ntuu IR 79-1950

Measurements on Insulating

Materials at Cryogenic

Temperatures

William E. Anderson and Richard S. Davis

Electrosystems Division

Center for Electronics

and E!ectric3i Engineering

National Bureau of Standards

August 1379

Issued January 1 980

Final Reoort

Under Department of Energy Contract No. EA-77-A-01-6010

Task No. A023-EES

OC

100

. U56

79-195C

iyso

Prepared for

Brookhaven National Laboratory

Department of Energy

Monti Biraau of Stand#**

JAN 2 9 1980

t\pt- QiC'c » ^4 P

NBSIR 79-1950

MEASUREMENTS ON INSULATING

MATERIALS AT CRYOGENIC

TEMPERATURES

U

i—j

iC\~

William E. Anderson and Richard S. Davis

Electrosystems Division

Center for Electronics

and Electrical Engineering

National Bureau of Standards

August 1979

Issued January 1 980

Final Report

Under Department of Energy Contract No. EA-77-A-01-6010

Task No. A023-EES

Prepared for

Brookhaven National Laboratory

Department of Energy

U.S. DEPARTMENT OF COMMERCE, Philip M. Klutznick, Secretary

Luther H. Hodges, Jr., Deputy Secretary

Jordan J. Baruch, Assistant Secretary for Science and Technology

NATIONAL BUREAU OF STANDARDS, Ernest Ambler, Director

TABLE OF CONTENTS

Abstract i Summary i i Introduction . 1 I. Dielectric Loss Measurement Methodology 4

Dissipation Factor Measurement 7 A. Parallel Plate Sample Holder 8

B. Cryostat 11

C. Mandrel and Associated Cryostat for Coaxial Measurements ... 13

D. Standard Capacitor 17

E. Current Comparator Bridge 26

II. Dielectric Loss Results and Discussion 34

A. Parallel Plate Geometry 34

1 . Polymer Tapes 34

2. Epoxy Samples . 37

B. Coaxial Geometry 46

III. Partial Discharge Measurements Using the Pulse Height Analysis

System 58

Appendix 66

Partial Discharge Measurement System 66

I. Hardware 67

A. Detection Impedance and Amplifier 67

B. Absolute Value Circuit 69

C. Peak and Hold Circuit 73

D. Peak and Hold Control Logic 77

E. Analog-to-Digital Control Logic Circuit 79

F. Analog-to-Digital Converter 81

II. Software 83

A. Timing Constraints Imposed by Software and Processor 84

B. Operator Commands 89

C. Detailed Software Description 91

1. BASIS Main Routine 91

2. Data Collection Routines (statements 94-161) of Assembler

Language Listing 99

3. Utility Routines 101

III. Appendix References 150

IV. References 151
.

.

.

-

*

.

‘

- '
Abstract

This final report describes the results of a four-year effort to

study the high voltage dielectric behavior of various materials at

cryogenic temperatures. Dissipation factors at 60 Hz were measured for

polymer tapes and epoxy samples at 4.2 K, atmospheric pressure. Multi-layer

polymer samples in coaxial geometries at temperatures from 7 to 10 K and

helium pressures up to 1.5 megapascals were also studied. The measurements

were performed at stresses up to 40 MV/m. Since partial discharges were

a major source of losses at the higher stresses and their presence was

possibly detrimental to the integrity of the insulation, instrumentation

was developed and implemented to study these discharges under conditions

found in proposed ac superconducting power-transmission lines.

I

i
Summary

The contents of the following report are here summarized for the

convenience of the reader. The report covers the period from November 1974

through October 1978.

In November of 1974 the National Bureau of Standards began a project

sponsored by the then Energy Research and Development Administration to

study ac losses in dielectrics at cryogenic temperatures and at high

electrical stresses. The ultimate goal of the project was to provide

dissipation factor and partial discharge data under the proposed operating

conditions for Brookhaven National Laboratory's (BNL's) ac superconducting

power-transmission line (ac SPTL). Because of BNL's urgent need for

engineering data and the necessary delay involved in designing and

constructing a supercritical cryostat, initial efforts were toward

providing 60-Hz dissipation factor data of polymer films at 4.2 K and at

atmospheric pressure. These measurements provided valuable data at the

electrical stresses proposed for the ac SPTL. Dissipation factor measurements

on layers of polymer films suggested that losses at interfaces may

dominate the intrinsic dielectric losses of the polymer films. These

interfacial losses are probably due to partial discharges. Since their

effect may diminish under the proposed supercritical conditions of the

actual ac SPTL, measurements were extended to more realistic conditions.

A partial discharge measurement system was designed to carefully monitor

the integrity of the dielectric under partial discharge conditions.
Besides the measurements on the polymer tape insulation for the

BNL SPTL, dissipation factor and dielectric constant values of various

epoxies were provided to Union Carbide Corporation, Linde Division

(UCC-Linde). These epoxies were to be used as spacers in their liquid

helium- insulated cable.

In order to accomplish the necessary measurements, two different

cryogenic facilities were built. The first consisted of a conventional

glass double-dewar system. High voltage was introduced into the cryostat

by means of a vacuum-insulated bushing which was discharge free to

8.5 kV. All experiments were performed with the sample material immersed

in liquid helium at atmospheric pressure. Size limitations of the dewar

necessitated the use of a small (10 cm ) parallel-plate capacitor as

sample-holder. The second cryogenic facility consisted of a conventional

stainless steel dewar with a liquid nitrogen jacket. The sample was

placed in a pressure vessel which allowed measurements at pressures up

to 1.5 megapascals. Polymer films were wrapped around the bare cylindrical

high-voltage electrode permitting measurements in the coaxial geometry

and under the temperature and pressure conditions of the proposed

BNL SPTL.

Electrical measurement of dissipation factor was made by comparing

the loss of the sample dielectric with that in a commercial compressedgas high-voltage capacitor. This comparison was made with sufficient

accuracy by using the NBS current-comparator bridge. Samples formed the

dielectric of a three-terminal capacitor. Due to the small dissipation

factor allowable in any practical superconducting cable insulation, an
•6

accuracy of ±1 x 10 was desirable in the measurements. Success in

this was achieved through a meticulous absolute determination of our

compressed-gas high voltage capacitor.

As an initial consistency check we measured the dissipation factor

of liquid helium at 4.2 K. At a stress of 1.5 kV/mm the 60 Hz dissipation

factor was (0.3 ± 0.7) x 10"^. This is consistent with the fact that

liquid helium has no intrinsic loss mechanisms at power frequencies.

As previously mentioned initial measurements were made of singlelayer films with the parallel-plate sample holder at 4.2 K and atmospheric

pressure. No attempt was made to measure a representative sample of

polymer tapes. Only those tapes that proved to be among the most promising

from mechanical tests, low-voltage electrical tests, or economic considerations

were sent to us by BNL. Each sample was measured at least twice to test

repeatability and prevent erroneous values caused by the occasional

cracking of some materials. The polyethyl enes and polypropylenes both

have dissipation factors considerably less than 30 x 10"^ (upper limit

for BNL SPTL) at cryogenic temperatures and at design stresses of the

order of 20 kV/mm. These films along with the polyamide sample, however,

have poor mechanical properties at liquid helium temperatures. The

polycarbonate and polysulfone films are much better mechanically but

•6

have dissipation factors in the range of 50 to 100 x 10" . An attempt

by the manufacturer to improve the dissipation factor of one of these

materials (green polysulfone) by reducing the concentration of sodium

impurities was somewhat successful.

IV
While the dissipation factor of most of the materials increases

slightly with increasing voltage, both of the polyether-sulfone samples

measured have negative voltage coefficient. We do not know whether the

cause of this is related to the well -understood similar behavior of oilimpregnated paper-insulated capacitors.

The dissipation factor of the epoxies submitted by UCC-Linde were

-6

an order of magnitude larger than the polymer tapes but below the 500 x 10

limit for the UCC-Linde SPTL. There were inconsistencies in dissipation

factor results between different thickness samples made of the same

material. A model was developed that accounted for this behavior.

We found it impossible to make these single-layer atmosphericpressure measurements without coating the electrode-sample interfaces

with paraffin oil. Presumably this procedure suppresses partial discharges

at the interfaces. It was observed that when samples were not coated

with paraffin oil prior to insertion into the sample capacitor, the

measured dissipation factor exhibited a large voltage coefficient.

To examine further the effects of paraffin oil on various interfaces,

several stacking arrangements of polypropylene films were studied. We

measured the dissipation factor of three-sheet stacks of this material with

and without paraffin oil on the various interfaces. As the number of

uncoated surfaces increased, the positive voltage coefficient of the

dissipation factor increased. Since this effect may be suppressed under

the supercritical conditions of the BNL proposed SPTL, our measurements

were extended to these conditions.

v
Dissipation factor measurements on multi-layer coaxial samples

under supercritical conditions were for the most part encouraging.

-fi Dissipation factors for many samples were less than 20 x 10 for

stresses of several megavolts/meter. As the stress increased there

appeared a break point or point at which the dissipation factor became

strongly dependent on electrical stress. This break-point stress agreed

with the measurements of others on the breakdown of supercritical helium

when allowance was made for the dielectric mismatch of the polymer and

the helium butt gaps. The actual BNL SPTL will contain bedding and

screen layers. The screen layer was found to have little effect on the

dissipation factor. Preliminary measurements with the bedding layer did

indicate serious problems.

Part of the NBS program was to study the effect partial discharges

might have on the electrical insulation. NBS designed and constructed a

partial discharge measurement system for this purpose. The system which

includes a minicomputer, measures partial discharge amplitude spectra.

A change in a given spectrum would indicate that the properties- of the

dielectric were changing. Measurements under conditions of varying

electrical stress, frequency of the applied voltage, impurity or defect

concentration, temperatures, and pressures could yield important information

on aging processes at cryogenic temperatures.

Only a small number of long (3 hour) measurements were made with

this instrumentation yielding limited information. The effort near the

end of the NBS program was redirected to providing dissipation factor

vi
data for BNL on new materials thought to be promising. (The partial

discharge measurement system recently has been used extensively on

measurements of the partial discharge behavior of SFg at room temperatures).

VI 1

Introduction

In November of 1974 the High Voltage Measurements Section in the

Electricity Division of the Institute for Basic Standards (now the

Applied Electrical Measurements Group in the Electrosystems Division of

the Center for Electronics and Electrical Engineering) began a project

sponsored by the then Energy Research and Development Administration to

study ac losses in dielectrics at cryogenic temperatures. The ultimate

goal of the project was to provide dissipation factor and partial discharge

data for the dielectric materials under consideration for use in ac

superconducting power-transmission lines (ac SPTLs). At that time there

were two ac SPTLs being developed domestically. One was a rigid cable

that used liquid helium for both the coolant and the dielectric. The

center high voltage conductor was held in place by epoxy spacers. This

cable was being developed by the Linde Division of Union Carbide Corporation

(UCC-Linde). Brookhaven National Laboratory (BNL) was developing the

other ac SPTL. This cable was flexible until cooled. The insulation

contemplated was analogous to conventional oil -impregnated paper cables

in that helium played the role of oil and a suitable polymer played the

role of paper.

The early work then was involved with the measurement of the dielectric

constant and dissipation factor for the insulating materials to be used

in the BNL and UCC-Linde SPTLs. A group of workers at Oak Ridge National

Laboratory were complementing this effort by determining the breakdown

characteristics of these insulating materials under high electrical stress.
In order to provide timely data to BNL and UCC-Linde our early work was

limited to measurements of thin polymer and epoxy films at atmospheric

pressure and at 4.2 K. Dielectric constant and dissipation factor

measurements were made up to stresses of 40 MV/m. Of the polymer tapes

being considered for the BNL SPTL, several were found to have dissipation

-fi factors less than the 30 x 10 upper limit that BNL personnel had originally

ascribed in order to minimize refrigeration load. However, when stacks

of these thin polymer films were measured, their dissipation factor

showed an alarmingly strong positive voltage dependence. This necessitated

measurements under the operating conditions of the BNL SPTL in order to

determine if the resulting higher helium densities would reduce this

problem. Several epoxy samples were initially measured for UCC-Linde.

Since the epoxy represented only a small fraction of the total dielectric

volume in their cable, a higher dissipation factor could be tolerated.

Development of this cable was curtailed and, as a result, no additional

epoxy measurements were made.

Dissipation factor measurements on polymer tapes for BNL were thus

extended to multi-layer coaxial geometries, 7 to 10 K temperatures, and

1.5 MPa pressures. The dissipation factors for the most part under

these conditions showed far less voltage dependence than for multi-layer

samples at atmospheric pressure. The voltage dependence that did occur

seemed to be a result of partial discharges.

A partial discharge measurement system was developed based on the

pulse-height-analysis technique to study the behavior of these tapes

under the proposed operating conditions. The instrumentation is described

2
in an appendix to this report. The evolution of the partial discharge

amplitudes as a function of time for various pressures, temperatures, electrical

stresses, materials, frequencies, impurity or defect concentrations

would yield important information on aging processes at these low temperatures.

These measurements were never completed because of the termination of

funding in September 1978.

This report covers the period from November 1974 through October 1978.

The work through June 1976 will be described in lesser detail as it was

contained in an earlier report.^Also the previous report contained a

bibliography of useful references that will not be repeated here. This

report is divided into three major sections: Dielectric Loss Measurement

Methodology; Dielectric Loss Results and Discussion; and Partial Discharge

Measurements. The appendix provides a complete description of the

partial discharge measurement system developed for this project.

3
I. Dielectric Loss Measurement Methodology

In considering the measurement of dielectric loss, it is convenient

to model the dielectric and its electrodes as a combination of an ideal

capacitor and an ideal resistor. This model, in the absence of partial

discharges is adequate to explain the loss behavior of a capacitor

containing a dielectric. Two equally valid configurations of capacitor

and resistor are shown in Fig. 1. In general, the resistor value will

be a function of the frequency and of the applied voltage. The problem of

measuring dielectric loss may be thought of as equivalent to finding the

value of the resistor in either Fig. 1A or IB.

While many techniques to measure dielectric loss have been used,

circumstances generally limit the optimum choice. For instance, for

very lossy capacitors the test capacitor may be combined with an inductor

to produce an LC circuit. The value of L which causes the circuit to

resonate at a given frequency determines the value of C in Fig. 1 while

the width of the resonance can be used to find R or R'. Clearly, this

technique is unsuitable if the capacitor's loss is less than that of the

inductor.

Two techniques have been successfully applied to the measurement of

dielectric loss at cryogenic temperatures. One of these techniques

depends on the fact that current through the resistor of Fig. 1 is shifted

4
X

QC

o

>

rAAAn

o

11—jl

1 s

•v.cco

3

+ \

o

3 II A

lO

w c

«

H

m

5

FIGURE

1

Model

of

capacitor

with

dielectric

loss.
by 90 0 with respect to capacitive current. In the case of Fig. 1A,

j _ (a^C^R + jo)C)

V

o and in the case of Fig. IB, I = V

Q

(-^ + ju>C).

i *

2 r

2 d 2

I + a) C R

The angle by which the total current vector differs from the vector for a

pure capacitor is known as <5. The tangent of <5 (or tan 6) is a figure

of merit for dielectric materials. This number is also known as the

"dissipation factor", or "D.F.". In Fig. 1A, tan 5 = wCR; in Fig. IB,

tan 6 = cftT . For any good dielectric material tan 6 is small. If the

dielectric constant of a material is written in terms of its real and

imaginary parts, i.e., e = e' + je" where e' and e" are real numbers,

then tan <5 = -^-r . One can use ac bridge techniques to balance the two

current component^ against.known standards of capacitance and resistance and

thereby determine tan 6. This is the technique we have used. It will

be discussed in detail within this report.

A second technique, which has been successfully applied to the

measurement of single dielectric sheets at cryogenic temperatures,

measures tan 5 using a calorimetric method. The power dissipated

2

in a capacitor in the form of heat is P = I • V = toCV tan 5. If the

heat capacity of the sample and holder can be determined and is small, a

measurement of temperature rise can be used to find tan 6. This technique

T21 was pioneered in England by Vincett. L J It has been used successfully

F3l

in this country by King and Thomas. L J Calorimetric measurements have

proven to be extremely useful for studying intrinsic dielectric behavior

6
at 4 K over a wide range of frequency. The technique is, however, not

well suited to measurements of composite dielectric structures such as

actual cables because of the large heat capacities involved.

We have thus far assumed that the tan 5 losses are independent of

the applied voltage. It was further assumed that whatever be the source

of the dielectric loss, it causes no deterioration of the material. At

a high enough voltage, partial discharges begin to be observed and the

above two assumptions are no longer valid. No cable is designed to

operate in the partial discharge regime. Nevertheless, it is important

that partial discharges be examined because unplanned circumstances may

temporarily force the cable into partial discharge. Techniques for the

study of partial discharges in the cryogenic cable models will be presented

later in this report.

Dissipation Factor Measurements

We have measured tan 6 for various samples at cryogenic temperatures

by using a current comparator bridge operating at 60 Hz. The details of

the electronic instrumentation will be described below. Common to every

capacitance bridge technique is the balancing of an unknown capacitance

against a known standard. The unknown or sample capacitor contains the

dielectric to be measured. Thus, ideally, the sample capacitance is

determined by a combination of the capacitor dimensions and the dielectric

constant of the material filling the capacitor. The tan 6 of the capacitor

depends only on the sample dielectric. We used two sample capacitors in the

course of our measurements. One, constructed at NBS, was in the form of

7
parallel plates and was designed for measurements of single sheets of

dielectric material. The other, given to us by Brookhaven National

Laboratory, was a mandrel designed for the simulation of the composite

dielectric and coaxial geometry used in cryogenic cables of the BNL design.

A. Parallel Plate Sample Holder

The sample holder consists of the two plates forming the parallelplate capacitor, the dielectric of which is the material to be measured.

The stainless-steel electrodes are shown in Fig. 2. The bottom plate

consists of an active (inner) electrode and a guard ring. These two

electrodes were epoxied together then lapped and polished. The area of

-3 2

the active electrode is 1.05 x 10 m resulting in the following relation

between capacitance C and thickness d (in ym) of the dielectric:

C = 9.29 x 10

3

(e'/d) picofarads. (1)

Typical thickness of the sample dielectric ranged from 25 ym to 125 ym

so that the capacitances to be measured are in the range of about

100 to 1000 pF (e

1 'v 2 or 3 for proposed polymer insulation).

The capacitor is held together with two polyetrafluorethylene plates

using nylon screws and nuts with phosphor-bronze springs as shown in

Fig. 3. During the actual measurement the top electrode is energized

and the resulting current from the inner, active electrode is sent to

the current comparator bridge via a coaxial cable. The outer shield of

the cable is connected to the guard ring on the one end and to ground at

the bridge.

8
TOP ELECTRODE

BOTTOM ELECTRODES

FIGURE 2 Electrodes for parallel plate sample holder.

9
NYLON

BOLT

CO

o

—I

>

LU

LL

h-a.

LU

LU

Q

LU

Q_

s

<

co

10

FIGURE

3

Sample

holder

for

parallel

plate

measurements.
B. Cryostat

The cryostat is shown in Fig. 4. The inner diameter of the inner glass

dewar is 11 cm with a usable height of 1 m. A high-vacuum electrical

-5

feedthrough (%10 Pa) terminated at both ends by commercial ceramic

bushings (rated at 8.5 kV rms) was used to get the high voltage below the

liquid helium level. This was necessary because gaseous helium has poor

breakdown characteristics (several times worse than air). A stainless steel,

shielded, coaxial cable brings the low-voltage signal out of the liquid

helium to the top of the cryostat. The total resistance of the leads

running from the capacitor to the bridge was less than 1 n. At 60 Hz,

-6

this resistance would cause an added dissipation factor 1 x 10" in the

measurement of a 2600 pF capacitor. Since the capacitances of all samples

measured in this apparatus were substantially less than this, the lead

resistance is seen to have a negligible effect on the measurement of

dissipation factor.

A typical measurement required about 5 to 6 liters of liquid helium

allowing from 3 to 4 runs per 25 liter supply dewar. The helium would

remain in the cryostat for several hours, if necessary, although most

measurements were completed in less than an hour. The time for the

cryostat to cycle from room temperature to 4.2 K and back to room temperature

was about 20 hours which allowed daily runs.

Since the dewars are constructed of glass, no attempt was made to

measure the dissipation factor as a function of increasing helium pressure.

Also in these measurements the sample was immersed directly in liquid

11
FIGURE 4 Cyrostat for parallel -plate measurements.

12
m

helium while in the calorimetric measurements of King and Thomas 1- ,

the sample was in a vacuum.

C. Mandrel and Associated Cryostat for Coaxial Measurements

In order to test selected tapes at conditions more nearly simulating

the BNL cable design than those of our parallel-plate sample holder, we

acquired, in October 1976, apparatus developed by BNL. The apparatus

consisted of a cryostat specially designed to accommodate mandrels

around which were wound plastic tapes in simulation of cable insulation.

These mandrels were also designed and built by BNL personnel. In addition,

BNL provided us with a tapewinding device with which it was possible to

wind layers of tape on a mandrel at selectable pitch angles. Although

the cryostat and mandrel facility have been described in detail by their

m

designers 1- , it will be useful to restate the features of this facility

which were most important to our work and to detail our own modifications

to the equipment. The mandrels terminated in stress-relief cones at

either end. The bare portion of the mandrel was a cylinder of ^ 50 cm

in length and 1.3 cm in diameter. The mandrels could be mounted vertically

in the cryostat at which time the bare portion of the mandrel was

centered along the vertical axis of the cryostat. The inner chamber of the

cryostat was 5 cm in diameter. The stress-relief cones of the mandrels

allowed one to energize the center electrode to at least 50 kV without

the onset of corona. In addition, the cryostat was designed to withstand

helium pressures of over 10^ Pa at temperatures from 4 K to 10 K. The

cryostat was housed in a liquid-nitrogen jacketed, stainless-steel

helium dewar identical to that used at BNL.
Extensive modifications of the mandrels were necessary before

they could be used for D.F. measurements. At BNL, the mandrels were

used for breakdown studies. Therefore, the center electrode was

simply energized and the cryostat grounded. On the other hand,

D.F. measurements of the precision required by this project require

that the sample holder be a three- terminal capacitor. What is more,

the low voltage and guard electrodes must only be grounded at the

current comparator bridge. These problems were solved in the following

way.

First, a shallow groove was machined along the mandrel insulation

from the point at which it enters the cryostat to the point at which

it begins to taper toward the bare center electrode. A shielded

cable (made of an insulated wire in a stainless-steel tube) was

cemented into the groove with epoxy. The top of the cable was terminated

with a BNC connector. It was found that upon cooling, shrinkage of the

polytetrafluoroethylene insulation in the connector sometimes caused a

leak to the pressurized cryostat. Replacement of a small segment of the

insulation with epoxy solved this problem.

A second groove machined along the mandrel insulation provided

space for thermometer leads. For our three-terminal measurements

it was possible to introduce thermometers directly into the inner

chamber of the cryostat instead of relying on thermometers placed in

the vacuum space surrounding the inner chamber as was done at BNL.

14
At first, germanium resistance thermometers were used, but it was found

that these were not robust enough to withstand repeated cycling to

pressures of many atmospheres. Instead, calibrated carbon resistors

were used and proved to be nearly ideal.

Pressure in the cryostat was read using a Bourdon-tube type aneroid

barometer. A somewhat less accurate transducer was also used as a

check. The mandrels were wound on the tape-winding machine that we

obtained from BNL. This machine allows the pitch angle to be easily

varied. Figure 5 (a cross-sectional view parallel to the axis) shows

how the mandrels were wound and illustrates the guarding arrangement

that is necessary with the MBS current comparator bridge. The connection

to the stainless steel coaxial cable, mentioned above, is not shown.

The tape to be measured (Valeron* in Fig. 5) was first wound on the

mandrel with the proper registration and tension. The low voltage

electrode and the two guard electrodes were then attached. The inner

wire of the stainless-steel coaxial cable was soldered to the low voltage

electrode (the active electrode), and this electrode and wire were then

covered with a layer of insulation. Another guard, electrically attached

to the two guard electrodes and the outer conductor of the stainlesssteel coaxial cable, was placed over this insulation. A final layer of

insulation (not shown) was then wound around the outer guard to isolate

it electrically from the pressure vessel wall.

Under these conditions, the capacitance in picofarads of a measured

sample is

15
o

h-<

ccJ—

COo

LU

GC

incoi incoO

GC

LUI <>

LLO

CO

GC

LU>-<

CO

LUQO

GC

h-O

LU

_J

LUQ

GC<

Z>o• -»- CM

Q

LU

Q.

GL<

tmc GC

LU>

LUO o o z

GC

\— o o 1-

LU <

_l

—

J

LU ZD

LU

(5

COz < LL

hO MMC o GC > LU a > £ < LU o X

-J CO

CO • in un

LUcce>

16 .

HIGH

VOLTAGE

ELECTRODE

(stainless

steel)
C = 8.85 e*L

In r

2

/r

1

’

where L is the length of the active electrode in meters, r-j is the

radius of the inner electrode (mandrel) and r

2

is the distance from the

center axis of the mandrel to the active outer electrode. The quantity

s' is an effective value for the composite structure of polymer tapes

and helium-filled butt gaps.

D. Standard Capacitor

Since the dielectric properties of the sample are obtained by

electrically balancing the current in the sample capacitor with the

current in the standard capacitor, a knowledge of the properties of the

standard capacitor is essential for this measurement. A 100 pF compressedgas (nitrogen) capacitor was used for the standard. In the majority of

high voltage measurements, this type of capacitor can be assumed to be

lossless. (Commercial capacitors generally claim a dissipation factor

-fi of "less than 10 x 10 "). In our measurements, where a total dissipation

factor uncertainty of ±1 x 10”^ was necessary, the dissipation factor

of the standard capacitor must be accurately measured. The current

comparator bridge which will be described in the next section has the

capability of measuring relative dissipation factors to better than ±1 x 10 butthe absolute dissipation factor of the standard must be known in order

to determine the dissipation factor of the material being measured. The

dissipation factor of our standard capacitor was measured by John Q. Shields

of the Center for Absolute Physical Quantities, MBS. A brief discussion

of how this was done^’^ follows.

17
A guard ring capacitor with variable plate separation is placed in

one arm of a transformer ratio-arm bridge and the standard capacitor to

be measured in the other. Successive relative dissipation factor balances

between the variable capacitor at different plate settings and the

standard capacitor with auxiliary capacitors in parallel with it are

made. Since the relative dissipation factors between the standard

capacitor and each of the auxiliary capacitors can readily be measured,

then the relative dissipation factor between the standard and the variable

plate capacitor at several settings will be known. If the dissipation

factor for the variable plate capacitor is caused only by a surface

film, a plot of the relative dissipation factor versus capacitance

should be on a straight line as will be shown below. The guard-ring

capacitor with electrode spacing, d, and film thickness, t, is shown in

Fig. 6a. This capacitor can be represented by an ideal capacitor, C-j

,

in series with a lossy capacitor with capacitance, C

2

, and parallel

resistance, R

2

, Fig. 6b. This series combination can be represented as

in Fig. 6c by an ideal capacitor, Cg, in parallel with a resistor.

18
a.

c.

FIGURE 6 Guard-ring capacitor.

19
( 2 )

where

and

From (2),

or

Y

Y

T Y

2

Y

1 +Y2

Y, = jo)C

1 (3)

Y

2 ~ 1/^2 + 3^2 (4)

Y

0

= VRq + J^Cq. (5)

(3), (4), and (5),

Y q - ja)C

1 (1 + jo)C 2

R

2 )/0 + j^R

2

(C

n + C

2

))

U; 2

C

1

2

R

2

0 = + jojC-j [1 + oj 2

C

2

R

2

2

( C-j + C

2 )]

1 + (Jj 2R£

2

(C-j + ^

2

^**

( 6 )

20
Using (5) and (6)

R

o1 + O)2

Rj

2

(c-, + c

z y

U)

and

C

0 = C-, [1 + U)2

C

2

R

2

2

(C, + C

2

)]/[l + J R

2

2

(C

7 + C2

) 2

].

The dissipation factor, D.F., is equal to (u> C

q

Rq)

-1

D.F. =a) C

1 R2

/[l + J C

2

R

2

2

(C-, + C

2

)]

where

e

0

A

C

1 ‘ d - 2t

21
and

e r

£

0

2 " 2t

A

assuming an area. A, and dielectric constant e r for the film.

Since t « d or C-j « C

2

D.F. ^03 R

2 A/[(d - 2 t) (1 + a)2

C

2

2

R

2

2

]

or

D.F. % (7)

where for a particular frequency K is a constant independent of plate

spacing.

22
The film thickness t is much less than the electrode spacing so (7) can

be further approximated

D.F. * K/d.

Therefore, if the dissipation factor is caused by surface films, the

D.F. should vary inversely with the electrode separation, d, and hence

be proportional to the capacitance. A plot of relative dissipation

factor for the variable capacitor versus capacitance should be on a

straight line. The intercept of this line with the dissipation factor

axis represents the relative dissipation factor for infinite electrode

separation and, therefore, the dissipation factor of the standard capacitor.

The fact that the points do lie on a straight line supports this model.

A portable standard capacitor was calibrated in this fashion and

-fi found to have a 60-Hz dissipation factor of -1.1 x 10 with an uncertainty

-fi of ±0.3 x 10"°. Our compressed-gas standard capacitor had a relative

dissipation factor of 2.9 x 10"^ with respect to this portable standard

- - fi or an absolute dissipation factor of 1.8 x 10 ± 0.5 x 10" .

The negative dissipation factor, seemingly worrisome, is easily

explained. To see how this is possible, consider Fig. 7. The threeterminal measurement of a guarded lossless capacitor, C

$

, is shown in Fig. 7a.

23
c s

(j wCs-w2 RCL C H )

V1

R' = (w2 RCL C H )

FIGURE 7 Three-terminal capacitor with negative dissipation factor.
Capacitors and are the capacitances formed by the guard and the high and low

voltage electrodes. In a bridge measurement, the low voltage side is

grounded. In this case, the short-circuit transfer admittance of the

circuit shown in Fig. 7a is y-^ = ju)C

$

. Now suppose, as in Fig. 7b, the

capacitor's construction is flawed by loss in a common ground return.

This frequency-dependent mechanism is represented by a resistance, R.

2

If 1/Ro) is large, compared to both and C^, then y^ ^ jouC

s - u> R C^.

The right hand side of this relation differs from the ideal case by

containing a small term which is tt/ 2 radians out of phase with J(joC s

«

Since the measurement of y^ is made on a "black box", the results of

the measurement could be caused either by the circuit in Fig. 7b or

Fig. 7c. Fig. 7c is the schematic representation of a guarded capacitor with

capacitance C

g and dissipation factor equal to -l/ooCs R' where R' =

2 -i

(u) R C^) . The dissipation factor is negative. In the case of

our portable standard capacitor, the negative dissipation factor was

caused by the unsuspected presence of a layer of a high-loss adhesive

between the guard and ground.

Measuring the loss of a capacitor containing liquid helium as its

dielectric provided an independent means of checking the loss of our

standard. At low enough voltages a liquid helium capacitor should be

lossless — the helium itself has no loss mechanisms and its temperature,

4.2 K, reduces to insignificance the loss of any adventitious film on

the electrode surface.

^Our parallel-plate sample holder with 100 urn

dielectric spacers between the guard ring and the active electrode was

25
used as a liquid helium capacitor. The results of a bridge measurement

against our compressed-gas standard confirmed loss measurements of the

standard described above. (At a stress of 1.5 kV/mm the 60 Hz dissipation

factor was (0.3 ± 0.7) x 10"^).

E. Current Comparator Bridge

The real part of the dielectric constant and the dissipation factor

of a sample are measured by balancing the current in the sample capacitor

against the current in the standard capacitor using a bridge. A simplified

version of how this is done is illustrated in Fig. 8. The lossy sample

capacitor is represented by a parallel combination of an ideal capacitor,

C^, and a resistor, R^. At balance (i.e., zero signal at the detector,

D) since I XN

X

= I S

N

S>

C

X

= n sd

n dx C

s

and

D.F. = (u R

s Cs

) -1

where

26
o

<r c

O

< t

oo

z <

27

FIGURE

8

Simplified

current,

comparator

bridge,
The transformer in Fig. 8 is a three-winding current transformer or a

current comparator. Extensive work on this type of bridge has been done

Unfortunately, the bridge in Fig. 8 is not practical because resistance

standards for high voltage are impractical to make, and another method

for balancing the in-phase or loss current must be sought.

The circuit in Fig. 9 provides a suitable method for balancing the

loss component. An operational amplifier, which provides a virtual

ground for the current through the winding (the amplifier's open loop gain

being greater than 10 ), outputs a voltage signal equal to -V C

s /C^,

typically one thousandth of the source voltage, V, or smaller. A

variable resistance which is connected between the amplifier output

and the third current-carrying ratio winding, (opposite in polarity

to N<j) can be used to balance the loss component. The balance equation

now becomes:

F8 Ql

at the National Research Council in Canada and at NBS. ’ J

C

X

= n sd

n dx

C

s

( 3 )

D.F. = (N

3

/N

s

) (l/o) C

f

R

s

). (9)

28
!

5 CL

< < X

COlO o

r—If-

<> <

X

SZ 4-5

+-> c

•r- CD S E - O)

a) s_

C7> 3

TT oo •r— fO

S- <D -Q E

s_ s_ o o

4-

5 +J

fC u

5- tT3 fCT-4— Q.

e =

O O

CJ -r-

-4-5 4-> <TS c a.

CD -r6- to

i- OO 3 -r- o -a

o

CO

LUCC

es

29

ci

rcui

try

,
In the actual bridge the switches for the Ng and N<. windings are mechanically

coupled so that the bridge can be made direct reading in dissipation factor

for a particular frequency (e.g., 60 Hz).

The resistance of the leads between the voltage source and the

capacitors and between the capacitors and the bridge will contribute to

the dissipation factor. In the case of the standard capacitor side of

the bridge, it would take a lead resistance of about 25 ohms to cause an

apparent decrease in D.F. of 1 x 10“®. On the sample capacitor side of

the bridge, however, the lead resistance could become significant. From

(1) the capacitance for the sample capacitor could be as large as

-fi 1000 pF so that an increase in D.F. of 1 x 10 would be caused by a

lead resistance of 2 to 3 ohms. The actual lead resistance in our

measuring circuit is less than 1 ohm so that the lead resistance is

still negligible. Larger capacitance sample holders would require

careful consideration of the effect of the leads. The bridge in Fig. 10

remedies this problem by automatically compensating for the lead resistance

between the sample capacitor and the bridge. The small voltage, v,

caused by this lead resistance, r, results in the voltage drop across the

sample capacitor being V-v instead of V. To compensate for this, the

voltage v is inverted and passed through the capacitor, C<i, the resulting

current entering the N<. winding. The total current in the winding

then becomes

I s = VjtjoC^ - vjojC^

30
to O to

31

FIGURE

10

Current

comparator

bridge

with

lead

compensation,
or

I s = jo3Cs (V - vC£/C

s

).

If is set equal to C<., then

I s = jo)Cs (V-v).

The resulting current is as if a voltage V-v was placed across the

standard capacitor, the same voltage that is across the sample capacitor.

The compensating circuit, therefore, has eliminated the effect of this

lead resistance.

From (1), (8) and (9) the dielectric-constant, e', and the dissipation

factor, D.F., of the sample can be found from the bridge by the following

equations for the parallel -pi ate sample holder:

s' = (1.08 x 10" 4

) (d n ( 10 )

D.F. = (N

3

/N

s

) (1 /oj C

f

R

$

) + 1.8 x 10" 6 (ID

where C<~ is in picofarads and d is in micrometers.

32
The effect of the dissipation factor of the standard capacitor discussed

in the previous section is included in (11).

-6 „ The estimated uncertainty of (11) is ±1 x 10 at 60 Hz. The

uncertainty in (10), the dielectric constant, may be as large as ±10

percent even though the turns, n $dand n dx , are known to 1 x 10~^. This

is because the actual electrode spacing at low temperature is not

known. In our measurements the room temperature value of d is used

thereby assuming no thermal contraction of the sample. The thickness of

these thin samples is not always uniform which also contributes to the

error. Errors due to coating the sample with paraffin oil (discussed

below) are negligible.

Similar considerations hold for the mandrel measurements. The real

component of the dielectric constant is

e' = 0.113 n sd

n dx

C

$

In Cr^/r^/L (12)

where is in picofarads and L is in meters.

The dissipation factor is the same as (11). Measurement errors are

the same as for the parallel plate capacitor.

33
II. Dielectric Loss Results and Discussion

A. Parallel Plate Geometry

Many samples of different polymer tapes and epoxies were studied

using the parallel plate apparatus described above. The polymers were

all candidate insulators for the BNL flexible cable. The epoxies were

either under consideration as spacers in the pipe-type cable being

developed by the Linde Division of the Union Carbide Corporation

(UCC-Linde) or were used as bushing material in BNL test apparatus.

The sample holder was immersed in liquid helium at atmospheric pressure

(4.2 K).

All samples were coated with paraffin oil prior to loading in the

sample holder. Without the paraffin oil coating, the dissipation factor

of all samples showed a strongly positive voltage dependence. This

dependence could be greatly reduced by use of the paraffin oil, indicating

the presence of voltage-dependent interfacial losses at the metal -

plastic interface. These losses will be discussed more fully below.

King and Thomas^^ have shown that the paraffin oil coating introduces

no additional contribution to the dissipation factor. They place the

uncertainty of this determination at less than 1 x 10"® at 60 Hz.

1 . Polymer Tapes

The results of the polymer measurements are shown in Table I. The

voltage dependence on tan 6 is in most cases quite small. Measurements

were terminated at the first signs of partial discharge inception as

34
TABLE

I.

SUMMARY

OF

RESULTS

AT

60

HZ

AND

4.2 K

(A

4->

rtJ <o 

3 ora o l— CM

LOI o

CM LO LO

LO

CO •sl- CM

LO LOcnCO LOocn CM

LO or^-

a)

ot| 03 -Mr—

+-> o

OJ >

°o E3 = E

03 *i— h- X

(O

LOI o

CM

00LO

cn co LO

CM

LO

Oo

LOCM

LO r— r— r—

CM

CO

coCM

CM'3"

oo

LO

a>

+-> to

cu xj

cd ai fO *1“ +j i

r— CL O CL > c3E

•r—X

03

LO

CM

LOE

s- oo

r>* CMooo

CM

OCMOCM

LO o oCO I— CM

cn cn o O O o o o o o o o O o o o o o o o o CO o CM CM o o CM o

CM CM i

r— I—* CO T— r— osroo*3“

r->. CM

LO

LO

CL) o

-Xo E3- O*3“ LO

OO LO

CM

OCO

O oo o*3* o

sf

LO

C/1 O

s-u

sC "O 0* .—

,—, ,—

A , S i a> -o *o -a -a s_ p—

3 3 00 X) i— +j CU O) (D aj 03 U CU CU CU C cu r— 3 4-> +-> +-> +-> CU 3 CU CU -r- 1 4-> ai 3 3 3 3 r— r— s- S- +J CU 3 o •r— 0) cu ai cu a JO C7) CD "i- 3 CU o <c s- •r— •p— CJ> «C •>— CO - 1- —

- S_ o •<- 1— * 1 o CO s- CO i- 1 XI 1 s- 1 s_ 3 4- S- >5 -a cu 1 o 1 O a) cu cu o aj o co o o LU Q. i— O

sc a) >, a> a> 3 +-> 3 3 i 1 1 i E 3 -— +j ra I— e = >> ai - <u >5 CU >J CU cu <u O) -r- OO >-, o 3 1— ai i— -a 0J r— «— <D r— i— r^— r* 3 3 3 3 1 r—

cu cu

O 03 r— i— CU r— p— >i-<- >1 i

>,rO o o O 03 S_

—

-a -r- JO -r- >, 03 +-> >> rt3 Q. S_ Q. 03 Q. 03 '+- M- 4- 4- ^ 0) 03 o

•r- S_ SX -C -r- J= -rO

OO *rO T- r— r“ r— i—

•i— E O 03 03 -M

X 3 4->

X S- 1 5-X SX 3 3 3 3 SX

ra 1 CJ •>- GJ (O "t— a> os Q. 3 Q. 03 CL 03 (/) 00 oo to cu cu o; cu >1 o >5 3 >1 — E >1 ,r“ >> o >)•!- >> ,r“ >) >0 >> 3 5d->- +j r— O r— 3 1— JO 03 <— JO 1— 3 r— JO 1— JO r— CU r— J2

1X3 o o O ' O r— o —

o —o •«— o 'o o o O 4—

O - s: Qu Q_ CL. Q_ Cl. CL. CL. Cl. Q_ Q_ Cl. o_

35

Polyether-sulfone-B

(non-oriented)

30

800
evidenced by unstable bridge behavior. The repeatability of polymeric

samples from the same manufacturer is generally good although polymers

with the same generic name may differ markedly. Several of the samples

are seen to have tan 6

1 s less than 20 x 10~ 6

at design stresses of the

order of 10 to 20 kV/mm. However, these materials have rather poor

mechanical properties. The mechanically-sound materials have tan <5's in

the range of 50 to 100 x 10" . An attempt by the manufacturer to improve

the tan 6 of one of these materials (green polysulfone) by reducing the

sodium concentration met with some success.

The significant decrease in dissipation factor with increasing

stress for the two polyether-sulfone samples is unique in our lowtemperature experience. This negative voltage coefficient is a commonly

observed property of power-factor capacitors and there the effect is

well understood. ^ ^ The explanation for the observed behavior of polyethersulfone remains unexplained.

As a check of our measurements one can compare our data with the

n 2i published data of King and Thomas 1- J for experimental conditions of

4.2 K and 60 Hz. Agreement is excellent. The measurements are quite independent

of each other since theirs rely on a temperature rise and ours on an

electrical bridge balance to measure dissipation factor. Our measurements

also agree rather well with those of Mopsik made at NBS.^^ Mopsik's

apparatus is capable of studying the low voltage behavior of small

polymer samples as a function of temperature and frequency of applied

voltage. Comparison of our data with his is not quite independent

because the dissipation factor of his standard capacitor was supplied

36
by us. Nevertheless, we feel secure that this number is correct.

To examine the effects of paraffin oil on various interfaces, we

studied several stacking arrangements of 30 ym-thick polypropylene films.

This film was chosen because it exhibited a small voltage coefficient

over a wide range of voltage stress. The dissipation factor of three-sheet

stacks of this material was measured under the following conditions. In

one case, both sides of each sheet were coated with paraffin oil. In

another instance only the metal-insulator interfaces were coated. A

two-sheet stack with oil only between the metal-insulator interfaces was

also measured.

The results of these measurements are plotted in Fig. 11. The

slopes are consistent with similar measurements made using the calorimetric

n 31

method at another laboratory. 1- J Nevertheless, it is clear that the

nature of the interfaces plays an important role in the dissipation

factor of a composite structure at high stress. For this reason we

decided that simulated cable insulation must be studied under conditions

as close to those of the actual cable as possible. Hence, future studies

of dissipation factor in composite structures were undertaken using the

coaxial mandrel apparatus already described. The results of these

measurements will be described below.

2. Epoxy Samples

Epoxy measurements offered an additional experimental difficulty as

compared to polymer measurements: epoxy sheets must have surfaces which

are parallel and free from imperfections. This is because epoxy, unlike

37
Q Q

LU Hi H H

< <

o o

o o

z C/) CO

LU LU LU

o

</) E

k.

E

E

aoiovd NOiivdissia

38

FIGURE

11

Multilayer

stacks

of

polypropylene

at

4,2

k,

1

atmosphere

pressure.
plastic tapes, is not compliant at room temperature and thus will not

seat well between the electrodes of the sample holder. Due to this

problem, tan 6 measurements of epoxy samples which were not carefully

fabricated exhibited a pronounced voltage dependence. In samples which

were well-made, we observed a dependence of tan 6 with sample thickness.

We were able to develop a theoretical model which explains the thickness

dependence and allows us to ascertain the intrinsic D.F. of the material.

Our hypothesis to explain the observed thickness dependence of tan 5

is based on the following considerations. As a result of imperfect parallelism

of the epoxy surfaces as well as the rigidity of epoxy at room temperature,

the sample capacitance behaves as the model shown in Fig. 12. In addition

to the epoxy, the capacitor dielectric includes a thin film of thickness

t and dielectric constant e-| . In our measurements this film is either

mineral oil or liquid helium both of which have negligible loss. We

assume t is roughly the same for all well-made samples.

Assume the epoxy has a complex dielectric constant e' + je". Then

the capacitance and dissipation factor of the epoxy-film composite may

be found from the schematic representation of Fig. 12.

C

EF

= A£ V{d(1 + £

' T/£

i d )>

(tan 6 ) ef = (e'Ve'J/d + e'x/^d) (13)

39
±

d

T

FIGURE 12 Model of epoxy behavior.

40
where A is the active electrode area, d is the sample thickness and e

Q

is the permittivity of free space. The model, therefore, predicts that

the quantity (tan ^pp/Cppd is a constant which we shall call y, and

which depends only on properties of the epoxy.

y = (tan <5)pp

C

EF

d

Ac £

0

,2

( 14 )

Our hypothesis was tested with the aid of four samples of Perma-Rez

CRS-48* differing in thickness but identical in composition. The samples

were provided by UCC-Linde which took great care in their fabrication.

Each sample was measured twice. The raw data are shown in Table II.

The calculation of y is carried out in Table III. The average value, y,

9 -1

is equal to T1.94 x 10 (F*m) with a standard deviation of 1.6%.

Thus, a prediction of the model has been verified.

Equation 13 may be rewritten in the form

(tan <$)pp

^ = e'/e" + te'^/ e'^-jd. (15)

A plot of (tan 5)pp"' as a function of 1/d should give a straight line

if our hypothesis is correct. Figure 13 shows this to be the case. The

solid line was obtained using a least squares fit to the data. This fit

3 gives a y-intercept of 2.55 x 10 and a slope of 0.3039 m. Then

41
TABLE II

Dissipation Factor Data of Epoxy Samples

Tan 5 was read directly from bridge,

e' was calculated from the thickness of the epoxy and

the capacitance reading of bridge.

Perma-Rez CRS-48*, 60 Hz, 4.2 K

1020 ym thick sample

Voltage

(vol ts-rms)

tan 6

Run #1 (e

1 = 3.14)

tan 6

Run #2 (e* = 3.22)

100 348 x 10' 6

354 x 10” 6

200 347 353

400 344

600 340

800 337

1000 335

2000 335

510 ym thick sample

tan 5 tan 6

Voltage Run #1 (s' = 2.86) Run #2 (e* = 3.08)

100 314 x 10" 6 335 x 10" 6

200 312 333

400 303

600 297

800 289

1000 283

1500 270

249 ym thick sample

tan 6 tan 5

Voltage Run #1 (e ' = 2.24) Run #2 (s' = 2.38)

100 252 x 10" 6

265 x 10" 6

200 249 260

400 247

600 244

800 245

1000 251

140 ym thick sample

tan 6 tan 6

Voltage Run #1 (

e

1 = 1.96) Run #2 (e‘ = 1.88)

100 223 x 10" 6 204 x 10" 6

200 219 200

400 217

600 225

42
TABLE III

Calculation of Model Constant, y

d(m) D.F. C(F) Y 1 F«m

1 .016 x 10" 3348 x 10" 6 28.6 x 10" 1211.98 x 10

9

1.016 x 10" 3

354 29.3 11.89

0.508 x 10" 3314 52.1 11.86

0.508 x 10' 3335 56.2 11.73

0.249 x 10“ 3

252 83.5 12.12

0.249 x 10" 3

265 88.7 12.00

0.140 x 10- 3223 129.8 12.27

0.140 x 10" 3

204 124.5 11.70

AVE = 11.94 x 10

9

43
5x10 3

44

for

epoxy

measurements.
tan <5 = e"/e‘ = 392 x 10 ^ and

e' = 3.53.

The one adjustable parameter in our model, y/e-j, is found to have a value

of 3.37 x 10~ 5 m. Since the dielectric constant of the helium or mineral

oil film is about 1 or 2, t, the thickness of the film is predicted to

be about 20 ym. This number cannot be verified but it seems reasonable to

us since it is the same order as machining tolerances.

Evidently, epoxy sample results must be interpreted with considerable care

in order to avoid error. Measurements on a single, thin sample must be

viewed with dubiety. Further, different lots of epoxy may have dissipation

factors which depend on the details of preparation. We have measured

various epoxies used in the casting of high voltage bushings and find

•6

their dissipation factors to vary over a range of (200 - 350) x 10

depending on the lot. We have also measured a 1.6 mm-thick sample of G-10, a

material commonly used as circuit board and found its tan 6 to be

• 6

560 x 10 and its dielectric constant to be 4.2.

45
B. Coaxial Geometry

The tests using the parallel-plate electrodes were designed to

obtain data on the intrinsic behavior of various materials under consideration

as insulation in superconducting cables. The mandrel measurements were

designed to study the behavior of the composite insulation being considered

for the BNL cable. This insulation composite consists of layers of plastic

tape wound at a particular registration (we used a 65-35 registration for

all our measurements) and the helium which fills the butt gaps formed by

the plastic tape layers. This is analogous to conventional, flexible oil-filled

cable but, instead of kraft paper and oil, one uses plastic tapes and helium.

Of particular concern at high electrical stress is the butt gap region. It

is here that field enhancement will occur, caused by the dielectric mismatch

between helium (c

1 ^ 1.0) and plastic (e

1 ^2). In an effort to improve

the breakdown properties of the helium-filled butt gaps, the cable is operated

at high pressure. At design conditions, the helium is in a region past its

triple-point. In this "supercritical" region the formation of bubbles is

suppressed because a gas-liquid interface cannot exist under equilibrium

conditions. The suppression of bubble formation improves the breakdown

properties of the helium. In addition, the heat capacity of the helium is

n 4i

a maximum along the transposed critical line 1- J which is useful to the

engineering of the cable refrigeration.

The first measurements made were with a simple composite structure: four

layers of 75 ym - thick Valeron* wound directly on the bare mandrel. Copper

was wrapped around the Valeron* in order to form a three-electrode, guarded

coaxial capacitor as described above.

46
The sample was immersed in helium and the dissipation factor was

measured at a range of helium pressures (170 kPa to 1,150 kPa). The

temperature was varied from 8 K to 9.5 K. Typical data are shown in

Fig. 14. As with all the data obtained from this sample, the

' _5

dissipation factor begins at a value less than 10 , increases very

gradually with applied stress and then at a well-defined, reproducible

point begins to increase rapidly with electrical stress. The "break

point", or point at which the D.F. becomes strongly dependent on electrical

stress, is a function of the density of helium in the butt gaps. Pertinent

numbers are gathered in Table IV.

The variability in D.F. measurements before the break point as a -6

function of different helium densities has a range of less than 2 x 10" .

The tendency for D.F. to be somewhat lower at higher He density may be

due to experimental scatter but might also be caused by the disappearance

of interfacial losses at higher helium densities. The observed effect

is too small to permit one to be certain of its origin.

The observed function of break point stress with helium density, when

normalized to the maximum stress, is identical to Meats' results for the

n 5i breakdown of supercritical helium. J The correlation of our break point

data with Meats' helium breakdown data suggests strongly that the break

point signals the start of discharges in the butt gaps. We were not able

to correlate the numerical values of break point stress with Meats' data

because of the geometrical complexity of a practical cable sample.

47
CO

48

FIGURE

14

D.F.

of

Valeron*

in

coaxial

geometry.
TABLE IV

Dissipation Factor Results of Valeron * Samples in Coaxial Geometry

D.F. at Stress at Inner

IMV/m Electrode at

He Density Temperature (inner electrode) "Break Point"

9 kg/m

3

9.3 K 8.2 x 10' 6

3.2 MV/m

20 8.4 8.4 4.5

45 8.5 7.4 7.2

70 8.7 6.4 12.5

90 8.9 7.3 11.1

49
It was also observed by using a commercial partial discharge detector

that the break point corresponds to the partial discharge inception

voltage. The sensitivity of the partial discharge detector was ^ 0.2 pC.

If the increase in D.F. is due to discharges of magnitude q at a single

rigi site, then elementary considerations 1 J predict that the dissipation

factor caused by these discharges is

D.F. = q/irCV

where C is the sample capacitance and V is the applied rms voltage. In

the case of the sample under study, C ^ 950 pF. Since the resolution of

our capacitance bridge is ±0.2 x 10"® in D.F., repetitive discharges of

order ^ 1 pC can be detected at an applied voltage of 1 kV. (This

voltage corresponds for the sample under study, to a stress of 3.4 MV/m

at the inner electrode).

Partial discharges were detected using a commercially available,

balanced detector. Balanced detection was used to suppress the effect

of voltage pulses which may occur at the output of the power supply.

These unwanted discharges were further suppressed by the presence of a

100 to resistor between the power supply and the sample. This resistor

and the stray capacitance to ground on the load side of the resistor form an

effective low-pass filter. The resistor also limits current in the

event of a flashover or breakdown at the sample. The high voltage wiring

50
was identical for the measurement of D.F. and for corona detection.

Only low-voltage leads needed to be changed in order to proceed from one

type of measurement to the other.

Once the behavior of this simple system was studied and reliably

reproduced, the next step was to see how the addition of bedding and

screen layers would alter the behavior. It was anticipated that the BNL

cable insulation would be wound over a spongy semiconducting bedding

layer covered by an intercalated layer of plastic tape. The plastic

tape would have one metallized surface (at the bedding interface) and

would thus serve as a screen. Polytetrafluoroethylene impregnated with

carbon was the choice of bedding layer. The bedding was deemed necessary

for mechanical reasons and, of course, the screen would then be necessary

to prevent ac losses which the semiconducting bedding would otherwise

introduce.

We first ran a sample of four layers of Valeron* wound over an

intercalated layer of metallized Valeron*. -The results were similar to

the system without the screen. The screen did cause a slight slope to

appear in the pre-break point section of the D.F. vs. stress curve (Fig. 15)

but the break point itself now occurred at a somewhat higher stress.

No additional partial discharges were observed below the break point.

Introduction of a bedding layer could not be studied carefully due

to more immediate needs of BNL for measurements on a new candidate

insulation. Prel iminary measurements (Fig. 16), however, indicated that introduction

51
o

® aoiovd NOixvdissia

52

STRESS

AT

INNER

ELECTRODE

(MV/m

rms)
T3C

(O

(suu ui/aiai) aaoaioaia «3nni iv ss3uis NoiidaoNi vnouoo

53

without

screen

and

bedding

layers.
of a bedding layer between the bare electrode and the screen greatly

increased the D.F. of the composite. Partial discharges were detected

at voltage minima indicating contact noise in the sample holder.

Similar results have been observed by a General Electric group studying

n 7i bedding layers in experimental cryoresistive cables. 1- J

At the request of BNL, we began a study of three composite polymer

tapes. The tapes have been designated PP-U-PP(B), 3PP-2ll(A) and

PP-PE-PP(B). All three were 19 mm in width and were color-coded (blue,

violet, and red). The blue tape (PP-U-PP(B)) consisted of two layers of

32 pm - thick polypropylene bonded with a 2.5 ym - thick layer of

polyurethane. The violet tape (3PP-2U(A)) had three layers of the

polypropylene bonded with 2.5 ym - thick layers of polyurethane. Finally,

the red tape (PP-PE-PP(B) ) had two layers of the polypropylene bonded

with a 2.5 ym - thick layer of polyethylene. Microscopic study of the

tapes by the NBS polymers group had revealed the presence of numerous

voids in the bonding layers of these tapes. It was anticipated that measurement

of the D.F. and partial discharge inception voltages of these tapes

would elucidate the role of the voids in the tapes' behavior at high

electrical stress. Some of the results are plotted in Figs. 17 through 19.

While the different tapes show different behavior, the results are

such as not to be explained by consideration of voids in the polyurethane binding

layer. Such consideration would predict the violet tape, with the highest

percentage of binding layer, would have the greatest loss. A comparison

of the data for the three laminated samples shows that the violet sample

(3PP-2U(A)) has somewhat superior dissipation factor properties

at the high electrical stresses of interest. The violet

54
60x10-6

hT=

8.6 K

dOlOVd NOUVdlSSlG

55

STRESS

AT

INNER

ELECTRODE

(MV/m

rms)
60x10-6

1-

Density

=

100

Kg/m

3

co

cc

ZDO

UOlOVi NOIlVdlSSIQ

56

STRESS

AT

INNER

ELECTRODE

(MV/m

rms)
X°

aOiOVd NOliVdSSSIQ

CD

CM

CM

57

STRESS

AT

INNER

ELECTRODE

(MV/m

rms)

FIGURE

19

D.F.

of

PP-PE-PP(B)

sample

in

coaxial

geometry.
sample and the blue sample both have relatively thin polyurethane layers

but the violet sample has two such layers with four polypropyl enepolyurethane interfaces compared with one layer and two interfaces for

the blue sample. The discussion by Khoury in the BNL quarterly report

dated 2 November 1977^^ on the morphology of these two tapes does not

give any clues to this behavior. The voids in the laminating layers of

the two tapes are similar in shape and number.

III. Partial Discharge Measurements Using the Pulse Height Analysis System

The partial discharge measurement system (PDMS) as developed at NBS

(described in the appendix to this report) performs high-speed pulseheight-analysis of the partial discharge amplitudes. It can be used

much the same way as conventional discharge detectors. That is, the

PDMS may be attached to the detection impedance of any conventional

ngi

partial discharge circuitry. 1- J The circuit used in our laboratory is

shown in Fig. 20. It is very nearly the same as the bridge circuit used

for our D.F. measurements. The resistor, R, which limits supply current

in the event of breakdown also forms a low-pass filter with the stray

capacitance between the load and ground. This filter tends to suppress

spurious spikes in the supply. The capacitor is conventionally known

as the "coupling capacitor". In our case, we used the same compressedgas capacitor which also served as our standard for bridge measurements.

The low side of the coupling capacitor is connected directly to ground

as is its guard electrode. The sample capacitor, C , is, of course, the

A same as was used in our mandrel measurements of D.F. The guard electrodes

58
H.V.

SUPPLY

U.Q.Q.mQgaflr

ri

l>

59

FIGURE

20

High-voltage

circuit

for

partial

discharge

measurements.
of C are connected to ground while the low voltage electrode is connected

X

to the detection impedance, Z. In our case, Z consisted of a resistor,

capacitor and inductor in parallel. The RLC circuit parameters were

chosen so that a very narrow pulse (< 30 ns) produces an output of a

critically damped pulse of width ^ 2 ys. Of course, the choice of

capacitance in the RLC circuit is not entirely discretionary because of

unavoidable strays in parallel with R and L. It should also be noted

that the guard capacitances of the three-terminal capacitors C. and C

K X

act in parallel to effectively increase the value of C^. This is an

important consideration if the signals on the detection impedance are to

be related theoretically to partial discharges in the sample. The

actual calibration of the entire system was carried out experimentally

at low voltage by using a pulse generator in conventional fashion.

Time and other constraints only permitted the use of the PHA system

in one actual test. This was an attempt to monitor a sample of cable

insulation under consideration of accelerated aging.

The partial discharge measurement system is a powerful tool for

studying the aging of cryogenic dielectrics under discharge conditions.

In order to design a meaningful experiment, some mechanism must be

provided to accelerate this aging process so that some changes might be

observed during the course of the experiment. Accelerated aging might

be accomplished by increasing the frequency of the alternating voltage,

raising the sample temperature or some other means. An attempt was made

to accelerate the dielectric aging by running at high stresses so that

large discharge activity was observed (discharges of the order of 200-

300 pC).

60
The sample measured consisted of four layers of Valeron* wound over

two intercalated tapes of metal ized Valeron*. There was no bedding

layer. The sample was run at a pressure of about 1.35 megapascals and a

temperature of about 8 K. The applied voltage was 6.95 kV which is

equivalent to an electrical stress of about 18 MV/m. The partial discharge

inception level for this sample was at about half this stress.

The original plan was to run this sample at this elevated stress

for as long as liquid remained in our cryostat 15 hours). The pulse

height distributions at the beginning of the run, two hours later, and

3-1/2 hours into the run are shown in Fig. 21. These are not cumulative

distributions but are fresh distributions taken for a 10 minute interval

at the measurement time. While there appear to be some differences (the

valley disappears with time), the distribution of large discharges does

not vary significantly. About a half hour after the last picture in

Fig. 21 was taken, our partial discharge measurement system suddenly

stopped working. An analysis of the hardware indicated that a protection

diode in a preamplifier failed. After removing this preamplifier and

the partial discharge measurement system, the sample was reenergized and

discharges monitored with a conventional discharge detector. The sample

appeared to be normal suggesting that the failure was unrelated to the

sample.

It was decided to repeat the same test using the same sample with

improved preamplifier protection. Figures 22a and b show the results at

the beginning of the test and 2-1/2 hours later. The results are similar

to the first test on this sample except that the valley has disappeared.

61
(a) Beginning

( c) 3 l/E hoars later

FIGURE 21 Discharge spectra-first run.

62
(a) Beginning

(b) 2 1/2 hours later

(c) After failure

FIGURE 22 Discharge spectra-second run.

63
Between the two runs the problem of the dynamic range of the system,

mentioned in the Appendix, was readdressed. It now appears likely that

the valley in the distribution observed in the first run was a result of

improper setting of the threshold detector caused by an erroneous value

for the dynamic range. It appears that the sample in the second run has

changed little after almost 3 hours at 18 MV/m. At the three hour point

the sample failed. This time, with improved protection for the preamplifier,

the system survived and the discharges indicating failure were observed

on both the conventional corona detector and the pulse-height analysis

system. Figure 22c shows the output of the latter system. The discharge

rate was so large that the minicomputer was "locked up" and had to be

shut off and "rebooted" to retrieve the data. Figure 22c shows that several

of the channels are filled (32,767 counts). The fact that certain channels

are filled and others appear empty probably is not significant. At high

discharge rates the a-d converter and related logic could not perform

accurate conversions.

The voltage was reduced to zero and the inception voltage for this

failure was measured. As opposed to the first run on the sample, this

time the inception voltage was practically at the turn-on voltage indicating

permanent damage to the sample. After the sample had reached room

temperature, it was measured again with SF^. The inception voltage was

still very low.

64
There was a striking similarity between the failures for the two

runs (or possible failure for the first run). They both occurred about

the same time after the run began. It was first thought that this meant

the dielectric tapes were aging in the presence of this high stress.

But now the significant similarity appears to be that the liquid helium

in the dewar had reached the identical level at the time of the two

failures, 63 cm from the bottom of the helium dewar. Since this is near

the bottom of the pressure vessel, it is likely that the temperature

differential along the mandrel length is increasing at this point.

While a 2 K temperature differential is often observed, an increase to 4

decrease the helium density at the top of the mandrel to about half the

value at the bottom.

When the mandrel was removed from the pressure vessel, a puncture

was observed through the four layers of Valeron* and the intercalated

screen. The site of the puncture was under a relatively sharp corner

edge of the guard electrode at the very top of the sample.

Termination of this project prevented us from continuing these

measurements in order to systematically study aging processes at

cryogenic temperatures. The partial discharge measurement system has

proven most valuable in other measurements such as the study of partial

discharge behavior in sulfur hexafluoride.

would

65
APPENDIX

Partial Discharge Measurement System

A partial discharge measurement system (PDMS) was developed in order

to study aging processes in electrical insulation. While the original

system was designed for the studies of partial discharge behavior at

cryogenic temperatures, the PDMS has been used for more conventional

insulation systems as well. The PDMS uses the technique of pulse-heightanalysis in order to obtain amplitude spectra of the partial discharges

as a function of time. Changes in these spectra as a function of applied

electrical stress, frequency, temperature, pressure, impurity or

defect concentration could yield important information on aging processes.

Pulse-height-analysis has been used to study partial discharges

FA-i 1 previously. 1- J The system developed at NBS has the advantage of being

significantly faster (i.e. , the dead time is only 8 ys compared to about

50 ys for conventional systems). The key to this speed is a fast

analog-to-digital converter and the use of the direct-memory-access

input to a minicomputer used for data acquisition. Having a minicomputer

as part of the system results in increased power and versatility compared

to other systems based on conventional multichannel analyzers.

A description of the PDMS will be presented in two sections: hardware and software. The intent is to provide enough information so that the

system could be duplicated by others if they wished.

66
I. Hardware

A. Detection Impedance and Amplifier

A typical detection impedance, Z, is shown in Fig. A-l. Typically

the impedance is some RLC circuit tuned for optimum system behavior.

The selection of this impedance can affect the dynamic range of the

PDMS. If a discharge results in an under-damped oscillation, the PDMS

can be adjusted so as not to trigger on the subsequent peaks. This, however,

increases the dead time. This detection impedance also severely limits

protection devices that can be used. Normally some protection should be

placed between the detection impedance and the amplifiers to follow.

Unfortunately high-speed protection devices have too large a capacitance

resulting in very small signal levels and far from critically damped

performance. Care must therefore be taken in circuit design so that if

a breakdown does occur the most likely component to fail will be readily

replaceable.

A small but significant level of 60-Hz voltage (and harmonics) is

present at the detection impedance. This voltage, becoming more serious

at higher voltage levels, can cause the peak-and-hold circuitry to

trigger on the peaks of the applied sinusoidal voltage giving erroneous

discharge spectra and ultimately saturating the lower channels.

A standard method of reducing this voltage is to use balanced

detection of the partial discharge pulses. The balance is made to

null the common-mode partial discharges which may be occurring in the

power supply, for example, but this balance is generally close enough

to a 60 Hz balance to eliminate this source of voltage. Balanced

67
TO

PHA

SYSTEM

to

+-> sz

<DE

<U

s_33

t/) 03

O)E

QJCD

Srau

to

fO

s_

03Q.

S-o

4—

s_o

CDCD

03

4-> 0>1 .c

CDf «c

ccZDo

68
detection seemed impractical in this development system, however, and was

not pursued. Instead of a balancing impedance, active circuitry

was used. Fig. A-2, to inject a 60 Hz signal of adjustable amplitude

and phase into one input of a differential amplifier Fig. A-3. The

other amplifier input is derived from the corona detection impedance

after being amplified by the wide-band FET preamplifier Fig. A-4. This

preamplifier incorporates a high pass filter (cut-off frequency of

5 kHz) to also help reduce the effects of the applied voltage and the

harmonics. The input of the 60 Hz buck-circuit can be connected to

the primary of the supply transformer. Since the transformer itself

generates harmonics, the buck-circuit is only useful for canceling

out the 60 Hz component. An oscilloscope is used for this balancing,

adjusting the phase and amplitude controls until the signal is zero

(below the partial discharge inception voltage). Once the zero has

been obtained no further adjustments are normally necessary over the

transformer's working range. The presence of harmonics in the supply

voltage ultimately limits the dynamic range of the PDMS. That is,

partial discharges must appear larger than the sinusoidal harmonics in

order to be observed.

B. Absolute Value Circuit

The partial discharge measurement system as it is now designed,

measures the discharge magnitude and ignores the polarity of the discharge.

The system could be easily modified to keep track of the discharge

polarity. It would, however, necessitate a redesign of the peak and

hold circuitry.

69
70

FIGURE

A-2

Circuit

for

reducing

60-Hz

common-mode

voltage.
20K

9.1 K

o

71

FIGURE

A-3

Differential

pulse

amplifier.
I

> ~L

CM —

N

T

72

FIGURE

A-4

Wi

de-band

FET

preampl

i

fier.
The present system requires an absolute value circuit. Fig. A-5, to

convert the bipolar pulses to negative pulses suitable for the peakand-hold circuit. This circuit is basically an ideal diode circuit

and an adder-subtractor. For positive input pulses diode D-j conducts

and does not so that the voltage, is zero. The feedback variable

resistor is adjusted so the output of the second operational amplifier

is equal in magnitude but opposite in polarity to the positive input.

For negative pulses^ conducts and D-j does not. The signal at is a

positive pulse of equal magnitude to the input. The output of the

adder-subtractor is minus two times the positive pulse plus minus one

times the negative pulse or a negative pulse of equal magnitude to the

input pulse.

C. Peak and Hold Circuit

The peak and hold circuit shown in Fig. A-6 is designed for a

negative input pulse whose magnitude is less than 5 volts and whose

duration is from 1 to 3 ys. The purpose of the circuit is to hold the

peaks of the voltage pulses and provide a signal to the peak and hold

control logic when the peak is above some selectable threshold values.

After the voltage pulse has been processed by the analog to digital converter

and the minicomputer, the peak and hold circuit is reset for the next

measurement.

73
74

FIGURE

A-5

Absolute-value

circuit.
h

CC

<

H

75

FIGURE

A-6

Peak

and

hold

circuit.
The basic peak and hold circuit consists of operational amplifiers

A-j , A^, and associated circuitry. With S-j and open the circuit will

follow the negative peaks. If e-j is less than e

2 (and both less than

zero), diode D-j will conduct thereby charging the 500 pF capacitor. If

e-j is less negative than e£, diode D-j will not conduct (and capacitor C

will not discharge) but diode D£ will conduct so that a feedback path is

provided and A-j will not lockup, must have a large input impedance

in order to prevent the 500 pF capacitor from discharging. Amplifier A^

provides a gain of 2 before the signal is sent to the analog to digital converter.

In order to prevent the system from being swamped by low-level

noise signals a threshold circuit, A^, is used. The reference potential

is adjusted by a 20-turn potentiometer. If the peak circuit is more

negative than the threshold voltage the output of A^ swings positive.

This causes the inverter output (7406) to go low which causes the output

of the positive NAND buffer (7438) to go high. This signal, START 1,

indicates the presence of a partial discharge event of sufficient

magnitude to be measured. START 1 is used by the peak and hold control

logic (to be discussed below) to initiate the necessary chain of events

for a discharge to be processed.

The peak and hold control logic, after allowing time for the discharge

pulse to reach its peak value 3 ps), sends a hold signal back to the

peak and hold circuit. This signal closes S-j so that additional pulses

cannot interfere. After the partial discharge has been processed

76
a RESET signal momentarily discharges the 500 pF capacitor, C, through

switch S

2

, which grounds e

2

and causes START 1 to go low. The subsequent

removal of the HOLD signal opens S^ and thereby enables the peak and

hold circuit.

D. Peak and Hold Control Logic

The peak and hold control logic is shown in Fig. A-7 along with the

various signal levels. Input XI 04 is connected to the computer's general

reset signal and on computer turn-on this signal (a low-level pulse)

initializes the peak and hold control logic.

When START 1 goes high (indicating a discharge of magnitude greater

than the threshold) the output of the positive-NAND Schmitt-trigger

(7413) goes low. This does two things. First of all a low-level pulse

is outputted from Q of the monostable multivibrator, M^. This goes to the

preset of the J-K flip-flop, J-j which sets Q" low. This effectively

causes the output of the positive-NAND Schmitt-trigger (7413) to return

to the high state and stay there until the discharge pulse has been processed.

Secondly it causes a high-level pulse to be outputted by Q of M-j with a

3 ys delay time to its trailing edge. This pulse does two things.

First it causes the monostable mul tivibrator Mg to output a low-level

pulse which goes to the preset of the J-K flip-flop, Jg. This causes O’

of J

2

to go low which raises the HOLD signal. Also the output pulse of

M-| goes to M

2

which causes a high-level pulse to be outputted by Q of M

2

with a 1 ys width and subsequently a high-level pulse out of Q of Mg which

results in a similar low level pulse at START 2 which goes to the analogto-digital control logic circuit and starts the conversion process.

77
74121

74121

74121

+5

7413

(3/Us)

(Ifis)

(30ns)

7438

J

iqo

oc

LUK

Z>a.

CM S

78

100

O

Reset

FIGURE

A-7

Peak

and

hold

control

logic.
The hold signal stays high until a low-level pulse is returned on

Y71 indicating that the data point has been read by the selector channel.

This low-level pulse does several things. It causes a high-level pulse

on RESET which partially enables the peak and hold circuit by zeroing

the hold capacitor, C. The Y71 pulse also causes a high-level pulse at

Q of My. Since the clear, preset, J, and K inputs of J-K flip-flop Jg

are high (by the Y71 preset) the high level input clock pulse causes Jg

to toggle or Q to go low. This causes a high level output pulse at Q of

Mg. This pulse causes J-K flip-flop Jg to toggle which results in the

input of Mg going low and the HOLD pulse going low. The removal of the

HOLD signal opens switch S-j of Fig. A-6 and enables the peak and hold circuit.

A high level pulse is outputted from Q of Mg which causes J-| to toggle

thereby causing Q" to go high. This enables the next sizable pulse to

trigger the 7413 positive-NAND.

E. Analog-to-Digital Control Logic Circuit

The control logic for the analog-to-digital converter is shown in

Fig. A-8 along with the various signal levels. This circuitry is designed

to give the analog-to-digital converter a suitable start signal, to

notify the computer when the conversion is completed and data can be

read, and to produce a signal level to indicate when the digital data

has been read by the computer.

The low-level pulse, START 2, from the peak and hold control logic

circuit causes a high level pulse to be outputted at Q of the retriggerable

monostable multivibrator, M-| . This output pulse is suitable to start the

analog-to-digital converter. After the conversion process is completed

79
74123

J3

START 2 o—

(From Peak

and Hold

Control Logic)

i*103

(From 7438

Computer)

100 + 5

lOpFJT114

+5^VV\J4l5

5K

* Start to A/D

+5

1 -*ri*«-30ns

START J * «- - 4 /is » EOC -T

BUSY

Y71

FIGURE A-8 A/D converter control logic.

u

u

80
the analog to digital converter sends the trailing edge of the positive pulse,

EOC to the 7476 J-K flip-flop, J-j. The output of this flip flop, Q, is

initially high because of the preset going low caused by the XI 04 clear

pulse. The EOC pulse causes the flip flop to toggle resulting in Q of J-|

and hence BUSY, (XI 1 8 ) going low. This tells the selector channel that

data is ready to be read. If the computer is not busy the computer

sends back the Y71 low-level pulse. This causes the flip-flop preset to

again go low which causes J,K, and Q to go high. The Y71 also causes a

high-level DRG1 pulse which strobes in the data. BUSY is again high and

stays there until the next data point has been converted. If the computer

is busy (exchanging buffers, for example), the Y71 low-level pulse will

not be returned until the computer is not busy and the data point can be

read. This means that the data point will not be lost. However, the

peak and hold control logic will also not be reset until it sees the Y71

pulse so any additional discharges will not be measured. The Y71 pulse

functions to keep other data from entering the peak and hold circuitry

(and hence the analog-to-digital converter) until the previous data

point has been completely processed. A convert command can be simulated

by the computer by sending to the interface board any output command.

This causes a high-level pulse at XI 03 which results in a low-level

pulse at the A input of M-j

.

F. Analog-to-Digital Converter

The analog-to-digital wiring diagram is shown in Fig. A-9. The

converter used is a DATEL* ADC-M12B2A with a conversion time of 4 ps for

a 12 bit binary output. In order to achieve the fast conversion time,

the converter uses the technique of successive approximations. After

receiving the START pulse from the analog-to-digital control logic.

81
FIGURE A- 9 Analog-to-digital converter interface circuit.

82
all the internal D/A switches are set to the off state except the most

significant bit. The voltage level to be converted is compared to the

analog equivalent of the most significant bit. If the voltage level is

higher, the most significant bit is kept and if not, the bit is dropped.

Next the voltage level is compared to the sum of the first choice and

the second bit on. The process is completed at the rate of 220 ns per

bit until all 12 bits have been determined. The EOC stays high until

the conversion is completed. After the conversion is completed its

trailing edge toggles the J-j flip-flop on the analog-to-digi tal control

logic circuit.

The input range of this analog-to-digital converter is 0 to -10

volts. The output format is straight binary. The 12 parallel data

lines are strobed to the computer by the Y71 low-level pulse which

results in the DRG1 high-level pulse. The converter has both a zerooffset adjustment and a gain adjustment. The manufacturer claims a long

term stability for the converter of ±0.1% for six months and a linearity

of ±1/2 least-significant-bit. The temperature coefficient is about

±20 ppm/°C.

II . Software

The software will be first described in very general terms and

later in this report the details will be presented. The main challenge is

to gather data as fast as possible, sort it, and display it. The program

must allow user intervention but without sacrificing the data acquisition

rate. There are three distinct parts of the software: the main routine,

the utility routines, and the data collection routines.

83
The data collection routines run independently of the others (except

for the starting and stopping of the data collection routines) and have

priority over anything else in the system. They are interrupt driven,

which means they get control when a collection of data has been completed

(i.e., data buffer is full). They use a double buffering scheme to insure

that data collection always continues. The data collection routines

process the input data quickly (i.e., sort it by amplitude and add it to

data already collected) and return to whatever else was going on at the

time of the interrupt (Fig. A-10).

The main routine consists of a simple main loop which displays the

processed data, pauses for a time, displays again and so on. If the

operator presses the escape key on the terminal, this loop is broken and

the routine will now accept operator commands. After the operator

command is acted on, the display loop is begun again. Meanwhile, during

all this, the data collection goes on.

The utility routines do the work for the main routine such as:

starting and stopping the data collection, drawing the display, varying

the oscilloscope screen brightness, displaying characters, controlling

the channels to be displayed, etc.

The utility and data collection routines are written in Assembler

and the main routine is in BASIC.

A. Timing Constraints Imposed by Software and Processor

The maximum average rate of the data collection is determined by

the time it takes to sort the contents of a filled data buffer while

84
DATA

03

s-cn

<a

•r— TDO

cni <

LU

DC

=>

CD

35

DISABLE

INTERRUPT

AND

RESTART
the other buffer is collecting data. In the interrupt service routine

is found this loop:

LOOP LH R15, 0(11) Load Data Point

AHM R14, CHANL (R15) Increment Memory Location by One

BXLE 11, LOOP Loops for Entire Data Buffer.

These three instructions are executed once for each data point collected.

The execution times for the three are 3.00 + 4.50 + 4.75 or 12.25 ys.

There are two other smaller effects:

1) For each buffer emptied, there is some overhead in setting

up for the next buffer 50 ys). Typically there are at

least 200 points in the filled buffer (user selectable) and

each one's share in this overhead is consequently small.

2) While the interrupt service routine is running, the data

collection is busily stealing memory access cycles, which

can slow the processor.

Experimentally, the maximum average data acquisition rate is about

80,000 data points per second. The maximum burst rate (the rate that

data can be properly handled for short periods of time) is 125,000 twelve-bit

data points per second. The selector channel or direct-memory-access

can transfer data points at a rate of 1 MHz. The limiting factor in

bursts is the time taken for the peak and hold and the analog to digital

circuits to cycle. Bursts of up to the number of points in the buffer

can be properly handled.

86
Another timing constraint is the amount of dead time. After receipt

of a partial -discharge pulse, the circuitry will not recognize a new

pulse until after its 8 us cycle time (the burst rate limitation).

Also, whenever a data buffer is filled, the selector channel will be

inactive for a time while the new data buffer is being initiated. If

one pulse enters during that time, it will be correctly handled (the

peak and hold circuitry does not reset until the point is read) but

successive pulses would be lost. The selector channel is inactive

during the following command sequence:

87
Immediate Interrupt 8.00 ys Sent to interrupt service routines

STM 12, REGS+2 10.00

LHI SELCH, SDA 1.50

OC SELCH, SSTOP 4.50 Clear selector channel

RHR SELCH, R13 4.75 Get ending address

OC SELCH, SSTOP 4.50 Clear selector channel

WH SELCH, ASOB 5.75 Send new address

WH SELCH, AEOB 5.75

LHI AD, ADDA 1.50

SSR AD, R12 4.00 Access device

OC SELCH, SREAD 4.50 Start selector channel

54.75 ps

In practice it is extremely rare that the partial discharge rate

is so fast that data points are lost. There is usually a considerable

amount of time during a 60-hertz cycle when partial discharge pulses

are not being generated. For example, there are usually no discharges near

the voltage zeroes except in the cases of discharge caused by poor

contact.

The selector channel (or direct-memory-access ) used for data input

can transfer data to memory at up to 2 megabytes/s. (One byte is equal

to 8 bits). The selector channel has two registers: current address and

final address. The selector channel attempts to raise an interrupt when

it has filled the final address.

88
While the selector channel is filling up one buffer. A, with new

data, the other buffer, B, is being processed. For each data point in

buffer B, the appropriate channel in the display buffer is incremented

by one. The interrupt from the selector channel will not be raised

until buffer B is done being processed. If buffer B is still being

processed when the selector channel has finished filling buffer A, new

data may be lost and the message "Possible Lost Data" will be printed on

the system console when there is time. If buffer B is done being processed

when the selector channel interrupt is raised, the two buffers are

quickly interchanged 55 ys) and data collection continues. As mentioned

above it is extremely rare in practice that the data sorting cannot keep

up with the data collecting.

Once the selector channel interrupt has been handled, the control

will revert to the main program which will keep displaying the updated

data on the oscilloscope. If there is channel overflow (> 32,767

counts in a channel), data collection will be halted. No information is

lost; the data can be outputted to a floppy diskette and the experiment

started over again.

B. Operator Commands

The operator commands allow user interaction with the partial

discharge measurement system. They are entered by hitting the "escape

key" and then at least the first two letters of the appropriate command.

The escape key causes an error which temporarily breaks the loop in the

BASIC main routine. The command is then read and if necessary the

89
appropriate utility routine is called to execute the command. If the

data collection rate is high, the system will temporarily ignore the new

operator command since the data collection has top interrupt priority.

All commands will be executed, however, when there is sufficient free

time. Listed below are the current operator commands and what they

expl icitly do. New commands can easily be added.

OPERATOR COMMAND LIST

GO - Begins the collection of data

COUNT - Prints the total number of data points collected

HALT - Stops the collection of data

RESUME - Continues a run after HALT

END - Ends a run, writes data to floppy diskette

ABORT - Stops a run

SELECT [N,M] - Display channel N to M, if no operand writes on system

console the N and M in use

PRINT N,M - Prints on the system console all the nonzero channels and

their contents from N to M

TOGGLE - Toggles data collection buffers (i.e., forces buffers A and B

to interchange thereby allowing the display of a non-filled

buffer)

BASIC - Stops main routine and returns to BASIC compiler

BUFFERSIZE [N] - Sets buffersize to N, if no operand prints buffersize

currently in use (500 is the default size)

BRIGHT - Intensifies display

LOW - Dims display

DISPLAY - Displays a standard test pattern for adjusting the oscilloscope

90
DVM - For testing the analog to digital converter, +5 volts in series

with 1 kft required on "start", 0 - -10 Vdc required on "data",

reading displayed on minicomputer front panel meter in hexadecimal

INFO [N] - Writes information (run number, calibration, channels being

displayed) on screen in quadrant N. If no operand, writes

in first quadrant

N0INF0 - Removes information from screen

C. Detailed Software Description

The software was specifically written for an Interdata* 7/16 minicomputer.

The detailed software presentation that follows should enable the software to

be modified for other machines.

1 . BASIC Main Routine

This routine has three main functions:

a) Waste time by executing the loop:

FOR 1=1 TO D1

NEXT I

where D1 is currently set for 700 (statements 90, 800, 810).

b) Update the display, if data collection is going on (statements

620-850).

c) Handle commands from the operator.

If the operator hits the "escape" key on the system console, an

"ES" BASIC error results (statements 20, 1140, 1150) which causes a

transfer due to the ON ERROR TO statement. Then an operator command is

read, and a transfer is made to the appropriate section (1250-1590). If

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the command is invalid, a message is printed and the routine returns to

the main loop (1600-1610). This escape strategy rules out using GOSUB

and RETURN because an escape could interrupt execution in the middle of

a subroutine and there would be no way to know where to return.

The commands are broken up into a two-character variable, C$

(being the first two letters of the command), a variable telling the

number of operands (03), and the operands (01 and 02) if present. The

commands are straightforward, execution typically being accomplished by

calls to a utility routine. A flag variable, S, tells whether data

collection is going on. If no data are being collected, the display is

not continually updated.

The END command causes the collected data to be written to a floppy

diskette. The run number, sensitivity, and the contents of the 1023

channels are outputted. The run number and sensitivity are written on

the first two records in an E10.4 format. The channels are written, 6

per record, in a ( 5 ( El 0 . 4 , IX), E10.4) format. Each diskette track

contains 16 sectors or 288 channels (3 records per sector) so that an

entire run can be stored on 4 tracks. This implies that seventeen runs

could be stored on each side of a diskette. The current format is

chosen because each number has exactly one space between it and its

neighbor and no spaces occur at the end of a line, so BASIC can read the

file. It is also a fixed field format (the numbers always fall in the

same columns) so FORTRAN can read the file.

98
If a data-related error is detected, a message is printed (statements

590, 870-950). Data collection is not halted on a selector channel

error or a lost data error. For a channel overflow error data collection

is halted. The main routine then asks whether the data collected should

be saved. If so, the data are added into the data previously collected

(if any). Therefore, on channel overflow no information is lost — not

even from the channel which overflowed (statements 950-1070).

The return to the BASIC host environment, either due to the operator

command "BASIC" or because the operator responded "no" when asked if the

output device is ready, is accomplished by causing an undefined function

error (statements 20, 30, 1180, 1520, 2070, 2410, 2420, 2720). The next

statement to be executed is found by adding 10 to the line number of the

statement which caused the error. This number is stored, variable R,

and a stop issued. The operator continues operation with a "RUN 20",

which reinstates the "ON ERROR GO TO" statement (which is killed by the

"STOP") and branches to statement number R.

2. Data Collection Routines (statements 94-161 of Assembler Language

Listing

Upon selector channel interrupt, control is transferred to this

routine by way of the immediate interrupt sequence. Three steps occur

in this transfer: (1) the old Program Status Word (PSW) is saved at

location ISR, (2) the new PSW status part is loaded from ISR+4 (X '2000'

is loaded), and (3) the location counter is set to ISR+6 (at the

start of the program). The new PSW has locked out all interrupts except

99
machine malfunction. This does not mean interrupts occurring during this

time will be lost; they are just not acknowledged. When a normal PSW

status is restored any pending interrupts will occur. When this routine

is running nothing (except a machine malfunction) will interrupt it.

The ISR or data collection routine has two specific duties. The

first is to restart the selector channel on a new buffer as quickly as

possible. A double buffer technique is used where one buffer is given

to the selector channel to fill while the other one is being processed.

When the one is filled, their roles are exchanged. The error checking

and actual buffer exchange are postponed until the selector channel is

restarted. The ending address of the selector channel is read and compared

to the expected ending address. If they do not agree, some selector channel

error has occurred.

The second duty is to process the data buffer just filled by the

selector channel. The selector has read numbers off the analog-to-digital

converter in the range 0-4095 (12-bit converter). This number is used

directly as an index into the channel array. The channels array is 2048

halfwords (4096 bytes) long. (On the Interdata machine an address which

is not on a halfword boundary is truncated to be on a halfword boundary

thereby effectively compacting the data. Each halfword location thus

indexed is incremented by one)’.

The routine senses two error conditions. The selector channel error

occurs when the address of the selector channel stopping point is different

from that expected indicating a premature halt. Variable SFLAG is set on

100
this error. The possible lost data error occurs when the selector

channel has finished collecting a new buffer of data before the old

buffer has been processed. This condition is detected in the following

way. Suppose the selector channel has finished during processing (it

will not interrupt the processing because interrupts are disabled). As

soon as the interrupts are enabled it will interrupt. During this time

span it is inactive and data would be lost. So if the processing routine is ever

re-entered with a return address of the last statement of the processing

routine then this situation has occurred and variable LOST is set on

this error. "POSSIBLE LOST DATA" usually means too high a rate of input

data. Increasing the buffer size thereby decreasing the dead time could

help if the rate is only slightly too high. Having the buffer size too

large, however, results in long waits before collected data is displayed.

Note that it is not desirable to print an error message at the time this

error occurs because then is precisely when all activity should be

directed towards collecting and processing data.

3. Utility Routines

There are a number of utility routines. Some are executed using

calls from BASIC. Others are used in the execution of different routines.

a. Name: DVM

Calling Sequence: CALL 1002

Operands: None

Purpose: To check the A-to-D (analog-to-digital ) converter.

101
Each call to this routine causes an output command to be sent to

the A-to-D board triggering a conversion then reading the converted

value and displaying it on the hexadecimal display panel.

The start input (see hardware section) must have +5 volts in series

with 1 kft placed on it. The data input should have a dc level from

0 to -10 volts. The 10 most significant bits of the A-to-D are displayed

giving numbers from 0 to 1023 but in hexadecimal (0 - 3FF).

b. Name: STRT

Calling Sequence: CALL 1020, N, B1(0), B2 (0)

Operands: N is the number of halfwords in each buffer (each

array element in BASIC consists of 2 halfwords)

B1 and B2 are arrays to be used as buffers, each N

halfwords long. These are the input buffers used in

the double buffering scheme. (Zero indexing is

suggested for B1 and B2 so that the case N=1 will

be handled without a problem).

Purpose: To begin data collection.

This routine sets up the interrupt service table to handle interrupts

from the selector channel. The operating system has set bits 1 and 4

of the PSW, so when an interrupt occurs, it is handled as an immediate

interrupt. That is, an interrupt causes the processor to send out an

acknowledge interrupt signal. The first device (often the only device)

on the interrupt chain which is in an interrupt state responds by giving

its device number. The processor takes this number and uses it as an

102
index into the interrupt service table, retrieving from the table the

address of the interrupt service routine for that device. The routine

sets up an entry in the table so that a selector channel interrupt will

be sent to routine "ISR".

This routine also zeros out the channels (CHANL) where the collected

data is accumulated, stores the addresses of the starting and ending

points of the two buffers (ASFB, AEFB, ASOB, AEOB), and calls routine

"RESUME" which starts the selector channel.

c. Name: RESUME

Calling Sequence: CALL 1022

Operands: None

Purpose: To start the selector channel, used in commands

GO and RESUME.

This routine sets the A-to-D board to halfword mode, initializes

the A-to-D logic with a READ, and starts the selector channel. It locks

out interrupts for a time using an exchange program status command.

This is necessary because the selector channel accesses the device last

addressed on the private bus before the selector channel was started.

If another device interrupted at the wrong time, the selector channel

would be reading from that device instead of the A-to-D board.

d. Name: CLOSER

Calling Sequence: Set RESTART to 0 or 1

BAL 14, CLOSER

103
Operands: None

Purpose: To stop the selector in the middle of a buffer,

and possibly to restart it, used in HALT,

TOGGLE, END, ABORT. Command affected variables:

CHANL , ASFB, ASOB, AEFB, AEOB.

If RESTART = 0, the selector channel is not restarted. The code is

similar to the interrupt service routine (ISR). Interrupts are shut out

with an exchange program status command. Only the part of the buffer

filled is processed into the channels. Note that this routine clears

the interrupt caused by halting the selector channel.

If the selector channel is already stopped, this routine does

nothing.

e. Name: HALT

Calling Sequence: CALL 1021

Operands: None

Purpose: To halt data collection

Affected Variables: RESTART.

This routine makes a call to routine CLOSER with RESTART set to 0.

The selector channel is not restarted.

f. Name: TOGGLE

Calling Sequence: CALL 1023

Operands: None

Purpose: To halt data collection and resume it immediately,

this is to cause processing of data collected in a

buffer that has not yet filled.

104
This routine makes a call to routine CLOSER with RESTART set equal

to 1.

g. Name: DATA

Calling Sequence: CALL 1024 C(0)

Operands: C is an array dimensioned C(1023) into which the

channel counts will be placed. The channels are

stored internally in array CHANL in 1*2 form

(halfword integer). They are converted to R*4

(fullword real numbers).

Purpose: To make the channels available to the BASIC main

routine for calculations or printing.

This routine takes each adjacent pair of the 2048 channels, sums

them and converts the sums to real numbers giving 1024 actual channels.

Negative numbers are treated as large positive numbers permitting channel

overflow to occur without any information being lost.

h- Name: ERROR

Calling Sequence: CALL 1026,

E

Operands: E-Error code, will be set to:

0 - no error,

1 - error on selector channel,

2 - possibility of lost data,

3 - channel overflow.

Purpose: To communicate errors raised to the main program.

Affected Variables: LOST, OVER, SFLAG

105
This routine checks the error flags LOST, OVER, and SFLAG (in that

order) to see if those flags have been raised. After setting E to reflect

an error, the error flag involved is cleared.

i.. Name: PLOTR and PLOTI

Calling Sequence: CALL 1003, X, Y, I

or BAL 14, PLOTI

Operands: X and Y - the X and Y values in the range -2047 to 2047,

I - the intensity (1-dim, 2-off, 3-bright).

Purpose: To plot an X and Y pair.

Affected Variables: MANY, BLOCK

PLOTR is for a call from BASIC with real number arguments. PLOTI

is for calls from other Assembler routines. Return register for both

is register 14 and register 15 points at the parameter address list.

This routine converts the numbers into numbers suitable for the

dual D-to-A (which outputs to an oscilloscope display) and sets them into

a buffer. If the buffer is filled, it is automatically dumped by a

CALL 1005 or CALL 1006 to be displayed. If an X value is repeated from

point to point, the X being unnecessary, is left out the second time.

jk Name: DUMP and LOOK

Calling Sequence: CALL 1005 for DUMP

CALL 1006 for LOOK

Operands: None.

Purpose: To dump the plot buffer to the display, DUMP resets

the buffer to be empty and LOOK does not.

106
This routine does the actual plotting. The sequence is as follows:

turn on the bus,

set the mode of the dual D to A,

set the memory to sequential mode,

write the plot buffer to memory,

set the memory to external mode (to continously sweep

through memory to the D to A)

.

Most of these operations are done with supervisor calls available

in the Interdata* operating system.

k. Name: SIDES

Calling Sequence: CALL 1 007 ,P( 1 ) ,N

Operands: P - an array of Y values to be plotted on the left

side of the display as a reference,

N - the dimension of P, N less than 50.

Purpose: To set up the margin display.

Affected Variables: SIDE, NSIDE

This routine is necessary only because the main histogram drawing

routine is written in Assembler. This routine takes a list of Y values,

converts them from R*4 as they are in BASIC to 1*2 and stores them.

.1. Name: SLAP

Calling Sequence: CALL 1008, SI, S2, I

Operands: SI - the starting channel to be plotted,

S2 - the ending channel to be plotted,

I - the intensity (1-dim, 2-off, 3-bright).

107
Purpose: To plot the histogram of the channels.

Affected Variables: OVER

This routine makes a quick copy of the channels which is necessary

since they are constantly changing. It then scales the histogram to fit

on the display using variable LEFT (the direction of the shift) and CONS

(the magnitude of the shift). The channel with the largest count in the

range of channels SI and S2 will be scaled to be in the upper half of the

display (unless all channels are empty).

The margin display undergoes the same scaling as the main display.

If a margin point winds up off screen, it is simply not plotted.

This routine can raise the error "CHANNEL OVERFLOW". Suppose during

the data accumulation, more points (> 32767) than an 1*2 variable can

hold are collected in one channel. This is no real problem for the

addition hardware treats an 1*2 variable as if it were unsigned (e.g.,

7FFF-| g[32767 -| q] + 1 = 8000-|g[32768-|Q] and so on). The other instructions

will recognize 8000-jg as a negative number (the sign bit is on). This is

the way an overflow condition is detected. No information is lost if we

treat this number as unsigned. However, once overflow has occurred, data

collection should be halted. Channel overflow indicates either to much

data or, a dc input to the A-to-D, or positive pulses. Channel overflow

108
is not checked during data collection because too much time would be wasted.

This routine would be better written in a higher language if floating

point hardware were available. It is in Assembler to take advantage

of the shift instructions which provide a very fast way of multiplying

and dividing by powers of two.

n. Name: MFIX

Calling Sequence: BAL 15, MFIX

Operands: Floating point register 0 contains the input and

register 0 contains the output.

Purpose: This routine converts a R*4 number to 1*2, numbers

in the range -32767 to 32767 are converted correctly.

This routine uses the method of adding an unnormalized zero to the

number which yields an unnormalized result. The 1*2 equivalent is

the least significant 4 bytes.

Consider floating point 2:

41200000.

Add 46000000 (unnormalized zero), result is:

46000002.

This is still floating point but unnormalized. The second half can

be picked off as fixed point 2. Negative numbers will have their two's

complement taken.

109
n. Name: MFLOAT

Calling Sequence: BAL 15, MFLOAT

Operands: Register 0 contains the input, floating point

register 0 contains the output.

Purpose: To convert an 1*2 number to R*4.

This routine uses the method of creating an unnormalized number.

Consider fixed point 2:

0002.

If the halfword 4600 is placed in front of it, the number becomes:

46000002

which is floating point two unnormalized. The LE command (load floating

point) automatically normalizes the number. Negative numbers are complemented

and the sign bit set. Both MFIX and MFLOAT are faster than the

corresponding FORTRAN routines.

o. Name: WRITE

Calling Sequence: CALL 1001 ,N$,X,Y,X1 ,X2,I

Operands: N$ — character string to be written,

X and Y-- the X and Y location of where to

begin the string in the range -2047 to 2047,

XI and Y1 — the spacing between dots in the

letters in the X and Y directions, this

determines the size and proportion of the letters,

and I-- the intensity (1-dim, 2-off, 3-bright).

Purpose: To write characters on the screen.

110
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The first byte (03) is the length of the string. The address passed in a

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the character and the next 63 bits showing which parts of the 9x7 matrix

are to be lit. The routine searches through the first bytes for all

entries to find a match for the character at hand and then sends the

coordinates of the points to be plotted to the plotting routine PLOTI.

If a character is not found in the character table, no error is generated

and that character is simply skipped.

The example below will illustrate how the values in the table were

derived. Consider the letter A in a 7 x 9 matrix

bbxxxbb

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or in hexadecimal

FE 08 84 22 11 08 8B F8.

149
III. Appendix References

[A] R. Bartnikas, "Corona Pulse Probability Density Function Measurements

on Primary Distribution Power Cables," IEEE Trans, on Power Apparatus

and Systems, Vol. PAS-94, May/June 1975.

* Certain commercial instruments are identified in order to adequately

specify the results. In no case does such identification imply

recommendation by the National Bureau of Standards, nor does it

imply the instruments are the best available.

150
IV. References

[1] W.E. Anderson and R.S. Davis, "Measurements on Insulating Materials at

Cryogenic Temperatures Annual Report, Part I," CONS/2062-1 (1976).

[2] P.S. Vincett, "Calorimetric Measurement of Very Low Dielectric

Loss at Low Temperatures," Brit. J. Appl . Phys. (J. Phys. D) ,

Ser. 2, Vol . 2, p. 699 (1969).

[3] C.N. King and R.A. Thomas, "The Calorimetric Measurement of Low

Temperature Dielectric Loss," 1975 Annual Report Conference on

Electrical Insulation and Dielectric Phenomena , National Academy

of Sciences, Washington, D.C. p. 61 (1978).

[4] E.B. Forsyth, R.B. Britton, J. Dean, J.E. Jensen and K.F. Minati,

"A Supercritical Helium Facility for Measuring High-Voltage

Breakdown," Advances in Cryogenic Engineering, 1_9, Plenum Press,

(1974).

[5] Allen V. Astin, "The Nature of Energy Losses in Air Capacitors at

Low Frequencies," Jour, of Res. NBS 22_, p. 673 (1939).

[6] E. So, "Losses in Electrode Surface Films in Gas Dielectric Capacitors,"

Masters' Thesis, George Washington University, unpublished (1973).

[7] R.L. Nelson, "Bridge Measurement of Very Low Dielectric Loss at Low

Temperatures," Proc. IEEE, 127 , p. 764 (1974).

151
[8] N. L. Kusters and 0. Petersons, "A Transformer-Ratio-Arm Bridge

for High-Voltage Capacitance Measurements," IEEE CE-82 , p. 606 (1963).

[9] 0. Petersons and W.E. Anderson, "A Wide-Range High-Voltage

Capacitance Bridge with One PPM Accuracy," IEEE IM-24 , p. 336

p. 4-7 (1975).

[10] C.N. King and R.A. Thomas, private communication.

[11] C.G. Garton, "Dielectric Loss in Thin Films of Insulating Liquids,"

Proc. IEE 8811 , p. 103 (1941).

[12] R.A. Thomas and C.N. King, Dielectric Loss of Polymers and Composite

Materials at Liquid Helium Temperature," J. of Appl . Phys.

[13] "Measurements on Insulating Materials at Cryogenic Temperatures,

Annual Report, Part II," F.I. Mopsik et a!., CONS/20621 (1976).

[14] For example, see E.B. Forsyth, ed., "Underground Power Transmission

by Superconducting Cable," Brookhaven National Laboratory, BNL

50325, pp. 57-59 (1972).

[15] R.J. Meats, "Pressurized-Hel ium Breakdown at Very Low Temperatures,"

Proc. IEE TJ9, p. 760 (1972).

[16]

F.H. Kreuger, Discharge Detection in High Voltage Equipment ,

American Elsevier, New York (1965).

152
[17] "Resistive Cryogenic Cable Phase III, Final Report," prepared for

EPRI and ERDA by General Electric, Schenectady, NY, C0NS-2104-1.

[18] Brookhaven National Laboratory Power Transmission Project, Quarterly

Report for July 1, 1977 - September 30, 1977, PTP #76, DoE Contract

No. EY-76-C-02-001 6.

[19] ASTM D-1868-68, 1969 Book of ASTM Standards , part 29,

p. 884.

* Certain commercial materials and electronic devices are identified in order

to adequately specify the experimental results. In no case does such

identification imply recommendation by the National Bureau of Standards,

nor does it imply the material is the best available.

153

NBS-114A (REV. 9-78)

U.S. DEPT. OF COMM. 2.Gov't. Accession No.j 5. ftecipteat''$ Accession No. BIBLIOGRAPHIC DATA

SHEET

1. PUBLICATION OR REPORT NO. NBSIR 89-1950 - x

: < if

4. TITLE AND SUBTITLE

Measurements on Insulating Materials at Cryogenic

Temperatures

5. Publication Date

^ Performing Organization Code

; rvf'i ..

. * %v

7. AUTHOR(S)

William E. Anderson and Richard S. Davis

8. Performing Organ. Report No.

9. PERFORMING ORGANIZATION NAME AND ADDRESS

NATIONAL BUREAU OF STANDARDS

DEPARTMENT OF COMMERCE

WASHINGTON, DC 20234

11. Contract/Grant No.

12. SPONSORING ORGANIZATION NAME AND COMPLETE ADDRESS (Street, City, State,, ZIP)

Brookhaven National Laboratory

Upton, New York 11973

13. Type of Report & Period Covered

15. SUPPLEMENTARY NOTES

| | Document describes a computer program; SF-185, FIPS Software Summary, is attached.

16. ABSTRACT (A 200-word or leas tactual summary of most si ghificant information. If document includes a significant bibliography or

literature survey, mention it here.)

This final report describes the results of a four-year effort to study

the high voltage dielectric behavior of various materials at cryogenic

temperatures. Dissipation factors at 60 Hz were measured for polymer

tapes and epoxy samples at 4.2 K, atmospheric pressure. Multi-layer

polymer samples in coaxial geometries at temperatures from 7 to iO K and helium pressures up to 1.5 megapascals were also studies. The.

measurements were performed at stresses up to 40 MV/m. Since partial

discharges were a major source of losses at the higher stresses and their

presence was possibly detrimental to the integrity of the insulation,

instrumentation was developed and implemented to study these discharges

under condi tons found in proposed ac superconducting power-transmission

1 i nes

.

17. KEY WORDS (six to twelve entries; alphabetical order; capitalize only the first letter of the first key word unless a proper name;

3ep

TapVci*tanceT cryogenic ; dielectric constant; dielectric properties;

dissipation factor; electrical transmission; partial discharges; polymers;

precision electric measurements; pulse-height-analysis; superconducting transmission

18. AVAILABILITY f~X~l Unlimited

| | For Official Distribution. Do Not Release to NTIS

I | Order From Sup. of Doc., U.S. Government Printing Office, Washington, DC

20402, SD Stock No. SN003-003-

[3c~| Order From National Technical Information Service (NTIS), Springfield,

V A. 22161

19. SECURITY CLASS

(THIS REPORT)

UNCLASSIFIED

20. SECURITY CLASS

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21. NO. OF

PRINTED PAGES

163

22. Price

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