variable

locations of attachment to the given nucleus.

29
and request display/report of the consequences

in terms of previously known results.

As a second example, a reading-machine system

under development at M.I.T., "will include an opaque scanner for the sensing of printed matter,

real-time data-processing facilities for real-time scan

control, for operating upon the data, for controlling

tactile and auditory displays, and for monitoring

and analyzing the performance of human subjects. In its most sophisticated mode of operation, the

system will recognize printed characters and generate artificial speech. A less sophisticated output

mode will utilize Braille for tactile sensing and

spelled speech for auditory reception. In its simplest

mode of operation, the system will simply reproduce,

as tactile patterns, the black-white shapes sensed

by the scanner, without automatic character recognition. Between the simplest and most sophisticated

modes, there lies a spectrum of intermediate modes."

(Quarterly Progress Report No. 80, Research

Laboratory for Electronics, M.I.T., 217-218 (1966).)

Then there are developments in what has been

termed an . . Interaction Screen". This may be

achieved by an electronic system "consisting of

five major components: two consoles, one for each

subject, through which, by operating dials and

switches, they interact with one another; an experi- menter's console for monitoring subjects' inter- action; a control unit for altering the response

possibilities open to the subjects; and a card punch

that records all interaction by both subjects."

(Sawyer and Friedell, 1965, p. 447). Beyond such

interaction capabilities, large scale and high reso- lution dynamic displays may be desired for group

interaction with processor systems. ^-^^

6. System Output to Microform and Hard Copy

In the preceding section, we have considered

direct output and display primarily as associated

with Box 5 of Figure 5. In fact, this arbitrary

association is indicative of some of the difficulties of presentation in this and other reports of this series, since in many cases the distinction between

these direct outputs and those outputs that follow

post-processing operations (Box 13) is entirely

artificial. (Certainly the question of a multiplicity

of output modalities and of multi-media output

presentations is at least as pertinent to Box 14 as it is to Box 5.) However, the intention in the preceding section was intended to emphasize the possibiHties of

direct, on-line interaction between the user and the

system. In particular, as previously noted, new

problem-solving capabilities are offered by advanced

information processing techniques, especially in the form of a two-way process of graphical input and

output and of effectually on-line communication

between the problem-solver and the machine so

that, at the man's own pace, he is able to study the

effects of modifications and changes by having the

results displayed to him almost instantaneously.-^-^*^

By way of contrast, in discussing the areas of

R&D concern with respect to Box 14 of Figure 5, we wiU consider those output techniques, media, and

products that may be produced either on-line or

off-line and that may often involve the use of various

intermediate media of storage and/or transfer. It is of course also arbitrary to consider the system out- put products of Box 14 prior to discussion of the

special post-processing operations (Box 13) that typically precede them (this is also true with many

if not all of the techniques and products considered

in association with Box 5). However, since postprocessing operations such as transHterations and

re-formatting are often closely dependent upon

choices of specific output modes, we have delib- erately deferred discussion until we have covered

some of the remaining output mode possibilities.

Thus, in this section, we shall be concerned with

computer-based microform recording and direct

output transmission, with printing, photocomposition, and character and symbol generation, and with

requirements for hard copy output.

6.1. Microform Recording and Direct

Output Transmission

As we have seen in consideration of file media and

data storage techniques (Section 4), there are both

advantages and disadvantages of either digitaUzation or of document miniaturization in facsimile

form for many different purposes. In many situa- tions a judicious mixture of the two approaches may

be the best solution.^ ' To the extent that document

or data miniaturization processes are adopted,

however, there are specific questions of direct

output, post-processing operations, and delayed or

off-line output. These questions include output

recording of processed material to microforms,

chentele requirments for hard copy, quality of

display and reproduction, output via transmission

fines in various communication systems, and on-fine

alteration of microform images.

An inportant recent trend in microform recording

has been an increased coupling of computer processing to either off-line or on-line outputs into one or more types of microforms. ^-^ In a 1965 survey, Kornblum predicted that microfilm, microfiche, and

microfilm aperature card techniques would have

increasingly more challenging applications, specifically including on-line tie-ins to computer systems

and to multiple-access data banks. He cited, in particular, the evaluations of the Micro-Data

Division of Bell and Howell and of NCR.*'-^ By 1967, it could be specifically suggested that: "The genuine advantages of microform computer

output indicate that all output, except possibly that 30
used for debugging purposes, should be converted

directly to some sort of microform, eliminating the

intermediate stage of hardcopy. Indeed, IBM's

listings of systems programs produced for its customer- and systems-engineers are stored on

microfiche. The ease and cost of getting hardcopy

when essential will naturally depend on progress in the microform reader/printer technology; the high

stakes involved in being able to handle computer

output should encourage such progress." (Van

Dam and Michener. 1967, p. 192).

Equipment such as the Stromberg-Carlson

SC 4020 microfilm plotter and later "Micromation" equipment (Kalagher. 1968. p. 37).6 « an IBM

system ^-^^ and the 3M Electron Beam Recorder ^-^ are commercially available for such purposes,

offering in the latter case speeds of up to 60,000

Unes per minute. At Bell Laboratories, such an

output mode has been available since 1961. and it now includes computer-generated movie capabilities. ^^'^ In addition, a package of FORTRAN

programs has been developed that provides for drawings of orthographic views of combinations of plane and quadric surfaces that are output to a microfilm recorder. (Weiss, 1966).

On-line modification of displayed microformrecorded graphic images is specifically included in many machine-aided design and machine-assisted

problem-solving applications, including the pre- viously mentioned DAC (Design Aligmented by

Computer) system,^-^ and others (see p. 23). A first factor involving the quality of display and

subsequent copy reproduction of materials proc- essed and stored as microforms involves the quahty

of the input material.*'-^^ A second factor involving

quahty of display and reproduction is that of proper

maintenance of equipment as well as of the

microforms themselves.

From a systems design point of view, however, the

most critical factors are those reflecting client willingness to accept and use the products and

processes of microform techniques. For example, it has been quite widely assumed for some years that the use of microforms for documentary and library

reference purposes is generally unacceptable to

scientific and technical users. With improvements

in the availability of microforms and in the tech- nology of use however, there is now evidence of growing acceptance and in some cases of certain

advantages to the user.^

" Nevertheless, the systems planner and designer

must still address himself to the questions of how

convenient, how compact, and how portable avail- able viewers having good quality legibility are? Can

hard copy, enlarged printouts be obtained either

directly or indirectly on a selective basis from such

devices or must there be resort to separate processes

involving other equipment? Further, it has been

noted that "the general problem of a satisfactory

hand-reader for microform stiU remains to be

solved." (Council on Library Resources, 1966, p. 52). Wooster. (1968) however, suggests a "cuddly"

microform reader, as shown in Fig. 7.

With respect to direct output transmission via various types of communication links, it is noted

that Long Distance Xerography techniques de- veloped by Xerox can be used for transmission of

graphic materials from computer-based stores,^ ''^ as can other types of scanning converters transmitting

to remote facsimile recorders.

A more recent Xerox development is the Graphic

Terminal Hardcopy Printer, used at the Bell Telephone Laboratories in conjunction with a computer-driven data display system. ^

'''^ A specialpurpose device, the Microteleviser, providing for the remote viewing and continuous focus magnification of microfilm images, was introduced by General

Precision, Inc., at the 1965 WESCON exhibition.

Output via closed-circuit TV systems is also presently Hmited primarily because of high costs

for use of coaxial cable transmission. However,

various trials of such systems have been and are being made — for example, the Council on Library

Resources has supported studies of the "Telereference" system involving closed-circuit TV and a remotely controlled card manipulator for multiple

external references to a library card catalog at a central location,^-^ a closed-circuit system has been

installed for the Lake County libraries so that the

common collection can be appropriately shared,^"*

and a laboratory use of such a link for graphical

presentations of computer output has been reported

by Neilsen.^-^^ In addition, Brookhaven National

Laboratory operates a network for video storage and

display at the local stations.

Examples of commercial developments include

Remstar, which couples closed circuit TV trans- mission with automatic records retreival equipment.^ Then, in Great Britain, a patent (No.

997,946) has been granted to Pye, Ltd., for a system

that converts normal high-speed TV signals into low speed signals generated with a slow scanning

speed and occupying a narrow bandwidth (see

Electronics Weekly, No. 258, for Aug. 11, 1965).

Dixon Industries, Inc., has developed a video sys- tem, VIDEO—IR, allowing remote transmission via

slow-scan methods over ordinary telephone Hues,

and offering a unitized tape record the size of a punched card to hold up to 150 pages, as well as tape reels. (Sci. Inf. Notes 7, No. 1, 2 (1965).)

6.2. Printing, Photocomposition and

Computer-Controlled Character and

Symbol Generation

The earliest and stiU most common form of output

of information processing system results is that of

typing or printing. In the past few years, increasingly

automated techniques have emerged for use in pubUcation and printing processes. These range

from use of direct computer printouts, using high

speed, but low quahty printers, through computergenerated tapes that drive automatic typesetting

operations to batteries of low speed composerprinter devices, to computer control of high-speed

31
32
composition systems that do provide output of good

typographic quaHty. There are obviously continuing

problems of advanced system design, in terms of appropriate comprises between speed and quality.^

6.2.1. Line Printers

In general, direct, on-line printouts from information processing systems are made at high speed,

but with monocase limitations.^'^ fixed inter- character and interword spacing, and poor utiliza- tion of paper.^ In the case of some chain printers,

such as the IBM 1403 '^^'^ and the Potter Chain

Printer.^ '^ somewhat larger character sets than the

single case set can be accommodated. Then it is to be noted that "'use of 2-case print mechanisms

on high-speed computer printers for the display

of extended chemical character sets has been under

joint development by IBM and Chemical Abstracts."

(Burger, 1964. p. 2). In addition, it should be noted that "printing

speed for these [chain] printers depends both on the

information to be printed and the character arrange- ment. Since most printing applications use some

characters more often than others it may be possible

to increase the printing speed by repeating high

usage characters on the chain more frequently

than low usage ones." (Eichelberger et al., 1968,

p. 130). Further, "given character usage statistics we can (1) reliably estimate printing speed for a given character chain arrangement and (2) improve

the arrangement so as to increase the average printing speed." (Ibid, p. 136).

There are continuing trends for higher and higher

speed of printer output, especially in the area of

non-impact printing devices, since, as Becker points

out, 1200 lines per minute is "about the maximum

speed of a line printer because there is a limit to the firing time available for mechanically operating

a print hammer." (Becker, 1967, p. 2).^ '" Advanced

hardware techniques for output printing include a thermal imprinting development by NCR for the U.S. Army Electronics Command.*"

In a brief 1965 survey of non-impact printers,

Webster notes first a facsimile process technique

which forms a latent character image on electro- conductive paper by pulsing selected wires in a matrix of styli. The visible image is formed by liquid or power toner that adheres only to the image area and is bonded by heat and/ or pressure. Representing

this approach today are small serial devices such as Motorola's TP-4000, and "high-volume printers

such as the Radiation 'Super-Speed' printer — over

31,000 lines per minute".

Planned variations in the TP-4000 teleprinter

equipment also illustrate new developments of

interest in the multiple access and man-machine

interactive systems. "This new teleprinter will . . . provide a single facility for the human operator to make inquiry of a computer at his maximum but

plodding rate of 10 to 15 characters per second, and

receive his answer back at a rate of 300 characters

per second." (De Paris. 1965. p. 49).^-'^ Another

example is the development of Miniaturized Techniques for Printing, or Miniprint, by NCR.^ '^'^ On

the other hand, higher speeds may result in the loss of visibility for the user of an on-line terminal.^ '*'' Nisenofif reports that, as of 1966, "several de- velopments were undertaken to produce ultra-highspeed printing mechanisms of a non-mechanical

nature. Radiation, Inc., for example, built an

electrostatic printer which required special electro- sensitive paper. With the paper moving at nearly

100 inches per second, a maximum printing rate of 60,000 characters per second (500 lines per second

or 30,000 lines per minute) was attained. The cost, however, was high for general use of this type of

subsystem." (Nisenoff, 1966, p. 1824)^'^'

6.2.2. Photocomposition and Electronic Character Generation Techniques

A major type of non-impact printing technique

is represented by the various types of photocomposition equipment. By contrast with impact printers,

with other types of non-impact printing, and with

hot-lead typecasting machines, the photocomposition techniques involve the transfer of optical

images of characters from a negative master to a photographic emulsion, with suitable provisions for illumination, image magnification or reduction, and

positioning. Many techniques and configurations of

mechanical, optical and electronic devices and de- velopments have been employed for such purposes.

Typographic quality output is achieved in photocomposition techniques by the automatic selection

of the right one of several sets of characters, by

point size adjustments for the individual character

including those necessary for subscripts and

superscripts.®-'*'^ by controlled positioning of the

character as projected, and by insertion of special

symbols and characters.® '^ The generation, accurate placement, and permanent storage of hundreds or thousands of high-quality

symbols per second presently require that opticalphotographic techniques be employed, since the

speeds are too great to permit mechanical symbol

selection. Photography on film or paper is the cur- rently preferred recording method, although other

graphic storage techniques, such as electrostatic,

thermographic, thermoplastic, photochromic or video signals on magnetic tape offer alternative

recording possibilities.® -" More than two decades of development in photocomposition techniques (from the Higgonet and

Moyroud "Lumitype" and "Photon" patent applications of 1945) have culminated as of today in a wide variety of available devices in a broad range

of costs and performance characteristics. At one

extreme, we find 6-10 character per second devices.

At the other end of the speed spectrum is the Benson

Lehner Transdata system with a theoretical text composing speed of 62,500 characters per second,

but with a character set (or "vocabulary") limited

to less than 100 characters or symbols. The inter- mediate speed range is bracketed by the Photon

33
900 series (300-500 cps) and the specified Linotron

rates of 1,000-10,000 cps. Hartsuch reports 1967

developments by Photon, Fairchild Graphic Equipment, American Type Founders, Alphanumeric Inc., Harris-Intertype, and K. S. Paul and Associates,

among others. Among the electronic character generation tech- niques noted in Webster's 1965 survey w^ere the A. B. Dick Videograph,^-^^ the Stromberg-Carlson

Charactron shaped-beam tube,^-^^ and "the . . . Httle-known Xeronic High-Speed Computer Output

Printer developed by Rank Data Systems Division

. . . Character formation is by a pair of cathode ray tubes which form the latent image on the charged

paper, which is developed by a continuous xero- graphic system. The 'form' repertoire is held on a

strip of film which is superimposed over the frame

of variable information." (Webster, 1965, p. 45). Character generation techniques for high quality as well as high speed composition are employed in the Linotron system,*'-^ in RCA developments,''-^

and in the Digiset equipment developed by Dr. Rudolf Hell.^-^^ An entry of Bell Laboratories is described by Mathews and Miller (1965) as having

the following graphic arts display characteristics:

"The unit can produce on a single scope face high

quality printing with as much as 200 lines of 350

letters each . . . at speeds of 500 to 5,000 characters/

second. . . . Since the image is described in complete generality digitally, line drawings, mathematical equations, musical scores, and an unlimited

number of type fonts can be produced by the same,

completely standard, means." (p. 397) More recent developments in high speed character generation for phototypesetting also include the IBM 2680 CRT

printer.^-^^^

6.2.3. Computer-Controlled Typographic Composition

Thus, in the past several years, three major, and

often closely interrelated, developments in hard

copy production technology have gained considerable momentum. These are: the development

of techniques for computer-based typesetting, in- cluding automatic justification and hyphenation;

the further improvement and widespread use of photocomposition techniques, and the development

of both off-line and on-line devices for high speed

character and symbol generation, including the recent breakthrough in "computer calligraphy",

notably, at the U.S. Naval Weapons Laboratory,

Dahlgren.6

The automation of the traditional compositor

functions is well on its way toward revolutionizing

the printing industry. Overviews of this field have

been provided by Barnett (1966), by publication of the Proceedings of the two Computer Typesetting

Conferences (the Institute of Printing, 1965, 1967),

and of a 1965 Symposium sponsored by the Center

for Technology and Administration of The American

University (Hattery and Bush [eds.], 1965), and by a Symposium held at the National Bureau of Standards (Lee and Worral [eds.], 1968), as well as by the

Stevens and Little review (1967).

It is to be noted in particular that "the Government Printing Office was instrumental in the de- velopment of computer programs and production

techniques which have made it possible to utilize the most recent developments in printing technology

and to apply automation to the publication of . . . [the] latest edition of the Library of Congress subject heading list. This is the largest single pubHcation which has been produced by the Government

Printing Office using computers and photo composition." (L.C. Info. Bull. 25, 612, 1966). Further,

there are even computer typesetting procedures

designed for publication of computer language

specifications, such as that developed for Autocode

AB, in Sweden, (von Sydow, 1967).

The field of typographic-quality composition and

printing actually comprises several quite different technologies. However, a number of these tech- niques may be made to converge in the design of a

single large-scale system. At one extreme, a skilled,

highly trained operator must perform all of the compositor functions (spacing, leading, horizontal and

vertical justification, hyphenation, page makeup)

required to operate typesetting equipment; at the

other extreme, text copy with or without font, style,

size, or format specification can be processed with a high degree of automation through all the operations

that are necessary to produce type or plates set for printing.

Among the pertinent technologies are: specialpurpose devices or computers to provide justification, re-spacing and hyphenation information

automatically; ^ photocomposition developments;

electronic character generation devices for both

on-line and off-line applications, and the programming of general-purpose computers to accomphsh

the type compositor functions.

Improvements in size of character repertoire and

provisions for rapid switching between character

sets under automatic control are under active de- velopment. Some systems incorporate possiblities for program-controlled, light-pen inserted, or reproduced-from-storage interpolations of graphic

material with text, ranging from formatting grids

and lines (in order to separate or to emphasize

tabular or columnar matter) to the incorporation of

reproduced photographs with half-tone fidelity.^-^®^

Other combinations may permit the intermixture or superpositioning of pre-recorded graphic information (including pictorial data) with that of text or graphics generated effectively on-line.^''^'' For

example, the new Photon 901 allows variable char- acter density, together with other improvements of the 900 (or Zip), and in addition provides for the

insertion of graphics from projected slides.^-^^'^ Going beyond the direct composition onto the

page of two-dimensional symbols, many apphcations

of the future will demand the automatic insertion

of previously stored graphic material such as drawings, illustrations and photographs and of

34
similar material received via communication means

such as facsimile. Actually, this type of sophisticated

output has been investigated in several quite early

projects,''-" and it has been claimed that "there

appears to be no real technical barrier to the simul- taneous or practically simultaneous compositionimposition of both text and graphics." (Duncan,

1964. p. 135).

The Linotrons and related equipment built for the Air Force wiU provide for the generation of

graphical material, such as line art illustrations,

continuous tone illustrations, and screened halftone

illustrations in a separate video display system, with

optical mixing of the lexical and graphical material.^ Beyond such questions are those of "Computer Calligraphy" (Hershey, 1967), including

problems of computer-controlled composition of chemical structure diagrams and mathematical

formulas, to be considered in a more general dis- cussion of character sets and display terminal

design requirements in a later report in this series. As of 1967, then, the computer has demonstrated

capabilities for ehminating the need for complex

compositor skiUs on the part of keyboard operators,

for providing significant increases in the speed with

which type composition functions may be carried

out, and for keeping pace with those developments

in electronic photocomposers that promise graphic

arts quahty typesetting at speeds of several thousand characters per second and the superimposition

of line art, screened halftones, and continuous

tone illustrations.

6.3. Hard Copy Reproduction

It is obvious that direct printout, delayed printout,

photocomposition, and symbol and character generation techniques can provide the typical system

client with hard-copy versions of the information

processed by a system or contained in or retrieved

from its files. In other cases, however, the primary

system output (whether in Box 5 or Box 14 of

Figure 3) is some type of visual display of complete

items or their surrogate representations which the user scans. Such displays may also be accompanied

by address-locators such that the item in its entirety

may be retrieved or reproduced in facsimile from

its location in physical storage. In addition, the

option of hard-copy or facsimile reproduction may

often be desired from the system response and

display as such.^ -^^ In particular, the provision of hard-copy retrieval options is important in most information selection

and retrieval systems involving storage of documents and data in microforms. While some controversy exists with respect to the extent and

urgency of client requirements, user satisfaction

considerations would appear to dictate continuing

agreement with such commentators as Mikhailov of

VINITI in 1962, "the production of a large number

of copies directly from microfilm must be made

possible . . ." (1962, p. 51) and of Licklider with

respect to an on-line system of the future: "There

should be a way to capture any frame of the display

in the form of 'hard copy', and the hard copy should

be coded automatically for machine fifing, retrieval,

and redisplay." (1965, p. 94). It is, however, important to determine the extent to which hard copy

options are actually needed, rather than merely

desirable.^-" In terms of technological developments related to hard-copy output options we note various types of

electrostatic, magnetic, and smoke photographic

methods."^" We note further that RADC has

awarded Xerox Corp., a contract to build a selective photocopier that will separate printed text from

illustrative and pictorial material.^^^ Another

example is the Bolt, Beranek and Newman

"Symbiont", a computer program system designed

to facihtate the use of technical documents by

students that includes an automatic note-taking and

copy feature for student-selected portions of text (Bobrow et al., 1966). Thus, photocopying techniques

continue to be an important means of system

response. However, such techniques are encountering steadily increasing difficulties in terms of coping

with the steady growth in volume of demand. There

have been complaints, moreover, that continuing

development efforts are required in the conversion

of microfilm to hard copy, particularly in the areas

of speeding up the processes and reducing the

cost of copies.^-^'^

6.4. Post-Processing Operations and Special

Forms of Output

In the case of computer typesetting, photocomposition, and character generation techniques, the

post-processing operations of Box 13, Figure 3, are represented first by formatting processes to provide

horizontal and vertical justification, hyphenation,

and the Hke.

On-line formatting in terms of output through

either computer-printer or computer-controlled

typesetting devices is typically limited to intra-line and interlinear spacing control. As we have seen,

controlled variation of printing weight may also be

available through repetitive overprinting of the same character in the same spatial position on the

output media (e.g., special chain-printer arrange- ments). In certain ingenious applications even so Umited a device as the high-speed line printer has

been used to simulate gray-scale variation in two- dimensional graphic representations by choice of

heavily "inked" character symbols to fill in darker

areas and those characters involving relatively less weight for the lighter areas. With the introduction

of electronic generation and display techniques,

however, on-line formatting potentialities take on much more versatility.

Other than for formatted printout, output response

may be required at several different levels. Post- processing operations will thus involve re-arrange- ment, re-formatting and transliteration or translation

of the direct results of processing, matching, selection, and/or retrieval operations into forms and into 35
languages required for subsequent presentation,

transmission, and use to the system clientele.^-'^^'' For example. Press and Rogers describe TRACE,

which "is a program with extensive capability to

edit, reconfigure, and display multivariate data."

(Press and Rogers, 1967, p. 37)^^''

In such post-processing operations, for another

example, we note a speech recognition requirement:

"The speech-recognition device, after having identified phonetic stretches on the basis of their

perceptual characterisitics, must transform them

into strings of linguistic signs . . (Garvin, 1963,

p. 113). As we have seen in an earfier report,

speech compression requirements are directly

related to problems of achieving more efficient and more economical use of communication and data

transmission links. Postprocessing operations may also be applied

in order to provide special forms of output that are dictated for particular potential appfications;

transliteration into Braille,^-^^ into synthetic or pre- recorded spoken messages, and translation from

orthographic word records into phonemic form,*'-^'^ for example. Nelson (1965) suggests a relatively

simple device for coupling blind users to on-line

text libraries via a Braille display.

Another special form of output for the handicapped is to produce from information processing

equipment apphed to speech analysis rapid displays

of both spectrum and frequency analyses so that a totally deaf child can see the results of his attempts

to speak and compare them with desired per- formance in order to make rapid adjustments.'''-^'*

"Spelled speech" is another output variant that is

intended to be used in connection with the development of reading aids for the bUnd.^-^^ Post-processing operations will also include, as appropriate, various summarizations and condensations of the information that has been processed or

retrieved. For example: "Large-scale data-processing systems have been planned in which the input

is in the form of on-the-spot observations in special

formats. Retrieval is then required, not just of the

observations themselves, but of [inferences] from

them, through conditional search, summing, averaging, correlating, finding maxima, reporting sudden

changes of state, etc." (Bohnert, 1963, p. 155). Yet, as of today "too many systems are designed

to display all the data, and not to display only the

data needed for the decisions the system is called

upon to make." (Fubini, 1964, p. 2). Finally we note that system outputs based upon

post-processing operations will potentially involve

feedback information, such as activity analysis, or the following: "A programming capability is to be

provided which, when initiated, will tally the number

of requests for specified combinations of data

items thereby enabling analysis by operating personnel, leading to refinement of the output formats and

output request procedures through experience with

the system." (Geddes et al., 1963, p. 23). In particular, output becomes input again in many of the

advanced techniques that have been investigated

and demonstrated. More expecially, feedback in- formation, whether generated by man or by machine,

may control various "threshold" settings as shown in Figure 1 and other figures in this and other reports

in the series.

7. System Use and Evaluation

With respect to Box 15 of Figure 3, that of use and

evaluation of information processing system

products, we will consider many of the current problems and difficulties in more detail in another

report in connection with the severe case of evaluation of information storage, selection, and retrieval (ISSR) systems. However, we note here a few

examples of current concern with problems of

systems evaluation methodology generally.

Basic problems of evaluation methodology relate

first to the size, complexity, and open-endedness of

the systems themselves; the number of inter- dependent variables; the difficulties of defining and

isolating variables, and the amount of data to be

collected and processed.'^-' In particular, it is noted that: "Information collected about a very

large system may become obsolete faster than it can be collected." (McCarn, 1965, p. 95).

It also still appears obvious, as of 1967, that "comparison and evaluation of systems are still very hazardous, because of the many variables that enter into the design of any particular system and

the fact that the design of any system is decided

to some extent on specific objectives and somewhat

unique combinations of objectives. It is doubtful

that the comparative tests that have been made or

that are planned can decide the relative merits

of systems for general application. They can only

help to decide on the merits of certain particular

systems for certain particular applications. Hence

there is real danger in drawing general conclusions

from experience that is as yet too limited." (Lee and

Campbell, 1959, p. 1555).

Current techniques for system evaluation pose

many difficult problems and have been severely

criticised as to their present inadequacies. For

example, to Bryant's complaints about 'lack of well-defined objectives' and 'lack of meaningful

models', (1966, presented in 1964) Davis adds the

following difficulties: "Uncertainty concerning measures of effectiveness", those of determining

system scope, and lack of quantitative evaluation

criteria, as well as those of security or proprietary

interests and those where disinterest in evaluation

results because there are no obvious penalties for poor system design. (Davis, 1965, p. 81). An obviously difficult problem is that of identifying

meaningful evaluation criteria.'' - Even with obvious

36
objective system performance criteria, such as

cost, equipment reliability, or response time, many

practical difficulties are encountered. Both true

costs and true benefits are often difficult or even

impossible to measure. True costs, for example,

certainly include those of the personal time and

effort required of the potential user, while true

benefits may be intangible, for example, in the sense

of the negative benefits of not missing pertinent

information.

The questions of cHent-utilization of system products, with special attention to the interrelated problems of system evaluation, are of particular concern. We are faced, first of aU, with the lack of quantitative measures of effectiveness, with subjectively

rather than objectively determined performance

factors, and with a variety of uncontrolled variables

involving human factors." Research and development requirements in the area of system evaluation involve the establishment

of research corpora, "core" problems, and "test- bed" data banks against which comparative experiments may be run. Better system models and more

precisely selected and defined measures of perform- ance effectiveness are obviously required. Morey

and Yntema emphasize that: "As the economic and

operational implications of man-computer systems

loom larger, the need for more powerful evaluation

tools and techniques increases. System testing, as the prime source of data upon which any evaluation

is based, shares this need for improved methodology." (Morey and Yntema, 1965, p. 349).

We need both better measures of system effec- tiveness and the development of "core" or "benchmark" problems for purposes of test. As Davis

comments: "Measures of effectiveness and use of

test problems are complementary rather than being

substitutes one-for-the-other. Test problems, simulating the actual system usage, will show up system

defects not detectable through the application of measures of effectiveness." (Davis, 1965, p. 82). Nevertheless, it is to be emphasized that "unfortunately, no real guidehnes are available which

could be used in the design of evaluation procedures,

and most of the methods actually proposed are based on ad hoc rules which stress theoretically

desirable features, and do not concern themselves

with practical questions. As a result, much of the

proposed methodology cannot, in fact, be implemented reasonably in a test situation." (Salton,

1965, p. 201).

Even more discouraging, perhaps, is the opinion

of some investigators that the development of

evaluation methodology itself is even less advanced

than that of system analysis and testing. Thus,

"one can raise reasonable doubts, however, that the

development of evaluation methodology has kept

pace with the development of the systems." (Morey

and Yntema, 1965, p. 349). Further, "progress in designing and applying information handhng sys- tems has outraced progress in evaluating their

performance. As system complexity has increased,

the relative adequacy of existing evaluation tools has decreased." (Calingaert, 1967, p. 12). We may also concur with the opinion of Blunt

that "the system engineer presently lacks sufficient tools to efficiently design, modify or evaluate complex information systems." (Blunt, 1965, p. 69). Several of the new tools that are being developed

include formal modeUing and simulation techniques,

but we shall discuss these in terms of overall system

design questions, to be considered in the next report

in this series.

8. Conclusion

In this second report, a number of developments

have been adduced, and a number of areas of continuing R&D concern have been indicated, with

respect to processing operations, processor system

management, storage, postprocessing operations,

and on-line and off-line outputs from generalized

information systems. As we have seen, for example,

output products involving graphic two-dimensional

or three-dimensional and voice response representations of stored data are relatively new but are of

increasing importance in on-line, reactive, selection

and retrieval systems and, in particular, for systems

oriented toward machine-aided design applications.

Two-dimensional data outputs are already widely

available both in the form of facsimile and TV

recordings and transmissions and in the form of

dynamic, on-line displays, but these are all areas

requiring extensive further efforts and developments

aimed, in particular, at lower cost. With respect to hardware requirements alone, Hobbs in his 1966

predictions of hardware developments for the 1970's

recapitulates many of the areas of hardware R&D

concern that have been indicated in various sections

of this report. In particular, he points to the following

major problem areas:

"Low-cost, large capacity, alterable on-line

storage.

Low-cost, reliable input/output equipment.

Proper selection and organization of storage

hierarchies.

Low-cost inquiry/display consoles for man- machine interaction.

Dynamic real-time large-screen displays.

System design and application concepts that minimize input/output operations at the ex- pense of more internal logic and memory.

Improved concepts of increased functional

modularity to utilize large interconnected

circuit arrays. 37
Improved automatic fault isolation and maintainability.

Economic associative memories or other hard- ware techniques to facilitate file access by

content. Protection of data base in multi-computer,

multi-user systems with many remote users. Communications between remote user consoles

and the processor, between different processors, and between remote processors and

the data base." (Hobbs, 1966, p. 44).

Other considerations, such as those of programming and other software requirements, are also of obvious concern. In many cases, however, such

considerations relate to the many interrelated

functions of a generalized system and not merely,

for example, to input rather than output or vice

versa. For these reasons, we will consider overall system design requirements (including problems

of system and network design, programming

languages and related software developments,

advanced hardware technologies, and the like), in a third report in this series.

38
Appendix A. Background Notes on Research and Development

Requirements in Information Processing, Storage, and Output

In this Appendix we present further discussion

and background material intended to highhght

currently identifiable research and development

requirements in the broad field of the computer

and information sciences, with emphasis upon

processing, storage, and output functions of information processing systems. A number of illustra- tive examples, pertinent quotations from the

literature, and references to current R and D efforts have been assembled. These background notes have

been referenced, as appropriate, in the summary

text.

1. Introduction

1.1 There are certain obvious difficulties with

respect to the organization of material for a series of reports on research and development requirements in the computer and information sciences and

technologies. These problems stem from the overlaps between functional areas in which manmachine interactions of both communication and

control are sought; the techniques, tools, and

instrumentation available to achieve such inter- actions, and the wide variety of application areas

involved.

The material that has been collected and re- viewed to date is so multifaceted and so extensive

as to require organization into reasonably tractable

(but arbitrary) subdivisions. For example, the present report is concerned with problems of management of multiple access systems in terms of processing system service requests, among other

topics, but questions of programming languages and

other overall system design considerations will be

discussed in a separate report.

Other topics to be covered in separate reports in

this series will include specific problems of information storage, selection and retrieval systems and

the questions of maintaining the integrity of privileged files (i.e., some of the background considerations with respect to the issues of privacy,

confidentiality and/or security in the case of

multiply-accessed, machine-based files, data banks,

and computer-communication networks).

In general, the plan of attack in each individual

report in the series will be to outline in relatively short discursive text the topics of concern, sup- plemented by background notes and quotations and

by an appendix giving the bibliographic citations of quoted references. It is planned, however, that there

will be a comprehensive summary, bibliography, and

index for the series as a whole.

Since problems of organization, terminology, and

coverage have aU been difficult in the preparation of

this series of reports, certain disclaimers and

observations with respect to the purpose and scope

of this report, its necessary selectivity, and the

problems of organization and emphasis are to be

noted. Obviously, the reviewer's interests and

limitations will emerge at least indirectly in terms

of the selectivity that has been applied. In general, controversial opinions expressed or implied in any of the reports in this series are the

sole responsibility of the author(s) of that report and

are not intended in any way to represent the official policies of the Center for Computer Sciences and

Technology, the National Bureau of Standards,

or the Department of Commerce. However, every

effort has been made to buttress potentially controversial statements or imphcations either with direct

quotations or with illustrative examples from the

pertinent literature in the field. The author of the present report must apologize

for a necessary selectivity and for many inadvertent

omissions in coverage. It will be appreciated if specific omissions are called to our attention. It is to be noted that neither inclusion nor citation is in- tended in any way to represent an endorsement of

any specific commercially available device or sys- tem, of any particular investigator's results with

respect to those of others, or of named project

objectives. Conversely, omissions are in no sense intended to imply adverse evaluations of products,

media, equipment, systems, project goals and

project results, or of bibliographic references not included.

There will be quite obvious objections to this necessary selectivity from readers who are also R&D workers in the fields involved as to the repre- sentativeness of cited contributions from their own

work or that of others. Such criticisms are almost

inevitable. Nevertheless, these reports are not intended to be state-of-the-art reviews as such, but

rather they are intended to provide provocative

suggestions for further R&D efforts. Selectivity

must also relate to a necessarily arbitrary cut-off date in terms of the literature covered.

39
These reports, subject to the foregoing caveats, are offered as possible contributions to the understanding of the general state of the art, especially

with respect to long-range research possibilities in a variety of disciplines that are potentially applicable

to information processing problems. The reports

are therefore directed to a varied audience among

whom are those who plan, conduct, and support

research in these varied disciphnes. They are also addressed to appHcations specialists who may hope

eventually to profit from the results of current research efforts. Inevitably, there must be some

repetitions of the obvious or over-simplifications of

certain topics for some readers, and there must also be some too brief or inadequately explained discussions of other topics for these and other readers.

What is at best tutorial for one may be difficult for another to follow. It is hoped, however, that the notes and bibliographic citations will provide

sufficient clues for further follow-up as desired.

1.2 Certain features of the information flow and

process schema of Figure 1 are to be noted. It is assumed, first, that the generalized information

processing system should provide for automatic

access from and to many users at many locations.

This implies multiple inputs in parallel, system

interruptibility. and interlacings of computer pro- grams. It is assumed, further, that the overall scheme involves hierarchies of systems, devices,

and procedures; that processing involves muhi-step

operations, and that multi-mode operation is possible, depending on job requirements, prior or tentative results, accessibihty, costs, and the like.

It should be noted, next, that techniques suggested

for a specific system may apply to more than one

operational box or function shown in the generaHzed

diagram of Figure 1. Similarly, in a specific system,

the various operations or processes may occur in different sequences (including iterations) and

several different ones may be combined in various

ways. Thus, for example, questions of remote

console design may affect original item input, input

of processing service requests, output, and entry of

feedback information from the user or the system

chent. The specific solutions adopted may be

implemented in each of these operational areas, or combined into one, e.g., by requiring all inputs and

outputs to flow through the same hardware.

2. Processor System Considerations

2.1 "Besides being useful to individual users who wish to borrow each other's routines, a sharing

mechanism is also useful to a group of users who

wish to reference certain segments in common.

Such segments might be a set of library routines, or a set of procedures making up a programming

language system." (Dennis and Van Horn, 1965,

p. 31). "With such a mechanism [common programsegment use], it is fruitful if the scheduHng logic clusters 'like' programs in the schedule or queue

and thereby amortizes program-code swap time

across many users." (Schwartz et al., 1965, p. 20). "There are various means of achieving a timeshared system, and the distinctions among them are sometimes quite fuzzy. Clouding the picture even more is the tendency evident in the literature to couple the goal of 'intimate' man-machine communication to one method for achieving timesharing and then implicitly to associate timesharing solely with this one method. For example,

'time-slicing', or the assignment of particular

segments of time to a given user or problem on a

repetitive basis, is a form of time-sharing. 'Dedicated

time' modes of operation, where a user is guaranteed

a certain percentage of the computer's time in a given period, could be construed as another form.

A number of users have indicated that they feel the

strongest 'interaction' with the computer when the

system operates in the dedicated time mode."

(Davis, 1966, p. 224.)

"Time-sharing typically means expense-sharing

among a large number of subscribers, with reduced

computing costs for many kinds of applications."

(Sackman, 1968, p. 1).

"One could say that time-sharing is the use of a multiprogrammed processor for the purpose of

permitting a number of users to operate the proc- essor in such a way that each is unaware of the use

of the processor by the others." (CoUila, 1966, p. 51). "We may, therefore, expect to see in the next few

years a meld of time sharing and multiprocessing,

i.e., simultaneous employment of two or more

time-shared processors in association with a com- mon memory, which in a sense wiU be both timeshared and space-shared." (Licklider, 1965, p. 26.) "By the spring of 1967 . . . there were some 37

systems in operation, 25 research-oriented and 12 commercial systems. These vary from small to large but all are characterized by a central computer

and main memory that are time-shared among the

users, and an auxiliary storage that is space-shared

by the programs of aU the users and the systems

programs." (Harder, 1968, pp. 235-236).

Weil (1966) provides general coverage of the his- tory and probable impact of time-sharing concepts

and systems on the management of data processing

operations.

2.1a See, for example, the bibliography compiled

by BeU and Pirtle, 1966.

2.2 Opler points out that such applications "may

require considerable queuing of elements and the

development of complex priority assignment and

recognition schemes. This too produces new

problems for both language and processor designers." (1966, p. 197). 2.3 A provocative comment with respect to flexible system design to meet varying client re- quirements is that of Greenberger: "The average

user should not have to carry water to the faucet

40
in his own buckets, one at a time. The system should

provide a continuous supply for him, with the hot,

cold, and lemonade taps all within easy reach."

(Greenberger, 1965, p. 34.)

See also Orchard-Hays, who comments: "The

value of an efficient and flexible system is not that it saves a little machine time. Rather, its value is that

it allows us to make mistakes cheaply and thus to gain more experience in shorter time and with less expenditure." (Orchard-Hays, 1965. p. 242.) 2.4 In particular, it should be recognized as predicted by Bauer that if, as of 1965, "on-line

computing probably represents 1 per cent of the

total computer activity in the country today. It wiU

probably represent 50 per cent in five years." (p. 14). 2.4a "We must realize always that a penalty or a

price is extracted for each increment of increased

human efficiency; more computer time, more complex computers, greater input/output equipment,

and increased console costs. The tradeoffs undoubtedly favor ever increasing on-line capability.

However, no system design should occur without

recognition of the prices demanded." (Bauer, 1965,

p. 18). 2.5 "In a cooperative input transcription

project, the basic transcription into machinable

form for each report or document will include:

authors' names, title, all identifying numbers and

dates, name of issuing agency (at- all divisional

levels), any other identifying text, and an abstract

of the contents of the document. Additional material

which may optionally be added is pagination, text excerpts, descriptors, classification signs, or other

index terms added at the point of transcription. . . . "The transcription — instead of being done at each and every retrieval collection over the countryis done once and for all either at the source of the

document or at one of a group of cooperating

retrieval systems, with the machinable transcription

in the form of cards, or perforated or magnetic

tapes, being prepared and then circulated to all of the cooperators." (Mooers, 1959, pp. 20, 21). "This plan offers several advantages to the

retrieval center and cooperating institutions in addition to the speed of manuscript transmission via

paper tape. First, this machine-readable record of the bibliography or portions thereof, will be made

available to cooperating documentation units, and

the possibility of reciprocal exchange exists. Also

the preparation of edited machine-readable biblio- graphic entries is done once, never having to be

repeated . . . "The first large scale implementation on an in- ternational basis of the 'tape-typewriter plan' for cooperation between documentation centers, has

been initiated between Italy and the United States. This particular application of the plan entails the

transmittal of entries in an international serial cur- rent bibliography from the . . . FAO . . . headquarters, Rome to the Aquatic Sciences Information

Retrieval Center (ASIRC) at the University of Rhode

Island . . ." (Scient. Info. Notes 5,3, 1 (1963).)

"Another use of the reactive typewriter will be

for preparing documents, reports and books. Not

only will it be of assistance in making editorial changes and revision, but, when the text is completed, the reactive typewriter can be used to specify

the final page make-up for printing, the type styles

and sizes, and location of illustrations. From this specification, the reckoning machine will prepare

a tape record to be used to control one of the new

high-speed photo-composing machines for producing a high quality, typographically perfect final product. On the other hand, if only an editorial proof copy is desired, and quality of printing is not important, a high speed printer at the site of the

reckoning machine will be used. These can print out some ten to twenty pages a minute. Mail or messenger service wiU ordinarily be fast enough to bring the results back to the user." (Mooers, 1965,

p. 34.) 2.6 "The CTSS environment consists of approximately 250 users whose individual load on the

system varies from nearly zero up to the equivalent

of several hours of IBM 7094 time per month."

(Scherr, 1965, p. 5). 2.7 ". . . The possibility of retrieval via an

on-line dialogue. This approach has been under

study by Kessler of the Massachusetts Institute of Technology, implemented in a small experimental

design by Salton of Harvard,, and is realized in the current Lockheed working system." (Drew et al., 1966, p. 3). With respect to the application at Harvard,

Rocchio reports that in order "to establish the value

of real time interaction in mechanized document

retrieval, and to investigate the effects of the various

types of feedback which might be provided to the

user, three basic facilities are required:

(1) a time-sharing system to effect on-line man- machine communication at a reasonable cost, such as the Compatible Time-Sharing System

(CTSS) available at M.I.T. for the IBM 7094.

(2) a flexible set of document retrieval programs

which are capable of incorporating information received from the user and of providing

alternative retrieval operations;

(3) a communication-oriented executive routine

designed to provide the man-program inter- action and to control the scheduling of the

various processing options in a manner

compatible with the time-sharing system."

(Rocchio, 1964, pp. XII-1, XII-2).

2.8 "In its present configuration, a user may

sit at an electric typewriter, scan a stated range

of literature and perform a search based on key

words, keyword in context, citation index, biblio- graphic coupling, author, location and various combinations of these. The response is printed back

on the same typewriter within seconds of the

request. The interaction between the user and the

system is free of intermediaries and is accomplished

by means of a language very close to natural

English." (Kessler, 1964, p. 1). 41
In addition, provision is made for maintenance of

personal files for individual users: "Instead of specifying what to find the program

is directed to read a file called SMITH. . . . [which]

may contain a list of authors, citations, and/or key

words that Mr. Smith is particularly interested

in . . . He may change it from time to time . . . This provides the user with a combined author

index, citation index, KWIC and share search

tailored to his individual needs." (Kessler, 1964,

p. 21). "Night Letter. In this program a stated literature range is to be searched. When a reference is found

to a prepared list of papers, a letter is printed,

addressed to the author of the cited paper telling

him the journal, volume, page, title, author, and

location of the paper that cited him." (Kessler, 1964,

p. 19). "A set of programs has been developed under the

general name of SHARE. In this process, we name

an article and ask that other articles be found that share some element with it. One may ask for author,

word, location, or citation share." Further, "it is possible to create 'standing orders' that will be

fulfilled at some slack time when the computer is free from immediate demands, usually late at night."

(p. 17) 2.9 "TEXTIR (TEXT /ndexing and /?etrieval) is a set of programs which were developed as part of a

joint experimental project undertaken by the Los

Angeles Police Department (LAPD) and System

Development Corporation (SDC) in the computer

retrieval of crime data in natural English lan- guage . . . The basic capabilities of TEXTIR

include automatic indexing of every substantive

word in machine-readable reports or documents,

and retrieving preselected portions of these indexed

reports in response to natural English language

queries." (FarreU, 1965, p. 7). This system based

upon the AN/FSQ—32 computer, conventional

Model 33 teletypes, CRT display consoles, and light

pen input facilities is also discussed by Schwartz

et al. (1965). It is in operation nine hours a day for more than 30 users simultaneously. (Commun.

ACM 8, 253 (April 1965).)

"The entire document ... is read into the computer . . . All the words in the document are ordered alphabetically and duplications are elimi- nated to produce a Document Word File . . . The

Document Word File is compared against the Word

Screen File; all the little words and obsolete words

are deleted ... all the topic tags are retained and

the relative address of each topic tag is entered . . . all the equivalence words are retained along with

the associated topic tag and its relative address . . . "At this point in the processing, the Document

Word File consists of topic tags, their associated

relative addresses in the Word Screen File, equivalence words, and the words of the document which

are not in the Word Screen File. This latter set of

unidentified words is set aside and pointed out as an output to the personnel of the central facility . . .

(who) can check this list and determine whether

any new topic tags, equivalence words, or little words need to be created. The topic tags in the

Document Word File are ordered alphabetically,

duphcate topic tags are deleted, one is added to the

document frequency tally in the Word Screen File associated with each topic tag . . ., the request

frequency tally and the document frequency tally are copied from the Word Screen File and entered

along with each topic tag in the Document Word

File . . . "The Document Word File now consists of the

equivalence words and the topic tags in the document, along with the request frequency and document frequency tallies . . . (and, the) assigned

document number. This version of the Document

Word File is used to update the Topic Tag Index

File and also to create the automatic abstract of the

document . . ." (Geddes et al., 1963, pp. 179-180).

2.10 Borko gives the following account: "Now

you see the Usted subcategories, and again you use

the light pen to make your selection. In this manner

you narrow your field and reduce the number of

documents to be searched. You may then ask to see the documents in the subcategory that you have

selected. On the scope you will see the author and

title of the books which have been classified into that category. You may now browse through the file and make your selection. On request, you will be

given the appropriate call number and you may ask

for a microfilm copy. The microfilm image could be

transmitted to you on the display console or . . . mailed to you."

Some further details of the SDC system are as

follows: "The BOLD data base generator builds tables of

structured information from a Hollerith prestored

magnetic tape. The tables are designed with

extensive linking between entries referenced by

identical key words or phrases to permit rapid

retrieval. The data base that is presently being used was obtained from the Defense Documentation

Center and consists of abstracts of approximately

6000 documents. . . ." "The function of the data base generator subsystem is to process prestored data tapes and to establish the linking between the index terms and

other descriptive attributes such as authors, titles, contract numbers, etc. The data tables produced by

the data base generator are used by the retrieval program. ..."

"The display and retrieval subsystem is designed

to search the data base that has been structured by

the data base generator program and to retrieve and

display the requested information. . . . "The retrieval program has the following char- acterostocs:

(a) Allows, and therefore monitors, many users who are interrogating the same data base but

who are doing simultaneous, independent,

real-time retrieval.

42
(b) Permits the user to interrogate the dictionary

and find out whether a word has been used

as an index term — and how often — and

whether there are synonyms or related terms.

(c) Allows the user to formulate his requests in natural language with very few computeroriented restrictions.

(d) Displays retrieved information on a teletype or CRT console.

(e) Copies the retrieved information on a magnetic

tape for off-line listing. . . ." "The BOLD inquiry station consists of a tele- typewriter and cathode ray-tube display unit. The

user interacts with the system and requests infor- mation by typing on the teletypewriter. He may also make certain requests by using the light pen and

the display scope . . . ". . . [A] display appears that indicates the 32

divisions or main subject categories into which the

data are divided. If the user wishes a further

breakdown, he may use his light pen to flash a

division. By doing so, he is requesting more information about that category and receives a display of

the subdivisions. The display also suppHes the

number of entries in the category. If he chooses to browse through the items in this category, he may

do so . . . The display he would receive is the first abstract in that category.

'"Should the user decide to keep a permanent copy

of the display for future reference . . . the information is transferred from the scope to the teletype."

(Borko and Barnaugh. 1966, pp. 6-7, 8-10. 12, 21). 2.11 "'The system which is now working at LMSC depends upon two other operating Lockheed

systems. The first, MATICO (Machine-Aided

Technical Information Center Operations) supplies

the machine-readable data base. The second, ADA

(Automatic Data Acquisition), supplies the on-line

computer and its time-sharing monitor . . . "The types of information used as descriptors are:

(a) personal author, (b) all significant title words,

(c) corporate author, (d) all subject headings (an

average of three per report), (e) contract number

(f) original report number, (g) secondary report

number, and (h) date of publication." (Drew et al., 1966, p. 4). 2.12 "It is possible to further restrict a retrieved

set of citations by year of announcement, an- nouncement media ... or announcement series

number. . . . "By displaying the alphabetically near terms, the user is able to see not only if and to what extent

the term he entered has been used as an index

term, but also any spelling or ending variations on

the term which have been used." (Summit, 1967,

pp. 53-54).

2.13 "The current operating environment of the

DIALOG system is an IBM 360/30 (32 thousand

bytes of core) together with two 2311 disk packs

(7.5 million bytes each) for programs and inter- mediate storage, a 2321 Data Cell (415 miUion bytes) mass storage device for the reference corpus, a 1443

offline printer, and a 2260 display/1053 printer

input/output terminal. The reference file consists

of some 300,000 NASA announced citations."

(Summit. 1967. p. 52.) 2.14 "In another application, called Project

CIDS — for chemical information data system — the

computer will hst all chemical compounds that fit the specifications in a user's inquiry, giving formulas,

physical and chemical properties, and all known

chemical and commercial names. If the inquiry is too general, the satellite computer will indicate this before the search is started . . . "An information-retrieval system called Project

Vector is being developed, with which an uninformed person can use an inexpensive terminal to gain access to a vast hbrary of information that would otherwise not be available to him . . . "Other applications include research in the

locating of legal precedents and experiments in man-machine interaction in game-playing." (Carr

and Prywes, 1965, p. 89). 2.15 "Under a [NASA] contract with the BunkerRamo Corporation, consoles wiU be installed in users' immediate working areas, hooked-up by

telephone lines with a central computer-search

system . . . The user 'types' topical terms, authors'

names, or similar identifying data which he believes

are pertinent to his query. Within seconds, corres- ponding citations begin to appear on the viewing screen ... If the user hkes what he sees, the

pressing of other buttons wiU record his interests so that the cited documents may be sent to him. If not, he can modify his search until relevant citations

do appear." (Sci. Info. Notes 8, 12, 13 (1966).)

"One of the concerns of Project Intrex is to con- duct a series of experiments to determine how the

traditional library catalog can be effectively aug- mented and combined with on-Une computer

operation to provide users with a more powerful,

comprehensive, and useful guide to library re- sources. Present plans call for augmenting the

traditional catalog in scope, depth, and search means. For example, the augmented catalog will contain entries for reports and individual journal articles as well as the traditional entries for books. Furthermore, in addition to the title and author of each item,

such things as the bibhography, an abstract, key

words, and key phrases of each item will be included

as part of its catalog entry. A user will be able to conduct searches on nearly any combination of the

data contained in a catalog entry. Present plans also

call for providing alphanumeric communication

between user and computer by means of a highspeed, flexible display console." (Haring, 1968,

p. 35). 2.16 "SAFARI is an on-hne system for text processing designed to be used by a group of in- formation analysts for building their own personal

files. The system allows an analyst to scan through

documents displayed on a CRT and to select relevent facts which then are processed hnguisticaUy and stored in the computer in the form of

366-108 O - 70 - 4 43
logical content representations. To locate information, the analyst can initiate a search through the

stored representations to identify those with relevant

content. When an item of interest is found, the

original text from which it was derived can be re- covered. On-line editing capabilities allow the

analyst to take all or any parts of the recovered

texts, add commentary and interpretation, and

generate reports about their content." (Walker,

1967, p. 144).

2.16a "It is felt by many that an on-line computer

system, which allows a user to converse directly

with the computer in his quest for relevant document citations, can provide a more effective en- vironment for information retrieval than is possible

with off-line systems. The on-line systems permits

information retrieval to be a highly individualized

process with respect to time of occurrence, question

at hand, and characteristics of user." (Summit,

1967, p. 51). 2.16b "We believe that this approach to data

analyses — a computer-mediated interplay between

the investigator and his data — holds promise of a more effective inductive analysis than either man or algorithm could produce alone." (Press and Rogers,

1967, p. 39). "One of the more promising areas of computer use

involves the coupling of a man to a computer system

for real-time problem solving where the procedure for solution of the problem is either unknown or involves

complex tasks such as pattern recognition, that can

best be performed by humans." (Brown, 1965, p. 82)

"Use of the graphical input-output console allows

the designer to pause and study his design at all stages in its process without unnecessarily tying

up the computer. Furthermore, he can make modifications at any time and be appraised within

seconds of the effects of each change." (Hamilton

and Weiss, 1965, p. 3). 2.17 "It seems vitally important to press on

with the development of multiple-console computer

systems, particularly in organizations in which

creative potential users abound." (Licklider, 1965, pp, 68-69.)

2.18 "Another area in which responsive data

processing offers recognized economy and con- venience to the scientist or engineer is ease of learning, ease of use, and ease of making corrections . . . A properly designed system can function as a teaching machine, indicating mistakes or misunderstandings as they occur." (Adams, 1965, p. 484.)

2.19 ". . . The cooperation of man and machine

takes on the character of a dynamic bilateral process

of mutual training whereby the man, having at first adapted himself to the confined language of the

machine, then step by step raises it to his level,

partly by concrete clarifications and explanations

of general rules, but equally by the confirmation of generalizations successfully made by the machine

itself." (Yershov, 1965, p. 323.)

2.19a Glauthier (1967) provides a review of the

relatively brief history of computer time-sharing

systems. He covers such relatively early developments as Strachey's 1959 paper, the M.I.T. -Lincoln

Laboratory-SAGE developments, the Speed Tally

system, airlines reservation systems, stock exchange

quotation services, the CTSS (Compatible Time

Sharing System) at M.I.T., the Bolt, Beranek and

Newman system, and others. We also note the

following:

"The most complex system to date is the INTIPS

system at the United States Air Force Rome Air

Development Center. It combines multiprogramming, multicomputing, remote personal consoles,

remote graphical input-output devices, and remote

conventional I/O devices. It is a lineal descendant

of the original RW 400 Polymorphic Computer

developed by the Ramo-Woodridge Corporation."

(Wagner and Granholm, 1965, p. 286).

2.20 ". . . An algorithm is used to determine

dynamically how much of the system's resources a task ought to be allowed to consume. If this threshold

level is exceeded, the task is forced to stop and wait

while other tasks have a chance; in other words,

forced multiprogramming of sorts. (This has been

generally termed as time-slicing).'' (Comfort, 1965,

p. 620.)

"A time-sharing system slices time in such a way

that each user gets a small amount of attention on some periodic basis." (Ware, 1967, p. 288.) 2.21 "The scheduling algorithm is that set of

rules, or more strictly its embodiment in a program,

which govern the frequency with which each user

is serviced and the length of time each program is permitted to run before it is interrupted . . . The

correct form for a scheduling algorithm is one of

the most hotly discussed aspects of a time-sharing

system, and a great deal of experimental work will

still have to be done before the question can be

settled." (Samuel, 1965, pp. 12-13).

"Real-time programs may require considerable

queuing of elements and the development of com- * plex priority assignment and recognition schemes. ' This too produces new problems for both language ' and processor designers." (Opler, 1966, p. 197). ^ One obvious implication is that: "Responsive J time-sharing . . . needs more collaboration between

software and hardware designers than has been | evinced thus far." (Adams, 1965, p. 488). 'i 2.21c "Some attention must be paid ... to the

^ methods by which the policy decision, once arrived '

at, is to be enforced. It is desirable that these 5 methods should allow as much flexibility as possible fi in the choice of quantum and should not add signifi- i cantly to the cost of scheduling." (Lampson, 1968, i

p. 355). I See also the following:

"The Manager program provides control for a gen- » eral-purpose time-sharing system to make its hard- | ware and software usage more efficient in servicing i many users. In substituting computer operator man- t agement control devices for the built-in algorithms

of other systems, the program bridges the gap be- [f tween on-line user demands and programmed system \ user control, and provides a human element in 44
system management. As time-sharing systems

expand and improve, new demands on such systems

can be expected. The incorporation of more pro- grammed solutions into time-sharing systems

might seem to be the best approach to allocating the

system resources, but the cost of this approach may

be very high in terms of maintenance and flexibihty.

However, on-hne computer operator management

tools cannot be expected to augment software needs

for long, as systems with hundreds of users begin to pose more severe demands on this human element.

Eventually, all large time-sharing systems will include elaborate management programs, with a

clerical staff that manages the systems. Because

the human element will continue for a long time to be a part of time-sharing system management, more

elaborate display devices will eventually be re- quired, to assist the operator, and to give him as much timely information as possible. On the other

hand, the need for users to be aware of certain

system resources should be less of a requirement.

When procedural problems do occur, however,

they should be able to communicate by voice from

their teletype stations with personnel who can give

assistance to them. The Manager program is merely

a beginning in the control and management of timesharing system use." (Linde and Chaney, 1966,

pp. 157-158).

2.22 ". . . We may expect future appUcation

programs to be built with a mode control permitting

the user to operate the program in either a batch

or conversational mode." (O'Sullivan, 1967, p. 172).

"The time-sharing system at the University of

California at Santa Barbara uses an interesting

variation of the above methods. A user is required

to state whether his job is interactive (short, fre- quent requests) or batch (longer, usually single

requests). Time is divided into fixed length segments

such that during the first half of each segment, the

interactive jobs are served in a round robin fashion

untU their half-segment is exhausted (or until their

collective requests are satisfied). The remainder of

the segment is then used to service (to completion, if possible) as many of the batch jobs as possible.

During the first half-segment, some interactive jobs

wrill drop from the queue after one quantum of

service (e.g., those requiring the acceptance of a

single button-push), etc; thus in this system, there

is a benefit in declaring the nature of your job in an

honest way, since in the case where there is only one batch job and many interactive jobs, the batch

job receives better service if that user declares

himself as being in the batch mode." (Coffman and

Kleinrock, 1968, p. 16). "Time-shared systems are tending to find it con- venient to run short jobs to completion and to inter- leave stacked production jobs into long pauses in online operations as background jobs." (Sackman,

1968, p. 2). 2.23 "By whatever means, it seems clear that

priorities and reservation systems will be required

to assure certain classes of users appropriate quality

of service. . . . Reservation mechanisms typically

arise where a facility (or right) cannot be shared

(pre-emptive rights cannot) and where the facility users wish to plan ahead with a high degree of

certainty that their plans will materialize." (Brown

et al, 1967, pp. 213-214).

2.23a "Although there are many systems today

that provide time-shared access to a computer, little

is known of precisely how such machines are used.

This was especially apparent at the beginning of

the JOSS development. Substantial effort was

therefore made to provide a measuring or instru- menting capabiUty within the system not only to record use of the system as a whole but also to record characteristics of use for individual users

of the system." (Bryan, 1967, p. 769).

"The JOHNNIAC Open-Shop System (JOSS) is an experimental, on-line, time-shared computing

system which has been in daily use by staff members

of The RAND Corporation since January 1964. It was designed to give the individual scientist or engineer an easy, direct way of solving his small

numerical problems without a large investment in learning to use an operating system, a compiler,

and debugging tools, or in explaining his problems

to a professional computer programmer and in checking the latter's results. The ease and directness

of JOSS is attributable to an interpretative routine

in the JOHNNIAC computer which responds

quickly to instructions expressed in a simple

language and transmitted over telephone lines from

convenient remote electric-typewriter consoles.

An evaluation of the system has shown that in spite

of severe constraints on speed and size of program,

and the use of an aging machine of the vacuumtube era, JOSS provides a valuable service for computational needs which cannot be satisfied by

conventional, closed-shop practice." (Shaw, 1964,

p. 455).

"JOSS* is a special-purpose computing system

designed to provide users with a substantial and

highly interactive computational capability. The

first JOSS system, developed for the JOHNNIAC

computer machine by J. C. Shaw, was operational

in early 1963. Work on an expanded system utihzing

a modern PDP-6 computer began in 1964, and the

system became operational in February 1966."

(Bryan, 1967, p. 769).

2.24 Examples in current systems include the

following: "Priorities . . . can be assigned on a dynamic basis depending on how long the program

has been in the system, or how much time remains

before the deadline for results." (Bauer, 1965, p. 23.) "In defining the scheduling algorithm one must

specify:

(a) the sequence in which active users are to receive service and the variation in this se- quence as load conditions change.

•JOSS is the trademark and service marlt of the RAND Corporation for its computer

program and services using that program.

45
(b) the amount of time (under all circumstances)

each user or type of user is to receive."

(Schwartz et al, 1965, p. 19.) "Scheduling within SHARER is done on a roundrobin basis, with the central processor being allo- cated to each program in central memory at least once every half second." (Harrison and Schwartz,

1967, p. 662).

"The management of the queue would be according to the following principles:

1. Processes are entered into the queue by pro- gram forks and the completion of ilo functions.

2. A process is taken from the queue and placed

in execution whenever a processing unit becomes free.

3. A processing unit becomes free when it en- counters a quit or i/o function procedure

step, or the process has exceeded its allotted time." (Dennis and Glaser, 1965, p. 9.) "If a user remains in the same queue for more

than 60 seconds without being run, he is moved to the end of the next higher priority queue." (Scherr,

1965, pp. 119-120.)

"A user may be allotted time in any or all shifts. If he consumes his allotment on a given shift, the

system automatically logs him out, and he must

wait until the beginning of a shift in which he has

resources remaining before he is permitted to log in again." (Mills and Van Vleck, 1966, p. 5.) "Priorities are assigned user's programs on the

basis of length and previous running time. In order

to keep efficiency up, longer programs are given

slightly less priority because they require longer

swapping time." (Scherr, 1965, p. 119.)

"A user is pre-empted, that is, another user will be swapped in, if the current user is no longer the

first user in the queues, and he has run as long as the new first user will run . . ." (Scherr, 1965, p. 120.)

"A variation on the first-come, first-served system

is called round-robin priority. When a program's

time is up, the computer samples all incoming lines

in a prescribed order until it finds a request to run . . . "A more complex priority system has been pro- posed whereby a computer could whittle away at large problems in its 'spare time', when it is not busy

with simpler, high-priority services. Several different levels of service could be offered, at different speeds

and prices." (Riley, 1965, p. 74.) "The scheduling algorithm currently operational

in the Q—32 system utilizes three priority queues,

each circHng in simple round-robin fashion, with

queue position dependent upon the amount of CPU

time required for a request." (Schwartz and Weissman, 1967, p. 265.)

At Case Institute of Technology, "a revised selection algorithm is under development which will select jobs according to a complicated nonlinear

function of both estimated running time and time

spent waiting in the input queue." (Lynch, 1966,

p. 122.)

"Each program on the library is to have one or more queuing codes incorporated within it to control

the minimum service level of that program during

busy running periods. The resulting priority chain

will thus be a combination of first-come, first-served modified by minimum levels of serviceability asso- ciated with each program." (Baruch, 1967, p. 148).

"Some experience is now available about the

behaviour of scheduHng algorithms. It is found

that the simplest algorithm — a straightforward

round-robin in which each object program when

loaded receives the same quantum of time — is not

satisfactory, and that it is necessary to cater separately for small brief jobs and for longer jobs. This can be done by having a separate queue on to which

jobs are transferred when it appears that they are taking rather a long time on the regular queue; once on the second queue, they receive larger

quanta of time when they are activated, but have

to wait longer between activations. Corbato implemented in CTSS a more elaborate system in which

jobs which do not terminate, or which reach an

input or output wait, during a period of activation

receive double the quantum of time during the next period, but have to wait twice as long for it. The quantum of time received when a program is first activated, or when it is reactivated after a wait,

is determined according to the amount of core space

occupied, larger jobs receiving a larger quantum."

(Wilkes, 1967, p. 2). "The scheduling algorithm operates roughly as

follows: Each user request is assigned an initial priority which depends only on the size of the

program that must be run. The highest priority is assigned to the smallest programs. The highest

priority programs are allowed to run for a maximum

of 4 seconds before being interrupted, whereas lower

priority programs are allowed to run for longer

intervals which are multiples of 4 seconds. The

lower the priority, the longer is the aUowed interval.

If a program run is not completed within the allowed

interval, the program is transferred from core memory to drum (the state of the machine being

automatically preserved), and its priority is reduced

by 1 unit." (Fano, 1964, p. 16.) "Jobs for the slowest peripherals are given priority

until a reasonable amount of output for the device

is waiting in the output huffier, then the scheduler moves on to the next slowest peripheral. We have

found that the optimum choice for this 'reasonable

amount of output' keeps each peripheral in maximum use if the demand exists." (Morris et al., 1967, p. 69.) "In ATLAS, aU jobs are fed into the system as soon as they appear. A scheduling program selects those jobs having input/output characteristics which

will tend to put as many of the computer components

into motion as is possible." (CoUila, 1966, p. 49). "A queuing structure more sophisticated than

the simple round robin approach should be implemented. Distinction among the factors causing tasks

to give up control of the processor provides a reason- 46
able basis for the queue organization. Servicing of queues to put interactive tasks back in control of the processor as soon as possible distinctly improves

response times at no cost to processor utilization." (Oppenheimer and Weizer, 1968, p. 320).

"The design of the priority and quantum assignment algorithms must take the upleasant possibility

[of a ready process never being run] into account. This might be done by restricting the frequency with

which a process may enter the ready Ust with high

priority. Another alternative is to restrict the length

of time it may run at high priority, although this one may be subverted by the fixed overhead imposed

by the need to swap in the memory for the process.

StiU a third approach is to increase the priority of

processes which have been waiting for a long time

at low levels." (Lampson, 1968, p. 355).

"Second priority is given to users who have given

JOSS output-limited tasks which have been set aside until the typewriters have nearly caught up. Third priority is given to users with unfinished tasks, on which JOSS works for two seconds apiece in round-robin fashion. A user's priority changes

dynamically according to this discipline, which

successfully exploits the parallel processing of the

communication system. Under a typical load,

JOSS responds to simple requests in a fraction of a second and rarely in as long as three seconds.

Users who are skilled in typing can maintain impressive rates of interaction with JOSS." (Shaw,

1964, p. 459). 2.25 "When service is effected according to an

a priori scheduHng algorithm, the communication

network is used to gather user requests arising at unscheduled times and to distribute results after servicing ordered queues of requests. . . . When

service is effected according to a dynamic scheduling

algorithm, processing time quanta, which may be

variable, are assigned to each request." (Estrin and

Kleinrock, 1967, p. 85.) 2.26 "To exploit the increase of capacity gained

by distributing, the system must provide for queuing. The queue depth permissible should be

at least as great as the number of components over which the function is distributed." (Amdahl, 1965,

p. 38.) "An unconditional guarantee of access (given the

facility is operational) can only be provided by a

priority system if preemptive priorities are issued

to no more users than can be served simultaneously.

Otherwise, the guarantee wiU fail on occurrence of

a peak load." (Brown et al., 1967, p. 214).

2.27 It is noted that, in typical scheduling sys- tems, client-processing use is of the order of two

to four seconds but that during this interval several

hundred thousand processing instructions may

be executed; that the client's own response-time

requirements (either to receive a textual message

and/or display or to type-in a response) generally

require at least three seconds, and that allowing

a quantum time of ten seconds is almost equivalent

to allowing any client's problem to run to completion. (See Scherr, 1965, p. 11, 68.)

2.28 "The response time of the system to a

line of input from the user is an important parameter

of a time-shared system. In fact, it is one of the

few, well-defined, measurable performance parameters available. This response time determines the

basic rate at which the user can operate." (Scherr,

1965, p. 19.) "The apparent response time is a subjective

evaluation of system performance made by a console

operator in a man-machine system. Extensive

human-factors tests are required to ensure that an acceptable real response time is, in fact, an

acceptable apparent response time." (Aron, 1967,

p. 53.)

". . . The ratio of response time to processor

time per interaction will be substituted for response

time. It turns out that this ratio is a more stable measure of CTSS performance. The variation of

this ratio as a function of the average number of

interacting users is a measure of how well the

system responds to a change in its load." (Scherr,

1965, p. 56.)

"The most important performance aspect of any man-machine system is the quantity of results obtained (in terms of 'significant' problems solved)

per unit time. At this time, such a quantity is unmeasurable." (Scherr, 1965, p. 96.)

"While it is recognized that response time and

costs are not sufficient conditions for the evaluation of an information system, they are necessary

conditions." (Blunt, 1965, p. 10.) 2.29 "Even a very small inter-job overhead may

be a tremendous fraction of the total system

capacity. Even a substantial overhead during

the job, e.g., multiprogramming can result in a gain in total system capacity." (Perry, 1965, p. 246.) "If mean response time is of primary interest,

simple mathematical models can be constructed

having good generality and yielding accurate resuhs." (Scherr, 1965, p. 109.)

"Response time is a function of equipment speed;

efficiency of the man-machine interface, operating

programs and procedures and the communications

capability within the system." (Blunt, 1965, p. 6.) 2.30 "When two or more data units are waiting

at the same event for servicing, it is often possible

to expedite processing by selecting a data unit

under some other criterion than first-come-first- serve. For example, selection of the data unit with

the least expected servicing time may both reduce

overall response time and equipment/personnel idle time . . . Another criterion of data unit selection

is to process the data units in a sequence such as

to minimize computer idle time or to maximize utility

of the central processor." (Blunt, 1965, p. 64.)

"While different queue unloading strategies can produce different effects in processing, not all of

these strategies are likely to be easily applied in the real world. Casual comparison of two data units

may not effectively reveal which element will proc- ess faster in a given event, or which processing

sequence will better contribute to effective utiliza- tion of the central processor." (Blunt, 1965, p. 64.)

47
2.31 "The effects of users getting 'into phase'

with each other . . . This phenomenon occurs when

many users require service at the same time and is self-perpetuating. That is, as more and more users begin waiting, service for the individual user is reduced, and there is time for more users to reach

the point where they require service. Thus, users tend to fall into step with each other; many working

at the same time, many thinking at the same time."

(Scherr, 1965, p. 25.)

2.31a "Multi-programming adds a good deal to the complexity of the design of a scheduling

algorithm. When the running program is halted, it is no longer a simple question of what program is to be loaded to take its place. There is first a decision to be taken as to whether a new program should

be loaded into core at all, and if so which program

is to be dumped in order to make room for it. If no new program is to be loaded it must be decided

which program already in core shall be activated.

The taking of these various decisions is complicated by the fact that programs vary very much in

size, and that it is of prime importance to make the

utilization of available memory space as nearly

optimum as possible." (Wilkes, 1967, p. 2). "Because short response time is vital for an effec- tive multi-console system, an effort must be made

to predict for any system design how queueing will increase the obtainable response time. One way to do this is to assume the 'worst case' situation, in which a command encounters maximum possible

queueing delays in being processed, and then de- sign for an acceptable worst case response time.

This approach is satisfactory perhaps while such

systems are largely experimental. But the obvious

drawback in relying solely on 'worst case' predictions is that the system is over-designed, and the

true capacity of the system is underestimated. This can be serious economically when people seek more

widespread access to use of these systems. So a study of response time which takes into account

its statistical aspects is desirable both for a pre- diction of true system capacity, and to point out which system components limit the capability so

that remedial action can be taken if needed." (Fife

and Rosenberg, 1964, p. Hl-1).

2.32 "The first large system to be used like a public utihty is the IBM Quiktran System. It shares

its consoles not among individuals within the same

organization, but on a service bureau basis to anyone

in the geographical area." (Wagner and Granholm,

1965, p. 286).

"An information processing utility consists of

processing units and directly addressable main

memory in which procedure information is inter- preted as sequences of operations on data, a system

of terminal devices through which users may communicate with procedures operating for them, and

mass memory where information is held when not required for immediate reference." (Dennis and

Glaser, 1965, p. 5).

"Another conception of time-sharing is that it is akin to a community utiHty capable of providing

computer power to each customer. This notion was

introduced in a lecture in 1961 by Professor John

McCarthy. Very little concerning this concept

appeared in the 1965 Hterature; an exception

being Fano's paper, which describes the MAC

system as 'an experimental computer utility which,

since November 1963, has been serving a small but

varied segment of the MIT community.' Another

exception is the paper of Dennis & Glaser, which

outlines some concepts of computer system organization that have arisen from the evolution of an

information processing utihty as envisioned by

Project MAC . . ." (Davis, 1966, p. 225).

"The use of a separate processor for all inter- active data I/O for TSS has given SDC the abihty

to interface a large variety of devices with TSS.

These include teletypes, special keyboards and typewriters, hghtpens for displays, special pushbuttons, high-speed data Hues for computer-tocomputer communications, automatic dial-up

units, as well as the graphic tablet display console.

To provide quick response time to the user of the

GTD console, the PDP-1 performs a significant

amount of preprocessing on the raw data. A project

is currently underway to study the trade-offs of

allowing the slower PDP-1 or the faster Q-32 to perform the required user functions. Although the user cannot directly modify the PDP-1 executive

interactively, a system programmer can modify it to meet new user requirements." (Gallenson, 1967,

p. 690).

2.33 "Computer-directed procedures are an

important aspect of on-hne computing and are little understood or appreciated. For example, they

allow a complex query to be asked of a machine

under the control of another machine and with the

assistance of a third machine.',' (Bauer, 1965, p. 18). "Remote batch processing involves a computer at the user terminal, rather than simply a typewriter ? alone. This low-cost computer is used to prepare a

local batch of programs for direct transmission to = the large-scale central computer." (Aron, 1967.

p. 63). ! O'SuUivan (1967) describes an interface computer | used in support of terminal network, to provide ; code translations, bit formatting, error checking 5 procedures.

2.34 ". . . Special processors should be de- 't signed to allocate and relocate users' areas in i memories possibly in parallel with the main com- f putation." (Lock, 1965, p. 471). i "The foregoing operations are usually delegated. [ That is, provision is usually made for a control

unit, not a part of the central processor, which « has the function of finding the desired item or

location in storage, and of monitoring reading I' or writing. Because of this, the program is not ( held up by resort to the large storage, at least to the extent that the data is not needed forthwith." , (Dumey, 1965, p. 257). \

48
"Future time-sharing supervisors will run on computer systems having many processors, and

many active memory modules, flexibly inter- connected . . . They will provide for the dynamic

allocation of space . . ." (Greenberger, 1965,

p. 36). 2.34a For example: "Cooperative communication programs in the control and central computers supervise any interchanges between the

console and the central facility." (Ninke, 1965,

p. 842).

It is to be noted further that "these [operating]

systems encompass all the language processors

and commonly used utiUty routines in addition

to controlling aU components of the equipment,

servicing all traps and interrupts and accounting —

in general running the show . . . Such a system

is designed to bring to bear a number of powerful

and standard programs on relatively simple computing tasks, and to keep them moving through

the queue". (Orchard-Hays, 1965, p. 238). 2.35 "Today's fastest machine cannot be loaded

down and will be idle most of the time unless it is coupled to a large number of high speed channels

and peripheral units ... In order to distribute

input-output requests in a balanced flow, it must

also be controUed by a complex monitor that chooses

wisely among the jobs in its job queue." (Clippinger, 1965, p. 207).

"Dynamic memory allocation is "a necessary

requirement for an engineering computer system

capable of solving diff^erent problems with dif- ferent data size requirements. . . . "Dynamic memory allocation does involve

additional machine cycles, but it also eliminates

many bookkeeping requirements and the packing

of information that are necessary without its use."

(Roos, 1965, p. 426, 432).

"Memory mapping and dynamic storage relocation under control of the supervisor will make it possible to call library subroutines by name and

to eff^ect linkages to subroutines at the time they

are called." (Licklider, 1965, p. 182).

"Storage allocation strategies must be fuUy

integrated with the overall strategies for allocating

and scheduling the use of computer system re- sources." (Randell and Kuehner, 1968, p. 303).

Further,

"The choice of a suitable storage allocation

system is strongly dependent on the characteristics

of the various storage levels, and their interconnections, provided by the computer system on which

it is implemented." (Randell and Kuehner, 1968,

p. 303). 2.36 "At the point in time when one user's program is stopped and another's resumed, the

status of the former must be saved and that of

the latter restored. This process is called 'swapping'." (Scherr, 1965, p. 1). "In addition to the transmission of the actual

programs, each swap is accompanied by the dumping and loading (with the drum) of the processor

status and disk file status of the outgoing and in- coming programs. This transmission consists of

approximately 500 words in each direction." (Scherr,

1965, p. 36). "It is now becoming possible to overlap the execution of one program with the swapping of two or more programs so that little or no time is lost." (Samuel, 1965, p. 9). 2.37 "With each computation there is associated

a set of information to which it requires a high

density (in time) of eff^ective reference. The membership of this working set of information varies dynamically during the course of the computation."

(Dennis and Van Horn, 1965, p. 11). "A variable sized data structure is handled by

making it a distinct segment and allocating more or fewer blocks to it as the structure changes in size." (Dennis and Glaser, 1965, p. 8). "Two eff"ects occur: first, each operating burst is lengthened by the amount of additional program

execution time required to select and reactivate the

program and to preserve it upon termination.

Secondly, the idUng delays are lengthened by the

amount necessary to complete the execution of one

of the other time-shared programs." (Brown, 1965,

p. 82). 2.38 "Reduction in swap time would result if only those parts of an object program and its environment actually involved in the current operation were

loaded into main memory. Thus, many large pro- grams could be modularized operationally to improve their performance under time-sharing."

(Schwartz et al, 1965, p. 19). 2.38a "The purpose of paging is to relieve the

programmer of the need to manage physical store. To the programmer a paged store is indistinguishable from an unpaged store of the same size.''' (Laski,

1968, p. 35, underlining supplied).

2.38 "The choice of page size is clearly critical. Both the decreasing cost of core and the importance

of minimizing supervisor overheads point to a fairly

large page. At the present time, I would regard 4K

as the minimum to be considered and would, per- haps, choose 8K. I am aware that smaller pages

have often been advocated. The situation is complicated by the fact that the supervisor requires to use small blocks of memory (say 64 words) for input

and output buffering, and there is a case for making some special hardware provision to enable it to do

this efficiently." (Wilkes, 1967, p. 5). 2.38c "One of the most important problems in the construction of a dynamic storage allocation

scheme is that of recovering storage space which is no longer being used by the program. The mechanics

of detecting the existence of such 'garbage' have

been adequately described (Newell et al., 1964;

McCarthy, 1960; Collins, 1960; Schorr and Waite,

1965). In the case where the elements of storage

required by the program are of variable size (Comfort, 1964; Ross, 1961; Knowlton, 1965) it may

happen that an element of a certain size is needed

and, although sufficient free space is available, no

49
free element which is large enough can be found.

For example, suppose that 20,000 words of memory

were allotted as a storage area to contain one- and

two-word elements. If the first, third, . . ., 19999th

words were all occupied by one-word elements, it would not be possible to obtain a two-word element even though 10,000 words were free. What should be

done in this case is to 'compact' the store by moving

all one-word elements to one end, leaving a single

10,000 word block of free space." (Haddon and

Waite, 1967, p. 162.)

"A 'free storage list' of linked cells is the basis of most dynamic storage allocation schemes. Cells are generally removed from this list as they are needed by the processes of the language . . . Cells may be returned under program control,

automatically as they are abandoned, or periodically

by 'garbage collection'." (Raphael, 1966, p. 70). 2.38d "Even if an accurate ordering of core pages based upon frequency and recency of use could be inexpensively maintained, the value of

that ordering for determining what core pages to free is questionable. The problem with the ordering

is that a page chosen to be freed may be assigned

to a task which has been between time slices (and

therefore not referencing the page), but is just beginning a new time slice in which it will attempt to reference the page. One would like to order the core pages based upon the time at which they will next be referenced and release those with the longest

projected inactive time (PIT) first. Although the

system does not have such a projection on each core page, there is information in the system concerning

the PIT of each task. Since a non-sharable virtual memory page belonging to a task can be referenced

only when the task is in a time slice, a chain of

tasks ordered with respect to the PIT of each task can serve as a partial ordering of the core pages

which are allocated to non-sharable virtual memory

pages. Then when a request is made to release core pages to the system, core assigned to the task at the top of this core release chain can be freed. We now consider the problem of defining a task

ordering to serve as a basis for such a core release

procedure." (Fikes et al., 1968, p. 13). 2.39 ". . . The importance of some of the well- known European contributions to the computer

arts, for example, the page-turning procedures

proposed with the original design of the Atlas, or the multi-processing algorithm included in the

Gamma-60 . . ." (Sahon, 1967, p. 203). "In Atlas the instruction format permits the

programmer to address directly 2048 blocks each

of 512 words. Of these 2048 block addresses the

most significant 256 are reserved for the use of the

supervisor and are sacred, i.e., any attempt by a user program to access these reserved addresses is prevented." (Morris et al., 1967, p. 69). "For each page of core store there is a- use digit

which is set when the page is accessed. All use

digits are scanned and reset at regular intervals

by the central executive and a pattern of use is

established. The selection of the page to be trans- ferred to the drum is made with respect to this pattern of use." (Morris et al., 1967, p. 69). "In several recent computer systems, mechanisms (usually part-hardware, part-software)

have been provided to give name contiguity with- out the necessity for a complete address contiguity.

This is done by providing a mapping function

in the path between the specification of a name by

a program and the accession by absolute address

of the corresponding location. The mapping is usually based on the use of a group of the most

significant bits of the name. A set of separate

blocks of locations, whose absolute addresses

are contiguous, can then be made to correspond

to a single set of contiguous names . . . The

first example of such a system was the Ferranti

ATLAS computer." (Randell and Kuehner, 1968,

pp. 299-300).

"This was also the first use of demand paging

as a fetch strategy, storage being allocated in units

of 512 words. The replacement strategy, which

is used to ensure that one page frame is kept

vacant, ready for the next page demand, is based

on a 'learning program'. The learning program

makes use of information which records the length

of time since the page in each page frame has

been accessed and the previous duration of in- activity for that page. It attempts to find a page

which appears to be no longer in use. If all the

pages are in current use it tries to choose the one

which, if the recent pattern of use is maintained,

will be the last to be required." (Randell and

Kuehner, 1968, p. 303).

2.40 Thus, for example, in the design of the

IBM 360/67, "there are four main characteristics

of a system that has dynamic address translation. The total program need not be in memory when

any part of it is being executed; those parts that are in memory may be in noncontiguous, nonsequential pages; the parts may be left in memory

after the quantum of time is used up, unless it is necessary to swap pages of another program

into their places; and if all this happens, when the

original program is restored for another quantum

it may go into a different area of memory the }* second time around." (Iverson and Yee, 1965, v p. 81). "Division into pages is performed with both ' hardware and software. The time-sharing super- ' visory program sets up software tables in memory,

containing entries that define the starting points < of the pages for every task that the program must i control." (Iverson and Yee, 1965, p. 82). ' 2.41 "This paging procedure introduces another

important concept: virtual memory . . . The 1 programmer is limited only by the addressing ' capabilities of the machine; he has a machine I which has as much memory as it can address. ! In the Model 67, this virtual memory is as large i» as 2^^ — more than 16 million — bytes." (Iverson

and Yee, 1965, p. 82). ;

50
". . . Users appear to have an insatiable appetite

for store and we consider large scale 'one level

store' techniques to be vital." (Morris et al.. 1967,

p. 74). "Dynamic memory allocation is a necessary

requirement for an engineering computer system

capable of solving different problems with different

data requirements . . . The result of dynamic

memory allocation is that the size of a problem that can be solved is virtually unlimited since secondary

storage becomes a logical extension of primary

storage." (Roos. 1965. p. 426).

'".

. . Provide the user with a large machineindependent virtual memory, thus placing the re- sponsibility for the management of physical storage

with the system software. By this means the user

is provided with an address space large enough to ehminate the need for comphcated buffering and

overlay techniques. Users, therefore, are relieved

of the burden of preplanning the transfer of information between storage levels, and user programs

become independent of the nature of the various

storage devices in the system." (Daley and Dennis,

1968. p. 306).

"One important aspect in the efficient use of

hierarchical storage that should be emphasized is the need for development of machine organization

and software techniques that make the entire in- ternal and on-hne auxiUary storage appear as a

single uniform storage to the user." (Hobbs, 1966,

p. 41). "A very important problem remains to be solved,

however, and that is how to provide efficient access

to this mass storage. Various schemes for organizing mass memory elements have been proposed, with

storage arranged into levels by size and speed and

with hardware for automatic transfer among levels

as required. Efforts have begun to make the entire

memory appear as one logical unit to the system

user rather than as a primary and secondary memory

with separate addressing mechanisms." (Pyke,

1967. p. 162.)

2.41a "The choice of a placement strategy

should be influenced by several factors. These in- clude the relative importance of minimizing storage

fragmentation, the frequency of storage allocation

requests, the average size of allocation unit, and

the number of different allocation units." (RandeU

and Kuehner. 1968. p. 302).

"When it is necessary to make room in working

storage for some new information, a replacement

strategy is used to determine which informational

units should be overlayed. The strategy should seek

to avoid the overlaying of information which may

be required again in the near future. Program and

information structure, conveyed perhaps by seg- menting, or recent history of usage of information

may guide the allocator toward this ideal." (RandeU and Kuehner, 1968, p. 302).

"An additional complexity in fetch strategies

arises when there are several levels of working

storage, all directly accessible to the processor. In

such circumstances there is the problem of whether

a given item should be fetched to a higher storage

level, since this will be worthwhile only if the item

is going to be used frequently." (RandeU and Kuehner, 1968. p. 302).

2.42 McGee (1965) provides the foUowing defini- tion: "Given a number of programs (each of one or more segments that have been partitioned into pages and stored in main memory), the function of a dynamic relocation technique may be stated as

follows: For each reference (5, i) by program r to the iih word of segment 5, determine if the

reference is legitimate and, if so, translate the

reference to the memory location of the referent.

If the reference is not legitimate, signal a protection

exception." (p. 196).

2.43 "The attack on the single store concept

[as if there were] must be accounted a failure thus

far. No executive or software system to the authors'

knowledge has solved this problem in a generally

acceptable manner." (Wagner and Granholm,

1965, p. 288).

2.44 "It will be necessary to develop techniques

for transferring information on demand, and in anticipation of demand, from the slow, more

voluminous levels of the hierarchy to the faster, more readUy processible levels." (Licklider, 1965,

p. 63). Use of "WILL NEED" transfers and other

techniques to manage storage hierarchies have been

developed for lUiac II in order that this relatively

smaU computer (8,000 words of core) can be run on

time-sharing appUcations. (Fisher and Shepard,

1967, pp. 77-81).

2.45 "Dynamic allocation of data achieves the

foUowing:

1. Arrays are allocated space at execution time

rather than at compilation time. They are only

aUocated the amount of space needed for the

problem being solved. The size of the array

(i.e., the amount of space used) may be

changed at any time during program execution.

If an array is not used during the execution of

a particular problem, then no space will be

aUocated.

2. Arrays are automatically shifted between

primary and secondary storage to optimize

the use of primary memory."

"Dynamic memory aUocation would extend to programs as weU as data. Programs can then be

brought into primary memory only when they are needed."

"The aUocation ofvprograms and data must be

properly balanced so that the use of primary

memory is optimized." (Roos, 1965, pp. 426-427).

2.46 Thus, "it cannot be stressed too strongly

that the strategies of storage aUocation must be

fuUy integrated with the overaU strategies for aUocating and scheduling the computer system

resources." (RandeU and Kuehner, 1968, p. 301).

We note also the foUowing: "The strategy of

storage accessing by the central processor is one

51
of planning so that all needed data (and program

segments) are available in the highest level storage

unit at the time of accessing or with minimum

delay." (Opler, 1965, p. 275).

"The case of variable units of allocation is in general more complex because of the additional

possibilities of moving storage within working

space in order to compact vacant spaces." (Randell

and Kuehner, 1968, p. 302).

2.47 "The assignment of variable size data

structures to a conventional memory is a formidable

problem because the space of physical locations

for information and the space for names of infor- mation coincide ... If too few locations are assigned to a data structure, difficulty arises when

additional locations are needed. Not only must

physical memory be reassigned, but the addresses

used to refer to them must be reassigned in name

space." (Dennis and Glaser, 1965, p. 6). 2.48 "Multiple memory accessing becomes

a burden when the total system responds to out- side calls, because then the time scale or patience

of the caller is the determinant." (Dumey, 1965,

p. 259).

2.49 ". . . Special processors should be

designed to allocate and relocate users' areas

in memories possibly in parallel with the main

computation." (Lock, 1965, p. 471).

2.50 "The various requirements of relocatability of programmes and data, indexing of ad- dresses, allocation of storage space and protection

of vital information, are all met at present by

ad hoc provisions in the system design. Clearly

they are all interrelated, and a unified approach

to the design problem could perha^^s meet them

more economically." (GiU, 1965, p. 204).

"Dynamic storage allocation is achieved through

changing the associations of blocks of physical

main memory with pages of segments. Common

reference to a data segment by several processes

is possible simply through the use of the same

segment name by both processes. It is natural

to implement data lockout on a segment basis."

(Dennis and Glaser, 1965, p. 8). "If it is desired to protect the data object from

destructive manipulation by an untrustworthy

computation, routines with protected entry

points . . . must be employed." (Dennis and

Van Horn, 1965, p. 15). 2.51 "It is likely that multiprogramming sys- tems of the future will adopt some form of grouped

page storage allocation, where the group of pages

allocated during a single storage allocation in- terrupt is determined either by the structure of

processes or by the storage requirements during

the previous activation of the process. . . . "The problem of efficiently partitioning a problem

into hyperpages may be thought of as a clustering

problem in which individual pages are represented

by vertices into clusters having high density of

traffic within clusters and low density of traffic between clusters. However, it is not clear that

significant clustering patterns could be estabHshed

at a level at which clusters were significantly smaller

than complete programs. Moreover, clustering pat- terns within programs are likely to vary with time,

and is hkely that a look-behind technique for paging

of individual processes would be more effective than

a 'static' clustering technique. . . . "The information specifying the 'cluster' of most

recently used pages is an important piece of infor- mation and could be used for page control if it were

available. It is felt that storage of the set of virtual page addresses on termination of a process as part

of an extended stateword, might be a worthwhile

hardware extension. For example, if these virtual page addresses were available, then the loaded

process could check for the presence of these pages

and bring in any missing ones in parallel with the

initial part of its computation." (Wegner, 1967,

pp. 149-150).

2.51a "A basic allocation problem, 'core memory

management', is that of deciding just which pages

are to occupy main memory. The fundamental

strategy advocated here — a compromise against a

lot of expensive main memory — is to minimize page

traffic. There are at least three reasons for this: "(1) The more data traffic between the two levels of memory, the more the computational over- head will be deciding just what to move and

where to move it. "(2) Because the traverse time T is long compared to a memory cycle, too much data

movement can result in congestion on the

channel bridging the two memory levels.

"(3) Too much data traffic can result in serious

interference with processor efficiency on

account of auxifiary memory devices 'steal- ing' memory cycles." (Denning, 1968, p. 324).

2.52 "The 'page-turning' or 'look-behind'

concepts can be employed at three levels in con- nection with segmentation. First, page turning

may be employed within any segment so that only

pertinent pages are kept in main memory. Second,

the look-behind principle can be applied to the

problem of deleting entire segments from core memory so that new information can be brought

in. Finally, a look-behind technique can be used

to avoid use of the page index except when reference

is made to a new block of a segment." (Dennis

and Glaser, 1965, p. 8). 2.53 "The concept of a page-turning memory —

a

scheme by which only pertinent blocks of infor- mation are kept in main memory while nonpertinent

blocks are deleted through a suitable algorithm — is very useful for certain classes of procedures and

data structures . . . (but) schemes that have

been discussed to date do not allow for flexibility

of application as they are not tied to a philosophy

of program structure; that is, the selection of

information to be deleted is independent of its function in the system." (Dennis and Glaser,

1965, p. 6).

52
". . . It is sometimes claimed that a further

advantage of a paging system is that it entirely

eliminates the problem of storage fragmentation.

Rather, what is true is that paging just obscures

the problem, since the fragmentation occurs within

pages. It is only rarely that an allocation request

will correspond exactly to the capacity of an integral

number of page frames, and many page frames

will be only partly used." (RandeU and Kuehner,

1968, p. 301).

"It is difficult to assess with any certainty the

benefits of a demand-paging strategy in a timesharing system. Computer configuration, work

load environment, and other system characteristics

such as scheduUng and priority schemes all strongly

influence system performance; performance itself means different things to different people." (Fine

et al., 1966, p. 11). With respect to the studies by Fine et al. Smith

remarks: "In a recent paper by Fine, Jackson,

and Mclssac, some relevant statistics on the

dynamic behavior of a particular set of programs

were reported . . . The authors concluded that there was considerable doubt about the worth

of the page on demand strategy. Certainly any

suggestion that it would be useful to multi-program

a few pages from many programs in the high speed

memory was negated by these statistics." (Smith,

1967, p. 636).

Smith himself states that: "The techniques of

multiprogramming and paging have been proposed

as means for efficiently adapting a computer

system to an interactive type of load. The implementation of these techniques requires a considerable hardware investment for the handling

of dynamic relocation and the best control policy

remains to be determined." (Smith, 1967, p. 636).

2.53a This conclusion rests in particular upon

findings that "the initial call rate for pages is extremely high; the first ten pages, on the average, were required within about 5.6 ms; in half of the cases where 20 or more pages were required,

the first 20 pages were needed within about 7.0 ms."

and that, in terms of the number of instructions

executed between consecutive calls for new pages,

"in nearly 59% of 1737 cases, less than 20 instructions were executed; in about 80% of the cases,

less than 200 instructions. In only 2.3% of the

cases, 10,000 or more instructions were executed

between calls; these longer sequences occurred

usually only after the program had accumulated

a majority of the pages it required." (Fine et al., 1966, p. 6). 2.53b "Suitable systems programs are just now

becoming available which permit time-shared

mutiple console operation. Much more work re- mains to be done, however, in the optimization and

refinement of these systems programs. Much also needs to be learned concerinig the optimum use

of core storage for graphics time-sharing, establishing suitable priorities for the consoles, protection

of one user's programs from disturbance by another

user, and assurance that adequate secrecy will be provided to data when required." (Prince, 1966,

p. 1705).

2.53c "Since the program under test is likely

to be faulty, it is desirable to protect both the user's permanent objects, and any objects created by the

PLS (programming language system) on his behalf

from unintentional use or destruction by the pro- cedure being debugged." (Dennis and Van Horn,

1965, p. 21). 2.54 "A number of users are testing procedures

under development that are not free from errors. Program malfunctions induced by such errors must

not interfere with correct execution of tasks pro- ceeding concurrently for other users." (Dennis and

Glaser, 1965, p. 9). "Programs very likely to contain errors must be

run but must not be permitted to interfere with

the execution of other concurrent computations.

Moreover, it is an extremely difficult task to deter- mine when a program is completely free of errors. Thus, in a large operational computer system in which evolution of function is required, it is unlikely

that the large amount of programming involved is at any time completely free from errors, and the

possibility of system collapse through software

failure is perpetually present. It is becoming clear

that protection mechanisms are essential to any

multiprogrammed computer system to reduce the

chance of such failure producing catastrophic

shutdown of a system." (Dennis, 1965, p. 590).

2.55 "While losses of users' programs and data

have occurred, their frequency and seriousness

have not discouraged users from entrusting their

work to the system." (Fano, 1964, p. 18). 2.56 "Daily and weekly monitoring programs

have been devised that test the integrity of the

data. If any fault is detected it can be localized

and repaired from any of the back up tapes that are kept for that purpose." (Kessler, 1964, p. 9). 2.57 "For n equal to the number of terminals

currently connected, we can . . . (make) the timesharing operation introspective — that is by having

it gather statistics about itself. But we cannot use

this device in general, unless we are willing to change n repeatedly. Even the most callous administrator would hesitate before subjecting his custo- mers to that series of disruptions." (Greenberger,

1965, p. 35). 2.58 "The technological trend toward large

random access memory suggests the retention of

several users' programs in core simultaneously,

hence mutual memory protection must be ensured."

(Lock, 1965, p. 457).

"Each user, and each user's program, must be

restricted so that he and it can never access (read,

write, or execute) unauthorized portions of the highspeed store, or of the auxiliary store. This is necessary (1) for privacy reasons, (2) to prevent a defective

program from damaging the supervisor or another

user's program, and (3) to make the operation of a

53
defective program independent of the state of the

rest of the store." (Samuel, 1965, p. 10). 2.59 "The [memory protection] capability must

be dynamic and under flexible control of the executive program, since the allowed operating areas of the memory change on a millisecond basis." (Bauer,

1965, p. 23). 2.60 "Since a segment may be in several spheres

of protection at once, we have a basic framework

for allowing independent tasks to share access to procedures and data as appropriate. . . . "The attachment registers will only contain seg- ment names to which valid references may be made

within the established sphere of protection, with an indication of the class of reference permitted."

(Dennis and Glaser, 1965, p. 10). "The complete memory protection solution de- mands that there be the option of read protection . . . Two important cases require it: The first case arises

in debugging where a program reading beyond its bound has erratic behavior which in practice is indistinguishable from transient hardware failure. The second case is simply that of user privacy."

(Corbato, System Requirements . . ., n.d., p. 6). "Protection of a disk system requires that no

user be able to modify the system, purposely or inadvertently, thus preserving the integrity of the

software. Also, a user must not be able to gain access to, or modify any other user's program or

data. Protection in tape systems is accomplished:

(1) by making the tape units holding the system

records inaccessible to the user, (2) by making the

input and output streams one-way (e.g., the input

file cannot be backspaced), and (3) by placing a mark in the input stream which only the system can

cross. In order to accomplish this, rather elaborate

schemes have been devised both in hardware and

software to prevent the user from accomplishing

certain input-output manipulations. For example,

in some hardware unauthorized attempts at I/O

manipulation will interrupt the computer." (Rosin,

1966, p. 242).

2.60a "Service disciplines may be classified according to the information on which they base

priority decisions. Such a list would be openended; however, the sources of the information

may be considered to fall in one of three not necessarily disjoint environments: (1) the job environment whereby the information consists of the

intrinsic properties of the jobs (e.g., running time,

input/output requirements, storage requirements,

etc.), (2) the (virtual) computer system environment

(e.g., dynamic priorities may be based on the state of the system as embodied in the number of jobs

or requests waiting, storage space available,

location of jobs waiting, etc.) and (3) the programmers' or users' environment in which management

may assign priorities according to urgency, impor- tance of individual programmers, etc." (Coflfman

and Kleinrock, 1968, p. 12). 2.60b "[In QUIKTRAN] extensive run-time

diagnostics made possible by the interpretive

mode are provided, and several unusual 'bookkeeping' features, similarly based on interpretation, are available, such as the AUDIT command, which

generates information as to which portions of

the program were never executed, which variables were never set, or set but never used, during a given execution of the program." (Evans and

Darley, 1966, p. 43). 2.60c "For accounting purposes a multiprogramming operating system usually has to keep

track of how much processor time is applied to each program and how much I/O channel time,

by channel and device, is used by each program

during its execution. Thus, the GECOS [General

Comprehensive Operating System] II system

keeps a running total by program of all processor, channel and device time used. These totals are updated for each period of processor use and for each I/O transaction. When a program terminates,

all of its accumulated times are transmitted to an accounting file and the totals are zeroed for the next program." (Cantrell and Ellison, 1968,

p. 214).

2.60d "PILOT is a programming system

constructed in LISP ... an interface between

the user and his program, monitoring both the

requests of the user and the operation of his program. Advising is the basic innovation in the

model, and in the PILOT system. Advising consists of inserting new procedures at any or all of

the entry or exit points to a particular procedure

(or class of procedures)." (Teitelman, 1966, abstract

p. 1, and p. 26). 2.60e "A time keeping device maintains a continuous log of computer operations assuming

two essential record-keeping functions that up

to now ordinarily have been handled by human

beings. Known as the Time Monitor, it records,

for each project, the overall time required to prepare, utilize, and unload a computer, the

actual running time, the actual time for preparation

and unloading, those periods during operation when

the computer is inactive, the reasons for the

stoppage. In addition to identifying operators,

it can identify programs and programmers."

(Computer Design 4, No. 11, 25 (Nov. 1965).) 2.61 "Memory Activity — This . . . [shows]

memory cell activity as a function of time. It pre- sents a map of memory allocation and regional

activity." (Coggan, 1967, p. 77.) "Paging Activity — This presents a measure and

map of page (memory block) use during specified

time quanta. Separate displays for activity during

compile, execute, etc., times may be desirable."

(Coggan, 1967, p. 78.) "Subroutine Activity — This function . . . aids

in determining what subroutines should be included

as part of the standard program vocabulary."

(Coggan, 1967, p. 79.) 2.62 "Loop Factors — This display illustrates the

total number of times around various loops defined

by the program flowchart." (Coggan, 1967, p. 80.)

54
"Trap Activity— This is a measure of activity as a function of time for different trap types. It presents

a map of program control interrupts." (Coggan,

1967. p. 79.) 2.63 "Queue Length — This presents a measure

of the queue lengths for different classes of hard- ware, such as processors and memories, as a function of time." (Coggan, 1967, p. 82.)

"Work Profile — This is a display of the time

breakdown for equipment usage and can yield infor- mation about particular equipment activity as a function of time, or serve as a comparison of equipment use over a fixed interval." (Coggan.

1967. p. 76.) 2.64 "Gibson Mix — This is a measure of fre- quency of instruction usage and serves as an aid

in determining the types of instructions that should

by hard-wired." (Coggan. 1967, p. 76.) "Memory Profile — This gives a measure of the

total number of memory cells used as a function of time and offers a direct comparison to the total number allocated. (Efficiency of use)." (Coggan,

1967. p. 77.) "Branch Statistics — This is a measure of the

branch probabilities for various branch groups. The display can help iUustrate frequent and time

consuming operations that might best be per- formed by more efficient program code." (Coggan,

1967. p. 81.)

"Program Overhead — This is a dfsplay of over- head time for different programs operating in a multiuser system." (Coggan, 1967. p. 83). 2.64a "The space-time product will be affected

by the time taken to fetch pages, which will depend

on the performance of the storage medium on which

pages that cannot be held in working storage are

kept. If page fetching is a slow process, a large

part of the space-time product for a program

may well be due to space occupied while the pro- gram is inactive awaiting further pages." (Randell

and Kuehner. 1968, p. 302). 2.65 "Managers of a time-sharing operation wiU

find themselves dealing more and more with the

problems of how and when to interact with the

system. One of the tools designed and implemented

is the manager program. One part of this program

displays aU the users, their station number, size of

program, work order number, priority number, and

information regarding availability of space on disk,

drums and tape drives. . . . The other feature dis- plays all the programs that are on the disk: the pro- gram name, number of tracks, status (active or

inactive), and date last used. Utilizing these pro- grams, the monitor can get the information he needs

to make tactical decisions." (Fiala, 1966, pp. 164-

165). 2.66 "The development of the simulation pro- gram now provides a first-come-first-serve queue

unloading strategy. Continuing effort, however, wiU

provide for optional strategies, e.g., selecting the

data unit with the shortest servicing time, consideration of what flow will minimize idle time at the central processor, etc." (Blunt, 1965, p. 15.)

2.66a "The logical units of information transfers

carried out by recent supervisory systems represent

a change from variable length program and data

structures to the fixed length pages into which these

programs and data are fitted. A number of important

advantages accrue from this organization of infor- mation and have been described along with a corre- sponding control structure by Dennis and Arden,

et al. A basic problem in this organizational approach

has appeared in the form of poor object program

operating behavior in a multiprogramming environment. In particular, the frequency of the page turn- ing (transferring pages in and out of core memory)

necessary to the execution of a program which, in general, is never wholly in core tends to degrade

system performance by introducing as excessive

amount of input/output interferences. . . . "The two-page replacement algorithms whose

performance is discussed here are as follows:

1. The Least Recently Used (LRU) Replacement

Algorithm. Whenever a page of a given pro- gram must be turned out of core, this algorithm

specifies that the page turned out must be the one which has been in disuse for the longest

period of time since the beginning of program

operation. This algorithm was selected be- cause it is very similar to existing or proposed

algorithms and admits of a fairly simple

implementation.

2. The Belady Optimum Replacement (BOR)

Algorithm. This algorithm is based on a prior

knowledge of the entire sequence in which

pages are used in the execution of a program.

With this information and a specified maximum

on the number of pages that can be held in core at one time, Belady has shown how to sequence the paging-in and paging-out operations in an optimum way, i.e., yielding minimum page turning. Because of its requirements the algorithm does not appear practical;

however, it was selected in order to provide

a means of comparing the performance of the

various practical (and less efficient) algorithms

with the best possible case. . . . "The programs considered for analysis in this study represent rather different external characteristics. The programs selected include a SNOBOL

compiler, a program for computing Fourier trans- forms, a WATFOR FORTRAN compiler, and a

differential equation-solver. The last program is relatively small compared with the first three. The statistics for the larger programs have proved

quite similar in nature and will be summarized

by a detailed look at the behavior of the SNOBOL

compiler which consisted of 15 instruction and

22 data pages, with a page size of 1024 words. . . . "The principal observations from the data we

have obtained are: (1) with the possible exception

of carefully designed programs, the page turning

incurred when programs are made to operate while

substantially less than totally core-resident appears

excessive in light of current or proposed paging
system designs; (2) a least-recently-used page

replacement algorithm yields a performance within

about 30 to 40 percent of that of the optimum page

replacement sequence; and (3) for page residence

confined primarily to small areas within the page

size, performance is improved substantially more

by increasing the number of pages held in core than by increasing the page size." (Coffman and

Varian, 1968, pp. 471-472, 474).

2.66b "In either of the schemes described,

or in any of their many variants, there is no diffi- culty about arranging that pages should be loaded

only when they are required. There is, however, more difficulty in arriving at a satisfactory algorithm

for deciding which page should be dumped when

it is necessary to make room for an incoming page. One policy is to dump the page that has been longest

resident in core, and another is to dump the page

that has been longest resident in core without

being accessed. More elaborate criteria, based

on the past history of all pages in core, and taking

account possibly of the fact that some programs

are reacting with their consoles while others are not.

may be constructed. Whatever is done, some supervisor overheads are incurred. Suggestions have

been made for additions to the hardware which

will reduce these overheads; perhaps the most

useful is that there should be a bit in the hardware

associated with each physical page which records

whether that page has been accessed since the

last time of resetting. Suggestions have also been

made for some type of analogue timing circuit associated with each physical page which will enable the page longest resident to be identified

very rapidly. It is not clear whether such a circuit could be designed so that it would record time

only when the program owning the page was run- ning." (Wilkes, 1967, p. 4). 2.66c For example: "Some problems have

apparently been solved in an empirical or experimental fashion. For instance, we know of no

theoretical studies on methods of allocation of processor time to various programs or on the optimization of information storage in memories with

various hierarchy levels." (Pointel and Cohen,

1967, p. 46).

3. Storage, File Organization, and Associative Memory Requirements

3.1 "The management of secondary storage

which has plagued programmers for many years

should be handled automatically by the total soft- ware system. The designers of the software system

for the ATLAS computer were pioneers in attacking

this problem. We find the designers of most large

modern software systems gingerly probing at the same problem." (Wagner and Granholm, 1965, p. 287). 3.2 "Data base storage will require medium

capacity, random access, solid-state, on-line auxil- iary storage; large capacity, low cost, on-line auxil- iary storage; and very large capacity, very low cost,

off-line auxiliary storage." (Hobbs, 1966, p. 41). "Technology offers a broad variety of access and

storage modes, so that less frequently used, or less valuable, records could be stored more cheaply at the cost of slower access." (Bohnert and Kochen,

1965, p. 157).

"We need to better understand the flow of data

and develop design guidelines here, recognizing

that the access 'gap' from electronic memory through

electromechanical storage devices will cover a

relative access speed differential of 10^ to 10''." (Hoagland, 1967, p. 258). 3.3 "In large time-sharing systems the means

for organizing memory is of prime importance, and

the next several years should bring a variety of

solutions to this problem." (Pyke, 1967, p. 162).

". . . The problem of assigning data blocks and

program segments statically to various types of

storage units is replaced with the problem of moving

such information dynamically through a hierarchically organized storage." (Opler, 1965, p. 275).

"The information conveyed by the fact of seg- mentation can be used by the system in making

decisions as to the allocation of storage space and

the movement of information between levels of a storage hierarchy." (Randell and Kuehner, 1968,

p. 298).

"The dynamic nature of multiprogram on-line

computation should have a strong influence on memory organization." (Lock, 1965, p. 471). "If the extra memory which can be added

can be overlapped and if there exists a hier- archy of memories of differing speeds then both

the compilers and the operating system will have

to concern themselves with making sure these

features are used." (Clippinger, 1965, p. 211).

"Memory management — that is, having the right

material in the right place at the right time —

plays a central role and calls for a carefully thought- ' out strategy if the supervisory program is to handle

this matter expeditiously and automatically."

(David, 1966, p. 44). 3.4 ". . . The newer time-sharing systems con- template a hierarchy of file storage, with 'percola- if tion' algorithms replacing purging algorithms. ; Files will be in constant motion, some moving

'down' into higher-volume, slower-speed bulk store, ; while others move 'up' into lower-volume, higher- I speed memory — all as a function of age and refer- ence frequency." (Schwartz and Weissman. 1967,

p. 267). "In a multiple-access multi-programmed system, \ the use of paging gives a number of advantages. / In the first place, when a fresh program comes to ' be loaded, it can go into any physical pages that can be made available, whether or not they are con- < secutive. Secondly, paging allows traffic in the 1 channel between the drum and the core memory to f be reduced, since a page of program need not be
loaded unless it is actually needed. The procedure

is to load the first page of a program and send

control to it. If. in due course, an attempt is made

to access a word in another page, a supervisor trap occurs and the supervisor loads the required page.

Since, in multiple-access working, programs are

often loaded and run for short periods only (until

they reach an input or output wait, or have ex- hausted their quantum of time), this advantage of

paging is an important one. A further reduction in

traffic can be obtained if, associated with each

page register, there is a bit which is originally

zero, and becomes set to one the first time the page

is written into. The supervisor can then avoid writing

back on to the disc pages which have not been

altered during their residence in core. Memory

lockout can be associated with pages if extra bits associated with the page registers are provided

for the purpose." (W ilkes. 1967. p. 3). 3.4a "The reviewers believe that file-main- tenance operations have not received adequate

consideration in the design of file organizations.

e noted that the use of indirect addressing of

data could result in important savings for mainte- nance operations in indexed and multilist appli- cations. It was also noted that an alternative design

approach to accommodate maintenance requirements was to reserve space in storage for this purpose. It would be useful if quantitative per- formance studies were developed so that designers

might know the circumstances under which one

is more advantageous than the other."" (Minker

and Sable. 1967. pp. 150-151).

3.5 "The system design includes a hierarchical

directory structure. Each item in a directory associates an alphanumeric name with a pointer

to a file, an input/output function, an entry point

giving access to some system service, or a directory

giving further associations of names with pointers."

(Quarterly Progress Report Xo. 80. Research

Laboratory for Electronics. M.I.T, 257 (1966).) 3.5a "Early implementations of memory protection were aimed almost exclusively at providing

the write protection function which is essential

for guaranteeing that one program cannot destroy

another. The multiusage environment adds further

dimensions to memory protection requirements.

Privacy considerations of privileged information

(such as payroll data) require that portions of memory be protected from unauthorized reading

as well as writing." (Mendelson and England.

1966. p. 62). 3.6 Barton comments: "Since multi-level

storage is an economic necessity, its efficient

utilization has long been a prime objective, though

the difficulties appear formidable. In this regard,

the machine designers have largely ignored the

problem: extensive programmed control, very

costly in terms of storage, is usually the conse- quence. It now appears that things can be done

to alleviate this problem by providing adequate

interrupt signals indicating states of tape, disc,

and drum storage components and through use

of simple adaptive schemes for handling information transfers between storage levels." (1963, p. 176). 3.7 "Unless an unexpected breakthrough reconciles fast random access with very large capacity,

there will be a need for memories that effect various compromises between those desiderata."

(LickHder, 1965, p. 63). "The concept of storage hierarchies is very important in considering the use and capabilities of storage devices. There is no one ideal type of storage that fulfills all requirements while pro- viding the maximum speed and capacity for the

minimum cost." (Hobbs, 1966, p. 41). 3.7a "A MIS usually consists of two operational

categories of programs; real-time and batch. The

file system to support these processes must at least consider:

1. Security of information

2. Recovery of system operation after failure, and

restoration of data when mutilated.

3. Key and Addressing schemes that will result

in densely populated storage.

4. Need for additions and changes to the data

base to meet changing requirements.

5. Performance requirements of all types of

activity.

6. Reduction of wasted mass storage, consistent

with performance requirements.

7. Coordination of the file system with the pro- gramming system." (Benner, 1967, p. 291). 3.8 "Hierarchical memory structures (with the

levels set by the access-time characteristics) are common in mass storage systems to balance cost, capacity, and access time performance against

applications requirements. . . . "Economical mass-memory systems are the real key to extending the power of computers into many

new applications." (Hoagland, 1965, p. 55). "This 'main' memory size is related to the proc- essing rate; the faster the arithmetic and logic units,

the faster and larger the memory must be to keep

the machine busy, or to enable it to solve problems

without waiting for data." (Hoagland, 1965, p. 53). 3.9 "A stream is a combined allocation of several

levels (presently core and disk) of storage, used as a single-level continuously addressable store." (Connors, 1966, p. 201).

3.10 "In my opinion, this problem of the minimal

redundancy store must be considered as one of the

long-range problems for information systems."

(Mooers, 1959, p. 28). An obvious practical requirement for consolidation or correlation of new input items with items

previously stored is that of checking for duplicate

entries in the file. Then, "in another . . . kind of

situation, the flow of input documents will contain

many facts or purported facts, and these must be

compared with information in the files for veracity,

consistency, novelty, or the hke." (Mooers, 1959,

p. 17). In one illustrative experiment, it is reported that "in the case of a duplicate statement, only the set 57
identifier, R, is stored. The number of R's stored serves to enforce the vaHdity of the corresponding

statement." (Arnovick, 1965, p. 183).

3.10a Greenway and Russell point out that: "The final form in which information is presented

to the user is a function of economics, required

response time, and human factors. Thus, information presentation might range from a printed page

to a high-speed sophisticated three-dimensional

display device. Tlie importance of human factors

in information presentation is pointed out by the

fact that display on a microfilm reader often appears

very desirable from an economic and engineering

standpoint, but meets with considerable resistance

from users." (1965, p. 3). 3.10b "A viable file organization must be

adequate from several points of view.

1. It must permit economical retrieval of items,

by individual or by class.

2. It must permit economical modification of its items, by individual or by class.

3. It must be economically representable in one

or more memory media of a computing system.

4. It must be adaptable to a range of computing

environments, present and future." (Holt,

1966, p. 465).

3.10c "This paper describes the file handling

system developed and being implemented as a part of INTIPS, (INTegrated Information Processing System) under the aegis of Rome Air Development Center. This file system addresses itself to the physical problem of the storage and retrieval of fixed length blocks and their organization into higher-order structures. It does not concern itself with the contents of these blocks. . . . "The data base must be grossly expandable

without reprogramming or redesign. Indices must

be small and efficient while the data base is small

but grow automatically with minimal decrease in efficiency as the data base increases to its projected

maximum of 10-' blocks. . . . "The file structure is basically that of a tree. Blocks are grouped into files where a file consists

of 1, 8, or 256 blocks. As will be seen in subsequent

sections, by setting discrete sizes, one gains

advantages in reduction of overhead when accessing

related blocks and in simplification of the storage

allocation problem. The choice of these three sizes was somewhat arbitrary but it was desired to have

file sizes vary by approximately an order of magnitude. Files as well as blocks, may be symbolically

named. No two blocks in the same file may have the same name but any given block name may be used

in any number of distinct files. Every block is a member of one and only one file. . . . "It can be readily seen that by allowing aggregates

to consist of other aggregates as well as files, a structure can be developed which is many levels deep. These levels are called terraces. In addition,

by permitting files and aggregates to be members

of more than one aggregate the creation of lattice

points* becomes possible. Thus a very rich structure can be created and manipulated with the file system. . . . "As mentioned above, any aggregate may be an element of any other aggregate, indeed it may

be an element of any number of aggregates. Similarly a file may be a member of any number of

aggregates. Thus in both cases we have many

records pointing to the same record. If such pointers I were to be in the form of an address or anything | else which was somewhat hardware oriented, each

pointer would have to be changed whenever the

record to which it pointed were moved. This would Ij require reverse pointers in the record being pointed

to so as to know which records require updating.

One soon becomes enmeshed in an overwhelming

maintenance job. Therefore, due to the very

dynamic character of the secondary storage in INTIPS, it is necessary that inter-record references

be symbolic. Aggregates, Files and Data Blocks can each be assigned a symboHc name by the user

but these symbolic names do not readily serve

the purpose of inter-record references because

they are too long and also any given File can have

many symbolic names. Therefore, another set of symbolic names was derived to be used for inter-record references. They are assigned by the

file system solely for its own use and are called

System Assigned Symbols (SAS's). Since these

symbols are never exposed outside the file system

they need not be binary representations of any

legitimate alpha-numeric characters. Instead they

are purely binary and therefore more compact."

(Ver Hoef, 1966, pp. 75-77, 80). 3.11 "The activity method of file organization

has an added appeal, because it provides the data

for systematically purging the file of rarely used

items." (Borko, 1965, p. 24). "We make readily available those items which

are most likely to be wanted and make relatively

inaccessible those items which are least likely

to be wanted." (Hayes, 1963, p. 287).

"Similarly, within the record different portions

of the record have different activity rates. Fre- quently a record of 700 alpha-numeric characters

in length will have a small portion, some 20 to 30

| characters, that will get a major share of the activity. 1 Some system designs use a "creamed" file of these

20 to 30 characters per record in a computer to answer 80 percent of the questions, with the other

20 percent handled by manual or microfilm files." (Tauber, 1966, p. 276). 3.12 "The system will reduce routine search

time and conserve the more costly storage space

by lessening the rapidity of access to data as

it decreases in usefulness. Thus data on a particular

individual who is incarcerated or has been dead

for some time will be placed in storage with lower

accessibility than data on active criminals."

(Geddes et al., 1963, p. 24).

*A convenlinnai tree structure allows any ^iven node to subsume several nodes

but it may only be subsumed by one node. If. on the other hand, such a node may

be subsumed by two or more nodes, it is defined to be a lattice point. 58
"The optimal organization [of the data file] will depend on the primary functions of the system,

and it may prove advantageous to have different

parts of the file organized differently so that one

part can respond efficiently to one kind of demand

and another part to another kind." (Travis, 1963,

p. 331).

"The file structure should exhibit the various

levels at which data will be used, yet allow for the

integration of all related data. Modified list-type structures designed for the needs of the particular

system are worthy of much consideration for such

files in order to provide the desired flexibility, growth,

and cross-referencing." (Gurk and Minker, 1961,

p. 270).

3.12a "Multiple entries for a file item expand

the size of the file and require more duplicating and more infihng. The whole purpose, however, of a multiple-entry approach is to achieve an organization of the file so that all duplicates having to do with

a particular code category may be brought together

in one section of the file, then, when a search must

be made, only a portion of the total file need be

presented for the searching operation." (Kuipers

et al.,l957,p. 258). 3.13 "Economic operation is feasible only if the

predetermined pattern of the file organization cor- responds to the environment." (Hayes, 1963, p. 268).

3.13a "More difficult problems arise when parallel use of files is being made and one job is terminated abnormally after only some of its tasks have

been completed. What is the status of the updated

file? The same question arises if a file is updated

early in a job. Should the updated version of the

file be made available to other jobs before the full job is completed? Conflicts of this type demand a

great deal upon the necessity of the file being completely up-to-date and upon the various structures

of the files. In general, the rule is that an up-dated

file is not available until after its job is completed.

If it should be available eadier, then that job should

be broken into two other jobs so that at the end of

the first job the file can be released. This makes the

rules easier for users to understand and simplifies

the restarting problem." (Gosden, 1964, p. E2.2-7).

3.14 "We will find random-access mass memory

handling images as well as digital data by storing

them in video and in digitized form . . ." (Hoagland,

1965, p. 58). 3.14a "Mass storage control logic is now beginning to extend to the functional ability to automatically arrange records within the hierarchy of memory/storage according to their activity, significantly improving access utilization." (Hoagland,

1967, p. 2.58). "In applications involving the single-item search,

the analysis performed by McCabe can be useful. He examines the possibilities of reordering a file based on moving the records for which a query has

been made. Three methods of reordering the file are suggested: moving the retrieved record to the

front of the file, exchanging positions with the record

immediately before it in the file, and relocating a record only after a specific number of queries using

either of the first two methods. Assuming the file must be searched serially for each query, he found

that the two basic methods were equally as good in improving search efficiency and that using sampled

queries merely slows the organization process."

(Climenson, 1966, p. 112.)

3.14b "The performance region of several

hundred million bytes of data with access in milli- seconds is a key to many on-line 'data bank' type

information systems and the appeal of such facilities spurs the rapid trend to direct access file-oriented systems." (Hoagland, 1967, p. 258).

3.15 The terms "associative memory" and

"content-addressable" memories are generally

used interchangably. Cheydleur, however, makes

the following interesting distinction: "Contentaddressability . . . can be described as the capability for locating items via their keywords (with

the understanding that at various times any of the

fields of an item suddenly may be subject to treat- ment as a key word) rather than locating via their actual memory addresses; basically this localization

must be eff^ected without benefit of any kind of

serial sorting of files or subfiles either at the time of

record or at the time of recall . . . "The desirability of achieving an associativity

capability, distinct from content-addressability, can be based on the need for coping with file requirements such as (1) multiple response, i.e., the corre- spondence of more than one item to the specification

required; (2) inexact but close matching of 'most

of the specifications'; and (3) rejection of items

which have certain specified explicit descriptors."

(Cheydleur, 1963, pp. 57-58).

Some other definitions are as follows: "An as- sociative memory is a storage device that permits

retrieval of a record stored within by referring to the contents or description rather than the relative address within the memory." (Prywes, 1965, p. 3). "We have described here an iterative cell which

can be used as a content addressable memory

from which an entry may be retrieved by knowing

part of its contents." (Gaines and Lee, 1965, p. 74). "This paper describes a fixed memory consisting

of one or more stacks of paper or plastic cards,

each of which contains an interconnected array of printed or silk-screened film resistors. Each card

is compatible with conventional key punches, and

information is inserted by the punching of a pattern

of holes, each of which breaks an appropriate

electrical connection. All punched cards in a stack

are cheaply and reliably interconnected using a new batch interconnection technique which re- sembles an injection molding process, using molten

low-temperature solder. The circuit which results

is a resistor matrix where the information stored is in the form of a connection pattern. The matrix

may be operated as a content-addressable or associative memory, so that the entire array can be

searched in parallel, and any word or words stored

59

366-108 O - 70 - 5
answering a given description can be retrieved in microseconds." (Lewin et al., 1965, p. 428).

"The information records in the associative

memory are organized into lists. Each list can

be visuahzed as a series of cells, each ceU containing an information record, linked along a linear

string which connects "associated" records.

Each of the records may be of variable length and

may have a number of associations, with a link

to another record for each association. Each string

represents an associative notion and has a cor- responding name which is referred to in the fol- lowing key. The branching lists make up what is known as a tree. The word tree figuratively describes

the branching out of lists from the main chain of

information which provides paths within the

associative memory. Thus, the processes of storage

and retrieval are regarded as establishing and

following association links among the information

records." (Prywes, 1966, pp. 1790-1791).

"An associative memory has two attributes: content-addressability and parallel-search capability." (Chu, 1965, p. 600).

3.16 "The content-addressable memory (CAM)

was initially proposed by Slade as a cryogenic

device." (FuUer, 1963, p. 2). See Slade and McMahon

(1957).

3.17 "An early example of a parallel search

memory was the 'multiple instantaneous response

file' (MIRF), where the comparison function is built directly into the cells storing data items,

permitting a given search specification to be

reflected against all data cells simultaneously.

Knowledge of the address of the qualifying data

item is not needed. Address independence has

also been achieved in list-processing systems,

where search proceeds through a series of chained

lists rather than in parallel. A short study of both

approaches has been provided by Reich." (Climenson, 1966, p. 114.)

"Previous work in automatic data extraction,

automatic indexing, and formatted file processing

suggested that the techniques of content addressing

and parallel processing afforded by an associative

processor would offer significant advantages both

in performance and in ease of programming for such applications." (Baker and Triest, 1966,

p. 1-1).

^ 3.18 "It is very unlikely that associative processors will be developed to an adequate state for widespread utilization in the foreseeable future."

(Hobbs, 1966, p. 41). 3.18a "It is extremely unlikely that large fast associative stores will become practicable in the near future." (Scarrott, 1965, p. 137). "In the past, associative or content addressable

memories of any significant size have been impractical for widespread use. Relatively small

associative memories have been built with various

technologies, such as multiaperture ferrite cores, cryotrons, and various thin-film techniques. The

logical flexibility of microelectronics now makes

at least scratchpad-size associative memories

practical." (Hudson, 1968, p. 42). 3.19 "The utility of content-addressable memories (CAM's) within a general purpose computing

system is investigated ... A simulation package

is developed which allows simulation of CAM com- mands within job programs run on the IBM 7090 and

derives tallies of execution times corresponding to a particular realization of a CAM system. The simulation package is used to evaluate algorithms for CAM commands and to evaluate the efficiency of

CAM commands in a job program." (Fuller, 1963,

abstract).

3.20 "Memory organization is the kernel of the

Moore School's problem-solving facility . . . With

the multilist technique information storage and re- trieval are incorporated in the executive program

and in a man-machine communication language

called Muhilang." (Carr and Prywes, 1965, p. 88). "The functions of storage and retrieval of records

are accomplished by the use of an associative

memory which is simulated on an addressable

memory by means of the MULTILIST technique.

This technique . . . involves the use of an expanding tree structure as a dynamic index translating

keys into addresses, and a multi-association area where the records themselves are stored." (Prywes,

1965, pp. 2-3).

"The Multilist system simulates a storage system

that contains an associative memory as a substructure. From such a descriptive memory, a program- mer can retrieve stored information by specifying

a key — that is, by giving a description of the infor- mation desired, rather than its address." (Carr and

Prywes, 1965, p. 88). 3.20a "An associative memory for large scale

data processing can be implemented in a conventional addressable memory by simulation tech- niques." (Landauer, 1963, p. 863). 3.21 "One of Feldman's main points is that there

is some evidence that large associative memories

may be competitively simulated on conventional

computers. His principal evidence is that the execution times are reasonably competitive, but he further

argues that large associative memories can be simulated on immediately available hardware, and that the general-purpose machine has the ability to handle the multiple-hit problem and tree-structured

data more readily. Another point is that "if much

processing must be done outside the associative

memory the saving in the time for the first access may be a negligible part of the total." (Climenson,

1966, p. 116).

3.22 "List organizations of memory are generally

useful in problems for which:

1. Symbols having other than numeric signifi- cance are to be manipulated.

2. Dynamic storage aUocation is desired since

storage requirements cannot be determined in advance.

3. Orderings exist among symbols or among sets of symbols or both. Sets of symbols may have

60
many subsets. Subsets may belong to more

than one set.

4. Orderings among symbols are restructured in the course of program execution.

Problems for which Ust storage has been used in- clude theorem proving in geometry and logical

calculus, chess playing, assembly line balancing,

translation of natural and artificial languages, and

information retrieval." (Fuller, 1963, p. 6). 3.23 "The choice of file structure within a ran- dom access device is dependent upon the problem.

Multi-list file structures, chaining, address generation techniques, and dictionaries have all been

found valuable." (Berul, 1964, pp. 10-17).

"A record is retained in file for each document.

The record contains the code for each index term

attributed to it. Next to the index term code is the address of another record which contains the same term code. A search for all records with a certain term code may be performed by 'threading'

through the file from one random access address

to another. . . . "A further development of the Inverted List

method has been developed at the AUERBACH

Corporation. To reduce.the amount of list manipulation, a technique is employed which selects the

lists most liable to be critical in the search. Only

these hsts are manipulated, and the number of records ultimately retrieved from random access

is greatly reduced." (Berul, 1964, pp. 8-24).

"The work of Lefkovitz et al., in developing an

experimental system for a real-time chemical in- formation system is of general interest because of

its file structure features rather than its special

interest for chemical retrieval. The work is being

performed for the Army Chemical Information

Data System (CIDS) effort. Except for some special

features, such as chemical substructure searches

and relational searches between entities, work

in the general field of file structures is applicable

to the chemical retrieval problem, and the specified

chemical problems can be embedded within the

larger framework. The file structure used in the

CIDS project is a modified multilist file structure." (Minker and Sable, 1967, p. 140.)

"Modifications to the multilist file structure made by Lefkovitz et al., make it more of a combined inverted file, multilist structure. An auto- matic classification scheme is being developed to anticipate the types of questions and to place data

in cells based upon their attributes and nearrelated data. The scheme is basically a data-storage

allocation strategy for disc, which attempts to save

accessing data on different disc head positionings.

No experience exists on its usage. As the authors

note, the efficiency of the system wiU depend

highly upon whether the keys are indexed. For

substructure searching, without other keys identi- fying the data, they found that a tape file compares

favorably with a disc system. The authors believe

that to be effective, the longest Hsts should encompass only a small part of the file. This work should

be followed closely in future reviews. The reviewers

believe that additional features, such as indirect

addressing to names of records (as described pre- viously with the registry number) and data descriptions, will be needed in the operational system."

(Minker and Sable, 1967, p. 141).

3.24 "To achieve the fuU utilization of the

memory space, any abandoned space must be

'recaptured' in order that it may be used subsequently for other purposes. The association memory

. . . starts with all available space on a single

long list, called the 'available space fist'. Whenever

space is required for building up a new hst, this is obtained by using the words from the front of the

available space list, and whenever information

is erased and the words that held it become available

for use elsewhere, these words are added to the

front of the available space Ust. Thus, the fact that unused space is scattered all through the

memory creates no difficulty in finding new space,

for there is a single known word (the name of the

available space list, ASL) that always contains

the address of the next available word." (Hermann,

1960, pp. 14-15).

3.24a "Herner notes the two basic ways of or- ganizing file material: the 'unit record' concept and

the 'inverted file' concept. The advantages and dis- advantages of each — in their pure form — were aptly

described by Prentice: The unit record concept has

the advantage of having all information in the record

available for search at one time, resulting in high

search precision. It has the basic disadvantage that

all records in the file must be searched for every

request. On the other hand, the inverted file search

need only involve the pertinent part of the file, but

it retrieves only record identifications; it must deal

with unbalanced record posting densities, and the

relationship between individual record terms is difficult to express and search." (Climenson, 1966,

p. 109).

"Transience is a strong incentive to conventional

term-on-item grouping. If the item has a short life,

it is desirable to have terms grouped under items so

that items and their terms can be deleted with ease from the store in one simple operation." (Wall,

1958, p. 172).

"Experience with the program has also shown

that an inverted file of document numbers posted

to indexing terms, the original scheme, is less suited to the total NASA information program

than a linear file with complete document records

placed on tape and searched in sequential order. With the linear arrangement, it is more feasible

to divide the total file both chronologically and by

subject area. Thus, to shorten the total time re- quired to make any given search of the document

store, only selected portions need be searched.

The linear file is also most suited to a decentralized

system in that the updating of searching files held by

subcentral facilities might be done simply by dis- tributing the new sections of data which are then

easily added to the ends of existing files in the field.

61
A further result of experience with a decentralized

system is that numerical codes for subject terms are troublesome, especially when the vocabulary is changing and evolving as fast as the aerospace

vocabulary. Conversion of indexing data from codes

to straight alphabetics was a natural solution for the NASA program; together with the linear file arrangement, it is expected to be effective in mid1964." (Wente, 1965, p. 58). "Variations in search logic can improve the

efficiency of a file set with an inverted index. In the most common mode of usage, when the

search specifies a Boolean combination of terms,

the union and intersection operations can be

carried out on the list of record locations retrieved

from an inverted index. Another method that has

been proposed by I. A. Warheit is to locate only one term of a request set in the inverted file, then search out the index records listed there. The full logic is applied only to the index records

retrieved by this term. This method offers an

advantage when the expected number of index

records to be detail-searched is low, the number

of comparisons to be made during the record

search is also low, and the query terms are all intersected. The method works best if the least probable term can be selected from the request

set and used as the only entry to the inverted file. This technique is called direct access searching .... Only one of the two query terms is looked up in the

inverted index file. All index records containing

that term are examined for presence of the other

query term. This method reduces searches in the

inverted file and eliminates cumbersome logical

operations on the lists of document numbers

retrieved from the inverted file. If a third table, an index of the inverted file, is used, it would be

possible to include not only location of term records,

but the number of index record references in each,

and this could be used to select the single entry

for the inverted file. On the other hand, maintaining

and retrieving relative frequency of use data may

use up all the gains otherwise provided." (Meadow,

1967, p. 239).

"It is even less desirable to invert a complete

file in non-document-oriented files. The low search

probability of most of the many fields in typical

data records makes allocation of extra memory to speed the occasional search uneconomical. Consider

what happens when the index file is sequenced on some more meaningful basis than accession number.

We must certainly bear in mind that one result is a requirement to sort all incoming index records.

Any sequence other than accession number must

be sufficiently more efficient than access number

order to overcome the penalty of sort time. Sorting on subject would often be desirable, but many in- dexing systems permit and encourage several subject terms per index. Sorting of index records by

subject would then require each record to be replicated as many times as there are subject terms in the record. The inverted file concept avoids this

potentially excessive use of memory by simply

providing a cross-reference capabifity without

rephcating the full index record." (Meadow, 1967,

p. 240).

"Combinations of the inverted file and unit record

approach are replacing pure applications of either."

(CUmenson, 1966, p. 129).

"When data are stored on tape for a retrieval system, they are commonly organized by record name and other identifiers, followed by record descriptors. To speed retrieval, some designers pro- vide an index that is searched first, followed by

retrieval from the main file, which is sequenced on

tape by citation number. However, Curtice shows

that, for serial media, searching the main file is generally more efficient than searching the index.

Thus, an index stored on tape may hinder rather

than enhance retrieval time. Furthermore, the index

must be maintained, thus making maintenance

operations more complex. Curtice further notes that storing both the index and the main file on disc wiU

lead to an advantage of the indexed approach not achieved for tape-stored data. Thus, we note again that the file organization, to be effective, must

be matched against the physical storage medium. . . . "Experience on an actual system at the NASA

Scientific and Technical Information Facility

confirms Curtice's results. Brandhorst & Eckert

present a brief historical review and a cuirent up- dating of the NASA efforts as accomplished by

Documentation Incorporated. They report that the

straight linear-file search using tape is an improvement over the inverted-index search followed by

a linear-file search. However, they intend to use

the inverted-file approach for discs when their new

computer is obtained." (Minker and Sable, 1967,

p. 128).

"A hnear file search approach was adopted for use in the system. An inverted file search economically demands permanent allocation of random

access equipment, the expense of which precluded

its use in the system. However, the Descriptive

Terms Statistical Master File, the Satellite File which is used to produce the term postings report,

is actually an inverted term file. Therefore, when

inexpensive random access storage becomes avail- able, the conversion expense to an inverted file random access search will be minimal. Also,

unless hindsight indicates revision, the basic

question statement method will be retained."

(Ebersole, 1965, pp. 193-194). "In an attempt to exploit the benefits of both an

inverted file and unit-record concept and circumvent

the disadvantage of each, Warheit has devised a so-called direct access search system where both

kinds of files are used. The inverted file is used as an initial search filter on the basis of one or two

coordinated search terms. The assumption is that,

if there is a reasonably small number of document

postings associated with the initial search terms,

only a few records in the unit-record file must be

searched in detail as the second step. The price

62
paid is storage redundancy. It should be noted that incomplete use of an inverted file is equivalent to exhaustive search of an inverted file where the terms

have a many-to-one relation to the unit-record

terms — that is. in systems where the terms are stored with some degree of imprecision (e.g., using one term in the inverted file for a range of record

values or a code to represent several record terms).

In both cases, a portion of the unit-record file must

be examined to complete the selection task."

(CHmenson. 1966, p. 113). 3.24b For example, "Anderson et al.. in work

sponsored by the Army Research Office and con- ducted at the National Bureau of Standards, are experimenting with a linear file consisting of basic

fixed-field information about the entry, plus links to

satellite information files for a chemical retrieval system. As part of the same effort, Marron et al., developed programs for chemical structure or substructure searching based on the Hayward notation.

Since no screening techniques, which serve to categorize the structures, are used in the implemented system, a linear search of the entire file is required. The authors recognize this hmitation for an operational system." (Minker and Sable, 1967,

p. 140). 3.25 "The rationale behind the inclusion of local scratchpad memories in the B 8500 computer

module encompasses . . . the need for buffering of four-fetches of instructions and dat'a in advance

of their use, i.e., lookahead. Also important are its uses as storage for intermediate results, as an eco- nomical implementation for registers and counters,

and for the extension of the push-down stack."

(Gluck,1965,p. 663).

"The storage queue contains words destined for storage and their absolute address. Since the storage

function has the lowest priority in the communications unit, words are retained in this area until service time is available . . . [but] data being

fetched are checked against the contents of the

storage queue by the use of the associative memory . . . Fetching of data from a main memory

location about to be updated by a word awaiting

service in the storage queue would provide incorrect

information to the program." (Gluck, 1965, p. 666).

3.25a "The power of the machine is achieved by

using a small fast scratch pad memory for manipulating address fields . . ." (Wigington, 1963, p. 707). 3.26 "In the beginning, small associative

memories will be provided as an adjunct to computers of conventional organization to permit fast table look-up, facilitate the performance of certain

classes of information retrieval applications. Later,

they may be employed to facilitate memory assignments, bus assignments and processor assignments.

Still later, we may see the whole organization of

the memory changed ..." (Clippinger, 1965.

pp. 208-209).

"Many systems applications of high-capacity,

high-speed, random-access, read-only memories

appear to stem from table lookup operations.

In various forms, these applications include

microprogramming, journal keeping, and arith- metic and logic manipulations." (Fleisher et al., 1965, p. 25). "Lookahead designs, in which block transfers

of instructions and data minimize memory accesses and transfers, have used scratchpad memories. . . . "A major utilization [of scratchpads] has been

the storage of intermediate arithmetic or logical results from a computational unit." (Gluck. 1965,

p. 663).

"Many registers, formerly implemented with

flip-flops, are now stored as words in scratchpad

memories. Typically, such registers are utilized for index words, base registers, real-time clocks

and similar relatively infrequent usages." (Gluck,

1965, p. 663).

"The incremental compilation achieved by

indirectly addressing all operands through their

reference entries suggests a small very-high-speed

memory, functioning much like the index registers,

to be used by all identifiers' reference entries."

(Lock, 1965, p. 471).

3.27 "The key to the system is the presence

of an Associative Memory Subsystem. The associative memories are used to provide dynamic

control over processor assignments, to mechanize

an automatic page turning scheme, and to provide

important functions concerned with the execution

of I/O commands." (Gunderson et al., 1966,

abstract).

3.27a These authors comment: "The parallel

search function of associative memories requires

that comparison logic be provided at each memory

word cell. The APP, by moderate additions to this logic, allows the contents of many cells, selected on the basis of their initial content, to be modified

simultaneously through a 'multiwrite' operation."

(Fuller and Bird, 1965, p. 105).

3.27b "The ILLINOIS Pattern Recognition

Computer (ILLIAC III) ... is designed for automatic scanning and analysis of massive amounts

of relatively homogeneous visual data. In particular,

the design is an outgrowth of studies at this Laboratory of a computer system capable of scanning,

measuring, and analyzing in excess of 10" bubblechamber negatives per year. . . . "A Pattern Articulation Unit (PAU), whose duty

is to perform local preprocessing on the digitized

raster, such as track thinning, gap filHng, line ele- ment recognition, etc. The logical design of the all- digital processor has been optimized for the idealiza- tion of the input image to a line drawing. Nodes

representing end points, bends, points of intersection are labeled in parallel by appropriate

programming. The abstract graph describing the

interconnection of labeled nodes is then extracted

as a list structure, which comprises the normal

output of the processing unit." (McCormick,

1963, p. 791).

3.28 "The interrogation, which may consist of a number of descriptors, each containing many bits of information, causes an appropriate group of

63
solenoids to be driven . . . The solenoids interact

simultaneously with all enclosed loops on all data

planes, resulting in a simultaneous voltage on

the output of each data plane that is the cross- correlation between the driven input solenoids and

each individual data plane. The output of each

plane is connected to its own detector-driver which

tests the output in comparison with aU the other

data plane outputs to find that output containing

the best correlation. Alternatively, the detectordriver can be set to test for some predetermined

threshold.*' (Pick and Brick, 1963, p. 245).

4. Mass Storage Considerations

4.1 "Documents will probably be always with us because the material in them does not easily or economically lend itself to machine handling.

Also, for some purposes (browsing, frequent refer- ence) documents are more easily and more

efficiently handled." (Brown et al., 1967, p. 64). 4.2 "One . . . factor is the likehhood of mutilation or theft of a given title. Until 1984, when

every home will have its own microviewing device, no patron is as likely to remove reels as he is to remove issues. Every library can provide its own

list of titles on which the razor and the scissor

have wreaked frequent havoc; for such titles film would diminish the problem.

"A second element to be considered might be

called the nature of the material — including both

physical aspect and content. A weekly magazine

of the size of Business Week or the New Yorker,

in which the advertising matter cannot be removed

will take up large amounts of shelf space in bound

form. On the other hand an abstract journal is much

more convenient to use when it is bound; one must

turn from index in the back to abstract(s) in the

middle, and it is far easier to do this with a printed

volume than to reel and unreel continuously. A

periodical with many illustrations, maps, and

diagrams, especially if they are in color, will not be as suitable for microreproduction as one with

text only. A periodical already in hard covers

(Horizon) or one which can be purchased in hard

cover form (American Academy of Political and

Social Science Annals) can go directly from current shelves to stacks without being sent to the binder.

"A third element in the decision is the user of

the material. Students at Staten Island, for the

most part, never have seen a microfilm reader

before coming to the college and are usually en- thralled to use one. Not so their instructors. . . . represents the attitude of the professor; he prefers

to take the periodical to his home or office rather

than to be tied to the machine. The same is true

of the serial cataloger. Good cataloging requires

that each back volume be inspected; it is far easier

to do so at one's desk where the ALA-LC rules are at hand than to have to go to some other area

of the library where the film readers are. The

division of location that microfilm requires may

also be a hardship. If one has a long run of a periodical in bound form and then switches to microreproduction, the title is now shelved in two places.

Even though the information about the switch is in the card catalog, the reader wiU often overlook

it — especially in an open-stack library. In such

a library it would be desirable to place a dummy

after the last bound volume with some such state- ment as 'vol. to date on microfilm.'

"For extended reading it is certainly true that

print is much easier on the eyes than film, and the

bound volume is more convenient for notetaking.

In short, from the point of view of the user, the

only advantage of film (and it is not an insubstantial

advantage) is that the title is never absent at the

binder or never on a processing shelf awaiting

receipt of a missing issue so it can go to the binder.

"Fourth is the element of cost, and here a computer would be necessary to put into a proper

formula all the factors involved. University Microfilms takes many of them into account in stating that to store a current periodical for a 30 year

period by binding would cost $240.00, while to acquire and store the same periodical on film would

cost $106.65. Ford suggests that even more can be saved by using a microfilm splicer to combine

in one box on one reel three or four volumes of a periodical. He states that his library in this manner

succeeded in reducing 72 boxes of film to 40 which

saved 'almost 45 per cent of housing space plus the

cost of splicing.' The clerical costs of preparing

a volume for binding and checking the bound

volume on its return no longer exist. The missing

issue problem mentioned above is also a factor

here. Frequently a missing issue is not noted until

it is time to send the periodical to the binder. In many libraries this means that the title, sans missing issue, must be set aside until a replacement

arrives, which means more storage space, more

adjustment of records — in short, more cost. Further,

when microreproduction is used, one can, in the case of some titles, sell the superseded issues to a second hand dealer and thus recoup part of the

initial investment." (Peele, 1964, pp. 168-169).

4.2a In the Annual Review of Information

Science for 1966, Van Dam and Michener comment

as follows: "The improved accessibility of microform was a significant development in 1966. There

were three aspects of this development. First, in- creasingly more microform was being produced and

distributed, by the government as well as by manufacturers. To do the research for this chapter, for instance, some hundred microfiche were ordered

from the Clearinghouse for Federal Scientific and

Technical Information or through interlibrary loans,

and were scanned on a $100 viewer. Most engineering drawings and other documentation must now

64
be supplied to NASA or to the Department of Defense in aperture card form. Thomas Publishing

Company publishes product information in the form

of microcatalogues. Aperture cards, particularly

microfiche, were the most popular medium. Some

minor revisions to the National Microfilm Association's microfiche standard specifications were published." (Van Dam and Michener, 1967. p. 201). "In summary, then, there are three basic duplicating media — film, paper and tape. As indicated,

magnetic tape requires facilities for interpretation,

paper creates unmanageable storage problems, and

flooding, a major problem, could destroy the records. Microfilm has a definite edge on both, as readers provide rapid interpretation, and flood damage can be controlled by a simple washing of

the microfilm reels." (Butler, 1962, p. 63). 4.3 "Up-dating or additions and changes to the

images in roUs of film used to be considered a contra-indication to the use of roll film in applications where up-dating is an important requirement.

Because of the facilities afforded by magazines we

can and do seriously propose roU microfilm today

for some of these applications. And, moreover, such

proposals are not at all necessarily based on film splicing or other non-dark methods of adding images

to existing film. I refer, of course, to a more limited

type of market, but my purpose is to illustrate some

of the many new implications for the microfilm

industry represented by the magazine concept and

the methods and functions this concept facilitates." (Brunelle, 1962, p. 91.) 4.4 "The Microstrip System, offered by Recordak Corp., uses foot-long plastic holders for storage and retrieval of 12 in. strips of 16 mm microfilm. . . . File categories are distinguished by color

coding on the end tab, which contains an index by

content. The plastic strips are also indexed lengthwise to facilitate location of the desired image."

(Bus. Automation 12, No. 7, 47 (July 1965).)

"The Micro-Thin Film Jacket, marketed by the

Recordak Corp., accepts single microfilm images as well as strips, and permits the entire contents or any part to be copied by direct contact printing

without removing the microfilm." (Systems 6, No.

8, 6 (Aug. 1965).)

"It is clearly uneconomical to put aU data into the computer. The data elements established so

far in the design are essential. In addition, the

documentalist knows that sometime, somewhere, someone will want and need additional corroborative

information. Some type of microfilm appears most

likely to meet the need for hard copy backup

documentation, storage, and retrieval for all five QDRI RODATA files. At this point, we are con- cerned only with the facility file. Now, QDRI is not attempting to develop new techniques. Economy

requirements have dictated use of a proven commercial system. About a year of search and dis- cussion led to the conclusion that the VSMF

cartridge or cassette system should satisfy QDRI

RODATA needs. This is the same system that is in use by Chemical Abstracts and several library

documentation operations using the Kodak Recordak or 3M Filmac reader printers. VSMF will make accessible to QDRI its own extensive file of commercial catalogs. Also the VSMF Vendor

Selector questionnaire is identical in use and has

major similarities in format to the Standard Form

129 and the DD Form 558-2 employed by the Army

in establishment of R&D source data. The need for improved language in present Army and DOD forms

is being met by the new R&D Category Index,

coordinated by the Armed Services Procurement

Regulations (ASPR) Committee with all of DOD

and NASA." (Peirce and Shannon, 1967, p. 265.) 4.5 "We (Ford Motor Company Engineering)

. . . changed over to 35 mm aperture cards . . . About 99.9% of our engineering drawings are now on aperture cards and are being distributed

throughout the world on that basis." (R. H. De Rosa

in "Systems Magazine's Third Annual Microfilm

Seminar", 1965, 35). Four new IBM microfilm products were intro- duced in 1965: "Key to the system is the microprocessing reusable aperture card which may be used

to project information onto screens or to obtain

paper copies. One of the products, a copier/

reproducer is a high volume machine that re- produces up to 2,100 cards an hour from the master

micro-processing card. It enables the transfer of

both punched holes and microfilm images from one punched card to another in a single operation."

(Systems 6, No. 6, 6 (June 1965).)

"A Texas architectural firm, Caudill Rowlett

Scott, has developed a computerized microfilm

file system enabling architects to stop 'reinventing

the wheel'. By converting drawings and file material

to IBM micro records, needed information can

be retrieved and displayed, or reproduced, in a few minutes. "In the past, CRS, like other large architectural

firms, was constantly redesigning many common

construction features such as ships ladders, flash- ings and curbings. The only alternative was the even more time consuming task of retrieving a

particular drawing from the company's file of

completed projects (bins containing all records

pertaining to the completed project) — located in a distant warehouse. Since there is no statute of

limitations on the responsibihty of architects in Texas, the firm retains its files permanently. In

addition to the time consumed, the usual results were frustrating failure. "CRS's system employs both aperture cards and

microfiche. Aperture cards are standard sized punch

cards with a film frame mounted in a window on

the card. The CRS microfiche are sheets of microfilm containing up to 90 images. Projected data,

reduced to microfilm, will be readily available in an area adjacent to the computer room. If the architect wants to study the drawing, he drops the

aperture card into a viewer. If he wants a hard

copy, one can be produced in thirty seconds for him to study at his desk.

65
"Under its developing program, CRS also is analyzing all of its design functions, coding them

and entering the data into an IBM 1130 computer.

When completed, the computer will contain refer- ences to projects by design elements. An architect

seeking to learn how a particular problem was solved

in the past will cite the factor and the 1130 will list the projects containing that particular element."

(Computers and Automation 16, No. 10, 54 (Oct.

1967).) 4.6 "Currently, the 4 by 6 inch microfiche has

been standardized and popularized by both government and industry. Two fundamental system re- quirements are filled by the microfiche unit record.

First, it fits the human hand well, a mandatory re- quirement since the carrier must operate in manual

as well as automatic systems. Second, it fits the

information packages well, and therefore it will provide a least-cost file dissemination tool. This is achieved because the microfiche is usually relatively

full. Thus, using microfiche, the user can obtain

the lowest cost per page of any comparative method

in pubhshing appHcation." (Tauber, 1966, p. 280).

"Microfiche makes the duplicating library con- cept possible. In this concept the basic library is a

file of microfiche. The user receives a duplicate

microfiche, either negative or positive, made while

he waits. Other optional outputs will be made avail- able such as selectively producing hardcopy on a reader-printer or completely producing hardcopy

through the use of a step-and-repeat enlarger."

(Tauber, 1966, p. 281).

"Indexing acquisitions on tape, however, is only

a part of processing. In establishing an operating

philosophy for handling of materials, NASA was bound by the need for timeliness and the need to give individual service in providing the documents

themselves. The best solution seemed to be microfiche. A single processing results in a micromaster

from which any number of production copies can be

obtained. The production copies are readable as is, with readily available equipment, and if the user wants hardcopy, a copy can be blown back from

the microfiche and handed to him. We also con- sidered the sheer bulk of files, the cost of handling

and mailing tons of paper annually, and the vast storage space our NASA Centers and other service

points would need." (Day, 1965, p. 130). 4.7 "Reductions greater than 35X have to have

highly specialized associated storage and retrieval hardware unless these high reductions are being

used to compress records for archival storage and

thus not in high activity files. Perhaps we could

consider any image reduced more than 35X as an

'ultra-microimage'." (Howerton, 1962, p. 23). "The computer-controlled Magnavox 'Magnavue'

and the IBM 'Cypress' 1350 photoimage retrieval system are both in the $1,000,000 range and there- fore are for special high-priority operations only."

(Van Dam and Michener, 1967, p. 202).

"Even if the system will be used under conditions

such that successive regeneration of document

images is not a limiting factor, there is a problem

in that with increasing reduction ratio the film transport mechanisms in cameras, readers, and

printers become extremely complicated. The

greater the number of images stored within a given area of film, the more difficult is the problem of indexing, locating, and accurately registering

any single one of them. Eventually a point is reached

at which the cost and complexity of the imageregistration mechanism discourage the use of

higher reduction ratios." (RADC Summary of the

State-of-the-Art, 1967, p. 16). "Special systems based on document reduction

ratios of 60 : 1 (Kodak Minicard), 140 : 1 (AVCO

Corporation), and 200 : 1 (National Cash Register

Company) have been successfully used for highdensity document storage, but they require special

(and expensive) equipment exclusively designed

for these purposes." (Ibid, p. 19). "The Verac, constructed by the AVCO Corporation, 1958-1961, could store a million pages in reduced facsimile in a cubic foot of space and

could find and display or reenlarge any one of them

in seconds. It demonstrated the engineering

feasibility of high-density photostorage; in economic

terms, however, it was a failure." (Council on

Library Resources 10th Annual Report, 1966, p. 21). "The highly complex hardware necessary to handle ultra-microimages and the quality of the

input material must be the two principal criteria against which any plans to use such high reduction

ratios need to be checked. I discussed some of

the apparent but not real compressions of document

systems in the ultra-micro range before the National

Microfilm Association last year and will not repeat

the arguments here. Project WALNUT, the CIA/

IBM high activity document store about which you

have read, utilizes a net 35X reduction ratio. The

proportion was reached only after having experimented with and found impractical reduction

ratios above 50X." (Howerton, 1962, p. 23). However, it is to be noted that "Republic Aviation

entered the microform field because of the large

number of technical manuals it provides with

its airplane weapons systems. Its equipment

records 9801 frames on a 4" x 5" fiche at 260 : 1 reduction ratios in a two-stage photographic process. A 10-fiche automatic loader for the keyboard-controlled X—Y positioning "Micro-vue" viewer gives access to any of about 100,000 pages in less than

30 seconds, at a projected cost per page of .OOlc};."

(Van Dam and Michener, 1967, p. 204). 4.8 "The Council has this year commissioned

a new investigation from the Republic Aviation

Division of the Fairchild Hiller Corporation. This

study will seek to identify and estimate the effect of factors (size, contrast, optics, photosensitive

materials, etc..) affecting the usefulness of microcopy at high reduction. Film chips will be made

demonstrating optimum use of high reductions

up to 300, a laboratory model of a viewer will be

constructed for evaluating such microimages

under various conditions, and an engineering study

will investigate the feasibility of procuring hard

66
copy from the microimages." (Council on Library

Resources 10th Annual Report. 1966. p. 50). 4.9 "The importance of high quality in the hard

or soft copy output, results from the intensive use which is made of the patent documents. The documents are searched for several hours at a time and

the selected documents are carefully studied.

A system providing difficult to read copy under

these conditions would clearly and rightfully

meet strong customer resistance. The maintenance

of high quahty throughout the system provides a considerable challenge because of the many generations involved in reaching the output copy. Figure 2 shows the steps that might be involved in the pro- duction of hard copy in the system. The camera

negative would probably not be used in the store because of format requirements and the need for an archival master. The output of the central

file, a third generation microform, would be an

intermediate whether used for printing, as the input

to a Copyflo or Electrofax. or as a master for the

production of classified release microforms. The

use of video printer does not ehminate these steps,

because there is still the requirements for an

archival master and because of the need for a

buffer between the central file output and the

printer. Finally, in the pubhc search appHcation.

the remote user should be able to produce hard

copy from his soft copy viewer. This would be a

print-out from a 4th generation • microform."

(Urbach. 1962. p. 159.)

4.10 "What are the impHcations of the Register

for a national preservation program? One of the

first effects wiW be to bring to the attention of Hbrar\- administrators the need to establish policies

concerning preservation of the materials in their

collection — all of which are deteriorating at one

rate or another. The hbrary community has not yet

fully faced up to this need. Some Ubraries are using

their only microform copies as service copies, and,

in some instances, these represent the most complete files available, or even unique and irreplaceable copies." (Applebaum. 1965. p. 492.1 "C. S. McCamy . . . [said that indications based

on an extensive survey] point conclusively to excessive humidity as an important element in the pro- duction of blemishes on microfilm. Laboratory work

also indicates that chlorine (as found in urban water

systems) is a factor to be considered. Further re- search must be done, however, before definitive conclusions are reached or any new recommendations are made regarding the production and storage

of archival-qualitv microfilm." (LC Info. Bull. 25.

App.. 285 (19661.)' "Scientists at the XBS Institute for Basic Standards are investigating aging blemishes that sometimes form on microfilm years after the films are placed in storage . . . The discovery of aging

blemishes on some microfilm has generated extensive research into the causes of blemishes both at NBS and throughout the photographic industry. The

objective of these studies is to obtain a clear understanding of the physics and chemistry of the reaction so that proper measures may be taken to prevent blemish formation. . . . "Research at XSB. at the Armed Forces Institute of Patholog}". and at Kodak Research Laboratories

has led to the conclusion that biological mechanisms are not directly contributorv". .AH findings

thus far indicate the spot formation is a chemical

process, and as usual in such cases, the probabihty

of reaction depends on many factors. These include

the exposure and processing conditions as weU as various aspects of film storage." (Research on

Archival Microfilm. 1966. pp. 154-155 1. 4.11 These techniques were developed, for example, in the Microfilm Rapid Selector as

originally proposed by Bush and in the Eastman

Kodak Minicard System. For the historical background, see Bagg and Stevens. 1961. pp. 9-36.

4.12 "The merged-record approach, wherein

the machine-readable, coded representation of a document is fused together M"ith the full text document image, results in a clumsy, slow-response

system which inflicts excessive wear on the document images, and involves great inefficiency and

inflexibihty in index searches." {\ ogel. 1962. p. 27.) In contrast, "physical independence of the index

from the related photo images . . . makes it convenient to:

a. Search a great amount of compressed data

(indexed information) efficiently, without

scanning or physically passing over the great

volume of extraneous information contained

in fuE copies of the documents indexed.

b. Reclassify, update and purge sections of the

index without altering the image file. c. Establish as many cross-indexes as may be

desired.

d. Index and refer to relevant holdings stored in other forms or in other locations.

e. Add to and purge documents from the image

file without regard to fixed categories or file locations.

f. Use the mechanized index in combination with

a manned librarv'. or the mechanized image

file without the computer-based index.

g. Replace either the index or image file with

different units without disrupting the svstem."

(Ibid, p. 28.)

4.12a "Posting document numbers in a peek-aboo system involves locating, in a rectangular array on an index term card, the coordinates corresponding to the document number and punching a hole at that point on each card applicable to the document.

A search wiU then let light pass through the same

hole locations in several stacked cards indicating,

with the aid of a grid. lor. as described below% by

use of the Microcite search machine) the numbers

of those documents indexed by all the terms selected

for the search, hence the documents to be retrieved.

"The peek-a-boo or search cards . . . used

are 5" x 8" x .007-. 010" polyvinyl stock, of which

there is one each for everv" priman." index term

used . . . Output may be limited to this display

67
or the user may, by pushbutton, command readout

into an IBM punch. The basic elements required

for provision of hard copy output have been in- corporated in the machine, but this capabihty has

not as yet been used in routine operation. "In Microcite, the location of each indicated hit

is used as a reference point from which to position

and project a microfilm image of the abstract of the document, or of data that can be accommodated

within the limits of a 5 x 8 inch card in the case of data retrieval systems, for visual inspection by the

querist. The searcher may then (1) determine the

probable relevance of the projected items to his question prior to retrieval of the full document

text, (2) selectively sample the results to ascertain

whether his search prescription is too broad, or narrow, and, with collateral use of an indexing

term dictionary (coding vocabulary), (3) either re- formulate his search prescription in the former case

or add and/or remove index term cards in the latter. These operations are possible because the searcher

becomes part of a closed feedback loop when he

is conducting a machine search; that is he receives

prompt indications of the machine output from

which he may modify the input. In terms of "directed browsing" (where the user poses a delib- erately broad question), a convenient tool is thus

provided. In this way the machine provides browsing

capability equivalent to access to a very large

number of libraries each organized in a different basis at the whim of the user. "Microcite is therefore a special-case system

involving search type selection that not only retrieves

address locators, but is coupled with a direct

facsimile output of document abstracts or of data

(projected image and, if desired, hard copy). It thus uses two basic storage media: vis., film on which the abstracts or data are copied and peek-aboo cards for indexing. The process for storing

the abstracts or data involves a special camera

that records each image at the precisely correct

location in an array. At a reduction ratio of 64 to 1, 20,000 photoreductions of 5 x 8 inch cards are accommodated in a 15" x 15" area on a 20" x 24"

film sheet . . . "In operation of the Microcite machine for search, the film matrix appropriate to the peek-a-boo

set being searched is automatically selected and

mounted on a drum. The operator places selected

peek-a-boo cards on an illuminated area of the

machine and manipulates two control wheels to position a set of cursors on each illuminated,

that is, unobscured hole in turn. Turning the control

wheels cause rotation and translation of the drum

carrying the film matrix, so that as the cursor is set on each hole, a fullsize focused image of the

citation and abstract corresponding to that hole

is projected on a screen in front of the searcher."

(Adapted from Bagg and Stevens, 1961, pp. 83,

85—86; additional information from J. Stern,

Sept. 1969.)

4.13 "The principal factors that determine

- whether or not a file should be automated are file

activity and cost. Although complex centralized

storage and retrieval systems have been advocated

for many years, (2) the shortest time cycle from

question to answer is frequently found to be the use

of decentraUzed microfiche files. Therefore, we can draw the following conclusion: when manual microfiche files are automated, the ideal of having an

entire file of information concerning one individual's area of interest can be on his desk, available on

simple command, and capable of easy update." (3) (Hoadley, 1966, p. 30). "Microfiche report dissemination or publishing

may reduce the need for remote physical access to central files simply because you literally can store

a small Hbrary in your desk." (Herbert, 1966, pp. 34-35).

"Obviously convenience of look-up on the premises of his own building will revolutionize the re- searcher's work and should improve the quality of

his work and prevent unwanted duplication; this, after all, is the raison d'etre of the special library."

(Kozumplik and Lange, 1967, p. 67). 4.14 "GPL Division of General Precision, Inc., has developed a system that allows microfilm to be

up-dated and corrected without film reprocessing.

Only a standard pencil and eraser is needed to add

or delete up-dated information. The new system,

PARD (for Precision Annotated Retrieval Display), stores up to 500,000 management information items on 5,000 EAM-cards, automatically selects any one

card within six seconds, then 300m magnifies it up

to 250 times for television viewing, while providing

continuous updating capability." (Data Proc. Mag.

7, 44 (Feb. 1965).)

4.15 "Erasibility is beginning to be offered with

certain microforms. For some photosensitive dyes

there is a gradual loss of image density with return

to reusable state, unless the image is protected or developed. Another erasable medium is thermoplastic, in which an application of heat smoothes

out previous modulation and renders the plastic

ready for a new recording." (Heilprin, 1961, p. 217).

"Thermoplastic recording is permanent within

reasonable temperature ranges, and erasures (with

degradation) are possible." (Gross, 1967, p. 6). Another proposed recording-storage development

reported with erasure capability is that of the

"Photocharge" system invented by Gaynor and

Sewell of G.E.'s Advanced Technology Laboratories.

This technique utilizes a photoelectronic potential

of material in special film so that light and heat

together produce a picture consisting of minute

deformations on the surface of the film, which can be erased by reheating. (Business Automation 12,

No. 7, 50). 4.16 "One of the major accomplishments of the

NCR PCMI process is that it not only permits in- spection to occur at any step of the process but it also allows the operator to correct errors." (Tauber

and Myers, 1962, p. 403). * 4.17 "It is probable that the single most important impetus to the trend of 'five' micro-image sys- tems was the approval and subsequent pubUcation

68
in 1960 by the Department of Defense of a group of

specifications covering a DOD engineering data

microreproduction system ... In late 1962, these

specifications were revised and now represent a very

important standard for the entire microfilm in- dustry." (Hanlon et al., 1965, p. 5). "In June 1963, COSATI endorsed a . . . limited

set of microfiche standards, specifying reduction

ratio, image frame size, and separation between

frames. The Committee recommended their adoption by all Federal agencies. In August of that year.

Dr. Jerome Weisner, then President Kennedy's

Scientific Advisor, made government-wide adoption

of the standards a matter of Federal pohcy and

urged development of further standard specifications for reading and printing the miniaturized product and for reproducing full-size copy." ("The New

Microfiche Standards". 1966, p. 36). "A microfiche standard for documents by 11 inches or smaller has been established by the National Microfilm Association (NMA). The NMA standard identifies four acceptable microfiche sizes: 75

by 125 mm, 105 by 148 mm, 5 by 8 inches, and 3.25

by 7.375 inches. A reduction ratio of 18: 1 to 20: 1

is specified with a fixed frame size. It was an- nounced that all Government agencies would standardize with the 105 by 148 mm size (approximately

4 bv 6 inches) early in 1965." (RADC Summary of

the State-of the-Art. 1967, p. 53). "Further refinement of the standards which led

to the governmentwide adoption of the 4"'x 6" microfiche has resulted in the publication of Federal

Microfiche Standards, issued in September, 1965."

(Veaner. 1966, pp. 204-205).

"For the first time the federal government is on a standard before too many noncompatible systems

get started. Users will be able to purchase reading

equipment with assurance of total system compatibihty and without fear of early obsolescence."

(Yerkes,1963.p. 129).

4.18 "Librarians with a responsibility for the

service or custody of microforms were urged to ac- quire and maintain a collection of the latest revisions

of appHcable photographic standards approved by

the American Standards Association . . ." (LC Info.

Bull. 25, App. 483 (1966).)

4.19 "The need for a shift to a linework density

standard arises from the fact that the lines which we wish to photograph vary widely in reflectance and

produce lines of very wide density differences on the

film. In fact, measurements have shown that the line densities on negative film of engineering drawings

vary all the way from 0.08 for some ink hues to 0.60

for light pencil lines. This wide range of hne density

is the cause for most of the problems in making

satisfactory reproductions and providing a readable

image on the reader. It is with the intention of improving this condition that a control over the density

of linework is needed. Preliminary studies have

already indicated that a maximum line density of

0.25 with adequate background density would bring

substantial improvement." (Frey et al., 1962, p. 105).

"The development of any new art usually begins

rather awkwardly and, with learning and experience,

it and the associated instrumentation is refined. While at the present time we must read the reflec- tances of several fines and perhaps determine some

optimum exposure based on the range of reflec- tances, there may come a time when we will be able

to scan the entire drawing and have an integrated

exposure which will be optimum for all the lines on

the drawing. The objective should be to find a method of holding line densities through proper

exposure, development and drafting techniques to a spread of approximately 0.20 density. While we

are placing the emphasis on the control of line densities, we have not entirely ehminated the impor- tance of background because there must be suffi- cient difference between densities of linework and

background to provide adequate contrast both for producing reproductions and for viewing on a reader.

If we can hold to a maximum line density of 0.25,

including the density of the base, the 0.25 would

represent the maximum Hne density on a microfilm. If we then establish that a minimum hne to background contrast difference of 0.75 is required

to insure usability, the minimum desirable background density level would be the sum of the maximum line density plus the desirable contrast or 0.25 + 0.75=1.0 density. It is a procedure similar

to this that will be employed to determine the background density level, once the line density standard

has been established." (Frey et al., 1962, pp. 110-111).

4.20 "National Microfilm Association members

including all major equipment producers conferred

with government representatives on September 4

and 5 and are close to agreement on basic standards:

a. Microfiche Sizes — 75 x 125 mm (Ubrary card),

105 mm X 6 inches, 5 inches x 8 inches, 3.25

inches x 7.37 inches (tab card).

b. Single frame size: 11.25 mm x 16 mm, double

23 mm x 16 mm with one-half mm separation.

c. Reduction ratios 18x to 20x variable.

d. Reference point on microfiche for automation

requirements — lower left-hand corner.

e. Layout — Eye legible title on top of microfiche

(along longest dimension, micro pages running

in sequence below from left to right and downward from row to row." (Yerkes, 1963, p. 129).

"The NMA Standard specification for microfiche

is being revised and wiU include almost all of the

agreements reached between the government and

the industry and user representatives." ("The New

Microfiche Standard Standards", 1966, p. 39). 4.21 "The third major objective, i.e., encouraging

manufacturers to reduce costs of microfiche equipment, will not be achieved until a high-volume

market is assured." (Schwelling, 1966, p. 36). 4.21a For example, "standards for microfilm are provided in a new pubhcation — Microfilm Norms —

issued by the American Library Association. Subtitled 'Recommended Standards for Libraries' . . . [it includes] a list of pertinent standards of the

69
American Standards Association, the National

Microfilm Association, and the U.S. Government. It also provides target descriptions, target and page

arrangements, reduction ratios and image orientation, quality requirements for first-generation films,

and a section on duplicate films." (LC Info. Bull. 25,552(1966).)

4.22 "The first attempt to hst microfilms was the

Union List of Microfilms initiated in the spring of

1941 by the Philadelphia Bibhographic Center and

Union Library Catalogue. The list was published in 1942 with Supplements 1-5, 1943-47, and was cumulated into the Union List of Microfilms, Revised,

Enlarged and Cumulative Edition, 1951, followed by

Supplements 1949-52 and 1952-55. There was then

a final Cumulation, 1949-59, pubfished by Edwards

Brothers in 1961, which includes more than 52,000

entries representing microfilm accessions reported

by 215 hbraries in the United States and Canada

from July 1, 1949, through July 31, 1959. It excludes

newspapers, dissertations, and a number of specialized series such as the Vatican Manuscript Codices.

In 1948, another important reference source ap- peared. Newspapers on Microfilm, a listing which

has gone through several editions and is now pubhshed by the Library of Congress.

"Both the Union List of Microfilms and Newspapers on Microfilm limited themselves to materials

reproduced on roll microfilm. The first Usting of

pubUcations on unitized, opaque microforms (e.g. Microcard, Microprint) was the Union List of Publications in Opaque Microform, compiled by Eva

Maude Tilton and pubfished by Scarecrow Press in 1959. There is a 1961 supplement and a 1965 revised

edition. These are essentially listings, in dictionary

order, of entries appearing in publishers' catalogs. "In 1961, Microcard Editions, Inc. issued the first

list of microform publications to include all methods

of microreproduction. It is called Guide to Microforms in Print and appears in February of each year. Basically, it is a comprehensive list, in alphabetic

order, of materials which are available on microfilm

and other microforms from United States publishers,

exclusive of theses and dissertations. It is not a union list but rather a list of publications offered for sale on a regular basis." (Diaz, 1967, p. 212).

"The National Register of Microform Masters

should fill an important need as it provides a central

listing for the type of microform that has been most

difficult to keep track of— that made by a library for

its own use. Since the library may have little or no

interest in selling duplicate copies, no publicity is given and therefore the existence of the microform

does not become widely known, leading to the type

of situation wherein one year after Library A has

completed filming a lengthy set. Library B begins

filming the same set because it does not know of

Library A's activity." (Diaz, 1967, p. 213).

4.23 "Perhaps the best source for information

and evaluation of current equipment is Library

Technology Reports, a subscription service offered

by the Library Technology Program of ALA. This

service, which costs $100.00 per year, provides

hbraries with periodic reports on practically any- thing they are Hkely to buy including microform

reading machines. All machines are given an impartial examination so that the subscriber receives

not only specifications about the machine but also a

critical evaluation. All tests to date have been

conducted by WiUiam Hawken, formerly head of Photographic Services at the University of California

Library, Berkeley, and a recognized expert in the

field of microreproduction. Mr. Hawken has also written Enlarged Prints from Library Microforms

(Library Technology Project Pubhcation No. 6), a detailed study of reader-printers.

Another important source of equipment information is the Guide to Reproduction Equipment, edited

by Hubbard Ballou, Head of the Photoduplication

Laboratory at the Columbia University Libraries.

The Guide is pubHshed by the National Microfilm

Association under a grant from the Council on

Library Resources and is now in its third edition

(1965). It is probably the best reference source for specifications; it does not, however, give any evaluations. The current edition contains 550 pages and

includes descriptions of 292 machines." (Diaz,

1967, p. 211). ''The International Micrographic Congress has

received a grant . . . [from the Council on Library

Resources] to prepare and pubhsh an 'International

Guide to Microfilm Equipment'." (LC Info. Bull. 25,

No. 10, 137 (1966).)

4.24 "Let us now turn to the problem of good

to excellent microimage production equipment

for problem document collections in which the

spectrum of best to worst material to be microproportioned is very great. Just now are cameras becoming available which will accommodate such

variance of input quality in resolution ranges

commensurate with the newer storage vehicles.

Cameras with coupled exposure adjustment devices

to reheve the operator of the responsibiHty for judging exposure characteristics of problem documents may resolve this problem with amortization

of the added cost of the equipment to be written

off fairly quickly in reduction of film spoilage and

added good will of the clientele of the service."

(Howerton, 1962, p. 25). 4.24a "Eastman Kodak Co. has announced

Kodachrome color microfilm for use by business,

education and industry. In a recent demonstration,

Kodak showed examples of 16mm color microfilm

in rolls and unitized in jackets, as well as in microfiche— 4 X 6 in. film-cards with rows of 16 mm ex- posures totalling up to 60 individual images."

(Bus. Automation, p. 69, Dec. 1967).

4.25 "The essential feature that is missing from

the currently available machines is the ability to scan directly from the pages of a bound book."

(Schatz, 1967, p. 19). 4.26 "Data Reproduction Systems, Inglewood,

California, brought out two portable cameras, the

DRS 8514 and DRS 1117, which could be used to photograph bound volumes owing to a unique design

feature: an 'open bottom' which permits placement

70
of the camera directly over the pages of an open

book of any thickness." (Veaner. 1966. pp. 202-203).

4.27 "Capable of being operated by untrained

personnel, the camera can copy single page documents, periodicals, or books in a face-up rather

than a face-down position. An even-pressure

system holds bound volumes precisely positioned

for exposure, preventing damage to the binding.

An electronic flash source supplies uniform illumi- nation without heat." (Houston Fearless brochure,

"Books Microfilmed \^ hile You Wait by NewCamera-Processor". B-102-65A. 1965).

"Houston Fearless . . . announced plans to build a microfiche Camera-Processor expressly

designed for library materials . . . The opened

book is placed /ace up on the platens and the book

holder moves upwards against the glass wedge.

This flattens the pages and prevents motion during

exposure. Presumably the optical system is designed

to "open" the book page a fuU 180°. FuUy processed

microfiches (called Filmcards by Houston Fearless)

are produced at a reduction of 18 to 1. Capacity of the camera is 250 precut film sheets of size 105 mm

x 148 mm. about 4" x 6". Work on this unit is being

supported by a grant from the Council on Library

Resources." (\ eaner. 1966. p. 204).

4.28 "There have been all kinds of medical

studies and tests about which is better, negative

or positive film. We can"t prove much one way or

the other." ("Microfilm Experts Scan the Future'". 1967. p. 28). 4.29 Cf., for example, the following: "During

the past four years, a concerted effort has been

made to compile a library of working computer

programs appropriate for analyzing social science

research data . . . The routines are problemoriented rather than technique-oriented. The organization of the library and its documentation reflect an assumption . . . that users will start with a statement of their overall research objectives and

infer from these objectives which routine or set of

routines would be appropriate to analyze their data. In fact, several routines ask the user while he is conversing with them on-Hne to select the kind of

analysis he would like to perform ... It is assumed

that social scientists will tabulate or cross-tabulate

their data in ways which will facilitate a test of

their research hypotheses. The tables so created

will then contain direct observations or category

frequencies arranged by variables, by categories,

or by sub-samples, whichever is appropriate to testing the research hypothesis previously formulated. The routines, in turn, reference and discuss

these data according to the structure previously

set down by the user . . . Once the routine has

been initiated, detailed instructions are given by

the routine itself concerning its purpose and scope,

its restrictions, the proper way to enter data (with

error diagnostics if errors occur), and the proper

way to interpret results . . . Analytical flexibility

is provided by frequent choice points programmed

into the routines themselves such that the user may decide on-Une what kind of analysis to perform

next conditional upon the results of previously

performed analyses ... A fourth objective was to incorporate as fuUy as possible into the logic of

each routine whatever automatic decisions could be

made strictly on the basis of problem and data

descriptions provided by the user (e.g.. whether to compute a binomial sampHng distribution or to approximate it with a normal distribution, depending

upon the sample size)." (Miller, 1967, pp. 1-2).

4.29a "The great interest that has been aroused

by the proposal of a National Data Center holds

great promise and great problems. At the heart of the issue is the juxtaposition of conflicting values —

the protection of privacy as opposed to the need to discover new knowledge. We have (Considered one

possible means of partially reconciHng these conflicting values, namely, the use of partial aggregation

which obscures individual identification. Partial

aggregation has the great advantage of satisfying

all but the most severe of requirements for the

protection of privacy while still offering great improvement over the data which are currently avail- able to the research communitv." (Feige and Watts,

1967, p. 16). Many of these issues of privacy and protection

will be discussed in a later report in this series. 4.30 "The first Rapid Selector was constructed

at M.I.T. during the period 1938-1940 by Bush and

his assistants. Figure 8 is a schematic diagram of the original Bush Rapid Selector. In this original

version, the microfilmed file consisted of document

frames accompanied by specific patterns of clear

dots used as a selection code. The code pattern

consisted of 12 fields, each of which contained 27

discrete indexing areas. Each area represented a

different indexing character. This pattern could be

used to identify each document by serial number, name or title, author, or subject content indicia. In this machine, the code appeared on one longitudinal half of a 35 mm film and a photographic

image of the original document was recorded on the

other half, as shown in Figure 8. "In searching, the code pattern for each document

frame was projected onto a bank of photocells. The

photocells were masked by a cutout that was the exact physical image of the selection criterion code

pattern. Recognition would therefore occur whenever match resulted in all photocells being illumi- nated. Such a match fired a strobotron that projected

the selected frame (document-record half) onto a section of hitherto unexposed 16 mm microfilm

advanced to proper position, thereby allowing a replica recording to be made. Thus, the result of finding a desired documentary item was to copy it when it was appropriately positioned in the selectionmechanism. This preliminary Bush Rapid Selector was used experimentally by the U.S. Department of the rVavy during the early years of World War II and

subsequently was returned to M.I.T. . where it is now stored." (Bagg and Stevens. 1961. pp. 19—20).

4.31 "Randomatic Data Systems of Trenton.

N.J., has introduced a completely new fine of

random card file equipment featuring a 2-second

71
automatic retrieval of randomly filed cards. A unique

concept of coding ordinary cards, by notching them

along the bottom edge in such a way as not to inter- fere with their use in most other card processing

equipment, is used. Both notching and selection are performed on a simple 10-button electrical keyboard." (Data Proc. Mag. 7, No. 11 (1965).)

4.31a "The Microstrip System, offered by

Recordak Corp., uses foot-long plastic holders for storage and retrieval of 12 in. strips of 16 mm

microfilm . . . File categories are distinguished

by color coding on the end tab, which contains an

index by content. The plastic strips are also indexed

lengthwise to facilitate location of the desired

image." (Business Automation 12, No. 7, July 1965). 4.31 "An information bit is represented by a

diffraction-limited 'hole' within the Unidensity film

layer. It results from the evaporation of the Unidensity medium by means of imaging the aperture

of a laser to a three-dimensional ellipsoid of revolution (Debye ellipsoid). During the time required to

create one bit, the vacuum temperature of the laser image if 3 x 10^ °K produces a vapor pressure of

1000 atmospheres within the bit volume, leaving an ellipsoidal hole in the Unidensity layer . . (Becker, 1966, p. 711).

4.31c They conclude: "While it will take considerably more work to make systems of this type

that are operationally foolproof, experience has

indicated that the principles of operation are sound

and that by using this type of system, much of the

high-storage potential of fine-grained photographic

materials can eventually be realized." (Lamberts

and Higgins, 1966, p. 733). 4.32 "Actuators may become very important

items of output equipment for the information re- trieval field in the near future. When combined with

digital to analog converters, actuators can enable an automatic computer to control the operations

of machinery and processes. To date, they have

generally been applied to industrial use. However,

they may become quite powerful in the future in

72
linking digital information retrieval systems to graphic document retrieval systems. It is not

difficult to conceive of a literature search being

done by traditional computer techniques with the

results of the search being used to produce microform copies of documents from a mechanical graphic

retrieval system, the necessary hnkage being

provided by a computer-driven actuator." (Austin,

1966. p. 243).

4.33 "Data within a given magazine may not be sequentially ordered by any criteria. Serial

numbers may be entered on each page of the data

by various numbering techniques — including auto- matic numbering coincidental with feed input at the

microfilmer. Alternatively, we may place a numbering counter in the photographic field and sequentially

number images that way. During filming, we may

enter also what we call an 'image counting mark'

for each image. The marks set up the possibihty

for entirely automatic finding of images. . . . This

is the Lodestar Reader with an automatic image

finding device coupled to it. There are a variety

of quite practical ways that the operator may know

the image frame numbers desired. She enters the

number — any number up to 10,000 — on the keyboard . . . Then she depresses the 'go' button

and the correct image appears on the screen in an

average of five to ten seconds — depending on the

location of desired image within a particular roll of

film . . . "Before leaving the subject of magnetic tape and

computers for the storage, and retrieval of infor- mation, a few comments may be appropriate. Up to 6 full 2400' reels of magnetic tape are required to store the data which can be recorded in human

language and stored in a single 100' microfilm

magazine. Magazine High Speed Retrieval of desired

information may be accomplished in a matter of

seconds and at a very low relative cost. Compare

for a moment the paper print-out volume repre- sented by approximately 2500 8^" x 11" pages with

a magazine of microfilm having the same capacity.

These and other cost and systems advantages are made possible through the use of film magazines."

(BruneUe. 1962, p. 87,91).

4.34 "The VSMF System, a copyrighted infor- mation retrieval system owned by Information

Handling Service, Englewood, Colorado, or IHS,

has three main elements — microfilmed data in cartridges or cassettes, a printed index for locating

groups of desired data, and the microfilm reader

printer. As the microfilm is scanned rapidly a heavy

black line appears on the reader-printer screen,

traveling up the face of the screen, which has a

ruled index beside it. As the index line approaches

the desired number group on the ruling, the scan

rate is slowed until the operator is able to stop at the desired number. Skilled searches can go from

fast scan to the desired number almost instantaneously." (Peirce and Shannon, 1967, p. 266).

"More than 1.5,000 suppliers are supplying data

for VSMF files, including scientific and technical

data on almost every product used in industry.

IHS classifies, indexes, microfilms and distributes

the data. The information is indexed by multiple

terms which describe the parts, materials and subsystems and manufacturers needs. The film car- tridges and VSMF index are updated regularly and

airmailed to subscribers to the system. Data is located on a given product in about half a minute.

At the moment, VSMF essentially serves product

design, plant engineering, and purchasing groups

in defense, aerospace, commercial and industrial

manufacturing and support organizations. . . . VSMF . . . consists of a copyrighted product index

which lists products by type; a microfilm cartridge

library of technical data; a full-size viewer, which

enables a user to locate required data, and an auto- matic print copier." (Christian, 1966, pp. 12, 15). 4.35 "For 16 mm film only, 3M offers another

reader/printer, the Filmac 4()0 . . . With a car- tridge system designed to compete with the

Recordak Lodestar." (Veaner, 1966, p. 202).

4.36 "The most successful of the systems built around roll microfilm is the Recordak MIRACODE

which combines the search function with document

retrieval. It uses 100-foot cartridges of 16 mm microfilm. Each cartridge contains 2000 images, any one

of which can be retrieved by attribute(s) in 10

seconds and either viewed or copied." (Berul,

1968, p. 30). "The Microstrip System . . . Foot-long strips of 16 mm microfilm are inserted into grooved plastic

sticks after a small plastic button is first fastened to one end of the strip. The plastic stick is inserted

into the reader and a pointer which engages the

plastic button is pushed along the stick. This allows

the reader to scan the contents of each strip on the

screen. The system is said to be designed for quick

look-ups and 'frequently changing' files." (Veaner,

1966, p. 202). See also note 4.31a. 4.37 "A new records retrieval system called

Remstar is now available from Remington Office

Systems. With Remstar, closed circuit television

is combined with automated records retrieval units

to not only locate records, but to transmit them

as well. "With this system, the files are centralized and

housed in Remington's electro-mechanical units. After retrieval, the record is transmitted on a Remstar Transmitter to a Remstar Monitor which

can be placed wherever the record is needed. After

viewing the record is released, or, if needed, a copy

can be made on the Remstar Printer. A variety of automated file equipment for the Remstar System is available to meet the needs of any size business."

(Systems 7, No. 2,6 (Feb., 1966).)

4.38 "As many as six million records can be

stored in 100 square feet of floor space with the

Randtriever system . . . Any one . . . can be

retrieved by pushing a button on the input keyboard

or by inserting a punched card into the request

reader. Electronic memory banks in the system take over to retrieve and deliver the request record."

(Systems 8, No. 2, 6 (1967).

73
4.39 "The Selectriever, introduced by Mosler

Safe Company of New York in 1965, provides for 6-second needle-sort retrieval of any one of up to 200,000 aperture, microfiche or tab cards, which

are stored in 100-card cartridges. This wholly

automatic unit . . . can also be interfaced with a computer, hardcopy printer, remote displays, or facsimile transmission system." (Van Dam and

Michener, 1967,p. 202).

4.40 "The difficulty of reel film for updating

might be overcome by the use of microfiche as in the Houston-Fearless CARD (Compact Automatic

Retrieval Display) system. Such a system could

also be computer manipulated, affording faster scanning access and a more dynamic interrogative

process." (Taylor, 1967, p. 31). "Houston Fearless Corporation . . . announced

for delivery in 1967 a desk-top microform retrieval unit and reader, with any of 73,500 (750 fiche with

98 images each) accessible in less than 5 seconds.

The unit . . . will be available with an optional

hardcopy printer or with a teletype or CRT for online hookups. Edge-notched identification numbers

are stored on the metal frame surrounding the microfiche, and the search request for a random page,

or a next page, is entered via keyboard, paper tape

or computer, thus maintaining file integrity." (Van

Dam and Michener, 1967, p. 202).

"Houston Fearless demonstrated a breadboard

model of CARD (Compact Automatic Retrieval

Device), a desk-top unit capable of displaying within

4 seconds any one of 10,000 pages of filmed data. The recording medium is standard 4" x 6" microfiches, mounted in metal holders housed in magazines holding from 128 to 1,024 microfiches. Each

metal holder is edge-notched for retrieval purposes

and is magnetically suspended so that microfiches

do not scrape against each other as they are withdrawn and replaced." (Veaner, 1966, p. 208).

"The Compact Automatic Retrieval Display

(CARD) system is produced by the Houston Fearless

Corp. Selling at under $5,000, it has a capacity of

73,500 pages and a response time of less than five seconds. Document address is entered by keyboard,

however, it could be adapted to accept paper tape, or signals directly from a computer." (Berul, 1968,

p. 30). 4.41 "Magnavox defivered to the Army Missile

Command its DARE, a high speed, unitized system

for storing and retrieving engineering drawings.

The DARE (Documentation Automated Retrieval

Equipment) is equipped with several hundred

magazines, each holding 3,000 35 mm x 3" chips

containing a drawing plus coded data. A chip is accessed directly, and copied onto an expendable

aperture card within one minute. Besides rapid

retrieval, the main advantage of the system is that the master copy need never leave the main file." (Veaner, 1966, p. 207).

"The Magnavue System is utiHzed by the U.S. Army Missile Command in their DARE program for the processing of a large file of engineering drawings

and associated documentation. The computer controlled DARE system provides automatic collection,

storage, retrieval, and preparation of punched Diazo

copy card outputs from a rapid-access file with a capacity of 750,000 microfilm images. On a random

basis, the equipment provides an average access time of 50 seconds. In the normal sequential 'batch

processing' mode, a file of 750,000 microfilm images

can be processed in approximately 7 hours. The

daily sequential processing includes, on the average,

the output of 5,000 Diazo copy cards, the input of 2,000 new Magnavue film chips to the system, and

the removal of 1,800 Magnavue film chips from the

system.

"Magnavue film chips, held in 2,500-chip magazines, are 35 mm wide by 3" long and have a mylar

base. The film chip has a high-resolution image

portion for the storage of a standard 35-mm microfilm image and a coded portion for the storage of 80 alphanumeric characters that identify the asso- ciated microfilm image. The system also can use magnetic chips of the same size to store additional

information associated with a given document."

(Van Dam and Michener, 1967, pp. 202-203).

4.42 "Alder Electronic & Impulse Recording

Equipment Co. is marketing a 'dial-a-document'

system for retrieval by telephone of full size documents stored in a centralized microfilm center. "Called the Alden/Miracode System, the equipment is a combination of Eastman Kodak Co.'s Miracode microfilm retrieval system and an Alden

Alpur-Fax Facsimile Scanner which scans, onto high-speed magnetic tape, a facsimile picture of the

original document. The tape then is used to transmit

the picture over standard telephone circuits to subscribers." (Systems 8, No. 1, 7 (Jan. 1967).)

4.43 T. C. Bagg, private communication, Feb.

13, 1968. 4.44 "Ampex Corp.'s new Videofile document

filing and retrieval system, a completely automated

micro-filing system, stores documents as recordings on magnetic video tape and provides fast, automatic

access and unusual flexibility in file organization."

(Data Proc. Mag. 7, No. 11, 56 (1965).)

"The Ampex Videofile system is now capable of

selectively recording a single page at any predetermined spot on magnetic tape ... It is understood

that at least one major university library is considering the Videofile as the next step beyond the

computer-produced printed book catalog." (Veaner,

1966, p. 207).

"Ampex's Videofile system, used in a NASA

engineering fibrary, is particularly suited for real- time retrieval of documents with a very short life span. Indexing can be done numerically or alphabetically using 18 numeric or 12 alphanumeric

characters stored contiguously to images on (magnetic) video tape. Access to a document can be

remote, with hard- or soft-copy output, and the

average access time ranges from 11 seconds for the

5-inch diameter, 10,800-page-capacity reel, to 115

seconds for the 14-inch, 259,000-page-capacity reel.

74
One page is stored on about a third of a linear inch

of standard 2-ineh wide tape." (Van Dam and

Michener, 1967, p. 203). 4.45 "At Republic Aviation, we have determined

that many users want the ultrahigh density that a system of our type offers ... A test program which

will be starting shortly will have an ultimate requirement for updating 50,000 pages of repair parts

hstings every three weeks and distributing the

ultrafiche to 3,000 centers. For a program Hke that,

ultrahigh density is a must. A portable device that can give the customer parts and pricing information

within a maximum of 30 seconds from a 50,000 page

internally stored library is a real plus ... It is a

truly automated random address device that displays the image full scale after it has been

reduced 260 diameters. Its trade name is MicroVue ... In order to shoot down original material

260:1 and then bring copy back 260 times, auto- matically screens out much existing poor quality

microfilm material. As for the hardware, auto- matically handhng very high density information

is not achieved at low cost. Since Micro-Vue is basically a digital logic driven platform, moving

in row/column coordinates under high quality

microscope optics, dictates that the price of the

viewer will never get down remotely into the $100

range . . . The process which Fairchild Hiller is willing to sell to users allows the laying down of

10,000 images on a glass master within a one-day

period with an accuracy of ± five microns on frame

centers." ("Microfilm Experts Scan the Future",

1967, p. 29). 4.45a "Ford Motor Co. 's Autolite-Ford Parts Div.

has signed a contract with the National Cash

Register Co. to transfer parts catalogs to a microimage dissemination and retrieval system.

"The parts catalog system, based on NCR's

PCMI process, provides for filming 14,000 catalog

pages covering automobile and truck parts. With

the PCMI process, 2,560 pages can be recorded

on a single 4 x 6-in. transparency; the 14,000 pages

can be put on seven transparencies.

"Initial distribution to dealers will require up to 70,000 transparencies, with a set of one to seven

for each dealer. Readers will be leased to Ford by

NCR. After original conversion, NCR will provide

up to 500,000 additional transparencies a year

covering catalog revisions." (Business Automation

15, No. 3, 88 (Mar. 1968).)

4.46 "A novel technique devised by Aeroflex

Laboratories, Plainview, N.Y., permits recording

up to 500 different pictures on a single negative.

Film is processed in the usual way but is read on

a special viewer which allows the user to select any 'page' at random." (Veaner, 1966, p. 207). 4.47 "General Electric's Advanced Development

Laboratories . . . announced two other develop- ments. One is Photocharge, a new photographic

recording process. Unlike other electrophotographic

processes such as those using selenium, or coated

paper, Photocharge material requires no external

charging to activate the recording process. The

second announcement describes improvements in Photoplastic Recording, a process first brought out by General Electric in 1963. Both processes are dry and produce high resolution images almost

instantaneously; both require further development

before becoming commercially available." (Veaner,

1966, p. 208).

4.48 "IBM's 'Cypress' system ('Son of

"Walnut" '), announced (and withdrawn) in 1966,

has storage facilities for half a million images on

Mylar-based chips. For retrieval, a cell (cartridge)

of 35mm x 70mm chips is located under computer

control and is transported pneumatically to a copying station, where the selected chip is copied

onto an aperture card, which is in turn, transported

for subsequent viewing or reproduction. Total

retrieval time for this random access system is between 4 and 6 seconds." (Van Dam and Michener,

1967, p. 203).

For a discussion of the earlier "Walnut" system,

see Vogel, 1962. For example: "The image converter

incorporates eight exclusion switches which repre- sent eight document classifications, each assigned

a numeric group code. The classification codes,

punched in the input control card, cause the input converter either to skip over these images or to transfer them, as desired. This permits grouping

like documents in a given cell. In addition, an X-punch in the card provides for excluding poor

quality microfilm images." (Vogel, 1962, p. 37). 4.48a "Data is stored on a 1.38 x 2.75-inch silver hahde photographic film chip. Thirty-two chips,

containing a total of approximately 150 million data

bits, are stored in a small plastic cell. . . . The

first cell contains 2250 cells and houses the pneumatic blowers for cell transport. Additional files containing 4500 cells each may be added to increase

total on-line capacity. A manual entry station on one or more of the files permits entry and removal

of cells from the system. Any cell can be accessed

and delivered through the pneumatic tube system

to a reader in less than 3 seconds." (Kuehler and

Kerby, 1966, p. 735).

4.49 "Magnetic cores have remained the most

widely used main memory element and current research is developing increasingly smaller cores, making possible faster, more compact memories.

IBM has recently developed a core with an outer diameter of only 0.0075 inches, small enough to fit inside the center hole of most currently used cores. Also under development are new organizations of cores within large memories. Innovations in core shapes have been introduced; for instance, the

"bi-axial" core is a rectangular block with two holes

through it that can be read in about 100 nanoseconds. Magnetic core memory elements in general

will be in use for at least the next few years because

of the large investment in existing and developing

techniques." (Van Dam and Michener, 1967, p. 207).

"A new low-cost mass core memory has been

announced by the Ferroxcube Corp. of Saugerties,

New York . . . The new memories, dubbed 'Megabit', are offered in modules of five million core capac366-108 O - 70 - 6 75
ities . . . This 5-million-bit size can be expanded

whenever desired by adding on additional 5 million

bit modules. For current systems, according to Ferroxcude, Megabit 53.12 can cut sorting and

merging time by one third thereby releasing vital computation time and extending system efficiency."

("New Mass Core Memory", 1965, p. 40).

4.50 "Bryant Computer Products . . . has

announced the availability of a new online, real-time mass storage disk file system, the Model 2A series

4000. capable of storing 3.8 billion bits of data with an average access time of 100 msec." (Commun.

ACM 9, 404 (1966).)

"The disks allow more than 2.5 million 16-bit words or 5 million 8-bit characters of on-line storage

simultaneously." (Data Proc. Mag. 9, No. 6, 8

(1967).)

"A large capacity disk storage subsystem

(DS-25) storing up to 800 million characters. 64

simultaneous record 'seek' operations are combined

with four concurrent data transfer operations in each subsystem." (Commun. ACM 8, 343 (1965).)

"A series of large disc memories features storage

capacities up to 6.4 billion bits on a single trunk

line and a data-transfer rate of a billion bits per

second. Basic 6-disc configuration has a storage

capacity of 400 million bits, a data transfer rate up

to 150 million bits per second, and an average access time of 35 milliseconds. By combining 16 of these

files on a single trunk line, an on-line storage capacity of 6.4 billion bits can be achieved. With special

electronics, a data transfer rate of a billion bits per

second is available. The new memories, designated

the Librafile 4800 series, also feature a fixed-head

per track, two methods of search and retrieval, and

retractable head plates. The 4800's rotating memory

element is composed of six aluminum discs coated

with a cobalt alloy. The discs measure 48 inches in diameter and i-inch in thickness. Mounted on a common shaft, they rotate at 900 rpm. Data is stored on both disc faces. Information is retrieved either

through fixed-address or record-content search.

Search by record-content is said to be the company's

exclusive technique for permitting any field to be

used as an access key. Only the nature, and not the

locations, of data sought need be known. This

feature is said to eliminate costly flagging and table look-up programs, saves central-memory space, and

permits simultaneous off-line search. Average

access time is 35 milliseconds. Librascope Group,

General Precision, Glendale, Cal." (Computer

Design 4, No. 11,83 (Nov. 1965).)

"New disc file memory provides a storage capacity

of 200 million bits, a data-transfer rate of up to 42

million bits-per-second. and an average access time

of 17 milliseconds. Called the Librafile 3800, the

system was designed for use in large scientific computing centers, in message-switching centers,

in military command-and-control installations, and

in intelhgence data processing systems. The mass memory is available in a basic 6-disc configuration

which features a fixed-head per track, two methods

of search and retrieval, and retractable head plates.

Information is retrieved either through fixed

address or record-content search. According to the

company, search by record-content is their exclusive

technique that permits any field to be used as an

access key. Only the nature, and not the location,

of data sought need be known. This feature is said

to eliminate costly flagging and table look-up pro- grams, saves central-memory space, and permits

simultaneous off-line search. Librascope Group,

General Precision Inc., Glendale, Cal." (Computer

Design 5, No. 2, 66 (Feb. 1966).)

"The [Control Data] 6608 Disk File system

contains a double-actuator 72-disk unit with a capacity over a billion bits. The transfer rate is 1,680,000 characters per second. Minimum access time is 34 msec. , maximum, 100 msec. Over 5,250,000

characters are available at one actuator position.

The two actuators operate independently to provide

simultaneous seeking and read/write operations."

(Commun. ACM 8, 723 (1965).)

"Sperry Rand's Univac Div. has introduced the

8410 Disc File for use with its 9000 series computers.

The 8410 provides removable direct access storage

of 3.2 to 12.8 milhon bytes, or 6.4 to 25.6 million

digits, in packed decimal format. The system in- cludes a master dual disc drive expandable one

drive at a time to a total of eight drives. Each drive

holds a reversible disc cartridge with two storage

surfaces, one of which is on-Une. Each disc drive can access 10,000 160-byte records plus an 8,000-

byte fast access track. Average time to locate and

read a record on a random basis is approximately

135 milliseconds. A high speed buffer permits all disc reading, writing, checking or searching to be

performed simultaneously with 9200/9300 processing and peripheral operations." (Business Auto- mation 15, No. 3,68 (Mar. 1968).)

"Caelus Memories, Inc., has announced that its six-high magnetic disc {^cks are now in production.

Each unit is designed to function with IBM 1311,

IBM 2311 and compatible equipment. The 10

coated surfaces in the CM VI disc pack each has

203 tracks of information, capable of storing up to 14.5 milhon bits. Access time is in the 75-85 milli- second range. The pack rotates at either 1,500 or 2,400 revolutions per minute. The units, weighing

10 pounds per pack, are shipped in sculptured and

ribbed styrofoam containers." (Business Auto- mation 15, No. 3, 80 (Mar. 1968).)

"A new, low-cost, direct access storage system

designed for the UNIVAC 9000 series computers

has been announced by Sperry Rand's UNIVAC

Division, Philadelphia, Pa. The new system, known

as the UNIVAC 8410 Disc File, makes it possible

for users to bridge the costly gap between punched

card and direct access processing. Suitable for field-installation on any UNIVAC 9200/9300 System,

the 8410 Disc File provides removable direct access

storage of 3.2 to 12.8 milhon bytes, or 6.4 to 25.6

million digits in packed decimal format.

"A basic 8410 System includes a master dual

disc drive expandable one drive at a time to a total of eight drives. Each drive holds a reversible disc 76
cartridge with two storage surfaces — one of which

is on-line. By interchanging disc cartridges, unlimited storage is provided for applications which

require serial processing.

"Each disc drive can access 10,000 160-byte

records plus an 8000 byte fast access track called

the Fastband. All disc drives contain a fixed head

for reading and writing on the Fastband and a movable arm with two heads for the remainder of

the disc surface. The average time required to locate

and read a record on a random basis is approximately 135 milliseconds. Fastbands can be used for program storage, index tables, or storage of fre- quently accessed data files. "Another feature of the UNIVAC 8410 Disc

File is a high-speed buffer permitting all disc

reading, writing, checking, or searching to be

performed simultaneously with 9200/9300 processing and peripheral operations." (Computers and

Automation 17, No. 2, 46 (Feb. 1968).)

"A high-capacity random access DISCflLE

memory system designed specifically for time sharing applications has been announced by Data

Products Corp., Culver City, Calif. The Model

5085 time/share DISCflLE stores over 5 billion

bits, and has lower access times and greater

operational flexibility than has been previously

available to the industry.

"The modular concept of the new DISCflLE

permits preventive and corrective maintenance to be performed upon individual components while

remaining modules are operating on-line with the

computer. Each positioner module can be withdrawn, and individual heads, arms, or associated

electronics can be serviced without shutting down

the system. Preventive maintenance devices are incorporated so that failures can be anticipated and

avoided.

"The system includes eight independent positioner modules accessing 32 discs. Each positioner

module carries 32 heads which access data on the

eight surfaces of a four-disc group. Each positioner

is independently addressable and electrically detented, so that all eight positioners can be simultaneously placed in motion, effectively overlapping

seek delays. An option is available to operate up to eight heads in parallel from each positioner module.

"Random average position time is 60 milliseconds;

track-to-track time is 15 milliseconds; full-stroke time is 100 milliseconds. These values include time

required to move the positioner and completely

settle on track; reading or writing can then proceed

I immediately.

j "Control units wiD be available that are compat1 ible with existing systems using either fixed or

, variable length records. These provide address

; processing, data formatting, comprehensive error

, checking and off-line testing capabilities. Thus the

- 5085 directly interfaces with existing hardware and

software." (Computers and Automation 17, No. 5, 61 (May 1968).)

"Two removable-medium devices that have been

recently marketed are the Anelex 80 series disc

and the IBM 2314 Direct Storage Facihty. The

latter represents a significant development since,

with 1600 million bits of information, it is comparable to some of the large fixed disc in capacity,

cost per bit, and average access time for a single

piece of information (90 milliseconds); however,

since there are eight independent disc packs, each

with its own accessing arm, eight different pieces of information can be sought simultaneously; average

access time is reduced from 90 to 40 milliseconds. A

comprehensive comparison of bulk storage devices

appears in Craver." (Van Dam and Michener, 1967,

p. 206). 4.51 "[UNIVAC] Fastrand II Mass Storage- 129,

761, 280 alphanumeric characters per unit; up to 8 units per computer channel; 92 milliseconds aver- age access time; sector addressable." (Computer

News 9, No. 7, 7 (1965).)

"Replacing the model 7320 for use with the

360/40, 50, 65, and 75 is the model 2303, which can

store almost 4 million bytes accessible in 8.6 milli- seconds. Transfer rate is 312.000 bytes/second.

Capacity is five times that of the older unit, and

speed is doubled. IBM DP DIV., White Plains,

N.Y." (Datamation 12, No. 3,81 (Mar. 1966).)

"A magnetic drum (MD-30) which provides

high-speed storage and retrieval of frequently used

data and instructions. Transfer rate is 370,000

characters per second. Average access time is 8.5 msec, and it stores up to 12 million characters."

(Commun. ACM 8, 343 (1965).)

"The Honeywell random access drum file pro- vides a medium for extensive file storage. One to eight drums can be connected to a series 200 system,

the storage capacity of each drum being 2,621,440

characters which may be divided into 20,480 records,

each of 128 six-bit characters. Average access time

to data stored on the drum is 27.5 milliseconds and

information is transferred to and from the drum at an average rate of 102,000 characters a second."

("Five Compatible Computers . . .", 1965, p. 289).

4.52 "The RCA 3488 is a mass storage and re- trieval unit for on-line operation. The data is stored on 16" by 4|" magnetic cards which are removed

from their magazines for read/write operations. In one unit there are eight (8) magazines with a total storage capacity of some 0.34 x 10'' alphanumeric

characters. In certain arrangements, the total capacity can be as high as 5.450 x 10-'* characters. The

average access time is 350 milliseconds with a data

transfer rate of 80,000 characters per second."

(Bones and Kros, 1966, p. 60.)

"A data cell is divided into 20 sub-cells each

containing ten strips of magnetic tape 13 inches

long by 2 inches wide. Data are read from, or re- corded on, a strip by means of a rotary positioning

system which aligns a selected group of ten tapes

beneath a read/write head. Access to a specific

record takes between 95 and 600 milliseconds

depending on the position of the required strip and

the arrangement of data in the file . . . "The 2321 data cell drive has a storage capacity of 400 million bytes ... up to eight 2321 units may

77
be connected to a computer, via a storage control

unit, providing an overall storage capacity of more

than three thousand million alphanumeric characters." ("IBM System/360", 1965, p. 300).

"A magnetic strip mass storage unit (MS-40):

Each unit can hold more than 532 million characters,

and eight of those units may be used together as a subsystem. This provides random access to more

than 4 billion characters." (Commun. ACM 8,

343 (1965).)

"A CRAM control unit interfaces up to 8 CRAM

units to a single position of a Century 100 or 200

I/O trunk. Each CRAM unit stores up to 124 miUion

bytes or 248 million packed decimal digits in a single changeable cartridge. The cartridge holds

384 cards made of Mylar with a magnetic oxide

coating. One selected card at a time is dropped from

the on-line cartridge and vs^rapped around a revolving

drum; this takes about 125 milliseconds. Then any

or all of the data on the card can be read and/or

written. Data is transferred at the rate of 71,250

characters per second." (Hillegass, 1968, p. 49). "Take the face of a king-size cigarette package,

coat it on both sides with a magnetic film, and you

have a 'file-card' with a potential for storing over 100 times as much computer information as the

conventional punched card. Based on a new concept

proposed by the United States Army Electronics

Command, Fort Monmouth, a new technique in unit record information storage developed by Sperry

Rand Corporation's UNIVAC Division (Philadelphia,

Pa.), is almost that simple.

"The new technique employs an all-fluidic (air) transport and a pocket-sized card with magnetic

recording surfaces. Instead of the familiar 7x3 inch

paper punched card, the new unit record in the

experimental system measures 2V2 x 4 inches and

is made of a plastic material overcoated on both

sides with a magnetic film on which digital data is recorded by magnetic techniques.

"The plastic magnetic record can store 1,000

characters — more than twelve times as much

information as a standard 7" x 3" punched card —

using only 12.5% of its magnetic surface for machinereadable data. (The rest of the card is used to demonstrate the feasibility of incorporating printed,

handwritten and pictorial information.) Other

benefits of the plastic card include a more rugged

construction, a reusable record, and considerable

better resistance to heat and humidity.

"The new method of handling unit records takes

full advantage of the new but rapidly developing

fluidics technology. Instead of electrons — the

controlling medium in electronics — fluidics uses

air pressure to perform control functions. Simply

stated, fluidics is the use of a small, easily manipulated control stream, such as an air current, to control the action of a much larger stream of the same medium. The source of the low pressure

air flow is a simple rehable device." (Computers

and Automation 1 7, No. 5, 66 (May 1968).)

"The basic storage medium of these [Honeywell mass memory] units comprises strips of magnetic

card, about the size of an 80-column punched card,

which can hold up to 117,500 characters each. ] These strips are housed in lightweight cartridges

each of which contains 512 magnetic strips ...

Data are recorded on the magnetic strips in tracks

*

in a serial-by-bit format. Each strip contains a

series of notches and when a cartridge is loaded

into a unit a series of selection rods are auto- , matically inserted through the notches. The selection rods are actuated and a specific magnetic

strip is retrieved by a single program command." ' ("Five Compatible Computers . . .", 1965, p. 289).

4.53 "This electronic system makes possible

high-speed and high-density storage (and subse- ; quent retrieval of digital information on recording

media such as thin metallic foils or semi-conductor ; films).

"The heart of the system is an electron beam tube f which produces a spot size of five microns at the

recording surface by magnetically focusing the

beam. Electrostatic deflection is employed to posi- tion the beam wherever required. High-speed j accessibility for read-out operations can be ac- 1 complished by special circuitry. The device is a ! rugged and completely demountable unit." ! (McDonald et al., 1964, abstract).

4.54 "A large scale memory system, which uses f film chips contained in plastic cells to store more : than a trillion bits of digital information is being

developed for . . . AEC [by IBM] . . . Information ! will be recorded by means of an electron beam which

will 'write' digital data on the 35 mm x 70 mm film f chips in the form of microscopic black and white ; coded spots.

"When a piece of information must be retrieved

from, or stored in, the mass storage systems,

the cells move automatically, under program

'

control — to photoelectric reading and writing ' stations. Data is transferred on-line at high speed * between the storage systems and the central

computer." (Bus. Automation 12, No. 8, 62 (1965).) '; "The triUion-bit IBM 1350 storage device, an ] offshoot of the 'Cypress' system . . . uses 35 mm x

' 70 mm silver haHde film 'chips'. A total of 4.5 ^ million bits are prerecorded on each chip by an

electron beam. For readout, a plastic cell containing ; 32 film chips is transported to a selector, which picks

the proper chip from among the 32; average access

' time to any of the 10'- bits is 6 seconds. After a chip '

is positioned, information is read using a flying-spot ' CRT scanner. Two IBM 1350 units are scheduled "i for mid-1967 delivery to the Atomic Energy Commis- f sion at Livermore and at Berkeley for use with ' bubble chamber data." (Van Dam and Michener, , 1967, p. 205). ' 4.55 "Another scheme for storing digital in- formation optically is the UNICON system, under

development at Precision Instrument Company.

This system uses a laser to write 0.7-microndiameter holes in the pigment of a film. Information is organized in records of at most a million

bits; each record is in a 4-micron track extending

about a meter along the film . . . Each record is

1
identified by information stored next to the beginning of that record, in an additional track at the edge

of the film. Readout of a particular record involves

scanning the identifier track for the proper code and

then scanning the track with a laser weaker than

that used for writing. It is predicted, on the basis

of an experimental working model, that one UNICON device with 35 mm film could store a

trillion bits on 528 feet of film, with an average

access time to a record of 13 seconds." (Van Dam

and Michener, 1967, p. 205).

4.56 "At least two different programs are underway to develop soUd-state storage modules that could be plugged into read-write electronics ... If this proves feasible and economical, the input/

output and off-Une storage functions presently

provided by magnetic tape could be provided by

high-speed, high-reliability devices and media with no moving parts." (Hobbs, 1966, p. 38.)

"The goals for one development program of this type are 4 million characters per [solid-state

storage] module, read-write rates in the order of

2 or 3 million characters per second, and costs of approximately 0.015 cent per character for off-line storage. A further advantage that would be offered

by this particular approach is random access (in

1 /a sec) to any block of data within a storage module

on the read-write unit . . ." (Hobbs, 1966, p. 38.)

"The serial data processing applications of the

future could well use removable-medium, mass

storage devices in place of tape units. On-line,

random-access applications could be handled during

the day and serial processing at night in a typical

system." (Bonn, 1966, p. 1866).

5. Output and Post-Processing Requirements

5.1a "A basic principle of systems design states

that no system is better than its final products. It therefore follows that output requirements establish

a framework upon which all other elements of sys- tems design must concentrate. Output products

must be specified in terms of both content and form.

Unfortunately, too many automated systems have

not given sufficient consideration to the latter, and

although the system may be able to produce the

necessary items of information, these are frequently

presented in such a way as to be either extremely

difficult or in some cases virtually impossible to use.

It is also unfortunate that, in this era of modern

computer technology, the development of sophisticated output devices has lagged seriously behind

other types of data processing equipment. This

paper will discuss these problems, and in addition

to presenting a detailed review of currently available

equipment, will describe some of the more important

elements of systems design to be considered in relation to the output of systems." (Austin, 1966,

p. 241).

5.1b "University of Pittsburgh. The Computation and Data Processing Center (CDPC) whh

support from the Advanced Research Projects

Agency of the Department of Defense, has developed

a system for book and journal printing. Under the

leadership of Kehl (now at M.I.T.), this group at

first carried on the work begun by Barnett at M.I.T.,

later developing a separate system, which included

use of hght pen, on-line typewriter, display scope,

and a general-purpose text-editing program for handling the processes of editing, formatting, and

introducing author's alterations. Large amounts of

31-channel monotype tape generated in composing

The Physical Review were accumulated for conversion to magnetic tape via a special reader built at the Center, to serve as a data base for experimentation. These developments are described by

Ohringer, and Roudabush et al." (American

Institute of Physics Staff, 1967, p. 351.)

Then we note also the following: "Generalpurpose displays and, to a lesser extent, alphanumeric consoles can provide an author/editor

with implementation of a file organization such as that first described by Bush and more recently by

Nelson as "Hypertext": "the combination of natural

language text with the computer's capabilities for interactive, branching or dynamic display ... a nonlinear text . . . which cannot be printed

conveniently ... on a conventional page . . .". Englebart's extensive work on computer-aided

text manipulation using a flexible editor's console

illustrates this concept. Another summary of on-line

process building, information retrieval, and text manipulation is found in Corbin. Magnuski's

master's thesis gives overall design specifications

for the capabilities of an Information Retrieval and

Display terminal, using existing equipment in the context of the MULTICS GE 645 time-sharing

system. Research continues on the BOLD (Bibliographic On-Line Display) system." (Van Dam and

Michener, 1967, p. 197).

5.1c Thus, "it is not unreasonable to imagine an

author, sitting at a typewriter in his own office to be able to edit his manuscript by entering changes

for the computer, type requests for bibliographic

references from the library, control the format of

this publication, and request the computer to produce an index automatically." (Kehl, 1965, p. 26).5.2 "One of these [CRT] displays was available

in 1953 on the ILLIAC . . ." (Frank, 1965, p. 50). 5.3 DYSEAC, later PILOT, and to a certain extent the latter's halfsister machine, Burlesc, at Aberdeen, included, for the relatively early period

of their design, unusual features of multiple,

variable-format input and output, priority interrupts

and control interlocks, and multiprogram swapping

and sharing characteristics.

"As an example, before digital computers can

be successfully incorporated into the often-predicted

79
'automatic factory' and 'automatic office' of the

future, such equipment must possess ready means

for sending inteUigence to and receiving inteUigence

from a variety of external devices performing

many diverse functions. Some of these devices will have to store, tabulate, file, convert, display, and

sense information; still other devices will have to actuate mechansims such as servo equipment in response to signals sent out by the computer as a

result of information being processed within it. The computer will have to direct all these devices

and coordinate their activities into an ensemble

operation. Indeed, to achieve the full effect of an ensemble operation, the system needs to have the

characteristics of a generalized feedback loop.

That is, the computer must not only exert control over these external devices, but they in turn must

be capable of calling for alteration in the course of action of the computer. Such requests enter the

computer as special signals or information transfers

from the external devices. . . . "This feedback arrangement can be used to introduce human monitoring and selective inter- vention into the normal operation of the system.

In its simplest form, pertinent information is dis- played to the human monitor who can elect to respond by actuating other external devices that supply the computer with either new data or

instructions. This feature will doubtlessly be a highly significant factor in the efficient exploration

of the new areas for which digital techniques appear

so promising. . . . "The kind and extent of the external devices to be added will necessarily depend on the particular

application which is being explored. Nearly all tasks need some printing and external storage

facilities; hence, the initial installation will have a

directly connected electromechanical typewriter

and one or more magnetic wire cartridges for speedy loading and unloading of the machine.

External storage in the form of magnetic tape equipment is also to be included initially in order to handle

the more usual computing and data-processing

tasks. More demanding tasks requiring somewhat

faster access to a rather large volume of data will probably lead to the annexation of one or more

magnetic drum units. Still more extensive problems

concerned with means for handling masses of

paper work will probably lead to the subsequent

addition of experimental magnetic disk memory

assemblies and experimental versions of the auto- matic magnetic file. For the exploration of real- time problems, including simulation and control

aspects, it will be necessary to annex input and

output converters to permit translation of infor- mation back and forth from digital to analog form.

For example, digital-to-analog conversion is used

when visual display of information stored inside

the computer is provided externally by means of

special cathode-ray tube devices. This listing of external devices includes only those for which

serious attention and development are already in progress. . . .

"One further device that may be attached to DYSEAC for special experiments is SEAC itself. As the two machines employ the same digital

language, this attachment can easily be made

through their regular input-output terminals. By

use of a coordinated pair of programs, the two

machines can be made to work together in common

harness on a number of interesting and potentially

useful tasks. Indeed, this mode of operation can, by the appHcation of available technology, be

extended to a widely dispersed group of informationprocessing machines that are interconnected by means of a communication network. With suitable

feedback facilities and correlated processing

programs these machines could even engage in cooperative tasks for which the supervisory functions are transferred back and forth, as the need

arises, among the several machines in the network.

These new approaches to the problem of automatizing industrial and commercial operations are reasonable extrapolations of current trends and can

be expected to lead to practical results if vigorously

pursued. . . . "As a second example of a potential application

which requires these capabilities, consider an

installation engaged in the control of air traffic at an airport terminal. For this appMcation, the human

operator can be coupled to the machine system (1) through the medium of a visual display device which

exhibits graphically the numerical data stored inside

the internal memory and (2) by means of a battery

of manual control switches capable of inserting new

numerical data or certain new control commands

into the machine. The numerical data displayed by

the machine represent in real time a map of the

predicted traffic patterns in the neighborhood of an

airport, e.g., the predicted locations, based on latest scheduling information, of all aircraft inside a certain area. The human operator can, by means of the

manual input-controls, enter newer data into the

machine as the information becomes available,

interrogate the machine for more detailed information concerning certain individual flights as the

need arises, and instruct the machine to exhibit

the effect to be expected from issuing revised

flight-control orders. In the latter case, parts of the

internal information of the machine must be pre- sented to the operator in a rather complex pictorial

form in order to be meaningful to him. Applications

of this sort, like the previous one, require a constant interchange of intelligence between the computer

and its operator, and between the computer and

other devices." (Leiner et al., 1955, pp. 39, 40, 51). 5.4 "A computer system, to work in partnership

with a designer, must have several clearly definable

capabilities. It must be able to accept, interpret,

and remember shape descriptive information

introduced graphically. When such a graphical

input capability is properly designed, the mancomputer combination can manipulate the elements

of a drawing in an entirely new way, with a freedom

and precision far surpassing what is possible with

pencil and paper." (Coons, 1963, p. 301).

80
5.5 "A display scope capable of generating

three dimensional curvilinear figures with convenient control of translation and rotation would

be extremely useful. The approach that has been

taken is to provide a function generator capable

of generating straight lines or second-order curves, and to have special purpose computing equipment

in the display unit which can perform the three- dimensions to two-dimensional axonometric projection computations. . . . "A system is presently being designed for the

Electronic Systems Laboratory which will display on a scope a standard two-dimensional plot or a rotated axonometric projection of a three-dimensional line drawing. The system wiU be capable of generating first- and second-order lines and will provide easy means for the computer to translate

or rotate the picture, or to magnify or de-magnify it. Techniques are incorporated to prevent plotting

when the limits of the scope edge are reached."

(Stotz. 1963, p. 325). 5.6 '"Each time a drawing is made, a description

of that drawing is stored in the computer in a form

that is readily transferred to magnetic tape. A library

of drawings will thus develop, parts of which may be

used in other drawings at only a fraction of the

investment of time that was put into the original

drawing ... A drawing in the Sketchpad system

may contain explicit statements about the relations

between its parts so that as one part is .changed the

implications of this change become evident throughout the drawing. For instance. Sketchpad makes

it easy to study mechanical linkages, observing the

path of some parts when others are moved . . . The

abihty of the computer to reproduce any drawn

symbol anywhere at the press of a button, and to recursively include subpictures within subpictures

makes it easy to produce drawings which are composed of huge numbers of parts all similar in shape."

(Sutherland, 1963, p. 332). 5.7 "'Sketching is facihtated by the computer,

which posts a background outHne plan having the

proper dimensions and showing existing structures

that cannot readily be altered . . . On their sketches, which they can readily file away and recall

for revision, the planners label the various departments and the stairs, elevators, dumbwaiters, etc. Each label, typed on the typewriter, appears at the top of the oscilloscope screen, and then is ad- justed to desired size, trapped by the light pen,

moved to its proper location on the plan, and

dropped there. Each label serves as a storage and

retrieval tag for the sketch to which it is attached.

The plan can therefore be made up in small parts

and displayed as a whole." (Licklider and Clark,

1962, p. 118).

"The purpose of the BBN time-sharing system

is to increase the effectiveness of the PDP-1 computer for those applications involving man-machine

interaction by allowing each of the five users, each

at his own typewriter to interact with the computer

just as if he had a computer all to himself. ... A

4096 word drum field is allocated for saving the core

image of each user when his program is not running.

A user's program in run status is run for 140

milliseconds, then if there is another user also in run status, the state of core memory is stored in the

first user's core image on drum and simultaneously

the second user's core image is loaded into core and

the second user's program is started in the appropriate place." (McCarthy et al, 1963, p. 51). 5.8 "AESOP is an experimental on-hne information control system realized in the Systems Design

Laboratory of the MITRE Corporation ... It

is a CRT display-oriented system in that the user experiences the information system primarily

through his CRT displays and exercises his control

through his light pencil. The current version of the

AESOP prototype operates on an IBM 7030 (Stretch)

computer (65 K memory with 64-bit words) with a 353 disk storage unit holding two million words.

Each of the four user stations consists of an on-line

Data-Display-13 display console with a photoelectric light pencil, an on-line typewriter, and a Stromberg-Carlson 30370 medium-speed printer."

(Bennett et al., 1965, p. 435).

"The AESOP system, developed at the Mitre

Corporation, employs an interactive display showing data structures and other aids in query formulation." (Minker and Sable, 1967, p. 137).

5.8a "As we have noted, the MCG [Man-Computer Graphics] concept is relatively new. It first began to achieve significance when I. E. Sutherland

presented his 'Sketchpad' work at Lincoln Labs to the Fall Joint Computer Conference in 1963. Lockheed-Georgia began its work in MCG early in 1964

without knowledge of any other industrial activity

in MCG. In the fall of 1964, Lockheed-Georgia

ordered a Univac 418 and a Digital Equipment

Corporation 340 scope. At that time, no computer

manufacturer had announced an MCG system.

Shortly thereafter, IBM announced its Alpine

MCG system, while Control Data Corp. announced

its Digigraphic system in 1965, and the General

Motors DAC-1 (Design Augmented by Computers) was unveiled at the Fall Joint Computer Conference

in 1964. (The GM work had begun about 1959,

but had been undisclosed until this conference.) . . . "One of the first applications envisioned for MCG

was the numerical control parts programming

function. Conventionally, the parts programmer

starts with a blueprint of a drawing and redraws it according to his own needs. He then gives a coded name to each point, line, and arc, and writes a computer program in some stylized language such as APT (Automatic Programmed Tooling) to describe

the path a cutting tool must take to cut out the part on a milling machine. This requires conventional

batch processing and the usual wait is required to get a plotted output from which the program may be

verified. Mistakes require corrections to the program

and additional waits for 'batch' output.

"With MCG, the drawing is put onto the display

scope by input from cards, light pen, tape, or combinations thereof. The cutter path is depicted on the

81
scope as the operator maneuvers it with the light pen. Any mistakes in path definition are instantly

apparent and may be immediately corrected. As

the operator describes the cutter path on the scope,

a tape is automatically defined. This tape, when

post-processed to adjust to the format for a particular milling machine, is then used to cut out the

depicted part as often as is required." (Chasen and

Seitz,1967,p. 25). 5.8b See also Gallenson as follows: "A graphic

tablet display (GTD) console has recently been

designed to operate with the Q-32 Time-Sharing

System (TSS) at System Development Corporation.

The successful completion of the task has provided new insights into system design problems involving

highly interactive consoles in a time-sharing environment; some interesting innovations in the design of a graphic tablet console; and some solutions to graphic

tablet interface problems. . . . "Employing the tablet display as a projection on

the writing surface has improved the 'naturalness'

of this I/O device and has encouraged more users. The display hardware is more expensive for equivalent quality of direct-viewing displays, but the

additional advantages gained may be justified for given applications. Additional innovations can be

introduced to improve the flexibility of the GTD

configuration. These include: the projection of

slides in conjunction with the CRT image for tablet manipulation; the adding of a color wheel to achieve

computer-generated color displays; and the use of a camera to achieve hard copy output from the CRT.

Significant improvement in light output of the

projected CRT image must be achieved before these

additional capabilities are introduced." (Gallenson,

1967, pp. 689, 694-695).

We note also the following: '"Work is proceeding on the implementation of an experimental network

involving the APEX time-sharing system running on

the TX-2 computer at M.I.T. Lincoln Laboratory in Lexington, Massachusetts, and the time-sharing

system running on the Q 32/PDP-l computer

complex at System Development Corporation in Santa Monica, Cahfornia. Initially, a 4KC four-wire

dial-up system will be used with 1200-bit-per-second

asynchronous modems." (Marill and Roberts, 1966,

p. 430). 5.9 ACCESS (/iutomatic Computer Controlled

Electronic Scanning System) "was developed for use by the Office of Emergency Planning to help

provide rapid access to digital and photographic

data . . . [It] accepts input information directly

from microfilm records of hand-marked documents

and digital information either from other machines

or directly from its keyboard. It has been used in experimental work at the Bureau to accept such

graphical material as specially prepared maps and

charts. It will store the information, perform a

variety of operations on it, and present outputs

either in digital form for use by other machines or

in a form requiring no further translation for man. The system includes an X-Y plotter which prepares

such output displays as maps, charts, and diagrams."

(Direct Communication Between Man & Computer",

National Bureau of Standards Tech. News Bull. 50,53-54 (Apr. 1966).)

"ACCESS, A DATA-PROCESSING SYSTEM

RECENTLY DEVELOPED BY THE NATIONAL

BUREAU OF STANDARDS' INSTITUTE FOR

APPLIED TECHNOLOGY, represents an advance

in communication between man and computers.

This system will receive and process data from

local and remote sources and can present its output

in a form immediately intelligible to the human

operator. Access (so-called for Automatic Computer

Controlled Electronic Scanning System) was devel- oped for use by the Office of Emergency Planning

to help provide rapid access to digital and pictorial data. The ready availability of these data will aid

the OEP in evaluating situations during a national

emergency. Access accepts input information

directly from microfilm records of hand-marked

documents and digital information either from other

machines or directly from its keyboard. It has been

used in experimental work at the Bureau to accept

such graphical material as specially prepared maps | and charts. Access scans marked documents by means of an advanced version of Fosdic which is a "Film Optical Sensing Device for Input to Computers." Fosdic was initially developed jointly by

NBS and the Bureau of the Census for machine

reading of census documents." (Computer Design 4,

No. 12, Dec. 1965, p. 12). "A machine which has been developed ... as a research tool for the investigation of man-machine

techniques involving CRT displays . . . has been

designated MAGIC (Machine for /Automatic Graphics

/nterface to a Computer). This machine combines

large-diameter cathode-ray displays with a specially

designed programmable digital computer. It is designed as a remote display station and is intended

to be connected to a large ADP system via voice

quality communication systems." (Rippy et al., 1965, p. 819).

"A presentation can be obtained on MAGIC's

primary display in three ways: a previously memorized figure can be obtained from the machine's

memory, the operator can draw a straight-line figure

by means of the light pen, or a drawing can be

assembled from components in the machine's

"library" of symbols. In the last method the positioning operations are used to manipulate components

and the light pen to connect them. . . . "The operator can not only position material; he can also shrink, expand, and rotate it. When the

drawing has been edited to the operator's satisfaction, it can be returned to the machine's memory.

The digital information can be used to produce

'hard' copy also; this has been done by placing it on magnetic tape to drive an X-Y plotter. This

capability lends itself to making engineering changes

on drawings and keeping up-to-date drawings on the

tape for ready inspection and reproduction. It also permits making additions to maps, charts, or floor

82
plans, a capability which should be useful in chart- ing routes and courses, adding isobars and symbols

to weather maps, and recording occupancy assignments." (NBS Tech. News Bull. 50, No. 8, 135

(Aug. 1966).)

5.10 "The Shared Memory Computer Display

System described by Ball et al., used a DEC 340

CRT whose display instructions are stored in an

attached PDP-4, which is in turn connected to a

larger, batch-processing CDC-1604-A. The display

computer receives input from three keyboards,

pushbuttons, shaft encoders, three-dimensional

trackball (rolHng sphere control), Ught-pen, a RAND tablet, and has "bell, two-tone gong, telegraph

sounder, and other small noise-making devices,

operated by relays under program control'. The

DEC 338 is a commercial version of this type of system: a small computer dedicated to a CRT to provide flexible display programming." (Van Dam

and Michener, 1967, p. 196). 5.11 "Bell Labs has devised a simple and eco- nomical console that displays line drawings, letters,

and numbers in answer to problems submitted to a computer. Known as Glance, the console can display

computed data such as graphs, plots, IC masks, and

drawings." (Data Proc. Mag. 9, No. 6, 3 (1967).) 5.12 "Benson-Lehner Corporation . . . has de- veloped a new sohd-state Large Table Llectroplotter (LTE) . . . [which] affords a complete

contouring package for large-scale computer

applications for exact delineations in minute detail of surface contours, weather maps, and topographical features. It produces report-quaUty

graphs and maps rapidly and accurately from digital

computer generated output tapes. From either pro- gram or operator control, it plots points, symbols, or alphanumeric characters, and draws straight or contour graphs from digital input data". {Communications ACM 8, 343). 5.13 [Bunker-Ramo 85 Control/Display Console]

"Text, symbols, point plots, and lined drawings

may be produced on the 12- by 16-inch active display area of the 23-inch aluminized TV-type screen . . . Symbols are generated at the rate of 100,000 per

second, may be produced in two sizes, and may be

made to bUnk on the screen." (Dig. Comp. Newsletter 16, No. 4, 39-40 (1964).)

"A new video display system that provides computer processed information about developing

market trends on the New York Stock Exchange

has been installed by the Bunker-Ramo Corporation

at Shields & Company's new Stamford, Conn.,

office." (Data Proc. Mag. 7, No. 5, 12 (1965).)

"A new family of display devices, the 200 series,

is being offered by the Defense Systems Div. of the Bunker-Ramo Corp. The display units combine

a TV-like screen with a keyboard similar to that of

a standard typewriter. Information being entered

into the computer or the computer's response are simultaneously displayed." (Data Proc. Mag. 7,

No. 10,63(1965).)

"Bunker-Ramo's console — Bunker Ramo landed

an Award of Honor for the BR-90 Visual Analysis

Console — designed as a man/machine interface

for information-handUng systems. The console

provides aU the necessary tools for graphical data

analysis, data generation and computer control. . . . "The console can interface with almost any computer or digital communications system. It uses keyboard buttons that can be labeled by an overlay

in natural, problem-related terms to query an

associated computer. . . . "The operator presses these buttons to actuate computer-programmed subroutines; the computer

responds in the form of alpha-numeric or graphic

displays on a cathode ray tube. . . . "It is possible to reorient the console and the

computer program it controls for virtually any

application through keyboard overlays. The two new and significant features of the BR-90 VAC

are stored-program logic and combined electronic

and photographic displays on a rear-ported cathode

ray tube." (Technology Week, Nov. 21, 1966).

5.14 "A display system that provides continuous

visual presentation of data from high-speed digital

computers has been developed by the Strand Div.

of Datatronics Engineers, Inc. . . . The system

consists of an input buffer unit, display programer

unit, character generator, line generator, and 12- inch screen monitor. In typical applications, more

than 1,000 flicker-free characters and line segments

may be generated and displayed . . . Special

microfilm output from the D-2(30 recorder is suited

to intermediate storage of computer output data."

(Bus. Automation News Report 2, No. 14, 2 (1962).)

5.15 "The Gerber Scientific Instrument Co.,

Inc., has announced the design and dehvery of the

first Stored Program Graphic Display System for automatic drafting. Now in operation at LockheedGeorgia Company, the System will be used initially to lay out full-scale undimensioned structural drawings and contour-lines drawings for aerodynamic

testing and structural studies during design of the

C-54 logistics transport aircraft." (Comm. ACM 9,

781 (1966).)

5.16 "Information Displays' high capacity

display system Type CM 10001 uses three consoles

driven from a common display generator, and the

entire system operates on-line with the UNIVAC

1107 computer. Provisions are included for vector

writing, character writing, and circle drawings, as well as programable line texture, programable

character size and programable intensity." (Data

Proc. Mag. 7, 45 (Feb. 1965).)

"A new computer-controlled display system, the

Type CM 10093, will be shown by Information

Displays, Inc. . . . The 10093 features a fast response, large screen CRT display, along with

high speed character and vector writing capability

and program control of size, intensity, and line structure. The completely solid state CM 10093

features a light pen to facilitate man-machine

dialogue." (Commun. ACM 9, 782 (1966).)

"Up-to-the-moment company operating data can

be presented on the Information Displays, Inc. . . . Management Display System, IDI Type CM 10009,

83
shown for the first time at IFIP Congress 65. Driven

over Dataphone from a UNIVAC 490 computer,

the system can be many miles from the computer. A

large (4096 x 30) core memory in the display

refreshes the display rapidly at flicker-free rates, while at the same time, accepts low speed Data- phone signals from the computer." (Commun.

ACM 8, 479 (1965).)

5.17 "Informatics Inc., has received over $400,000 contracts from the U.S. Air Force's Rome

Air Development Center to evolve a system for on-line computer use. The system to be known as DOCUS (Display Oriented Compiler Usage System),

wiU employ sophisticated display equipment,

operating on-line with modern, large-scale computers." (Comp. News 9, No. 7, 5 (1965).)

"DOCUS, developed by Informatics for the

multicomputer complex at Rome Air Development

Center, provides a display-oriented man-machine

system with some built-in data management functions and a capabihty to assign functions to control

keys at the display and define and execute com- pound functions based on earlier defined tasks."

(Minker and Sable, 1967, p. 137).

"The development of software techniques for on-line information processing and man/machine

communication is then the focal point for the

Display Oriented Computer Usage System (DOCUS).

Techniques are being developed to facilitate the

implementation of on-Une procedures and the

operation of such procedures through a man/

computer conversion mode. The users' areas of

interest may be related to information retrieval,

scientific research, management, or command and

control. It is desirable to make these on-line users

less dependent upon the professional programmer

by simplifying the implementation and reducing the

time for programming new applications." (Corbin

and Frank, 1966, p. 515).

"DOCUS has been implemented for a CDC

1640B computer to which is attached a Bunker

Ramo 85 display console. The techniques which

were developed are, however, not restricted to this hardware which has served primarily as a

test bed." (Corbin and Frank, 1966, p. 515).

5.18 "A display console combining electronically

generated symbols and slide projected images has

been announced by ITT Federal Laboratories. . . . The console is called MACC-Modular Alter and

Compose Console." (Commun. ACM 9, 707 (1966).)

5.19 "'3-M', the Minnesota Mining and Manufacturing Company, offers a 'Visual Communications

Center' utilizing a desk top projector whose display can be 'written on' and a transparency-copier."

(Bus. Automation 12, No. 10, 60 (Oct. 1965).)

5.20 "A computer-driven display system is scheduled for delivery to the Carnegie Institute of Technology Computation Center in Pittsburgh

this Fall by Philco Corporation. The complex

cathode ray tube system . . . was adapted from

Philco's Real-Time Electronic Access and Display

(READ) system. The advanced system will provide

a highly effective method of real-time use of timeshared computers . . ." (Commun. ACM 8, No. 11,

715 (Nov. 1965).) "In the READ System, the single monitor and

light pen is replaced by a group of up to 15 consoles

with both keyboard and light pen. These consoles

are driven from a single set of display logic which

consists of a character generator, vector generator,

format generator, control logic unit and computer

interface. This system is unique in that the presently

high speed of operation of digital logic is utilized to generate characters and vectors at a speed which

exceeds the amount of data that can be displayed on a single cathode ray tube. By using this high

speed, a single set of generation elements can be

used to drive several parallel consoles. This results

in very great economy since the generation units

form a major portion of the total cost of a display

system. The READ System has the ability to dis- play over 200,000 characters per second and over

100,000 vectors per second on the remote consoles.

The organization of the system is such that a unique

display can be formed on each of the remote

monitors or an identical display can be shown on each of the monitors. The common display logic

to monitor separation in this system cannot exceed

75 feet. The computer to common display logic

connection could be made considerably longer since

the data rate is relatively slow between these

terminals with an average word time of approximately 15 microseconds. The entire READ System

interfaces to a 131 data channel on a DEC type

PDP-1 computer. A portion of the 20K memory

of the computer is utiUzed to refresh the display

with approximately one third of the available

memory cycles used for this purpose." (Scholten,

1965, p. 128). 5.21 "Sanders Associates, Inc., has announced

a new line of information display systems primarily

designed for use with commercial computer in- stallations." (Data Proc. Mag. 7, No. 11, 56 (1965).

5.22 "Development of a versatile-display Computer Input/Output Communications Console

combining multiple input controls, visual display of

entire messages before transmission, and compatibility with a broad range of digital data processing systems has been announced by Tasker Instru- ments Corporation . . . The Model 544 console can be tied in with up to 15 similar slave subconsoles . . (Communications ACM 8, M^).

"A high-speed, real-time modular CRT display

system that permits the customer to 'build his own'

functional configuration is announced by Tasker

Instruments Corp. of Van Nuys, Calif. Designated

Series 9000 Modular Display Console, the new

system features customer options of a customized

or any standard keyboard, five other control devices,

four display devices, and four different memory

subsystems. The Series 9000 Display Console wiU

be shown to the industry for the first time on November 8 at the FJCC in San Francisco." (Commun.

ACM 9, 831 (Nov. 1966).)

84
5.23 "The IBM graphic data processing system

takes advantage of the power of a computer to handle information displayed in the form of sketches,

drawings, diagrams and graphs. This system allows

scanning of an existing microfilm image or calling out an image stored digitally within a computer,

displaying it on a screen, changing the image with an

electronic 'pen', and, within seconds, recording the new image permanently on microfilm and reviewing

a projection of the image 19 times its actual size." (Data Proc. Mag. 7, 45 (Feb. 1965).)

. . [IBM] announces the new, low-cost IBM

2260 display station, which can be Unked to an IBM

I System/360. The new device will make vital information stored in the computer available for review on a

I 4 X 9-inch screen. The information also can be

r revised or updated with a display keyboard."

(Commun. ACM 8, 342 (1965).)

"'The IBM 2260 enquiry display terminal comprises an input keyboard which is used to enter an

enquiry, and an output screen which displays the

j answer . . . The information is written on the viewI ing screen at a rate of up to 2,560 characters a second and a total of 960 characters arranged in 24 lines each of 40 characters, can be displayed at one time. . . . "An even more advanced display unit is the IBM

2250 which has the ability to display graphic images

as well as alphanumeric data derived from the

computer. The basic console contains a 21-inch

cathode-ray tube on which 3,848 characters can be

displayed simultaneously in 52 lines with 74 characters per line [using a character generator and

optional buffer for image regeneration]." ("IBM

System/360", 1965, pp. 297-298).

"A user can transmit messages to other display

stations or to the central computer complex from

1 ; )i either an alphanumeric or numeric keyboard. The

f messages are composed in their entirety, displayed

h for verification and editing, and then transmitted

I. ! for computer processing and possible display at

1-

j other locations." (Commun. ACM 8, 343 (1965).)

e '"The cursor can be moved to any point on the

if screen, giving the user freedom to position informaI- I

; tion wherever he desires or to erase any displayed

•r data. This symbol gives the user the ability to edit

h and correct alphanumeric charts or listings on the

*

I screen, and update information stored in System/360

).

j with these changes." (Commun. ACM 8, 343 (1965).)

I "A computer-directed drawing system which can

ly : I produce detailed construction drawings 25 times

i' I faster than a draftsman was demonstrated recently

!r

I by Control Data Corp. The demonstration involved

nl

j computers in the company's Chicago and Min-

»

I neapolis data centers and the use of long distance

4 telephone lines over which the problem and solution

*. were submitted." (Bus. Automation 12, No. 7, 55

ry ; (1965).)

il "Raytheon Co. has recently announced that it

B- has made several improvements on its 520 Computer

]i System. These include a 1-microsecond main

! memory and a new keyboard-display station

i

I which makes possible on-Hne display and editing.

With this new keyboard/display station, programs

can be displayed in a format identical to the pro- grammer's coding sheet, and in a data acquisition

system, the station can also be used for display of raw or reduced data as the test progresses." (Sys- .tems 7, No. 2,8(1966).)

"New data display devices for the RCA 301-3301

processors . . . [consist] of a keyboard, display

and memory-logic element connected to a central

processor through data sets, voice grade communication circuits and communication buffers . . ." (Data Proc. Mag. 7, No. 2, 44 (1965).)

"The CRT sets to be designed and manufactured

by Univac wiU be able to display over 1000 char- acters on a 5" X 10" viewing screen. The i" char- acters are now formed through a stroke generation

method. Since the sets will be the major interface

point between the users and the computer, a great

deal of time was spent during the development and

negotiation phases of the study to design a set that incorporates features that recognize human

engineering factors." (Porter and Johnson, 1966,

p. 81). 5.24 "The automatic drawing of PERT charts was demonstrated recently by North American

Aviation . . . The chart is reproduced by General

Dynamics/Electronics' SC4020, which prints an image from a cathode ray tube onto a 9" x 9" hardcopy or 35 mm film." (Datamation 9, No. 6, 50

(June 1963).)

"Other applications of visual display . . . altera- tion of a PERT network to determine the effect of different target dates . . ." (Silveira, 1965, p. 37). 5.24a ". . . Human engineering in the broad

sense is a basic consideration in this system concept; the system is required to present to the user

the interface which is best matched to the problem

and the user's approach to its solution." (Mills,

1966, p. 196).

"More than any other single concept, the man- machine system concept is the one around which

most human factors engineers rally. It is perhaps now the core of the field. Thus, all human factors engineering can be thought of as dealing with the

appropriate allocation of tasks between assemblages

of men and machines, in which the two anomalous

components — the man and the machine — are in such an intimate cooperative relationship that the

designer is obliged to view them as a single system.

Rather than being called upon to adapt a finished

machine so human operators can live with it more

easily, the human factors specialist wants to be in on the design from the very beginning to insure that best trade-offs between men and machine functions

are chosen." (Lindgren, 1966, p. 135).

5.25 "One of the more promising areas of

computer use involves the coupling of a man to a computer system for real-time problem-solving

where the procedure for solution of the problem is either unknown or involves complex tasks such as pattern recognition, that can best be performed by

humans." (Brown, 1965, p. 82). 85
"Use of the graphical input-output console allows

the designer to pause and study his design at all stages in its process without unnecessarily tying up

the computer. Furthermore, he can make modifications at any time and be appraised within seconds

of the effects of each change." (Hamilton and Weiss,

1965, p. 3). "Accessibility, provided through some type of remote computing facihty such as time-sharing,

permits the engineer to interact with the computer

during the problem solution." (Roos, 1965, p. 423).

"The complex of recent developments centered

around time-sharing systems and aimed at exploitation of man-machine interaction is, in the view of

many, the most exciting current trend in the

computer field, and the one with the most far- reaching implications to each of us as an individual

and to society as a whole." (Fano, 1967, p. 30). 5.26 "The IBM graphic data processing system

takes advantage of the power of a computer to handle information displayed in the form of sketches,

drawings, diagrams and graphs. This system allows

scanning of an existing microfilm image or calling out an image stored digitally within a computer,

displaying it on a screen, changing the image with an electronic 'pen', and, within seconds, recording

the new image permanently on microfilm and reviewing a projection of the image 19 times its actual size." (Data Proc. Mag. 7, 45 (1965).)

5.27 "A display system that provides continuous

visual presentation of data from high-speed digital

computers has been developed by the Strand Div.

of Datatronics Engineers, Inc. . . . The system

consists of an input buffer unit, display programer

unit, character generator, line generator, and 12- inch screen monitor ... In typical applications, more than 1,000 flicker-free characters and line segments may be generated and displayed . . . Special microfilm output from the D-200 recorder

is suited to intermediate storage of computer output

data." (Bus. Automation News Report 2, 2 (1962).)

5.28 "The . . . characteristics of the design

problem strongly suggest that the process would be

greatly enhanced if tools were made available by

which the designer could be quickly appraised of the multifaceted effects of fixing any particular

variable. Such is the capability of the high-speed

digital computer. . . . "The idea that the designer can (in a CAD system)

explore a much wider range of answers to the

decision-makers' questions may be an appealing

one, particularly because of the vagueness and

changeability of the ship's missions at the inception

of design." (Hamilton and Weiss, 1965, p. 5). "The designer or engineer is interested not only

in the surface shape, but also in most of the various

surface properties: area, volume, mass moment of

inertia, cross-section inertia, center of gravity,

resultants and equivalent points of application of

external loads (both point and distributed loads),

cross-sectional views, and views of the surface,

including 'hidden lines', as seen from various

orientations." (Hamilton and Weiss, 1965, p. 13).

"At the present stage of this project, the quantities

of displacement . . . and wetted surface can be

evaluated for any hull or portion of a huU; the framework also exists for future subroutines to calculate

waterplane inertias, mass inertias, weight of shell plating, and eventually (given some loading patterns), stress distributions in hull plating." (Hamilton and

Weiss, 1965, p. 11). "Arthur D. Little, Inc., is developing under the

sponsorship of the Naval Ship Engineering Center,

Naval Ship Systems Command, a computerized

system for the design detailing of hull structures for naval ships. The system takes its input data from

the ship's contract plans, standard design specifications, and parameters; it produces as output working

drawings for use in the shipyard, APT part programs

for numerically controlled flame cutting machines,

and auxiliary information such as center of gravity statements and bills of material and weight."

(Cohen etal., 1967, p. 341).

Research at the University of Glasgow is also aimed at the computer design of ships, "from the

initial conception of the shape of the huU to the

production of detailed drawings of the steelwork."

(Commun. ACM 9, 539 (1966).)

5.29 "CADET [Computer-Aided Design Ex- perimental Translator] systems are aimed at mixed

verbal and graphical man-machine problemsolving. . . . "An initial version of the CADET system is scheduled for operation in the fall of 1965 and will be

applied in such areas as three-dimensional shape

description, nonlinear electronic circuit design,

etc. . . . "The designer communicates to the computer by

moving the Display Console light pen to various

positions on the CRT. He indicates the meaning of these positions by pushing buttons while the pen is at the desired locations. . . . "The PLOT operator is used to create a picture on the oscilloscope corresponding to the graphical

language statements ... It builds a list of 'console

commands' (plot a point, or a line, reposition the

beam etc.) known as the display file, which are interpreted by the display console hardware so producing the desired picture." (Lang et al., 1965,

pp. 3,4,5,21,39).

Similarly "an experimental computer program

which determines how to interconnect 80 electronic

circuits on a wafer of silicon, and then controls

fabrication of the interconnections, was described

recently by an IBM scientist. "The program for the first time permits automatic

by-passing of any faulty circuits on the wafer, so

that most wafers are usable despite the occurrence

of faulty circuits at random positions." (Data and

Control 4, No. 4,5 (Apr. 1966).)

5.30 It is noted that "Lockheed-Georgia uses a Univac 418 and a DEC 340 display scope with light

pen for research design applications for aerospace."

(Data Proc. Mag. 7, No. 5, 8 (May, 1965).) 5.31 "Master dimensioning gives a computer the

ability to derive math definitions of complex sur- 86
faces, and to combine many complex surfaces

mathematically to produce a perspective view

of an object . . . North American Aviation, Inc.,

is reported to have used master dimensioning in its design of the B-70 supersonic bomber. Boeing also used master dimensioning for perspective art on a new fighter aircraft." (Gomolak, 1964, p. 68). "At General Motors in Detroit, the computer-aided

design system, GEM, is used operationally in the

design of automobile bodies. Among other things,

GEM coordinates the artistic and engineering

aspects of design, checking, for example, the

strength and manufacturability of a fender as soon

as the designer has sketched it on the oscilloscope screen." (Licklider, 1965, p. 66). "Using the 1965 models as a starting point, the

designer inserts still another piece of information

into the computer. Looking at this year's car, he

says, 'Let's see what it would look hke if the body

were two inches longer, the greenhouse an inch

lower, and the fenders wrapped around an additional three inches'. This information in almost this exact language is . . . loaded into the computer

. . . When the styHst tells the computer what view

he wants, the computer takes the modified master

dimensioning data, combines it with the graphics

program and comes up with the coordinates needed

for the perspective drawing." (Gomolak, 1964, p. 69). 5.31a "Rowland Brandwein, director of research

for Span Arch Structures, Inc., Nevtown, Conn.,

has designed a new kind of arched roof with the

aid of a communications terminal in his office linked

to an IBM computer in New York City. The metaland-plastic arch is cheaper and easier to put up

than conventional ones, and so Ught that it does

away with many of the supports normally used.

"After hitting upon the idea of making an arch

by sandwiching an adhesive plastic between thin

metal, Brandwein used his terminal linked to an IBM QUIKTRAN center to see if his theory was

practical. He not only used the computer to work

out the basic methods for constructing the arch,

but also to design special equipment needed by

contractors for the job and to create instructions

for them." (Computers and Automation 17, No. 5, 54 (May 1968).)

5.31b "At the Atlanta meeting of the American

Association of Highway Officials in December, a

civil engineer designed a superhighway interchange

in ten minutes through an IBM 1050 data communication system connected a thousand miles to the

MIT 7094 in Cambridge." (Data Proc. Mag. 7, No. 2,7(196.5).)

Another system designed by Nordisk ADB and

the Swedish Board for Road Construction has been

reported as capable of making automatic "a large

amount of the work of road design." (Langefors,

1965).

Other civil engineering examples are represented

by the ICES system and by the following: "In one impressive demonstration, Dr. Sutherland

sketched the girder of a bridge, and indicated the

points at which members were connected together

by rivets. He then drew a support at each end of the girder and a load at its center. The sketch of

the girder then sagged under the load, and a number

appeared on each member indicating the amount of tension or compression to which each member was

subjected." (Teitelman, 1966, p. 11). "An IBM program, ALDEP (Automated Layout

Design Program) aids the plant or builder designer

in developing optimized layouts for various activities

to be accommodated within constraints of the space

available, including the graphic display of layouts

as they have been evaluated." (Seehof et al., 1966,

p. 191).

"Graphical I/O appears to have very great

potential for the engineering of transportation

facilities. A scope with input as well as output

capabilities allows easy, positive and rapid change

in any assumptions or designs which can be ex- pressed graphically — a highway network, a roadway

cross-section, vertical and horizontal roadway

ahgnment, intersection layout. Plotters make

possible automatic drafting of final or intermediate

designs, even construction plans." (Breuning and

Harvey, 1967, p. 261).

"A noted architect is experimenting with the

technique for designing apartment houses, office complexes and ideal communities. A major bridge

builder is also looking at drafting machines. And

one of the leading makers of home appliances

plans to use the graphics program for selecting

models, along with numerically controlled machining

to turn out washers, dryers and refrigerators."

(Gomolak, 1964, p. 71). 5.32 "In current practice, the woven design is represented on point paper (graph paper) which

has the number of horizontal or vertical lines per

inch in the same ratio as the number of weft and

warp threads. Each rectangle represents the inter- section of one warp and one weft thread, i.e., one

interlacing. At each intersection the warp thread

may pass over the weft thread or vice versa. This

binary choice now represented by painting or not painting the point paper rectangle corresponding

to each interlacing. . . . "In reference 1, the first approach, the pattern

is scanned by a 'photohead'. Then it is dissected,

within a computer, into small equal parts called shape elements. Each of these parts is then subjected to a pattern recognition routine in order to classify it into a 'primary standard image' category.

The set of primary standard images represent

various versions of shape elements prepared by the

artist. When the shape element is classified, its corresponding secondary standard image is chosen

to represent it in woven form. The secondary

standard image represents the same shape element

with account taken of the laws of weaving (interlacing rules). Each shape element is analyzed in turn, thus producing, in one pass, a complete set of fabric interfacings. . . . "After the design has been introduced into the

computer by tracing or scanning, the CRT is used as 87
the primary display device. By manipulating the

display with function keys and light pen, the

designer can use the computer as an experimental

designing tool." (Lourie et al., 1966, p. 539).

"He may display the design on a grid with different

ratios of horizontal and vertical lines which repre- sent different ratios of warp and weft. He may also

alter the number of warp threads per inch to see how the design would look woven with different

degrees of coarseness. He may refine the mesh by

enlarging the design on the same grid or holding the

design constant and imposing a finer grid. The

designer may manipulate the display in other ways.

He may 'repeat' the design with different spacing

between centers; he may specify different Unes of

symmetry and thus develop a full design from a small segment. Many other techniques can also be

made available to him. . . . "When a set of weaves has been determined, rules concerning the interaction of adjacent weaves must

be applied. For example, for structural purposes

there is a rule that no warp thread may float over more than n weft threads (or vice versa). A violation

of this rule will be pointed out to the user who may

correct the situation by altering a specific interlacing

with a light pen or by changing the starting position

of one or both of the weaves in question. Another

example of such rules concerns a special set of

interlacings which delineate an area and which

are 'shape binders'.

"Programming can incorporate many of the principles of this technique. Refinements may be made

by the designer with the light pen. It is this ability to alter and 'touch up' the automated output that gives this system the required flexibility." (Lourie

et al, 1966, pp. 537, 539, 542-543).

532a. See also Ruyle et al. (1967) as foUows:

"Martin has developed a PDP-6 LISP program that converts complex mathematical expressions stored

in a list structure form into a CRT display that is quite close to textbook mathematical notation, and

with which the user can interact by means of a

light pen." (Ruyle et al., 1967, p. 166; ref. is to Martin, 1966).

"The AMTRAN computer system is a timesharing, keyboard computer system which permits

a scientist to enter mathematical equations into a computer in their natural mathematical textbook

format and, barring complications, to obtain immediate graphical and alphanumeric display of the

solutions on a cathode ray scope and a typewriter.

The system can be used for straightforward problems by a scientist with no previous computer ex- perience while, at the same time, it provides the

flexibility required by the experienced programmer

to solve non-routine problems. Great improvements

in convenience and accessibility as well as in programming and turnaround times accrue to the user in comparison with existing computer systems.

For example, a typical nonlinear differential equation can be entered and solved, and permanent

graphical and alphanumeric displays of the results provided within minutes.

"A 'demonstrator' version of this system is available for the IBM 1620 computer. The demonstrator uses only the standard computer console

typewriter and card reader/punch, and does not require any special equipment.'* (Clem 1966,

Abstract, p. 116).

5.32b "The AMTRAN (Automatic Mathematical

r/?y4A^slation) System has been developed at the

NASA Marshall Space Flight Center in Huntsville,

Alabama and has been available on a limited basis

to users there since early 1966." (Ruyle et al., 1967,

p. 151). See also Reinfelds et al., 1966. 5.32c "The Culler-Fried System is one name

for two physically separate but direct descendants

of the system developed by Glen Culler and Burton

Fried at Thompson Ramo Wooldridge, Canoga Park,

California, beginning in 1961. The first of these is the On-Line Computer System (OLC) at the University of California at Santa Barbara (UCSB)

which operates on the same computer as the original

system. The OLC system is used for research and

teaching on the Santa Barbara campus as well as from remote terminals at UCLA and Harvard. The

second, an expanded version of the original system,

has been implemented at TRW Systems (formerly

Space Technology Laboratories) in Redondo Beach,

California for the use of scientists and engineers

and has been operating since late 1964." (Ruyle

et al.,1967,p. 151).

5.32d "The Lincoln Reckoner system has been

developed at the Lincoln Laboratory of the Massachusetts Institute of Technology to operate within

the APEX Time-Sharing System for the TX-2

computer and has been used by the staff of the

laboratory since early 1966." (Ruyle et al., 1967,

p. 152).

"The Lincoln Reckoner is a time-shared system

for on-line use in scientific and engineering research

. . . It offers a hbrary of routines that concentrate on one particular application, numerical computations on arrays of data. It is intended for use in feeling one's way through the reduction of data

from a laboratory experiment, or in trying out

theoretical computations of moderate size." (Stowe

et al.,1966,p. 433).

5.32e "The MAP (Mathematical /Analysis with- out Programming System, which operates within

the M.I.T. Compatible Time Sharing System

(CTSS) at the M.I.T. Computation Center or at Project MAC, has been used in research and teaching at M.I.T. since mid 1964. The system is accessible from any teletype or IBM 1050 terminal that can dial into CTSS, regardless of the physical

location of the terminal." (Ruyle et al., 1967, p. 152).

5.32f "The MATHLAB System of Engelman,

which operates under CTSS, is an important start toward providing a system capable of providing

both analytical and numerical assistance." (Ruyle

et al., 1967, p. 166; ref. is to Engelman, 1965).

88
5.32g "A new user-oriented programming system

for the purpose of facilitating the programming and

analysis of well-formulated problems has been

designed and implemented at Columbia University,

Hudson Laboratories. This system, consists of a standard Flexowriter modified to construct two- dimensional mathematical expressions and a new

programming language." (Klerer and May, 1965,

p. 63). Other aspects of the program at the Hudson

Laboratories of Columbia University include the

development of auxihary consoles for "pushbutton"

programming, R&D efforts with respect to auto- matic mathematical text typesetting, and investigation of capabihties for two-dimensional program

and text editing. (Klerer, 1966).

5.33 For example, "using an NCR Elhott 4120

with a display and light pen equipment, the NPL

will develop methods to aid the computer program- mer by allowing him to write, test and edit programs

in a high-level language, on-line to the computer.

The computer and display will also be used in patten recognition research . . ." (Data and Control

3, 11, (1965).)

". . . Recent rumors suggest flow charts to be

used on oscilloscope terminals for on-line programming." (Burkhardt, 1965, p. 7). "Other, more radical uses of display devices in debugging are now being investigated. Flow-chart

languages, where programs are created on-line by

generating a flow chart with a light-pen, are being

studied at Lincoln Laboratory and at RAND. A

dynamic display of the program state at any point

in terms of the flow chart is expected to be a useful

debugging tool." (Evans and Darley, 1966, p. 44). "William Sibley's and Thomas Ellis's on-line

programming system, FLOWCHART, in which

the flow diagram is the source-language computer

program and through which the programmer writes,

edits, debugs, and operates the program by sketching and printing with a stylus on a RAND Tablet.

The Tablet is a graphical input device that looks

like a sheet of paper on a blotter pad but underneath

is actuaUy a grid of wires, through capacitative

coupling to which an electronic device can sense

the position of the stylus." (Licklider, 1967, p. 10). "Use of on-line graphical displays for flow

charting and programming is an interesting appUcation in the computer field. An example of work

of this type is that done at the RAND Corporation in which a rough flow chart can be drawn with a graphical input device and displayed on the screen. A computer provides such niceties as straightening

lines and squaring boxes. However, the more important function of the computer in this case is to incorporate into a program the subroutines or functions called for by the individual symbols on the

flow chart. If the flow chart as drawn by the pro- grammer does not make sense or if necessary in- formation or linkages are omitted, the computer

can indicate the discrepancies and ask the program- mer for clarification. This ability to provide two-way

communication and feedback, which greatly

simplifies the user's task, is an important function of most on-line systems — particularly graphic ones. This provides a 'forgiving' system in which mistakes

by the user are not catastrophic but are called to his attention for appropriate action." (Hobbs,

1966, p. 1873).

5.34 "The present approach was to define an

algorithm capable of one-pass operation on a small

(IBM-1620) computer, using a Calcomp digital

incremental plotter online to produce the annotated

flowchart." (Anderson, 1965, p. 38). 5.35 "Applied Data Research, Inc., . . . intro- duced AUTOFLOW . . . [which] accepts assembly

or higher level languages and produces quality

flowcharts for online or offline printing . . . The

AUTOFLOW system allocates the necessary size for a symbol, rearranges groups of symbols and

draws lines between symbols." (Commun. ACM 9,

469 (1966).)

"1966 additions to Apphed Data Research Inc.'s AUTOFLOW systems were for system 360 COBOL

and FORTRAN. (Datamation 12, No. 11, 93 (Nov.

1966).)

"The proprietary package AUTOFLOW was

released in February 1967, having been developed

under NASA support. This system produces flow- charts from program units written in MAP/FAP,

FORTRAN, and MYSTIC. MAP/FAP and

FORTRAN decks may be optionally augmented

by special comment cards and codes which will alter the interpretation of the source and thus

modify the quality of the flowchart produced. Of

course the use of these options requires extra effort on the part of the user. AUTOFLOW also produces

a Table of Contents and a Cross Reference Listing.

Output may optionally be obtained on the SC-4020

and/or the line printer; the internal tables may be

employed to drive either output. Table overflow can

occur, but a capacity of 30,0()0 input cards and 1700

statement numbers is claimed. The output employs

variously shaped boxes to represent the action and

pays much attention to the location of all boxes,

especially transfer points. All boxes are identified

by page and sequence number. The contents of

the boxes are identified by page and sequence

number. The contents of the boxes are language

dependent, but clear, and in some cases expanded,

reproductions of the source card content." (Abrams.

1968, p. 745).

5.35a ''AUTODIAGRAMMERISohware Resources Corp., Los Angeles, Calif. This proprietary

program, developed by ARIES Corporation and

being marketed throughout the western United

States by Software Resources, produces accurate and standardized flowcharts of programs written

in IBM System/360 Basic Assembly Language.

The use of AutoDiagrammer eliminates a significant

part of the time needed for program documentation

and shifts the burden of flow chart production

from the programmer to the computer itself."

89
(Computers and Automation 17, No. 2, 47-48

(Feb. 1968).)

5.35b "A new program now available from IBM

enables flowcharts to be produced by a System/360

computer. Compared with earlier programs of this type, System/360 Flowchart has more automatic

features for labelling and for linking elements

of the chart: it also provides for footnotes." (The

Computer Bull. 1 1 , No. 2, 159 (Sept. 1967).

5.35c "It is hoped to generalize the Flowlister

so that it indexes a complete program, producing

an alphanumerically ordered list of all common

assignments and subroutine calls, and a map of

the program as a whole. It could also be extended

to handle subroutines written in various assembly

languages.

"Except for a few small character-handling

routines, the Usercode Documenter, Auto-Diagram- mer and Flowlister are all written in Fortran."

(Roberts, 1967, p. 22). "One of the early efforts was reported in 1959 by

Haibt who was concerned with flowcharting machine

language. Although not completely clear, it appears

that extensive use of tables was required to produce

output on the line printer. Since she felt it undesirable to attempt to describe an entire program

unit in one flowchart, probably because of the

limitations of the line printer and the extensive

detail present in machine language, the decision to produce multilevel flowcharts was necessary. The

program featured a sketchy description of the

procedure represented by a box. Certainly this out- put was not at all language independent since cross references were supplied to program listings.

Although mention was made in this paper of drawing

flowcharts directly from a FORTRAN program, it appears that this feature was never accomplished."

(Abrams, 1968, p. 744).

"Knuth, in 1963, reported on a system which

produced flowcharts on the line printer if the

assembly code were augmented by descriptive

comments. No doubt the inclusion of such com- ments is a valuable tool, but it does require special

effort on the part of the programmer and does also

restrict generality. Furthermore, his flowcharts were

cross-indexed to a flow outline which was in turn indexed to the assembly listing. Each level conveyed more precise information concerning the action

within each box. He felt that 'it is unnecessary to specify all the details of a program in the flow

outline' and even less so in the flowchart. His

requirement of documentation effort on the part

of the programmer does introduce the concept of

using computer-drawn flowcharts as creative tools

in debugging." (Abrams, 1968, p. 744).

"An interesting flowchart-drawing program which

draws a picture of the (undirected) branches of a program by disregarding the specific contents of the boxes was reported by Hain and Hain in 1965. A very elegant connection matrix is employed to generate this 'connection graph'. Hardcopy output

is produced by an SC-4020 microfilm plotter; thus

the output copy can occupy several pages if the J size of the program being flowcharted requires it. J Even so, they do report a limitation of 200 state- | ments; furthermore, they do not indicate how their a program goes about recognizing the branches. | Since they claim an application for their program 1

in drawing PERT networks, it is inferred that pre- |

processing is required by the user." (Abrams, 1968, |

p. 744). I "A program by Stelwagon called FLOW 2 which

produces flowcharts of FORTRAN and FORMAC

programs directly from the source decks became

part of the open literature in August 1966. Actually

this data is deceptive, since the instructions for using the program are dated one year earlier. An

amazing degree of flexibility is available to the user

of this program, including the option of producing an intermediate flow deck which directly controls

the graphical output produced and may be manipulated by the user to improve the esthetics of the

topology. Since the graphical hardcopy is produced

by an SC-4020, Stelwagon had the problem of ' page segmenting and referencing to contend with.

He has rejected the flow matrix approach as being \ too consumptive of storage and has, instead, de- ; veloped a reduced matrix which serves to position i; branches and boxes in quite a clear output. Using

auxiliary memory, he claims to be able to flowchart

program units in excess of 2,000 statements. Various i shapes of boxes are provided for identification of

j type of operation. In solving the paging problem,

Stelwagon has brought his branch Hues out both i horizontally and vertically. Thus, if a one-piece • flowchart is desired, one obtains a large rectangular

mural when the pages are pasted together."

(Abrams, 1968, p. 744).

"The present author has developed a flowcharting ii program MADFLO that produces continuous output i on a CALCOMP drum plotter. The use of this completely random-access graphical output device i; allows the construction of a program which requires d no tables or arrays to determine the position of J boxes in advance. Following what seems to be a normal mode, single column output results from

non-branching, algorithms. Multicolumn output is produced whenever the program contains decision ^ making branches; the number of columns is Hmited : by the width of paper available. The input scanner ; operates much like the statement recognition phase

of a compiler. Only the syntax of the source language i statement is examined to determine the shape of I box required to properly represent the operation. c Since it was desired to make the flowchart

essentially language independent, the scanner ; deletes certain phrases when the statements are i lettered within the drawn box. Except for this edit- '- ing, the entire statement is always lettered out for ' the user. He can of course ignore any lettering that

' does not interest him. Some further development of

the methods of Rich and Stone may be necessary to achieve less arbitrary Une division; also, the i relational operators and assignment indicators li
present in the source language character set should

be replaced with universally-acceptable symbols

perhaps taken from the USASCII character set." (Abrams, 1968. p. 745). 5.36 "A computer controlled approach to the

logical block diagram construction . . . would

have the following advantages:

a. Computer storage of a complete logical

design, either on paper tape or magnetic tape.

This means that the current design is in one

place and prints reflecting this current design would be available for use by all concerned with the design.

b. Easy correction or modification to the design

and prompt issuance of revised prints reflect- ing these changes.

c. The built-in checking of the logical operation

of the design to see if, in fact, it does perform

as expected. Also the analysis of the circuit

for such items as the loading of the output(s)

of each unit, and signal delay along various

signal paths." (Loomis, 1960, p. 10-11).

"Although a flow chart compiler is not yet avail- able, a graphical circuit simulator . . . has been

programmed for the TX-2 computer at Lincoln. . . . This system should be capable of providing a circuit designer who has no pro- gramming experience, with a compreltensive simulation facility which he can use with Uttle instruction

to supplement his knowledge of the normal symbols,

conventions and graphical properties of electrical network theory." (Roberts, 1965, p. 216).

"The MIT researchers plan to extend the tech- nique from electronic networks to digital systems,

treating logic gates as components. They will also apply it to distributed systems transmission and

acoustic Unes. . . . "CAD includes a unique circuit analysis tech- nique called circal, a computer program developed

by an MIT graduate student. Charles Therrien."

(Electronics 39, No. 3, 39-40 (1966).)

"A typical use of AEDNET involves drawing

the circuit diagram on the scope, typing or plotting

values and characteristics of the components, and

requesting calculation of the response to a specified

input. At the user's request, the program displays

the various network variables (currents, voltages,

charges, and fluxes) as functions of time or as functions of each other. The user can at any time modify

the network and ask for a recalculation and redis- play." (Evans and Katzenelson, 1967, p. 1135).

5.37 "The major use of the console system so

far has been for problems requiring at some stage

'dynamic scratch pad' capabilities. Included in such problems have been printed circuit component

and wiring placement, schematic circuit design,

block or flow diagram design, text composing and

editing . . ." (Ninke, 1965, p. 845). 5.38 "With this [Sketchpad] system a wide

variety of structural transformations and agglomerative actions can be evoked extemporaneously

by the designer. These include scaling, rotations,

translations, contiguity assignments, insertions,

replications — all possible on both the parts (separately within the whole of the drawing) and on the

entire aggregate of features in the drawing." (Cheydleur, 1965, p. 174).

"Among the special faciHties available for operation of the display system are provisions for displaying text, for drawing on the screen, and for rotating three-dimensional objects." (Fano, 1964,

p. 15). 5.38a "The program 'package' called CALCULAID provides a convenient way to specify and

execute requests for mathematical computation

and manipulations. It runs entirely within the OPS-3

system. In addition to a general assignment-statement capability, such as the execution of the statement X=Y+A*(Z + 5)

several more specific programs have been provided.

These include a multiple linear or simple polynomial

regression program, a solver of polynomial equations

in one unknown, a count-by-interval program, and

a program to rank-order a given sequence of numbers.

5.39 "CALCULAID and MAP are two more sys- tems for using the computer as a mathematician's

helper. CALCULAID is oriented toward writing

programs to solve large problems with much data.

It has built in FIT and REGRESSION operators,

and a convenient way of specifying matrix operations. MAP has facilities for performing convolutions, Fourier transforms, and other more

sophisticated analytical operations." (Teitelman,

1966, p. 15-16).

5.40 "By means of displays, the user receives

immediate feedback of the results of his actions,

and he is able to modify his decisions in order to obtain a system response that is most relevant to his needs." (Borko and Burnaugh, 1966, p. 1 (abstract).)

"These programs can be used singly, to perform

individual tasks or they can be combined together

in 'programs', where each step of the program is one of these macro operations. The system can be

used either as a very large and fast 'desk calculator' or as a powerful programming device which

allows simultaneous creation and execution of programs." (Wantman, 1965, p. 8). "By providing instantaneous response and a

multiplicity of input controls, the operator, on his CRT screen, is able to create and manipulate a model of his problem in the most descriptive and

meaningful manner. With a graphic display, the user is given complete freedom in the presentation

of his data, choosing whatever pictorial form he

desires. Rich, problem-oriented, graphic languages can be tailored to each user's needs, allowing full statements to be made with the flick of a fight pen. Concepts can be depicted in entirely new ways.

366-108 O - 70 - 7 91
Data can be condensed and presented in clear understandable graphs." (Stotz, 1968, p. 13). "Most graphic input-output systems are involved

in computer-aided design — a class of environments

involving a high degree of interaction between

designer and problem-solving system. Computersupported drawings are a good medium for communication between human beings and design

systems because drawings are easily understood

by people. The graphics problem is not so much

automating the drafting process, as automating the

interpretation of drawings." (McCarthy, 1967, p. 64).

. . The engineer must be able to communicate

with the computer in an interactive environment

where he can:

1. Request an operation.

2. Examine his results.

3. Determine the next operation to be performed

based on the previous results. "This suggests that a problem-oriented language

functions best in a time-sharing environment."

(Roos, 1965, p. 425).

5.40a Two examples are: "To correct an input

and to immediately signal the man in the loop for a correction or the need for a correction, is an

important time saving factor. Many needless hours

of 'turn around time' can be saved by finding out immediately that a transcription error exists."

(Bauer, 1965, p. 18). "A most important form of output is interim

feedback, which will sharpen the focus of the question after the search has started." (Taylor, 1962,

p. 393).

It is to be noted in particular that "A communication network that does not let the user know how long it will be before his message will be delivered to the end addressee may be theoretically

oscillatory.'''' (Baran, 1964, p. 7). 5.40b "The man-machine coupHng problem in

its full breadth is the central issue in advancing

interactive-computer technology." (Mills, 1966, p. 196). 5.41 "Application of man-machine systems in support of education already promises to be among

the most important in terms of future impUcations.

From a philosophical standpoint, problems of education can be included as part of the so-called 'information explosion' problem area, since the

body of information to be transferred by the education process must ultimately reflect the growth of the aggregate of human knowledge." (Mills, 1967,

p. 235).

5.41a In another paper, these authors comment: "While Programmed Instruction, or PI, has

been evolving for a number of years, ComputerAssist Instruction, or CAI, is a much more recent

arrival. This is because the computer itself is a

relatively new device and time-sharing, which makes

CAI economically feasible, is only now being applied on a large scale in commercial systems." (Silvern

and Silvern, 1966, p. 1651).

"The term CAI should be reserved for those particular learning situations in which a computer

contains a stored instructional program designed

to inform, guide, control, and test the student until a prescribed level of proficiency is reached."

(Silvern and Silvern, 1966, p. 1651).

5.42 "A much older CAI system is the PLATO

System, developed at the University of Illinois. In the present system, each of the 20 student sta- tions connected to a CDC 1604 computer has an

electronic keyboard for student communication

with the central computer and a CRT screen for viewing information selected by the computer.

This CAI system has been applied to the actual

teaching of electrical engineering and nursing."

(Van Dam and Michener, 1967, p. 199.)

"The purpose of the PLATO project has been

to develop an automatic computer-controlled teaching system of sufficient flexibihty to permit experimental evaluation of a large variety of ideas in automatic instruction including simultaneous

tutoring of a large number of students in a variety

of subjects." (Coordinated Science Laboratory,

1965, p. 43). "Bitzer & Easley describe a particular automatic

teaching system (PLATO) in use at the University

of Illinois. The interface language of PLATO ex- hibits an interesting approach to the problem of

smooth coupling to the problem environment

(example: the student can interrupt the main in- structional sequence for some special tutoring by

pressing a button labeled "Help": a button labeled

"Aha!" returns him to the main sequence). Among

the author's conclusions are an indication that the

system is actually performing as a successful educational device and that the same system implemented on an appropriately large computer would i< provide this kind of teaching to as many as a thou- i sand students simultaneously." (Mills, 1967, p. 238). i "PLATO, which stands for Programmed Logic

for Automatic Teaching Operations, is another i laboratory for educational research. It uses an 'i ILLIAC computer-controlled system of slides, TV

displays and student response panels for simul- ( taneously instructing a number of students. ... It |i is part of the Coordinated Science Laboratory of |' the University of Illinois. ...

' "In the PLATO system, the computer accepts :: each student's request in sequence, but because

of its high speed students can be served without

noticeable delay. Each student has a key set and a / television set. The key set, used by the student to L communicate to the central computer, has keys of 'j two types: character keys, such as numerals, letters ^ and other symbols; and logic keys such as "continue", "reverse", "help", "judge", and "erase", t These logic keys are used by the students to proceed | through the instructional material. From the stu- ' dent's response or from the position he has reached 1 in the program, information is selected by the ' computer for display on the student's television |ii screen. This information has two sources: (1) a h

92
central slide-selector, and (2) an electronic blackboard. .Although a single sHde-selector is shared by

all students, each student has independent access

to any slide. Each student has an electronic blackboard on which the central computer can write

characters and draw diagrams. Information unique

to a student such as his answer to a question, is written on his own blackboard by the computer.

The images from the slide-selector and the blackboard are superimposed on the student's television screen." (Egbert, 1963, p. 622). 5.43 "CLASS stands for Computer-Based Laboratory for Automated School Systems and is a

facility developed and operated by Systems Development Corporation. The CLASS faciHty is not considered a prototype of a school system but is devoted rather to educational research in a system

context. The laboratory permits the integration of

(1) individual student automated instruction, (2) group instruction, both automated and conventional, and (3) centralized data processing for administration, guidance, and planning functions. For

flexibility, the central control of the laboratory is exercised by a digital computer, the Philco 2000.

Various innovations in instructional load, administrative data processing, and counseling procedure

can be provided by computer program modification." (Egbert, 1963, p. 621).

5.43a "PLANIT (Programming L.4A^guage for /nteraction and Teaching) is a system employing

a flexible language designed for CAL PLANIT

provides for the designer a powerful and flexible

tool for entering communication material into the

computer, for modifying the material, for presenting

it to the user, and for prescribing the behavior of the computer as a function of the user's current response and past performance. In addition, the

language is simple enough to allow a nonprogrammer

to use it easily." (Feingold, 1967, p. 545).

"Materials produced via PLANIT are: Instructional sequences in statistics (aimed at students of the social sciences enrolled in a first course in

statistics); spelling and vocabulary (for children

three to eight years); economics (for undergraduates): introduction to computer programming (for persons having some knowledge of algebra). Agencies who have used or are using PLANIT are: System Development Corporation, Southwest Regional Laboratory, University of California at Los

Angeles, University of Southern CaHfornia, University of California at Irvine, United States Naval

Personnel Research Activity (San Diego, California),

New England Educational Data System, and Lackland Air Force Base." (Feingold, 1967, p. 551).

5.44 "The IBM 1500 Instructional System is indicative of the complexity inherent in generalpurpose CAI hardware. The 1500 hardware consists

of CRT display units, alphanumeric keyboards and

light-pens for student input, image projectors, taperecording units, a central processing unit (the new IBM 1130), an audio adapter for sound transmission

to student stations, a station control, at least two

disk units, and a printer and card reader for use by

the instructor. A maximum of 32 stations can be

linked to the computer for simultaneous instruction.

This system has been used at the Brentwood School,

in East Palo Alto, California, to present mechanized

reading and mathematics (e.g., set arithmetic) to

first grade classes." (Van Dam and Michener, 1967,

p. 199).

"The IBM 1500 Instructional System is an experimental system for computer-assisted instruction,

designed to administer individual programmed les- sons to 32 students at once. Working through one

or more teaching devices at his own instructional

station, a student may follow a course quite different from, and independent of, lessons presented at other stations. Instructional programs stored in central files control lesson content, sequence,

timing, and audio-visual medium, varying all of these according to the student's responses." (Terlet,

1967, p. 169).

5.45 "This means that a chemistry student can

sit at his desk and type directions to a machine that

will 'perform' chemical experiments step by step . . . The student has a viewer on his desk that shows him

what would happen, for instance, if he orders potassium chlorate to be added to a solution of hydrochloric acid. If the solution turns yellow or the

mixing causes an explosion, the student sees this on his viewer." (Bushnell, 1965, p. 19). 5.46 "The CAI system has the capabihty of collecting student data, and this can be processed

and regurgitated in the form of reports to the teacher

and administrator. The system can provide rates of progress, areas of difficulty, problems, unexpected

responses, time to complete, adherence to schedule,

attendance facts, etc." (Silvern and Silvern, 1966,

p. 58). "A cumulative record is kept of the student's

performance on each of the topics. These perform- ance measures include the student's response

time, error count, and pattern of errors. If a stu- dent's performance falls below an acceptable level

for a topic, the student is branched or detoured to a special set of remedial items on that topic."

(Egbert, 1963, p. 621).

5.46a "A few commercial speech output devices

for computers or computer controlled systems have

been announced. All but one of these rely on the

playback of analog audio signals under digital

control of selection, switching, and sequencing.

The analog recording has been both magnetic and

photographic. These devices generally have in- dividual words in uniform time slots and can

provide sequencing of these words under computer

controL They have been used in such applications

as providing stock market quotations and telephone

number change information." (Hogan, 1966, p. 92). 5.47 "The IBM 7770 audio response system

furnishes spoken replies to telephone inquiries . . . The inquiry is processed by the computer against

stored data. The reply is composed from a selected,

prerecorded vocabulary and transmitted back to the caller as a spoken message." (Licklider, 1965,

p. 102).

93
"In the case of the 7770 the enquirer enters a request by dialling digits which are immediately

transmitted to the audio response unit and then sent

to the processor. The computer processes the data,

composes a coded reply, and returns the message

to the 7770. This device then interprets the coded

reply, selecting the appropriate words from a stored

vocabulary of between 32 and 128 words, and tells the enquirer the answer to his query." ("IBM System/360", 1965, p. 299).

"The 7772 . . . generates audio on the 'vocoder'

principle — that of energizing tone filters and combining the output result first to form words and then

sentences . . ." (Urquhart, 1965, p. 857). Knauft

et al. (1966) describe further developments with

respect to the 7772 audio response unit involving

hardware and software features for treatment of unvoiced components of coded speech signals.

"The 7772 can have a vocabulary of several

thousand words, stored on a disc device in digital

form. The audio response unit recreates the spoken

voice from these digital records." ("IBM System/

360", 1965, p. 299).

5.48 Vocoder techniques, which were initially

described by Dudley in 1936, involve devices de- signed to compress "the bandwidth of speech

signals in order to transmit them over channels of

very Hmited capacity. The vocoder measures the

speech power in a number of frequency bands and

transmits these measures as signals over a set of narrow low-frequency channels ... At the re- ceiver the speech is reconstituted by modulating

the spectrum of a broad band source in accordance

with the frequency region and amplitude of each

of the measure-signals derived from the original

speech. Normally this reconstituted speech signal

is presented acoustically for a listener. Alternatively, vocoded speech signals can be presented

visually or tactually." (Pickett, 1963, p. 2). An alternative to the vocoder approach, also investigated by IBM, involves the development of

a library of analog synthesizer control signals cor- responding to subword segments of speech. Thus,

"segments of control signals can be made which

correspond to segments of synthetic speech, and

a hbrary of speech segments can then be stored in the form of a library of synthesizer control-function

segments. The synthesizer may then be controlled

by composite functions assembled from the se- quence of control-function segments corresponding

to the desired utterance. In order to investigate this approach to speech synthesis, a terminal analog

synthesizer and associated control system have been

constructed. Our goal is to generate a library of reproducible control-function segments from which we can construct connected speech." (Estes et al., 1964, p. 2-3).

5.48a It is to be noted that both the IBM 7770

and 7772 units are available in languages other than

Enghsh (Urquhart, 1965, p. 857).

"Of particular advantage is that the technique is language independent, and if so desired, more than

one language might be used within the same system

at the same time. In the United States this is not a major problem but in Canada and in some European

countries where people are often times multilingual,

it is only right to assume that one should have a computer that would be too. Such a device is the

IBM 7772 Audio Response Unit." (McDonald, 1966,

p. 54). 5.49 "Cognitronic's 'Speechmaker' audio re- sponse units also have a fixed vocabulary of words

selected and combined by computer command.

These units have a maximum vocabulary of 189

words. Each word is 1.6 seconds long and is pre- recorded, by a technique similar to that used to [ produce a sound track for a motion picutre, on a cylinder of photographic film mounted on a drum

in the response unit. A narrow light beam, directed

through the sound tracks on the rotating drum, is < modulated by the prerecorded audio on each track | and is detected by photocells. The output of the

photocells is ampHfied and fed directly to telephone

lines. This system is in use at the American Stock j Exchange, enabhng stockbrokers to dial four-digit i codes on their office telephones and receive stock

quotations; it can answer 1200 telephone inquiries > in a minute." (Van Dam and Michener, 1967, p. 193).

5.50 "RCA announced that it has developed a ji new voice response unit . . . [providing] vocal ; replies to queries fed into the computer by tele- ; phone from up to 100 remote points. It is designed ! to work with the Spectra 70/35, 45 and 55." (Com- ; mun. ACM 9, 468 (1966).)

5.50a "Burroughs Corporation has announced i a data communications system which uses com- i puter-stored information to generate a spoken reply

through a telephone hand set . . . The voice re- ; sponse generator's memory is a rotating, cyhndrical, i photographic film containing 64 parallel tracks on ij which numbers, words, phrases, and silence are recorded. Photoelectric cells read the 64 tracks as j they pass by, and words or numbers are selected, ^ as instructed by the computer program, in the t proper sequence to compose a message. One track •

is silent and provides timing and pauses desired in i messages. The other 63 tracks can contain three i words or numbers, each of one-half second duration ^ or a phrase up to one and one-half seconds long. The \ 63 tracks, segmented into thirds, can contain a , maximum of 189 individual words and numbers." s (Commun. ACM 11, No. 4, 289 (Apr. 1968).) [ 5.51 "Audio equipment enabhng a computer

to talk to students has been delivered to Stanford ; University by Westinghouse Electric Corporation, } US. It uses a Prodac 50 computer that controls a ; battery of 12 random access magnetic tape units on which verbal information is recorded." (Elec- ? tronics Weekly, No. 258, 8/11/65, p. 11). i 5.51a "The RADC Information Processing Lab- 5 oratory has sponsored research on a digital to analog i converter technique for speech. A breadboard 1! model demonstrated feasibility of converting digital t information into spoken words using optical sound- !i
track techniques and using a vocabulary of 385

words." (Shiner. 1962, p. 338). 5.52 "Pushbutton input and audio response can

be combined in the home use of computers. IBM

is now experimenting with the student use of computers for homework problems, using home tele- phones to link to a 1710 computer; spoken answers

are generated by a 7770 response unit." (Van Dam

and Michener. 1967. p. 193). 5.53 "A typical dial access medical tape re- cording library is in operation today at the University

of Wisconsin Medical School. Staff physicians

record four-to-six minute commentaries on current

information having to do with various subjects or procedures. The list of subjects is circulated by

mail to physicians in the state. A practising physician may telephone ... at any time of day or

night and request that a particular tape be played."

(Becker. 1967. p. 8). 5.54 "The Bankers Trust Company noted both

favorable response and rapid adjustment of bank

personnel and the public to its audio response

installation." (Swanson, 1967, p. 38). 5.55 "Audio-response techniques are being

used at the Space Division of North American

Aviation for engineering-design status information on NASA's Apollo and Saturn projects. In this case,

the words in the audio vocabulary are the appropriate ones to provide information about engineering drawings and specifications." . (Whiteman,

1966. p. 67). "Another system is EDICT, which the space and

information systems division of North American

Rockwell uses to provide the company's engineers

with design data. Data from more than 75,000 engineering drawings is available from any of the company's 42,000 telephones via an IBM 7770." (Berul,

1968, p. 29). 5.55a "The ability of a computer to generate answers in audible words makes it possible to obtain

a great deal of information in a form understood by

anyone and with the use of unsophisticated and

therefore inexpensive terminal equipment. A

number of computer companies have designed

inquiry devices. Telephones which use tones for diahng can also be employed for this purpose by

using the pushbutton tone dial after the call is established to submit the inquiry. In this case, the answer is heard in the telephone receiver." (Gentle,

1965, p. 86). 5.55b "It has been estimated that the information content of the digital voice signal is as low as 50

bits per second. Direct digital encoding of an analog

speech signal by sampHng, quantizing, or pulse

code modulation techniques requires a bandwidth

of 56,000 bps. With fixed channel vocoding tech- niques, the bit rate required to transmit . . . [speech] in digital form with adequate scores on

intelligibility, articulation, and speaker recognition

tests, has been reduced to 2,400 bps. There are other vocoding techniques which will eventually

reduce this bandwidth stiU further to 1,200 bps, and

even to 300 bps but with markedly reduced quality."

(Franco et al., 1965, p. 131). "Fairly good quality speech can be produced

using about 48,000 bits per second. Even with the

vast economical digital storages available today,

the bit storage (using the minimum acceptable

sample rate and resolution) for a 1000 word vocabulary is not particularly attractive. . . . "Certain economies of storage can be achieved by

the use of the channel vocoder mainly because of

the redundancy of human speech. That is to say, every instant of speech is not a wholly new complex

waveform but is generally the repetition of the same

complex wave form a number of times and then

changing to another. By taking advantage of this unique quality of speech, it is possible to digitize a portion of speech, a word, inspect it for its redundant aspects and rather than store all of the redundancy, establish a count of the number of times a given pattern is used before it changes to another

pattern. . . . "By the use of this technique it is possible to store reconstructable digitized speech so that approximately twenty-four hundred bits represent one second of speech [one to two words]. This is a considerable saving in space over the minimal

24,000 bits and the desirable 48,000 bits." (McDonald, 1966, p. 53). 5.56 Under the general direction of G. Fant

(1959), the work of J. Liljencrantz, U. Ringman,

P. Tjernlund and others of the Vocoder Group,

Speech Transmission Laboratory, R.I.T., is primarily concerned with speech analysis and speech

synthesis. Both a speech analyzer and a speech

synthesizer are in operation can be used together

to improve the vocoding performance. A new spec- trum analyzer has been designed for on-line operation with a computer, including such tasks as varying formant and anti-formant information, i.e., to take samples of natural speech, to extract parameters, and to try to replicate them with the speech

synthesizer. (See Stevens, 1968).

5.56a "A speech synthesis program was written

at Manchester (Mathers, 1964) based on the Para- metric Artificial Talker at Edinburgh University

(Anthony and Lawrence, 1962). The eight parameters required by this program were measures of the frequency of relatively dense energy bands

in the spectrum, energy ampUtude measurements,

and measurement of the fundamental frequency

of the waveform. Two other synthesis programs were developed which required nine and eleven

parameters, representing a closer description of the spectrum. Three analysis programs were written

which automatically measured the spectrum and

produced the appropriate parameters from the

speech waveform." (Lavington and Rosenthal,

1967, p. 338).

"Routines r6 and r7 were developed for use in a system of automatic speech analysis and synthesis

(Rosenthal, 1965). This system was based on the

assumption that the intelligible information in

95
speech may be expressed as values of a few slowly

varying parameters, and that these parameters

may be measurements of characteristics in the

spectrum of the speech waveform. The object of the exercise was to obtain a reduction in the data

rate of speech transmission without loss of infor- mation. It was desired to produce analysis pro- grams which would form the spectrum of the speech

waveform and measure the values of several parameters which would then be used as input to a synthesis program. The synthesis program would

produce a waveform whose spectral characteristics were controlled by the parameters, and which would

hopefully, be judged similar to the original by

human listeners." (Lavington and Rosenthal, 1967,

p. 338). 5.57 "A voice-excited vocoder has been successfully simulated on the IBM 7094 computer and

satisfactory quality of voice has been reconstructed

with 220—660 cps frequency used as the voiceexcitation band. Experiments are under way to convert the vocoder output to a binary data stream

and investigate the effect of channel coding techniques on the reconstructed voice." (Quarterly

Progress Report JVo. 80, Research Laboratory for Electronics, M.I.T., 179 (1966).)

"The general research problem of artificial speech

generation is under continuing investigation in Professor K. N. Stevens' Speech Communications

Group and particular application to the readingmachine system is being considered in cooperation with his group." (Quarterly Progress Report

No. 80, Research Laboratory for Electronics,

M.I.T., 218 (1966).)

5.58 "Study of the speech process is interesting

in its own right. It is, moreover, a route to practical

applications, not only in the engineering of devices

for speech recognition, bandwidth compression, and

prosthetic aids to the blind or deaf, but also to the more common problems that arise in connection

with the use of language by normal and handicapped

people. The research on speech has necessarily

been interdisciplinary, requiring close working

cooperation among linguists, experimental psychologists, and engineers." (Cooper, 1967, p. 1214).

5.59 "An interesting application of audio output

is the work at MIT's Research Laboratory of Electronics to develop a 'reading' system for the blind

that will read printed English text aloud. The

project is divided into three phases: recognition

of characters; translation of words into 'phonemes,'

the minimum units of speech; and conversion of

the phonemes into speech, using a speech synthesizer. To date, phases one and three have been

completed. These modules have been built at the

Laboratory and have cost only a few thousand

dollars, since special high-speed equipment was

necessary. The character recognizer uses TX-0

and PDP— 1 computers to perform the recognition.

It can now scan printed input, recognize each letter, and output the character vocally. The overall reading rates are about 60 to 80 words a minute, with a

high degree of accuracy." (Van Dam and Michener,

1967, p. 194).

5.59a "It should be clear that with the addition

of a printer character-recognition unit, the system

is useful as a reading machine for the blind. It was originally with this purpose that our research

into computer generation of connected speech from

text source began." (Lee, 1968, p. 333).

5.59a2 "Formant amphtudes have not been

studied much in previous investigations Formant

frequencies and over-all intensities have received

much more attention. ... A correct reproduction

of formant amplitudes in synthesis is necessary

for ensuring one of the elements of naturalness,

such as, for instance, a voice source of correct spectrum shape." (Fant et al., 1963, p. 1760).

5.59a3 "It is a mistake to suppose that, once

vowels and consonants have been simulated

in isolation, their conjunction will result in in- telligible speech. If the formants are varied in a stepwise fashion, the resulting sounds are quite

unintelhgible unless one knows what was intended

beforehand. In natural speech, the formants vary

slowly and smoothly, even persisting through seemingly colourless sounds like 'sh', where they form

a smooth interpolation between the preceding and

succeeding values occurring in the speech. But > with sufficiently fast machines, all these things

could be allowed for by program." (Woodward,

1966, p. 262).

"Perhaps the intonation of the voice will be the

most resistant problem; we have no notation for its > inflexion and Httle understanding of the rules by i which inflexion conveys meaning. This, it may be ' suggested, is why computer voices are often pro- grammed to sing rather than to speak." (Woodward,

1966, p. 262).

5.59b "The resulting speech is usually intelligi- \ ble, but not suitable for long-term use. Several s problems remain, apart from those concerned direct- 1 ly with speech synthesis by rule from phonemic i, specifications. First, many words can be nouns or /( verbs, depending on context [refuse, incline, sur- |i vey], and proper stress cannot be specified until the j intended syntactic form class is known. Second, j punctuation and phrase boundaries may be used l{ to specify pauses that help to make the complete

sentence understandable. Third, more complicated

stress contours over phrases can be specified which J facilitate sentence perception. Finally, intonation > contours, or 'tunes' are important for designating

statements, questions, exclamations, and continuing or terminal juncture. These features (stress,

^ intonation, and pauses) comprise the main prosodic f or suprasegmental features of speech." (Allen,

1968, p. 339). , 5.59c "The parser makes two passes (left-to- right) over a given input sentence. The first pass computes a tentative bracketing of noun phrases

and prepositional phrases. Inasmuch as this initial bracketing makes no clause-level checks and does

not directly examine the frequently occurring noun/

verb ambiguities, it is followed by a special routine j;

1

i

'
designed to resolve these ambiguities by means of

local context and grammatical number agreement

tests. These last tests are also designed to resolve

noun/verb ambiguities that do not occur in bracketed

phrases, as [refuse] in [They refuse to leave.]. As a

result of these two passes, a limited phrase bracketing of the sentence is obtained, and some ambiguous

words have been assigned a unique part of speech,

vet several words remain as unbracketed constitu- ents." (AUen. 1968. p. 341).

5.59d "Another possible approach is to use

partial words as the the basic unit to be stored. Research in this area has been very Hmited. Stowe

and Hampton have constructed connected speech

from syllables and have reported intelligibility scores of 90 per cent when the speech was pro- duced at the relatively slow rate of 2 words per

second. hen the rate was increased to a more

natural 4 words per second intelligibility dropped

to 66 per cent. Harris attempted to construct speech by using the basic sound of English as his stored units: that is he stored (in analog form) sounds

representing P. T. A. and so on. these having been

cut from words in which these sounds occur. Since

it has been long recognized that production and

perception of sounds are affected by adjacent

sounds, it was necessary in his method to have

several representatives of many of the sounds. That

is, a different kind of O might be necessary if it were to follow a T than if it were to follow a K, and

so on. Using a small inventory of such sounds, plus

rather elaborate analog equipment for synthesizing

monosyllables from the stored sounds. Harris ob- tained approximately 75 per cent intelligibility.

"An approach somewhere between the use of

single sounds and the use of syllables is the use of dyads that approximately represent the last half of one sound and the first half of a following sound.

The advantages of dyads are that they include the

natural transitions of speech from sound to sound,

while still keeping the required inventory to a manageable size. \S ang and Peterson, on theoretical

grounds, have calculated that an infinitely large

message set could be produced using approximately

800 dyads for monothonic speech and approximately 8500 dyads for intonated speech. Assuming

that a dyad lasts for 50 to 100 ms, it can be seen

that even using high-quality PCM coding of the

waveforms, an 800-dyad inventory would require

only about 5,000,000 bits of storage . . . "The decision to use natural rather than synthetic

speech to obtain our dyad inventory necessitated

the development of a system to extract portions of

a speech waveform and store them for later recall.

It was necessary to isolate segments of speech

as short in duration as 40 ms. Splicing speech seg- ments to this degree of precision was accomplished

using a research tool developed at the Sensory

Science Research Center. A CDC-.3100 computer,

coupled to a high-performance, interactive display

system, has been programmed to provide a visual

display of a previously digitized speech signal . . .

"The speech signal being displayed is cut in the same manner that it would be for splicing. However,

in this case the portion of the waveform between the

"cuts' is played back to the operator on head phones.

The selected portion may be played back a single

time, or (under operator control) it may be joined

to itself and repeated continuously as many times

as desired. This feature is particularly useful for listening to repeated versions of single periods in voiced speech which can be used to determine

boundaries of voiced dyads.

"Finally, a word should be said about the problem

of intonation. In this experiment, we have not attempted to produce any prosodic features. This

problem could be handled in two different ways.

First rules could be developed for modulating the

pitch, amplitude, and duration of the stored dyads,

according to the intonation needed in a given message. These rules would presumably be similar to those being developed in various speech model

synthesis systems. Secondly, the dyad inventory

could be expanded to include several representatives of each of the dyads, some with rising inflec- tion, some with steady high pitch, etc. Wang and

Peterson have calculated approximately 8500

segments would be required to represent all of the

inflections used in English. Although this would

greatly expand the work required to construct a dyad system, the technique is relatively straightforward and might be justified in the case of a user who needed very high-quality, natural speech."

(Becker and Poza, 1968 p. 795-800) References are

to Stowe and Hampton (1961). Harris (1953), and

Wang and Peterson (1958).

5.59e In this connection, Dolby et al. point out

that "solutions to the affix and syllable-counting

problems are essential to the determination of an

algorithm for transcribing written English into any

of the standard phonetic transcription systems now

in use." (Dolby et al., 1965, pp. 1-15).

5.59f "Speech synthesis by rule is the method of converting from a discrete representation of speech

in linguistic units, that is, phonemes and stress marks, to a continuous acoustic waveform . . . The discrete input is converted to continuous control signals by the synthesis strategy. The synthesis

strategy contains stored information about the

phonemes and stored rules about the mutual effects of adjacent phonemes. The stored rules operate on the input sequence to produce the control signals

for the synthesizer. The speech synthesizer converts

the control signals to continuous speech. The

synthesizer may be a terminal analog, a dynamic

analog of the vocal tract, or a combination. . . . "Each phoneme has a characterization independent of adjacent phonemes. The characterization

includes format information, source characteristics

in the production of the phoneme, a description of

whether it is nasal or fricative, and a set of fre- quency regions surrounding the formant positions.

"The formant information is a set of target posi- tions for both center frequency and bandwidth of

97
formants one, two and three. The source characteristics describe the condition of the vocal cords

during the production of the phoneme. If the vocal

cords are vibrating the sound is voiced. The fre- quency regions of a phoneme represent the degree

to which certain acoustic parameters must approximate the target values of these parameters in the context of connected speech. In an articulatory

analog, the corresponding concept would be the

extent to which a given vocal tract configuration

must approximate the target configuration for the

phoneme . . . "For certain consonants maximum durations are

specified. Consonant duration (as measured from

human speech) is not a fixed quantity but is very

dependent on context. (For example, initial con- sonants are much longer than medial consonants.)

The synthesis strategy generates consonants whose

duration is variable within certain limits. Maximum

durations are specified to prevent the consonant

from being unnaturally long, hence objectionable.

"Among the topics that will be considered for future work are the effects of stress and rhythm on

timing of an utterance, the inclusion of more than one breath-group in an utterance, and studies of

further correlates of word boundaries." (Rabiner,

1968, pp. 17, 23-24, 36). 5.59g See Lee (1968). In summary,

"F. F. Lee of the Cognitive Information Processing Group has concluded that the technical advance

in low-cost high-density read-only storage has

made it feasible to consider the imitation of the

human reading habit by machine and is now de- veloping a scheme for automatic translation of English text from letters to phonemes. Specifically, a lexicon containing on the order of 32,000

selected morphemes and words can be used together

with algorithms to give phonemic translation for

a vocabulary equivalent to what is contained in the Webster New Collegiate Dictionary." (Cornew,

1968, pp. 88-89).

5.60 "Spelled speech offers a slower but simpler

auditory display than artificial speech. Under

consideration are magnetic and optical storage

and read-out of the spoken-letter sounds, and under

investigation is the compression of spelled speech

by sampling in sections, temporal truncation, and

temporal-overlap superposition. . . . "Errors in phonetic speUing, arising from erro- neous character recognition and resulting in phonetic nonwords, can be accommodated by spelledspeech display of the erroneous English word.

Spelled speech is also a reasonable possibility for phonetically intractable proper names." (Quarterly

Progress Report No. 80, Research Laboratory for Electronics, M.I.T., 219 (1966).)

5.60a "The work reported here was concerned

with what we might call the pianola problem, that

is to say, the use of the computer to reproduce a sequence of predetermined sounds from a pre- viously handwritten 'score' without the use of

specialized peripiieral equipment or analogue devices. A good tune was, to the best of the author's

knowledge, first played on the Ferranti Mark I computer at Manchester, with Mr. C. Strachey at the controls. Nowadays, with faster computers, it is possible to play several good tunes at the same

time. S. N. Higgins produced a common chord from

a computer (TREAC) by time-muhiplexing as long

ago as 1954. The compilation of the necessary in- structions made a more starthng sound than the

climatic chord itself." (Woodward, 1966, p. 257).

"As the preparation of the tape for a piece of

music can be most time-consuming and the final performance is of little serious value, the effort

is unrewarding unless a suitably convenient code

is devised. The code should allow the use of variablelength notes referred to a diatonic scale modifiable

by sharps, flats and naturals. Rests can be input as notes of zero frequency. The score is best stored in

its entirety with all variables ready converted into the form needed by the program at runtime. During play, a pitch transition in any one part necessitates resetting a pitch constant in the program,

and as the various parts have unrelated audio

phases, no time for such resetting can be found

without interrupting the other parts. If all the other

parts move at the same time, the break is insuffi- ciently long to destroy a legato effect, but if one part

is tied, its continuity is spoiled unless the resetting

computation is carefully timed and short enough not

to interrupt it. The author has found it necessary

to draw the fine before incorporating this last re- finement, which is only the first of what could

easily become an evermore demanding pastime."

(Woodward, 1966, p. 261).

5.60b "At present, the generation of sound by

computer affords the researcher and composer at least three interesting possibiUties: (1) experiments

in auditory perception — characterized by Babbitt

as 'the most refractory of areas', (2) the study of musical 'grammars', (3) the development of original

compositions. The greatest amount of activity has

occurred in the latter category. Early credits go to Max Mathews and the MUSIC IV program for sound-generation and to Lejaren Hiller at the University of Illinois. More recently, computer generation has been carried out at Princeton (by James

Randall. Godfrey Winham, Hubert Howe, and

others), at Yale (by James Tenney), and at M.I.T.

(by Ercolino Ferretti and by A. Wayne Slawson)."

(Forte, 1967. p. 328). Forte suggests further that "computer-generated

graphic displays offer new resources for the editing

procedures that are central to much work in musicology" (1967, p. 329).

5.60c "Experiments at Stanford University,

Stanford, Cahf., indicate that a computer fitted with a special device can be used to teach pitch

to singers. Prof. Wolfgang Kuhn of Stanford's

Music Department, writing in the fall issue of The Journal of Research in Music Education,

reported favorable results with an experimental

'pitch extraction device'. The device was developed

98
as a laboratory' research tool by two IBM engineers,

Jerome D. Harr and Bruce Moncreiflf, for use with

IBM's 1620 computer at the company's Los Gatos

Advanced Systems Development Division.

"The computer is programmed to evaluate a

series of musical tones by comparing a student's

pitch to the true pitch. It can distinguish between

, male and female voices, which it translates as

"high" or 'low'. It also can detect deviations from

perfect pitch from as much as four per cent to as

little as half a per cent. When a student is ready

to practice with the computer, a tape-recorder can

offer him a sample pitch or he may play a series of notes on an organ-like keyboard which produces

a true tone. Then he sings into a microphone the tones which the computer has printed out to the

beat of a metronome.

"Prof. Kuhn programmed a series of sighti singing exercises together with tests and options

I into the computer's memory with the help of his assistant, Raymond AUvin. He used 10 undergraduate music students from San Jose State

College. They were instructed in the use of the

; machine, and given a standard musical achieve1 ment test. Then they went through a three-hour

I period on the machine, spread over a three-week

period, after which they were again tested against

the same (.AJiferis) achievement test.

' "The students noted an increased, awareness of

i pitch and accepted the machine's criteria of perfect

I pitch. Prof. Kuhn said IBM's pitch-extraction

ji device worked well: only once in 10.000 tries did

^ it give an erroneous report. "Each note in the per- formance was sampled'. Prof. Kuhn reports, 'and

the pitch analyzed. The computer decided whether

a specific exercise was to be repeated, or whether

' the student should go forward in the program or

I repeat similar material for more practice.' Each

1 student's-records of performance are collected and

stored in the computer memory so that his progress

I can be accurately measured and help given where

' needed.

' "Prof. Kuhn, who used a small Music Department allocation for his study, foresees the day

when a complete curricula in melodic, rhythmic

and harmonic sight-singing and dictation could

be computerized and adapted for any level of

musical development. He also envisions instructional systems for learning to play instruments."

(Computers and Automation 16, 61 (Dec. 1967).)

I 5.60d "The display can also represent a three- dimensional object which can be automatically

rotated around any given axis keeping the drawing

in proper perspective as it rotates. The ability to display a three-dimensional perspective drawing

and rotate this drawing to show the view from other

vantage points is particularly interesting in archi- tectural design. . . ." (Hobbs, 1966, p. 1873). 5.61 "Levinthal has recently started to develop

a system for sequentially displaying two-dimensional

images of a protein molecule, to provide an apparent

three-dimensional molecular model on the face of

an oscilloscope tube. This work is apparently ex- tendible to a wide range of structural representations. Consideration of the problems associated

with storing, interlinking, retrieving, and translating the data to compose a three-dimensional

model on the scope provides an intriguing view of

data-handhng capability that will be required in the

future. How widely such a technique will be useful

depends upon the availability of required data in the literature, but if the techniques of retrieving and

manipulating the data are not developed, the data

are apt never to be generated and used." (Tate,

1967. p. 295).

"We . . . decided to develop programs that would make use of a man-computer combination to do a kind of model-building that neither a man nor

a computer could accomplish alone. This approach

implies that one must be able to obtain information

from the computer and introduce changes in the

way the program is running in a span of time that is appropriate to human operation. This in turn sug- gests that the output of the computer must be pre- sented not in numbers but in visual form . . . "In working with molecular models we are inter- ested in being able to obtain data quickly in order

to evaluate the effect of changing the input variables

of the program . . . We realized that our best hope

of gaining insight into unexpected structural rela- tionships—relations that had not been anticipated —

lay in getting the computer to present a three- dimensional picture of the molecule . . ."(Levinthal,

1966. pp. 49-50).

"During the last year we have written a set of programs which allows the construction, the dis- play, and the analysis of macromolecules using a

digital computer and an osciDoscope display. With

this computer controlled display and real time rota- tion of the projection of the molecule being dis- played, it is possible for the observer to obtain

a true three-dimensional visualization of the

molecule. . . . "Since even a small protein molecule may contain

1500 atoms, the total number of pairs to be tested

is very large. In order to avoid the enumeration of

all possible pairs, a set of programs has been written

which divides space into cubes and then makes a

list of all atoms in each cube. In this way it is possible to enumerate all pairs of neighboring atoms by

searching through the cubes and listing those pairs

in which one member is in a cube and a second

member is in the same cube or one in the 26 sur- rounding ones. By using this list processing pro- cedure it is also possible to define 'holes' in a molecule by locating empty cubes surrounded by

filled ones. In addition, 'insidedness' and 'out- sidedness' of the molecule can be determined by

finding cubes which have filled neighbors on one

side and empty neighbors on the other side. The

knowledge of these aspects of the topology of a folded protein are necessary in order to evaluate

the contributions resulting from the interaction of particular amino acid residues with the water which

99
normally surrounds all protein molecules." (Levinthai, 1966, pp. 315, 317).

"It is still too early to evaluate the usefulness of the man-computer combination in solving real problems of molecular biology. It does seem likely,

however, that only with this combination can the

investigator use his 'chemical insight' in an effective

way. We already know that we can use the computer

to build and display models of large molecules and

that this procedure can be very useful in helping

us to understand how such molecules function."

(Levinthal, 1966, p. 52). 5.62 "Multipurpose three-dimensional graphs can now be produced from electronic data processing equipment with a newly developed spatial

data plotter announced by Spatial Data Systems,

Inc. ... X- and Y-dimensions on the flat bed of

the plotter are represented by the position of a

series of metal pins thrust upward through the

board's surface; the Z-dimension is pin height. All pins are step-motor positioned." (Commun.

ACM 10, 253 (1967).)

5.63 Some illustrative notes and comments

on three-dimensional data input, from an earlier report in this series, are summarized as foUows:

Stereoscopic initial data recording and three-dimensional data depth reconstruction by machine proc- essing and computational techniques are of significance in such areas of information processing

system application as aerial photograph interpretation, map or contour matching, and analysis of

bubble-chamber data. For example, a scanner developed by Moore et al. (1964), digitizes 9" aerial photographs for computer analysis of stereographic

differences.

R&D interests in the area of three-dimensional

data input and manipulation are exemphfied first by the Sketchpad III system at M.I.T., which is a computer program to facilitate entry and processing

of three-dimensional drawings (Johnson, 1963).

Roberts reports that: "After a list of three-dimensional objects has been obtained in some manner,

it should be possible to display them from any point

of view . . . The three-dimensional display program

will do all this and more." (Roberts, 1965, p. 185).

Fano comments further that "special equipment

developed by the Electronic Systems Laboratory

at M.I.T. makes it possible to draw with the lightpen a three-dimensional object and display its projection on the face of the cathode-ray tube just as if the object were continuously rotating in three

dimensions under the control of the viewer." (1967,

p. 31). An idealized graphic input-output system, to be

capable of processing "three-dimensional curve and surface projections", is reported by Parker

(1965). Developments in new technologies, such as those of holography, offer additional possibilities for three-dimensional data processing, storage, and

retrieval. A more recent example of practical 3—D data

processing applications has been reported as follows: "A computer at Brown University (Providence,

R.I.) is creating pictures — as simple as a cube and

as complex as a refinery pipeline — that can be seen

in three dimensions. The 3D project has been undertaken by Charles M. Strauss, a graduate student,

and Dr. Andries van Dam, assistant professor of

appUed mathematics, who is supervising this doctorate work in the Division of AppHed Mathematics.

"Mr. Strauss has created a program for the uni- versity's System/360 Model 50 which enables the

computer to construct a pair of images, differing

slightly in perspective, side by side on a televisionlike screen. When viewed through the stereoscope

mounted in front of the IBM 2250 display screen,

a person sees the two images merged into one with

the added dimension of depth.

"The images, geometric models stored in the

computer's memory, can be manipulated on the screen — enlarged, reduced, moved up or down

or rotated — by pressing various keys on the display

unit. In addition, a person can draw or alter the

pictures generated by the computer through the use of a light pen." (Computers and Automation

16, No. 11,52 (Nov. 1967).) In addition, we note that "an experimental

pseudo 3^D display at the White Sands Missile

Range was reported to incorporate several 3-D

cues, including perspective, shadow patterns and

color." (Vlahos, 1965, p. 15). 5.64 A recent example is summarized as follows: "A perspective transformation is developed whereby

an object in space as viewed from an arbitrary

point can be projected into a plane and plotted

. . . An algorithm which eliminates the plotting of

hidden portions of the object is discussed." (Kubert

et al., 1968, p. 193). For earlier examples and dis- cussion see the first report in the present series. 5.64a "There are . . . considerable reasons

for developing techniques by which line drawings

of sohds can be shaded, especially the enhancement

of the sense of solidity and depth . . . Shading

can specify the tone or color of a surface and the

amount of light falling upon that surface from one

or more light sources. Shadows when sharply

defined tend to suggest another viewpoint and

improved surface definition. When controlled,

shading can also emphasize particular parts of

the drawing. If techniques for the automatic deter- mination of chiaroscuro with good resolution should

prove to be competitive with line drawings, and this

is a possibility, machine generated photographs

might replace line drawings as the principal mode

of graphical communication in engineering and

architecture." (Appel, 1968, p. 37). 5.65 "The examples given in the preceding

paragraphs are representative only of a few of the

many provocative visual presentations using depth

made possible by the computer technique described

in this article. The most obvious use is in the

presentation of curves and functions of three vari- ables. When visualized in true depth, many important trends in data become quite evident, as 100
for example, the formant structure of the speech

spectra. . . . Here is a method for presenting

stress diagrams, the construction of beams and

bridges, the structure of molecules, functions of

a complex variable, and much more — all viewed

from any angle and any distance. It is apparent that further applications are limited by only the imagination of the prospective user." (Noll, 1966, p. 156).

"The present system definitely proves the feasibility of the real-time display of two-dimensional

half-tone images. It is felt that the technique may

be easily extended to stereo representation of half- tone images. Furthermore, the algorithm is so constructed as to allow computations to be executed in parallel (see the dotted section in Figure 11). As

many scan lines as hardware permits may be calculated simultaneously. Also, much of the computation may be performed by incremental hardware.

The parallel and incremental characteristics of the

algorithm lead us to believe that real-time movement

and display of half-tone images is very near realiza- tion." (Wylie et al., 1967, p. 58). 5.66 "A researcher at the Mitre Corp. . . . has

developed a technique to make a three-dimensional

display with mirrors and an off-the-shelf loudspeaker . . . As the flexible mirror vibrates, becoming alternately concave and convex under the

influence of the speaker's pneumatic drive, the

change in curvature causes a reflected image vibration also . . . One of the potential appUcations is in

air traffic control for displaying air space in three

dimensions, range, azimuth and elevation." (Electronics 39, No. 3, 41-42 (1966).)

5.66a "Utah computer researchers create 'Idea

Photographs'. Researchers at the University of

Utah are using a computer to create three-dimenional, halftone 'photographs' of a man's ideas.

The research opens the door to a large area of creative visual electronics, with remarkable possibilities

in nearly every field from entertainment and education to architecture and medicine.

"The group of scientists working on the project

has made 'photographs' of objects that exist only

in the minds of those at the computer controls. The

photograph-like reproductions were 'materialized'

by the computer, which had been previously pro- grammed in the mathematics appropriate to light

and shape.

"This development opens up many future possibihties such as:

1. Motion pictures in three dimension which give

the illusion of live action;

2. Computerized architecture, which would allow

the designer to spend ninety percent of his time on creative work; this would include three- dimensional building design, ehminating the

need for blueprints in the design process, and

aDowing the designer to show viewers (through

a special set of 'goggles') how the structure

will look on the site; and

3. ReaHstic visual aids which wiU modify teaching methods in education.

"The scientists are working under a four-year, $5

million contract with the Advanced Research Proj- ects Agency, Department of Defense, Washington,

D.C., to increase communications and graphic tech- niques between man and computers.

"In the halftone research, which is part of the

project, the group is working initially with geo- metric shapes, like cubes, pyramids, and spheres.

These building blocks, once they are programmed

into the computer, are 'stretchable' and can be

manipulated into many different combinations of

design forms and shapes.

"One of the practical applications of halftone

research may come in the field of architecture. The new computer graphics should allow an architect

to design a building on a large cathode-ray tube

instead of a drawing board. He will need to do so only once, and he will be able to do so in perspective, right down to the last detail. In the process,

the computer can rotate the design for a view from

any angle. The architect can magnify any section

for close-up examination, and can remove walls

to look inside any part of the structure. " (Computers

and Automation 17, No. 2, 11 (Feb. 1968).)

"A computer that makes television pictures out

of numbers has been developed by General Electric's Electronics Laboratory, Syracuse, N.Y. This

computer, designed for NASA's Manned Spacecraft

Center in Houston, Texas, will be a part of NASA's

simulation faciHty.

"The purpose of the computer is to generate

Hfe-Hke TV pictures of objects such as NASA's

Lunar Module, Command & Service Modules and

the lunar surface. The computer creates pictures

of these objects from numbers stored in its memory—numbers that mathematically describe the

shapes and colors of the objects. There are no TV

cameras, no films or slides, and no models or drawings in the system.

"The numbers that describe a particular scene

are on tapes which are read into the computer's

memory initially and remain there until deliberately

erased or until a new tape is read in. Since the

'models' are only computer tapes, it is possible to change from one simulation task to another in a matter of seconds.

"The operator can see the computer's visualization from any vantage point. In effect, he enters the

computer's world by manipulating an aircraft-type

control stick. The computer senses his location

through the movements of the control stick, then

computes and presents a TV picture of the scene

as it would appear for an instant in time. This

process is repeated up to thirty times per second,

giving the operator the same visual sensations he

experiences in a 'real-world' situation. "In addition to space objects and scenes, the

computer has been programmed to create pictures

of an aircraft carrier, an aircraft, an airport, and a

street scene . . . The computer is given a series of numbers that tell it the shape and colors of the

airport. From the numbers fed to its memory, the

101
computer draws the airport on a TV screen. As the

viewer manipulates the aircraft-type control stick

to inform the computer where he would like to be

in relation to the airport, the computer re-computes

the exact perspective and size of the scene for the

viewer's location." (Computers and Automation

16, No. 11, 53 (Nov. 1967).)

5.67 "Dr. Nathan [Jet Propulsion Lab.] says

that he has been able to use the computer to draw

three-dimensional contour maps of the lunar sur- face. The 7094 accomplishes this by comparing

light and dark areas in lunar pictures and computing the angle of slopes and relative roughness

and elevations between them." (The Computer

Bull. 9,62(1965).)

5.67a "This paper describes Design Language

I (DLI) — a prototype computer-aided design system.

DLI addresses the creative design of 3-dimensional

structure, using a display console for communication with the user. . . . "The prototype DLI system handles design of

3-dimensional objects consisting of points, straight

lines, and planes. Additional elements are scalars (holders for single numbers), sets (collections of elements), views (2-dimensional displays of ele- ments) and modes (holders for definers to be applied

to each element created when the mode is active)."

(Denil. 1966, p. 527).

"Results from the prototype implementation

indicate that the language modelling approach

to the design problem is sound. A designer may

start work by sketching a "basic object using the

APPNT and SKLINE nouns. Once a rough outHne

is obtained, the object may be modified into the

desired shape with no difficulties; it is found that the process is very similar to the process one uses

in sketching and then refining this sketch into a

finished design." (Denil, 1966, p. 535).

5.68 "The questions of color, 3-D, and size of

display are matters of continuing controversy in our service laboratories." (Rosa, 1965, p. 412).

5.69 "A technique that could permit radar or sonar screens to display hundreds of different colors has been developed by Sylvania Electronic Systems . . ." (Electronics 37, No. 18, 18 (1964).)

5.69a "It is necessary to make compromises

in some characteristics in order to accept a display

technology that meets other essential requirements more important to the particular application.

A decision as to whether to use a multi-color

system in a large-screen display is an example of

the compromises that must be made. The use of

several colors in a display offers definite advantages

in terms of the abiHty to distinguish different types of items (e.g., in a simple case, friendly and

hostile forces); hence, from the user standpoint a

multi-color system is desirable. However, a color

display usually involves a significantly greater

amount of equipment and hardware which implies an increase in space and cost (and probably adverse

effects on reliability and maintainability). Hence,

the systems designer must balance the need for

multi-color displays from the user standpoint against

the penalties that may result in other performance

characteristics, in cost and size, and in reliability."

(Hobbs, 1966, p. 1877).

5.69b "Current [command and control] systems

call for displays that can handle large volumes of

data in real time and that are bright, in full color, of high resolution, and highly flexible. There are no

existing displays that can provide this total capability. New techniques must be provided to ensure

that the display does not become the weakest link

in the data-processing chain." (Baker and Rugari,

1966, p. 37). 5.69c "The technical and economic obstacles

that have prevented the use of color in console

displays are rapidly vanishing with the effect that

at least two manufacturers (ITT and Philco-Ford)

are currently producing full-color, general purpose,

console displays. General Electric has also an- nounced a small-screen color display designed for NASA.

"The Sylvania tube produces two colors using a

single gun tube and two phosphors, one for each

color. The color selection is performed by changing

the post-deflection accelerating voltage which

changes the beam energy. A high energy beam

penetrates the first phosphor layer and excites the

second, while a low energy beam does not penetrate

thereby exciting the first layer. . . . "One recent system, developed by General Electric, produces a full color perspective picture of an

aircraft carrier deck and is used to train naval pilots.

The position of the carrier is under computer control

and changes according to the trainee's actions."

(Mahan, 1968, pp. 20-21, 31). 5.69d "Radio Corporation of America (RCA) has

modified its color scanners so they can produce

four-color separations from reflection copy, as well

as from colored transparencies. RCA has also announced the Graphic 70/8821 Composing Color

Scanner. It has a three-part scanning cylinder. Two

transparencies can be mounted on two of these,

with a mask on the third. The scanning head over

the mask controls the switching-over from one color

transparency to the other to produce any desired

composite picture.

"Crosfield Electronics, Ltd. also has a new scanner, called Diascan 2000. It scans one color at a

time, with a resolution of 500, 1000, or 2000 Hues

per inch." (Hartsuch, 1968, p. 57). 5.70 "The hardware is based on a 7090 computer,

the Stromberg-Carlson 4020 microfilm recorder,

provision on the master film for designating se- quence lengths for individual frames and standard

optical printing.

"The programming involves a 'scanner language'

which assumes 26 addressable scanners 'looking at' specified cells of a 252 x 184 image matrix, where

numeric values 0-7 indicate gray scale." (Knowlton,

1964). 5.71 "To completely automate the movie process, one experiment used a General Dynamics/

102
Electronics SC-4020 cathode-ray tube as an elec- tronics draftsman. This tube, with its associated

circuitry, was connected directly to the computer.

The different drawings were projected electronically on the face of the tube. The time of each projection was 0.035 second. These projections were then

recorded on film." (Gomolak, 1964, p. 70). 5.72 "Previously, animated movies were made

a single frame at a time — a time-consuming and

tedious process. Now, however, special photo-optic

equipment under the control of a high-speed digital

computer is being used to generate animated movies.

For example, such computer-generated movies

have been used at the Bell Telephone Laboratories

to demonstrate the effects of different gyroscope

constraints on an orbiting satelHte. Also, an in- genious computer-programming language has been

devised for producing computer movies. . . . "The

computer method for generating a three-dimensional

movie is first to calculate, at some particular instant

in time, the three-dimensional coordinates of the

points in a line-drawing representation of the desired

object. The three-dimensional movie program then

calculates the points required for the two perspectives and also generates the instructions for drawing the perspectives with a plotter. The three- dimensional coordinates of the object at a small

time increment later are then computed, and the

three-dimensional program generates the instructions for another frame of the movie. This procedure

is repeated on a frame-by-frame basis until the

desired movie sequence is completed. The movie

is then recorded on magnetic tape which is used

as input to the plotter. The plotter decodes the

instructions on the tape and repeatedl)^ advances the

film and deflects the electron beam until the entire

movie is completed." (Noll, 1966, pp. 143-145).

5.72a "This paper presents a generalized technique for generation of off-line CRT motion-picture

displays of objects in three-dimensional space.

Initial implementation of the system, called VISTA*

(Visual Information for Satellite Telemetry Analysis), uses the Univac 1108 computer to generate

time-sequence displays for output on the Stromberg-Carlson 4020 microfilm plotter. The system

accepts satellite orbit and attitude data and pro- duces motion pictures illustrating the three dimensional position and orientation of the spacecraft

in orbit, relative to one or more celestial bodies."

(Chapman and Quann, 1967, p. 59). 5.73 "Until now the designer has been con- cerned with the many, detailed problems of designing and producing large, single-path information

systems. Mixing presentation media into one system

has been limited to the efforts of the military, notably

intelligence, groups who were forced to cope with

•VISTA was developed by Computer Sciences Corporation for NASA-GSFC.

the problem of photographic inteUigence and the

synthesis of this and other data into indications of

hostile activity . . . The total network requirement

[is] for presentation technology-in-combination. . . . "And why should we be concerned about mixing

media — text, audio, pictorial — into one single infor- mation network? For two reasons: one, to accom- modate the transfer of information to some users for whom one form will not suffice; two, because of the

very nature of information itself, because certain

types of information are communicated more effec- tively in visual or audible forms. . . . "We must, therefore, consider ways to handle

digital data, video, analogue and any combinations

of these to best affect the transfer of knowledge

from originator to user. "The problem of mixing presentation media is extraordinarily complex if we consider the various

forms that data can take and the various sub-sets

of this data. The primary forms of data, for example,

are original text, or the written word, audio information and pictorial data. If we draw these three forms

of data as three overlapping circles, we can see that we have seven combinations of data to contend with. In medicine the written data would be the texts of authors contained in books, journals, and miscellaneous monographs. Audio data would be heart murmurs. Pictorial data would be surgical tech- niques. Audio data could be combined with visual

demonstrations of palpations. Written data could

be accompanied by diagrams or illustrations. "Thus, we have seven combinations of data pres- entation to consider. Let us now look at the sub-sets

of each of these. Full text can appear as abstracts

of the text, as shorter indexes, as titles and paginations, or as evaluative data about the text such as reviews or comments on the content of the text. For the text set alone we, therefore, have four subsets of information, all or none of which may be

available. All of these should be considered for the

total information network." (Mayeda, 1967, pp. 4-5).

5.74 "It seems to us that there is some merit in trying to develop such large-scale, high-resolution

dynamic displays for group-computer interaction,

though at the same time we appreciate the difficulty of the technical problems involved." (Licklider,

1965, p. 102).

5.74a "With the ability to scan preliminary or approximate results while his problem is still on

the computer, and to immediately make on-line

modifications in method or detail of calculations,

the user need not plan his calculations so carefully

in advance, nor does he need to request fine detail over all ranges of a function simply because he cannot tell in advance where the interesting regions

are." (Ward, 1967, p. 48). See also note 5.40, pp. 91-92.

6. System Output to Microform and Hard Copy

6.1 "First, the well-established tradeoffs improved in terms of capability and lower cost, between digital and microform technologies have These improvements have made equipment more

changed httle; both technologies have steadily accessible to the 'average' user or installation. 103
The two technologies will increasingly be combined; for instance, with computers decoding

complicated retrieval patterns into locations in bulk microform memory that store difficult-to- digitize graphical information." (Van Dam and

Michener, 1967, p. 215).

"For a number of reasons, computer-based

hbraries that service a wide spectrum of users, such as is found in a university, will be faced with

operating on two basically different types of data —

that which is digitally stored and that which is photographically stored in some microfilm form.

The latter will be images of the original full text of the documents contained in the library whereas

the digital data will constitute the augmented

catalog of the library from which the library user

gleans information about the library data and

documents by conducting on-line computer

searches." (Haring, 1968, p. 35). 6.2 "Recent developments have been in the area

of microfilm readout devices which transfer data

from magnetic tape to microfilm . . ." (Com- mun. ACM 10, 387 (1967).)

"Right now the microfilm recorders — which

appear to be the most promising— show signs of

being successful in three major applications.

1. Direct computer output for scientific computer work where the plotting capability is required.

2. Computer applications which are in the area considered primarily data retrieval, where

direct transfer to microfilm for efficient storage

is a primary consideration, and hardcopy

secondary.

3. When the computer is used to prepare data

for graphic arts reproduction. Here is a vast new field only beginning to be opened up. (Webster, 1966, p. 33). For example, "we (General Electric) are moving

towards using computer output almost completely

in microfilm form." (F. B. Campbell in "System

Magazine's Third Annual Microfilm Seminar",

1965, p. 36). 6.3 "Bell & Howell's Micro-Data Div. underlines

its 'yes' evaluation, that progress is being made, by

pointing out that modern recording devices are placing computer information onto microfilm at speeds of up to 30,000 lines per minute. At the same point in hardware technology, modern film readers are furnishing copies of film-held information to the ultimate user in from four to ten seconds."

(Kornblum, 1965, p. 36). "National Cash Register Co. puts forth some

meaty and positive thoughts relative to the survey's

first query. NCR states that an increasing number

and variety of EDP systems will allow for computer

output to micro-image forms. Some should even

permit micro-images to be used as input, with auto- matic conversion to digital data. This trend, continues NCR, could bring micro-image systems into EDP communications, remembering that the image

systems offer higher density than any magnetic i tape device can provide. Image systems can also i be easily read by their human managers, whereas

'reading' of mag tape data requires relatively ; complex equipment. For these reasons, says the

firm, manufacturers of EDP gear are gradually 5 joining EDP and information retrieval systems,

j while makers of other-than-digital storage equipment are responding to the challenge with super

micro-image systems." (Kornblum, 1965, p. 35). !j 6.4 "The Stromberg-Carlson SC-402() micro- : film plotter consists primarily of a cathode ray tube t and a 35-mm camera for taking pictures of the ' information displayed on the face of the tube. In- : structions for the SC-4020 are written on magnetic ^ tape; the tape is then decoded by the SC-4020 I and used to generate commands for opening and ( closing the shutter of the camera, for advancing the ! film, and for deflecting the beam of the cathode ( ray tube. Development of the film produces a 35-mm i microfilm transparency which consists of lines con- I necting points, drawn, in effect, directly under the

control of a digital computer. In this manner, the

perspective points computed by an IBM 7094 digital

computer are used as the input to an off-line SC4020 microfilm plotter through an intermediate ji magnetic-tape storage. After photographic devel- opment, the microfilm can then be viewed directly

in a stereoscope, and the final result is an illusion of depth created by a completed computerized tech- nique." (Noll, 1966, p. 152-153).

"This system is presently being developed and is scheduled for first dehvery early next year. It represents a combination of the knowledge gained

in over 10 years of CRT display-microfilm recording

equipment experience. The S-C 4060 is a stored

j program, data recording system which translates i; digital data into alphanumerics and graphics and e records on microfilm and/or paper. The system can l operate from the output of a computer or it can i operate independently since it is equipped with its i own computer. The S-C 4060 provides great flexi- j bility through a variety of options. To a great degree [ its 'building block' modular design permits the s user to match his requirements as they change." f (Peterson, 1966, p. 133).

j "The significant trend in output technology that t began to develop in 1966 is the use of microform for computer output to achieve substantial reduction

in cost, in printing time of master and dissemination i copies, and in physical volume. Stromberg-Carlson's } highly successful SC-4020 microfilm printer/plotter » is to be updated by an entire 'micromation' Hne 't of equipment of varying capability and cost. The

microfilm recorders in this series — the SC-4060, > the SC-4360, the SC-4440, and the SC-4460-all ' convert digital codes from a computer to their alpha- I numeric and graphical forms on a CRT, where a ! camera records them. The SC-4060 printer/plotter * (the replacement for the SC-4020) is used for scien- '

tific and engineering graphics and for frames for ! animated movies; it can plot curves, diagrams, j 104
maps, etc. This system leases for about $8000 per

month. The SC-4440 converts alphanumeric computer output into microfilm at the rate of 9000 pages

per hour. Hardcopy equipment is available with

these recorders. Many other manufacturers, such

as California Computer Products and BensonLehner. have similar equipment." (Van Dam and

IVIichener, 1967, pp. 191-192).

6.4a "The introduction by Stromberg-Carlson of Micromation — or microfilm directly produced from

a computer, bypassing the paper stage . . ." (Kalagher. 1968, p. 37). "SC 4460 recorder converts magnetic-tape material to roll film or microfiche at speeds of up to 90,000

cps. The characters are proportionally spaced and

computer forms can be overlaid on the microfilm

to eliminate expense of forms printing." (Berul,

1968, p. 30). 6.4b "The system combines facsimile tech- niques with digital processing to provide a scanning,

digitizing, and playback system. Particular emphasis

has been placed on the requirements of high resolution and the ability to handle large image formats.

The resulting device is capable of digitizing pictorial

information in 16 discrete gray levels, at a data

density of 1000 elements per inch in both x and y

directions. Formats up to 9 x 18 inches can be

handled.

'Tmage data on tape, generated hy computer

processing, can be recorded on film by the system

at the same resolution and gray-shade range as are used in scanning." (Gilman, 1966, p. 29). 6.5 "Minnesota Mining and Manufacturing's

"dry silver' Electron Beam Recorder (EBR)

provides strong competition to the more traditional

CRT microfilm recorders. Output is written directly on the microfilm with an electron beam at a rate of

30,000 characters per second (bypassing the

traditional filming of a CRT display), thus yielding

a sharper picture. Film is processed by a dry hotair developing method (rather than the wet-stage

development used with conventional microfilm),

providing high-speed, real-time output. The EBR

unit is expected to rent for $3000 per month, with

the additional cost per microfilm page image ex- pected to be less than two-tenths of a cent." (Van

Dam and Michener, 1967, p. 192.)

"3M has a new electron beam recorder (Series F)

that converts computer generated data into human

readable language at speeds of 60K lines per minute

on dry silver microfilm. Film is developed by heat

and can be viewed instantly." (Data Proc. Mag. 9,

No. 6, 3 (1967).)

6.5a "Graphical output has been an important

way of presenting results to Bell Laboratories'

computer users since the fall of 1961, when a Stromberg-Carlson 4020 microfilm printer was

installed at Murray Hill. It has allowed users to replace pages of tabular data with pictures that are far easier to understand. Microfilm picture

generation was running recently at a rate of about

500,000 frames per year. In addition, computer

movies were being generated at a rate of about

1,000,000 frames per year." (Christenson and

Pinson, 1967, p. 697). 6.6 Some further details are as follows: "After an image is processed by the computer program and

modified and verified by the operator at the graphic

console, it is frequently necessary to produce a permanent output document of the processed image.

Film is used for the output image media, as for the

input media, because of its compatibility with

computer speeds, flexibility of use, and high

image quality. . . . 6.6a Thus it is noted that "seldom is there

control of original subject matter. It varies from

perfect, fresh, raised printing or litho offset to crumbling pages from archives; from clear blackand-white Hne copy to smudged spirit purple on

yellow sulfite paper; from sharp, dense characters

to burned out, illegible script, from thin, fine fines

to heavy soUd illustrations or even fine half-tones with four and five color separations." (Dunning,

1965, p. 14). "CRT recording on silver film permits images to be generated by computer control at computer-datachannel speeds. The CRT used for output image

recording is similar to the type used for input

image scanning. As in the scanner, a CRT image

is formed by vectors drawn on the CRT screen. The vector trace is visible when the beam is un- blanked, in order that the beam trace can be

recorded on the film. When the beam is blanked,

the trace is not visible and the beam can be positioned over the image without exposing the film. An image — for example, a drawing— is divided into straight line segments. Core storage contains the

X and Y coordinates of the end point of each vector. Vectors may vary in length from the very short traces required to form a smooth arc to longer

traces which are used for straight line segments of the drawing." (Hargreaves et al., 1964, p. 367).

6.6b For example. Nelson found in a university

library installation that the focusing lever "had

been broken off, and the person who was running

the equipment didn't know that it was necessary

to focus it. By this time, it was apparent that the

material was perfectly good . . . Here they were, ready to send $5,000 worth of stuff back because

they weren't maintaining their own equipment

properly." (C. E. Nelson in "System Magazine's

Third Annual Microfilm Seminar", 1965, p. 39.)

Similarly, Holmes reported: ". . . Our head

technician . . . found layers of dirt and a cracked

lens. After these conditions were cleared up,

of course, the films were no longer faded." (D. C. Holmes in "System Magazine's Third Annual

Microfilm Seminar", 1965, p. 39.) 6.7 "Lockheed's experience has affirmed user acceptance to be broadly based and has brought

requests to TIC management to install a microfilm catalog in R & D oriented buildings." (Kozumplik and Lange, 1967, p. 67).

105
"Studies at the Battelle Memorial Institute,

1961-62, identified important factors affecting

satisfaction in the reading of microtext, including

the especial importance of high resolution, and

demonstrating that under proper conditions

microreproductions can be even more readable

than the originals." (Council on Library Resources,

10th Annual Report, 1966, p. 22). "From experience with the Library of Congress,

the research worker prefers to work with microfilm

rather than original material." (D. C. Holmes, in "System Magazine's Third Annual Microfilm

Seminar", 1965, pp. 35-36.)

6.7a "Computer-stored graphic data such as

charts, graphs and grids can now be reconverted,

LDX [Long Distance Xerography] scanned and

transmitted to a remote printer by a device Xerox

calls its LDX/Computer Adapter." (Commun.

ACM 9, 889 (1966).)

Looking forward to the not too distant future. Dunning (1965) reports: "Long range concepts of

hard copy include LDX (Longdistance Xerography),

where multiple output stations will be at variable

distances from the input. Soft copy display on

tubes is already here with closed-circuit TV sys- tems. Opportunity for hard copy print-out by selective push button control at any out-put location is in the making". Present difficulties, of course, include those of high costs. "Facsimile equipment normally requires a Schedule 2 telephotograph channel. For a small additional

terminal charge, the same line can be used alter- natively for voice messages." (Alden, 1964, p. 11).

". . . Xerox Corporation's work in facsimile . . . LDX, which stands for 'long distance xerogra- phy' . . . The equipment, at the output end, is much hke our Xerox 914 or 813 copier. The input,

however, may be some distance away, up to thousands of miles away, if necessary . . . We pro- pose, in order to produce high quality, that we scan

the original document at approximately 200 Unes

per inch. . . . "The LDX system is presently designed for fuUsize originals at the transmitting end, but it is a

straightforward design job to provide means to accept the input in the form of microfilm." (Mayo,

1964, pp. 77-78).

"The STARE hard-copy facility accommodates

up to eight rapid hard-copy output stations. The

system consists of multiple remote Xerox LDX

(Long Distance Xerography) Printers interfaced to a central buffer memory and control unit that is located near the GE-645. The LDX printers form

an image by a raster scan technique, so the data

from the central buffer unit to the printers are

essentially a video signal for controlling the intensity

along each scan line. These data to the LDX Printer are transmitted from the central buffer at about

a 250,000-baud date over coaxial cable links. There

are eight separate buffer areas on the magnetic

drum which function independently. Therefore,

transmission to up to eight printers can take place

simultaneously." (Christenson and Pinson, 1967,

pp. 699-700).

6.7b "Another scanning converter built by

United Aircraft Corporation for the USAF feeds

computer output directly to a local facsimile re- corder or out over a network without any inter- mediate hard copy." (Alden, 1964, p. 13). 6.7c "Remote copying and the computer have

been successfully merged at Bell Telephone Laboratories. The hnk-up . . . joins computer-generated data display with Xerox's Graphic Terminal

Hardcopy Printer System . . . The graphic ter- minal has its own core memory consisting of 125,000

bits and a drum memory of 11 milhon bits. The

latter can store 8 individual images. By using

memory units for temporary storage of the signals as a buffer, the terminal is able to regulate the flow

of data in scan line form to the printers at a speed

of one page every seven seconds." ("Just

Merged . . .", 1967, pp. 50-51).

6.8 "General Precision, Inc., Pleasantville,

N.Y., has been working for a number of years on equipment designed to transmit microfilm images

by closed circuit television . . . The latest version

shown at the 1965 Western Electronic Show in- cluded the GPL TV Printer which allows the user

to take a hard copy of whatever he is viewing on the

screen. Prints 8.5" x 11" are delivered in about

half a minute by rapid processing of conventional

silver halide paper." (Veaner, 1966, p. 208). 6.9 "On October 2, 1957, a proposal was submitted to the Council on Library Resources by a manufacturer of closed-circuit television equipment for design and construction of a prototype,

remotely controlled, catalog card viewing system.

The proposed 'Telereference' system would permit

a researcher to view catalog cards in a central

catalog from a remote location by the use of closedcircuit television and a remotely controlled card

manipulator." (Bacon et al., 1958, p. 1). 6.10 "All the libraries in the Lake County

Library system share in a growing book collec- tion ... A union catalog in book form, in single or multiple copies as required, is furnished to each

participating library; the closed circuit teletype

communication provides the necessary means

of sharing the common collection as reflected in the union catalog." (Burns, 1964, p. 14). 6.11 "One laboratory will have a closed-circuit

TV link with the computer so that a graphical

presentation (plotted curves as well as alpha and

numeric information) of computer output will be

available at the remote terminal." (Neilsen, 1965,

p. 635).

6.11a "The idea behind this [video-storage dis- play] device is to take advantage of the very low

cost of commercial TV for the display and to

utilize reasonably inexpensive magnetic drum or disk storage to record the video data for the display

memory. Rapid strides in high-density magnetic

recording have made this console a reality. Brookhaven Laboratory has an operational 10 station

106
video-station of their own design [Brad]." (Stotz,

1968, p. 14). 6.11b "A new records retrieval system called

Remstar is now available from Remington Office

Systems. With Remstar, closed circuit television

is combined with automated records retrieval units

to not only locate records, but to transmit them as weU." (Systems 7,6(1966).)

6.12 "AH told, twenty or more non-impact

devices are being, or have been, marketed. They

vary widely in their capability and cost. Those

which are extremely fast tend to have poor print

quahty. Those which off^er sufficient quaUty are Umited to one-ply, or may require additional proc- essing to obtain even the single copv." (Webster,

1965. p. 43). 6.13 "The typical computer-printer or tabulating machine produces monospaced upper case

characters, that is, evenly spaced capital letters. The result is a monotonous looking product with no typographic variation between captions and

body. There is Httle reader appeal and the eye

must work overtime to find what it wants from the

printed page." (Lannon, 1967, p. 81). "As long as Mr. Watson would only give us a character font in capital letters there could not be

any great fervor to load [machines with biblio- graphic information records]. If I may say so, the

whole picture of automation in libraries from the

thirties right down to the present date has been

controlled by that uppercase limitation." (Clapp,

1964. pp. 54^55). 6.14 "[The upper-case limitation] reduces

readability so much that the page layout must be

extremely open if the material is to be usable at

all." (Kraft, 1963, p. 275).

"A major disadvantage of computer print-out

is its poor legibility and its low information density."

(Corrado, 1965, p. 271).

"It has been reported that 20 percent of the total volume printed by the Government Office is data

assembled by computer. In general, such material

has been either printed out then keyboarded again

for typesetting or the printout has been simply

photographed and reproduced. In the latter case,

the printed material is less legible than if it were

typeset, and 40 percent more bulky." (Webster,

1966, p. 33). 6.15 "The IBM 1403 chain printer involves use

of a continuously moving chain consisting of 240

character positions usually divided into 5 sets of 48 characters each, so as to minimize access time

to the appropriate characters to be selected. However, by redividing, a character set of 120 can be

accommodated, although at significant loss (up to 50 percent-60 percent) of printer speed. This tech- nique is used, for example to provide upper and

lower case for the KWIC index. Chemical Biological

Activities ... In addition, the cover of the Pro- ceedings of the Literary Data Processing Conference [Bessinger et al., 1964] illustrates an

experimental concordance of the Gothic Bible

which 'employs the upper- and lower-case print

chain, and ... a new technique of printing

boldface by overstriking the headword in each

citation'." (Stevens and Little, 1967, pp. 73, 75). 6.16 "The Potter Chain Printer, Model PS-6020,

operates at up to 600 lines-per-minute and features

interchangeable type fonts and up to 192 different characters." (Commun. ACM 9, 651 (1966).)

"The Model PS-6020 Off-line Printer utiHzes the Potter Model SC-1060 tap unit, and the Model

PS-6030 utihzes the Model SC-1080 tape unit. Both models use Potter's HSP-3502 Chain Printer.

The chain printing mechanism permits precise

vertical registration, which is difficult to achieve

with drum printers . . . "The HSP-3502 Chain Printer prints one to six copies on forms 2.5 to 18.5 inches wide. Standard

fan-fold or roU forms, heat transfer or pressuresensitive papers, card stock, and multiHth masters can be printed in lengths of up to 44 inches per

form . . . "Ten numerals, 26 upper-case and 26 lower-case

letters, and 30 symbols are available for inclusion

in the printing character set. Any special character

or symbol can be provided optionally. Character

sets of any size up to 192 characters, made up of any combination of numerals, letters, and special

symbols, can be provided." (Melick, 1967, p. 46). 6.17 "Mechanical output printers have increased

in speed to the point where they are now commonly

producing 600 to 1,000 lines per minute (2,000 cps)

depending upon many factors, including the size of the repertoire or character set. . . . "A one-thousand-line per minute printer with 120

print positions can create text at the rate of 2,000

characters per second. The character set used in

this extremely rapid process is, however, very small

and it is manipulated without any of the control

devices (justification, leading, etc.) used by typesetting machines." (Sparks et al., 1964, p. 177).

6.17 "To achieve Thermal Printing, two novel

components are utilized. The first, a print head, is an array of resistors selectively heated electrically

to generate a thermal image. The second is a thermal

sensitive paper which is held in contact with the

print head to provide a printed record of the thermal

image. . . . "Five wafers are mounted together to form a print

head (Figure Ic). Each print head contains ten 5x5

matrices; each matrix is capable of printing one

character. Eight print heads are mounted side by

side in the printer to achieve the 80 character

hne. . . . "The Thermal Printer can print data received at any mixed rate of input — including input from a keyboard. The rate of input has been tried and

tested at rates as high as 240 characters/sec which

is certainly not the upper Umit. Since we also get an electronic, nonimpact printer which appears to be very reUable and can produce multiple copies on

plain paper, thermal printing may have potential

application in many systems — both communications

107
systems and automatic data processing systems."

(Joyce and Homa, 1967, pp. 261-262, 267).

6.18 Further, the system modifications will pro- vide for multiple use of a battery of printers. "In a system of 32 printer terminals a translator clock

derives a sequence control which is connected to a

5-bit printer scanning buss. Each printer is set to recognize its own scan number and will respond to the column print pulses on the print buss only if it has been addressed and only when it is scanned."

(De Paris, 1965, p. 49). 6.18a "USAECOM has also sponsored a development of Miniaturized Techniques for Printing

(MINIPRINT) with NCR. This is an exploratory

development printer which prints at 15 characters/

second, can be operated from a keyboard, and was

developed for potential use as a self-contained,

battery operated, tactical teleprinter. The package

size of the present model (cigar-box size) may also contain all the required electronics. The printing is immediately visible on new thermal sensitive master

paper. The master and first copy are made simultaneously in this printer and at least ten legible

copies can be obtained using the master copy and

plain paper in an off-line pressure device." (Joyce

and Homa, 1967, p. 267).

6.18b "New teleprinter devices have recently come on the market. Included are a high speed

electrostatic printer and an ink jet, which squirts

charged ink particles onto the page, deflecting the

ink jet with electrostatic plates. The added printing

speed makes these devices attractive as printers;

but both units shield the printed line from the view

of the user until the line is complete which hmits

their utility in an on-line terminal. Furthermore,

their complexity means a higher price tag although

they remain alphanumeric devices." (Stotz, 1968,

p. 13). 6.18c Webster also reports that "the Radiation

'Super-Speed' printer has a single line of styU ex- tending across the continuously moving paper. These

also are pulsed several times to form characters

from top to bottom, and by this means a speed of over 31,000 lines per minute is achieved." (Webster,

1966, p. 32). 6.18d "Electronic methods for changing

character size may be employed, for example, by

zooming. The images produced on the CRT face

are focused onto a microfilm strip which then,

after development and printing, becomes the hard

copy output record." (Potter and Axelrod, 1968,

p. 2). 6.19 For example, as described by Barnett,

Kelly, and Bailey: "In photocomposition . . . suc- cessive characters along a line are displayed with

coUinear base lines, regardless of their magnification (i.e.) point size. . . . The same character is displayed in different point sizes, in photocomposition, by the use of different lenses. . . . Special

characters can appear anywhere in a text, and can

be magnified and spaced in the same ways as ordinary alphabetic characters." (Barnett et al., 1962, pp. 60-63).

6.20 "However, since all photocomposers exist- ing or under development appear to use photographic recording, we can start at the light-sensitive

emulsion, and explore the various methods used to form and position the optical images. High-speed

photocomposers generally faU into six principal

categories:

a. Those which have a stationary master glass

grid from which the symbols are selected,

sized and positioned onto the photographic

emulsion by purely optical-mechanical means. An example of this is the Mergenthaler Linofilm System.

b. Those which have the symbols on a spinning

master glass grid and a single stroboscopic

flash tube that can be flashed at the proper

instant to select anv desired character, with

size control, imaging and positioning by

optical-mechanical means. Examples of this are the Photon 200, 500, and 700 series machines and the Harris-Intertype spinning

disc photocomposer.

c. Those which have the symbols on a stationary

master glass grid, with a separate flash tube

for each symbol, a reciprocating lens which

positions aU symbols across a complete line through an optical tunnel, with the various

flash tubes being fired as each symbol is imaged in each of its desired positions in the

line, permitting a complete line to be composed

in one pass of the lens. The only machine of

this type is the Photon 900 (Zip or GRACE)

machine, the first of which was dehvered to the

National Library of Medicine in 1964.

d. Those which have the symbols on a stationary

master glass grid, steadily illuminated and

optically projected onto a light-sensitive

cathode of an image-dissecting tube, which

simultaneously produces scanned video

electron beams from all symbols, one of which

is allowed to pass through an electrostatic

wire grid selection matrix to produce a video

brightening signal for a high-resolution cathoderay display tube, with positioning and size on

the display tube being controlled electronicaUy

The only such machine of this type is the

Mergenthaler-CBS Linotron system being de- veloped for' delivery to the Government

Printing Office and the Air Force in 1967,

employing the CBS "Reconotron" image

dissector-scanner, and the CBS "Microspot"

high-resolution cathode-ray display tube.

e. A special cathode-ray tube employing a beamshaping metal plate perforated with the symbol

shapes, with means to cause the electron beam

to impinge on any symbol area, emerging as a shaped electron beam, which can be deflected

to display the symbol at any position on the

face of the cathode-ray tube. An example is the Charactron tube, employed in photocomposers built by the Stromberg Carlson

Division of the General Dynamics Corp.,

108
such as the S-C 4020. The repertoire of symbols is usually severely limited to less than

100.

f. Methods employing a conventional or highresolution cathode-ray tube to display the

symbols as they are generated by some means

which will produce suitable beam deflections

and video brightening to form the symbols."

(Stevens and Little, 1967, p. 22). 6.20a "The year has seen remarkable progress

in the field of phototypesetting. Photon, Inc. added

to its 713 line. The model 713—5 operates at 30

newspaper lines per minute. Fairchild Graphic

Equipment entered the field with two machines, the

Photo Text Setter 2000 and the Photo Text Setter

8000. American Type Founders also announced an

addition to its line of phototypesetters. to be

known as the ATF Photocomp 20 . . . "Alphanumeric, Inc., has a new very highspeed phototypesetting machine that is being used

in its service center at Lake Success, Long Island. And Harris -Intertype is producing a CRT type of

fast phototypesetting machine, the first of which was scheduled to be installed at Baird-Ward Co.,

Nashville. Tenn., near the end of 1967. "K. S. Paul & Associates, London, England, also has a CRT type of phototypesetting machine. It is not quite as fast in its operation as the ones mentioned above, but is less expensive. Mergenthaler Linotype Company has announced that it

'j will market this machine in the United States under

j the name of Linotron 505." (Hartsuch, 1968, p. 61).

j 6.21 "The A. B. Dick Videograph tube transfers

! characters by means of a set of fine wires embedded

" in its face." (Webster, 1965, p. 43).

j "A. B. Dick Co.'s Model 904 Videograph Page

' Printer translates a digital coded input into a printed

'l output at the rate of 7200, 130-character lines per

I minute." (Data Proc. Mag. 7, No. 2, 51 (1965).)

1 "The Videograph electrostatic printing process

1^ uses a special cathode ray tube for creating alphaj numeric characters on dielectricaUy coated paper

I at rates in the order of 10,000 characters per sec- ond. In electronic data processing systems, the

' source data are usually provided from computerprepared magnetic file tapes. The binary-coded

signals from the tape are decoded in the Videograph

, system by means of an electronic character generI ator into the video signals necessary to modulate the

printing tube and create the character shapes. The

principal application of Videograph printers has

been to produce address labels of the type used on

! magazines, newspapers, and direct mail." (Gerlach,

i 1968, p. 17). 6.22 "Perhaps the best quality is produced by

the Stromberg-Carlson 'Charactron' shaped-beam

tube which uses a tiny 64-character mask within the

i- tube itself. The images displayed on the tube are captured by microfilm in the S-C 4020, or printed

electrostatically in the low-cost S-C 3070." (Webster,

1965, p. 43). "The SC 4020, on-Hne to the computer, uses a charactron tube which can produce the letters of a

line of information onto the face of a cathode-ray

tube. It does this by plotting on the tube the coor- dinate points which make up the shape of an in- dividual letter. The result is optically projected, a

line at a time, to a spool of moving, unexposed film." (Becker, 1967, pp. 3-4).

". . . [The SC—4020] composes characters and

symbols at a rate of 17,400 per second. The char- acters are formed by directing a beam at the desired

character; then horizontal and vertical deflection

circuits deflect the selected character to the ap- propriate spot on the CRT display. This technique

has also been successfully combined with a dry

process Xerographic printer which has achieved a composing rate of 1 million characters per minute."

(Sparks etal., 1964, p. 180).

"Our investigations at RSIC [Redstone Scientific

Information Center] have indicated that today the

CHARACTRON tube can give the best quahty

within the state-of-the-art." (Burger, 1964, p. 12). 6.23 "The Linotron consists of three main units: Control, Character Generation, and Display. Magnetic tape is the input for this machine. This tape

contains aU data characters and control codes re- quired to operate the photocomposer. Four grids,

each containing 255 characters, can be loaded into the Linotron. The character generator can position

the required grid in one-half second and select any

character on the grid at electronic speeds. (There

are no shutters or other mechanical devices involved

in character generation.) The output of the character generator is an electric signal which serves as an input to the display section. The beam of the

display tube is positioned to the required X- and

Y-coordinates; then the signal from the character

generator causes the character to be scanned out on the surface of the display tube. This character is projected through a lens onto the film. The beam is then positioned for the next character and this proc- ess is repeated until the page is complete. There is no mechanical motion of any kind while the page is being composed. The film is advanced only after the

page has been completed." (Rollert, 1968, p. 7). 6.24 "RCA recently unveiled a new computercontrolled photocomposing system called VIDEO*

COMP. With this system, it is possible to store the analog equivalent of several type fonts and

styles. This enables the user, in the final printing

stage, to select a variety of intermixed type fonts and styles with virtually no restrictions. It results

in page copy which resembles letter press quality

in terms of page makeup precision and aesthetic

appearance." (Becker, 1967, p. 3). "Videocomp is the generic name which RCA

has given to electronic composition systems and

equipments which employ high-speed cathode ray tube (or equivalent) photocomposing techniques.

These systems and equipments are capable of

greater speed and flexibility than first generation

optical-mechanical photocomposers. The 70/822

Videocomp is the output system which performs the

actual photocomposition in response to magnetic

tape data and control input. The 70/9300 Video109
comp Electronic Composition System is an inte- grated system which includes the 70/822 Videocomp and executes the complete composition

process from manuscript to final photocomposed

page." (Coleman et al., 1968, p. 30). "A new all-electronic typesetter that can set the

complete text for a magazine page in less than four

seconds or write information for microfilm storage

at computer speeds has been announced by RCA,

New York, N.Y. The Videocomp 70/830 generates

characters at a rate of up to 6,000 per second—

a

thousand times faster than manual typesetting

machines. Additionally, the Videocomp provides

full page composition through its 70 pica (12 inch)

line length and its ability to write in sizes from

4 to 96 point type (approximately H inches high)

with proportional reduction for 35mm microimage

output.

"Videocomp can be used to set type in almost

every format conceivable — from a full page tabloid

newspaper composition to directories or parts

manuals. Equally important, the new equipment

makes possible quality typeset printout of computer

information at speeds well in excess of the 1,100

lines per minute typical of high-speed printers now used for computer readout. This could result in easier handling and r-eading of the business and

scientific data now being processed by computers.

"In operation, original copy and composition

instructions are fed to a computer which produces an output magnetic tape or sends signals directly

to the 70/830. In response to taped or direct signals,

the machine generates characters on a cathode ray

tube. As the characters appear on the tube they

expose standard or 35 microimage film, stabiliza- tion paper for quick proofing, or short run offset plates.

"Videocomp stores typefonts in electronic

memory where they can be used instantly. This

internal storage reduces load on computer memory

and permits use of the Videocomp off-line with

any computer.

"Because the entire operation is electronic,

every letter can be altered electronically to form

roman, oblique, extended, condensed and superior

and inferior versions of the basic face. Every face,

in every variation, can be mixed at will — on the same fine, in the same word — with every other face. In addition, Videocomp can store and write any

special form including scientific, mathematical and

engineering symbols, foreign alphabets, ideographs

or trademarks — literally, almost any visual image."

(Computers and Automation 17, No. 4, 63 (Apr.

1968).)

6.25 "The Digiset developed by Dr. Rudolf

Hell of Kiel utilizes an 8-bit character selection

code and it sets justified and hyphenated lines of

11, 18, or 28 picas at rates of up to 400 characters

per second. ... In a telephone directory application, the character set consisted of 180 alphanumeric

and other symbols. Character patterns are stored

in a core memory of 180,000-190,000 bit capacity.

A character set may be replaced with an alternate

set of 180 characters by transfer from auxiliary

store in approximately one-half second." (Stevens

and Little, 1967, pp. 33-34).

6.25a "Scores of printing jobs can be typeset up

to six times faster than before with a computercontrolled photocomposition unit announced by

IBM Corporation, White Plains, N.Y. The new

device called the IBM 2680 CRT printer, is the

first of its kind to tap the full power of a computer.

It can be used for a variety of typesetting jobs,

including books, newspapers, catalogs and directories. Linked directly to an IBM System/360,

it can set graphic-quaMty type at speeds ranging

as high as 6,000 characters a second.

"The 2680 CRT printer is operated completely

under the control of System/360. Draft copy is usually fed into the computer on paper tape or magnetic tape, but it can be entered through any

System/360 input device. A user can choose from

a large variety of type styles and sizes — all stored

magnetically on the disc files seen in the foreground

of the picture.

"The computer formats and justifies the copy,

automatically hyphenating words that break

between lines. It then commands the 2680 to write

the finished text electronically on a television-like cathode-ray tube (CRT)." (Computers and Auto- mation 17, 58 (Jan. 1968).)

6.25b "Consideration is given to the possibiUty

of providing a computer and a cathode ray printer

with an unlimited repertory of characters. Digi- talizations are presented for mathematic, carto- graphic, and calligraphic characters. The repertory

is available to any computer through FORTRAN IV

programming. The latest cathode ray printers are almost adequate for the preparation of mathematical reports." (Hershey, 1967, ii, abstract).

Some of the problems of character and symbol

generation are discussed in another report in this series involving overall system design requirements,

especially, character set considerations.

6.26 Automatic hyphenation methods required

for line justification variously involve the use of

dictionary or table lookups, suffix and prefix sphtting,

logic rules, and combinations of these techniques.

Automatic hyphenation techniques for languages

other than Enghsh include those for Dutch, French,

German, and Itafian as reported in the "Computer

Typesetting Conference Proceedings," The Institute of Printing (1965).

6.26a "The dot or raster mode of the system is used to generate half-tone pictures. The machine

can generate any desired dot density and practically any resolution up to a maximum of 660 dots per

inch in either field direction." (Potter and Axelrod,

1968, p. 5). 6.26b "An added feature common to the modern

CRT is the ported window at the rear of the tube. The port is designed so that static overlays such as maps can be projected from a sHde or film clip onto

the face of the CRT. The overlay relieves the display

110
of the need to continuously regenerate static data."

(Mahan. 1968, p. 19). "Static information can be superimposed on the

beam written data by projecting pictures (slides)

through an optical port in the CRT. Typical systems

can select from among 25-150 slides." (Machover,

1967. p. 157).

"So that an optically projected image can be combined with the electronically generated image,

CRT's in terminals supplied by Bunker-Ramo and

Stromberg-Carlson have a window through which

a picture can be projected onto the screen." (Machover. 1967, p. 150).

6.26c "Techniques with the greatest potential

are all based on photocomposition. Photon was the

first to introduce a spinning-disk type of photocomposer. The Photon 900 or 'Zip' is the machine

employed in the GRACE system at the National

Library of Medicine to produce Index Medicus,

described by Austin. It is a text-only machine capable of operating at speeds on the order of 250 characters per second from magnetic tape input. The

improved Photon 901 overcomes the problems of

variable character density and variable base lineup

of characters, and also has an attachment for in- serting graphics from projected shdes." (Amer.

Institute of Physics Staff, 1967, pp. 355-356).

6.27 Relatively early examples are discussed in the 1961 report of Buck et al. Then we qote: (1) "The

tonal scale of the illustration is simulated in the

printing process by making the dot pattern structure on the printing press plate a function of the tonal

gradations of the original illustration. Thus the dark

areas of the original illustration are represented

by a dot pattern in which the dots are relatively

large and with little white space between the in- dividual large dot areas . . .

(2) "The output graphic must be a dot pattern

structure in which the distribution of the dots over

the image area represents a faithful reproduction of the continuous tone input image. It should be noted

that since the dot pattern structure does not appear

in the input graphic, it must be created within the

LGCP system." (Mergenthaler, 1963, p. 13). 6.28 [In a Lexical-Graphical Composer-Printer

(LGCP) system at Wright-Patterson AFB], "The

I Video Graphics Copier converts illustrations to

j video tape. The Format Processor accepts full-text

I coded mag tape, effects composition, and produces

I an instruction tape. The photocomposer accepts

I the instruction and video tapes as input, is driven

' by the instruction tape to select and position data

I characters onto the output and to insert the graphics

from the video tape when necessary, and creates fully-composed pages in the form of film positives."

(Kehler, 1968, p. 119).

6.28a "The need for hard copy which the user can take to his office for contemplation still exists,

however. We currently use Polaroid photographs,

but the need for a more convenient and larger

copy . . . was often expressed." (Evans and

Katzenelson, 1967, p. 1143).

"For many situations the operator may desire

hard-copy text of the image on the display. Two

means are currently employed. A Polaroid photograph provides a quick copy adequate for many

purposes. For complex drawings where more resolution is required, or where it is desirable to be able

to write on the copy, the . . . MODEL T [a]

device can provide signals for either a digital or analog mechanical plotter." (Miller and Wine, 1968,

p. 475).

"The hard copy should be of high enough quality

to reproduce legibly the information on the display,

(although it probably need not be of record-keeping

quality). Another important consideration is that the copying process should not materially delay the user from going on with his work while printing

takes place." (Stotz, 1968, p. 16). "Hard-copy outputs can be provided, where

needed, by a variety of devices, ranging in speed

from typewriter rates of 10-15 cps up to 60,000 cps. The high-speed end of the range tends to be impractical because broad-band communication lines are needed and they are very expensive." (Berul,

1968, p. 29). 6.29 For example, "The information system's

designer is faced with a dilemma. If he provides for unhmited hard copy service, a major portion of his budget is absorbed in fulfilling hard copy requests.

If he insists that obtaining hard copy is the user's

responsibility, he and the user may unwittingly

be with-holding information which may be extremely

valuable. The 'missed' item in some instances

could exceed in value the total cost of operating

the information system.

"A third aspect of the hard copy dilemma is attempting to satisfy a need which may not be

related to either use or value. This need will be

called the 'Possession is Security Syndrome' or frequently referred to as the 'pack rat instinct'.

It is a very important aspect often encountered in investigations of users' needs and satisfactions — yet

it is little understood in the documentation area." (Resnick, 1964, p. 317).

"The real answer to the hard-copy problem

requires convincing users that they will never

lose easy access to information they have once

uncovered. This is far from a trivial problem in documentation and we seem no further along

towards solving it than we were a decade ago."

(Ohlman, 1963, p. 194).

6.30 "Developments include electrostatic

printing, magnetic printing, smoke printing,

thermal recording, thermoplastic recording, and

photographic recording. Many of these techniques can be applied to the making of replica copies of existing documents as well as to generating the

initial copy of a document from an electronic or

digital store." (Sparks et al., 1964, p. 181). 6.31 "Photographic film of the text will then be

provided in a format suitable for an automatic

character reader . . . "The planned separation method is semiautomatic in that decisions to separate text from

111
graphics are to be made by a human operator."

(Bus. Automation 12, No. 8, 66, Aug. 1965).

6.31a "The area of microfiim-to-hard-copy

conversion is not yet very advanced. There are a number of reader-printers, such as the Itek 1824

or the 3M Filmac 200, which under operator

control can make copies from any type of microfilm.

The problem, however, is that the process is too slow and the cost of the copies too high for pro- duction volumes." (Berul, 1968, p. 30). 6.31b "The emphasis was on making it easy to use the system to obtain information. This included

such things as producing printed output which

would not look like an accounting ledger, but would

be similar to the majority of printed documents

people are used to reading and which would provide

visual cues for ease of scanning and interpretation."

(Ebersole, 1965, p. 172).

6.31c Further,". . . IDEA provides for displays

of specified variables. At present these include

frequency distributions and contingency tables. We also intend to provide other plots, scatter dia- grams, etc., with such aids as discriminant functions, regression analysis, iso-probability, and iso- distant curves derived under various assumptions."

(Press and Rogers, 1967, p. 39). 6.32 "The properties and techniques by which

a high-speed printer can be made to emboss regular

printing paper with braille symbols is described in Sterling et al. . . ." [Sterling, T. D., M. Lichstein,

F. Scarpino, D. Stuebing and W. Stuebing, "Professional Computer Work for the Blind", Commun.

ACM 7, 228 (1964)]. (Landwehr et al., 1965, p. 302).

Then, "at MIT one aspect of work to aid the blind

includes coupUng of a high-speed electric Braille typewriter and a small computer to achieve an

inexpensive conversion of machinable documents

into Braille code." (E. Glaser, report of panel dis- cussion on Computers and Aid to the Handicapped,

Commun. ACM 8, 638 (1965).) Kehl (1965) also mentions the M.I.T. high-speed Braille printer.

It is of particular interest to note in this connection that "initial experience with several trainees

indicated that the blind programmer equipped with

routines which print input, output and/or memory

contents in braille is no more dependent on external

help than is his sighted colleague." (Landwehr et al., 1965, p. 300).

Nelson (1965) has also explored some of the possibiUties for on-line BraiUe display.

6.33 An example of current research in this area

is provided in Quarterly Progress Report No. 80,

The Research Laboratory for Electronics, M.I.T. More specifically: "By a judicious choice of ele- ments for the lexicon and the use of a set of very

simple algorithms it is possible to decompose a word in an orderly fashion into the stored elements

from which the phonemic translation can be found.

A lexicon containing approximately 32,000 elements

is sufficient for the decomposition of all entries

in the Seventh Edition of Webster's 'New Collegiate

Dictionary'. Additional markings' in the lexicon

provide the basis for the resolution of syntactical

ambiguities which cannot be handled by the phonic

approach." (Quarterly Progress Report No. 80,

Research Laboratory for Electronics, MIT, 225

(1966).)

"An efficient scheme has been developed for the automatic translation of English text from letters

to phonemes. This process of translation is an

indispensable part of a reading machine that pro- duces synthetic-speech output." (Quarterly Progress

Report No. 80, Research Laboratory for Electronics,

MIT, 225 (1966).)

"The problem of automatic translation from letter spelling to phonetic spelling in English text has been

studied. A procedure has been developed, based

upon a 'dictionary' of approximately 30,000 root words and a set of combination and generation laws,

such that the correct pronunciation (phonetic

spelling) of 250,000 English words can be auto- mated." (Quarterly Progress Report Research

Laboratory for Electronics, No. 80, MIT, 218 (1966)

further ref. to F. Lee Ph.D. Thesis, EE. Oct. 1965).

A project at the Institut fiir Phonetik und Kommunikationsfordung. University of Bonn, has both

FAP and COMIT language programs written to explore this possibility.

6.34 Project of A. Risberg, Royal Institute of Technology, Stockholm, Sweden. (Stevens, 1968,

pp. 21-22).

"A conference on compressed speech, sponsored

by the Division for the Blind . . . The method

may be used by students as a review technique and

by blind persons to increase their reading rate appreciably when using recorded books." (L C Inf. Bull. 24, 674 (1965).)

See also note 5.60, p. 98.

7. System Use and Evaluation

7.1 "The [test or sample] problems were in- variably simple because generally any typical

problem would require the amassing of considerable

data and its manual manipulation to determine

check-points for system rating. The expense

involved was considerable and generally was not approved by the pertinent management groups."

(Davis, 1965, p. 82).

"The quantitative data, the analyses, and the

conclusions about man-computer systems that one

seeks in a controlled experiment will emerge only

if the data-reduction effort is painstakingly planned

and executed." (Morey and Yntema, 1965, p. 356). 7.2 "One of the most difficult problems in evalu- ating information retrieval systems is to identify

meaningful evaluation criteria. Most of the im112
portant criteria can be directly related to cost,

reliability and time."" (King and Terragno. 1964.

p. 393).

'

". . . No quick and simple evaluation procedure

which is both conceptually coherent and empirically

convincing is possible. There is not. in fact, widespread agreement or conviction as to what would

qualify as a criterion for evaluating an information

system." (Ossorio. 1965. p. 52). 7.3 "The value of an information system is.

therefore, connected with user performance and

capabihty which may only be assessed in a qualitative manner." (Blunt. 1965, p. 9). "The setting up of criteria of evaluation, on the

other hand [in contrast to measures of effective- ness] demands user participation and provides an

indication of whether the user understands the reason for the system, the role of the system and

his responsibilities as a prospective system user.' (Davis, 1965, p. 82).

113
Appendix B. Bibliography

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D.C.. 1965). Adams, S., Information — A National Resource, Am. Doc. 7, No. 2, 71-75 (April 1956). Alden, W. L.. Cutting Communication Costs with Facsimile, Data Proc. Mag. 6, 11-14 (Sept. 1964). Allen, J., Machine-to-Man Communication by Speech Part III: Synthesis of Prosodic Features of Speech by Rule, AFIPS

Proc. Spring Joint Computer Conf., Vo.l 32, Atlantic City,

N.J., Apr. 30-May 2. 1968, pp. 339-344 (Thompson Book Co.. Washington, D.C.. 1968). Amdahl, G. M., Multi-Computers Applied to On-Line Systems,

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the Univ. of California, Los Angeles, and Informatics, Inc., Los Angeles, Calif., Feb. 2-4, 1965, Ed. E. Burgess, pp. 38-42 (American Data Processing, Inc., Detroit, Mich., 1965). American Institute of Physics Staff, Techniques for Publication and Distribution of Information, in Annual Review of Information Science and Technology, Vol. 2, Ed. C. A. Cuadra, pp. 339-384 (John Wiley & Sons, Inc., New York, 1967). Anderson, H. E., Automated Plotting of Flow-Charts on a Small Computer, Commun. ACM 8, 38-39 (Jan. 1965). Aoki, M., G. Estrin and R. Mendell, A Probabilistic Analysis of Computing Load Assignment in a Multiprocessor Computer

System, AFIPS Proc. Fall Joint Computer Conf., Vol. 24, Las Vegas, Nev., Nov. 1963. pp. 147-160 (Spartan Books,

Bahimore, Md., 1963). Appel, A., Some Techniques for Shading Machine Renderings of

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Book Co., Washington, D.C.. 1968). Appel, A., The Notion of Quantitative Invisibility and the Machine Rendering of Solids, AFIPS Proc. Spring Joint Computer Conf., Vol. 32, Atlantic City, N.J., Apr. 30-May 2. 1968,

pp. 387-393 (Thompson Book Co., Washington, D.C., 1968). Applebaum, E. L., Imphcations of ihe National Register ofMicrofilm Masters, as Part of a National Preservation Program,

Lib. Res. & Tech. Serv. 9, 489-494 (1965). Arnovick, G. N., A Computer-Processed Information-Recording and Association System, in Statistical Association Methods For Mechanized Documentation, Svmp. Proc, Washington. D.C., Mar. 17-19. 1964, NBS Misc. Pub. 269. Ed. M. E. Stevens

et al., pp. 181-184 (U.S. Govt. Printing Office, Washington,

D.C., Dec. 15, 1965). Aron, J. D., Real-Time Systems in Perspective, IBM Sys. J. 6, No. 1, 49-67 (1967). Austin, C. J., Dissemination of Information and Problems of Graphic Presentation, Proc. 1965 Congress F.I.D. 31st Meeting

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245 (Spartan Books, Washington, D.C., 1966). Automatic Typesetting, First International Technical Information Congress, La Compaigne Francaise d" Editions. Paris, 1965, 374 p.

Bacon, F. R., N. C. Churchill, C. J. Lucas, D. K. Maxfield and

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157, 172 p. (U.S. Govt. Printing Office, Washington, D.C.. Dec. 31, 1961). Baker, C. E. and A. D. Rugari, A Large-Screen Real-Time Display

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Center, Griffiss Air Force Base, N.Y., May 1966). Barnett. M. P., K. L. Kelley and M. J. Bailey, Computer Generation of Photocomposing Control Tapes, Part 1, Preparation of Flexowriter Source Material, Am. Doc. 13, No. 1, 58-65

(Jan. 1962). Barnett, M. P.. D. J. Moss, D. A. Luce and K. L. Kelley, Computer

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papers prepared for the Third Cong., scheduled for Nov. 21—22,

1966, Ed. D. E. Walker, pp. 145-150 (Thompson Book Co., Washington. D.C., 1967). Bauer, W. F., On-Line Systems — Their Characteristics and Motivations, in On-Line Computing Systems, Proc. Symp. spon- sored by the Univ. of California. Los Angeles, and Informatics,

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114
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'

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constants, and properties of matter. Issued six times a year. Annual subscription: Domestic, $9.50; for- eign, $11.75*. • Mathematical Sciences

Studies and compilations designed mainly for the mathematician and theoretical physicist. Topics in mathematical statistics, theory of experiment design,

numerical analysis, theoretical physics and chemistry, logical design and programming of computers

and computer systems. Short numerical tables. Issued quarterly. Annual subscription: Domestic,

$5.00; foreign, $6.25*. • Engineering and Instrumentation

Reporting results of interest chiefly to the engineer

and the applied scientist. This section includes many

of the new developments in instrumentation resulting

from the Bureau's work in physical measurement,

data processing, and development of test methods.

It will also cover some of the work in acoustics,

applied mechanics, building research, and cryogenic

engineering. Issued quarterly. Annual subscription:

Domestic, $5.00; foreign, $6.25*.

TECHNICAL NEWS BULLETIN

The best single source of information concerning the Bureau's research, developmental, cooperative and

publication activities, this monthly publication is designed for the industry-oriented individual whose

daily work involves intimate contact with science and

technology

for engineers, chemists, physicists, re- search managers, product-development managers, and

company executives. Annual subscription: Domestic,

$3.00; foreign, $4.00*.

• Difference in price is due to extra cost of foreign BMllint;.

Applied Mathematics Series. Mathematical tables, manuals, and studies. Building Science Series. Research results, test methods, and performance criteria of building materials, components, systems, and structures. Handbooks. Recommended codes of engineering

and industrial practice (including safety codes) de- veloped in cooperation with interested industries,

professional organizations, and regulatory bodies. Special Publications. Proceedings of NBS conferences, bibliographies, annual reports, wall charts,

pamphlets, etc. Monographs. Major contributions to the technical

literature on various subjects related to the Bureau's

scientific and technical activities. National Standard Reference Data Series.

NSRDS provides quantitive data on the physical

and chemical properties of materials, compiled from

the world's literature and critically evaluated. Product Standards. Provide requirements for sizes, types, quality and methods for testing various industrial products. These standards are developed cooperatively with interested Government and industry groups

and provide the basis for common understanding of product characteristics for both buyers and sellers. Their use is voluntary.

Technical Notes. This series consists of communications and reports (covering both other agency and

NBS-sponsored work) of limited or transitory interest. Federal Information Processing Standards Publications. This series is the official publication within

the Federal Government for information on standards

adopted and promulgated under the Public Law

89-306, and Bureau of the Budget Circular A-86

entitled, Standardization of Data Elements and Codes

in Data Systems.

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The Clearinghouse for Federal Scientific and

Technical Information, operated by NBS, supplies

unclassified information related to Government-generated science and technology in defense, space, atomic energy, and other national programs. For

further information on Clearinghouse services, write: Clearinghouse

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