* Lithium Resources of 

North America

A

By JAMES J. NORTON and DOROTHY McKENNEY SCHLEGEL

A CONTRIBUTION TO ECONOMIC GEOLOGY

GEOLOGICAL SURVEY BULLETIN, 1027-G

A brief summary of the geology, 

distribution, production, and 

reserves

UNITED STATES GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE, WASHINGTON : 1955
-4

UNITED STATES DEPARTMENT OF THE INTERIOR 

Douglas McKay, Secretary

j 

GEOLOGICAL SURVEY

W. E. Wrather, Director

For sale by the Superintendent of Documents, U. S. Government Printing Office 

Washington 25, D. C. - Price 15 cents (paper cover)
CONTENTS

	Page 

Abstract. __________________________-_____________ 325

Introduction._____________________________________________________ 325

Uses and properties of lithium_________________________________ 32&

History of lithium mining and production ________________________ 330

Imports and exports._____-______----__-___--__-_-___-_________ 331

Prices..________________...___.._.__--..-__.____ 331

Geology of lithium.________________________________________________ 332: Distribution of lithium_________________________________________ 332: Mineralogy of lithium ores and concentrates ______________________ 333

Pegmatite lithium minerals.________________________________ 333

Nonpegmatite lithium minerals____________________________ 336

Types of lithium deposits_____________________________________ 337

Lithium deposits in pegmatites._____________________________ 337

Spodumene deposits.._----___-____-________-__________ 338

Amblygonite deposits._________________________________ 339

Deposits of lepidolite and other lithium micas.____________ 339

Deposits of other lithium minerals of pegmatites.....______ 339

Lithium in brines and saline deposits_______________________ 340

Lithium in sedimentary rocks_______________________________ 341

Lithium reserves and resources.__.._____-____________________________ 341

Determination of grade and reserves.____________________________ 341

United States.___________________-_______---___._______.__ 342

North and South Carolina.___---_______-_-_---__-__________ 344

South Dakota_____________________________________ ______ 346

California.-___--__---__-_-_----------------.___________ 346

Searles Lake-Mohave area._____________________________ 346

Pala pegmatite district.__--___--___-_-______--_______._ 347

Arizona, New Mexico, Colorado, Wyoming, and New England__ 347

Canada._____________________________________________________ 348

Future of the lithium mining industry________--__--___-___-______-___ 348

Literature cited_____________________'______________________________ 348

ILLUSTRATIONS

FIGURE 49. The principal lithium localities of North America._._______ 345

TABLES

TABLE 1. Lithium mineral production of the United States.__________ 327

2. Composition of the principal lithium minerals of pegmatites.. 333

3. Distribution of the principal lithium minerals of pegmatites. _ 338

4. Comparative analyses of three spodumene samples, Edison

mine, Keystone, S. Dak.. ____..____________^__._______- 341

5. Lithium reserves of the United States.___-______--_-_-_-_- 343

in

LITHIUM RESOURCES OF NORTH AMERICA

By JAMES J. NORTON and DOROTHY MCKJENNEY SCHLEGEL

ABSTRACT

The United States and Canada have more than ample lithium resources to 

support the expanding lithium mining industry. The largest reserves are in the 

tin-spodumene belt of the Carolinas, which was first developed during World 

War II and is now the largest source of lithium in the world. Prior to World 

War II, deposits in South Dakota were the chief source of lithium minerals, and 

these deposits still contain significant reserves. In California lithium has been 

produced from Searles Lake brines since 1938, and during earlier years lepidolite 

was mined in the Pala district. Other states containing lithium deposits are 

New Mexico, Colorado, Wyoming, Connecticut, Maine, and Massachusetts. 

Canadian resources still are being developed. Significant deposits have not been 

reported elsewhere in North America.

The earth's crust contains about 0.006 percent lithium, or about 0.013 percent 

LLO. This is close to the grade of the Searles Lake brines, which contain 0.015 

percent Li2 0. Pegmatite deposits, on the other hand, must contain 1.0 percent Li2O in order to be mined profitably.

The most abundant lithium mineral occurring in pegmatites is spodumene. 

Other minerals include amblygonite, lepidolite, petalite, and triphylite-lithiophilite. These most commonly occur in mineral assemblages that are characteristic of inner zones and replacement bodies of pegmatites.

Indicated reserves in the pegmatites of the United States are 5,000,000 units 

consisting of 20 pounds of Li 2O. By far the greatest reserves in pegmatites are 

in the Carolinas. Reserves in Searles Lake, Calif., may amount to 9,000,000 

units. Inferred reserves in the United States and Canada are at least 125,000,000 

units of Li2O. In contrast to these figures, domestic consumption in 1953 was 

about 250,000 units.

INTRODUCTION

Lithium mining has been one of the most rapidly expanding mineral 

industries in the decade following World War II. In all but a few of 

the years prior to 1939, the gross value of all lithium minerals produced 

annually by the United States was less than $50,000; by 1953, however, 

the value approached $2,000,000. This rapid expansion makes a study 

of our lithium resource position desirable, in order to estimate the level 

of production that can be sustained by known and readily predictable 

reserves.

325
326 CONTRIBUTIONS TO ECONOMIC GEOLOGY

The present report brings together and analyzes all available data on 

lithium resources. Much of this information was obtained during 

work by many Survey geologists in the principal domestic pegmatite 

districts between 1939 and 1953. Additional data have been found in 

many published and unpublished reports. Information concerning 

Canadian deposits has been obtained chiefly from the available published reports, but unpublished material was furnished by the Lithium 

Corporation of America. Significant lithium deposits are not known 

elsewhere in North America.

This report has been greatly improved by suggestions from various 

members of the Geological Survey, especially Michael Fleischer, who 

called attention to published reports and analytical data that would not 

have been found without his aid.

USES AND PEOPEBTIES OF LITHIUM

Lithium is the third element of the periodic table. The atomic 

weight is 6.940, which makes it the lightest of all metals. Its chemical properties place it in the alkali metal group with sodium, potassium, rubidium, and cesium. Lithium is univalent.

Lithium minerals are ordinarily processed to make lithium carbonate and other lithium compounds used in industry, but lepidolite 

has been extensively used as a direct ingredient in glass making. Before World War I lithium compounds were used chiefly as ingredients 

in mineral waters and effervescing lithia tablets. The next important 

use was in alkaline storage batteries; this use probably in large part 

accounted for the increase in production during World War I. Subsequently the use of lithium compounds in ceramics became important.

The hygroscopic nature of lithium chloride is the basis of use in industrial drying and air-conditioning.

Increased demand during World War II was caused largely by the 

use of lithium hydride as a hydogen carrier to inflate certain types of

naval and air force reSCue equipment.

The transient uses during World War II were succeeded by more

permanent uses that created a strong market leading to the great expansion Of the industry in the years following 1948. The greatest

demand was in greases, ceramics, glass, and air-conditioiling. 

Lithium SOapS are used in the manufacture of multi-purpose greases

that can withstand extreme temperatures. Lithium is used in drycells. Alkaline storage batteries and pharmaceutical uses also continue to be important. Litlaium is used as a flux in aluminum -welding

and brazing. It has important metallurgical uses, especially for degassing and purifying other metals and alloys. Many other uses of 

lithium have been reported.
TABLE 1. Lithium mineral production of the U

[N. A. figures not available; ? possibly some production, figures not obtainable; * figures estimated; ** indic

States production and the data for invididual States are not readily explainable. Prior to 1943 spodumene-

quantities of lithium minerals were mined from pegmatites elsewhere. Total production probably did not excee

Lepidolite was produced from 1943 to 1947 in New Mexico and Colorado. Production figures are unavailable

in 1951-53. Production figures are unavailable.]

Year

1889..... ...................

1890_ ...... ..............

1891... ..................

1892........................

1893........................

1894-......................

1895........................

1896 

1897... .................

1898 

 1899. ............ ..

1900 .. .

1901 .

1902.... _ ............ .

**1903 .............

**1904...... ........... . .

**1905 ...................

"1906 ......... ......

**1907.__ ....... ......

"1909-... ....................

**1910. ..............

' '1911 . . 

South Dakota »

Spodumene

Tons

*

30 

500

I 870

200 

600 

250

200 

200 

... 200 

90

(?)

Value

$750 

12,500

21, 750J

5,000 

12,000 

5,000

4,000 

4,000 

- . 4,000 

1,800

(?)

Amblygonite

Tons

80

1 7 1,080

[ 1,020 

300

Value

$3,200

'42,200

40, 800 

12,000

Lepidolite

Tons ValueT

*

 5

See footnotes at end of table.
TABLE 1. Lithium mineral production of the United 

Year

**1912.~ --_.. _. .

**1913 -

"1914....... .................

**igi5........ ................

1916 

1917 

1918- -- -. - .. .

**1919 .......

1920 - - 

1921 .... 

1922 . 

1923. . -

1924...... -...-- . .... .

1925 

1926 _ _--

 1927 ... .. -

1928. ....... _ ......

1929..... ... ... .....-.-

1930. -------- ........

1831 ..... ...._--.

1932 __- _.... 

1933.... . --. .--

1934... ___ .____.__ _

1935-... .. ....._...

1936. . . .... __ -

1937 . __ .... __ -

1938 ------- ...... 

1939... __. .__... _ -

1940 - -_....-- 

South Dakota »

Spodumene

Tons

(?) 

(?)

1,20O 

1,320 

 1,OOO 

625 

595 

570 

1,00)0 

1,*208 

1,000 

8OO

40

26

640 

779 

18 

680 

635

Value

(?) 

(?)

24,000 

72,600 

60,000 

30, 625 

25, 825 

19,950 

35,000 

48,200 

40,000 

32,000

N.A.

N.A.

N.A. 

N.A. 

N.A. 

17,000 

19, 050

Amblygonlte

Tons

120

780 

46 

256 

537 

81 

180 

203

16 

37 

151 

14 

243 

8O 

100

56 

8 520 

134 

500 

131 

» $77 

160 

80

Value

4,800 

19, 500 

1,150 

5,120 

10, 740 

1, 620 

9,900 

9,390

640 

N.A. 

N.A. 

840 

10, 520 

3,520 

4,400

2,224 

8 22, 788 

5,520 

20,560 

5,240 

9 15, 960 

6,400 

3.200

Lepidolite

Tons

2

24 

3

15

2 

162 

557 

898 

1,127

Value

$50

600 

60

300

40 

3,164 

11, 051 

17, 507 

21. 966

T
1Q49

1943

1944

1945. --

1946

1947 

1948 

1949 

1951.... .. 

1952.. 

1953 

Total. 

2,192

11 3, 162

A ono

« 3, 606

"749

M 1QA

1,707

2,633

12 6, 349

5 5, 821

12 8, 568

*8, 000

*10, 000

14 73, 556

76, 245

N. A.

12 28, 325

 50,000

*70, 000

12 141, 670

s 142, 949

12 274, 701

*400, 000

*500, 000

2, 444, 651

132

336

814

N. A.

N. A.

11

80

N. A.

8,655

4,752

N. A.

N. A.

N. A.

N. A.

N. A.

N. A.

N. A.

265, 984

1,374

1,292

1,580

810

16

7,862

30,920

29,079

71, 084

40, 495

N. A.

226, 316 23

1 Figures for years through 1944 were published In Page, and others, 1953, p. 3, 

table 1. Part of the data on spodumene for 1939-44 and all figures for 1945-51 are 

based on the annual reports of the South Dakota Inspector of Mines.

2 From U. S. Geological Survey, Mineral Resources of the United States, for 1900-23; 

and U. S. Bureau of Mines, Mineral Resources of the United States, for 1924-31, and 

Minerals Yearbook, for 1932-51.

s From Jahns and Wright, 1951, p. 51, table 5.

4 Most of the estimates of the number of units of lithia produced probably have errors 

of less than ±20 percent. A unit is 1 percent per ton, or 20 pounds of contained Li20.

6 Includes some amblygonite.

s Production of onl

United States, 1905.

* Includes 100 tons 

s Includes producti

9 Includes producti

10 Lithium was ob

starting in 1938. Pro

11 Includes producti

12 May include a sm

is From J. C. Arun

H One operator may 
330 CONTRIBUTIONS TO ECONOMIC GEOLOGY

HISTORY OF LITHIUM MINING AND PRODUCTION

The first recorded production of lithium in the United States consisted of an estimated 30 tons of lithium minerals mined in 1889 (table 

1), but the source of this material is not recorded. Lepidolite was 

mined as early as 1892 at the Stewart mine, Pala, Calif. (Jahns and 

Wright, 1951, p. 59). Spodumene was first obtained in 1898 at the 

Etta mine, Keystone, S. Dak. (Connolly and O'Harra, 1929, p. 240). 

The year 1898 is ordinarily regarded as marking the start of lithium 

mining in the United States (Schaller, 1919, p. 7).

Amblygonite was first obtained as a by-product of lepidolite mining 

at the Stewart mine in 1902 f( Jahns and Wright, 1951, p. 51, table 5), 

and it was produced at the Tin Queen mine, Hill City, S. Dak., about 

1905 (Hess, 1911, p. 652). Amblygonite production from South 

Dakota deposits rapidly became dominant in the industry, and remained so until 1917.

Lithium production figures for the years prior to 1917 are inadequate (see table 1), but 1901-1903 was probably the only period in 

which annual production exceeded 1,000 tons of lithium minerals or 

had a gross value of more than $20,000.

Production increased during World War I, and reached a maximum 

of 11,696 tons in 1920. This was the period of greatest activity at the 

Stewart mine, Pala, Calif.; it was also one of the more productive 

periods in the history of the Etta mine, Keystone, S. Dak.

Production dropped to 1,833 tons in 1921, and then gradually increased during the 1920's until it reached 4,600 tons in 1928. During 

these years the chief source was the Harding mine, Taos County, 

N". Mex., where spodumene-lepidolite concentrates were produced; but 

Spodumene from the Etta mine and lepidolite from the Stewart mine 

were also important.

Lithium mines were inactive in the early 1930's, but production was 

resumed in South Dakota during the latter half of the decade. As 

in the past, the Maywood Chemical Co. mined spodumene at the Etta 

mine. Lepidolite production first became significant in the Black 

Hills in 1937, when it was mined from the Bob Ingersoll No. 1 pegmatite, near Keystone. The American Potash and Chemical Corporation began the production of dilithium sodium phosphate at Searles

Lake, Calif., in 1938. 

Lithium mining increased greatly during World War II, and

reached a peak production of 84,800 units l of lithia in 1944. This increase in production was possible largely because of the introduction 

of modern mineral dressing techniques, which permitted exploitation 

of deposits of fine-grained lithium minerals that could not be concentrated by hand-cobbing methods used previously. The Solvay

1 A unit consists of 1 percent Li20 per ton of concentrate, or 20 pounds of contained Li20.
LITHIUM RESOURCES OF NORTH AMERICA 331

Process Co. built the largest mill at Kings Mountain, N. Car. 

Spodumene was also milled at Tinton, S. Dak. Lepidolite was milled 

in South Dakota and Colorado.

Annual production from 1945 through 1948 averaged about 27,000 

units. In succeeding years production increased until in 1952 it 

exceeded 100,000 units, and at the present rate of development should 

soon reach 200,000 units. A major producer has been the Foote Mineral Co., which purchased the Solvay properties in North Carolina in 

1951 and began mining and milling spodumene soon thereafter. 

Searles Lake has continued to be a major source. Canadian lithium 

districts were actively explored, and by 1954 at least one major mine 

was being developed (Anonymous, 1954, p. 1).

From 1948 to 1950 the Lithium Corporation of America used a 

sink-float process to concentrate spodumene from the Edison mine 

near Keystone, S. Dak. In 1952 this company completed a spodumene 

flotation plant at Hill City, S. Dak., to process ore from the nearby 

Mateen pegmatite and from the Beecher No. 2 pegmatite, about 15 

miles to the south. The Black Hills Tin Co. resumed mining at Tinton, but work came to a halt when the mill burned in November 1953. 

The Etta mine and several smaller operations also contributed to the 

Black Hills production.

Recorded production figures for South Dakota, California, other 

states, and the entire United States through 1953 are shown on table 

1. The national totals for many of these years are not consistent with 

the figures for the various states and sufficient data to resolve the 

discrepancies were not obtainable. For example, the figures for early 

production in South Dakota may have significant errors. Schaller 

(1937, p. 430) reported that before 1935 South Dakota had produced 

26,000 tons of lithium minerals;.table 1, however, shows only 18,600 

tons.

IMPORTS AND EXPORTS

Import and export figures for lithium minerals are not reported 

separately, and complete data are not available. Prior to World 

War II the United States was a net exporter, chiefly to Germany. 

Since World War II, there have been large imports of lepidolite from 

Southwest Africa and petalite from Southern Rhodesia. Other countries have significant lithium deposits, and in the future these .deposits 

may increase the supply of lithium minerals on the world market.

PRICES

The preprint on lithium from the U. S. Bureau of Mines Minerals 

Yearbook for 1952 (Arundale and Mentch, 1954, p. 4) quotes the following prices for spodumene and dilithium sodium phosphate at 

the mine:
332 CONTRIBUTIONS TO ECONOMIC GEOLOGY

Spodumene, $10 to $12.50 per unit consisting of 1 percent Li2O

per short ton of ore.

Dilithium sodium phosphate, about $183 per short ton. 

The Minerals Yearbook for 1951 (Arundale and others, 1954, 

p. 1372) quotes the following prices for lepidolite and amblygonite 

at the mine:

Lepidolite, 4 percent Li2O, $80 per short ton. 

Amblygonite, $110 per short ton.

Concentrates from domestic sources are ordinarily processed by the 

companies that do the mining, and the lithium is sold in the form of 

lithium compounds or lithium metal. Lepidolite used in glass making 

may be sold directly to the consumer. Imported lithium minerals 

have been sold as raw concentrates.

GEOLOGY OF LITHIUM

DISTBIBUTION OF LITHIUM

Available data indicate that the earth's crust contains about 0.006 

percent lithium (Fleischer, 1953, p. 4, table 2). Rankama and Sahama 

(1950, p. 422-428) show that igneous rocks contain an average of about 

0.0065 percent lithium, and sedimentary rocks contain somewhat less.

The lithium content of sea water has been reported as 0.1 part per 

million (Thomas and Thompson, 1933, p. 548). Rankama and 

Sahama (1950, p. 295, 428) show that only 0.3 percent of the lithium 

supplied to sea water remains in solution; they presume that the 

remaining 99.7 percent goes chiefly into clays. There may be unrecognized lithium concentrations in sedimentary rocks.

Known lithium minerals, however, occur almost entirely in pegmatites, The only other source of lithium is at Searles Lake, Calif., 

where the lithium is in solution in brine extracted from evaporite beds. 

Lithium minerals are virtually unknown in sedimentary rocks; the

clay mineral hectorite, however, contains enough lithium to be of 

possible commercial interest.

The small amount of lithium in igneous and metamorpnic rocks is

distributed among several minerals, especially biotite, pyroxene, and 

amphibole. Possibly lithium is more common than available analyses 

indicate, but it is very rare for any of these minerals to have as much

as 1 percent Li2O, or for rocks containing these minerals to have as 

much as 0.1 percent Li2O. These occurrences have no commercial

significance.

Lithium is not known to be associated with metalliferous veins, but

"ultimately it may foe found in sucn deposits. Some pegmatites contain replacement units that evidently were formed by hydrothermal 

or pneumatolytic activity during a late stage in crystallization.
LITHIUM RESOURCES OF NORTH AMERICA 333

Lithium mica is the predominant mineral of some of these replacement units, and it may be related, though perhaps remotely, to the 

mica and clay minerals that occur in alteration zones around many 

metalliferous veins.

MINERALOGY OF LITHIUM ORES AND CONCENTRATES 

PEGMATITE LITHIUM MINERALS

The chief lithium minerals mined from pegmatites of North 

America are spodumene, amblygonite, and lepidolite. Zinnwaldite, 

other lithium micas, and triphylite-lithiophilite have been used in only 

small quantities, but may become more important (table 2). Petalite 

is an important product of foreign deposits.

Spodumene is a monoclinic member of the pyroxene group of 

minerals. The simplified formula for spodumene is LiAlSi2 06 , 

indicating a theoretical content of 8.03 percent Li2O. Many analyses 

show Na and K (which presumably substitute for Li) and also 

Fe, Mg, and Ca (for examples, see Dana, 1892, p. 367). Spodumene 

containing more than 7.5 percent Li2 0 is rare.

. Spodumene is ordinarily white to light gray, but gem varieties are 

green (hiddenite) or lilac-colored (kunzite). The luster is vitreous 

on fractured surfaces and pearly to silky on cleavages. Crystals 

characteristically are elongate, flat blades, but crystals with rounded 

and square cross-sections are also common. Anhedral spodumene is 

rare. A spodumene crystal as much as 47 feet long has been reported 

(Schaller, 1916, p. 138), but deposits are known in which nearly all 

grains are less than a quarter of an inch long (Page and others, 1953, 

p. 204). Crystals break readily along cleavage surfaces to form 

splintery laths.

TABLE 2. Composition of the principal lithium minerals of pegmatites

Mineral

Spodumene..-- _________ ...

Amblygonite-montebrasite-natroinontebrasite series.

Lepidolite, lithium muscovite, zlnnwaldite, and other lithium micas.

Petalite.............................

Triphylite-lithiophilite series.

Formula

LiAlSizOe.-. ............. ... .

(Li,Na)Al(PO<)(F,OH) End member 

montebrasite with maximum lithium content is LiAl (P04)(OH). 

K(Li,Al,Fe) 3 Si3-40,o(OH,F)2 End 

member polylithionite or lepidolite 

with maximum lithium content is 

KLi2AlSi40jo(OH) 2. 

LiAlSUOio. -- . . _._.-..._...-.

Li(Fe,Mn)P04 .. ......................

Theoretical 

LizO content 

(percent)

8.03

1 0-10. 24 

0-7. 74

4 88

9. 47-9. 53

LizO content 

of marketed 

concentrates 

(percent)

4-7.5

8-9 

2.5-5

3-4

(2)

1 Palache and others (1951, p. 825) record only one analysis In which the LizO content is less than 6 percent. 

This is natromontebrasite or fremontite containing 3.21 percent LiaO, reported by Schaller, 191J, p. 48.

2 Rarely marketed.
334 CONTRIBUTIONS TO ECONOMIC GEOLOGY

A distinctive characteristic of spodumene is pseudomorphic replacement by many other minerals. Spodumene may be so thoroughly 

replaced by micaceous and clay minerals that the lithia content is less 

than 0.1 percent, yet the cleavage of spodumene may still be preserved 

(Schwartz and Leonard, 1926, p. 257-264; M. H. Staatz, written communication) . The so-called "altered", "soft," or "rotten" spodumene 

is gray, green, or pink. Many standard mineralogic texts (for example, Dana, 1932, p. 564) describe the alteration of spodumene first 

to a sodium-rich product consisting of eucryptite (LiAlSiO4 ) and 

albite, and subsequently to potassium-rich products in which muscovite takes the place of eucryptite. These .statements, however, 

are based almost entirely on studies of the Branchville, Conn., pegmatite ; they may have wider application, but knowledge on this point is 

incomplete.

Pseudomorphic replacement of spodumene by coarser pegmatite 

minerals has been recognized by Norton and Page 2 in the Hugo pegmatite and may also have occurred in the Peerless pegmatite near 

Keystone, S. Dak. The spodumene parentage can be recognized by 

the characteristic bladed shape of the aggregates and by cleavelandite 

sheaths that surround both the pseudomorphs and unreplaced spodumene crystals. The minerals replacing spodumene are quartz, albite, 

perthite, muscovite, beryl, amblygonite, apatite, and tourmaline.

A thorough study of the alteration products of spodumene, using 

modern mineralogic techniques, has not been made. An investigation 

of this sort might reveal information useful in research on spodumene 

beneficiation.

Amblygonite (Li, Na) A1(P04 ) (F, OH) is the common name of a 

phosphate series in which hydroxyl-rich material is sometimes called 

montebrasite and the fluorine end of the series is amblygonite in the

strict sense. Sodic montebrasite containing little lithia has been 

called natromontebrasite (Palache and others, 1951, p. 823-825), 

natramblygonite (Schaller, 911, p. 48), and fremontite (Schaller, 

1914, p. 356, and 1916, p. 141). Schaller (1911, p. 48) reported that 

the type specimen of this material contained 3.21 percent Li2 0 and

11.23 percent N"a2O. Actually, however, material of this sort is so

exceedingly rare that for all practical purposes the amblygonite series 

ranges from 6,7 to 9.65 percent Li2O (Palache and others, 1951, p.

825).

Amblygonite is ordinarily milky white to gray in color. The luster 

is pearly on the principal cleavage, but otherwise vitreous. Ambly2 Norton, J. J., and Pagey L. R., Geology of the Hugo Pegmatite, Keystone, S. Dak.

(In preparation.)
LITHIUM RESOURCES OF NORTH AMERICA 335

gonite generally occurs as rounded or ellipsoidal masses that commonly exceed 5 feet in diameter. The outer surface of many amblygonite masses is coated with a characteristic chalky covering that consists of micaceous and clay minerals.

The name lepidolite is applied in the lithium mining industry to a 

widely varied group of lithium micas. Marketable lepidolite ordinarily must contain 3 to 4 percent Li2O. Nearly all such lepidolite is 

pink, lilac, or violet-gray. Gray and rose-colored micas containing 

less lithia are sometimes called lepidolite. All varieties occur most 

commonly as fine-grained aggregates associated with albite and other 

pegmatite minerals.

Knowledge of the mineralogy of lepidolite and its relatives has 

been greatly increased in recent years as a result of work by Levinson 

(1953), Winchell (1942), Hendricks and Jefferson (1939), and 

Stevens (1938). These authors show that the lithium micas belong 

to a complex series with various structures that fit in the hexagonal, 

monoclinic, and triclinic systems. The many members include: muscovite, lithium muscovite, polylithionite (lithium-rich mica), protolithionite and zinnwaldite (iron-rich micas), biotite, and taeniolite 

(magnesium-lithium mica). The simplest general formula for this 

series is K (Li,Al,Fe) 3 Si3-4010 (OH,F) 2 .

Levinson (1953) found a continuous gradation in composition between muscovite and lepidolite. Micas containing less than about 3.3 

percent Li2O have the structure of muscovite. Micas containing 

3.4-4.0 percent Li2 0 belong to three different structural varieties of 

lepidolite. The richest sample contained 7.26 percent Li2O, and the 

theoretical maximum is 7.74 percent Li2O (Stevens, 1938, p. 619-620).

These studies indicate that the lepidolite of commerce has a significant range of composition and structure. At the present time these 

differences have no practical importance, but in the future a knowledge 

of them may be of value in developing specialized uses of the various 

lithium-bearing micas.

Petalite (LiAlSi4Oi0 ) occurs as white to gray masses. For many 

years petalite has been described in the literature as a source of lithium, 

but actually it was rarely used for this purpose until recently. Significant petalite deposits are unknown in North America, but petalite deposits elsewhere are economically important (Clark, 1950, p. 1068).

Pegmatites have a wide variety of phosphate minerals that contain 

lithium, iron, manganese, calcium, and other constituents. The principal minerals are m the triphylite-lithiophilite series, which has the 

formula Li(Fe,Mii)P04 . Lithium can be replaced by sodium and 

calcium to form the less common hiihnerkobelite series, and thus gradations from 0 to 9.55 percent lithia may occur (Palache and others, 

1951, p. 664-670).
336 CONTRIBUTIONS TO ECONOMIC GEOLOGY

Triphylite-lithiophilite is bluish gray to brown, but ordinarily it 

is intimately associated with many alteration products that make it 

grayish brown to nearly black. Triphylite-lithiophilite is also intergrown with other primary pegmatite minerals. Phosphate-rich aggregates form rounded masses ranging from a few inches to several feet 

in diameter. The mineralogy of such aggregates is difficult; these 

aggregates may contain many undescribed species of phosphate 

minerals.

The difficulty of using hand-cobbing methods to obtain a lithiumrich concentrate of consistent composition from aggregates of this sort 

doubtless is one of the main reasons why these minerals have rarely 

been mined. Triphylite-lithiophilite and its associated minerals have 

been found in and near minable deposits of other lithium minerals, 

and now that milling is widely used in the lithium mining industry, 

the triphylite-lithiophilite may also be produced. More mineralogic 

study of these minerals and their possible economic applications is 

needed.

Eucryptite (LiAlSi04 ) has generally been considered a very rare 

mineral. For three-quarters of a century it was known only from 

Branchville, Conn., but recently it was found in Arizona (J. W. 

Adams, oral communication), New Mexico, and New Hampshire 

(Mrose, 1952, p. 1283). Still more recently it was found in a large 

petalite deposit at Bikita, Southern Ehodesia (Michael Fleischer, oral 

communication, 1953). No data are available concerning the abundance of eucryptite in this deposit. Possibly eucryptite is more 

abundant in this and other pegmatites than has been supposed.

Cryolithionite (Na3Li3Al2F12 ) has been described in cryolite deposits (Palache and others, 1951, p. 99-100). It is not known to occur 

in significant quantities anywhere in the world.

NONFEGMATITE LITHIUM MINERALS

One Of the principal sources of lithium is Searles Lake, Calif.,

where the lithium is in solution in brines. ' No lithium minerals, however, have been described in saline deposits. The lithium in saline 

deposits may be a minor constituent of the major minerals, where it 

could occupy alkali positions in the lattices.

Hectorite is a lithium-bearing mineral of sedimentary rocks tKat 

is potentially important as a source of lithium, but it has been reported 

only at Hector, Calif. Hectorite is an end member of the montmorillonite group that is rich in magnesium, lacks aluminum, and contains 

about 1 percent lithia (Ross and Hendricks, 1945, p. 27, 35, 47).

The formula is 16 MgO Li2 0 24SiO2 6 (F,H2O) (Na2 o). Lithium is 

an essential part of the crystal lattice, and cannot be replaced by simple base exchange (Ross and Hendricks, 1945, p. 38).
LITHIUM RESOURCES OF NORTH AMERICA 337

Ephesite, a soda-rich margarite, contains as much as 3.80 percent 

Li2 0 (Schaller and Carron, 1952, p. 301). The possible commercial 

value of this mineral is unknown.

TYPES OF LITHIUM DEPOSITS

Pegmatite deposite containing spodumene, amblygonite, and lepidolite are the chief sources of lithium, and were the only sources prior 

to 1938, when production of lithium was begun at Searles Lake, Calif. 

(Mumford, 1949, p. 513). No North American deposits have been 

mined for petalite and no deposits anywhere have been mined for 

lithium mica containing less than 2.5 percent Li 2O. Small quantities 

of triphylite-lithiophilite have been used as a lithium source, presumably only in experimental work. Searles Lake is the only other 

commercial source of lithium. Lithium has also been detected, however, in saline deposits, clays, and other sedimentary rocks, and also 

in hot springs.

LITHIUM DEPOSITS IN PEGMATITES!

Nearly all lithium pegmatites mined .in the United States and 

Canada are intrusive into metamorphic rocks. Lithium pegmatites 

large enough to be of commercial interest intrude igneous rocks in 

Quebec (Deny, 1950; Kowe, 1953b).

Most pegmatites from which lithium minerals have been profitably 

extracted can be classified as well-segregated zoned or heterogeneous 

pegmatites. Many spodumene pegmatites, however, consist of essen- 

. tially the same rock from wall to wall. Such pegmatites may have 

a fine-grained border zone or wall zone, and slight changes in composition and texture may be recognizable within the pegmatite. Clear 

distinctions between pegmatite units may be difficult to find.

Lithium deposits occur with mineral assemblages that Cameron and 

others (1949, p. 59-70, tables 1-5) show are characteristice of inner 

units of pegmatites. Table 3 shows the principal lithium minerals 

and nonlithium minerals in the sequence of 11 assemblages described 

by Cameron and others. No pegmatite contains all of these assemblages, but those in any one pegmatite occur from the wall inward in 

the sequence given in the table. This sequence probably is also the 

order in which the units formed. Nearly all lithium deposits are in 

assemblages 5 through 8.

Table 3 shows that the types of lithium minerals change from one 

part of a pegmatite to another. The lithium phosphates, especially 

triphylite-lithiophilite, are most abundant in the first part of the 

sequence (in the outer parts of pegmatites) where perthite and muscovite are common minerals. Amblygonite tends to be nearer the montebrasite or hydroxyl end of the series in outer units and nearer the 

fluorine end of the series in inner units of some pegmatites of the
338 CONTRIBUTIONS TO ECONOMIC GEOLOGY

TABLE 3. Distribution of the principal lithium minerals of pegmatites

Assemblage

2- .-_ 

3-- 

4.. 

5.- .... ..... 

6-- -

7-- 

q

10- 

It.. 

Principal non-lithium minerals 1 Principal lithium minerals

brasite?).

Triphylite-lithiophilite.

Triphylite-lithiophilite.

None.

Lithium muscovite.

i After Cameron and others, 1949, p. 68.

Black Hills, S. Dak. (Norton and Page 3 ). This relation has not been 

demonstrated elsewhere.

The richest spodumene-bearing units tend to be inside ambrygonitebearing units. The distribution of petalite is not so well known but, 

like spodumene, it is a litKium-aluminum silicate and presumably it 

forms in the same part of the sequence. Lepidolite and other lithium 

micas tend to form in the centers of pegmatites.

Spodumene deposits. Spodumene deposits of greatest commercial 

importance are in units containing assemblages 5-7 (table 3). In 

some pegmatites the spodumene-bearing units are surrounded by barren 

wall and intermediate zones many feet in thickness. However, most 

commercial spodumene has been produced from a common and rather 

characteristic type of pegmatite in which the spodumene-bearing 

units extend to within a few inches or feet of the pegmatite contact.

Many deposits in the Black Hills, S. Dak., are in multiple intrusives. 

In places the individual pegmatite bodies in these intrusives are separated by a schist parting; elsewhere, outer zones of adjacent pegmatites 

are in contact with each other. As a result, the entire deposit consists of successive spodumene-rich units separated by barren units (for 

example, see Page and others, 1953, pig. 14 and 15), L, R, Page (oral 

communication) has observed similar relationships in the tin-spodumene belt of the Carolinas.

The spodumene deposit in the Giant-Volney pegmatite, Tinton, 

s. r>a,k., is a large replacement unit (Page and others, 1953, p. 204).

Elsewhere, hOWeVer, known replacement and. fracture-filling deposits 

are small and commercially UllimpOrtailt.

Spodumene-bearing units large enough to be mined contain a maximum of about 30 percent of spodumene or 2.0 percent Ll2 0, but 20 percent of spodumene is more general. If the spodumene contains 7.5

3 Norton, J. J., and Page, L. R., Geology of the Hugo pegmatite, Keyston'6, S. Dak. 

(In preparation.)
LITHIUM RESOURCES OF NORTH AMERICA 339

percent Li2 0, the grade of such a deposit is 1.5 percent Li2 0. In places', 

however, alteration of the spodumene reduced the grade to as low as 

0.1 percent Li2 0.

Altered spodumene has been observed in four structural positions 

in Black Hills pegmatites: in the deeper and narrower parts of the 

spodumene-bearing zones, in the outer parts of spodumene-bearing 

pegmatite in zones rich in feldspar, in the ends of spodumene crystals 

extending into a quartz core, and along fractures in the pegmatite 

(Page and others, 1953, p. 56). The lithium content of spodumenebearing pegmatites may decrease with depth in other districts.

Prior to World War II the only spodumene mining was in deposits 

containing spodumene crystals large enough for hand-sorting. Ordinarily crystals at least 1 foot in length were required. The development of milling processes, however, has eliminated the requirement 

for coarse grain size.

Amblygonite deposits. Amblygonite has been mined chiefly from 

quartz-perthite-amblygonite or quartz-perthite-amblygonite-spodumene pegmatite in assemblage 5 of the general sequence, but amblygonite has also been obtained from quartz-plagioclase-muscovite pegmatite of assemblage 1 (table 3). In Southwest Africa amblygonite 

occurs in perthite-bearing units of zone 3 (Cameron, E. N., oral communication) . Few deposits contain as much as 10 percent of amblygonite, but many deposits contain other marketable minerals that allow 

the amblygonite to be obtained as a byproduct. Amblygonite deposits, 

in genera], are smaller and of lower grade than spodumene deposits.

Amblygonite crystals range from grains weighing a fraction of an 

ounce to masses weighing several hundred tons. The large size of 

crystals in some deposits make it possible to produce a very pure 

concentrate by hand-sorting.

Deposits of lepidolite and other lithium micas. Lepidolite containing more than 2.5 percent Li 2O has been mined chiefly from lepidolitealbite-quartz pegmatite of zone 8 (table 3); lepidolite also occurs in 

the spodumene and amblygonite units of some pegmatites. A part of 

the lepidolite deposit in the Pidlite pegmatite, Mora County, N. Mex., 

is a replacement unit (Jahns, 1953, p. 1087-1089). Gray lithium 

micas, containing less than the 2.5 percent Li2 0, occur with microcline, 

albite, and quartz in zone 11 of the general sequence and also in replacement bodies of the same mineral composition at the Hugo pegmatite, Keystone, S. Dak. (Norton and Page 4 ). Lepidolite deposits are 

relatively rare; there are only five pegmatites in North America that 

have a recorded production of more than 100 tons of lepidolite.

Deposits of other lithium minerals of pegmatites. Triphylitelithiophilite and associated iron-manganese phosphates are significant

* Norton, J. J., and Page, L. R., Geology of the Hugo pegmatite, Keystone, S. Dak. 

(In preparation.)
340 CONTRIBUTIONS TO ECONOMIC GEOLOGY

constituents of perthite-bearing units of assemblages 3 and 4, and 

possibly assemblage 5, of the general sequence (table 3). Triphylitelithiophilite has never been commercially important as a lithium 

source, and consequently virtually no information regarding grade 

of typical deposits is available. These minerals are intimately intergrown with nonlithium minerals, and the aggregates are stained with 

phosphates and oxides. Consequently, estimates of the content of 

lithium minerals cannot be made readily. Assay data are needed.

The only other important lithium mineral is petalite, but no significant deposit has been found in North America.

LITHIUM IN BRINES AND SALINE DEPOSITS

The brines at Searles Lake, Calif., are the only commercially important non-pegmatite deposits of lithium. Even in these brines the 

content of lithium is only about 70 parts per million, corresponding 

to about 0.015 percent Li2O. Thus, the grade of this deposit is very 

nearly the same as the average content of the earth's crust. Other 

saline deposits in the Mohave desert may also contain lithium, but 

there are no published data.

A few U. S, Geological Survey analyses have shown that other 

brines and saline deposits contain small amounts of lithium, but their 

commercial potentialities have been virtually unexplored. The lithium of evaporites may be largely in associated clay minerals. J. J. 

Fahey (oral communication) found that parts of the Green River 

formation of Wyoming contain about 0.01 percent Li2O. Analyses 

of two potassium-rich parts of a core from the Carlsbad area, New

Mexico, by K. J. Murata show the lithium content to be approximately

0.003 percent. Six other samples of potash ore from this area analyzed 

by E. S. Earner had 0.0001 to 0.0017 percent Li2 0. Old analyses of

waters from closed basins, mineral springs, and wells contain lithium

(Clarke, 1924, p. 157-162, 185-200). Possibly some lithium-bearing 

waters are partly of juvenile origin. At Manitou Springs and Steamboat Springs, Colo., 19 analyses by P. R, Barnett of waters collected

by E. P. Beroni indicate an average content of 2 parts per million Li2O. 

One sample from the Steamboat Springs area had 6.5 parts per million

Li2 0, and the solids had 0.11 percent Li2 0.

Lindgren (1933, p. 41 15) has pointed out that salts in many of the

chloride ground waters may have been derived from saline deposits.

Clark© (1924, p. 187 188) gives two analyses of chloride waters from

Saratoga Springs which contain 0.08 and 0.16 percent of lithium and

an analysis of water from a deep well at Goimeautville, Pa,., which

contains 0.04 percent of lithium. These are old analyses and may be 

inaccurate. Nevertheless, it is clear that saline deposits may contain 

significant quantities of lithium.
LITHIUM RESOURCES OF NORTH AMERICA

LITHIUM IN SEDIMENTARY ROCKS

No lithium has been mined from sedimentary deposits, and only 

hectorite clay is known to contain enough lithium to compare with 

pegmatites. Nevertheless, other deposits in sedimentary rocks may be 

found.

The only recorded hectorite deposit is in the Mohave desert near 

Hector, San Bernardino County, Calif. The hectorite forms bentonite 

beds in an intensely folded and sheared sequence of Tertiary ash, clay, 

and limestone (Kerr and Kulp, 1949, p. 74^-76). A basalt flow overlies 

these rocks unconformably. Analyses of the mineral hectorite have 

shown a content of 1 percent Li2O (Ross and Hendricks, 1945, p. 27, 

35), but no information on the average grade of the deposit is 

available.

Clay of Tertiary age, 16 miles northeast of Amboy, Calif., has been 

found to have 0.50 percent Li2 0 (Foshag and Woodford, 1936, table 1, 

p. 241). It is possible that other clays have an appreciable lithium 

content that has previously been overlooked.

LITHIUM RESERVES AND RESOURCES

DETERMINATION OF GRADE AND RESERVES

The grade and reserves of deposits of lithium minerals and of other 

minerals in pegmatites can be estimated with reasonable accuracy 

(Norton and Page 5 ). Large samples must be used to determine the 

grade of coarse-grained lithium-bearing units in pegmatites, but otherwise there are no special sampling problems in collecting material for 

analysis.

Difficulties have been experienced in obtaining accurate analyses 

with the gravimetric and volumetric techniques used by commercial 

analysts. Table 4 shows the wide range of results on three samples 

analyzed by seven reputable laboratories in 1944.

TABLE 4. Comparative analyses of three spodumene samples, Eaison mine,

Keystone, 8. Dak.

[After Clarke, and others, 1948, p. 22, table 7.]

Supposed lithia content

Medium ____ . ..............

High...........................

Lithia content, in percent, according to analyst indicated

U.S. 

Bureau 

of Mines

0.79 

2.80

4.63

A

0.94 

3.12

5.54

B

(0 

f 2.88 

1 3.10 

f 5. 54 

1 5.50

O

1.10 

| 3.50

| 6.05

D

1.24 

3.50

6.00

E

1.38 

3.52

5.41

F

1.48 

3.55

6.74

Trace.

5 Norton, J. J., and Page, L. M., Methods used) to determine grade and reserves of 

pegmatites. (In preparation.)
342 CONTRIBUTIONS TO ECONOMIC GEOLOGY

More recently the flame photometer has been widely used for lithium 

analyses. The Lithium Corporation of America has found that results 

from analyses of spodumene-bearing samples by flame photometer 

are consistently higher than results from a routine chemical technique 

also used by this company. One explanation is that the chemical 

method extracts all the lithium in spodumene, but not all the lithium 

in associated minerals (F. F. Clarke, oral communication).

Many deposits have more than one mineral containing lithium. 

Usually, however, lithium is extracted from only one of these minerals, 

and the others are waste products. Consequently, chemical analyses 

are not completely adequate for grade determinations unless the deposit contains only one lithium mineral, or the proportions of the 

various lithium minerals in the deposit are known. To correct for 

errors that may be introduced in this way, grade has sometimes been 

determined by measuring the intercepts of lithium minerals on equally 

spaced lines along exposed surfaces. Grain counts under the microscope have also been used (Gries, 1950, p. 6). The most accurate 

results can be obtained by screening the samples, making grain counts 

for each sieve size, and computing weighted averages. Such an elaborate procedure may not always be necessary. At least one investigation of the spodumene content of analyzed samples appears to 

have been successful without sieving the samples (Gries, 1950, p. 6). 

Nevertheless, spodumene has such a great tendency to break to small 

sizes that grain counts used alone may give erroneously high results.

Spodumene and amblygonite have a greater specific gravity than the 

other essential minerals of most deposits. Consequently, heavy liquid 

separations can be used for approximate determinations of grade. 

Heavy accessory minerals may, however, cause significant inaccuracies.

Eeserves in zones or other pegmatite units can be determined by

projections along shrike, dip, and plunge. The techniques used for 

this PlirpOSe in pegmatites are essentially the same as for other mineral 

deposits. Detailed discussion of these methods is being presented 

elsewhere (Norton and Page 6 ).

UNITED STATES

Lithium reserve data compiled in table 5 show that pegmatites in 

the United States contain indicated reserves of 5,000,000 units and 

inferred reserves of about 124,000,000 UHltS of lithia. Searles Lake,. 

Calif., may Contain 9,000,000 UnitS Of lithia that can be extracted by 

the methods now in use. in the mining and concentrating techniques

now used at lithium mines, a significant proportion of au iithium

minerals perhaps as much as one-third are not recovered. Even

8 Norton, J. J., and Page, L. K., Methods used to determine grade and reserves of 

pegmatites. (In preparation.)
TABLE 5. Lithium reserves of the United S

[Minimum grade used in calculating reserves in pegmatite deposits I

Localities

Tin-spodumene belt, North and South Carolina.

Pegmatite districts of New England, Colorado, Arizona, New Mexico, California, 

and Wyoming.

Totals ... ____ . __ -..-..--.

Principal 

lithium 

mineral

Spodumene.-.

Spodumene--. 

Spodumene...

Brine. ........

Other lithium minerals

Amblygonite, lepldolite _

Indicated res

Average 

depth 

in 

feet

400 

100

90

Average 

grade 

percent 

LijO

1.7

1.2 

1.2

.015
344 CONTRIBUTIONS TO ECONOMIC GEOLOGY

with such losses, however, this reserve would last many hundreds of 

years at the estimated 1953 domestic consumption rate of about 250,000 

units annually (J. C. Arundale, U. S. Bureau of Mines, oral 

communication.)

Nearly all of the lithium reserves of pegmatites are in spodumene. 

The Black Hills district, South Dakota, has significant amblygonite 

reserves, but these contain not more than a few hundred thousand 

units of Li2O. Lepidolite reserves are trivial in comparison with 

spodumene and amblygonite.

The minimum grade used in calculating reserves in pegmatite deposits in table 5 is 1.0 percent Li2 0. If deposits containing 0.4-1.0 percent lithia were also included, the reserves in all districts would be 

increased somewhat, but the change in the Carolina reserves would 

be small. Inasmuch as the Carolina reserves constitute a very large 

part of the national total, the overall effect of including deposits 

containing 0.4 percent Li2 0 would be slight.

Most of the reserves shown in table 5 are within 300 feet of the surface, but calculations for a few of the larger deposits have been extended to depths as great as 800 feet.

Doubtless lithium deposits could be found at much greater depths, 

but reserves near the surface are so great that with few exceptions any 

deposits below 300 feet must be considered submarginal at the present 

time.

No saline deposits have been included except the upper salt body 

at Searles Lake, Calif.

Additional lithium resources are in types of deposits not being 

worked at present, and are not included as reserves in table 5. The 

lithium clay at Hector, Calif., is an example.

* NORTH AND SOUTH: CAROLINA

A very large share of the known spodumene reserves of the United

States are in tka im-gpodumeiie belt at the border of North and South

Carolina near Kings Mountain, N.. C. (fig. 49). This district has 

recently been studied in detail by W. E. Griffitts of the U. S. Geological Survey and he has supplied the reserve data used in this report 

(written communication, 1954). An earlier study was made by T. L, 

Kesler (1942).

The tin-spodumene belt contains many hundreds of lenticular,

tabular, and irregularly shaped pegmatites intrusive into gneiss and 

schist, and more rarely into quartz monzonite. Spodumene is a major 

Constituent of many of these pegmatites, and amblygonita has been 

recognized as an accessory mineral. Lithium deposits extend from 

wall to wall of manj of the pegmatites. Some of these deposits are 

very large: one is 3,200 feet long, and another is 2'25 feet thick. How-
LITHIUM RESOURCES OF NORTH AMERICA 345

CAT LAKEWINNIPEG RIVER REGION

ifEAST BRAINTREE 

~T~ ^...DJSTRJ.CT

TINTQN DISTRICT

FIGURE 49. The principal lithium localities of North America.

ever, many other deposits are so small that only very small scale 

mining operations would be feasible.

Analyses and estimates of the spodumene content of many exposures 

have been used to determine grade of these deposits. The average 

grade of spodumene-bearing pegmatite (table 5) is 1.7 percent Li2 0.

Reserves of some deposits have been determined by drilling. Reserves of others have been estimated by projections from the surface 

to a depth of 300 feet. Of course, many exposed deposits do not ex-
346 CONTRIBUTIONS TO ECONOMIC GEOLOGY

tend very far downward, but deposits that do not reach the surface 

should compensate for them. , Lepidolite has been recognized in Franklin Comity, N. 0., but 

reserves are not known to be significant (Griffitts, 1953, p. 284).

SOUTH DAKOTA

Lithium deposits have been found in the Tinton district of the 

northern Black Hills and in three districts in the southern Black Hills, 

S. Dak. : the Keystone district, northeast of Harney Peak ; the Hill 

City district, northwest of Harney Peak; and the Custer district, 

southwest of Harney Peak. The principal known deposits are as 

follows: Tinton district Giant- Volney ; Keystone district Etta, 

Edison, Hugo, Bob Ingersoll Nos. 1 and 2, and Dyke Lode; Hill City 

district Mateen ; and Custer district^Beecher Lode, Beecher No. 2, 

and Tin Mountain. Only five of these deposits are known to contain 

more than 100,000 units of Li2O. Lithium minerals have been found 

in about 40 additional pegmatites.

Spodumene is the dominant lithium mineral in nearly all deposits, 

and constitutes 85 percent of the known reserves. Amblygonite is the 

chief lithium mineral at the Hugo mine, and ranks close to spodumene 

in the Beecher Lode. Lepidolite is the only lithium product of the 

Bob Ingersoll No. 1 pegmatite. Known lepidolite reserves in the 

Black Hills are small, but potentialities have by no means been 

exhausted.

A significant proportion of the lithium reserves at the Etta, Tin 

Mountain, Beecher Lode, and Hugo can be recovered by handcobbing. 

Milling is necessary for most of the rest of the Black Hills lithium 

deposits.

CALIFORNIA

Searles Lake-Mohave <wm The principal source of the sodium and 

potassium salts and also of by-product lithium at Searles Lake, San 

Bernardino County, Calif., has been brine that fills interstices in a 

body of salt that reaches a maximum depth of about 90 feet. A second 

salt body occurs at greater depth, The Searles Lake deposits have

been described in various reports (Gale, 1945 ; Dyer, 1950; Ryan, 1951). 

Available published data are adequate for making only a tentative

estimate Of reserves of lithium obtainable by present methods at

searies Lake. The brine containing lithium probably can be pumped

from an area of at least 20 sqxiare miles. The average thickness of the

upper salt body is probably between 40 and TO feet. The brine

OCCUpieS a VOlume Of between 25 and 50 percent of the salt body. Data

Mumford (1949, p. 513) and Gale (1945, p. 442^46) indicate that

de IS cabOUt 0.01 percent L12 0 j more recently Rvan (1951, table 1,

p. 449) has given the grade as 0.015 percent Li2 0. The specific gravity
LITHIUM RESOURCES OF NORTH AMERICA 347

of the brine is 1.30 (Dyer, 1950, p. 41). Calculations based on these 

figures indicate that the brine contains between 2,000,000 and 12,000,000 

units of lithia. These calculations do not allow for transfers of lithium during reactions between the crystalline salts and the brine.

Another approach to the problem of estimating reserves may be 

made by use of Dyer's estimate (1950, p. 44) that 35,000,000 tons of 

sodium and potassium salts can be recovered by methods now in use. 

Data presented by Eyan (1951, p. 452) indicate a recovery of approximately 1 part of lithia for every 400 parts of sodium and potassium 

salts obtained. By applying this ratio to Dyer's figures, the reserves 

of lithia are estimated to be 9,000,000 units. This is the figure used in 

table 5.

Eyan (1951, p. 449) states that brine in the lower salt body has 0.006 

percent Li2 0. Presumably, the evaporite beds also contain lithium. 

If lithium is ever recoverable from these sources, the reserves may be 

increased by tens of millions of units.

Clay at Hector, Calif., and possibly clays, saline deposits, and 

other deposits elsewhere in the Mohave area contain lithium, but no 

quantitative data are available.

Pala pegmatite district. California also has lithium pegmatites in 

the Pala district, San Diego County. The Stewart pegmatite was at 

one time a significant source of lepidolite, and amblygonite was also 

produced. Production since 1928 has been meager, and evidently no 

substantial reserves are known (Jahns and Wright, 1951, p. 52-55).

ARIZONA, NEW MEXICO, COLORADO, WYOMING, AND NEW ENGLAND

Small lithium reserves in pegmatites are known in Arizona and 

New Mexico, and a few deposits are in Colorado, Wyoming, and New 

England.

Jahns (1952, p. 77) estimates reserves of at least 8,000 tons of 

spodumene and amblygonite in the White-Picacho district near 

Wickenburg, Ariz.

In New Mexico, the Harding mine in Taos County has long been 

known for lepidolite and spodumene, and the Pidlite mine in Mora 

County has been a source of lepidolite. Another important lepidolite 

source has been the Brown Derby mine in the Quartz Creek district, 

Gunnison County, Colo. (Staatz and Trites, 1955). Amblygonite and 

spodumene also occur in Colorado, but no substantial reserves of 

lithium are known in the state (Hanley and others, 1950, p. 14). 

Wyoming has pegmatites containing petalite, lepidolite, spodumene, 

and probably amblygonite, but no significant deposits have been 

reported.

Lithium minerals have been recognized in Maine, Massachusetts, 

and Connecticut (Cameron and others, 1954; Billings and Wolfe, 

1944). Eeserves are small.
348 CONTRIBUTIONS TO ECONOMIC GEOLOGY

CANADA

Canada has large reserves of spodumene and small reserves of other 

lithium minerals. E. B. Rowe, of the Geological Survey of Canada, 

has compiled data on Canadian deposits, and part of the results have 

been published (Rowe, 1953a, b).

The Cat Lake-Winnipeg River region of southeastern Manitoba 

probably has at least 2,000,000 units of lithia (L. R. Page, oral communication).

Three lithium-bearing pegmatities in the Preissac-LaCorne region, 

north of Val d'Or, Quebec, have been described by Derry (1950) and 

Rowe (1953b). These deposits contain reserves of at least a few 

hundred thousand units of lithia. More recently this district has been 

intensively explored, and reserves of several million units have been 

found (Anonymous, 1954,p. 1,7,and 8).

Spodumene and other lithium minerals are also known in the East 

Braintree and Herb Lake districts of Manitoba and in the Yellowknife-Beaulieu region of the Northwest Territories (Rowe, 1953a, and 

Jolliffe, 1944).

FUTURE OF THE LITHIUM MINING INDUSTRY

The lithium mining industry has expanded about eight-fold in the 

period from 1947 through 1953. It is generally anticipated that the 

demand for lithium will continue to expand, perhaps even to 50 or 

100 percent above the 1953 level within a few years. Reserve figures 

indicate that even greater expansion is possible without significant 

change in mining and milling methods or costs.

Spodumene is so much more abundant than the other lithium minerals that it will continue to be the chief raw material. Lepidolite 

mining in North America iS not likely to be important unless new 

deposits are discovered, but lepidolite will doubtless be imported.

Searles Lake, Calif., will continue to be a significant source of lithium.

Possibly at some future time other saline deposits, sedimentary lOCks,

or otW types of rocks may also become lithium sources.

Flotation milling for spodumene, as at Kings Mountain, N. C., and

in the Black Hills, S, Dak,, is firmly established in the industry. 

^Nevertheless, a few deposits containing cobbaKU gpod umene and

amblygonite, notably in tne Black Hillg, Will COntlnUe tO fumiSh a 

part Of the lithium supply.

LITERATURE CITED

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LITHIUM RESOURCES OF NORTH AMERICA 349

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