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NBSIR 75-941

The National Measurement

System for Far Ultraviolet

Radiometry

W. R. Ott

Institute for Basic Standards

National Bureau of Standards

Washington, D.C. 20234

June 1977

U. S. DEPARTMENT OF COMMERCE

NATIONAL BUREAU OF STANDARDS

/f77

NBSIR 75-941

THE NATIONAL MEASUREMENT

SYSTEM FOR FAR ULTRAVIOLET

RADIOMETRY

W. R. Ott

Institute for Basic Standards

National Bureau of Standards

Washington, D.C. 20234

June 1977

U.S. DEPARTMENT OF COMMERCE, Juanlta M. Krept, Secr^ttuy

Dr. Sidney Harman. Under Seentaty

Jordan J. Baruch, Assistant Sacntary for Scianca and Tachno/ogy

NATIONAL BUREAU OF STANDARDS, Emaat AmUar, Acting Diractor

CONTENTS

EXECUTIVE SUMMARY 1 1. INTRODUCTION 3 2. STRUCTURE OF THE MEASUREMENT SYSTEM 4 2.1 Conceptual System 4 2.2 Basic Technical Infrastructure 5 2.2.1 Documentary Specification System 5 2.2.1.1 Standardization Institutions 5 2.2.1.2 Survey of Documentary Standards 6 2.2.2 Instrumentation System 7 2.2.2.1 Measurement Tools and Techniques 7 2.2.2.1.1 Standard Sources 7 2.2.2.1.2 Standard Detectors 9 2.2.2.2 The Instrumentation Industry 10

2.2.3 Reference Data 12 2.2.4 Reference Material 12

2.2.5 Science and People 13

2.3 Realized Measurement Capabilities 13

2.4 Dissemination and Enforcement Network 15

2.4.1 Central Standards Authorities 15

2.4.2 State and Local Offices of Weights and Measures 17 2.4.3 Standards and Testing Laboratories and Services 17

2.4.4 Regulatory Agencies 17 2.5 Direct Measurements 20

2.5.1 Analysis of Suppliers and Users 20

2.5.2 Highlights re Major Users 20

3. IMPACT, STATUS, AND TRENDS OF MEASUREMENT SYSTEM 23

3.1 Impact of Measurements 23

3.1.1 Functional, Technological, and Scientific Applications 24

3.1.1.1 Photochemistry 24

3.1.1.2 Bacteriological 26

3.1.1.3 Environmental Studies 27

3.1.1.4 Medical and Therapeutic 28

3.1.1.5 National Fusion Research 30

3.1.1.6 Space Sciences 30

3.1.1.7 Vacuum Ultraviolet and X-Ray Lasers . 32

3.1.1.8 Photobiology 33

3.1.1.9 Plasma Chemistry 34

3.1.2 Economic Impacts--Costs and Benefits 35

3.1.3 Social, Human, Person-on-the-Street Impacts 36 3.2 Status and Trends of the System 39

4. SURVEY OF NBS SERVICES 41 4.1 The Past 41 4.2 The Present--Scope of NBS Services 41 4.2.1 Description of NBS Services 41 4.2.2 Users of NBS Services 44

4.2.3 Alternate Sources 45

4.2.4 Funding Sources for NBS Services 46

4.2.5 Mechanism for Supplying Services 46

4.3 Impact of NBS Services 46

4.3.1 Economic Impact of Major User Classes 46

4.3.2 Technological Impact of Services 49

4.3.3 Payoff from Changes in NBS Services 49

4.4 Evaluation of NBS Program 50

4.5 The Future 50

5. SUf-lflARY AND CONCLUSIONS 51 Appendix A. Methodology of the Study 52

Appendix B. A Partial Listing of Manufacturers and Distributors of Incoherent

Radiation Sources 53

Appendix C. An International List of Companies Having an Interest in Plasma

Chemistry Applications 56

i
Appendix D. List of Publications and Talks (1972-1977) of NBS Staff Concerning

Ultraviolet Radiometry 63

REFERENCES 66

LIST OF FIGURES

Figure 1. The ultraviolet region of the electromagnetic spectrum defined in terms of wavelength (nm), energy (eV), and some key processes .... 3 Figure 2. Primary and transfer standard sources which have been applied in

the ultraviolet 7 Figure 3. Comparison of the spectral radiance of several ultraviolet standard

sources at typical operating conditions 8

Figure 4. Primary and transfer standard detectors which have been applied in

the ultraviolet 8 Figure 5. A copy of a publicity release illustrating a recent NBS cooperative

effort with the instrumentation industry 18

Figure 6. The ultraviolet radiation exposure standard recommended by the

National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health is illustrated

in terms of the relative spectral effectiveness in producing a standard erythemal response in the skin and eyes 18

Figure 7. A copy of a magazine advertisement illustrating a technology

forecast with respect to laser fusion systems 40

Figure 8. Current and projected NBS standard source and detector capabilities.

The dashed lines indicate near term projections 42

LIST OF TABLES

Table 1. The value of shipments of a variety of ultraviolet emitting products

for three different years according to the U.S. Census of

Manufacturers 10

Table 2. An overview of the far ultraviolet radiometric needs and capabilities

of the National Measurement System 14

Table 3. The Far Ultraviolet Radiometry National Measurement System

illustrated as a direct transactions input-output matrix 21 Table 4. List of users described in section 3.1.1 together with applicable

Standard Industrial Classification Codes (SIC-1972) 24

Table 5. Occupations potentially associated with ultraviolet radiation

exposures 38

Table 6. List of customers requiring NBS ultraviolet radiometric services

1972-1975 45

i i
OPTICAL PHYSICS DIVISION SUMMARY REPORT

on a study of

THE NATIONAL MEASUREMENT SYSTEM FOR FAR ULTRAVIOLET RADIOMETRY

William R. Ott

NBS Institute for Basic Standards

EXECUTIVE SUMMARY

Radiometry is the quantitative measurement

of radiant power. By restricting the region

of interest to the far ultraviolet, the

wavelength region from 10 nm to 300 nm is

specified. The corresponding photon energy

range extends from 125 eV to 4 eV, very large

compared for example with the visible range

which extends only from 3 eV to about 1.8 eV. Because of this, a wide variety of phenomena

and radiometric applications can be found

throughout the far ultraviolet. This report

is a description of the evolving National

Measurement System in the field of Far Ultraviolet Radiometry; at the same time a critical evaluation of the NBS role in the

System is made in order that we might optimize our efforts toward serving the System

and thus promote progress toward the national

goals of our government.

The technological importance of the far

ultraviolet spectral region stems essen- tially from: (a) the increasing use of high

temperature devices such as the fusion

plasmas being produced in the search for new energy sources; (b) the industrial

potential of far ultraviolet and x-ray

lasers; (c) the high energy content of

short wavelength radiation with the con- sequent ability to drive and control chemical reactions; and (d) the very low diffraction limit of short wavelength radiation. The problem areas where ultraviolet

radiation measurements are important include both national research and development programs and major industrial applications in the following fields:

(1) Industrial PHotochemistry

(2) Bacteriological Control

(3) Environmental Studies

(4) Medical Therapy

(5) Fusion Research

(6) Space Science

(7) Ultraviolet and X-Ray Lasers

(8) Plasma Chemistry

(9) Photobiology

In order to evaluate whether or not an ultraviolet radiation measurement capability is in the national interest and

affects our well being and the common good.

both the social and economic significance of

those activities which depend upon such a capability are discussed. Examples of areas

of impact where the ultraviolet measurement

system enjoys considerable social and eco- nomic leverage are national health and safety

and solar simulation.

Numerous studies which are cited in this

microstudy indicate that ultraviolet radiation can be dangerous and can cause such

things as incapacitating burns (sunlamps and

arc welders are the biggest culprits), premature wrinkling, and skin cancer. In view

of the increasing use of ultraviolet lamps

in our society for illumination, advertising,

bacteriological control, medical treatments

and industrial polymerization applications,

and in view of our recent concern with the

disastrous consequences which would result

from even a small increase in solar ultraviolet transmission through the atmosphere,

a measurement capability is absolutely necessary. It is used not only to monitor the

light environment and thus guarantee radiation safety but also to enable definitive

experiments which will accurately specify the

safety limits themselves. If the social

benefit is obvious, the economic leverage is no less so. Our work force is weakened con- siderably not only by work-related radiation

accidents involving arc welders, high intensity sterilization lamps, etc., but also by

the common "weekend-in-the-garden" sunburn.

Outdoor workers are especially affected and

experience in addition a significantly high

incidence of skin cancer. The statistics

are available and one can easily estimate

the economic impact of thousands of careers terminated in this way.

Accelerated weathering machines and

solar simulators are used by the paint,

dye, plastics, and building material industries as well as for space-related

applications, for example, in determining

the lifetime of solar cell arrays. Correlations up to now have not always been

significant partly because the irradiance

is specified by time exposed and not in terms of intensity and spectral distribution. Because of the uncertainties in the

lamp characteristics, not only are large
amounts of money and effort wasted annually

in the collection of misinformation and in some cases by the production and distribution

of inferior products, but also the industries

are discouraged from increasing their efforts

toward developing superior weather-resistant

products. Ultraviolet calibrations of these

machines for wavelengths as low as 121.6 nm

are required if accuracy, consistency, and

cost effectiveness are to be achieved in testing. Manufacturers of the simulators

are equally concerned with improved diagnostic methods since their world market could

be threatened by the imposition of radiometric specifications on the machines by

international standardizing bodies.

The NBS program on far ultraviolet radiometric calibrations is carried out mainly in

the Plasma Spectroscopy Section (232.07) and

in the Far UV Physics Section (232.03). It consists of several complementary components

and makes use of absolute detectors as well

as standard radiation sources. The primary consumers of our far ultraviolet services

have been the space scientists who need

absolute detectors and sources to determine

the response of spectrometric optical systems. At present these users dominate by

about 10:1 over the combined number of all

other consumers. This statistic is due mainly to the chronology of how the National

Measurement System has evolved: research and

scientific explorations (NASA in the 60's)

force the development of advanced technology

which, in turn, stimulates and makes possible

new applications of that technology. There

is substantial evidence that we are entering

this latter productive and potentially explosive stage. Nevertheless, it is shown in

this report that there is little systematic

interaction between the standards community

and the users groups. Aware of this evolution and the changing priorities, NBS cannot

only be open and receptive as it has always

been, but must actively develop new contacts.

The secondary standards laboratories and the

instrumentation industry are two sectors of

the measurement system with which NBS could

achieve a high leverage impact through an expanded standards program and improved

communications. It is also recommended that

NBS initiate more mini -workshops similar to the successful meetings involving several

regulatory agencies, which we organized during 1972-1974. Photochemical and biomedical

applications should be the first areas where

NBS should generate such a new initiative.

There are several technical recommendations

in this report which are the result of some preliminary contacts of the type just discussed.

(1) NBS, although boasting two complementary programs toward the development of primary, far ultraviolet radiometric source

standards, currently supports no efforts to develop reliable transfer standards. This

situation must be rectified in view of re- quirements for field uncertainties of about

1 percent between 200 nm and 300 nm, 5 percent between 90 nm and 200 nm, and 10 percent

below 90 nm.

(2) We must plan to develop ultraviolet

source standards of spectral irradiance, the

unit of principal interest to the users. Unless this is done, we must leave it up to the individual users to generate their own irradiance standards by way of our spectral

radiance standards. Not only is this an expensive and counter-productive way to go, but also it makes for a very uncertain

traceability to NBS.

(3) The calibration limits for NBS ultraviolet standard detectors must be extended

toward both shorter and longer wavelengths

to fully cover the range 5 nm to 400 nm. Only

then will several high priority users be

adequately served. Uncertainties must be

lowered to the 1-5 percent level, at least

for wavelengths above 115 nm.

(4) A new NBS service should be initiated

which would provide for monochromator or filter transmission calibrations in the far

ultraviolet.

(5) Internal consistency among the various NBS radiometric standards must be systematically checked. This includes such independent standards as photodiode detectors,

synchrotron radiation, hydrogen arc radiation, electrically calibrated radiometers,

and tungsten lamps.

2
1 . INTRODUCTION

The need for an ultraviolet radiation

measurement system may seem a bit remote to the average person on the street. This

first reaction comes about because ultraviolet radiation, unlike visible radiation,

is something that cannot be seen. However,

just because it cannot be seen doesn't mean

that this radiation is not useful. Radio waves, also invisible electromagnetic radiation, are an example of how we can extend

our experiences beyond that which is obvious

in nature. But whereas radio or long wave radiation is distinquished by its small

interaction with atoms and molecules, ultraviolet or short wave radiation is distinguished by its very strong interaction.

The sensitivity of the human eye extends

from the red (700 nm) to the blue (400 nm).

It is thought to be an evolutionary characteristic of land animals that they did not develop the capacity to see beyond blue, or "ultraviolet" as it is called. The earth

was unlivable in the beginning: intense

and energetic ultraviolet radiation from the

sun heated the surface and caused continuous

photochemical and evolutionary reactions

between the element and the primeval atmosphere. Because this radiation was deadly,

life developed under the protective blanket

of the sea. It was a necessary condition,

before the first land animal could step out

of the sea millions of years ago, that an oxygen (O2) atmosphere had to evolve, which

together with ozone (O3) would effectively

block out the energetic solar radiation below 280 nm. The ultraviolet wavelength region can be

considered to extend from 400 nm, the near ultraviolet, to about 4 nm where the soft

x-ray region begins.* For perspective some

key wavelengths in this region are illustrated in figure 1. The critical atmospheric ozone absorption occurs between 200-280

nm. Molecular oxygen absorption characterizes the region below 200 nm and thus the

terminology "vacuum ultraviolet" to indicate

the necessity for the absence of air in a system designed to measure or utilize such

radiation. Atomic hydrogen absorption sets

in at 100 nm and sets a limit to the range

of interstellar astrophysical measurements.

However, the real importance of the ultraviolet wavelength region is contained in the

energy scale corresponding to the wavelength

scale shown in figure 1. The ultraviolet

energy range spans from 3 eV to 300 eV,

which is quite large as compared to the visible for example, which extends only from

1.5 eV to 3 eV. This energetic radiation

can be used to drive and control all sorts

of chemical and biological reactions. For example extreme doses of radiation having

energy between 3 and 6 eV can cause skin cancer; controlled doses of the same radiation can heal. Continuous exposure to solar

ultraviolet radiation causes the fading of

paints and dyes; controlled exposures to artificial ultraviolet sources can be used

to produce protective coatings on materials.

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UV LASER SHORTEST TO DATE MERCURY LAMP

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M nanometer (nm) = 10"^ meter = 10 Angstrom

Figure 1. The ultraviolet region of the

electromagnetic spectrum defined in terms of

wavelength (nm), energy (eV) and some key

processes

The space science of the 60' s and 70'

literally reached beyond the atmosphere and

demanded sophisticated ultraviolet instrumentation. The resulting technology, involving the production, detection, and

analysis of ultraviolet radiation, is just

now beginning to "spin-off" and show heavy

impact in other areas. This document describes the evolving

National Measurement System in the field of

Ultraviolet Radiometry as seen from NBS. The term. National Measurement System, is a conceptual shorthand for the network of

measurement standards and techniques, standardizing laboratories, quality control laboratories, and measuring operations of all kinds extending right to the ordinary citizen in his everyday life. It is important

to periodically evaluate the role of the

National Bureau of Standards (NBS) in the

System in ovder t/iat r^ay rriake hsst use of

the System in promoting progress toward the

national goals of our Government. Accordingly, we seek answers to these kinds of

questions

(1) Who makes ultraviolet radiation

measurements, who are the users of NBS

3
services, and what is the significance of

their measurements?

(2) What are the interfaces of NBS with

industry, instrument manufacturers, government agencies, calibration laboratories,

state and local authorities, and trade and

professional associations?

(3) What is the present capability of

NBS in ultraviolet radiometry?

(4) What are the systems and instruments

by which practical measurements are actually

made, and what is known of their characteristics?

(5) Under what conditions is NBS accuracy usable by its customers; what are the

service requirements?

(6) What important deficiencies exist

and what areas should be emphasized in future planning?

This study on Far Untraviolet Radiometry

is organized into many logical subsections

some of which contain data and information

appearing also in other subsections. This

duplication is justified since it is ex- pected that a reader will choose to survey

only those sections relevant to his own interests. Therefore every effort has been

made to make each section complete without

resorting to tedious internal references.

This study is undertaken with the assumption

that NBS is expected not to perform all the

many calibrations required by government and

industry, but rather to continually monitor

the measurement system, and on the basis of

its findings, to undertake those ealihrations and other tasks that will make the system function most effectively and economically.

2. STRUCTURE OF THE MEASUREMENT SYSTEM

2.1 Conceptual System

The present scientific SI unit for the

quantitative measurement of radiant energy

is the watt as defined internationally in the Treaty of the Meter. The watt is a derived unit equal to one joule per second or

1 watt = 1 joule sec"i

= 1 riewton meter sec"^

= 1 kilogram (meter)^ sec-^

Radiant energy, as defined in SI units, is

therefore based on mechanical equivalents;

how one best determines in a practical way

a standard watt of radiant energy is still

an open question at the present time.

Traditionally, the problem has been ap- proached by the definition of an ideal

blackbody radiator at a particular temperature T, for example, the temperature of the

melting point of gold. In this case the

spectral radiance, or the radiant energy per

unit area, wavelength (x), and solid angle,

in units of Watts m"^ nm-^ sr"i, can be realized by applying Planck's blackbody radiation law

L .

^1 (1)

^ r' exp[c2(xT)"^ - 1]

where c = 1.19096 x lO-^^ ^ ^2 g^-i and

where C2 = 1.4388 x 10"^ m-K. Conventional

blackbody cavities and radiators emit most

of their light in the visible and infrared

region of the spectrum. In order to shift

the spectral distribution of a blackbody

radiator into the ultraviolet, the temperature must be increased to such a large extent

that solid blackbodies are no longer feasible and plasma blackbodies would need to be

utilized instead. These are generally very

complicated devices requiring gas temperatures above 6000 K and pressures on the order

of 10^ N m-2 (100 standard atmospheres).

Nevertheless, several laboratories outside

of the United States have been active in developing both continuous and pulsed plasma

sources which appear to be capable of providing blackbody continuum radiation over at least a small portion of the ultraviolet

spectral range.

There are several alternatives to the

blackbody approach which are currently being

investigated. For example, an electrically

calibrated radiometer has been developed

both at NBS and in Australia. With this

technique one compares the amount of electrical energy needed to cause the same heating effect as a given amount of radiant

energy. A second alternative is to measure

the wavelength. A, of the incident radiation

and to determine the flux of photons, N,

with an absolute detector. Highly energetic

vacuum ultraviolet radiation can be depended

upon to produce one electron per incident

photon in a properly designed ionization

chamber. The spectral irradiance is then

given by E = Nhcx-^ where h is Planck's

constant and c is the speed of light. A third method is to depend upon the calculated intensity of synchrotron radiation

(dependent on electron energy, current, and

radius of orbit) or the calculated intensity

of a completely ionized equilibrated hydrogen arc plasma (dependent only on the con- dition of local thermodynamic equilibrium).

More details on these various methods of

establishing a radiometric base are con- tained in sections 2.2.2 and 4.2.1.

There are in general two ways to determine the radiant power of an unknown light

source: (a) through the use of standard

sources and (b) through the use of standard

detectors. Standard sources are most useful

when it is desired to know the emission

4
characteristics of an unknown source. Standard detectors are most useful , on the other

hand, when it is desired to know the photon

or energy flux at the location of the detector. For example, if the quantity of

interest is spectral radiance

[watts m"2 nm-^ sr-^] or the energy radiated

per unit wavelength band (nm) per unit solid

angle (sr), then the light source to be investigated as well as the standard source may be set up in such a manner that the

radiation from both passes through the same

optical -spectrometric arrangement. In this

way all geometric and other specific factors

of the instrumentation are eliminated. In short the calibration is effected by a simple substitution of sources in the experimental arrangement. On the other hand, if

the quantity of interest is spectral irradiance [watts m"^ nm"^] or the energy inaident

on a specified surface area (m^) per unit

wavelength band (nm), a standard detector

and filter arrangement may be placed at the

location of the irradiated surface and the

light source calibrated accordingly. Alternatively, if such a standard radiometer is not available, a standard source of spectral

irradiance may be used in conjunction with a suitable diffusing element (to account for

variations in the geometries of the standard

and the unknown sources) to determine the

response function of the user's diffuserradiometer system.

This microstudy is intended to determine

the needs and requirements of the National

Measurement System for measurements of this

type but only in the far ultraviolet region

of the spectrum, i.e., for wavelengths less

than about 300 nm. The region above 300 nm, i.e., the near ultraviolet, visible, and

infrared, is treated in another microstudy,

Radiometry and Photometry , organized by

Dr. Henry Kostkowski of the NBS Optical Physics Division. The scope of the two microstudies can be expected to overlap slightly

in the near ultraviolet since the NBS far

ultraviolet research efforts, in view of the

traditional basis of radiometry, the

blackbody emitter, attempt to overlap into

the wavelength range of conventional radiometry wherever possible in order to insure a consistent radiometric base.

2.2 Basic Technical Infrastructure

This section is intended to identify the

various technical elements needed for realizing the conceptual system described in

section 2.1. A more detailed description of

those particular elements which have a rather direct impact on the user is con- tained in section 2.4, which addresses the

nature of the dissemination and enforcement

network.

2.2.1 Documentary Specification System

2.2.1.1 Standardization Institutions

Standardization institutions assist in

transferring measurement technology from the

research and development community to the , user and act as an advisor to the central

agencies regarding new and better measurement techniques that are needed. Notable

examples of such organizations in the

United States are the Occupational Safety

and Health Administration, the National

Institute for Occupational Safety and

Health, the Bureau of Radiological Health,

and the Consumer Product Safety Commission.

An example of such an institution on an international scale is the World Health

Organization, which has recently established

a program for standardization of protection

against non-ionizing radiation (which includes the ultraviolet). In fact, the U.S.

Bureau of Radiological Health (Dept. of

Health, Education and Welfare) has been

designated the primary collaborating center

whose purpose is to assist the World Health

Organization in:

(1) estimating present levels and trends

of human exposure to non-ionizing radiation;

(2) promoting the establishment of instrument calibration and reference services

in various countries;

(3) establishing internationally acceptable nomenclature, definition of terms and

quantities, and dosimetry methods;

(4) training public health personnel;

(5) alerting health officials to the need

for establishing non-ionizing radiation

control programs; and

(6) stimulating international research on biological effects and development of measuring instrumentation.

Little information has been found con- cerning state, local, and voluntary participation in ultraviolet standards specification. This is not because there are not

enough users or no causes for concern— in

fact, there are presently several million

germicidal lamps in the country, including

a set of such lamps in every hospital operating room. It is also not because ultraviolet radiation products have only recently

become available 1n the market place— in

fact, many American school rooms in the

early 50 's were equipped with germicidal

lamps to prevent the spread of bacteria.*

*I personally recall seeing them for the

first time in 1949 when polio was a serious

problem in my elementary school.

5
Rather, there are few local standards aom- mittees because the technology for producing

and measuring the radiation has been ex- tremely slow in developingi thus making

specifications of any kind difficult to decide upon. It is only in the last eight

years that the national regulatory agencies

mentioned above have been organized, and

they are still struggling with the measurement problem (see section 2.3.4).

Because there has not been a clear appreciation for the need of an interacting

national measurement system, there has been

little communication between the academic

community, the instrumentation industry, the users groups, and the national laboratories.

It was as if each application took place in

a technological vacuum. This situation can

be illustrated, in a general way, by the

following likely sequence of events. Looking back at the last 30 years, it is clear

that ultraviolet lamps existed and were

used. However, without standards, reports

of the users were sometimes incomplete, misleading, or at least ambiguous. Without

good diagnostics based upon reliable standards the application of the technology to other problems areas was severely hampered;

results could be published but the science

which could adequately explain the results

and enable generalizations, extrapolations,

and improvements was missing. Without eco- nomic stimulation from a diverse base of

customers, the instrumentation industry did

not expand or improve on its products.

Without this type of activity, the standards laboratories assumed that their assistance or guidance was not required. Without

the standards from the standards laboratories there was little uniformity, and the

regulating bodies found that it was impossible to draw up realistic specifications.

Without the documentary specifications and

standards, the user was left with applications or experiments which could only be

described in a qualitative way. And so the

vicious circle continues.

2.2.1.2 Survey of Documentary Standards

As one might anticipate from the discussion in the previous section, documentary standards for far ultraviolet radiation

are not widespread. At the present time

there are none at all for radiation below

200 nm. For an idea of the variety and

significance of documentary standards

which apply for the most part to visible

radiation but which also touch lightly on the near ultraviolet and may eventually

extend into the far ultraviolet, the reader

is referred to the microstudy on Radiometry

and Photometry . A few examples are briefly

discussed here.

The American National Standards Institute

(ANSI), a group which is set up to coordinate the development of national consensus

standards established by other voluntary

standards organizations, has recommended

procedural standards to protect arc welders

from face and eye injuries due to ultraviolet radiation produced in welding operations. Goggle transmittance (ANSI

Z87. 1-1968-6. 3.4.6) , the proximity of co- workers, wall reflectivity, and shielding

materials (ANSI Z49. 1-1973-7. 2. 3) are typical areas of concern.

The National Institute for Occupational

Safety and Health has recommended to the

Occupational Safety and Health Administration standards of a more technical nature in

its publication Criteria for a Recommended

Standard . . . Occupational Exposure to Ultraviolet Radiation [1]. Included in this

document was input received from the American Conference of Government Industrial

Hygienists, a voluntary group active in developing and recommending standard procedures affecting radiation safety. Indicative of the improving technology, this document defines the safety problems in terms of

the absolute intensities and spectral irradiance levels involved rather than such

relative quantities as, for example, goggle

transmittance, distance from "typical"

lamps, etc. Whereas the National Institute for

Occupational Safety and Health is concerned

with the individuals who are being irradiated by ultraviolet light and the irradiance

level at a particular location on a work

site, the Bureau of Radiological Health is charged with regulating the sources of

radiation themselves and is currently working towards establishing suitable standards

and controls. They address themselves to such questions as the following. Do potentially dangerous ultraviolet lamps carry

appropriate labels or warnings? Should certain lamps be required to have shielding?

Under what conditions are ultraviolet lamps

dangerous? The first ultraviolet product

standard to be issued by the Bureau of

Radiological Health will deal with commercial sunlamps and it is expected that significant documentary standards will be

forthcoming from this regulatory agency.

Although our survey of documentary standards is brief and perhaps incomplete, it is apparent that many of those that address the

wavelength range between 200-400 nm are often inadequate because of a confusion

6
between radiometric units and photometric

units.* A major manufacturer of laboratory

weathering and colorfastness test equipment

describes this situation as follows:

"These instruments enjoy international use and are specified in commercial and

government standards for evaluating the

durability of a wide variety of materials The International Standards

Organization, Technical Commitee 61 on Plastics, is presently considering

standards of light intensity. Confusion

exists through the present use of lumi- nous standards, e.g., lux, rather than

radiome tria s tandards . "

2.2.2 Instrumentation System

2.2.2.1 Measurement Tools and Techniques

Various technical reviews on ultraviolet

instrumentation are available in the open

literature. For example, one whole issue of

Electro-Optical Systems Design [3] has been

devoted to this subject and includes

authoritative discussions of: (1) ultraviolet lasers; (2) optics in the vacuum

ultraviolet; (3) far ultraviolet filters;

(4) reflective coatings; (5) diffraction

grating; (6) polarizers; and (7) far

ultraviolet detectors and sources. More

specialized reviews on ultraviolet sources

and detectors are available, for example, a review [4] which is devoted to applications

in the photochemical industry. Likewise,

there have been many specialized reviews on the status and applications of ultraviolet

lasers (see for example [5,6,7]).

Rather than repeat much of what has already been described in the literature, we

have decided to concentrate on reviewing

only the type of primary and secondary

standards which have been used in the various ultraviolet radiometric applications.

These are illustrated on a wavelength scale

in figure 2 (standard sources) and figure 4 (standard detectors). The scales are logarithmic and extend from 1 nm in the extreme

ultraviolet to 1000 nm in the infrared.

The figures are meant to be representative

and are essentially complete only for the

ultraviolet region below 300 nm. Primary

standards and their regions of application

are listed above the scale; secondary or

*Photometric units involve the standard re- sponse of the eye and can only be applied,

by definition, to visible light [2].

^Figures 2, 4, and 8, have identical scales

in order to facilitate comparison of the

information content in each figure.

Vr77777777777m SOFT X-RAY y//////M//M

VACUUM OR FAR UV:^

SYNCHROTRON RADIATION

, PLASMA, BLACKBODY

HYDROGEN

ARC PRIMARY

BLACKBODY

TRANSFER

• CAVITY

I I I I I I I TUNGSTEN LAMPS CARBeN ARC

D LAMP

CHERENKOV

RADIATOR

Figure 2. Primary and transfer standard

sources which have been applied in the

ultraviolet.

transfer standards are listed below the

scale. A short description of each of the

listings is contained in the following.

Where it seems appropriate, relative

advantages and disadvantages of a particular

technique will be indicated.

2.2.2.1.1 Standard Sources

The primary and transfer source standards included in figure 2 are discussed in

the following. For comparison purposes the

spectra of several of the sources are shown

in figure 3. (1) Conventional Blackbodies . These are hollow cavity sources designed to closely

approximate the ideal blackbody, which may

be defined as a surface that absorbs all incident radiation and reflects none. This

ideal is approximated by an enclosure whose

walls and contents are all at a common temperature (isothermal enclosure) and impervious to radiation. The radiation leaving the walls consists almost entirely of

radiation emitted by them. The spectral

radiance of the radiation leaving a small

hole in the enclosure is given closely by

Planck's law and is a function only of the

temperature of the enclosure. The temperature is related to the international practical temperature scale (IPTS) by operating

the source at the melting point of a noble

metal such as gold [8].

Strengths: Technique is accepted and used

on a worldwide basis. Very high accuracy

is possible.

7
10"

10'

« 10^

CVJ

I E

o

10-

10

10-

-2

Lya

I I I I

' 'T'T 1- 12500 K BLACKBODY

BLACKBODY LIMITED LINES

FROM 12 500 K ARC

I cm HYDROGEN ARC

(w 20 000 K)

30 WATT

D2 LAMP

J L

TUNGSTEN

STRIP

LAMP

100 200 300 400

. [n m]

Figure 3. Comparison of the spectral radi- ance of several ultraviolet standard sources

at typical operating conditions.

Limitations: The ultraviolet continuum at the gold point is extremely weak. Applications are limited to wavelengths greater

than about 250 nm.

(2) Plasma Blackbodies . These are high

temperature noble gas stabilized arc discharges which are used to produce plasmas

whose radiation absorption coefficient is

equal to or greater than 5 cm-^ (optically

thick plasmas). This is accomplished either

by using very high pressures to increase the

continuum absorption coefficient [9] or by

operating only at wavelengths where atomic

transitions with very high absorption co- efficients (resonance lines) exist [10].

Strengths: Technique is applicable in principle down to 50 nm. Limitations: Relatively high uncertainties

(10 to 25 percent) due either to uncertain

temperature determination or lack of plasma

homogeneity.

(3) Hydrogen Arc . This is a stabilized

arc plasma which emits optically thin con- tinuum radiation between 360 nm and 130 nm

[11]. Because the continuum absorption co- efficients are exactly known for atomic

UM OR FAR UV,^

ION CHAMBER

ELECTRIC CALIb PRIMARY RADIOMETER TRANSFER

WINDOWLESS

PHOTODIODES

WINDOW

DIODES

THERMOPILE

Figure 4. Primary and transfer standard

detectors which have been applied in the

ul traviolet.

hydrogen and because the conditions for local thermodynamic equilibrium can be produced in the arc, the emission coefficient

can be calculated as a function of temperature. However, extensive temperature

diagnostics are not necessary and do not

limit the ultimate accuracy since the arc

can be applied as an absolute standard of

spectral radiance by increasing the arc temperature to such a value that the spectral radiance reaches a unique and

calculable maximum where the two major

competing processes, increasing ionization

and the lowering of total number density,

provide an optimum balance.

Strengths: High intensity continuous spectrum ranges from visible into the vacuum ultraviolet with relatively low uncertainties (5 percent)

.

Limitations: High power (100 kW) is re- quired; H2 molecular absorption lines limit

use below 130 nm.

(4) Synchrotron Radiation . The theory

of synchrotron radiation from accelerated

electrons is on excellent theoretical

grounds, and the continuum emission can be

quantitatively predicted when the energy of

the electrons, the radius of the circulating

orbit, and the electron current are known.

The first two quantities can be determined

typically to better than 0.5 percent, and

the electron current is determined either by

direct counting or by radiometry in the

visible region where relatively high accuracy can be achieved [12,13].

Strengths: An intense source of continuum

radiation which covers the entire ultraviolet region. Polarization characteristics

are desirable for certain applications.

Limitations: Major facility, not portable,

high vacuum requirement; highly polarized

radiation is undesirable for certain applications . (5) Tungsten Lamps . Tungsten strip

lamps are used as transfer standards of

8
spectral radiance, and tungsten quartzhalogen lamps are used as transfer standards of spectral irradiance [8]. The tungsten resistive element is heated to incandescence by a dc electric current. The

continuum spectral output is similar to that

of a 2600 K blackbody.

Szvengz'r.s: Techniques are well understood

and uncertainties on the order of 1 to 3 percent are possible.

Limitavicrns : Weak source in the ultraviolet.

Much more intense visible light spectrum can cause serious scattered light and out-of-band

rejection problems when making measurements

below 300 nm.

(6) Deuterium Arc Lamps . These have

been applied as transfer standards of both

spectral radiance [14,15] and irradiance

[16]. A short L-shaped arc discharge is formed between to electrodes set at 90" and

excites a molecular D2 continuum extending

from 167 nm to about 400 nm. Strengths: Very strong ultraviolet output,

portable, low power requirements.

Limitatic-^.s : Alignment is difficult, and

there are uncertain long-term aging effects.

(7) Carbon Arc . This is a transfer

standard of spectral radiance [17]. A low

current arc is formed between two electrodes

so that the carbon anode is heated and emits

a spectrum similar to that of a 3800 K blackbody radiator.

Strengths: Stronger in the ultraviolet than

the tungsten lamps (but weaker than the

deuterium lamps).

Li^iitatior.s : Emission and/or absorption by

the plasma cause relatively large uncertainties and limit the wavelength regions of

appl icabil ity.

(8) Cherenkov Radiators . Radiation is produced when energetic beta particles

emitted from a radioactive source pass

through a medium having a high index of

refraction such as quartz or magnesium

fluoride. The beta particles travel at a speed greater than the speed of light in the refractive medium and emit characteristic

Cherenkov continuum radiation [18]. The

spectral distribution is given by theory.

Absolute values are determined through nor- malization by comparison with a standard lamp

in the visible.

Strengths: Requires no power supply and is portable.

Limitations: Possible radiation damage to the optical grade crystal; requires shielding to protect personnel and equipment from

exposure to radioactive source. Radiant power output is very weak.

2.2.2.1.2. Standard Detectors.

The primary and transfer detector standards included in figure 4 are discussed are discussed in the following.

(1) Electrically Calibrated Pyroelectric

Detector . This is a radiometer [19] which is based upon a pyroelectric detector and wave- form-independent synchronous amplification.

The receiver-heater is alternately exposed to the radiation field and to a calibrating

electric current. A phase demodulator is used to provide for null measurements.

Strengths: High accuracies and fast re- sponse times are possible.

Lir-ritations : Cannot be used at wavelengths

less than about 160 nm due to production of

secondary electrons at the receiver.

(2) Ion Chamber . This is a gas filled

detector in which each photon absorbed produces one electron-ion pair which is collected by a simple arrangement of parallel

plates used to set up the collecting field.

Absolute detection based upon a single

chamber requires knowledge of the gas absorption coefficient and pressure. However, the more common use of a double ionization chamber [20] as an absolute detector

does not require such diagnostics and depends only on an accurate measurement of the

currents to the two identical chambers.

Strengths: High accuracy, easy to operate.

Limitations: Operates only for wavelengths

short enough to exceed the photoionization

threshold, but not so short that multiple

ionization is possible.

(3) Window Photodiodes . T-his transfer

standard is basically a vacuum photodiode in

which ideally the only parameter to be determined by reference to an absolute standard is the absolute photoelectric yield of

the photocathode as a function of wavelength

[21]. The detectors are evacuated and

sealed by an ultraviolet transmitting window

to avoid atmospheric contamination of the

surfaces. The uniformity of the quantum

efficiency of the cathode can be excellent,

on the order of 1 percent. Aging effects

are likewise negligible.

(4) Windowless Photodiodes . Basically

this is the same type of detector as described above in (3), but the lack of a window and the consequent occasional

exposure of the photocathode to laboratory

conditions affects the overall reproducibility. Nevertheless, there is evidence that

natural aging effects cause not more than a 20 percent change in quantum efficiency over

a three year test period.

9
strengths of (3) and (4): Wide wavelength

region of applicability, relative high

accuracy and stability.

Limitations of (2) and (4): These are low

current devices (no amplification). If they

are used to calibrate more sensitive photomultipliers, linearity and scaling problems

with the latter introduce additional uncer- tainties.

(5) Thermopile . This transfer standard

is based upon the voltage developed across

an arrangement of thermocouple junctions

heated by absorption of the incident energetic radiation [21]. The efficiency of the

device is calibrated either by a spectral

irradiance source in the near ultraviolet or

by an ionization chamber in the far ultraviolet. The thermopile is designed so that

the percent of radiation absorbed is independent of wavelength, and the detector is

said to be uniformly grey. Thus, a thermopile can be applied in regions far removed

from the calibration wavelengths.

Strengths: Wide wavelength range of applicability.

Limitations: Low sensitivity, not suitable

for pulsed operation.

2.2.2.2 The Instrumentation Industry

The basic instrumentation involved in

making measurements of ultraviolet radiation

consists of detectors, analyzers (spectrometers, filters, and associated optical

systems), and the radiation sources themselves. Consequently, the lamp industry,

the optics industry, and the electronics

industry all have an interest in ultraviolet

measurement technology. This section describes the nature and extent of that

interest. In particular, it shows that:

(1) the instrumentation industry is seriously involved in the business of ultraviolet radiation measurements;

(2) there are sufficient customers (or users)

to make a significant economic impact both

on a national and an international scale

(see also section 3.1.2.(3)); and

(S) the traceahility of the products to reference standards is tenuous at best and

in many cases it is entirely inadequate.

A partial listing of ultraviolet lamp

manufacturers and distributors is shown in appendix B. This list is reproduced from a 1973 issue of the trade journal, ElectroOptical Systems Design .* It is probably not

*A few other categories besides ultraviolet

radiation products are also scattered

throughout the list. The journal publishes

such a list annually and can provide more recent compilations to interested readers.

Table 1. The value of shipments of a variety

of ultraviolet emitting products for three

different years according to the U.S. Census

of Manufactures.

Value of Shipments

SIC Code* (million dollars)

(1970) Description 1967 1963 1958

36410.41 Germicidal lamps 1.1 1.1 1.0 36410.42 Sunlamps 3.2 1.7 2.4 36410.51 Glow discharges 7.4 5.8 2.8 35410.52 High intensity discharges 27.6 17.3 8.8 36410.53 Photochemical discharges 3.6 1.7 2.0 36423.14 Industrial mercury fixtures 17.7 2.1 10.0 36425.13 Outdoor mercury lights 18.3 11.9 5.1 36425.14 Outdoor mercury lights 35.5 23.6 5.1 36425.19 Mercury floodlights 20.2 8.0 36425.25 Mercury decorative lights 9.0 1.3 36425.27 Fluorescent lights 9.0 4.5 36426.21 Miscellaneous discharges 6.7 5.3 3.5

Totals 140.3 84.3 35.7

complete, as it emphasizes primarily small

businesses. The giants of the trade, Sylvania, General Electric, ITT, Westinghouse,

etc., must be added to such a listing an(j are responsible for much of the research

and development on the lamps. An idea of the impact of these industries

can be obtained in the U.S. Census of Manufacturers. For example, the section on electric lamps (SIC Code 3641) and lighting

fixtures (SIC Code 3642) includes the data

listed in table 1 .* According to one industry official, more

than 100 million mercury vapor lamps have

been sold for outdoor illumination purposes

since their introduction 40 years ago. The

reason for their popularity is primarily

because electric discharge lamps of this

type are very efficient: they typically

produce almost four times more illumination

than an incandescent light bulb using the same amount of electricity. Of course, in

this application the lamp industry is most

interested in minimizing the ultraviolet

output (a measurement need) and thus

maximize the overall illumination efficiency.

*The 1972 Standard Industrial Classification changed the code for commercial

lighting fixtures to 3646. The code for

electric lamps was unchanged. However, the

1970 codes were preferred for illustration

in table 1 since they make it possible to specify the subset which includes only

ultraviolet emitting lamps.

10
On the other hand, there are other illumination applications, for example those involving indoor lighting and solar simulators,

where, according to an industry spokesman:

"... it is frequently essential to compare

the ambient ultraviolet output of a lighting installation with that of natural daylight conditions."

The significance of the measurement

problem is pointed out as the statement

continues:

"... the accurate uv measurements of energy

from light sources and natural dayligtit

have been hampered by the laok of reference standards.

There is an increasing variety and sophistication of products available from the lamp

and electro-optics industry: over 350 fluorescent lamps including 19 colors, metallic

and mercury lamps, light emitting diodes

(LED), and new radiometers and spectrophotometers. The U.S. market for spectrophotometers alone is about $100 million per year.

However, it is estimated that about 40 per- cent of this is imported compared to an export market of only about 10 percent [22].

Two major lamp manufacturers have considered

this trade deficit:

"Expansion of lamp business offshore is hindered by the lack of a uniform measurement level of luminous flux..

"There will certainly be an unfavorable

foreign trade impaot if electro-optical

devices of U.S. manufacture cannot be

relied upon to yield uniform NBS traceability quantities.

One of the principal manufacturers of near

and vacuum ultraviolet spectrometers is in

the U.S. and has sold now more than 300 instruments, each representing a value of

about $20,000. About 70 of the instruments

have been bought by major U.S. technological

companies, which is some indication of the

attention that ultraviolet radiation re- ceives in industrial research. However, it

appears that Japan and France are preparing

to market some new low cost ultraviolet

spectrometers, which utilize recently

developed holographic gratings. In our

opinion these may seriously affect the sales

of the U.S. companies. Quality control is then the key and a hint at what U.S. manu- factures may do to secure their business is

contained in a letter from the president of

one of these companies:

"...During the past year there have been

several requests from our customers for

information on the availability of light

sources calibrated for outputs below 300

nm... Such a source would be of value in

calibrating the absolute transmission of our monochromators , a question we are constantly asked^ A standard light source and wide range detector would

probably be of considerable value to our

customers for calibrating each specific

system they may assemble."

It may be implied from this letter that,

the market for ultraviolet spectrometers and

instrumentation would be more secure and

perhaps larger if standard data and ultraviolet techniques were readily available.

Certainly if the U.S. instrumentation industry is to continue to be competitive in the

world market, the following situation,

described to us by an industrial scientist,

must be improved:

" We have had the experience of purchasing a uv meter which, when compared

to lab standards, had an error in excess

of 100%."

Ultraviolet emitting lamps are being used

increasingly in the chemical and drug industries and in biomedical research. Applications include fluorescence analysis, detection of ultraviolet absorbing chemicals,

quality control in the production of pharmaceuticals (testing for fluorescent contaminants), germicidal lamp installations (for

air and food sterilization), photo-polymerization, and mutagenic studies. For the

characterization of the emission of these

lamps, calibration is absolutely essential.

The following statements are examples of

the interest two major lamp and detector

manufacturers have taken in the development

of radiometric standards in the ultraviolet.

"The development of the quartz halogen

incandescent standards of spectral irradiance was of great significance, and

the availability of a similar standard in

the ultraviolet is greatly to be desired.

This need has been with us for a number

of years and is growing steadily more

urgent. We will be looking forward with

great interest to the results of your

proposed program.

"We urgently need a standard uv source to provide us with an absolute calibration.

We supply, with each of our detectors, an individually measured absolute spectral

response calibration.... Clearly, we re- quire absolute calibration information to maintain the accuracy of this service.

Presently, we cannot maintain our absolute uv calibration accuracy to the

accuracy which we desire We would

like to cooperate with NBS in any way

n
possible on this problem."

2.2.3 Reference Data

Quantitative spectroscopy* is a preferred

diagnostic method essentially because it is a non-perturbing technique. Also it can be applied to remote sources (as in the case of

the sun). Ultraviolet radiation measurements which are made through the use of the

lamps, analyzers, and detectors previously

discussed are often used for this purpose.

For example, plasma physicists study the

ultraviolet radiation from fusion devices in order to determine the identity and density

of contaminants which absorb energy, radiate

at characteristic wavelengths, and thus cool

the plasma before fusion conditions can be

achieved. In the same way, space scientists,

astrophysicists, and aeronomers study solar,

stellar, and atmospheric radiation in order

to determine particle densities which are necessary for modeling of the system under

investigation. In order to make such con- nections, certain basic quantities must be

known. One example is the transition probability, A|^T, defined as the probability that

an atom or molecule in a particular excited

state k will decay with the emission of a photon to a lower excited state i. The

emission coefficient of the radiation is

given by the product of the transition probability, the number density of excited states

N|^^, and the photon energy hcx"i.

e(W m"^ sr"b =

Att X|^^. k ki (2)

Universities, government laboratories, and

several industrial research groups around the

world are involved in determining such basic

atomic constants. The methods of acquisition, the sources of the data, and a discussion of uncertainties are discussed for

example in recently available bibliographies

and data compilations [23,24]. Experimentally, the determination of A|<i very often

requires the absolute measurement of intensity. For example, a laboratory emission

experiment based on equation (2) can determine A|<i through an absolute intensity

measurement (e) and one other diagnostic

measurement to determine N|<.

Equation (2) has also been applied in such a way that ultraviolet calibrations can

be made without the direct use of any ultraviolet intensity standards. This is the

so-called branching ratio method used often

by fusion scientists [25] to determine absolute intensities in wavelength regions where

there are no ultraviolet standards at all.

If a particular excited level N|< decays to several lower levels i and j with the emission of photons with wavelengths A|<i and

Xkj, the ratio of the emission coefficients

is given by

^ki _ \j ^ki

^kj \i ^kj

(3)

*In general, this can be defined as the

measurement of the wavelengths and

intensities of radiant energy.

If the branching ratio, i.e., the ratio of

the transition probabilities, is known and

if Xkj is in the visible so that e|<j can be

measured by conventional radiometry, e|<i is

determined. This method has the advantage

that the diagnostic (which is often quite

complicated and model dependent) for is

unnecessary. It has the disadvantage that

nature is perverse enough that it provides

fewer and fewer branching possibilities as the wavelength difference between the two emission lines increases. This situation

obviously improves greatly if a modest

ultraviolet radiometric capability is

available so that the requirement that one

of the lines be emitted in the visible is not so limiting.

There is a similar need in the National

Measurement System for other basic data

such as collision cross sections and reaction rates, and in the same way as above,

absolute radiometry is often useful in

determining these quantities in the laboratory. Space science, fusion research,

upper atmosphere physics, laser research--

all are impact areas in the ultraviolet

radiometry measurement system and depend on

the availability and accuracy of such data.

2.2.4 Reference Materials

Spectrophotometric standards of transmittance and reflectance are available in the

visible region of the spectrum at NBS. In addition spectral transmittance standards

whose calibration extends to wavelengths as low as 240 nm in the near ultraviolet can

be obtained. The reference material is a holmium oxide square glass plate (Corning

3130 glass) 2.5 mm thick. These standards

are used for checking the transmission

calibrations of recording spectrophotometers which are used primarily in absorption spectroscopy and spectrochemical

analysis.

As previously mentioned, the economic

impact of the spectrophotometry industry is

estimated to be about $100 million per

year. Typical uses of calibrated spectrophotometers are:

12
(1) clinical examination (analysis of Ca and Mg in blood and urine);

(2) metal industry (analysis of Mg, Ni,

Mn, and Pb in iron and steel);

(3) agricultural industry (analysis of Cu and Zn in fertilizers); and

(4) chemical industry (analysis of Mg in

cement, analysis of Pb in petroleum products).

Most of these instruments can be operated

down to 195 nm (the cutoff of air). In the

opinion of a senior product manager for a spectrophotometer manufacturer,

"The most widely used method in medical

analysis (of biological fluids) has been

ultraviolet spectroscopy."

It is evident that the wavelength range of

standard reference materials presently available is not sufficient to meet current

demands.*

Vacuum ultraviolet spectrophotometers are not yet commercially available, but one may

anticipate their application in the near

future. Because absorbance in the vacuum ultraviolet is extremely strong due to atomic and molecular resonance transitions

in this region, the sensitivity and range of

the spectrophotometric techniques could be

greatly improved. Also new techniques could

be developed based on the fact that the

energy thresholds for dissociation of complex molecules occur in this region. For example, identification and quantification

of compounds by the measurement of abrupt

steps in the continuous absorption background

could be made. Calibration of these instruments with standard filters will then be a necessity. Although no coordinated standard

reference materials program for the wavelength region under 200 nm exists as yet,

the technology to provide such materials is available. Several companies now provide

calibrated transmission filters down to 110 nm and have provided reflectance calibrations down to 50 nm.

2.2.5 Science and People

To us, the phrase "science and people" means communication. The ultraviolet

radiation measurement system is supported by

scientists involved in such diverse fields

as atomic and molecular physics, plasma

physics, physical chemistry, space science,

astrophysics, aeronomy, meteorology, photobiology, and biomedical research. Direct

*The Radiometric Physics Section (232.14) at NBS has a program working to extend the

short wavelength limit of spectral transmittance standards to 200 nm.

contact between such specialized groups of

people is unfortunately infrequent and occurs usually through the mechanism of

invited papers at conferences. Publication

of review papers in journals dedicated to fields outside of one's own speciality is another obvious possibility for contact,

but it is a very unusual occurrence mainly

because writing for a group with different,

backgrounds is not an easy task and sometimes not very rewarding from the viewpoint

of feedback. Such information activities

(conferences, workshops, and publications)

usually come under the auspices of the

relevant professional societies such as the

American Physical Society (APS), the Optical

Society of America (OSA), the Institute of

Electrical and Electronics Engineers (IEEE),

American Astronomical Society (AAS), American Geophysical Union (AGU), American Biophysical Society (ABS), and the American

Society of Photobiology (ASP).

Perhaps the group who has the best overall picture of the measurement system is the

instrumentation industry and in particular

the local sales representative whose business it is to know the present and anticipate the future needs of the various meas- urement sectors. He also provides sometimes the only link between the bench

scientist and the outside world which is involved in testing, development, production, and evaluation programs.

Perhaps the most influential role in

the dissemination of knowledge is played by

the trade journals, both directly through

their own distribution system and indirectly

through the popular press which monitors the

journals for especially significant activities and trends. Examples of such publications reporting on ultraviolet radiation

developments (among other things) are Industrial Research , Electro-Optical

Systems Design , Optical Spectra , Laser

Focus , and Measurement and Data News , all of which are freely distributed and are supported entirely by instrumentation advertisements. Some of these organizations

are quite innovative and manage very effectively in stimulating interest in science

and its applications. For example. Indus - trial Research sponsors a wel 1 -respected

annual IR-lOO award program for the 100 most

significant developments in any and all fields of science.

2.3 Realized Measurement Capabilities

In section 3 the many areas of impact for

an ultraviolet measurement capability are described in detail. The wavelength range

of interest spans from 4 nm to 300 nm

13
and includes a wide variety of phenomena and

applications essentially because the corre- sponding photon energy extends from 300 eV

to 4 eV. Consequently, it is very difficult

to unequivocally specify the accuracies re- quired in the far ultraviolet. In fact, one

risks overspecifying the accuracies if he

insists on a simple formula. The accuracy

requirements depend not only on the wavelength region but also on the manner in which the measurements are used. For ex- ample, ultraviolet measurements that are being used to generate data which are, in turn, used for trend determinations or scaling predictions require much greater accur- acies than ordinary laboratory or industrial

appl ications.

(CORM)+ has estimated that at least 5 percent absolute accuracy is required by industry and the scientific community. Below

90 nm we enter into the region where fusion

scientists are most interested and where

scaling is extremely important. It is estimated that 10 percent uncertainties

would be acceptable for now in this very

difficult spectral region. Because very ex- pensive machines are being designed according to these scaling estimates and because

the stakes are so high (energy crisis), an active radiometry effort below 90 nm is

considered to be a high leverage program.

The above accuracies would certainly

satisfy most of the sectors described in

this survey. Most of them would probably

Table 2. An overview of the far ultraviolet radiometric needs and

capabilities of the National Measurement System.

Wavel ength

Region(nm)

Uncertainties

Required

Uncertainties in the Standards

Sources | Detectors

Spectral Radiance Spectral Irradiance

Primary Transfer Transfer Transfer

250-300 1% 1-5% 1-10% 5% 6%

200-250 1% 1-5% 1-10% 10%* 6%

160-200 1% 5% 10% None 6%

100-160 5% 10% 10%* None 6-10%

50-100 10% 10%* None None 10%

5- 50 10% 10%* None None 10%

* Estimated from work in progress at NBS

Table 2 provides an overview of the meas- urement needs and capabilities of the

national measurement system organized

roughly into six wavelength regions throughout the far ultraviolet spectrum. In the

ultraviolet range, 200-300 nm, spectral

radiance and irradiance uncertainties on the

order of 1 percent are now required. In this

region, the uncertainties of NBS ultraviolet

source and detector standards range from 5 to 10 percent. Spectral radiance standards

with uncertainties on the order of 1 percent are available above 230 nm, but are primarily for use in the visible spectrum

since they have very low output in the

ultraviolet. Between 80 nm and 250 nm, the

Council on Optical Radiation Measurements

be content with even less, especially in areas where there is currently little input

from the standards community. In this re- spect, one should note the conspicuous

CORM is a group of mostly industrial scientists and engineers interested in radioetry and photometry who are organized as an activity of Technical Committee 1.2 on Photometry of the United States National

Committee of the CIE (Commission Inter- nationale de L'eclairage) for the purpose

of identifying the most urgent problems

and projected national needs in the area of

optical radiation standards.

14
absence in table 2 of activity towards the

development of standard sources of spectral

irradiance which happens to be the radiometric quantity of principal interest to most

of the users. Also, although calibrated detectors seem to be in relatively good shape, one should keep in mind that the determination of spectral irradiance requires a wavelength filter or monochromator to be used in

conjunction with the calibrated detector,

i.e. a spectroradiometer. Such a complication can double the uncertainties of a practical measurement if indeed a user has

the necessary techniques at his disposal to calibrate the transmission of the filter or monochromator. In principle, the calibration of such spectroradiometers is possible.

The provision of such a service is under

consideration at NBS, but currently there is no activity, at NBS or any of the standards

laboratories, in this area. Some users find themselves in a position

where they do not even know what accuracies

to specify because they are caught in a circular dilemma. The Occupational Safety

and Health Administration, for example,

will have the authority to close down plants

which do not conform to the maximum ultraviolet irradiance guidelines which are now under scrutiny. Therefore, they will also

have a corresponding obligation to recommend

an accurate dosimeter. However, the refer- ence data on what radiation and how much is dangerous are sometimes extremely uncertain

due to the limited description and knowledge

of the sources and detectors used in the

referenced experiments. In this case, un- certainty breeds even more uncertainty. If the regulatory agency satisfies itself with

an equally uncertain dosimeter, the quality

of the reference data is not going to improve, and the problem with specification of

hazardous radiation remains the same. The

regulating agency is forced either to com- promise its standards or to be super-cautious

and to overspecify by defining "safety"

factors. The former option may affect our health and safety; the latter option may re- sult in costly unnecessary modifications in

industrial plants which may in fact be safe

working places.

Ultraviolet radiation is a resource which

is just beginning to be exploited on a significant scale. It is a difficult spectral

region to work in but promises to be ex- tremely rewarding, both socially and economically. The measurement accuracies recom- mended in this section are the minimum

required if the full potential of this

relatively large part of the electromagnetic

spectrum is to be utilized. Recommendations

of programs which would tend to fill in the

gaps apparent in table 2 are contained in

section 4.4.

2.4 Dissemination and Enforcement Network

2.4.1 Central Standards Authorities

The problem of putting ultraviolet radiation intensity measurements on an absolute

scale is of international interest. There

are active government standards programs in

the following nations: (1) the United

States, through NBS; (2) the United Kingdom,

through the National Physical Laboratories

(NPL) in Teddington, England; (3) France,

through the Institut National de Metrologie

(INM) in Paris; (4) West Germany, through

the Physi kal i sche Technische Bundesanstal

(PTB) in Braunschweig and Berlin; and (5)

Canada, through the National Research Council in Ottawa and the Ministry of Municipal

Affairs in Montreal. This section provides

a brief description of the ultraviolet

radiometric capabilities of some of the

recognized national standards laboratories

and discusses the relevant interactions be- tween these bodies.

(1) United States . The National Bureau

of Standards program on ultraviolet radiometry is carried out in four separate sec- tions in the Optical Physics Division:

Plasma Spectroscopy, Far Ultraviolet

Physics, Optical Radiation, and Radiometric

Physics. Far ultraviolet research is

limited to the first two sections whereas

the emphasis in the third and fourth sec- tions is on visible and near ultraviolet

radiation. The general program consists of

several complementary components and makes

use of absolute detectors as well as standard radiation sources. A detailed description of current NBS activities and future

plans is contained in section 4.2.

(2) United Kingdom . The National

Physical Laboratory (NPL) in Teddington,

England, has available a set of seven calibrated deuterium lamps (manufactured in

England) as laboratory standards of ultraviolet spectral radiance in the wavelength

range 200 nm to 400 nm. The spectral

distribution is determined using the Daresbury synchrotron as a standard source; the

spectral radiance is put on an absolute

scale by a direct radiance calibration with

a tungsten strip lamp in the near ultraviolet range 350 nm to 400 nm. The National

Physical Laboratory services are of two types: (1) the customers' own sources can

be calibrated directly, if of a suitable

type; (2) deuterium discharge lamps can be

supplied with absolute radiance levels as required.

Future plans are to extend the radiance

calibration service to include the

15
wavelength region 160 nm to 200 nm and to add a spectral irradiance calibration capability in the range 160 nm to 350 nm. In this connection, members of the National

Physical Laboratory staff have been in con- sultation with NBS staff concerning absolute

calibrations in the vacuum ultraviolet (below 200 nm) utilizing both plasma blackbody

radiation and hydrogen arc radiation. The

National Physical Laboratory is currently

pursuing the former approach and has built

an arc and power supply similar to those

used both at NBS, at the PTB in Berlin, and

at the Max-Planck Institut in Munich. In addition, NBS has supplied three standard

photodiode detectors calibrated in the range

116 nm to 254 nm to help establish the

National Physical Laboratory's irradiance

capability. Interlaboratory comparisons of

both source and detector standards are either anticipated or already in the planning stages.

(3) France . The Institut National de

Metrologie (INM) in Paris, France, is

currently developing a primary standard of

spectral radiance in the ultraviolet region

110 nm to 400 nm utilizing the hydrogen arc approach first demonstrated at NBS. One of

their chief investigators spent 1-1/2 years

at NBS as a visiting scientist engaged in far ultraviolet radiometry. Originally, the

Institut National de Metrologie planned to employ a high pressure plasma blackbody

radiator as a standard of radiance, but be- cause of the large uncertainties involved

[9], they have apparently abandoned this

idea and are actively supporting a program

similar to that of NBS. Although standard detector research, per

se, is not being pursued, standard detectors

are being used. Staff from the Centre

National de la Recherche Scientifique (CNRS)

in Verrieres-le-Buisson have obtained from

NBS several photodiodes calibrated over the

range 58 nm to 254 nm. These have been used

to calibrate a French collaborative experiment on the U.S. space satellite OSO I and

for subsequent similar work.

(4) Germany . The West Germany far ultraviolet radiometry program is centered at the

Physikal ische Technische Bundesanstalt (PTB)

in Berlin, and to some extent in Braunschweig. There are also important contributions from several other groups within the

country. The Physi kal ische Technische

Bundesanstalt contributed to establishing

the carbon arc as a standard of radiance in

the near ultraviolet [26]. More recent West

German activities have been to utilize the

DESY synchrotron in Hamburg as a primary

standard of spectral radiance. Deuterium

and mercury lamps have been calibrated with

the DESY synchrotron in the wavelength

region 165 nm to 300 nm [15] and in addition

have been cross-calibrated with a carbon arc

[27]. The group in Berlin has also cross- calibrated several of these lamps with

blackbody-limited line radiation from an arc plasma [28]. Space scientists from the

Naval Research Laboratory in Washington,

D.C. have used similar transfer lamps calibrated against the original DESY calibrated

lamps for calibrating their rocket and sat- ellite solar ultraviolet spectrometers.

A group of scientists at the Max-Planck

Institut fur Physi k und Astrophysik in

Munich have pioneered blackbody-limited line

radiation [10] as a standard source of radiance and have been using the wall -stabilized

arc source to calibrate rocket spectrometers

in the wavelength region 110 nm to 300 nm for the last few years. Another group

located at the Technische Universitat in

Munich is also active in ultraviolet radiometry. One of the staff has spent a year at

NBS and has cooperated in further developing

the NBS hydrogen arc radiance standard.

In summary, there are presently three

separate efforts, as yet not totally

coordinated, toward providing a national

ultraviolet radiometric capability in West

Germany: (1) the synchrotron effort in

Hamburg; (2) the blackbody line radiation

efforts in Berlin and in Munich; and (3) the

hydrogen arc effort in Munich.

NBS interaction with the West German

program is very strong. NBS has furnished

calibrated photodiodes which are being used

to conduct a comparison with several

synchrotron-calibrated deuterium lamps.

Consistency appears to be at least within 20

percent [29,30]. NBS has also calibrated

several descendants of the original DESYcalibrated deuterium lamps with the NBS

hydrogen arc and compared results [31] with

the synchrotron based calibration. Again,

consistencies within 20 percent were found

except in one region where it appears that

a systematic error affected the synchrotron

calibrations [29]. Plans are currently

being made to exchange deuterium lamps in a round robin calibration comparison between

NBS, the DESY synchrotron group, the Physi

kalische Technische Bundesanstalt Berlin

group, and the Institut National de Metrologie Paris group.

Independent of these events, the arc group at the Munich Max-Planck Institut has

requested and received several NBS calibrated ultraviolet detectors. They have

recently developed a facility whereby they

can utilize their standard arc source to calibrate detectors such as photodiodes and

photomulti pliers. Preliminary results of a comparison of detectors calibrated at several European laboratories (unpublished)

16
show large discrepancies (up to a factor 2).

It is hoped that the NBS calibrated photodiodes will help to clear up the present

uncertain detector-calibration base-line in

Europe.

(5) Canada . The interaction with the

Canadian national laboratories has not been

strong and so far consists only in an exchange of program information. In December 1972, NBS received a letter from the

Radioprotection Section of the Ministry of

Municipal Affairs, Montreal, requesting

information on ultraviolet laboratory

standard sources and accessories, material

characteristics, and a bibliography on ultraviolet radiation. Their general program goals were also described:

"We are developing a program of protection

against nonionizing radiation and

are most concerned with the measurements

of uv light intensities in absolute units

using a spectroradiometer. It is of prime

importance for us to have an ultraviolet

lab standard source to check periodically

the accuracy of that calibration."

Details of NBS activities in developing

primary and transfer standards of spectral

radiance were forwarded but no further

interaction has taken place as yet.

(6) Others . Australia, Japan, East

Germany, and the U.S.S.R. have programs in

ultraviolet radiometry, but little information on these, besides several key literature references (see for example [32] and

[33]), has been obtained as yet.

2.4.2 State and Local Offices of Weights

and Measures

No information has been found. It is

assumed that activity in this area of the

measurement system will not become significant until the national regulatory agencies

have successfully organized their own programs in ultraviolet radiation measurement

and control

2.4.3 Standards and Testing Laboratories

and Services

There are several laboratories in the

United States other than NBS which maintain a far ultraviolet detector calibration

facility, for example Stanford University

[30]. NBS has been in close contact with

the group from Stanford through the years,,

and in fact, the head of the group has

served on the NBS Optical Physics Division

Review Panel. NBS has also been in contact

with representatives of the detector industry which maintain standards laboratories.

Out of these interactions have come two of

the three ultraviolet detector types now

available as calibrated transfer standards

from NBS. Consideration of such properties

as uniform response across the photocathode

and aging has resulted in products which

minimize degradation of the calibration upon

transfer from NBS. The manufacturer of one

of the standard photodiode types has demonstrated its continuing interest in the far

ultraviolet standards field by conducting a round robin intercomparison of detector

calibrations from various laboratories

worldwide [35].

The situation with ultraviolet source calibration facilities in the United States

outside of NBS is not nearly so well developed. Although there exist at least 21 independent commercial standards laboratories involved in radiometric and photometric

measurements [22], most of these apparently

are not aware of recent NBS activities in

far ultraviolet radiometry. This is surely

a weak link in the measurement system as it

presently stands. This extraordinary situation is highlighted even more perhaps by the

recommendation of the Council on Optical

Radiation Measurement (CORM) that industry

and the scientific community at large re- quire at least 5 percent absolute accuracy

for radiation measurements between 90 nm

and 250 nm. Apparently, the interest is

there, but the communication channels are

not.The existence of this avit-ioal missing

link in the National MeasiO'ement System can

he aonsidered to he one of the more important findings in this study. Only now, at the time of this writing, is the situation

beginning to change. For example, NBS has

been cooperating with the commercial

standards laboratories to make available

deuterium lamp standards of spectral radi- ance and irradiance in the near and vacuum

ultraviolet. A recent advertisement [36]

describing this new service is reproduced in

figure 5.

2.4.4 Regulatory Agencies

( 1 ) Occupational Safety and Health Administration . The Occupational Safety and

Health Act of 1970, Public Law 91-596, is

designed to assure safe and healthful working conditions for the nation's working

men and women. It is implemented by two major agencies, the Department of Labor

with its Occupational Safety and Health

Administration (OSHA) and the Department of

Health, Education and Welfare with its

National Institute of Occupational Safety

and Health (NIOSH). OSHA, as a regulatory

agency has the responsibility:

" to promulgate, modify, and improve

mandatory occupational safety and health

17
ULTRAVIOLET STANDARDS

OF SPECTRAL

IRRADIANCE

Model UV-40 Standard

urith Model 45 Power Supply

Optronic Laboratories is now issuing Deuterium lamp stan- dards calibrated for spectral irradiance over the ultraviolet wavelength region of 1800 to 4000 A. Calibration of the new

standards is based on the NBS high-accuracy standards of

spectral irradiance and on the NBS calibration of Deuterium

lamps for spectral radiance. The standards typically exhibit a peak irradiance at 190 nm of 0.5 jUW/cm^ nm. The lamps can

also be obtained calibrated for spectral radiance.

Available for use with the new standards is the Model 45

Precision Constant Current DC Power Supply.

Figure 5. A copy of a publicity release illustrating a recent NBS cooperative effort

with the instrumentation industry.

240 260 280 300 WAVELENGTH (nm)

Figure 6. The ultraviolet radiation exposure

standard recommended by the National Institute

for Occupational Safety and Health is illustrated in terms of the relative spectral effectiveness in producing a standard erythemal

response in the skin and eyes.

standards .... and to prescribe regulations requiring employers to maintain

accurate records and reports concerning

work-related injuries, illness, and

death."

NIOSH, although not a regulatory agency,

has been given the responsibility, according

to section 20(a)(3):

to develop and establish recommended

occupational safety and health standards

....and to conduct such research and

experimental programs necessary for the

development of criteria dealing with

toxic materials and harmful physical

agents and substances which will describe

exposure levels at which no employee will

suffer impaired health or functional incapacities as a result of his work

experience.

In order to provide relevant data from

which valid criteria and effective standards

can be deduced, the National Institute for

Occupational Safety and Health has projected

a formal system of research. As the re- search and epidemiologic studies are com- pleted and sampling and analytic methods are developed, the criteria and standards will

be reviewed periodically to ensure continuing protection of the workers. With the

cooperation of an ad hoc committee of the

American Industrial Hygiene Association,

the American Medical Association Committee

on Occupational Toxicology, and a number

of review consultants, one such review has

been published: Criteria for a Recommended

Standard--Occupational Exposure to Ultraviolet Radiation [Tj! TrPaddition, in

view of their responsibility to determine

the maximum allowable exposure levels for

ultraviolet radiation, the Institute, in co- operation with the Department of Health,

Education, and Welfare, the Department of

Labor, and the Occupational Health and

Safety Administration intends to develop a portable instrument for measuring these ra- diations so that both inspectors and industrial hygienists will be able to monitor the

work environment. Two approaches are to be

taken, both of which include NBS cooperation

First of all, they wish to develop a radiometer whose spectral response closely resembles the erythemal response of the skin and

eyes. The desired spectral response is

shown in figure 6. This curve of relative

effectiveness says, for example, that a given flux of radiation at 280 nm is about a factor 1000 more dangerous than the same flux at 200 nm. The proposed radiometer or hazard meter would integrate over all wavelengths and record an effective irradiance

which then can be associated with a maximum

allowable exposure. Secondly, they wish to

18
develop a standard source of irradiance

which can be packaged along with the standard detector in order to enable the industrial hygienist to check periodically the

calibration of his detector unit.

The interaction between the National

Institute of Occupational Safety and Health

and the standards community has been fairly

strong. They have purchased a pair of

deuterium lamps, which were calibrated at NBS in the wavelength region 200 nm to 360

nm, in order to investigate the possibility

of identifying potentially hazardous ultraviolet light sources through comparison of a spectrophotometer's response to both the

standard and the unknown light source. They

have also engaged NBS to provide a standard

detector in the wavelength region 200 nm to 320 nm so that they can evaluate the quality

of hazard meter prototypes which are being

contracted out and developed by industry for

the purpose of developing a capability for

remote onsite inspections. Such interactions

are essential since ultimately the Occupational Safety and Health Administration of

the Department of Labor has the authority

to levy fines and even close down plants

which do not conform to the recommended

safety regulations.

(2) Bureau of Radiological Health . Public Law 90-602 has established the Bureau

of Radiological Health (BRH) to protect the

public health and safety from the dangers of

electronic product radiation.* According to section 354 of the Radiation Control for

Health and Safety Act of 1968, it is the

Bureau of Radiological Health's responsibility

"...to provide for the establishment of an electronic product radiation control program which shall include the development

and administration of performance standards to control the emission of electronic product radiation. . .and the undertaking by public and private organizations

of research and investigation into the

effects and control of such radiation

emissions."

Furthermore, the agency is charged with the

mission

"...to plan, conduct, coordinate, and support research, development, training, and

operational activities to minimize the

emissions of, and the exposure of people

to, unnecessary electronic product

radiation."

The Bureau of Radiological Health therefore

has the responsibility of determining

*Defined, in part, as any ionizing or non-ionizing electromagnetic or particulate

radiation

standards whereby ultraviolet emitting lamps

can be safely sold and distributed. This

includes determining the conditions under

which a lamp may be a potential hazard to the user and recommending means by which the

hazard may be circumvented, e.g., a certain

type of safety goggles.

This agency is distinguished from the

National Institute of Occupational Safety

and Health and the Occupational Safety and

Health Administration mainly by its different approach to radiation safety and health.

The Bureau of Radiological Health is con- cerned with the sources of ultraviolet

radiation themselves: Do potentially

dangerous ultraviolet lamps carry appropriate labels or warnings? Should certain

lamps be required to have shielding? Under

what conditions are ultraviolet lamps

dangerous? The Occupational Safety and

Health Administration is concerned with the

individuals who are being irradiated by

ultraviolet light. Their interest is in the

irradiance level at a particular location on the work site. The interaction between these

two agencies is fairly strong since they investigate complementary aspects of the same problem, namely, ultraviolet radiation

hazards

The interaction between the Bureau of

Radiological Health and NBS has also improved considerably over the last few years.

A workship was organized by NBS to discuss

our respective mission requirements,

research plans, and present and projected

calibration capabilities. This was followed

up by site visits and an arrangement for the

calibration of several deuterium lamp spectral radiance standards in the wavelength

range 160 nm to 300 nm. Because of the very

broad nature of their activities (ranging

all the way from lasers and ultraviolet

lamps to microwave ovens and arc welders),

and because of the recent expansion of

their responsibilities to include acting as the World Health Organization Collaborating

Center for Standardization of Protection

Against Non-Ionizing Radiation (see section

2.2.1.1), this interaction is expected to continue to grow.

(3) Consumer Product Safety Commission . The Consumer Product Safety Commission

was established in 1972:

(a) to protect the public against unreasonable risks of injury associated with con- sumer products;

(b) to assist customers in evaluating the

comparative safety of consumer products;

(c) to develop uniform safety standards for consumer products and to minimize conflicting state and local regulations;

(d) to promote research and investigation

into the causes and prevention of

19
product- related deaths, illnesses, and injuries.

In view of the assortment of "black"

lights available for anything from insect

traps and science class demonstration kits

to "psychedelic" fluorescent light displays,

there is clearly a place in the ultraviolet

measurement system for the Consumer Product

Safety Commission. As yet, there has been

no interaction of NBS with this group re- garding far ultraviolet radiation measurements or activities.

2.5 Direct Measurements Transactions Matrix

A summary input-output matrix has been

chosen as a standard technique to be used in

all of the microstudies in describing the

nature and magnitude of the transactions

among the various elements of the measure- ment system. It is assumed that the reader

is somewhat familiar with the technique or

has at least read the "macrostudy" report

which evaluates and summarizes the input

from each microstudy and discusses the information content of the transactions

matrix.

2.5.1 Analysis of Suppliers and Users

The following standard sector categories

are included in the input-output matrix:

(1) Knowledge Community--scientific organizations, academic institutions, professional societies, technical publishing

organizations (see sections 2.2.5 and 2.2.3).

(2) International Metrological Organizations

(see section 2.4.1 )

.

(3) Documentary Specification Organizations

(see section 2.2.1 )

.

(4) Instrumentation Industry (see section

2.2.2).

(5) NBS (see section 4).

(6) Standards and Testing Laboratories, including those of Department of Defense and

any sectors described below, but excluding

NBS or any sectors described above (see

section 2.4.3).

(7) Regulatory Agencies (see section 2.4.4).

(8) Department of Defense (DOD), excluding

standards laboratories and any functions already covered above.

(9) Other Federal Government Agencies, for

example, the National Aeronautics and Space

Administration, National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration, Energy Research and. Development Administration, Department of

Labor, Department of Transportation, De- partment of Health, Education, and Welfare.

(10-19) Industrial, Technological, Commercial, or Other Intermediate Economic

User/Supplier of Measurement Goods and

Services, specifically:

(10) Photochemical Industry

(11) Bacteriological Applications

(12) Environmental Sciences

(13) Medical and Therapeutic Applications

(14) Energy Research

(15) Space Sciences

(16) Laser Development

(17) Photobiology

(18) Plasma Chemistry

(19) General Public.

Table 3 is the actual matrix which applies

to the far ultraviolet radiometry measurement system. If one reads across, he finds

out how particular sectors distribute their

ultraviolet measurement results or capabilities. It tells who used the technology,

results, or judgments available from a particular sector. On the other hand, if one reads down, he finds out who is providing input so that a particular industry or other sector can make necessary ultraviolet

measurements or make judgments concerning

the impact or effects of ultraviolet radiation. The general information content which

is contained in each transaction box is given in the key below the table.

2.5.2 Highlights Re Major Users

Details on all of these blocks are con- tained throughout the microstudy. Rather

than defend the individual decisions made

in each block, some of which are admittedly

somewhat arbitrary, an educated guess if you

will, we have decided to concentrate on a few highlights and to point out several

significant trends.

One of the first things to notice about

the input-output matrix is the correlation

between the values placed in the upper left corner (importance or critical ity of transaction) and the upper right corner (adequacy of transaction). In very many cases,

we find that a transaction is strongly

desirable (the number "2" or more) but

presently is significantly inadequate (the

number "2" or more). This characteristic is

also seen by calculating the average transaction quantities of the 163 boxes which

have more than a trivial magnitude.

This average transaction box also indicates

that the average interaction is slowly growing and that its present magnitude is a little less than moderate.

20
Table 3. The far ultraviolet radiometry National Measurement System illustrated as a direct

transactions input-output matrix.

DIRECT KASUREMENTS

TRANSAaiONS WTRU FOR

ULIBAVICa-ET R&Dioennr

SimiERS

u

s

ER

S \

n 2=

f

' s • < •

1

c —

Is

N D b rr p- O O 3 3 »

2

a c itI:'1

3

3

5* C W

o

4

1

i

a

B

s

5

9 • r

* •

6

> X

00 * s c

a rto

7

? ?

a D

3 H

a rr • 1O

8

O ?^

if

S a

a

9

uC rrO ^ 1

a

inlu

> s 9 a tl

o" 0

a

n s? a r- 3 .1 o 0 'I

3a

12

HB n V a a ^

cn

13

??

a r- a o

1 a s-«

1^

a n

3 a

a

19

srg

a 1

1 a

a <

0

a

10

1

1

? r asa a

18

If^ a

n a

19 oirmn

1

AVEBAGE

TO

ACTIVE

1 Kaowledge

Pi iiiiiII ji

1 2

2 2 1 2 ? 2 2

2 2 I 3

2 3

2 2

2 2

2 1 3

2

2 2

2

2 2

2

2 2

2

2 2

1

2 2

2

2

1 1

3

2 2

3 ?

2 2

2

2 2

2 30 27 35

8

1.9 1.7

2.2 0.5

2 latemstlonal

Hecrologlcal

Organluclona

1 2

1 2

2 3

3

2

2 2

1 2 2

22

1

1

2 3 2

2

2 3

2 1 2 1

2 3

I 2

2 1 222 23 20

L4

2.0 2.1 1.8

1.3

3 DDcuaeacary Standards

OrganItaclona

? "

T . T 2 3

1

?

T T t 7 7 7 7 7 7 7 7

4 IttstmenC

Induatr;

2 2 22 I 2

» 2 2

3

2 1 2

2 1

2 2 21

2

2 22

2 2

2 2 2 &

2

2 2 4

2

2 2

2

2

2 24

2

2 2

2

2

2 2

3

2 2

2

2

2 2

2

2

2 2 2

2

I

I

35 31

42

18

1.9 1.7 2.3 10

s KBS

2 2

2

2 3

3

2 2

2 & 23

2

2 2

2

2

2 3

3

2

2 2

1 2 3 3

2 2

I &

2 2

1 4

2 2

2

2 2

1^ 4

2 3

1 4

2 242 2

1 2

2 2

I

2

2 2

1 2

1

I 37 38

32 U

2.1 2.1

1.8

1 9 5 Scaodards &

Tea c lug LaboraCOTlea

2 I

2

1

1

2 2

2 2 I

2

2 2

22

2 2

1 2 22

2

2 2

I 4

2 2

1 ?

2 2

2

2 2

3

2 2 2

2 2

1 2

2 2

1 2

2 2

1 2

29 28 21

22

1.9 1.9 1.4

1.5

7 Regulatory

Ageac les

2 2 —^3 2

2

2

2 2

2

2 3

2 ?

2 3

2 2 2

I 3 2

1

2

3 2

1

2

3 2

1 2

3 2

1 2

3 2

1 2

3 2

1

2

3 2

I 2

2 2

1 2

36 3G

19 24

2.6 2.1

1.4

1.7 8 Departaenc

of DefenAe

9 Ocber Federal

Goverraenc

2 2

2

2

2 2

1

2

2 2

1

2

2 2

I

2

2 32

2

4 2

1

2

2 2

2

2

2 2

1

2

2 2

1

2 1

3

2 2 2 2 2

2

26 24 18 20

2.2 2.0

1.5

1.7

10 nkococbealcal

Indua Cry

2 2

2

2

2 2

2

2

2 3

2

2

2 2

1 2

2 2

1 2

2 2

24

2 2-

2

2

I 2

1 2 2

2 2

2 2

2

2

2 2 22

21 23

19 22

1.9 2.1

1.7 2.0 n

Bacteriological Applicatlona

2 2

2

2 2

1 2

2 2

3

2

2 2

1

2

4 2

1 2

4 2

2

2

2 2

24

IB U

12 14

2.6 2.0

1.7 2.0 EovlroiHental

Sclencea

2 2

I 2

1 2

2 2 1

2

4 J 2

2

9 7 7 4

2.3 1.8

1.8

1.0 therapeutic AppIlcacioBa

1 2 2 3

2

2 2 2

2

1 2

1

2 2

2

4

8 1] 8

6

1.6 2.2

1.6

1.2

1 4 Fu« iOD Energy Beaearcb

2 1

I 2 3 2

2

4 i 3

2

2.0 2.0

1.5 1.0

15 Space Scieocea

2 2

I

2

1 2 11 2

2 22

2

2 3

1 2

1 141 1

1 12 1( 11

8

1,7 1.4

1.6

1.1

16 Ultraviolet

Laaera

2 31 -

2 3

1 -2—

2 3

1

2

2 3

1

»

2 3

1 '

2 3

1

'

2 3

I

2

2 3

1

2

2 3

2

2

2 3

1

2

2 3

1

2

22 3: 12 2?2.0 3.0

1.1 2.0

17 nutobiology

2 2 22 2

1 2

1 2

1 4 22

?

2 2

2 2

2 2 2 2

13 i: 10

8

2.2 2.0

1.7 1.3

18 ^

ChcKlatry

1 1 3

1 V!

1 3

1 2 31 2 3

2 8 1! 7 0

1.3 2.5

1.2 0

19 General

Public

0 0

\

sm

? 3 'J ; X ^

a. ~^

o *> 5

AVEBAGE

FBCH

ACTIVE

SUPPLIERS

o « o

o

3 o « o B — o ^

•a

J o

r> ^

O V

u

s o 2.0 2.0

1.7

1.4

KEY TO MATRIX ENTRIES

C - I.MPQR^A'.CE Qi^ TRANSACT IONS

1 = Purely convenience

2 = Strongly desirable

3 = No real alternatives

4 = Essential

B - RATE OF CHANGE

N = Declining

0 = Stable

2 = Growing

1 = Growing explosively

R = Flow of requi rements infc dominates

D - (IN)ADEQUACY OF SERVICES

= No improvements needed

= Could be improved

= Marginal

3 = Serious deficiencies

4 = Out of control

- MAGNITUDE OF TRANSACTIONS

0 = Trivial

1 = Minor

2 = Moderate

3 = Important

4 = Major

Unknown

Not Studied, Blank

21
There are several cases where the imbal- ance in the upper corners is rather marked.

For example, let us discuss the transaction

indicated by block 12-19 (Environmental

Science-general public). Environmental

scientists are taking measurements and supplying data on the transmission of solar

ultraviolet radiation through the earth's

atmosphere. Since even small changes in

the transmission have been shown to be a matter of life and death, there is an es- sential need for communication of this information to the beneficiary or user, in this case the general public. Environmental

scientists supply the measurement capability

or service, the general public makes direct

use of the service, for example, by spending

less time outdoors where they might be ex- posed to cancer-producing ultraviolet radiation* or by organizing programs to cut down

on the cause (e.g., atmospheric pollution)

of the increased solar ultraviolet transmission. Other examples of where the adequacy of the transaction is muah less than

it ought to he considering the importance

of the transaction are:

(1) Box 2-2. It is most important economically and technologically that different

countries interact with each other and have

a common measurement baseline.

(2) Box 5-5. It is even more important that

the different radiometric efforts within NBS

interact with each other, for example, by

internal cross-calibrations of source and

detector standards.

(3) Box 9-8. Other government agencies like

the National Aeronautics and Space Administration, the Energy Research and Development Administration, and the National

Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration supply data and services concerning ultraviolet

radiation which are critical in matters of

national defense, for example, the influence

of ultraviolet radiation on the upper atmosphere, missile reentry detection, rocket

exhaust studies, and chemical laser systems.

(4) Box 11-13, 11-17, and 17-11. These

groups have similar needs and goals. Measurement methods developed for bacteriological applications should have considerable

impact on photobiology research, and vice

versa. The second thing to notice in the inputoutput matrix is the transactions which are potentially explosive (the number "4" in the lower left corner) in regard to growth:

*Outdoor occupations such as highway

laborer, lifeguard, field worker, farmer,

etc., presently suffer a statistically

higher incidence of skin cancer [1].

(1) Boxes 10-10, 5-10, and 6-10. The photochemical industry has been doing its own confidential research and development of

the uses of ultraviolet radiation and is now just beginning to announce its products and

applications through publicity releases and

commercialization; by so supplying the re- sults of its own measurement and research

capabilities, these companies have a large

effect on their own industry (the user in this case). New applications are found,

improved methods are developed, and rapid

growth takes place in a "resonant" atmosphere. This resonance is only destroyed by

either the exhaustion of the potential of

the field or by the exchange of misinformation. With respect to the latter, note

that the interaction boxes connecting this

industry with either NBS or secondary

standards laboratories (boxes 6-10, 10-6,

5-10, and 10-5) indicate high probabilities

for growth but are characterized by O's and

I's: tTii>ial ot minor present interaotion.

(2) Box 5-14. NBS has recently received

significant funding from the Energy Research

and Development Administration to provide

basic data and calibration services required

in the national controlled thermonuclear

fusion program.

(3) Boxes 11-19, 13-19, 5-11, and 5-13.

These emerging industries or technologies

are beginning to supply ultraviolet products

and services which have direct Impact on the

health and well-being of the general public.

For example, ultraviolet radiation has re- cently been used in a process which appears

to cure psoriasis, a skin condition which

afflicts about 8 million Americans. Likewise, ultraviolet radiation is being suggested for use in preventive dentistry

(as described later). In view of the serious Impact and the consequent concern of the

regulatory agencies, NBS interaction is ex- pected to grow proportionally even though

the present NBS involvement is minimal (5-11

and 5-13). A third item of interest is the conspicuous absence of state and local Interactions

with the National Measurement system. The

columns and rows relating to these interactions were deleted from the matrix since

they were completely blank, or at least

unknown. This is not surprising 1n view of

the fact that the System is relatively young

and that even the national regulatory agencies previously described have just begun to interact, having been formed only in the

last eight years.

A fourth characteristic to notice 1s the

string of 3's in the upper right corner of

the transactions In column 7 indicating the

regulatory agencies as users of the services

of various sectors. The suitability of the

22
transactions is considered seriously deficient in many cases since the agencies usually

require very high accuracies: (a) they have

legal authority to close down plants which

do not conform to safety regulations and

therefore must be very sure of the accuracy

of their measurements; (b) they have the

responsibility for making specifications

which affect many sectors and therefore

demand quality input, e.g., how much radiation is dangerous. Because of the effect

the regulatory agencies have on radiation

health and safety, there is also a string

of 3's in the upper left corner of the

transactions in row 7 indicating the critical ity of the services provided by the regulatory agencies to the various users

groups.

Finally, attention is called to the

averages which are calculated at the end of

each row and column. These are meant to provide some insight into the relative roles

played by each sector as either a supplier

or user of measurement goods or services.

By reading across the bottom row, for ex- ample, one gets an idea who are the most

important users (integrated over all suppliers having a non-negligible interaction).

By reading down the last column, one gets an idea of who are the most important suppliers

(integrated over all users having a non- negligible interaction). The indicated sums from which the averages were calculated are also significant since a particular supplier

may have little average impact over its users, but may serve many different sectors.

The sums indicate this weighting effect.

We see that NBS does not interact very

strongly (center number) as a supplier of

measurements goods and services on the

average. In fact, it is exceeded by the

instrumentation industry and the knowledge

community and is on the same level with

about seven other sectors. This means that,

in general, NBS doesn't help anyone a lot

and that the users sectors depend more on

the measurement system as a whole rather

than on NBS. However, NBS does interact in many areas so that when you consider the sums column the NBS relative impact comes

out slightly better, although still secon- dary to the knowledge community and the

instrumentation industry. It is my opinion

that this pattern should be just the

opposite! NBS basic services should not be

spread so thin, and they should be more

basic or critical to the System (better

average values). For example, NBS could

put all of its resources as a supplier into

only two high leverage sectors: the instrumentation industry and the secondary standards laboratories which, by their very

nature as commercial establishments, are

intended to be omnipresent.

On the other hand, as a user NBS ought to

be aware of activities in all sectors, with

as good an average interaction with the

suppliers as possible. The bottom rows indicate this situation. The average transaction magnitude of 1.9 (moderate) is as good as or better than most of the other

users. However, the diversity of the NBS

suppliers (as indicated by the sums) could

be improved. For example, according to these figures the knowledge community, the

regulatory agencies, and the space science

community all have a larger overall interaction with the supplier sector than NBS,

and there are at least five other groups at about the same level as NBS. This short discussion should give an idea

of the kind of action information that is contained in the input-output matrix. One

may take issue with the individual decisions made in each transaction box since it was virtually impossible to base all of

them on a simple objective formula. Nevertheless, some basic trends are apparent and are not likely to be changed by a few possible exaggerations or inconsistencies in

judgment.

3. IMPACT, STATUS, AND TRENDS OF

MEASUREMENT SYSTEM

3.1 Impact of Measurements

Radiometric calibrations in the visible

and infrared have long been one of the

continuing, basic measurement services of

NBS. Such calibrations represent one of

the primary responsibilities of NBS to the

needs of measurement technology. In the

past few years, U.S. technology has been

developing new techniques that require better measurement capability in the far

ultraviolet region of the spectrum. The

shift toward shorter wavelength follows the

extensive scientific exploration of this

region that has taken place over the past

two decades. The technological importance

of this spectral region stems essentially

from:

(1) the increasing use of high temperature

devices, such as the plasmas being produced

in the search for new energy sources;

(2) the industrial potential of far ultraviolet and x-ray lasers;

(3) the high energy content of short wavelength radiation with the consequent

ability to drive and control chemical

reactions; and

(4) the very low diffraction limit of short

wavelength radiation.

The problem areas where ultraviolet radiation measurement technology is important

23
Table 4. List of Users described in section 3.1.1 together with applicable

Standard Industrial Classification Codes (SIC-1972).

SIC IMPACT USERS SIC IMPACT USERS

2641 ,2821,3479,3641

2821,3843,8021,8072

226,3641

2851 ,3641

2491 ,2499,2641 ,3479

806,8011 ,3641

3811

3641 ,3646,3662,8411

2741 ,3641

2753,3641

805,806,8011 ,3641

2099,2834,3641

3811 ,3829

3811 ,3829

3811 ,3829

2099,4941

3829

3829

8011 ,805,806,8071

8011 ,805,806,8071

8011 ,805,806,8071

8011 ,805,806,8071

8011 ,805,806,8071

806,8071

Photochemistry

Thin film production

Tooth decay prevention

Textile dyes

Paint curing

Industrial finishes

Orthopedic Cast hardening

Instant oscillographs

Material degradation

UV photosensitive paper

Counterfeit money detection

Bacteriological

Germicidal lamps in hospitals, schools, and offices

Germicidal lamps in industry

Environmental Studies -

Atmospheric sciences

Ecology and the ozone layer

Oil spill identification

Water purification

Water pollution

Smog Gauge

Medical and Therapeutic

Jaundice treatments

Calcium deficiency

Skin disease treatments

Wrinkling

Drug detection

Medical research

3811 ,3832

3641 ,3646,3662

3811 ,3832

3811 ,3832

3811 ,3832

3811 ,3832

3674

3811 ,3832

3399

2831 ,2833

3811

806,8071

3811 ,3832

.3811

3399

3399

3399

Fusion Research

National controlled thermonuclear fusion efforts

Space Science

Communications

Astrophysics

Skylab

Space Shuttle

Reentry & rocket exhaust

yuv and X-Ray Lasers

Integrated circuits

Plasma probes

Isotope separation

Molecular synthesis

High resolution holography

Tumor therapy

Laser fusion

Photobiology

NBS benchmark experiments

Plasma Chemistry

Thin film deposition

Plasma arc steel furnace

Recycling of alloys in steel production

include national research and development 3.1.1

programs as well as major industrial applications. These areas were explicitly included in the input-output matrix and have

significant economic and social consequences,

That there are diverse and potentially ex- (1)

plosive areas of impaat is one of the main of thin

results of this study. Because the many to ultra

applications and needs were not obvious, at at a maj

least to us, before this study was under- ment cen taken, we have chosen to describe some of with a 1 these areas, as shown in table 4, in some compound

detail . In opera

Functional, Technological, and

Scientific Applications

3.1.1.1 Photochemistry

Thin Film Production . Polymerization

films by exposing gaseous monomers

violet light has been demonstrated

or industrial research and developter [37]. The technique can be used

arge number of classes of organic

s and a wide variety of substrates,

tion a polymerization chamber is

24
filled with a gaseous monomer at very low

pressure and then exposed to ultraviolet

light through a transparent section of the

chamber. The process, at atmospheric pressure, also can produce films of fused,

transparent teflon which ordinarily are sintered and opaque. Applications are an- ticipated in coating paper products, glass,

and metal coils with dielectric, insulating,

or protective coatings. Cure rate is dependent on lamp irradiance: too little ex- posure results in poor quality; too much

results in undesirable side effects such as heating of the sample and radiation damage.

(2) Protecting Teeth with an Ultraviolet

Polymerized Acryl ic Shiel

. One of the

minor uses of acrylic plastics has been as a substitute for conventional amalgams in filling teeth. Now an acrylic plastic has

found another dental use--as a tooth coating

which spectacularly cuts down on tooth decay.

The material in question is a liquid formulation which hardens to a polymeric resin on exposure to ultraviolet light. The liquid

is painted on the biting surfaces of molar

teeth with a brush and hardened in about 30

seconds by shining a beam of ultraviolet

light onto the coating via a dental mirror.

Preliminary tests have shown that the coating, when properly applied, generally stays

in place for at least two years and during

that time reduces cavities on the protected

surfaces by 99 percent.

A group from the New York State Department of Health has tested the material on 4000 Rochester schoolchildren with great

success. The product, including the liquid

formulation and a special high power, high

pressure, air-cooled mercury lamp and associated power supply, is being sold and distributed throughout the United States and

Europe. About 20,000 such devices are now

in the field. More information is contained

in section 4.3.1(1) concerning the economic

and social impact of these devices, the

ultraviolet radiation measurement problem,

and the reaction of the regulatory agencies

to possible radiation hazards related to use of the devices.

(3) Textile Dyes and Finishes . Researchers are examining the possibility of replacing the heat used in dyeing and finishing of

textiles by ultraviolet radiation. These

two textile processes are among the largest

energy consuming operations in textile mill

processes [38]. The research specifically

is designed to explore radiation-induced

fixation of flame retardants in fabrics and

radiation curing of adhesives in textiles.

This is accomplished by shining intense

ultraviolet radiation on the materials. It

is estimated [38] that radiation curing may

require from 10 to 50 percent less energy

than for the usual solvent saturated heat

cure. Another advantage of the method is that the curing is done without the use

of solvents, which are responsible for much

of the pollution associated with textile

mills [39].

(4) Paint Curing . Mercury vapor lamps

are used to accomplish nearly instant

curing of industrial coatings by ultraviolet radiation. Paint applied to hardboard, wood, or plastic sheets can be

radiation cured in from 1-15 seaonds using

ultraviolet chambers developed by the

polymers division of a major industrial

corporation. A line of radiation-curable

coatings also is available for use with the

process

(5) Wood Finishing and Other Curing

Appl i cations In recent years the ultraviolet cure of unsaturated polyester resins

has become a commercial process, particularly in the wood-finishing industry. This

is due to the fast cure times, low volatiles, and low investment costs for the

ultraviolet systems together with the ready

availability and low cost of the resins

[40]. It is expected that the technique

will also find use in the can, electrical,

plastic, paper, and printing industry [39].

Predictions are that as much as 20 percent

of all industrial finishes may be cured by some form of radiation (ultraviolet or electron beam) in the U.S. by the end of the

decade [41].

(6) Orthopedic Cast Hardening . A casting system which is being marketed commercially [42] uses a webbed glass fiber tape

impregnated with an ultraviolet-sensitive

plastic resin. A polypropylene stockinette

protects the skin, and a web wrap, also of

polypropylene, cushions bony prominences.

The pliable, slightly sticky tape is applied over the web wrap, shaped to conform

to body contours, and rubbed to laminate

the layers. Then the resin is hardened by

approximately a three-minute cure under an ultraviolet lamp. According to the company,

such casts weigh only a third to half as much as comparable plaster casts. Also, they

are resistant to breakage, allow air circulation, and can be immersed in water.

(7) Data Acquisition Systems--Instant

Oscil lographic Recordings Using Ul travioletSensitized Recording Paper . A new graphic

data acquistion system, which consists of a direct writing, mul ti -channel oscillograph

with internal plug-in signal conditioning

modules, has recently been developed. The

unit uses ultraviolet light generated by a cathode ray tube to record on sensitized

recording paper through special glass

fibers in the tube face. The system produces immediate recordings of analog data

25
ranging in frequency from dc to 5 kHz without the need for inconvenient and timeconsuming wet chemical processing.

(8) Material Degradation . A major con- glomerate has a large continuing research

program on the breakdown by polymerization

of wire insulation used in transmission

lines. The overwhelming number of studies

done on this type of deterioration suffer

from lack of an exact knowledge of the

ultraviolet radiation flux (see below).

Solar-simulation accelerated weathering

machines are used for testing in every

industry whose products are subject to degradation by ultraviolet radiation, such

as paints, plastics, dyes, building materials, etc. For example, one large corporation has a very active research program in solar heating and air conditioning for

single and multiple dwellings and for small

industrial installations. They are testing,

among other things, solar reflector and

solar absorber coatings in order to come up with a prediction of their lifetime. A spokesman for the corporation describes the

tests as follows [43]:

"Will they (the solar absorber coatings)

last 20 years? 30 years? We have some coatings life-tested at considerably

higher temperatures than we plan to use

them. We hope to get a correlation of

the high temperature short period which

will be equivalent to the long period at the operating temperature."

This, of course, is a common and traditional

testing method. However, because of the

measurement problems associated with ultraviolet radiation, according to an executive

of a major supplier of accelerated weathering machines for the paint, dye, and building material industry:

"Exposure tests result in a chaotic confusion of data with little correlation

between laboratory and outdoor tests, and

no ability to predict from laboratory

tests the expected weather resistance of

experimental materials. Thousands of

dollars are spent annually in the collection of misinformation due in part to improper evaluation of the effect of the

radiation source."

( 9 ) Ul traviol et-Photosensi ti ve Paper . A major chemical company has developed a photosensitive paper based on a dye that forms

a permanent blue color when struck by ultraviolet light. Density is controlled by the

quantity of incident ultraviolet light, the

product requires no chemical or heat processing, and it may be handled in normal

roomlight for a few minutes prior to

exposure without appreciable fixing.

(10) Fluorescence of Counterfeit Money . A device called the MoneyScanner detects

counterfeit money. The device has a high

intensity, ultraviolet light under which

paper without photochemical s , like Federal

Reserve Notes, will not glow.

The Federal Bureau of Engraving and

Printing exclusively uses paper made by one particular company. All other papers of

comparable grade and quality contain photochemicals. A bill that glows in the bluish

light of the MoneyScanner most likely is

counterfeit.

3.1.1.2 Bacteriological

(1) Germicidal Lamps in Hospitals , School

s

, and Offices . Low pressure mercury

lamps have been used for years to destroy

airborne and surface bacteria and viruses.

Hart reported the extensive use of bactericidal ultraviolet radiation in operating

rooms [44,45] and in hospital rooms and

wards [44]. In the former, he found that

the ultraviolet radiation levels from these

lamps reduced post-operative infections by

as much as 85 percent [45], although personnel had to wear skin and eye protection. In the latter, the lamps were used to disinfect the air and furnishings in rooms immediately after discharging patients. Riley

[46] has reported how the use of ultraviolet-emitting lamps prevented tuberculosis

organisms from spreading, and McLean [47]

has reported similar data on the reduced

incidence of Asian flu through- the use of

germicidal lamps.

(2) Germicidal Lamps in Industry . In some applications the entire work area is irradiated in order to destroy airborne

mold and bacteria; in other applications,

only hoods or ducts are irradiated. Nagy

et al . [48] have reported that ultraviolet

lamps are 90-99 percent effective in destroying airborne pathogenic organisms. In pharmaceutical houses and biological laboratories, the lamps are used to prevent product contamination. Philips [49] has re- ported the successful application of germicidal lamps in preventing the spread of

pathogenic organisms from a microbiological

laboratory to an adjacent office area. Ultraviolet lamps have also been used industrially in the tenderization and preservation of meat. Apparently the 254 nm Hg

radiation retards mold, whereas the 185 nm radiation creates an ozone layer around the

meat through a photochemical process and

protects against microbial growth.

26
3.1.1.3 Environmental Studies

(1) Atmospheric Sciences . Dr. Kirby

Hanson of the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA), in an invited

paper given at a meeting of the Optical

Society of America, described the radiometric needs of oceanographers and atmospheric scientists [50]. Basically, their

mission is to study the earth's heat budget,

air and water pollution, climatic changes,

and the environmental variables of the at- mosphere. One of the most important meas- urements that is at the base of these

studies is the heat input, and this depends

primarily on solar and terrestrial irradiance, especially in the ultraviolet. Hanson

further emphasized two aspects of this re- quirement which are particularly relevant to this survey:

(a) solar irradiance measurements in the

ultraviolet are needed on a global basis in order to construct logical and consistent

models for the events which are observed;

(b) radiometric accuracies on the order of

0.5 percent to 1 percent are needed in order to keep the time scale for trend

measurements reasonable. For example, with

a 1 percent accuracy it might take 36 years

of data to establish a significant short

term trend in the change of ultraviolet

transmission through the ozone layer, whereas

with 0.5 percent accuracy it would take only

18 years to establish a pattern.

This theme has been reiterated by other

members of the atmospheric science community:

"Solar ultraviolet is the dominant source of

heating and ionization in the earth's

atmosphere and it plays an important role

in atmospheric photochemistry It dominates the formation of the ionospheric

D, E, and F regions and establishes the

neutral particle composition of the

earth's upper atmosphere. Many of the

fundamental aeronomical parameters. . .are obtained from quantitative data on solar

uv intensities."

Concerning measurement problems,

"The accuracy of the data on solar ultraviolet fluxes... depends almost entirely

upon the accuracy of the photometric

standards used for pre-flight laboratory

calibration.... Radiometric calibrations

of rocket and satellite spectrometers at wavelengths below about 50 nm are still a major problem since solar uv intensity

measurements made by different groups

differ by as much as a factor of 2..."

Weather prediction, radio communications,

the delicate ozone protective blanket--

these are typical problem areas which depend

upon input from aeronomy and atmospheric

sciences. The need for solar irradiance on

a global basis points out the need for a consistent measurement system throughout the

world and an active measurement assurance

program. The simultaneous need for accuracies of 0.5 percent to 1 percent points out

the fact that much work on improving far

ultraviolet standards and measurement techniques has to be done, by NBS especially, if we wish to serve those scientists who are monitoring the condition of "Spaceship

Earth".

(2) Ecology and the Ozone Layer . Johnson [51] and Crutzen [52] first demonstrated that water vapor and especially the

oxides of nitrogen emitted as combustion

products by supersonic transport (SST)

fleets may partially destroy the ozone layer

which surrounds the earth and absorbs much

of the shorter wavelength ultraviolet radiation. More recently, freon, a common

aerosol propellant, has also been linked to ozone destruction in the stratosphere. The

Environmental Studies Board of the National

Academy of Science and Engineering made a study to determine the possible consequences

of such an event. They found that a 5 percent decrease in the ozone concentration

would cause a 26 percent increase in broadband ultraviolet transmission and that a 50

percent decrease would cause a factor of 10

increase in ultraviolet transmission. They

estimated that the 5 percent decrease in ozone would lead to 8000 additional cases of

skin cancer in the United States with about

300 extra deaths. They also expected

serious deleterious effects on important

agricultural plants and ocean plankton

which are so necessary in the ecological

balance of our oxygen supply, but were not

able to specify details. The veoormendation

of the Board was to establish monitoring

stations at all latitudes to detect any

changes in solar ultraviolet transmission

and to help evaluate skin cancer data and

statistics

An official speaking in behalf of the

NAS/NRC Committee on Photobiology, describes

the situation in much the same way as above,

and adds

" The major effect will probably be the

catalytic destruction of stratospheric

ozone with the resultant increase in

ultraviolet light, especially below 230

nm, reaching the surface of the earth.

Monitoring stations are being planned to measure, at narrow wavelength bands, the

present flux density of uv radiation

reaching the surface of the earth at different latitudes. These instruments^

of course, must be calibrated The

Committee on Photobiology encourages you

to proceed with this most important work

27
of developing spectral intensity standards in the near and vacuum ultraviolet

region.

These remarks are notably reminiscent of

Dr. Hanson's description of the National

Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration's

radiometric requirements as detailed in the

previous section. However, according to a prominent National Aeronautics and Space

Administration project leader [53],

"Present day radiometric standards are inadequate by nearly an order of magnitude to permit the interpretation of satellite

data in terms of possible long term

cl imatological efforts."

( 3 ) Oil Spil 1 Detection and Identi f ica - tion Using Ultraviolet Radiation . To facilitate around-the-clock surveillance of harbors

and coastal waterways, an oil -spill detection and classification system has been

developed under U.S. Coast Guard sponsorship. Selection of appropriate clean-up

procedures, a Coast Guard responsibility,

hinges in part on identification of the type

of oil involved in a particular incident.

Under a contract from the U.S. Department

of Transportation, a major electro-optical

systems corporation designed and built the

optical components and mainframe of an airborne system, from which near ultraviolet

radiation from a N2 gas laser is directed at

an oil spill

.

The various types of oil produce fluor- escence at characteristic wavelengths in response to ultraviolet irradiation. This

fluorescent energy is viewed from the aircraft by means of a telescope and focused

on a spectrometer. System components scan the spectrometer output and determine the

intensity and spectral content of the

oil-spill fluorescence. The oil in the

spill is identified by comparing the meas- urement data with readings from laboratory

samples of typical oils.

(4) Water Purification Using Ultraviolet

Radiation . A device for decontaminating

water with a combination of ultraviolet and

ultrasonic energy has been patented and is

expected to have applications for continuous

decontamination in laboratories, ships, hospitals, and hotels. By simultaneous use of

ultraviolet lamps and high intensity acoustical waves, 100 percent bacteria kill can

be obtained in a much greater flow than if

either method of radiation were used alone.

It doesn't change the taste of water or collect bacteria and viruses on filters that

must be periodically removed. The maximum

flow rate depends upon the irradiance level

of the ultraviolet lamps which must be

checked periodically because of possible

radiation-damaged optical components in the

system.

(5) Water Pollution . Determination of

trace mercury, performed by the so-called

flameless atomic absorption technique, relies

on ultraviolet spectrophotometry. A polluted

water sample, for example, is treated with a reducing agent yielding gaseous mercury

which is then measured by absorption of its resonance line at 254 nm. One part in 10^° can be detected. Similar procedures have . been developed for arsenic, cadmium, lead,

zinc, and many other elements of current

interest, as well as a variety of organic

pollutants [54].

(6) Smog Gauge . Ozone is produced in

the atmosphere through a series of complex

photolytic reactions initiated by gaseous

pollutants from automobile exhaust so that

ozone densities can be used as a "smog

gauge". At least one such attempt has been

made. A backscattered ultraviolet spectrometer developed by an industrial research

group flew on Nimbus 4. Radiation scattered

by the earth's atmosphere was detected by

the spectrometer, and the data were used to calculate the spatial density of ozone over

the earth.

3.1.1.4 Medical and Therapeutic

(1) Jaundice in Infants . In every nursery in every hospital in the United States

(and perhaps in the world), there are incubators which are being illuminated by blue

or near ultraviolet light. Inside the

incubators are premature babies. Twentyfive percent of these babies suffer from

jaundice. It used to be an old wives' tale

that, to cure such a malady in a baby, one

should leave it outside (in the sun) all

day. Indeed, light between 300-450 nm is

quite effective in photodecomposing the

bilirubin in the body serum which eventually,

if untreated, would cause permanant brain

damage in the infant. However, little information on the spectra of the lamps used

for these purposes is available and even

less is known about possible side effects

due to the use of broadband sources. For example, there is concern [55] that the

great variation in response to radiation

therapy between individuals may be due to the absence or presence in varying amounts

of different substances which react to various wavelengths and which can affect bilirubin through photodynamic action. According

to a staff member at the Massachusetts

General Hospital, pediatricians are just now beginning to consider optimizing the nursery

light environment not for maximum visible

light (babies are not afraid of the dark)

but for the most therapeutic wavelength

bands (see also the next section).

28
(2) Calcium Deficiencies . Rickets , and

Environmental Lighting . As mentioned in the

introduction, man is a creature of the sun. His cells adapted to sunlight over hundreds

of thousands of years ago, adjusting and

timing their activities to its various wavelengths as did his organs. He evolved into

an organism designed to respond to the

radiation of this remote star. Then click. On came the electric light

less than 100 years ago. The sun was re- placed and humankind found that its new stars were incandescent bulbs. The initial effect

was to change the time that man was exposed

to light. Then, two decades ago, fluorescent

lights were introduced on a large scale with

a potentially far greater significance

biologically since their spectra differ

markedly from the sun. Rickets is a crippling disease which can

be caused by a deficiency in exposure to ultraviolet radiation which is necessary for

the synthesis of calciferol, a calcifying

hormone released into the bloodstream by the

skin [56]. Without calciferol not enough

calcium is laid down in growing bones. Thus

bone deformities were first described in

England in about 1650 and were due, we now

know, to the extraordinary absorption of

solar ultraviolet by industrial smog and

coal smoke. In 19th century Europe whole

towns could be found afflicted with the disease. We now know this was due to a constant

shade condition brought about by a combination of a low sun, at high latitudes in the

northern hemisphere, and exceptionally nar- row streets and alleys. Rickets is no longer

a common problem, but it is easy to forget

the lessons of history. Statistics are accumulating [57,58,59] which seem to support

the fact that adults, such as the elderly,

the infirm, office workers and others who

spend a great deal of time indoors suffer

from calcium deficiencies. Under these con- ditions, for example, the fragile bones of

the aged grow even more brittle.

Other studies have shown that the use of

ultraviolet radiation in a machine shop can produce a positive effect on the health (less

catarrhal infections and colds) and bodily

functions of the workmen [60]. Similarly,

a positive effect on the working ability of

school children has been observed [61].

Sexual rhythms and development are also

connected to the amount of ultraviolet

radiation exposure [59].

Medical doctors and architects are now beginning to consider the addition of an artificial ultraviolet light environment for

those people whose circumstances are such

that they are exposed to too little sunlight,

"Whether we like it or not, light is another

thing that physicians must now worry

about. The light to which our patients

are exposed may be useful, deleterious or, most probably biologically neutral;

however, we can no longer assume that it

is any of these things without adequate

evidence." [62]

(3) Treatment of Skin Diseases . It is

estimated that from two to eight million

Americans suffer "the heartbreak" of psoriasis, a disfiguring and "incurable" skin disease. The Wall Street Journal [63] and

Washington Post have both featured articles

describing an experimental treatment utilizing ultraviolet light which is proving to be successful in clearing up the condition

[64]. A special drug is taken by mouth

followed by exposure of the entire body for

8-20 minutes to a special wavelength of

ultraviolet light which happens to be

extremely weak in ordinary sunlight, con- ventional sunlamps, and even the conventional

mercury lamps. It is thought that, with

periodic retreatment, recurrence of the

disease can be prevented. The researchers

plan to expand testing of the treatment to a dozen or more major medical centers.

In a similar application, a team of

doctors and industrial scientists have been

studying the use of an ultraviolet laser

and phototoxic drugs for the treatment of

various skin diseases. Although much of the

work to date has been directed toward the

treatment of vitiligo (spontaneous loss of

skin and hair pigmentation) which affects an estimated 1 to 2 percent of the world's

population, work in the immediate future is

expected to be directed toward treatment of

warts, fever blisters, and cold sores. Apparently, the drug binds to the DNA in the

basal layer of the skin and changes it

slightly. After exposure to ultraviolet

light, a mild reaction similar to sunburn

takes place. Continued exposures to ultraviolet light cause these dark spots to enlarge and ultimately converge. Such

treatment is usually hampered by the use of

fluorescent ultraviolet lamps whose broadband nature and low intensity make precise

exposure time difficult to determine

(sometimes as much as two hours per week for

as long as two years). The use of ultraviolet lasers is expected to make the

treatment quicker and hopefully more precise.

The wavelength presently being used in the

experiments is 337 nm. Shorter wavelength

radiation may be more effective, but this

must await the development of convenient

laser sources.

(4) Wrinkling and Skin Changes . It is an established fact that ultraviolet light

damages proteins that support the skin

leading to premature wrinkling [59]. This is

especially common among outdoor workers [1].

29
(5) Drug Detection . Clinical analysis

is relying more and more on ultraviolet

spectrophotometry. Identification of many

drugs, uric acid, proteins, and nucleic

acids can be made most conveniently in this

wavelength range.

"....Of the various techniques used for this

(drug detection), ultraviolet spectroscopy is perhaps most useful. Nearly all

the compounds of interest exhibit meas- urable uv absorption and can be quickly

detected even at low levels." [65] A combination of diagnostic techniques

involving liquid chromatography followed by

ultraviolet spectroscopy has enabled the

detection of trace concentrations of metabolites or drugs in blood and urine samples.

It is thought that this technique can be ap- plied to disease diagnostics [54] and to the

search for disease precursor effects.

(6) Medical Research . The Department of

Health, Education, and Welfare awarded 109

grants in 1971 to study the medical effects

of radiation, principally in the ultraviolet.

The subjects under study include: (a) ultraviolet radiation induced changes in the skin,

(b) ultraviolet radiation carcinogenesis,

(c) biological effects of environmental

radiation, and (d) the effects of ultraviolet

irradiation on DNA and RNA. Often, however, the results of such

studies are inconclusive because accurate

dosimetry is not available. The director of

a well-known skin and cancer hospital

comments:

"Those of us who have been interested in developing such instruments are immediately struck by the fact that once developed, they need to be calibrated

against the reference standard and that

there are no efficient and reproducible

standards in this field available at the

present time The need for accurate

laboratory and field dosimeters is very

great. Clearly before such can be designed

and built, reference standards for calibration are vital .

Additional testimony that the effects of

ultraviolet radiation are a major field in

medical research is obtained from an authority associated with a photobiological

professional society:

" The effects of uv radiation on cells and

biological materials constitute the largest single topic of manuscripts in

Photochemistry and Photobiology .

3.1.1.5 National Fusion Research

Our modern industrial society is today

struggling with the crucial requirement of

ever-increasing energy needs as well as clean

and pollution-free sources of energy. Large,

government sponsored research efforts to achieve controlled thermonuclear fusion have

been mounted in all leading industrial na- tions, including the U.S. This field has

recently experienced a great upsurge of ac- tivity with the development of the Tokamaktype plasma machines, which show promise of

becoming prototype workable fusion devices.

Consequently the Energy Research and Devel- . opment Administration has embarked on a greatly expanded research and development

program in nuclear fusion.

The radiation from the high energy

fusion plasmas is particularly intense in

the soft x-ray and vacuum ultraviolet

regions of the spectrum, and the analysis of

this radiation has long been recognized as

an important tool for diagnosing the energy

balance in the plasma. A survey of the

senior staff in charge of the various fusion

laboratories indicates a strong need for an ultraviolet radiometric capability. Some of

the comments from these individuals are as follows:

"...we need to know more about impurity

concentrations through at least oxygen.

This can best be done in the vacuum ultraviolet but will necessitate knowing more about techniques for absolute calibration of spectrometers.

"...we, therefore, have need for a quantitative measurement of radiance in the vacuum ultraviolet. If standard sources

for the vacuum ultraviolet were available

we would no doubt purchase them immediately In general we are anxiously

awaiting the development of radiance

standards in the vuv and soft x-ray

region of the hot plasma spectra.

"...the uv standards program is something I consider absolutely essential in my

opinion any plasma physios program without absolute intensity measurements is

a futile enterprise.

"Radiometric standards are almost non-existent in this (vuv) part of the spectrum...

"A number of Los Alamos programs might

benefit directly from the availability of

better radiographic standards in the

region of about 1 A to 2500 A..."

3.1.1.6 Space Sciences

(1 ) Communications Satellites . One

field in a stage of rapid deveopment in the

present day is space communications technology which involves both aommeraial and

governmental development and utilization of

satellites for such purposes as weather

forecasting, telecommunications, and earth resources research. Solar simulators have

been built for spacecraft and components

testing at costs in excess of $1 million per

30
facility. These simulators are designed to include all the properties of sunlight including color, divergence, spectral distribution, and intensity. Ultraviolet irradi- ance calibrations are necessary in this field

if realistic, worthwhile environmental testing is to be done. According to one of the

industrial corporations active in this area:

"We have managed thus far to get along

without calibration below 350 nm, but

it would be useful for our future work to have standards available for the wavelengths extending down to Lyman ^ (121.6 nm)."

(2) Stellar Astrophysics . Dr. J. B. Oke

of the California Institute of Technology,

in an invited paper given at a meeting of

the Optical Society of America [66],

described the needs in astrophysics for

radiometric standards.

" They are needed to obtain effective

temperatures and gravities of stars to study chemical abundances and stellar

evolution. In the case of gaseous

nebulas, absolute intensities of emission

lines are used for studying the physics

and chemical composition of the hot gas

Better calibrations in the ultraviolet

between 120 and 320 nm are required for

space telescope applications."

The director of a large university insti- tute of astronomy relates to us that

"...the analysis of all the spectroscopic

data obtained from our rocket flights,

from the OSO, ATM, and GAG satellites, and

in the future from the shuttle, will

depend in the most basic way on the provision of absolute calibration for the

detectors."

An industrial aerospace corporation has

recently contracted to build the largest

National Aeronautics and Space Administration

ultraviolet telescope-spectrometer and is most interested in accurate spectral radiance

calibration. According to the industry

spokesman, since stellar physicists don't

know the distance to most of the sources of

interest, the space telescope radiometric

requirement is not for an absolute standard

but for one whose relative spectral distribution is accurate to within about 2 percent

throughout the far ultraviolet.

(3) Skylab . Skylab, the first National

Aeronautics and Space Administration orbiting

workshop, was launched on May 14, 1973 and

manned by several teams of three astronautscientists. There were three solar ultraviolet experiments on board, two from the

Naval Research Laboratory (NRL) and one from

the Harvard College Observatory (HCO). All three experiments depended upon radiometric

calibrations: NRL-A used NBS-cal ibrated

deuterium lamps, NRL-B used the NBS

synchrotron, and Harvard used NBS standard

detectors. In addition several auxiliary

calibration rockets were flown during the

Skylab mission and also depended upon NBS

radiometric calibrations.* According to one

of the principal investigators active in the

Skylab program:

"The NBS calibration standards program... is of vital importance to our present and

potentially our future programs."

Another principal investigator predicts

that:

"...although the immediate need is of greatest urgency in connection with Skylab,

this need for calibration will continue

to exist for follow-on projects involving

the far ultraviolet, not only in space

research, but also in pure and applied

research conducted in ground-based

1 aboratories .

(4) Space Shuttle . After Skylab, there

will be an apparent stop in major National

Aeronautics and Space Administration space

experiments since the development of the

space shuttle is the next major National

Aeronautics and Space Administration goal.

Such a development is supposed to make the

utilization of the space environment eco- nomically feasible and to provide better

opportunities for universities and industries to conduct space research and development. Already, a large aerospace corporation has contracted to fly a payload on one

of the first space shuttles. A program

director describes their interest in the NBS

radiometry program,

" The facility would consist of a variety

of instrumentation for the study of the

earth's atmosphere from a low earth orbit.

Some of the instrumentation would be designed to operate in the vuv down to about 30 nm....The highest possible absolute accuracy is desired for the solar

instruments, and it is -^ccdatoTy that cm. OK-'ccdT-d ozZ'l'oTat'lzK ss^e^.s "InoZvji&d. to provide this accuracy. For the

atmospheric spectrometers, on-board

sources for their calibration would also

be desirable in addition to ground-based

calibration before and after a shuttle

sortie mission.

Current plans call for the shuttle to be

a fully instrumented flying laboratory

which will gather more and better solar and

aeronomy data than the current satellite

program. Flights are to be scheduled every

two weeks in the 1980' s. Costs will be

*It was through the Skylab program that NBS

received the additional support necessary

to initiate a coordinated ultraviolet

radiometry program.

31
about 100 k$ per hour of fl ight--cheaper than

a simple Aerobee rocket flight of a few minutes. Total expenditures for development of

the shuttle are currently running $475M per

year and will increase to over $1B per year

in 1976-1978.

(5) Reentry and Rocket Exhaust Studies . Over the past decade through university,

government, and industrial contracting, the

Department of Defense has carried on a wide

range of innovative programs of great importance to the U.S. space effort, including

reentry and rocket exhaust studies. Many of

their programs are dependent on the existence

of radiometric standards in the ultraviolet

as illustrated by the following excerpt from

a letter from one of the industrial groups

involved in this work:

"We definitely have a need for a calibrated

source or detector covering the spectral

interval 110-200 nm. .. .Absolute intensity

measurements are essential to those ex- periments where the results are needed to obtain measurements of the concentration

of the emitting species or the photon

yield of a chemil uminescent reaction.

Also, the measurements of rocket exhaust

emission and reentry spectra that we perform must be quantitative for purposes of

scientific interpretation or system application Participation of NBS in the area of providing better transfer standard

sources and detectors below 250 nm would

be of immense Value to members of our laboratory and, we feel, to the spectroscopic community at large."

3.1.1.7 Far Ultraviolet and X-Ray Lasers

Far ultraviolet lasers are now appearing

regularly in the scientific literature. Symposia featuring invited and contributed

papers on ultraviolet and x-ray lasers are standard fare at American Physical Society,

Optical Society, and IEEE Quantum Electronics

conferences. Nonl inear optical techniques

have been used to generate coherent emission

at wavelengths as short as 89 nm [67].

Lawrence Livermore Laboratory and others have

reported coherent emission in a pressurized

Kr laser at 146 nm and enhanced gain at 172 nm when an Ar-Xe mixture is used instead of

pure Xe. A cooperative effort between Maxwell Laboratories and Los Alamos Scientific

Laboratory is leading to the development of

electron beam pumped multi-gigaxoatt far

ultraviolet lasers. Peak powers of 500 MW

at 172 nm have already been measured [68].

Naval Research Laboratory scientists have

measured gain at 155 nm from triply ionized

carbon ions (C IV) and are interested in

extending their traveling-wave low pressure

technique as far as the x-ray region.

Lasers are anticipated in Hea near 60 nm and

in Li and Na in the 60-80 nm region. With

these lasers and with tripling techniques,

in a very short time we shall have a variety

of laser related sources throughout the far

ultraviolet. The need for power and energy

measurements may be expected to follow the same pattern as in the visible region. Fast

detectors are being developed at NBS-Boulder

and may be applicable. However, they will

need to be studied in the far ultraviolet

and they will need to be calibrated.

Industrial applications of photochemistry

are often hampered by the lack of economical

intense radiation sources. However, with

the advent of far ultraviolet lasers, this

obstacle should be removed within the next

few years, and the large scale application

of far ultraviolet radiation to trigger and

guide complicated chemical reactions may

very well be in sight. Areas which appear

to be strongly impacted are: (a) photopolymerization, (b) photo-fragmentation, (c)

manufacture of pharmaceuticals, (d) biomedical, and (e) petrochemical.

The day is not too far off when the

production of certain pharmaceuticals

through ultraviolet radiation synthesis will

be measured not in grams but rather in tons. Most of the progress in ultraviolet laser

technology will probably be in the field of

frequency doubling and tripling of visible

lasers. However, there is a definite need

for radiometric standards which will support the development and industrial application of far ultraviolet lasers. One of

the industrial scientists who has been a leader in this field has related to us the

following:

"I would like to support a program' of developing vacuum uv standards. The situation

at present is truly terrible. I cannot

buy a detector which tells me power at

160 nm that I trust to within 50% We are also investigating electron-beam

pumped high pressure Xenon lasers. If these lasers work as efficiently as rumored, new industries could be formed

to produce chemicals using the light. An example would be ozone. In such manufacturing applications, it would be vital to know the efficiency of each step of the

process to within a few percent."

Some specific examples of anticipated

industrial applications utilizing ultraviolet lasers are detailed in the following

paragraphs.

(1) Photoetching of Microcircuitry--

Integrated Circuits . By using a newly

developed electron-resist coating, it is possible to fabricate microcircuit master

32
masks with components and spacing of the

order of 0.1 ym.* The mask can then be used

as a photographic master for mass production.

When an intense source of far ultraviolet

radiation is used, the system is not severely

diffraction-limited, and the order of magnitude improvement in resolution is preserved.

An industrial spokesman comments on this

proposition:

"I cannot emphasize the value and relevance

of such possible coherent radiation

sources enough. .. .Soft x-ray exposure of

photoresists through masks could make the

cost of integrated circuits drop by an order of magnitude.

(2) Plasma Probes . The plasmas generated

in fusion machines and in high power gas lasers have relatively large electron densities. As the density of a plasma is increased, the plasma frequency also increases.

Since the plasma is reflective to radiation

of lower frequency than the plasma frequency,

diagnostic radiation probes to examine the

interior must be higher in frequency than the

plasma frequency. Thus it is anticipated

that ultraviolet lasers will ultimately be

required for diagnostics of very high density fusion devices.

(3) Isotope Separation . Predissociati ve states have an isotope shift. By tuning to one of the isotopic transitions, one can selectively dissociate the isotopic species.

In this way important isotopes such as C^^

and 11^35 could be produced. Concentrating

C^'*, for example, would make dating much more sensitive.

Experiments at a national laboratory have

demonstrated the use of ultraviolet radiation

in such applications. Basically one makes

use of the high energy content of the ultraviolet radiation for selective photoionization. In order to separate U-235 and U-238,

the experimenters first pass a 590 nm laser

beam through a stream of uranium vapor produced in an oven. This laser frequency

matches a transition frequency for bringing

U"-235 from its ground state to an excited

state, but not so for the U-238. Next, an ultraviolet-emitting mercury arc lamp irradiates the stream and selectively ionizes

the excited LI-235 atoms. A negatively

charged electric field then extracts the

ionized U-235. Single-step enrichment efficiencies of more than 60 percent have been

obtained [69]. The main problem now is

capacity or flow volume. One way to improve

this is to scale up both the power of the'

laser and the ultraviolet source.

*Present optical techniques with photoresist

coatings are on the scale of 1 pm.

(4) Molecular Synthesis . By tuning a far ultraviolet laser to excite selected

stretching modes of a particular bond, one may break and reform molecules along desired

patterns. By such techniques production

reactions could be driven.

(5) High Resolution Holography . With a far ultraviolet coherent source, extremely

high resolution, high contrast holography . would be a possibility. For example, one might anticipate using this technique on very small objects. A university group has

already begun on such a project. The general

plan Is to record holograms on some type of

high resolution photoresist (see (1)) and to read out the hologram using an electron

microscope.

(6) Tumor Therapy . If an x-ray laser were developed, one would have a pinpoint

localization capability for selective

destruction of cells.

(7) Laser Fusion . As currently en- visioned by some fusion systems researchers,

the ideal laser for fusion would have a conversion efficiency of about 10 percent,

energy of about 10^ joules, wavelength in

the visible or ultraviolet portion of the

spectrum, a high repetition rate, and pulse

widths less than 10"^ sec. The Xea laser at

173 nm is potentially an extremely powerful

laser and is under investigation. Its natural inversion (the lower state of the

lasing transition is dissociati ve--thus no pileup in the lower state to shut off the

lasing) leads to an expected overall efficiency of about 30 percent. It also emits

in a region of the spectrum where there

should be strong absorption by the pellet

material [70]. Other gaseous systems such

as Ar-Xe, Hg-Ar, and Hg-Xe are also being

carefully studied for potential application

in laser fusion.

3.1.1.8 Photobiology

Far ultraviolet radiation can have many

important uses in biology. Years ago it was thought that for photon energies above

that required to ionize the atoms, the

photoabsorption cross section was a uniform

uninteresting continuum. Today we know

that this is not the case. Studies in the

far ultraviolet indicate that atoms and

molecules exhibit many strong resonances in

their "continuum" absorption region. These

resonances should be found and exploited in

biologically significant ways. Many of the resonances which exist in a large molecule

are related to specific atoms in the molecule. Thus by tuning the radiation (via a monochromator) to a specific resonance, a particular atom in the molecule can be

selectively excited, ionized, or its bonds

33
broken. One might even hope to eventually

selectively damage particular cells, such as cancerous ones, while doing minimal damage

to normal cells.

Such research is not currently being pursued on a large scale, mainly because photobiologists are not accustomed to far ultraviolet measurement techniques and are reluctant to speculate in unfamiliar territory. However, one might assume from the

biologists' acceptance of other modern

physics techniques such as x-ray diffraction,

nuclear magnetic resonance, and electron

microprobe analysis that a few good demonstrations would lead to the opening of a new area of research in photobiology.

NBS staff are very much aware of the

above described situation and have proposed

several benchmark experiments, using the NBS

synchrotron radiation facility, which would

demonstrate the power and versatility of far

ultraviolet spectroscopy and radiometry as applied in the field of photobiology. Such

important molecules as the polynucleotides,

RNA, and DNA are optically active at ultraviolet wavelengths and have chromophores ex- tending into the vacuum ultraviolet. By

studying the excitation frequencies and

characteristics, one may learn more about the

forces binding macro-molecules and the re- lationships between chemical structure and

biological activity. For example, sulfur in

a bond position with a high degree of symmetry exhibits a very strong resonance near

the sulfur L2.3 edge [71]. This resonance

can be selectively excited and the sulfur

bonding site altered by radiation of the

proper frequency. The biological activity

of the material (e.g., an enzyme or amino

acid component of an enzyme) could be determined as a function of selective ionization of the sulfur atom. We have received some encouraging re- sponses from the photobiological community

as well as positive suggestions for cooperation. A chairman of one of the sections of

the American Biophysical Society was most

enthusiastic:

"I think that many of the people present

at the session would be most interested

in your facility. Accordingly, with

your permission, I would like to announce

the general availability of the radiation

facility (SURF II) at the National Bureau

of Standards. This will be a very valuable tool for many investigators."

3.1.1.9 Plasma Chemistry

Several commercial applications of arc plasmas will be described in which accurate

plasma diagnostics are required for proper

control of the process of interest.

Determination of plasma composition and impurity concentrations, for example, is best

done by measuring the relatively strong

radiance of ultraviolet light which is

emitted by the constituents. Although only

three applications are described here in

detail, an idea of the variety of applications and the degree of national and international interest on both the part of industry and government is given in appendix C. This is a list of companies having an interest in plasma chemistry applications and was prepared by an industrial liaison com- mittee of the subcommission on plasma

chemistry of the International Union of Pure

and Applied Chemistry. It contains input

from eight countries; areas of high interest

include synthesis of plastics, extractive

metallurgy, vapor deposition and thin films

production, and plasma welding, cutting, and

etching applications.

( 1 ) Arc Plasma Thin Film Deposition . Arc

plasma spraying of ferrite onto integrated

circuit substrates offers an economical and

rapid method for depositing ferrite

films.

This plasma spray technique, which has

been commercially developed, can deposit

magnesium-manganese ferrites and other

materials on a wide variety of substrates at rates that are faster than any other method.

Films are reported to be thick, dense, and

essentially identical to the bulk starting

material. In addition, the non-vacuum

process is ideal for manufacturing operations because it eliminates the confining

containers required in vacuum techniques.

Electron microprobe analyses indicate better

than 10 percent tolerance over the entire

film surface and 99 percent theoretical

density.

(2) Plasma Arc Steel Furnace . A plasma

arc furnace that uses powerful "plasmatrons"

to produce five-ton steel ingots reportedly

has been prepared by Ukrainian specialists.

The plasma arc method of obtaining high

quality steels and alloys with preset

properties was worked out several years ago

at the Institute of Electric Welding of the

Ukrainian Acadetny of Sciences. Heart of the new installation is a plasmatron that heats

gas to a temperature of 10,000 to 12,000 C which melts and refines metal. A Soviet

spokesman says the new technique makes it

possible to control processes and produce

ingots with a desired macrostructure.

Ferro-nickel magnetic alloys can be made

with an oxygen content nearing the sensitivity margin of analytical instruments.

(3) Recycling of Alloys in Plasma Arc

Steel Furnace . A commercial -experimental

plasma furnace, commissioned at the Chelyabinsk Iron and Steel Works, has produced its

34
first 20 melts of particularly pure highalloyed steel. Temperature in the center of

the plasma column reaches 18,000 C. High temperature is not the only advantage of the Russian plasma furnace. Metal can be remelted in the furnace without a loss of alloy components. The drawback of

conventional furnaces is the high loss of

tungsten, chromium, vanadium, manganese, and

other valuable components. Losses per ton of metal during remelting range from 20 to 120 kilograms

Soviet scientists and engineers succeeded

in obtaining a steady operation of the

"plasmatron" , producing a column of ionized

gases. This column can be seen in a plasma

vortex through a light filter. The tungsten

pole piece, from which high current flows,

is in the center of a cooled pipe. A column

of argon gas comes out of the pipe and the

atoms immediately lose electrons under the

effect of high temperature to become capable

of conducting electricity. The plasma

column burns noiselessly and steadily and is

surrounded with an absolutely pure medium

containing no admixtures.

3.1.2 Economic Impacts--Costs and Benefits

Having catalogued the types of users who

need an ultraviolet measurement capability,

we now turn to the question: Are these

applications worthwhile? In attempting to answer this question, we will avoid the

obvious response that they are good basic

science or even that they result in higher

quality products. Although we personally

think these responses are justified in view

of the previous section, nevertheless, we would rather address those who continue to ask the questions: Is it necessary? Is an ultraviolet radiation measurement capability

in the national interest? Does it affect our well-being and the common good? Therefore,

we intend to briefly discuss examples of

both the social and economic impact of the

ultraviolet radiometry National Measurement

System. First, the economic question will

be treated as much as possible with a view

toward gaining the maximm le-oerage in

support of the measurement system. Also, we

take the view that, although numbers are sometimes useful to gauge the efficiency of

a supporting operation, they are not always

necessary in determining economic leverage.

For example, it is clear that without 0-ring

elastomer gaskets vacuum technology would

have evolved in a completely different way. To try to estimate first of all the total

economic advantage of producing demountable,

versatile, and rugged vacuum systems as opposed to all glass or welded systems, then

the total cost benefit of all industrial and

scientific applications that require highly

reliable vacuum systems that are conveniently manipulated and varied, and finally

to compare these costs with the investment

necessary to maintain an 0-ring production

and development capabil ity--this would be a meaningless exercise. What difference does

it make if the ratio of economic output to invested input is 10^ ^ or 10^? The point is that such a numbers game is worth considering in detail only when the leverage is less than something like 10^. Beyond that

the leverage should be very clear, and it

becomes more efficient for the economist,

systems analyst, or planner to merely describe how a certain technology is com- pletely dependent on a particular component

(sine qua non) rather than to spend many

man-hours searching for figures that will

support an already obvious conclusion.

The economic impact of many of the applications described in the previous section

are of this type. For example, is it really

necessary to calculate what the industrial

coating and finishing market is in order to appreciate the prediction that 20 percent

of the market will soon depend upon radiation curing (3.1.1.1(5))? Throughout the

previous section, such qualitative analyses

can be found and are significant. Nevertheless, an attempt is made here to present a quantitative analysis for three areas where

numbers were relatively easy to find.

(1) Energy Crisis . The country is now preparing to attack the energy crisis with

a crash program comparable to the National

Aeronautics and Space Administration space

program in the 1960's. Ten billion dollars

are being requested for use over the next

five years, and our national goal is to have a self-sufficient energy base by 1985.

Solar energy and fusion research, both of

which have a need for an ultraviolet

measurement capability (see, for example,

3.1.1.1(8), 3.1.1.5, and 3.1.3(1)), are among the priority items in this program.

However, even before our energy problems

became well -publ ici zed and "critical", the

National Science Foundation and the National

Aeronautics and Space Administration had

budgeted $7 million for solar energy studies

in 1973, and one can surely anticipate even

larger budgets for subsequent years. One

plan that is being studied is to deploy a large mosaic of solar cells above the atmosphere and relay the absorbed energy to earth

via microwaves. Ultraviolet radiometry is

required here to study the effects of radiation damage which is expected to be an important factor in the decay and failure of

key components in the system.

One could go one step further and begin

to analyze the long range effects of an

35
energy crisis on our economic system. Already we are feeling the effects of increased

unemployment, production delays and shutdowns, decreasing profits, and increasing

costs of consumer items from gasoline and

heating oil to plastic toys. We do not pretend that an ultraviolet measurement capability will enable us to avoid these problems,

but it is certainly one vital component

among many others that will be necessary if

the energy crisis is to be permanently

solved.

(2) Solar Simulators . We have seen that

the cost of building solar simulators can run into the millions of dollars and that

ultraviolet calibrations of these are needed

at least down to 121.6 nm (3.1.1.6(1) and

3.1.1.1(8)). The problem of realistic solar

simulation and accelerated weather testing is complicated by the fact that radiation damage

centers (color bodies) formed by exposure at one wavelength may sometimes be destroyed

when the sample is subjected to radiation at another wavelength. In addition, activation

spectra show that particular wavelengths are most efficient in inducing photodegradation.

In the opinion of one of the leading manu- facturers of accelerated weathering machines,

"If any real progress is to be made in testing the weather resistance of materials, the exposure standard must be defined in terms of intensity and spectral

distribution of incident energy rather

than the present parameter of time exposed

....Thousands of dollars are spent

annually in the oolleotion of misinformation due in part to improper evaluation of

the effect of the radiation source."

Concerning ultraviolet calibrations and

its international repercussions, the same individual states in another letter

"...we have recently received information

from France that their National Bureau of

Standards is considering standardizing

the laboratory weathering test. Because

of the different light sources in use, it

is possible that some instruments may be

disqualified if spectral irradiance is not properly specified. We hope they

will not disregard the work of the

. International Standards Organization, as with no generally accepted radiometric

standards, more confusion may be generated

than dispelled."

(3) Lamp Industry . The economic impact

of the lamp industry was discussed briefly, in

section 2.2.2.2 (the instrumentation industry). A few of the findings are here sum- marized. According to the U.S. Census of

Manufacturers, the value of shipments of a certain variety of ultraviolet emitting

lamps and fixtures was

1958--$ 35.7 million

1963—$ 84.3 million

1967— $140.3 million

More than 100 million mercury vapor lamps

have been sold for outdoor illumination purposes in the last 40 years. The measurement

problem arises in three ways: (a) one wishes to minimize the ultraviolet radiation

which then allows more of the available en- ergy to be used for illumination; (b) one wishes to match the artificial light source

as closely as possible to natural sunlight

either for health reasons, for accurate

color reproduction, or for solar simulation;

(c) one wishes to maximize or tailor the

ultraviolet output, perhaps in certain preferred wavelength bands, for example for

medical and therapeutic applications. Ac- curate ultraviolet radiation measurements

are useful, but are they necessary? Yes,

say the manufacturers, they are necessary,

if only because of economic advantage:

"To substantiate claims against a uv emitting product, accurate measurements

are necessary to support the manufacturers case and equally important measurements are necessary to prove that liability exists.

"...the Federal and State measurement laboratories have the power to accept or reject .. .millions of dollars worth of

business. A difference in the unit of

light in these laboratories as compared

to the manufacturer can cause him to lose

large amounts of product sales."

The annual U.S. market for uv-vis spectrophotometers is $100 million, with an unfavorable import-export ratio on the order of

4:1. The manufacturers are aware of this:

"There will certainly be an unfavorable

foreign trade impact if electro-optical

devices of U.S. manufacture cannot be

relied upon to yield NBS traceability

quantities."

3.1.3 Social Impacts

Much of what is contained in section

3.1.1 deals with the social and human impact

of specific programs requiring ultraviolet

radiation measurements, e.g., prevention of

tooth decay (3.1.1.1(2)) and the monitoring

of the stratospheric ozone layer for trends

that may affect our environment and health

(3.1.1.3(2)). In this section we further

amplify on two areas which are of national

interest: the energy crisis and health and

safety.

36
(1) Energy Crisis . Thermonuclear fusion

is generally considered to be one of the more promising long range answers to the

world's energy needs. With fossil fuels being depleted at a tremendous rate and fuel

shortages already being felt, the motivation

to produce new sources of energy is indeed

strong. It justifies the large investments

undertaken by several leading industrial

nations, in spite of the enormous difficulties and financial risks involved in

striving toward the goal of fusion power.

Fusion research has gone on for almost

20 years, and after periods of near despair

and pessimism, recent experiments seem to have put the final goal within sight. The

two most critical factors needed to attain

fusion are a temperature of nearly 100

million K (comparable to temperatures in the interior of stars) and a containment

time (i.e., density x time) of about 10^** cm-2 sec (Lawson criterion). Just a few

years ago, fusion machines were a factor of

10,000 or more away from these conditions,

but the gap has been closed considerably

within the last years to roughly a factor of

100. However, this last factor may prove to be the most difficult to eliminate. The

containment times have apparently reached a limit governed by the quenching properties

of wall and limiter materials which are evaporated into the high temperature plasma. Present machines can be scaled up in

size, at tremendous costs, but a prediction

of their performance must first be made,

and this depends critically on accurate

atomic data, much of it determinable only

through vacuum ultraviolet spectroscopy.

For example, it is absolutely necessary to know the effect of high energy radiation on the wall materials (radiation damage,

photoelectron emission, sputtering rates),

the concentrations of impurities (observable as vacuum ultraviolet radiation from

highly ionized species), and the transition probabilities and absorption coefficients for these contaminants. Aoourate

quantitative data, which, in most oases depend on ultraviolet radiometvy, are

needed, and this need cannot he negotiated

or compromised especially if meaningful

computer simulations are going to he carried

out. Approximate estimates and factors of

2 are no longer acceptable. The words of

one of the senior staff in charge of

diagnostics of one of the Tokamak facilities

deserve repeating here:

"...the uv standards program is something

I consider absolutely essential In my opinion any plasma physics program

without absolute radiation intensity

measurements is a futile enterprise."

(2) National Health and Safety . We have

described in section 3.1.1 several applications of ultraviolet radiation which impact

on the health of the average citizen. Germicidal lamps are used in hospitals, schools,

office buildings, and industry to minimize

the presence of harmful bacteria and viruses

and to prevent them from spreading (see

3.1.1.3(1,2)). An assortment of ultraviolet

lamps are used in medical therapy (see

3.1.1.4(1,2,3)) and may soon be part of our everyday life as doctors, scientists, and

builders investigate the use of artificial

ultraviolet light environment for those

people* whose circumstances are such that

their health is affected by too little ex- posure to natural sunlight (see 3.1.1.4(2)).

A little bit may be good, but any of us who have been the innocent victims of a sum- mer sunburn know that excessive exposure to ultraviolet radiation can be painful and even incapacitating. Another point must be

considered, therefore, in this discussion

of social impact: radiation safety. First,

does ultraviolet radiation really constitute

a hazard to one's health and under what con- ditions? Second, how often does a source of

ultraviolet radiation occur on the labor

scene or in our daily life?

Numerous studies indicate that, indeed,

ultraviolet radiation can be dangerous.

Kinsey et al . [72] studied the production

of eye damage from arc welding-produced

ultraviolet radiation, and Rieke [73] con- sidered that it alone accounted fro 40 percent of all injuries in engineering shops.

More often, it is the unshielded bystander

who is injured rather than the welder himself who usually wears protective devices.

Grim and Kusnetz [74] reported severe pain

in workers several hours after a 10 second

exposure to radiation from an arc torch

that generated an intense flame 20-30 cm

long. Powell et al . [75] studied hazards

from both laboratory and industrial plasma

torches and found the output of these sufficient to cause eye and skin irritation on long exposure. There have also been many

studies on photokeratitis due to ultraviolet

irradiation of the eyes [76-79]. Cases of

dermatitis and erythema have even been

reported from ultraviolet radiation below

320 nm produced by fluorescent lamps used

for general lighting purposes [80,81].

*This group might include, for example,

office workers who arrive and leave in

darkness, night workers who sleep during

the day, and people who live in very

cold climates.

37
Table 5. Occupations potentially associated with ultraviolet radiation exposures

Aircraft workers Furnace workers

• Pi pel me workers

Barbers Gardeners Plasma torch operators

Bath attendants Gas mantle makers Railroad track workers

Brick masons Glass blowers Ranchers

Burners, metal Glass furnace workers Road workers

La LL 1 emen na 1 ruressers Seamen

Construction workers Herders Skimmers, glass

Cutters, metal Iron workers Steel mill workers

urUy lllaKcrS L 1 Tcy Uar Us Electricians Lithographers Stokers

Farmers Metal casting inspectors Tobacco irradiators

Fishermen Miners, open pit Vitamin D preparation

Food irradiators Nurses makers

Foundry workers Oil field workers Welders

Cases have also been reported where the topical application or the oral administration

of certain drugs or chemicals causes the

skin to become hypersensitive to ultraviolet

and visible light. In many cases the

photosensitizing ability of a drug has been

discovered only after its acceptance for

clinical use. Not too long ago, there was

a well-known after-shave lotion that was finally identified as causing severe allergic reactions when activated by sunlight.

On the other hand, such reactions can be

used therapeutically as we have seen in the

treatment of psoriasis and vitiligo (see

3.1.1.4(3)). Pathak [82] lists various

agents implicated in the photosensitivity

reactions of the skin and showed their

therapeutic uses. However, care must be

exercised here also. For example, the

photochemical conversion of provitamin D to the active compound by ultraviolet irradiation is a well-established fact. Gorter [83]

found that with 297 nm radiation a daily

dose of 2 X lO'* ergs cm-^ was required to cure rickets in children. However, according to standards set up by Coblentz et al

.

[84], this dose amounts to 50 percent of the

minimal erythemal dose (MED) over a small

skin area. The connection of skin cancer with

ultraviolet radiation damage is now beyond

controversy [85-89]. According to Epstein

[85],

"...although there is some question about

the carcinogenic spectrum in human skin cancer, there is no controversy about

experimental aanaer produaed by uv radiation. " Solar radiation is a clear factor in the

etiology of skin cancer according to many researchers [90,91], including

Dr. Frederick Urbach [92,93] chairman of

the Temple University Skin and Cancer Hospital. In connection with this, experiments have shown that ultraviolet radiation

induces alteration of RNA and DNA synthesis

[85,94-96].

Ultraviolet radiation can be dangerous,

but does it occur in everyday life in such

harmful doses? The answer is yes. Solar

radiation is probably the worst offender.

Numerous statistical studies have been done

such as the one by MacDonald [97], who

found that the prevalence of carcinoma in

El Paso County, Texas, where the sun shines

during 80 percent of the daylight hours, was eight times higher than in Hartford, Connecticut, where the sun shines 50 percent

of the daytime hours. Sunlight, specifically

the wavelengths from about 290 nm to 325 nm, has been shown to be far more important

than aging in producing wrinkles and skin

changes [98-100].

Ultraviolet radiation is also common indoors. The Food and Drug Administration has

estimated [101] that over 20,000 sunlamprelated injuries alone have been treated in U.S. hospital emergency rooms during the two year period 1973-1974. This number includes

only emergency room statistics and does not

include those injuries treated by other medical personnel. Outside the home, ultraviolet radiation can be found as a by-product of welding and plasma torch

operations, photoelectric scanning, and hot

metal operations. It is present as an artificial source for the following applications:

(a) germicidal lamps in hospitals [44,45],

biological laboratories [49] and schools;

(b) illumination;

(c) advertising;

38
(d) crime detection [102];

(e) chemical synthesis and analysis;

(f) photoengraving;

(g) food [103], water [104], and air [46-48]

steril ization;

(h) vitamin production;

(i) medical diagnosis, e.g., dermal and

scalp disorders;

(j) ultraviolet lasers;

(k) fluorescent panels;

(1) mineral identification;

...and others. For example, some occupations which are potentially dangerous due to ultraviolet exposure [105] are shown in

table 5. Finally, one more estimate of the frequency of industrial ultraviolet exposure is

contained in the National Institute for

Occupational Safety and Health radiation

safety criterion document [1]. A poll of

the Chicago metropolitan area was taken and

the number of people exposed only to arc welders and ultraviolet radiation air

purifiers and sanitizers in the work location was determined. Extrapolating this

number to the whole U.S. population, it was estimated that about 320,000 workers are daily exposed to potentially harmful ultraviolet radiation doses from just these three

types of sources. Again, a little bit may be good, but too much is harmful. As long as ultraviolet

radiation is going to be a part of the

daily scene in our lives, a measurement

capability will be absolutely necessary not

only to provide for better health and medical treatment but also to guarantee our

safety.

3.2 Status and Trends of the System

Far ultraviolet radiation, of interest

primarily to scientists in the 1950' s and

1960's, is beginning to be applied now in

many different technologies. Photochemistry,

bacteriology, environmental studies, plasma

diagnostics, fusion research, biomedical

science, photobiology, space physics, ultraviolet lasers, microcircuitry--all are fields currently affected to some degree by

the presence (or absence) of an ultraviolet

radiation measurement capability. The following technology forecast, in the form of

fictitious publicity releases, shows how

some of these applications might conceivably

intensify, broaden, and mature in the years

to come. Item 1: Oceanographers have recently occupied

the world's first permanent undersea laboratory in the Gulf Stream off the United

States East Coast. Mindful of the harmful effects suffered by U.S. astronauts

in the manned orbiting laboratory

experiments due to insufficient exposure

to sunlight, the Navy engineers have installed artificial light supplemented by

special ultraviolet lamps which are used

to simulate actual solar irradiance. The

calibration of these units was made possible through cooperation between NBS,

the National Institute for Occupational

Safety and Health, and Devices, Inc.,

producer of the lamps.

Item 2: Solar energy is now being tapped 24

hours a day through an orbiting solar

cell network developed and produced by

the electric power industry. Energy is

beamed back to earth from a synchronous

orbit via microwaves. Far ultraviolet

radiation damage to the optical components has been minimized and energy

transfer optimized through the identification and elimination of contaminant

absorbing monolayers present because of

outgassing components. Plans are now being considered to scale up the operation to such an extent that the facility

may be visible in the evening sky even to the naked eye. Item 3: Tunable vacuum ultraviolet lasers

are being utilized in high sensitivity

photoionization mass spectrometers to detect trace quantities of various

organic and inorganic constituents in

skin tissue, breath samples, perspiration, etc. The monochromatic nature of

the high intensity lasers allows

energy-selective ionization followed by

conventional mass spectrometry. The

method is being used as a medical

diagnostic in several major hospitals and

is expected to soon replace the conventional gas chromatograph because of its

large advantage with respect to analysis

time. In addition, with the increased

sensitivity as well as the simpler spectrum, precursor effects are being identified and studied in the hope that dis- eases such as cancer can be predicted and

effectively prevented.

Item 4: An additional service from the optics and spectrophotometry industry is now available. Standard far ultraviolet

sources and detectors certified by NBS

are being used to provide economical

spectral reflectance curves for holographic and conventional dispersion

gratings. This has resulted in an order

of magnitude improvement in grating

production quality control and has to a large extent neutralized the impact of

foreign made gratings and spectrometers

on the world market.

Item 5: Far ultraviolet technology, handicapped up to now by the unavailability of

transparent window materials below 110

39
GUARANTEED DEMONSTRATION

OF

COMPRESSION NEUTRONS

THE KAAS OPTICAL SYSTEAAS DIVISION OF KAAS INDUSTRIES INC

IS OFFERING FOR SALE. FOR $8,000,000 A LASER FUSION SYSTEM

The system is able to vary the pulse shape at different pulse lengths. Also included

in the system are the following: —(1) a unique illumination system, (2) a target . alignment focusing system- {3) significant diagnostic equipment including:

Total neutron yield Target ion spectra Neutron time-of-flighl Total ion yield Total X-ray yield Target coupled energy Time integrated, spacially resolved Laser optical pulse calorimetry X-ray emission (target compression

monitor) (both incident and reflected energy).

X-ray spectrum (both line and con- tinuum). Target blast wave energy KMS INDUSTRIES states through its KMS FUSION subsidiary it is offering LASER FUSION TARGETS for sale at a price of $250,000. The price is inclusive of:—

(1) The right to obtain pellets for three years, (2) An initial 10.000 selected pellets from a KMS FUSION catalogue The

customer is allowed certain substitutions among those 10,000 pellets. Additional pellets tor sale are at the rate of $1 00 to $3,00 each.

If a customer acquires.

(1) The KMS OPTICAL SYSTEIVIS laser fusion system.

(2) Pellets from KMS FUSION.

(3) Hires KMS INDUSTRIES to take a time and materials management contract^ for installation services. KMS FUSION will guarantee the demonstration of compression neutrons. KMS INDUSTRIES is also willing: (1) To approve other laser infusion systems which completely meet the KMS FUSION specifications and are approved by KMS FUSION.

(2) If KMS INDUSTRIES received the installation management contract to guarantee that the specifications continue to be met after installation. (3) And if KMS FUSION will guarantee the demonstration of the production

of compression neutrons from the KMS FUSION approved laser fusion system.

nm, is expected to increase greatly due

to the recent development of a multilayer structure of thin films which have

transmission limits extending as far as 10 nm and which are capable of withstanding a 1 atm pressure differential. Scientists at NBS have described this breakthrough at a. .

.

This is indeed an exercise of the imagination, but we all know that time seems to move more quickly these days and that there

is an accelerating decrease in the time lag

between scientific discovery and useful

application. This natural acceleration is

enhanced even more by the identification

periodically of various "crises"--Sputnik,

balance of trade deficit, pollution, and now the energy crisis. The "fiction today,

fact tomorrow" phenomenon sometimes can make

technology forecasts outdated even as they

are written. For example, I had originally

intended to include in the previous fictitious publicity releases a description of

an x-ray laser being used for medical treatments when the following was brought to my

attention:

"Battelle-Columbus scientists currently are conducting a study for the North Central

Health Foundation. . .to develop a probe

device intended to deliver lasergenerated soft x-rays to surface tissue

or to locations in the body that presently

are difficult to reach with conventional

techniques At present, large quantities

of x-rays are radiated from a highly

nonequil ibrium plasma in the form of

spectral lines. This x-ray source is said

to be only one step away from being an x-ray laser. The final step... will be to establish the conditions for line amplification." [106]

Or how about the "advertisement" reproduced

in figure 7 which was published in a technical journal [107]?

What about the measurement system that

supports and interacts with these fields?

We have seen that primary radiometric

standards, both sources and detectors, exist

throughout the ultraviolet spectrum and are fairly well developed. However, they are usually too complicated or specialized to be

applied in practical situations. Transfer

or seoondary standards are absolutely

necessary and serve as the essential link

between the central standards organizations,

the calibration laboratories, documentary

specification institutions and regulatory

agencies, and the ultimate users. Transfer sources are not very well developed in the far ultraviolet. Where they are available, radiometric uncertainties are generally not less than 6 to 10%. This is

adequate for many users, but quite inadequate

Figure 7. A copy of a magazine advertisement illustrating a technology forecast

with respect to laser fusion systems.

for several high impact user groups, who re- quire 1% or better uncertainty limits. Below

165 nm there are currently no reliable

sources which are suitable as secondary

standards. However, high pressure noble gas

stabilized arcs are being studied and seem

to be a good candidate for servicing the

110-300 nm region. Below 110 nm, one would

really prefer a low pressure source (in

order to avoid an inconvenient differential

pumping system) such as transition radiation

[108]. Currently3 to our knowledge, there

are no plans to develop suah sources. Transfer detectors are fairly well developed in the far ultraviolet although recent

service requirements from the user community

seem to demand increased research in this

area. There is a need for extension of the

calibration range (currently 19-320 hm) to both shorter (5 nm) and longer (400 nm) wavelengths. There is also a need for higher

accuracy, especially in the wavelength range

110-400 nm where 1% uncertainties are required.

The significant thing to observe at this

point is the laak of suitable interaction

40
among almost all of the areas identified as having a measurement need or responsibility

and the sup-pliers of primary and transfer

standards. So far, only the space industry

has been adequately served, as can be seen

by referring to the input-output matrix in

table 3, This is one of the key findings of

this survey. The reasons for the lack of

interactions seem to be the following:

(a) basic standards are necessary before

regulatory agencies or commercial calibration

laboratories can be set up, and in general,

these standards are still in the research

stage;

(b) those standards that are available have

not been sufficiently publicized because no one seems to have a clear view of the impact

and needs of the various areas of application.

In short, the measurement network is still

in the development stage. The lack of a more

rapid evolution is due in large part to the

lack of adequate standards. If the interactions among the standards community and the

rest of the measurement system are not improved, it is doubtful that some of the

fields with extraordinary social and economic

potential such as environmental lighting,

medical therapy, and photopolymerization applications will continue to develop.

4. SURVEY OF NBS SERVICES

4.1 The Past

Until 1971, ultraviolet radiometric activities at NBS were carried out only in the

Optical Radiation Section (232.04). A description of the size and magnitude of the

ultraviolet portion of the total radiometry

and photometry effort of this Section is

contained in the microstudy Radiometry and

Photometry and will not be repeated here. In general it can be said that ultraviolet radiation was viewed in this case as the lower

limit of the visible spectrum, and with re- gard to the Optical Radiation Section's

priorities, ultraviolet radiometry was cer- tainly secondary to visible radiometry and

photometry.

In 1971, the Far UV Physics Section

(232.03) of the Optical Physics Division

made its first ultraviolet detector calibrations for the National Aeronautics and

Space Administration. Their facility was

an outgrowth of the Section's ongoing

basic research which depended upon stable

and reliable detectors. This ad hoc facility

grew some roots when in 1972 both the Far UV Physics and Plasma Spectroscopy (232.07)

Sections, with National Aeronautics and Space

Administration funding, accepted the responsibility of developing ultraviolet detector

and source standards which would provide for

a common baseline for the solar physics ex- periments on board Skylab, the first manned

orbiting scientific workshop. Through con- tinuous outside funding, the effort in these

two sections has been built up to its

present size, a full-time professional staff

of four. Four workshops were organized during this period by the staff concerning calibrations of space experiments. In addition,

one of the staff acted as the overall co- ordinator of ground-based radiometric calibration programs for Skylab. However, a weakness of the NBS far ultraviolet radiometry program should already be apparent:

total dependenoe On National Aeronautics and

Space Administration funds results in total

commitment to their goals and deadlines.

Under these circumstances, responding to other measurement priorities as expressed by

other sectors of the system is a slow and

indirect business, mostly a matter of adaption and "on-the-side" , "when-there-is-time"

calibrations and experiments.

4.2 The Present--Scope of NBS Services

4.2.1 Scope of NBS Services

A short description of the various calibration methods has already been given in

section 2.2.2.1. This section concentrates

more on what services are or will be available from NBS. In its short span of existence, this work has already found many applications in the nation's space program,

and more recently in plasma and fusion

laboratories, in national health and safety

programs, and in several other measurement

sectors. The ultraviolet radiometric calibrations of virtually all current space

physics experiments may be traced to the

NBS program.

The NBS program on far ultraviolet

radiometric calibrations is carried out primarily in the Far UV Physics (232.03) and

the Plasma Spectroscopy Sections (232.07),

and to a somewhat lesser extent in the

Optical Radiation Section (232.04). All

three Sections are in the Optical Physics

division. Institute for Basic Standards. The

program consists of several complementary

components and makes use of absolute detectors as well as standard radiation sources. That there are several avenues of research

at NBS Is a good thing since none of the

calibration methods is without its drawbacks

and uncertainties. A survey of the current

and projected NBS capabilities (for the next

41
two or three years) is given in figure 8. (1) Detectors . Two basic detector con- figurations suitable for radiometric calibrations have been developed and tested

in the Far UV Physics Section. Both types

are small, relatively rugged and require only

conventional electronics for use; they thus

may be used to transfer a radiometric calibration from NBS to outside calibration

laboratories or other users. About 60 such

detectors have been calibrated during the

past two years, forming the radiometric

base for much of this country's solar and

upper atmosphere physics programs as well as portions of the astronomy program. In addition, several calibrated detectors have been

supplied to scientific laboratories in England, France, and West Germany.

The two configurations are selected variations of the simple vacuum photodiode. A windowed type with a low work function photocathode is calibrated from about 120 nm to about 260 nm, and a windowless type, of NBS

design and fabrication, with a high work

function photocathode, is presently calibrated from about 19 nm to about 120 nm. The

quantity calibrated is the absolute quantum

efficiency, or the number of photoelectrons

per incident photon, as a function of

wavelength.

Master photodiodes of each type are calibrated by means of a special thermopile

which, in turn, is calibrated with a rare

gas ionization chamber. Comparisons are periodically made with calibrations of the

same thermopile using either a total irradiance source or calibrated 253.7 nm Hg source. The master detectors thus calibrated are used to transfer the calibration

to outgoing detectors.

The estimated probable error in the calibrations of outgoing detectors is 6-10 percent in the case of the windowed photodiodes

and 8-10 percent in the case of the windowless photodiodes. The apparent change in the

calibration of windowed photodiodes in use outside NBS for a period of eight months was

less than 2 percent. Windowless photodiodes

have not yet been returned for recal ibration,

but in-house samples have demonstrated reproducibilities of 2-3 percent over a few months

and 10-20 percent over two to three years.

Plans for the next two or three years

include the establishment of a facility at NBS-SURF (Synchrotron Ultraviolet Radiation

Facility) for the extension of the short

wavelength calibration of windowless photodiodes to about 10 nm. This facility will

also be used to study the environmental

effects on the stability of a calibration at these shorter wavelengths. Initial measurements in this program have already been

taken. Extension of the high wavelength

^^^^^

SOFT X-RAY,XX"xxNx/ArniiAii no cad VACUUM OR FAR UV f,':""

\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\^^^^ xXWW

VIS IR

|V....

THERMOPILE

WINDOWLESS PHOTODIODES

ION CHAMBER DETECTORS

SOURCES

WINDOW

DIODES

ELECTRIC CALIB RAOIOMETER

BLACKBODY

CAVITY HYDROGEN ARC

^PLASMA BLACKBODY SYNCHROTRON RADIATION

A_RGC)^_l_AMI^

D LAMP

rUNI'.SUN

Figure 8. Current and projected NBS standard source and detector capabilities. The

dashed lines indicate near term projections.

limit of the window photodiodes to about 400

nm is also being considered due to a high

degree of interest expressed by the biomedical field and the regulatory agencies, the

Occupational Safety and Health Administration in particular.

(2) Sources . The sources currently

under development for radiometric applications are the wall -stabilized hydrogen arc

and the NBS synchrotron, both primary standards, and the deuterium lamp and the argon

"mini-arc", both transfer standards.

The wall -stabilized hydrogen arc plasma

radiates a calculable and strong continuum

in the vacuum ultraviolet. The spectral

radiance of this source has been checked

for consistency against a number of other

standard sources and techniques. It has been

compared to calibrated tungsten strip lamps

for wavelengths above 250 nm: the measured

and calibrated hydrogen continuum intensities were found to agree within 5 percent.

Below 250 nm it has been checked against

blackbody-1 imited lines produced by another

stabilized arc (plasma blackbody) seeded

with impurities of carbon, nitrogen, and

oxygen atoms: consistency with this technique has been achieved within 5-10 percent.

Based on these results, the hydrogen arc is

considered to be operational as a spectral

radiance standard for the range from 130 nm

to 350 nm. The method is to be extended in

the next few years down to about 50 nm. Since the arc and its associated power

supplies are rather bulky and difficult to

42
handle, preliminary work is also underway on the development of secondary or transfer

radiation sources. Commercial deuterium arcs have been found to perform this function

quite satisfactorily (except for gradual

aging effects) in the range from 165 nm to 350 nm. During the last four years, the

spectral radiance of a total of 41 deuterium

lamps and one Krafft-Roessler mercury lamp

has been calibrated for outside users, and more calibration requests are anticipated.

Calibration uncertainties are estimated to

be ±10'c due in large part to lamp alignment

difficulties and some variability in the

output of the lamp from one lighting to another.

As of January, 1976, deuterium lamps calibrated for spectral irradiance in the range

200 to 350 nm have also become available due

to a collaborative research effort between

the Plasma Spectroscopy and Optical Radiation

Sections. About 20 calibrated lamps were

issued during the first five months following the announcement of this service. Uncertainties are estimated to be ±6%.

Current research is concentrating on the

development of a more versatile (wider wavelength range, higher intensity) and more re- liable (ease of alignment, no aging effects,

better stability) transfer source. The argon

mini-arc, a one atmosphere pressure noble

gas discharge, is being calibrated with re- spect to spectral radiance between 115 and

350 nm. Although slightly more complicated

than the deuterium lamp, it is anticipated

that this radiation source will eventually

replace the deuterium lamp source in far

ultraviolet applications requiring uncertainties of about 5%. A spectral irradiance calibration facility in the far ultraviolet is

also planned for development; both the deuterium lamp and argon mini -arc will be

calibrated to serve as spectral irradiance

standards below 200 nm in the next few years.

The argon mini-arc will be tested also

between 200 and 350 nm where it may prove

suitable as a high intensity irradiance

standard much stronger than both the deuterium lamp and the tungsten quartz-halogen

1 amp

The NBS synchrotron radiation facility is also being used as a calculable source for

far ultraviolet calibrations. In the recent

conversion of the NBS electron synchrotron

into an electron storage ring source, particular attention was paid to making accurate

determinations of the operating parameters.

The energy and radius of the orbiting electrons can be determined to within 0.1 percent

while the orbiting current can be determined

to about 3 percent (by means of radiometry in the visible region). In its new form the NBS

synchrotron facility provides a smooth

calculable continuum of useful radiation from

about 4 nm in the soft x-ray region into the

visible. Its highly collimated output varies

slowly in time with a time constant of the

order of one hour. It is compatible with

ultrahigh vacuum systems and is capable of

determining the polarization response of

spectroscopic instruments. The spectral ra- diance emitted may be determined to a precision of better that 5 percent.

It is intended that the facility will be

made available to guest workers on a fee

basis. Several users meetings have been

organized and a booklet describing the characteristics of the storage ring facility has

been distributed to potential users.

(3) Interactions of NBS with the National

Measurement System . (a) Standards Laboratories NBS has provided standard detectors to standards groups

both in England (National Physical Laboratory in Teddington), in Germany (Max-Planck

Institut fur Physik und Astrophysik in

Munich) and in the United States (Stanford

University in Palo Alto) for intercomparison

purposes. The results of the international

comparisons are not yet completed, but are

of great interest since the preliminary re- sults obtained by the Munich group in com- paring detectors calibrated by several independent European laboratories show large

discrepancies (up to a factor 2). Comparisons

of detectors calibrated by NBS and by the

Stanford group are excellent and result in

consistency to within the calibration

uncertainties

NBS is also involved in standard source intercomparisons . In a completed effort,

the Hamburg DESY synchrotron ultraviolet

source was essentially compared with the NBS

hydrogen arc source through a common deuterium lamp transfer standard [31]. Future intercomparisons with the central standards

laboratories in England, France, and West

Germany are being planned in cooperation

with three guest workers from these countries

who spent one year each at NBS and assisted

in setting up part of our ultraviolet radiometry program.

NBS has also recently cooperated with a commercial standards laboratory in order to make available standard lamps of spectral

radiance and irradiance in the far ultraviolet. Nevertheless, the magnitude and

intensity of this type of interaction is considered to be much too small in view of

the needs of the various measurement sectors

for uniformity in ultraviolet radiation

diagnostics.

(b) Regulatory Agencies NBS interaction

with regulatory agencies is on the increase,

and, in fact, it is through such interaction

that the commercial standards laboratory just

43
referred to first became aware of the available NBS services. Two mini -workshops were organized at NBS in order to exchange information with representatives from the National

Institute for Occupational Safety and Health

and the Bureau of Radiological Health. This was followed up by site visits, calibration

of standard lamps for each group, and a service contract to evaluate, through the use of standard detectors, a commercially produced "hazard-meter" which the National

Institute for Occupational Safety and Health was considering recommending to the Department of Labor as a monitor of ultraviolet

exposure in the work environment. This is

obviously a high leverage situation for NBS.

If it can be definitely established that the

meters meet specifications--and this depends

on NBS having the necessary radiometric capability--it is possible that every machine

shop and every industry listed previously in

table 5 will need to purchase such an instrument. Also, there will be created a market

for accessories such as standard sources of

spectral irradiance to periodically check the

operation of the unit.

(c) Instrumentation Industry . A very

strong interaction exists between NBS and one particular manufacturer of photodiode

detectors. NBS did the research and development in cooperation with this industrial

group which now furnishes all the detectors

calibrated by NBS. The interest of this

group was high enough that they even undertook an international round-robin intercomparison of detectors among various space

science groups who were using NBS calibrated

detectors. The results were reported at a calibration workshop [35] and provided information with regard to aging effects, uncer- tainties associated with calibration transfers, and steps that ought to be taken

toward a measurement assurance program. Un- fortunately, such interactions are rare, although several optical companies have been in

periodic contact with NBS concerning our standard source developments and have ex- pressed some interest in marketing our final

product, especially if it has universal ap- peal. As close as we can ascertain, this means that it must have a wide wavelength

range of applicability and it must be intense, calibrated, convenient, and cheap.

(d) Basic Data and Materials . NBS generates and evaluates basic data which are necessary in the analysis of many ultraviolet

emitting systems (see section 2.2.3). Transition probabilities, oscillator strengths,

reaction rates, and photoemission cross sections are measured or calculated. In addition, a data center on atomic transition

probabilities has been established to review

and critically evaluate the available

literature. Although such basic research can

be found in many places throughout NBS (and

the world), most of the NBS work which

utilizes ultraviolet radiometry to generate

such data is centered in the Far UV Physics

Section (storage ring) and the Plasma Spectroscopy Section (wall -stabilized arcs and

theta pinch). The Far UV Physics Section

also has done optical reflectance and transmi ttance research in the far ultraviolet

using the NBS synchrotron. However, standard filters or materials in this wavelength

region have not been researched and are not

available as an NBS service. Such services

are available commercially, although the

calibrations are not NBS traceable.

(e) Dissemination Network . Some, but

not all, of the radiometric services available in the far ultraviolet are listed in

Special Publication SP-250: Calibrations

and Test Services of the^ National Bureau of

Standards . An effort is being made to improve on this situation and to include all

of these services in the next edition.

4.2.2 Users of NBS Services

Table 6 illustrates the impact areas and

users so far served by the five year old NBS

far ultraviolet radiometry program.

It is clear from this table that so far

the primary consumers of our far ultraviolet

services are the space scientists who need

absolute detectors and sources to determine

the response of spectrometric optical systems. These dominate by about 10:1 over the

combined number of all other current consumers. However, this statistic is due mainly

to the chronology of how the measurement

system has evolved, as alluded to several

times earlier. Research and scientific

exploration (National Aeronautics and Space

Administration in the 60' s) forced the development of advanced technology which, in

turn, stimulated and made possible new applications of that technology. Some evidence that we are entering this latter stage

is seen in the fact that the number of

non-space oriented far ultraviolet calibration requests has increased from zero just

two years ago to about ten this year, with

more anticipated following the publication

of all our services in the NBS calibration

service manual, SP-250, and appropriate

publicity releases in journals and technical

magazines. If we are indeed in this transition region, our own customer lists will not

be significant in evaluating the validity of

our conception of the National Measurement

System until we have undertaken a thorough

communication, including workshops and

seminars, with the many consumer groups

identified in section 3.1.1.

44
Table 6. List of customers requiring NBS ultraviolet radiometric services 1972-1976

Astrophysics

University of Hawaii

Kitt Peak Observatory

Aeronomy, Atmospheric Sciences

Air Force Cambridge Research Laboratorie

Aerospace Corporation

Johns Hopkins University

Massachusetts Institute of Technology

Naval Research Laboratory

University of California (Berkeley)

NASA Goddard Space Flight Center

Max-Planck Institut (Germany)

Basic Research

National Bureau of Standards

University of Florida

University of Western Kentucky

Technical University of Wroclaw (Poland)

University of Belgrade (Yugoslavia)

Centre Etude Atome (CEA, France)

NASA Langley Research Center

Detector Industry

EMR Photoelectric, Inc.

Fusion Research

Gulf General Atomic

Lamp Industry

Syl vania

North American Philips Corp.

Planetary Sciences

University of Colorado

Johns Hopkins University

Laboratory for Atmospheric and Space

Physics

Regulatory Agencies

National Institute for Occupational

Safety and Health

Bureau of Radiological Health

Solar Physics

Naval Research Laboratory

NASA Goddard Space Flight Center

Ball Brothers Corporation

Harvard College Observatory

Air Force Cambridge Research Laboratories

Centre National de la Recherche

Scientifique (France)

Standards Laboratories

Stanford University

Max-Planck Institut (Germany)

Optronics Laboratories, Inc. EMR Photoelectric, Inc. NASA Goddard Space Flight Center

National Physical Laboratory

(England)

Almost hidden in this table are several

high leverage customers: the lamp and

detector industry and other standards laboratories. These are discussed more in the

next section.

4.2.3 Alternate Sources

In the introduction it was mentioned that

the Bureau's aim is not necessarily to perform all the many calibrations required by

government and industry, but rather to undertake those calibrations and other services

that will make the National Measurement

System function most effectively and economically. Unfortunately, decisions which are meant to determine where we can obtain maximum leverage from our programs are difficult to make and often require tedious technology assessments. However, these deoisions

as well as the social and economic impact

analysis are sometimes made for us if we can only recognize it. For example, when we see

a major lamp or detector manufacturer set up

and advertise a calibration service at their

own expense, it can be assumed that there is

a serious need in the measurement sector and

that there is money to be made. At that

stage, NBS should be prepared to support

these programs as much as possible and provide a calibration baseline which would lend more credence to the claims of the manufacturer and probably result in increased sales

and applications.

The above scenario may seem very obvious

and logical but, practically speaking, this

is what can and sometimes does happen: NBS

may not instigate a contact ("They know we

are here--if they need us, they'll call us");

industry may not instigate a contact ("I've never heard of any NBS work in this area" or

"I don't think they are set up to do such

calibrations, but if they are, we'll probably hear from them"). Non-communication!

In this microstudy we have seen interest

expressed by the instrumentation industry

not only by words but by action.

"We urgently need a standard uv source (or

45
detector) to provide us with an absolute

calibration. We supply, with each of our detectors, an individually measured absolute spectral response calibration

Presently we cannot maintain our absolute

uv calibration accuracy to the accuracy

which we desire We would like to co- operate with NBS in any way possible on this problem."

NBS must be sensitive to situations like

this and must be more responsive.

4.2.4 Funding Sources for NBS Services

The radiometric calibration programs both

in the Far UV Physics Section and the Plasma

Spectroscopy Section were initially funded

almost entirely by National Aeronautics and

Space Administration outside contracts.

Energy Research and Development Administration funding (fusion program) has now been

obtained and essentially replaces the re- duction in NASA funding which followed the

termination of the Skylab program. In addition, there has always been miscellaneous

funding from calibration fees. Such complete

dependence on other agency funds makes it

difficult, if not unethical, to reprogram or

to change priorities in order to respond to other measurement sectors. What interaction

has taken place with users outside the space

and thermonuclear fusion community has so far been restricted to applications which

have the same requirements. In order to be

able to respond effectively and in a positive

way (rather than with the attitude: "Here is

what we have--do the best you can") to the

National Measurement System, direct NBS

funding is absolutely necessary.

4.2.5 Mechanism for Supplying Services

In the field of ultraviolet radiometry,

NBS provides services to the National Measurement System in the form of: (1) instrument calibration; (2) use of NBS facilities

for systems calibrations; (3) publications

and talks; (4) committee membership; and (5)

workshops.

(1) The instrument calibration services

have already been described in section

4.2.1. Source and detector calibrations are done either through outside contracts, for

example with the National Aeronautics and

Space Administration or with the National

Institute for Occupational Safety and Health,

or under the auspices of the NBS Office of

Measurement Services (200.00). Over the

last five years, over 100 devices have been

calibrated.

(2) Users have also come to NBS, for

example to use the synchrotron ultraviolet

source. This is done when the calibration

requirements are such that either no transfer standards are available or the highest

possible accuracy is desirable. The hydrogen wall -stabilized arc primary source has

been used likewise [31].

(3) A list of publications and talks con- cerning far ultraviolet radiometry are con- tained in appendix D. In addition, the Data

Center for Atomic Transition Probabilities

has sold a total of 4000 copies of its

critically evaluated data compilation and over 6000 copies of its bibliography surveys

(4) One of the staff has served on the

1974 Atomic Energy Commission (now Energy

Research and Development Administration)

research panel on atomic, molecular, and

nuclear data needs for controlled thermonuclear research. In addition, he is serving on an ad hoc committee studying the

feasibility of a national fusion facility.

Another of the staff acted as the chairman

of the Apollo Telescope Mount (ATM) Collaborative Task Group on Radiometric Calibrations during the National Aeronautics and

Space Administration Skylab missions.

(5) Several workshops have been organized

by NBS staff concerning ultraviolet radiometric calibrations. Four workshops (1971,

1972, 1974 and 1976) were held primarily for

space scientists and those instrument manu- facturers who were involved in the space

program. About 40 professionals from the

U.S. and abroad attended each meeting. Similar but less formal workshops were also

arranged in 1972 and 1973 in order to initiate a dialogue with the National

Institute for Occupational Safety and Health

and with the Bureau of Radiological Health.

About 20 people attended each meeting.

Finally, a workshop was organized in 1975 to discuss data and diagnostic needs of the

controlled thermonuclear fusion measurement

sector. About 40 leading scientists were

invited and participated in this meeting

held at NBS.

4.3 Impact of NBS Services

4.3.1 Economic Impact of Major User Classes

For purposes of an economic overview, the

major user classes described in section 3.1 and listed in table 4 can be grouped into

the following general categories: (1) medical; (2) energy; (3) environmental; (4)

space; (5) photochemical; and (6) instrumentation. NBS does not presently serve all

these areas, but should and probably will in

the years to come. Therefore, the following

discussion is relevant, at least as applied

to potential users and potential NBS impact.

(1) Medical . We have seen that ultraviolet radiation is being used increasingly

46
as a clinical tool: (a) in the treatment of

several disfiguring skin diseases; (b) in a treatment for the prevention of tooth decay;

(c) for bacteriological control in hospitals,

schools, and industry; and (d) for the treatment of calcium deficiencies. In situations

like these, the economic impact is coupled

with the social impact and is almost impossible to calculate. For example, psoriasis

alone afflicts nearly eight million Americans. What is the economic impact of

treating these people? Surely it is far more than just the volume of ultraviolet

lamps sold for that purpose. Freed from

their affliction, major personality changes

could be anticipated in the patients "who

suffer the heartbreak of psoriasis" along

with a corresponding improvement in their

effectiveness as a contributing member of

our society. What is the economic impact

of possible elimination of caries (tooth

decay) through large scale use of the protective polymeric coating which can be applied

to the teeth with the use of ultraviolet

radiation curing? Surely it is far more

than the first order impact, the sales vol- ume of the ultraviolet lamp system and

accessories. It reduces our time spent in the dentist's office, thus increasing our

own productivity. It also liberates the

dentist from much routine work, thus allowing him more opportunity for specialized

work like preventive dentistry, orthodontics,

periodontics, and endodontics. The socioeconomic impact of medical applications is very large, but where does NBS fit into this

picture?

It has been discussed in preceding sec- tions hovt excessive ultraviolet radiation

can be a hazard. Several regulating agencies have been established to oversee the

use and applications of ultraviolet radiation. Currently, they find it extremely

difficult even to specify hazard levels

since experiments, designed to determine such

levels, in many cases have been ill-defined

due in large part to lack of adequate standards. Of course, once the limits are specified, the agencies must also enforce

the regulations, but currently they do not

have adequate standards on which to base

their measurements.

Besides providing a base from which the

regulatory agencies can operate, NBS has a direct impact in the actual medical applications. Ultraviolet radiation measurements

need to be made. When they are made indiscriminately, misinformation is propagated.

For example, in the cited dental application

(3.1.1.1(2)) the manufacturer's recommended

procedure is to first irradiate a sample of

the liquid formulation prepared on a glass

slide and "see how long it takes to harden".

This is an uncertain empirical approach and,

having seen a dental hygienist carry out

these instructions, we can safely predict

that varying degrees of success or failure

will be experienced. Too little exposure

means that the formulation does not polymerize and will wash out; too much exposure can cause the coating to become brittle, crack

in time, and to become ineffective. Radiation damage to the surrounding gum tissue

may also be a problem. Although my own dentist has one of the units, he does not use

it for preventive dentistry, but rather only

to overcoat gold fillings: "If it sticks,

fine; if it doesn't, no harm done." Personally, this dentist considers the unit a waste of his money. But the story does not

end here. In 1975, the Bureau of Radiological Health ordered the manufacturer of this

ultraviolet radiation appliance to tell its

customers (about 20,000 dentists according

to a company spokesman) to stop using the

device until modifications were made to prevent incidents where leaking radiation has

injured both dentists and patients [109].

The above sequence of events is an example of what can happen to new techniques

when they are not accompanied with adequate

measurement capabilities: lack of confidence in empirical application procedures,

inconsistent results, lack of enthusiasm,

diminished sales volume, and finally the

product is no longer available. Similar

cases for the role of basic standards can be

made for other examples. In addition,

biomedical measurement problems are often

compounded by the fact that radiation of one wavelength can influence the effects caused

by another wavelength (see the discussion on the treatment of jaundice in section

3.1.1.4). Without adequate standards one can

go in circles for years; with standards real

scientific progress followed by effective

commercialization can take place.

(2) Energy . An ultraviolet radiation

measurement system is useful in fusion

system research and development, solar

energy systems analysis, and in conservation

programs involving the illumination efficiencies of lamps. All of these areas have

obvious economic value and have been discussed in detail along with appropriate

documentation in previous sections.

In fusion systems the energetic ultraviolet radiation emitted by contaminants is

a major energy loss mechanism and is cur- rently limiting progress. Scaling calculations which depend oritioally on accurate

measurements are currently being made to estimate the practicality of larger,

extremely expensive devices.

The operation and lifetime of solar energy

systems are affected by radiation damage to

47
the materials . Accelerated weathering

machines or solar simulators are used to estimate the various effects of prolonged

exposure to the sun. Again, the reliability

of such saaling depends aritiaally on accurate measurements. In addition such tests

are complicated by the fact that certain effects caused by exposure at one wavelength

may sometimes be changed or even neutralized

when the sample is subjected to radiation at another wavelength.

The use of arc lamps for illumination

purposes is extensive mainly because the

lamps are typically three or four times more efficient than incandescent light

sources. Because the economic impact is so large, competition is keen. In this case, the manufacturer is interested in minimizing

ultraviolet radiation and maximizing the

visible radiation from the lamp. The company

that can demonstrate that it can provide a slightly more efficient lamp usually gets

the contract. Ultraviolet radiation standards stimulate progress in this area and

therefore impact on the international balance

of trade and the overall cost of illumination.

(3) Environmental . The earth is protected

from deadly solar ultraviolet radiation by a thin layer of stratospheric ozone. Any

change in the density or thickness of this

absorbing layer can have disastrous consequences. The results of a study by the

National Academy of Science and Engineering

indicated that even a 5 percent decrease in the ozone concentration would lead to 8000

additional cases of skin cancer. They were

not able to calculate due to lack of data,

but estimated that there would be even move serious effects on. important agricultural

plants and ocean plankton which are so nec- essary in the ecological balance of our breathing air. What can cause a change in the ozone concentration? Combustion products

of high flying airplanes (supersonic transport fleet), the freon propel 1 ant in common

aerosol products, and perhaps even industrial

smog— all have been shown to have such an effect. The board recommended the establishment of worldwide monitoring stations to detect small changes in solar ultraviolet radiation transmission. Where does NBS have its

impact? First of all, high accuracy standards are needed in order that all stations

have a uniform base of reference. Otherwise,

measurements in one place cannot be compared

to measurements in another place, the significance of any one measurement is diminished, and global patterns are impossible to determine. Secondly, standards are needed

because, practically speaking, systematic

trends are what are most interesting, and the

identification and quantification of trends

in a reasonable amount of time require very

high measurement accuracy. What is the eco- nomic impact? Again, it is far more than

measurement equipment sales volume--such

measurements could alert us to an ecological

effect of worldwide proportions and give us time to modify the conditions which are responsible for changes in the ozone layer.

(4) Space . The United States still maintains a large national program in the space

sciences. Almost one billion dollars a year

is being spent on the development of the

space shuttle. Routine shuttle flights in

the 1980' s are expected to cost 100 thousand

dollars per hour of flight. Many millions of

dollars are being expended annually for

rocket and satellite experiments. Often the

key components in these experiments are ultraviolet radiation measurements which

cannot be done on the earth because of atmospheric absorption. Government, universities,

and industry are presently involved; with

the space shuttle, the involvement is

expected to be even greater since flights

will be less expensive and more convenient,

and the weight and power specifications on payloads will be less restrictive. The

National Aeronautics and Space Administration has demonstrated its continued interest

in basic standards by actively supporting

the NBS ultraviolet radiometry program. In an area where capital investment is very

large and where the scientific output depends critically on standards, NBS participation should be considered as a high leverage impact.

(5) Photochemical . Every one of the

photochemical applications described in section 3.1.1.1 was industry-oriented. Some

of them have tremendous economic impact. For example, the use of radiation curing in the

textile industry requires from 10 to 50 percent less energy than is required for a solvent-saturated heat cure which is among

the largest energy consuming operations in

textile mill processes. In addition, radiation curing is a non-polluting process [39,

41]. The use of ultraviolet radiation in

the wood finishing industry is also on the

increase; one industrial representative

estimates that as much as 20 percent of all industrial finishes may be cured by some form of radiation by the end of the decade.

The role of radiometric standards is as follows:

(a) New techniques require accurate documentation for the process to gain widespread

commercial acceptance;

(b) Commercially available products need

standards in order to meet specifications

and to compete in a national and international market place; and

(c) The user needs standards in order to

48
check specifications, to maintain quality

control, and to monitor health and safety of

workers.

As an example of these impacts, consider

an industrial assembly line process in which

certain manufactured items like paper products, glass, metal parts, microcircuits, or textiles are being coated by radiation curing, (a) For the technique to be accepted in

the first place, it would have to be well un- derstood so that performance could be guaranteed, (b) The equipment which would enable

the assembly line to operate at the highest

speed is the most desirable (maximum ultraviolet flux in the most effective bandpass), (c) Periodic calibrations in the

field are necessary to guard against aging of

the equipment due to radiation damage of the

optical components.

(6) Instrumentation . The economic impact

of this group has been discussed in detail in

sections 3.1.2(3) and 2.2.2.2. The annual

value of shipments of a variety of ultraviolet emitting lamps and fixtures doubled

between 1958 and 1963 and almost doubled

again to the 1967 figure of 140 million

dollars, according to the U.S. Census of Manufacturers. The estimated U.S. market for

uv-vis spectrophotometers is 100 million

dollars annually. What is the impact of NBS?

This was discussed in section 3.1.2(3), but

the main reason that manufacturers need

standards is to enable them to meet (and

give) specifications, to substantiate claims

against an ultraviolet emitting product, and

to compete in an international market.

4.3.2 Technological Impact of Services

This subject has already been covered

in the preceding section on the economic

impact of major user classes. However,

there is perhaps one technological area that was not relevant in the economic discussion

but is relevant in a discussion of technological impact: exploratory research.

Several areas of research could have significant repercussions economically (and

socially), especially far ultraviolet and

x-ray lasers (section 3.1.1.7) and photobiology (section 3.1.1.8). Documentation

from industry researchers supports the idea

that whole new industries could be formed

using intense ultraviolet laser sources for

petrochemical manufacturing, drug and pharmaceutical synthesis, and isotope separation.

X-ray lasers are a long way off, but their

obvious usefulness in a clinical sense is

presently serving as a stimulus for their

development (see also section 3.2). New insights into the mechanism of biological

structure and activity through the use of

far ultraviolet absorption spectroscopy.

sometimes in combination with other tech - niques like liquid chromatography (section

3.2), are possible. Because of the enormous

potential impact of these new areas of re- search, an ultraviolet standards program

designed to respond to the developing needs

and to provide essential services (including

facility sharing as in the case of the NBS

synchrotron radiation facility) is necessary.

4.3.3 Payoff from Changes in NBS Services

NBS is presently unable to serve most of

the areas requiring ultraviolet radiometric

standards. This is partly due to the fact

that our program is relatively young and

partly due to the fact that it is almost

entirely supported by other agency funds.

What would happen if NBS services were

terminated altogether? The answer is: both

a primary and a secondary negati-Ve impact.

The space science measurement sector and the

radiation health and safety regulatory

agencies would miss us the most and would

have to independently develop their own internal calibration facilities or depend

upon a secondary standards laboratory to do

the same. These are not bad alternatives,

especially if the radiometric requirements were very narrow and applied only

to a certain sector. However, one of the

findings of this study is that the user sec- tor is quite broad and diversified, that a National Measurement System, although scattered and diffuse, does exist, and that,

therefore, the National Bureau of Standards

ought to be involved.

Besides this first order negative impact,

a much larger secondary impact would follow.

The previously discussed social and economic

impacts of those areas requiring an ultraviolet radiation measurement capability are

real. Without a centralized standards program at NBS, it is believed that many of

these areas will drift, go in circles due to the propagation of misinformation,* and at best, evolve in a very uncertain and erratic

way. We will not witness development— this

depends upon learning from previous experiences and extending and applying techniques

in different ways and directions; it implies

order and knowledge. Rather we will witness

what might be termed the invention of gadgets.

The potential for growth will not be realized,

and our society will not enjoy the economic

*This situation has been pointed out several

times in this microstudy through statements

by correspondents from various sectors of

the National Measurement System.

49
and social benefits which would follow from

that growth.

What would happen if NBS services were maintained at the status quo? The answer

is: only the secondary negative impact, as described above. NBS is presently unable to serve most of the important developing areas requiring ultraviolet radiometric standards.

This is partly due to the fact that our involvement is relatively recent and partly

due to the funding situation. Without a much stronger commitment in terms of man- power and facilities, NBS cannot interact

in a positive way with the photochemical

industry, the biomedical community, and all

the other sectors whose needs have been

identified and documented. At present, we are not even able to serve adequately the

demands of the regulatory agencies.

What would happen if NBS services were intensified? The answer is: good things.

These good things are what a large percentage of this report has been trying to define.

High leverage areas could be impacted such

as the photochemical industry, medical and

therapeutic treatments, environmental lighting applications, the instrumentation industry, the environmental sciences, the energy

community, photobiological and bacteriological applications, national health and safety,

plasma chemistry, and, of course, space

sciences. There are priorities among these

areas, of course, but fortunately many of

the requirements have similarities. The

recommended expansion of NBS services is

described in section 4.5.

4.4 Evaluation of NBS Program

As described in section 4.3, the present

NBS program was set up with National Aeronautics and Space Administration funds to solve space science calibration problems.

Attempts to respond to other users' needs, or even to find out if there are other users, have been secondary to meeting National

Aeronautics and Space Administration obligations. NBS is in the position of saying,

"This is what we have, can you use it?"

rather than "Tell us what you need and we'll

try to provide it!" Presently NBS does not

play a pivotal or central role in the Far Ultraviolet Radiometry portion of the

National Measurement System. There is

little dialogue with the System, and even within NBS the ultraviolet radiometry efforts, which are divided among several sec- tions, suffer from a communications problem

brought on partly by an instinct for survival in times of constant (if not diminished)

funding.

4.5 The Future

The status and future trends of the System as a whole have been discussed in section 3.2. What about the future of NBS in

this System? In our opinion, 1f NBS is to meet its responsibility as a key component

of the ultraviolet radiometry National

Measurement System as it is now evolving, it

must maintain its present expertise in both

the Plasma Spectroscopy and Far UV Physics

Sections and consider the following immediate programs where it is deficient:

(1) Develop reliable transfer source standards (a) in the region 110 nm to 165 nm, with uncertainties of 1% and (b) below 110

nm, with uncertainties of 10% or better.

(2) Develop a spectral irradianoe source standard for the region 110 nm to 250 nm, with uncertainties of 1%.

(3) Develop both the hydrogen arc source

and the NBS synchrotron (storage ring) as complementary sources of absolute spectral

radiance.

(4) Extend the calibration range of standard detectors to fully cover the range 5-400

nm, with uncertainties of 1%.

(5) Develop a program which would result in

an NBS service providing for monochromator

or filter transmission calibrations in the

far ultraviolet.

(6) Initiate a program where standards from

the different sections within NBS can be

cross-calibrated and compared with each

other. Internal consistency should be the

first thing we should check. This would include such independent standards as the NBS

photodiodes (232.03), synchrotron radiation

(232.03), hydrogen arc radiation (232.07),

electrically calibrated radiometers (232.14),

and tungsten lamps (232.04).

(7) Initiate more workshops and contacts

with the various interest groups similar to the successful meetings described previously

which involved the health and safety regulatory agencies, the National Aeronautics

and Space Administration, and fusion scientists. It should be clear from the lack

of interaction between the standards community and the majority of users that NBS is not keeping up with the evolving National

Measurement System. Photochemistry and

biomedical applications should be the first

fields where NBS should generate new initiatives.

(8) Initiate a formal measurement assurance

program (MAP) for all ultraviolet radiation

services--presently only informal arrangements exist.

50
5. SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS

It would be a mistake to consider the ultraviolet as just the lower end of the visible wavelength range and to arrange priorities accordingly. Ultraviolet radiation as defined in this microstudy covers a rather

wide range of the electromagnetic spectrum,

and because of its special characteristic of

being very energetic, the uses and applications are quite different than those for

visible radiation. Ultraviolet radiation

should be considered as a separate field

from visible or optical radiation in the same way as radio waves and microwave radiation are considered distinct from visible

radiation.

An ultraviolet radiation measurement system exists and is composed of central

standards authorities, documentary specification institutions, regulatory agencies,

secondary standards laboratories, an instrumentation industry, and a diverse users

group. Comrrur.'i2avi:K ar.c-'-.s these sectors is

ineffective due esser.zicV^-; vo th& 'Lack of a covmon Iccnguage—the Zcir.g-^.age of asa-^spcte

measurements. The NBS has SO far played a very minor part in the evolving measurement

system and must bear part of the responsibility for this lack of dialogue.

The key findings of this microstudy can be

summarized:

(1) The exploitation of the unique properties

of ultraviolet radiation and the consequent

evolution of a National Measurement System

are relatively recent developments.

(2) There is a diverse users sector which

has significant economic and social impact.

(3) There is very weak interaction among the

different elements of the National Measurement System.

(4) Very little use has been made of the re- sources that could be available from secondary standards laboratories and the instrumentation industry.

(5) Despite the potential impact and leverage

involved in supporting and contributing to the measurement system, the NBS participation has been indirect and inadequate. A positive, seven-point program which would

greatly improve this situation has been out- lined in the preceding section, 4.5.

(6) Demands and requirements for standards

are rapidly increasing. These standards are essential for continued growth of those

industries and technological areas which

utilize and depend upon ultraviolet radiation measurements.

And finally, it should be obvious that we must preach the gospel, the "good news". We must tell people what we have and what we intend to do--not only those scientists whom

we meet at our own topical conferences, but

also those in other neighboring disciplines.

It must be done in such a way that some feedback is possible so that we know whether

or not we are serving the community in the

best possible way. Invited papers, publications in trade journals, committee memberships, workshop participation--al 1 are possible forums. However, without a strong

commitment in terms of program support from

NBS and the Department of Commerce, there

will be no incentive and few will be able to justify the time to act on these possibilities. The NBS program will continue to be

oriented toward outside contracts and to the

specific missions of particular agencies or groups rather than to the many needs of the

evolving far ultraviolet national measurement system.

51
APPENDIX A. METHODOLOGY OF THE STUDY

The information sources used to determine

what areas of technology are presently or potentially impacted by ultraviolet radiation

calibrations were as follows:

(1) technical magazines

(2) customer lists,

(3) topical meetings,

(4) personal contact,

(5) unsolicited contacts, and

(6) data sources within NBS. Technical magazines like Physics Today , Laser Focus , Industrial Research , Optical

Spectra , and Electro-(Jptical Systems Design

are a rich source of publicity releases on current state of the art technology. Generally the magazines are free and can be

delivered monthly to one's office. Many

initial contacts for this survey were made

through this method and were followed up usually by letters and phone calls. Because

of the convenience, staff members should be

encouraged to monitor such magazines. If more

people were to out out and file the articles

of interest, the program analyst or technology forecaster who is faced with developing

a realistic scenario would have immediately

available from his organizational unit a solid source of base material.

Customer lists were a second source of

user information. These were followed up as usual by letter contacts and in some cases phone calls. However, this method is com- plicated slightly by the fact that in many

cases the original purchaser has relocated.

One must decide then either to abandon the

contact or to follow it up with additional

efforts to determine the current users. Topical meetings are obviously a good

place to make contacts. However, there are many fields impacted by our services and,

unfortunately, we are usually not aware of

their society functions and meeting schedules. This was especially clear to us when

the president of one of these "other"

societies observed

"One of the subsections of our Society is

phototechnology. While I can appreciate

that the real technology of building your

lamps is more closely related to the

Optical Society, the users may belong to our Society."

Personal contact is probably the best way

to convey information, especially if followed up with a confirming letter. We have,

made a few such contacts as part of the

National Measurement System study, notable

among which were two MS mini-workshops in

which we met with representatives from the

Bureau of Radiological Health in one case and from the National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health in the other case.

We also organized and participated in four

workshops to discuss ultraviolet calibration

needs and capabilities with representatives

from the space science community. A similar

workshop was set up at NBS with the fusion

community to discuss basic data and diagnostic needs. More of the workshops should be

encouraged, especially involving fields

that we don't normally have too much contactwith, for example, ultraviolet lasers,

photochemistry, and biomedical applications.

Unsolicited contacts were quite frequent

in this survey, mainly because of our listing in the NBS Index of Technical Activities

under the general subject. Ultraviolet Radiometry. Most of the time the requests are minor and can easily be handled. For ex- ample, we had the opportunity to advise the

White House concerning the selection of

window pane material which would have low

ultraviolet transmission and thus would minimize the fading of the Blue Room carpet and

curtains; a similar request from the National

Gallery of Art was also received and an- swered. On the other hand, our initial

contact with the National Institute for

Occupational Safety and Health was also made

in this way and culminated in the formation

of a cooperative ultraviolet calibrations

program with NBS.

All of the above can be considered data sources outside of NBS. Within NBS, there

are basically three independent sources of

National Measurement System data: the

Plasma Spectroscopy Section, 232.07, the Far

UV Physics Section, 232.03, and the Optical

Radiation Section, 232.04. Besides depending on Individual contributions from members

of each section, we have made great use of

issue studies that have been developed by

each of these sections over the last three

years. However, although there Is much in common, communication and cooperation between the three sections could be improved.

For example, there have been occasions when

a request for calibration Information or a particular service has reached one section

and goes essentially unanswered because the

expertise, unbeknownst to the person involved, lies In one of the other sections.

What about the significance of our sam- pling? Customer lists ought to be solicited

from the various ultraviolet lamp and detector manufacturers, for example those

discussed In section 2.2.2.2. These lists

could then be compared with the users described in section 3. Such a survey ought

to serve as an internal check on the significance of the applications and may lead to some modifications on our conception of

where the main activity in the ultraviolet

radiation National Measurement System is

centered.

52
APPENDIX B A Partial Listing of Manufacturers and Distributors of

Incoherent Radiation Sources

BLACKBODY SOURCES AGA Cofp Advanced Kmeiic^ Inc Aeiolun Lighi Co Inc Barnes fngmeetmg Co DBA SYStems/ElectTD Optics Div pg 36

Electiu OiJiiCdl liidusifies Inc The Eppley Laboraioiy Gnoi AsbOCiaies Inc Infrared tiidusKies Inc ttcon Inc land Insirunienis Inc Nuclear Svstem;> Inc

INFRARED SOURCES AGA Corp Advanced Kinetics Inc Aeroliu Light Co Inc Chicago Miniature Laniii Works

Chiisiie flecinc DBA Systems/ Electm Optics Div pg 36 The Ealmg Ccrp/Optics Div covet 2

Elenno ljpiiLdl Indusines Inc The tpplev Laboraiofy Git Sylvama Inc Gamma Scientific Inc pg 37

General flecinc Mm Lamp Prod

Crioi Aisociaies Inc Hdnovia Oiv/Canrad Precision Hairick Scieniilic Corp Holobeam Inc illumination Industries Inc

Kuli Engineering Inc Land Insnuments Inc MtRH Inc Monsanio/fteci Special Prdls

Opiical Associates Inc Optical C omnium cat ions Inc Opiiiiun Inc Option Inc Pholobell Co Inc HCA

Hani Precision Industries Inc Sanders Assoc Inc/E 0 Div pg 7

Santa Barbara Research Center Sensor Technology Inc Shigoio Industries Lid Spectromcs Inc Warnecke Electron Tubes Inc Westinghouse Electtic Corp

LAMPS. CoM Cathode. Dark Trace

Aeiolui Light Co Inc Optical Industries Inc Shigoto Industries Ltd

LAMPS. Alkali Vapor

Hamamaisu Corp Holobeam Inc ILt Technology

Klinger Scientific Apparatus pg 42

McPheison Instrument Coip Watnecke Electron Tubes Inc Wesimghouse Electric Corp

LAMPS. Argon

Aeiolu" Light Co Inc Chicago Mmiaiuie Lamp Works EG&G Inc/ElectnhOptics Div cover 4 The Ealing Corp/Optics Div cover 2 Edmund Scieniilic Co

General Electric Mm Lamp Prod

ILC Technology

Ktinger Scientific Apparatus pg 42 McPheison Insirumeni Corp

Shigoio Industries Ltd Ultra Violet Products Inc Westinghouse Electric Corp

LAMPS. Flash

American Ultraviolet Co Amglo Corp Ansto Grid Lamp Products Inc Berkey Technical EG&G Inc/ Electro-Optics Div cover 4

Gla^^s Insirumeiiis Inc ILC Technology

lllunimaiion Industries Inc Kemlite Laboratories Inc

Optilron lite Sanders Assoc Inc/E 0 Div pg 7 Shigoto Industries Ltd Siemens Corp U S Scientilic Insttumenis Inc Voltatc Tubes Inc West Coast Research Corp Westinghouse Electric Corp Xenon Coip

LAMPS. Hollow Cathode

Aeiolux Light Co Inc Bdusch&Loiiib Aiialviical Systems The Ealing Corp/Opttcs Dw cover 2

Eishei Scientilic Co

Haiiianidtsu Coip

Optical Industries inc Rank Precision Industnes Inc Scieniiiir Services Co

Speciro Products Inc

LAMPS. Helium

Aerolui Light Co Inc Aristo Gild Lamp Products Inc Black Light Eastern Chicago MiMiaiuie Lamp Works The Ealing Cofp/Dptics Div cover 2 Edmund Sceniitic Co

George W Gates & Co Inc

J A Optics Klinger Scientific Apparatus pg 42

McPherson Instrument Corp

Optical Industries Inc Shigoto Industries Ltd Surface Finishes Inc

LAMPS. Incandescent

Aeioiujt Light Co Inc B & F Enterprises Chicago Miniature Lamp Works

Oialighi Coip The Ealing Corp/Optics Div cover 2 Edmund ScientiliL Co Geoige W Gates & Co Inc General Electric Mm Lamp Prod Gilwav Sales Co

Klinger Scientific Apparatus pg 42

Lumiiruii Co Macbeth Sales Corp

J A Noll Co

Pinlites Oiv of Retac

Precision Lamp Inc Shelly Associates

Shigoto Industries Ltd

Slian A Matic Coip Syivama Miniature Lghtng Prds

Technical Instrument Co Wagner Elec Coip/TungSol Div Welch Allyn Inc Westinghouse Electric Corp

LAMPS. Infrared

Aerolu« Lighi Co Inc Chicago Miniature Lamp Works

Chiisiie Eleci'ic EG&G Inc/Electro-Optics Div cover 4

The Ealirtg Corp/Optics Div cover 2 Edmund Scientific Co GTE Sylvama Inc General Electric Mm Lamp Piod Hanovia Div/Caniad Precision Holobeam Inc Illumination Indusines Inc Monsanio/Elect Special Ptdls

Optical Industries Inc Quartz Radiation Corp

Shigoto Industries Ltd Skan A Matic Corp Wainecke Electron Tubes Inc Westinghouse Electric Corp

LAMPS. Krypton

Aeiolui Light Co Inc EG&G Inc/Electro-Optics Div cover 4

Hie Ealing Corp/Optics Div cover 2

fdniuiid Scieniilic Co

Hadioii Inc Korad Oepi

ILC Technology

Klinger Scientific Apparatus pg 42

Optical Industries Inc Ultia-Violet Products Inc Wesimghouse Electric Corp Xenon Corp

LAMPS. MercuiY. Metal Additives

Advanced Kinetics Inc American Ultraviolet Co

Berkey Technical

Gaertnei Scientific Curp George W Gates & Co Inc Hanovia Div/Canrad Precision

ILC Technology

Hluminaiion Industnes Inc Klinger Scientific Apparatus pg 42

Optical Industries Inc Quart; Radiation Coip

Schoeftel Instrument Corp

Ultra Violet Products Inc Westinghouse Electric Corp

LAMPS. Mercury-Xenon

American Ultraviolet Co

Berkey Technical

Christie Electric EPIC Inc The Ealing Corp/Optics Div cover 2 Hanovia Oiv/Camad Precision ILC Technology

Illumination Industries Inc Klinger Scientific Apparatus pg 42

McPheison Instrument Corp

Optical Indusines Inc Oriel Corp of America pg 2

Schoelfel Instrument Corp

Shigoio Industries Ltd

Ultra Violet Products Inc Westinghouse Electirc Corp Xenon Corp

LAMPS. Miniature

Aiisio Grid Lamp Products Inc B & F Enierpnses

Chicago Miniature Lamp Works

Oialight Corp

Eder Instrument Co Inc Edmund Scientilic Co

'George W Gates fi Co Inc General Electric Mm Lamp Prod Gilway Sales Co

J A Noll Co

Optical Industries Inc Pmhtes Div of Relac

Precision Lamp Inc Shigoio Industnes Ltd

Signalite Dv-General Insir Co Skan A Matic Corp

Sylvanra Miniature Lghing Prds

Ultra Vmlet Products Inc Welch Allyn Inc Westmghouse Flecinc Corp

LAMPS. Point Source

Ace Scientilic Supply Co Inc Berkey Technical EG&G Inc/Electra-Optics Div cover 4

Edmund Scieniitic Co

Gaeriner Screiitilic Corp George W Gates & Co Inc Gtlway Sales Co

ILC Technology

ITT Electron Tube Div

Optical Industries Inc Quart; Radiation Corp

Schoeffel Instrument Corp

Shigoto Industries Ltd U S Scieniilic Instruments Inc Wesimghouse Electric Corp Xenon Corp

LAMPS. Short Arc

Amencdn Ultraviolet Co

B & f Enterprises Berkey Technical

Chrisiie Flecinc EG&G Inc/ Electro-Optics Div cover 4 The Ealing Corp/Optics Div cover 2 George W Gates & Co Inc Hanovia Div/Caniad Precision

ILC Technology

ITT Electron Tube Oiv

Illumination Industries Inc Klinger Scientific Apparatus pg 42

Optical Industries Inc Oriel Corp of America pg 2

Schoelfel Insiiumem Corp

Shigoto Industnes Ltd U S Scientific Instruments Inc Westinghouse Electric Corp

UMPS. Spectral

Ace Scieniilic Supply Co Inc Beikey Technical

Black Lighi Easiein The Ealing Corp/Optics Div covet i Gaeiiner Scieniihc Luip George W Gaies & Co Inc Klinger Sctentific Apparatus pg 42

Optical Indusines Inc Oriel Corp of America pg 2

Rank Precision Industries Inc Schoeflel instrument Coip

Sciemilic Services Co

Sloan Technology Corp

LAMPS. Strobe

Amglo Corp Berkey Technical EG&G Inc/Electro-Optics Div cover Edmund Scientific Co

General Flecinc Mm Lamp Prod General Radio Co

ILC Technology

llluininaiion Indusines Inc

Keinliie Laboratories Inc U S Scientific Instruments Inc Xenon Corp

LAMPS. Tungsten- Halogen

Aniencan Uliraviolei Co

Bauscfi&Lonib Analytical Systems

Beikey Technical Coherent Radiaiiun Conon Insiiunieni Luip * The Ealing Corp/Optics Div cover i Edmund Scientilic to

Eicuiia Corp George W Gates & Co Inc General Flectnc Mm Lamp Prod M P Goodkm Co Hadron Inc Korad Oept

Klinger Scientific Apparatus pg 42

McPheisnii Instrunienl Coip

Opiical Industnes Inc Oriel Corp of America pg 2 Quart; Radiation Corp

Schoelfel Instiumeni Corp

Shigoto Indostnes Ltd Welch Allyn Inc Westinghouse flecinc ('orp

LAMPS. Ultraviolet

Ace Scientific Supply Co Inc American Ultraviolet Co Ansio Grid Lamp Products Inc BauschSLumb Analytical Systems

Berkey Technical Black Light Eastern CAMAG Inc The Ealing Corp/Optics Div covet Edmund Scientilic Co Geoige W Gates & Co Inc Gelinan Insiruiiieni Co

General Flecinc Mm Lamp Prod

Glass Insirumenis Inc Hamamaisu Coip Hanovia Div/Canrad Precision ILC Technology

llluminaiion Industries Inc Klinger Scientific Apparatus pg 42

McPheison liisifiimem imp

Optical Industnes Inc Oriel Corp of America pg 2 Proiectma USA

Quart; Radiation Curp

Schoeflel Instrument Corp Shannon Luminous Maienals Co

Signaliie Ov General Insir I ii Uhia-Vmlel Products Inc Voltarc Tubes Inc

53
Wesiinghouse Electric Corp Xenon Corp

LAMPS. Xtnon

American Uliidviolei Co

Aiisio Gild Lamp Products Inc Atlas Electric Devices Co Bausch&Lonib Analytical Systems

Berkev Technical Candela Coip

Christie Electiic EGftG lnc/Electn>-Optics Div cover 4 EMR Phoioeleciric Tha Eiling Corp/Optics Div covir 2 George W Gates & Co Inc Hamamaisu Cmp

Hanovia Diw/Caniad Precision Hughes Anctali Co

ILC Technology

ilT Election Tube Div

Illumination Industries Inc Klingei Scisntihc Apparatus pg 42

McPherson Instrument Corp

Optical Industries Inc Opiical Radiation Corp

Orial Corp of Arnarica pg 2 Phase R Corp

Quarts Radiation Coip Sandars Assoc Inc/E 0 Oiv pg 7

Schoeflel Instrument Corp

Shigoto Industries Ltd Siemens Corp

Syncoi Products Co Inc U S Scieniiltc Instruments Inc Ulira-Violet Products Inc Voltaic Tubes Inc West Coast Research Corp Wesimghouse Electric Coip Xenon Corp

LED S. Near IR (noncoherant)

8 & E Enietpirses Cemialab Semiconducior

Clairex Coip

Eaiichild Camera & Instrument

Eairchild Semiconductor General Electric Mm Lamp Prod General Sensoii Inc HewleiiPackard

Laser Diode Laboratories Inc Litronm MERET Inc Monsaniu/Elect Special Prdis Motorola Semiconduciois Inc Nippon Electric Co-NEC America

Option Inc QuaniuH) Sensing Inc RCA

Sensor Technology Inc Skan-A-Matic Corp

Specttonics Inc

LED'S. Visible

B & F Enterprises

Calvert Electronics Inc Chicago Mmiature Lamp Works

Dialighi Corp

Eairchild Camera & Instrument

Eairchild Semiconductor

'erranti Electric Inc General Electric Mm Lamp Prod

Hevtfleit-Packard

Inlrared Industries Inc Litronii Monsanto/Elect Special Prdis Motorola Semiconductors Inc Nippon Electric Co-NEC America RCA

Shigoio Industries Ltd Siemens Corp

Solar Systems Inc Speiry Inlormatiun Displays Ov

Westinghouse Electric Corp

LED ARRAYS. Nonimaging

B & F Enteiprists Chicago Miniature Lamp Works

Eairchild Sennconducioi Eenanii Electric Inc Goerz Inland Systems Div

Laser Diode Ldbotatuiies Inc Litionix MERET Inc Monsanto/Elect Special Pidts Motorola Semiconductors Inc Option Inc RCA

Sensor Technology Inc Shigoto Industries Ltd Spectronics Inc

LIGHT SOURCES. Cartnn Arc

Klirtger Sciantific Apparatus pg 42

LIGHT SOURCES. Colonnetric RefererKa

Canadian Research Institute EG&G Inc/Electiu-Optia Oiv cover 4

Edmund Scientific Co Garrana Scientific Inc pg 37 Macbeth Color & Photometry Div Macbeth Sales Corp

LIGIfT SOURCES. Electrolumi nascent

Hughes Aircraft Co

Laser Diode Laboratories Inc MERE! Inc Shigoto Industries Lid Sigmatron Inc Signalite Dv-General Insir Co Skan-A Matic Corp

LIGHT SOURCES. Fiber Optic

Amer Optical Corp-Fiber Optics Areopiii Technology Corp Bausch & Lamb

Christie Electric Davidson Optronics Inc Dolan Jenner

Dyonics Inc The Ealing Corp/Optics Oiv cover 2

Eder Insiiumeni Co Inc Edmund Scientitic Co

Electro Eibeiuptics Div/Valtec Incom Inc Keystone Optical Fibers Inc Lenoi Inst Co Inc Rank Precision Industries Inc Sensor Technology Inc Shelly Associates

Shigoto Industries Ltd Skan-A-Maiic Corp 3M Co Welch Allyn Inc

UGHT SOURCES. Multiple Point

Areopiii Technology Corp

Optical Associates Inc

LIGHT SOURCES. Pfntometiric Rafertnct

Canadian Research Institute EG&G Inc/Electio-Optici Div cover 4

Edmund Scientific Co

The Eppley Laboratory Gamma Sciantific Inc pg 37

Griot Associates Inc Hoflman Engineering Corp

Lighting Engineers Inc Photo Research

Schoeltel Instrument Corp Westinghouse Electric Corp

LIGHT SOURCES. Point

Areuptii Technology Corp

Davidson Optronics Inc Dyonics Inc EG&G Inc/Electio-Optics Dw cover 4 The Ealing Corp/Optics Oiv cover 2 Gaeriner Scientific Coip Gamma Scientific Itk pg 37

George W Gates & Co Inc Hottman Engineering Corp

Illumination Industries Inc Optical Associates Inc Oriel Corp of America pg 2

Schoetfel Instiument Corp U S Scientific Instruments Inc

LIGHT SOURCES. Self- Luminescent

Shigoio Industries Ltd 3M Co

LIGHT SOURCES, Spectralty Selective

Edmund Scientific Co

Optical Associates Inc Optical Industries Inc Oriel Corp of America pg 2 Untttd Oetactor Technology tnc pg 1

LIGHT SOURCES. Stiobe

Amglo Corp Berkey Technical Chadwick-Helmuth Co Inc EG&G Inc/Elactro-Optics Div cover 4

General Radio Co

ILC Technology Siemens Corp U S Scientific Instruments Inc Wabash Instrument Corp Xenon Xorp

LIGHT SOURCES. Xenon Arc

American Ultraviolet Co Amglo Corp

Atlas Electric Devices Co

Berkey Technical Chadwick-Helmuth Co Inc

Christie Electiic EG&G Inc/Electiv Optics Div cover 4

The Ealing Corp/Optics On cover 2

George W Gates & Cu Inc Hanovia Div/Caiirad Precision Hoflman Engineering Corp

Holobeani Inc Hughes Aircraft Co

ILC Technology

ITT Election fube Div

llluminatiuii luditbiiibs Inc Klinger Scientific Apparatus pg 42

Lenui Inst Lo Inr Optical hidu-iiiib; liii Optical Hadidiiijii Corp

Oriel Corp of America pg 2 Redlstp rr,tp Schoetfel Instrumem Corp

iieniens Corp U S Scientific Instruments Inc Voltarc Tubes Inc Westinghouse Electric Corp

MONOCHROMATORS (Light Source)

Ace Scientific Si^iply Co Inc Advanced Kinetics Inc American Instrument Co

Bausch&Lomb Analytical Systems

Chromatii

EPOl Instrument Oiv The Ealing Corp/Optics Oiv cover 2

Gaeriner Scieniidc Coip Gamma Scientific Inc pg 37

Gnoi Associates Inc Harrick Scientilic Corp Heath/Schlumberger Sci Insts McKee Pedeisen Instruments

Opiiiroii Inc Oriel Corp of America pg 2 Rank Precision Industries Inc SMI liic Schoeflel Instrument Corp

Technical Instrument Co

United Detector Technology Inc pg 1 Carl Zeiss Inc

OPTICAL PARAMETRIC QSacUTOflS

Chioniatii Davidson Optionics Inc Signalite Dv General Instr Co

SEARCHLIGHTS

Brookstone Co

ILC Technology

Optical Radiation Corp Tamarack Scientific Co Inc

SOLAR SIMULATORS

Atlas Electiic Devices Co

Carson Astronomical Instrumnis

Electro-Optical Industries Inc Exotech Inc High Voltage Engineering Corp Hoffman Engineering Corp Hughes Aircraft Co

ILC Technology

Oriel Corp of America pg 2

Schoeflel Instiumeni Corp Tamarack Scientific Co Inc

ULTRAVIOLET SOURCES

American Ultraviolet Co

Arisio Grid Lamp Products Inc Atlas Electric Devices Co

Berkey Technical Black Light Eastern

Christie Electric Coherent Radiation Corion Instrument Corp EMR Photoelectric The Ealing Corp/Optics Oiv cover 2 Edmund Scientific Co

George W Gates & Co Inc Gelman Instrument Co

Glass Instruments Inc Hamamatsu Corp

Hanovia Div/Canrad Precision

ILC Technology

llluinmaiion Industries Inc Laser Eneigy Inc McPheison Instrument Corp McKee Pedersen Instruments

Optical Industries Inc Oriel Corp of America pg 2 PBL International Inc Polysciences Inc Proiectina USA

Schoetfel Instrument Corp

Scientific Services Co Shannon Luminous Materials Co

Tamarack Scientific Co Inc Ultra-Violei Products Inc Voltarc Tubes Inc Westinghouse Electric Coip Xenon Corp

54
UV OPTICS UV TRANSMtTTING MATERIALS {non-olass)

Aciuii Reieafcli Curp Amersii Inc pg 45

Applied Insituinems Inc Bfooinei Research Curp

Buileigh lnsitunieni;, Inc Coherent Kadiarian Conitnenial Opiical Corp Cunon Iniitunieni Corp

Coifiio Opiics Inc Oiver^e Technologici Inc The Ealins Corp/Optics On cover

Edtialiie Cotp frcona Ccrp

Eico Pfoducii

Eiotic Maieiials Inc fJW Indusiiies Karl Feuer Opucal Aisoc Inc Gaenner Scrennfic Corp Grayco Opiical Corp Group 126 Inc Hardck Sciemilic Corp The Harshaw Chemrcal Co

Heltoiek/Opiical Thrn Film Div Honeywell Tesi Insirumenis Ojy

Intemaiional Light Inc

liek Corp Janos Optical Corp

Ktrl Lonbrecht Corp pg 25

Kollsman Insirument Co LamMa/Airiron OivyUnor. Sys

Laser Energy Inc Laser Optics Inc Lenoi Insi Co Inc McPherson Insiftfnem Cofp

Adolf Meller Co

Meirologic Instrments Inc Multoleito Optical Co Inc Nye Optical Co Olympus Corp of America

Optical Industries Inc Optical Insiiinenis Corp

Optical Products Inc OpKcs Iniernaiional Optics Technology Inc Orial Corp of ibierica pg 2

Pacific Optical Oiv/Bourns Inc Porttin-Qfiier Corp/E-0 Div pg 20

Ptioio-Opiii Phoifonics Corp

Precision Cells Inc Precision Lapping & Optical Co

Ouartz Products Corp Rank Ptectsfon Induslnes Inc

Flotyn Optics Co

Frank A Ri^man.i & Co SORL

Schoettel Instrument Corp

Special Optics Spectrum Systems Oiv Teledyne Camera Systems Thermal American Fused Quarii Tfopel Inc Valpey Corp

Call Zeiss Inc

Acton Research Corp Aimrsil Inc pg 45

Atomergic Chemetals Co

Crystal Systems Inc Esco Products The Haishaw Chemical Co

The Homaliie Corp

Insaco Inc Lambda/AiMton Oiv/Lilton Sys Mem Chemical Co Nye Optical Co

Quartz Products Corp

WINDOWS. UV (non-glass)

Aclun Hesearcli Curp

Alheiux Lorp Amersii Inc pg 45

Applied liiitiumeiits Inc

Ceidiiirtstal liic Culiereni Hadiatiuii

Coiitiiieiiial Optical Cuip

Cuiiiio Optics Inc Oiwerie Technologies Inc The Ealing Corp/Opticj Div cover 2 Edmund Scieniilic Co

Esco Hruducis iiouc Materials Inc Karl Feuer Optical Ajsoc Inc Gaertiier Scieniilic Coip Grayco Optical Corp

Hairick Scieniihc Corp

The Harshaw Chemical Co

Herion Optical Co Hughes Ancralt Co

ILC Technology

ITT Electron Tube Oiv Insaco Inc Janos Optical Corp

Karl Lambredil Corp pg 25

Hugo P Keller Inc Lambda/Airtfon Div/Litton Sys

Laser Energy Inc Laser Optics Inc McOonnell Douglas Electronics McPherson Instrument Corp

Adolf Meller Co

Muflaletto Optical Co Inc Optical Industries Inc Perkin-Elmer Corp/E-0 Div pg 20

Photo-Opiu

Photronics Corp

Quart; Products Corp

Frank A Huhniann & Co

Sciemtlic Services Co Space Optics General

Special Optics Spectrum Syiteiiis Oiv Teledyne Camera Systems

Thermal American Fused Ouait/ Tyco Saphikon Div Valpey Curp

55
APPENDIX C An International List of Companies Having an Interest in

Plasma Chemistry Applications

BELGIUM

H. SCHdUMAKER

Engineer, Head of the Plasma Dept. Electrotherm

58/62 rue des Deux Gares, B-1070, Brussels

Tel. ; i2i,-\ 1-10

- Me ta I re fining

- Refractory oxides melting

~ Chemical reactions at high temperature (gas heating)

CANADA

Dr. Owen C.W. ALLENBY

Manager - Research Division

Du Pont of Canada Limited

P.O. Box 660, Montreal, Quebec H3C 2VI Tel. : (514) 861-3861

A. W. BOYD Head Radiation Chemistry Section Phys. Chem.

Br an ch Atomic Energy of Canada Limited Chalk River, Ontario

Tel . : (613) 687-558

1

- Re aotiona and products from the plaamaa

formed on irradiating inorganic gaaee with

feheti-on pulses

Dr. W. H. GAUVIN Director of Research and Development

Dr. G.R. KUBANEK, Dr. R.J. MUNZ Noranda Research Centre

240 Hymus Boulevard, Pointe Claire, Quebec

Tel. : (314) 697-6640

- Industrial possibility of decomposing molybdenite to yield molybdenum metal and elemental sulphur

- Appli cation of plasma technology to the extracti of other refractory metals

Jean-Paul R. HUNI Research Physicist

Alcan Reduction Research and Dev.

P.O. Box 250, Arvida, Quebec G7S 4K8

Tel . : (4 18) 548-46 1 I ( 3332)

Dr. Antoine THEORET

Senior Scientist

Institut de Recherche de 1 ' Hydro-Quebec

Case Postale 1000, Varennes, Quebec

Tel. : (514) 652-8233

- Disjoncteure d huile, trans formateurs

~ Tout procidS d'intirit industriel (ex, : mStalLurg%e extractive) .

Dr. R.A.S. BROWN Research Engineer

Research Council of Alberta

11315-87 Avenue, Edmonton, Alberta

Tel. : (403) 4 33-642 1 - Organic Syntheses

- Metallurgical processing (Extraction,

Be duction)

Dr. M.A. CLEGG Assistant Director, Research and Develop me nt

D i vi s i on Sherritt Gordon Mines Limited

Fort Saskatchewan, Alberta

Tel. : (403) 543-6516 Plasma spraying of metal powders ^ particularly

two-phase composite powders, to produce coatings

having specific properties for app li cations

in the field of friction and wear resistance.

Edna A. DANCY Science des Materiaux

Institut de recherche de 1 ' Hyd ro-Quebec

Case Postale 1000, Varennes, Quebec JOL 2P0

Tel. : ( 514) 652- 84 1 9 - Ee farming of hy droaarbons to produce reducing

gases

- Synthesis of plas tics

- Mineral treatment and extractive metallurgy

FRANCE

Pierre J. BORTAUD Directeur des Recherches Produits Electrofondus

Ste Europeenne des Produits Refractaires

84130 Le Pontet

Tel. : (90) 31-90-00 Fusion et travail des milanges d ' oxydes fondue

Andre BRUNET

Ingen ieu r Office National d'Etudes et Recherches Aeroapatia le s 29, av. de la division Leclerc, 92320 Chatillon

Tel. : 253-50-80

- Flowing plasmas of high density

- Simulation of ionospheric plasma

- Hollow cathode arc discharge

M. CARON Ingenieur d la Direction Scientifique

Pechiney Ugine Kuhlmann

23, rue Balzac, 75360 Paris Cedex 08 Tel . : 766-52 -00 Depots d' oxydes

56
Jean Daniault

iDgen i e ur Comniis s ari a t a I'Energie Atomique

C.E.N.G.. B.P. n'SS, Centre de Tri

38041 Grenoble Cedex

Tel. : 9 7-4 I- I 1 - Etude sur les caract&rist'iques des plasmas de pvojeotvon. Etude systSmatique de revitements

Applications en fabrication

- Obtention de couches minces par plasma inducti f

Robert GUENOT Coordination des Recherches,

Centre de Recherche Claude- De lor me, Societe

L'Air Liquide

B.P. 126. 78350 Jouy en Josas

Tel. : 956-80-20

- Synthase par p I as mas chauds et froids (excitation sSlective pour synthase

- D4 charges et analyses chimiques

- Ozoneurs et ginirateurs d ' oxy gSne singulet

- Gaz actifs dans les plasmas de coup age des mitaux

Jean-Pierre KIEHL Directeur Centre de Recherches de Venissieux

Societe Europeenne des Produits Refractaires

10, rue de I'Industrie, 69631 Venissieux

Tel. : Lyon 74-20-8 I Projection de poudres c^ramiques , notamment

a' alumine pour la realisation de certaines

Etudes de refractaires

Horton PERLE

Chef de Croupe Recherche Soudage

Centre de Recherche Claude Delorme, L'Air li- quide

B.P. 126. 78350 Jouy en Josas

Tel. : 956-80-20

Soudage t Coup age

Joseph RECASENS

Centre de Recherches, Societe Europeenne de Produits Refractaires

84 1 30 Le Pon te t Tel. : (90) 31-90-00

Melting, Welding, Cutting, Coating

Georges SAYEGH Responsable du Departement d'Etudes Scientifiques

Sciaky S.A.

119, quai Jules Guesde, 94400 Vitry

Tel. : 680-85-07 VtiliBation du plasma dans le soudage des m4taux

M. TREVEDY

Ingenieur a I'l.R.S.I.D.

57210 Maizieres les Metz

Tel. : (87) 60-21-54

Four a arc

GERMANY

Dr. G. FRANCK OSRAH Research

8 Munich - 90, Hellabrunner-Str.l

Tel. : 089/62 13 3321

- Ion-molecule reactions

- Associative ionisation

- Mass Spectrometry of Plasmas

Dr. Karl GEIERSBERGER

Direktor ; Leiter Abt. Forschung und Entwicklung

Chemlsche Fabrik Kalk G.m.b.H. BRD-5000 Koln 91, Kalker Hauptstr.22

Tel. : kS 8296-330

Dr. Ludwig REHDER

Group Leader

Philips For s chung s L ab . , G.m.b.h. Aachen

5 I , Aachen

Tel. : 0241 62071

- Light source

- Atomic and molecular radiation, thermodynamics of plasmas , non equilibrium phenomena , elementary processes

JAPON

uaruhiko ABE Research Staff

Central Researchlab. Mitsubishi Electric Corp.

Minairisbitnizu, Amagasaki. Hyogo

Tel. : (06) 491-8021

- Semi conductor integrated Circuits

- Display (plasma display

• Breaker

- Ozonizer

- Synthesis

Yoshito FUKUBE Senior Engineer

Institute for Super Materials, Ulvac Corp.

523 Yokota Sanbu-cho Sanbu-Gun,

289-12 Chiba Prefecture

Tel. : 04758 (9) 0131

- Melting of re fractory materials

- Evaporation of refractory materials

- Chemical reactions

57
UNITED KINGDOM

F. J . ATKINS

Principal Scientist

Associated Engineering Developments Ltd Cawston, Rugby, Warwickshire, CV22 7SA

Tel. : Rugby 2282 I - Plasma spraying

- Produation of materials

Dr . R. BARKER

Research Officer Electricity Council Research Centre Capenhurst, Chester, CHI 6ES Tel.-: 05)-338-4l8l ext. 267

Ga3 jiiaoe electrosyntheais

Dr. CP. BRITTAIN Technical Director BirlecLimited

Westgate, Aldridge, Walsall WS9 8BX, Staffs

Tel. : Aldridge 53388 Metal and re fraatory melting

L. R. FELLINGHAM

Industrial Research Fellow UKAEA Atomic Energy Research Establishment

B. 351. 15, Aere Harwell, Oxfordshire 0X11 ORA

Tel. : Abingdon AUl Extn 4443

Cneinical reactions in plasma streams , in particular those forming inorganic a o lids Mathematical modelling of plasma generators and

plas mac'ierri cal re act o'"'^

Dr . F.J. FLETCHER , _ AssistantCeneralManager

Associated Lead Manufacturers Ltd Cookson'sAntimonyWorks

Wallsend, Northumberland

- Di saoci ation of mine rals eg* zircon into their oxidea

- Use of these oxides for refract ory an d other appli cationa

Mr. J. D. GROVES Technical Administrator to R. and D. Manager Tioxidelnternational Limited Central Laboratories, Stockton, Cleveland,

TSIB 2Nq Tel. : Stockton 63571

- Heat Input to high temperature chemi cat

pro ceases invo Iving titanium compounds

Dr. F.H. HAJI Research Officer

Dept. Elect. Eng., Liverpool University, Brownlow Hill, Liverpool

Tel. : 051-709-6022 ext. 767 Circui t interruption

Dr. R.J. HAWKINS Section Head Corporate Advanced Process Laboratory, British Steel Corporation

Eston Road, Grangetown, Middlesbrough

Tel. : 06495 2493 Reduction of ores to metal

Dr. P. D. JOHNSTON

R. 0. Electricity Council Re search Centre Capenhurst, Cheshire

Tel. : 05 1 339 418 1 ext . 384

- Plasma chemistry

- Plasma cutting

- Electrohydrau lies (discharges under liqui de

)

- Augmente d flame a

C.R. JORDAN

Section He ad British Steel Corporation

Swinden Lab oratories, Moorgate, Rotherham,

Yo rsksh i r

e

Tel . : Rotherham 4901

- Reduction of iron ore

- Melting and refining steel

James LAWTON

He ad of Electrophysical Processes Electricity Council Research Centre Capenhurst, Chester

Tel. : 051 339 4l8l

- Plasma production of titanium

• - Plasma production of silica

- Plasma cutting^ electrically augmente d flames

B. A. PARTRIDGE

Principal Scientific Officer

Atomic Energy Research Establishment

B. 351. 15, Harwell, Didcot, Oxon

Te 1 . : Ab ingdon 4 14 1 - Producti on of refractory powders by chemical

re action in a p I as ma

- Mathematical modelling of plaama systems and plasma chemical reactors

C. W. TUCK Projects Leader

GKN Group Technological Centre Birmingham New Road, Wolverhampton WV4, 6BW

Tel. : Wolverhampton 34361 Fine powder production, spraying^ cutting and

mach ining

58
J.K. TYLKO Research Director

Tetronics Research and Development Co. Ltd. Faringdon, Oxon

Tel. : 0367 -20224

- Extractive metallurgy at various levels up to- final metal treatment-

- Speaialiaed refractories

~ Occasional studies of inorganic and organic

endothermic syntheses

A.J. WICKENS

Group Leader (chemical research)

Borax Consolidated Ltd. Cox Lane, Chessington Surrey

Tel. : 01-397-6262

- Production of ultra-fine j high purity refractory powders.

John A, WINTERBURN

Research Manager

Thermal Syndicate Ltd. Uallsend , Tyne and Wear

Tel. : 0632-625311

- Production of hydroxy I free vitreous silica.

UNITED STATES.

A.C. ADAMS

M.T. S. Bell Telephone Laboratories

.•lurray Hill , N.J. 07 97 4 Tel. : 201-582-3459

na deposition

Si, Al^O^^ Sic, BN) for semiconductors

- Plasma etching of thin films,

Dr . Haro Id BASSECHES

Head, Integrated Circuit Technology Dept.

Bell Telephone Labs. 555 Union Boulevard, Allentown, PA 18104

Tel. : 215 -439 -7861

- Deposition of thin metal and dielectric films for application in the microelectronics technology,

- Plasma etching techniques.

Edwin J. BIELECKI

Manager, Research Chemistry

Kawecki Berylco Indus tries, Inc. County Line Road, Boyertown, Pennsylvania 19464

Tel . : 2 15-367-2181

- Coatings on refractory metals.

- Metal powders

- Special physical properties of materials

Dr. Hartwell F. CALCOTE Director of Research

AeroChem. Research Laboratories, Inc. P.O.Box 12, Princeton, N.J. 08540

Tel. : 609-921-7070

- Treatment of surfaces

- Chemical synthesis

- Source of ions and excited states of atoms and radicals.

- Environment for studying chemical reactions of

ions and excited molecules

John D.CHASE

Senior Research Engineer Americal Cyanamid Co. 1937 W. Main St., Stamford, Conn. 06904

Tel. : 203-348-7331

- Fine particle synthesis

- Ore reduction.

- Pigment synthesis

J . E . DRUMMOND

Director, Plasma Engineering

Maxwell Laboratories, Incorporated

9244 Balboa Ave., San Diego, Ca. 92123

Tel . : 7 14-279-5 100X134

- Air pollution control

- Thermonuclear fusion research.

- Ore reduction.

Bernard J. EASTLUND

Vice Pr««ident for Research and Development Fusion Systems Corporation

11810 Parklawn Dr. Rakville, Md

Tel. : 301-881-5934

- High power density el ectrodele s 8 plasmas have been developed for the commercia I U . V . polymevizable coating industry

O.K. BHAT

Head, Materials and Process Engineering Group. Carnegie-Mellon Institute of Research

4400 Fifth Avenue, Pittsburgh, PA 15213 Tel . : 4 1 2 -621-1100 , X2 1 5 - Plasmarc heating

- Plasmarc melting and refining

- Plasmarc metal consolidation

- Plasmarc remelting

Hans U.ECKERT

Member of the Technical Staff

The Aerospace Corp. Chemistry and Phys.Lab.

P.O. Box 92957, Los Angeles, Calif. 90009

Tel. : 213-648-6975

- Lasers

- Chemical processing (especially coal gasification)

- Atmospheric reentry

- Astrophysics,

59
Maurice G. FEY Supervising Engineer - Arc Heater Project

Westinghouse Electric Corporation

Trafford, Pennsylvania 15085

Tel. : 412-256-5210

- Mineral s processing - Ore reduction

- Inorganic chemical production

- Hydrocarbon processing

- Processes which have potential for consumption

of large quantities of electric power.

Dr. John R. HOLLAHAN Vice-President, Research and Development

Tegal Corpora t ion 860 Wharf St., Richmond, Calif. 9480A

Tel. : 415-232-1757

- Applications to semiconductor materials (etching

oxidation^ etc. .

.

) - Polymer surface treatment,

- Thin film deposition

- Analytical applications

,

Dr. Gino J. FRISONE

Sect. Head Analytical Research and Services

The General Tire and Rubber Co.

R and D Center, Akron, Ohio

Tel. : 216-298-2870

- Surface treatment of plastic and rubber,

W.M. GOLDBERGER

Manager, Mineral and Metallurgical Processing Battelle-Columbus Laboratories

505, King Avenue, Columbu s, Ohio43201 .i^ Tel. : 614-299-3151

- Chemical processing ^ coating, spheroidizing

,

extractive metal lurgy , welding , thermal analysis, material development.

Dr . C . L. GRANT Associate Director, CIID and Professor of Chemistry. Center for Industrial and Institutional Deve1 opmen t

.

University of New Hampshire, Kingaburv Hall Durham, New Hampshire 03824

Tel. : 603-862-1354

- Processing of metallurgically important ores

to recover values.

- Synthesis of inorganic compounds.

- Sources for analytical spectroscopy

.

William R. HARShBARGER

Member of the Technical Staff BellTelephoneLaboratories <. 555 Union Blvd , Allentown, PA 18103

Tel. : 215-439-7844

- Etching silicon^ silicon nitride , silicon dio~

xide, chromium.

- Stripping photoresist

.

- Depo siting polymer films and thin films of silicon nitride.

John C . HAYGARTH

Senior Research Scientist ,

-

"

Teledyne Wah Chang Albany , v

.

Box 460, Albany, Oregon 97321

Tel. : 503- 926-421 I - Ore treatment

- Preparation of refractory materia Is. - Coating

.

Richard J. JANOWIECKI

Research Group Leader Monsanto Research Corp.

1515 Nicholas Rd . , Dayton, Ohio A5A07

Tel. : 513-268-341 1X315

- Metal, ceramic, polymeric coatings and structures.

Catherine C . JOHNSON

C hemi s t National Aeronautics and Space Administration,

Ames Research Center. Moffett Field, Calif.

Tel. : 415-965-5723

- Plasma polymerized thin films for reverse osmosis membranes and plasma polymerized thin films

for optical coatings, ie antireflection and moisture resistance

.

Edward 0. KAZIMIR

Scientist

NL Industries CRL

Box 420, Hightstown, N.J.

Tel. : 609-448-3200

- Processing of ilmenite and zircon ores on an industrial scale.

Jed KELLER

Senior Chemi s t Motorola Semiconductor Products Division

5005 E McDowell Road, PHX, AZ 85008

Tel. : 602-244-6843

- The use of low temperature plasma for material processing in semiconductor manufacturing . Our primary uses for these plasmas are the ashing of organic films and the depo sit ion and etching of

thin films,

Virgil B. KURFMAN Research Specialist

Dow Chemical Co., Central Research Inorganic

Bldg 1703. Midland, MI 48640

Tel. : 517-636-2951

- Plasma activation of polymer surfaces for sub- sequent treatments, plasma torch coating of Various substrates.

60
Kyle E. LEMONS

Mgr. , Materials Res.

S igne ties Corp.

811 E Argnes Ave., Sunnyvale, Ca. 94086

Tel. : 408 - 739-7700 X 2733

- LoD temperature chemical reactions involving

the manufacture of semiconductors,

Dr . R. LIEPINS

Senior Chemi s c Camille Dreyfus Lab . , Re sear ch Triangle Institute

P.O. Box 12 194, Res. Triangle Park, N. C . 27709

Tel. : 919-549-831 I - Lou pressure plasma ftuidized beds.

- Continuous lov pressure plasma fiber treatment

facil i ty .

Paul M. MORAN

Sr. Electronic Engineer Instrumentation Lab. Inc. A.I.D.Div.

113, Hartuell Ave., Lexington, Mass.

Tel . : 861 -07 1 0 Ext. 384

- Use of B. F, plasma in analytical instrumentation.

Dr. A.C.MORGAN

Pilot Plant Manager

Cabot Corporation

Concord Rd.. Billerica, Mass. 01821

Tel . : 6 1 7-272-3500

- Carbon black and other flame process pigment

manufacture.

Dr. F.A. J. MOSS

Director, Eastern Research Center

Stauffer Chemical Company

Dobbs Ferry, New York 10522

Tel. : 914-693-1200

Dr. John H. MULLEN Scientist

McDonnel Douglas Research Laboratory

Box 516, St. Louis. Mo. 63 166 Tel. : 314-232-4687

- Electron attachment,

- Ion production,

- Plasma generation.

- Diagnostic 6

- Plasma chemistry

Daniel 0 ' HARA Mgr.- Technical Services

Thermal Dynamics Corporation

U.Lebanon, N.H. 03784

Tel. : 603-2"98-57 1 I - Transferred plasma arc torches for welding

and cutting metals.

Dr. J.P.REDMOND Research Associate

AMP Inc. P.O.Box 3608, Harrisburg, PA 17 105 Tel. : 717-564-OtOO X 1365

- Synthesis of coatings ( organic )

Alan R. REINBERG Member of Technical Staff, Central Research Lab. Texas Instruments Inc. P.O.Box 5936, Dallas, Texas 75222

Tel. : 214-238-4466

- Low pressure depo sition of inorganic films

S.B. ROBOFF

Director, Corporate Development

Kawecki Berylco Industries

220 East 42nd Street, New-York, N.Y, 10017

Tel. : 212-682-7143

- Plasma spray of materials.

Joseph R. SAGMULLER Research Scientist Battelle Memorial Institute

505 King Ave., Columbus, Ohio.

Tel, : 614-299-3151 ext. 2931

- Plasma sputtering

- Plasma spheroidization

- i4icrowave plasmas

- Vapor depo sition

Robert J. SCHWARZ

'Sr. Research Physicist

Hercules Incorporated Research Center, Wilmington, Delaware

Tel. : 302-995-3528

- Glow discharge polymerization of organic compounds,

- Surface modification of polymer fibers and films by inert and re-active gaseous discharges

- Hydrogenatior and oxidation of organics by glow discharge

Michael M. SHAHIN Manager^ Webster Research Center Xerox Corporation

Rochester, New-York

Tel. : 716-872-2000 ext. 22011

- Plasma physics.

- Plasma chemistry

- Plasma processing

Dr. Gerald SMOLINSKY Member of Technical Staff

Bell Telephone Lab. Inc. Murray Hill, N.J. 07974

Tel. : 201-582-4856

- Polumer deposition.

61
M. STAND Director of Research

Sealectro Corp.

225 Hoyd St., Mamaroneck, N.Y. 10543

Tel. : 914-698-5600

- Spray coating with any powder coating materials various polymers and plastic composites.

John M. STENGREVICS Assistant Product Manager

L.F.E. Corporation, Process Control Division

1601 Trapelo Road, Waltham, Mass. 02154

Tel. : 617-890-2000

- Low temperature ashing.

- Plasma cleaning , -' ''

- Etching semiconductors and metals. "

'

- Photoresist removal.

- Polymer surface treatment , > '

'

Charles S. STOKES '

'' Vice-President, Manager Test Site Germantown Laboratories, Inc. '

' P.O.Box 164, Elverson, PA 19520 ' Tel . : 2 1 5-286-5 I 08 '

'

- Nitrogen fixation.

- Ore melting.

- Chemical reactions.

Dr. William R. STOWELL , — ', Research Scientist Battelle Columbus Laboratories

505 King Ave., Colombus, Ohio 43220

Tel. : 614-299-3151 ext. 3302

- Reactive chemistry. i -„, i.; - J4aterial s spheroidization.

- Sputtering ' ' , - Ion plating

- Materials processing using plasmas (e.g. plasma spray coating s )

.

Norman W. THOMAS ResearchAssociate

Celanese Research Co.

P.O. Box 1000. Summit, N.J. 09901 ^-i , Tel. : 201-469-1504 -^y - Modification of polymer s .

' - Modification of reinforcements for reinforced

plastics.

Dr. Joseph L. WALDMAN

A s soc ia te N.L.Industries, Titanium Pigment Division

P.O. Box 58. South Amboy. N.J, 08879

Tel. : 201-721-1500 ext. 386

- Industrial application of plasma techniques

inorganic chemical reactions

.

- Use of plasma in the production of titanium dioxide pigment.

Dr. Theodore WYDEVEN Research Scientist A

National Aeronautics and Space Admin Lstration,

Ames Research Center, Mail Stop N 239-4 Moffett Field. California 94035

Tel. : 415-965-5738

- Synthesis of eemi-permeable membranes for

water purification by plasma polymerization.

- Deposi tion of anti-reflection and moisture

resistant coatings for optical components by plasma polymerization.

SWITZERLAND

Dr . Werner J . BORER Group Leader Alusuisse Forschung and Entwlcklung

CH-8212 Neuhausen

Tel. : 053-20221 ext. 424

- Plasma spraying

,

- Development of plasma chemioal products

.

Jacques GILLOT

Head, Carbons and Inorganic Materials Group

Battel le Geneva Research Center

7, route de Drize, 1227 Car ouge /Gene ve

Tel. : 022/43 98 31 - Inorganic synthesis and especially synthesis

of ultra-fine powders of refractory compounds

(carbides, nitrides, oxides, eta...}

Michel KORNMANN Chercheur

Battelle Geneva Research Center

7, route de Drize, 1227 Carouge/Geneve

Tel . : 022/43 98 1 I - Sputtering and ion plating

.

Larry THOMPSON

Member of Technical Staff

Bell Telephone Labs. 600 Mountain Ave., Murray Hill, N.J. 07933

Tel. : 201-582-2252

- R.F. Plasma (0^) cleaning.

- R .F . Plasma etching

.

- Plasma polymerization.

K. RAGALLER

Head Plasma Physics Group

Brown Boveri Research Center CH-540 1 Baden

Tel. : 056/84 81 70

- High power plasma burners

62
APPENDIX D. LIST OF PUBLICATIONS AND TALKS (1972-1977) OF NBS STAFF

CONCERNING ULTRAVIOLET RADIOMETRY

PUBLICATIONS

1. Bridges, J. M. and Ott, W. R., The argon mini-arc as a secondary standard of vuv spectral radiance, J. Opt. Soc. Am. 66, 1097 (1976).

2. Bridges, J. M. and Ott, W. R., Vacuum ultraviolet radiometry. 3: The argon mini-arc as

a new secondary standard of spectral radiance, Appl . Opt. 16^, 367-376 (1977).

3. Canfield, L. R., Johnson, R. G., and Madden, R. P., NBS detector standards for the far

ultraviolet, Appl. Opt. 12^, 161 1-1617 (1973).

4. Ederer, D. L. and Madden, R. P., Use of synchrotron radiation as a known source for

spectrometer calibrations, J. Opt. Soc. Am. 64, No. 4, 545 (1974).

5. Ederer, D. L. and Dhez, P., Some applications of GM counters in the vacuum ultraviolet

spectral region. Rev. Sci. Instrum. 46^, 144-146 (1975).

6. Ederer, D. L., Saloman, E. B., Ebner, S., and Madden, R. P., The use of synchrotron

radiation as an absolute source of vuv radiation, J. Res. Natl. Bur. Stand. (U.S.A.),

79A, 761-774 (1975).

7. Madden, R. P., Synchrotron radiation and applications, X-ray Spectroscopy, Chap. 7, Ed. L. Azaroff, pp. 338-378 (McGraw-Hill Book Co., Inc., New York, 1974).

8. Madden, R. P. and Ederer, D. L., SURF II, a new synchrotron ultraviolet radiation

facility at NBS, Bull. Amer. Phys. Soc. 19,, No. 4, 469 (1974).

9. Ott, W. R., Fief fe-Prevost, P., and Wiese, W. L., A new radiation standard for the vacuum ultraviolet. Bull. Amer. Phys. Soc. 17^, No. 3, 388 (1972).

10. Ott. W. R. and Bartoe, J. D., A recal ibration of spectral radiance of mercury and

deuterium arc standard lamps in the near uv, J. Opt. Soc. Am. 62^, No. 11 , 1372 (1972).

11. Ott, W. R., Fief fe-Prevost, P., and Wiese, W. L., VUV radiometry with hydrogen arcs.

1: Principle of the method and comparison with blackbody calibrations from 165 nm

to 360 nm, Appl. Opt. 12, 1618-1629 (1973).

12. Ott, W. R. and Wiese, W. L., Far ultraviolet spectral radiance calibrations at NBS,

Opt. Eng. 12^, 86-94 (1973).

13. Ott, W. R, and Wiese, W. L., Hydrogen arc radiometry applied to fusion effort, Nat. Bur. Stand. (U.S.A.), Tech. News. Bull. 57, No. 6, 144-145 (1973).

14. Ott, W. R. and Gieres, G., A new transfer standard for vuv spectral radiance calibrations, J. Opt. Soc. Am. 64, 1405 (1974).

15. Ott, W. R. and Gieres, G,, An improved method for vuv radiometric calibrations using

hydrogen arcs. Bull. Amer. Phys. Soc, 20, 248 (1975).

16. Ott, W. R., Behringer, K., and Gieres, G., VUV radiometry with hydrogen arcs. 2: The

high power arc as an absolute standard of spectral radiance from 124 nm to 360 nm, Appl. Opt. U, 2121-2128 (1975).

17. Ott, W. R., NBS ultraviolet radiometric standards, Symposium on Measurements for the

Safe Use of Radiation, Gaithersburg, Md,, March, 1976. NBS-SP456, 107-110 (1976).

18. Saloman, E. B., Ederer, D. L., and Madden, R. P., Windowless diode radiometric transfer

standards from 20 to 120 nm, J. Opt. Soc. Am. 64, No. 4, 547 (1974).

19. Saloman, E. B. and Ederer, D. L., Absolute radiometric calibration of detectors between

20-60 nm, Appl. Opt. 14, 1029-1034 (1975).

20. Saloman, E. B., Unfolding first and second order diffracted radiation when using

synchrotron radiation sources: A technique, Appl. Opt. 14^, 1391-1394 (1975).

21. Saloman, E. B., Time response of NBS windowless xuv radiometric transfer standard

detectors, Appl. Opt. U, 1764 (1975).

22. Saunders, R. D. and Ott, W. R., Spectral irradiance measurements: Effect of

uv-produced fluorescence using integrating spheres, Appl. Opt. 15^, 827 (1976).

23. Saunders, R. D., Ott, W. R., and Bridges, J. M., Spectral irradiance standard for the

ultraviolet, J. Opt. Soc. Am. 66, 1097 (1976).

63

I
UNPUBLISHED TALKS

1. Ederer, D. L., Use of synchrotron for radiometry--progress report, 6th Synchrotron Users

Meeting, Stoughton, Wise, Oct. 1973.

2. Ederer, D. L., Synchrotron radiation as an absolute radiometric standard as applied to SURF-II, 3rd Workshop on VUV Radiometric Calibrations of Space Experiments, Boulder,

Colo., Sept. 1974.

3. Madden R. P. and Ederer, D. L., Transfer standard detectors and synchrotron calibrations, 1st Workshop on VUV Radiometric Calibrations of Space Experiments, Gaithersburg,

Md., Nov. 1971.

4. Madden, R. P., Detector standards and synchrotron radiation for vuv calibrations, NBS

Astronomy Day Program, Feb. 18, 1972.

5. Madden, R. P., Synchrotron radiation and applications. Optical Sciences Center

Colloquium, University of Arizona, Tucson, Mar. 1972.

6. Madden, R. P., Synchrotron radiation and applications. Physics Department Colloquium,

University of Virginia, Mar. 1972,

7. Madden, R. P. and Saloman, E. B., Photodiode standard detectors 20-254 nm, 2nd Workshop on VUV Radiometric Calibrations of Space Experiments, Boulder, Colo., Nov. 1972.

8. Madden, R. P., Contamination of tungsten photocathodes , 2nd Workshop on VUV Radiometric

Calibrations of Space Experiments, Boulder, Colo., Nov. 1972.

9. Madden, R. P., Far uv radiometric activities at NBS, 3rd Workshop on VUV Radiometric

Calibrations of Space Experiments, Boulder, Colo., Sept. 1974.

10. Madden, R. P., Far uv radiometric standards, NBS Workshop on Atomic Data for Fusion,

Gaithersburg, Md., Mar. 1975.

11. Madden, R. P., The status of SURF II as a radiometric standard, 4th Workshop on VUV Radiometric Calibrations of Space Experiments, Boulder, Colo., April, 1976.

12. Madden, R. P., Radiometry with synchrotron radiation. Synchrotron Radiation Facilities

Quebec Summer Workshop, June, 1977.

13. Ott, W. R. and Wiese, W. L., The hydrogen arc continuum as a calibration source, 1st

Workshop on VUV Radiometric Calibrations of Space Experiments, Gaithersburg,

Md., Nov. 1971.

14. Ott, W. R., The wall-stabilized hydrogen arc as an absolute standard for the vuv, NBS

Astronomy Day Program, Feb. 18, 1972.

15. Ott, W. R., Progress on the NBS wall -stabilized hydrogen arc, 2nd Workshop on VUV

Radiometric Calibrations of Space Experiments, Boulder, Colo., Nov. 1972.

16. Ott, W. R., Vacuum ultraviolet radiometry at NBS, Physikal ische Technische Bundesanstal

t

Colloquium, Berlin, Germany, Sept. 1973.

17. Ott, W. R., Absolute vuv radiometry with hydrogen arcs--comparisons with blackbody

calibrations, llth International Conference on Phenomena in Ionized Gases, Prague,

Czechoslovakia, Sept. .1973. 18. Ott, W. R., A new transfer standard for vuv spectral radiance calibrations, lAU

Colloquium No. 27, 4th Conference on UV and X-Ray Spectroscopy of Astrophysics and

Laboratory Plasma, Sept. 9-11, 1974.

19. Ott, W. R., NBS research on ultraviolet transfer source standards of spectral radiance

and irradiance, 3rd Workshop on VUV Radiometric Calibrations of Space Experiments,

Boulder, Colo., Sept. 1974.

20. Ott, W. R., Review of present standard source technology, 4th Workshop on VUV Radiometric Calibrations of Space Experiments, Boulder, Colo., April, 1976.

21. Ott, W. R., The argon mini-arc as a new transfer standard of spectral radiance in the

far ultraviolet, 4th Workshop on VUV Radiometric Calibrations of Space Experiments,

Boulder, Colo., April, 1976.

22. Ott, W. R., NBS ultraviolet radiometric standards, 12th Informal Conference on Photochemistry, Gaithersburg, Md., June 1976.

23. Ott. W. R., Sources of UV-B radiation. Environmental Protection Agency Biological

Instrumentation Workshop, Washington, D.C., November, 1976.

24. Saloman, E. B., Ederer, D. L., and Madden, R. P., Radiometry in the euv spectral

region: Standard sources and detectors, 4th International Conference on VUV Radiation

Physics, Hamburg, Germany, July 22-26, 1974.

25. Saloman, E. B., Calibration of radiometric standard detectors between 20 and 60 nm, 3rd Workshop on VUV Radiometric Calibrations of Space Experiments, Boulder, Colo.,

Sept. 1974.

64
26. Saloman, E. B., NBS transfer standard diodes, 4th Workshop on VUV Radiometric Calibrations of Space Experiments, Boulder, Colo., April, 1976.

27. Wiese, W. L., Arc plasmas as radiation standards in the vacuum ultraviolet, 6th

Yugoslav Symposium and Summer School on the Physics of Ionized Gases, Miljevac,

Yugoslavia, July 1972.

28. Wiese, W. L. , The high current hydrogen arc--a new radiometric standard source for the vacuum ultraviolet, Culham Laboratories Plasma Physics Colloquium, Abingdon, England,

July 1973.

29. Zalewski, E. F. , Detectors of UV-B radiation. Environmental Protection Agency Biological Instrumentation Workshop, Washington, D.C., November, 1976.

65
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69
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1. PUBLICATION OR RFPORT NO.

NBSIR 75-941

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3. Recipient's Acces.<;ion No.

4, TITLE AND SUBTITLE

The National Measurement System for Far Ultraviolet

Radiometry

5. Publication Date June 1977

6. Performing Organization Code

7. AUTHOR(S)

W. R. Ott

8. Performing Organ. Report No.

9. PERFORMING ORGANIZATION NAME AND ADDRESS

NATIONAL BUREAU OF STANDARDS

DEPARTMENT OF COMMERCE

WASHINGTON, D.C. 20234

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N.A.

17. KEY WORDS (six to twelve entries; alphabetical order; capitalize only the first letter of the first key word unless a proper name; separated by semicolons

)

Detectors; National Measurement System; radiometry; sources; survey; ultraviolet.

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