ISSUED BY THE NATIONAL BUREAU OF STANDARDS OF THE

UNITED STATES DEPARTMENT OF COMMERCE, WASHINGTON, D.C., U. S. A

AIRPLANE VIEW OF NATIONAL BUREAU OF STANDARDS

J-N 2 5 1931

COMMERCIAL

STANDARDS

MONTHLY

A Review of Progress in

Commercial Standardization and Simplification

Vol. 7, No. 12 JUNE, 1931

For sale by the Superintendent of Documents, Washington, D. C. Price Jfl .00 per Year
u. s. DEPARTMENT OF COMMERCE

R. P. LAMONT, Secretary

NATIONAL BUREAU OF STANDARDS

GEORGE K. BURGESS, Director

COMMERCIAL STANDARDS MONTHLY. S. F. Tillman, Editor

The Commercial Standardization Group

DIVISION OF SIMPLIFIED PRACTICE

Edwin W. Ely

The division of simplified pracflice cooperates with industrial and commercial groups to reduce wafi:e, usually through

eliminating unnecessary variety of produdl, method, or

pradlice. Its fundfion is to bring together all parties inter- edled in a projedt of this charadler, and to coordinate their

work in developing a simplified pradlice recommendation.

Such work includes surveys of current pradfice, formulation of a simplified pradtice program, and presentation of

that program for adlion by a general conference representing

all interedls. The division then transmits to all concerned

a full report of the general conference, with a request for written acceptance of the adlion taken. When the volume

of acceptances is sufficient to indicate initial success, the

Department of Commerce indorses the program and publishes

the recommendation. The division thereafter cooperates

with a ^landing committee appointed by the industry concerned, in condudling periodic surveys to determine the

degree of adherence, to maintain and extend support of the

recommendation, and to secure data for reaffirmation or

revision. Simplified pradlice may be applied to any com- modity or adlivity in which it will reduce

wa^le. The division Elands ready to render

service in developing and making effedlive any application of simplified pradlice which

will reduce wadle, dlabilize business, or extend commerce.

BUILDING AND HOUSING DIVISION

J. S. Taylor

The division of building and housing,

formed in 1921, cooperates with business,

technical, and professional groups in furthering conilrudlion adlivities. It works to modernize building codes and to encourage improved standards for the quality of building conSlrudlion, and the practical application of the lateSl development in design and use of building materials.

It encourages home ownership through the development

of an enlarged. Steadier, more intelligent, and more discriminating demand for dwellings—the largeSl single class of

buildings which the construction industries provide.

The division also cooperates with other governmental

agencies and with many private business and professional groups in efforts to distribute building adlivity more evenly

throughout the year and to secure less fludtuation from

year to year. The work on city planning and zoning has the broad

objedtive of making buildings more useful through proper

location with respedl to other Slrudlures, Stabilizing of land

values and property uses, well coordinated thoroughfare

systems, and well laid out public works.

STANDARDIZATION

..IS.. A CONTINUING PROCESS

ITS AIM IS NOT FIXITY OR STAGNATION

. . BUT.

.

TO ADD SERVICEABILITY

AS OFTEN AS THE

POTENTIAL GAIN

MAKES IT WORTH WHILE

DIVISION OF SPECIFICATIONS

A. S. McAllifter

The duties of the division of specifications are to promote

and facilitate the use and unification of specifications. In doing so it carries on adlivities involving cooperation with

technical societies; trade associations; Federal, State, and

municipal Government specifications making and using

agencies; producers, didlributors, and consumers; and tedling

and research laboratories. It ascertains the Standardization

and specifications promoting adlivities of the associations and societies, and brings to their attention the work being

done by the commercial standardization group. It brings the

Federal specifications and commercial Standards to the atten- tion of the maximum number of producers and users of commodities complying with these Standards and specifications.

It compiles and distributes liSls of sources of supply of materials guaranteed to comply with the Standards and specifi- cations. It shows both buyers and sellers the benefits from

handling nationally specified, certified, and labeled commodities. The division prepares diredtories of governmental and

nongovernmental teSling laboratories and the Diredtory of

Specifications, and is working on an encyclopedia of specifications, the firSl two volumes of which

have been issued, namely, “Standards and

Specifications in the Wood-Using Industries”

and “Standards and Specifications for Nonmetallic Minerals and their Produdls.” It also aids in preparing the Standards Yearbook.

DIVISION OF TRADE STANDARDS

I. J. Fairchild

The division of trade Standards, on requeSl,

assists industrial and commercial groups in the voluntary establishment of Standards

covering grades, quality, dimensional inter- changeability, or other acceptance criteria as a national

basis for marketing manufactured commodities.

The detail criteria are selected or determined voluntarily

by interested buyers or sellers, without any Government

dictation or domination, and adjusted at a general confer- ence of producers, distributors, and users so as to represent

the composite views of all branches. The division functions

chiefly as a neutral agency to see that all interested elements

are given full opportunity to be heard and satisfied; to

solicit and record acceptances; and to publish and promulgate

the Standard when a satisfactory majority of acceptances is obtained and provided there is no aClive opposition.

Industries are encouraged to apply self-certifying labels to products meeting the commercial Standard requirements, as a means of protecting the consumer and the scrupulous seller from misrepresentation or unfair methods of marketing.

Provision is made for regular revision of the Standard

through the appointment of a Standing committee to consider periodically any necessity for revision of the Standard,

in order that it may be kept constantly compatible with

progress in the induSlry.

Address NATIONAL BUREAU OF STANDARDS, Washington, D. C.,/or further information
COMMERCIAL STANDARDS MONTHLY

A Review of Progress in

Commercial Standardization and Simplification

Volume 7 WASHINGTON, D. C., JUNE, 1931 Number 1

2

SUBJECT ANALYSES

LEATHER

Simplifying trunk sizes and women’s suitcases 383 Standard thickness of leather recommended 380 BOATS

Standard-type power boats and barges 373 WOOD

Aiding the small lumber mills 373

Lead pencils 389 Making American lumber standards effective 366 Skid platforms (simplification briefs) 38-1 AERONAUTICS

European air mail conference (standardization briefs).- 391 Terms and definitions of aircraft accidents (standardization briefs) 392

Visual reed indicator guides aircraft 388 AUTOMOTIVE

British standard for motor-car wheel rims (standardization briefs) 391 Connecticut marks miles to check odometers (standardization briefs) 392 Device to test autobrakes (picture) 386

AGRICULTURAL AND ANIMAL HUSBANDRY

Broom buying made easy 381 Lamb graded for quality (standardization briefs) 392

Misleading displays of beef cuts confuse purchasers 378 Use of labels on farm products (standardization briefs) _ 394

SAFETY

Accelerometer for engineering studies of earthquakes

(standardization briefs) 394

Elevator safety code for 1931 (standardization briefs) _ _ 393

High-rise bank of elevator cars (standardization briefs) __ 392

New safety code to avoid dust explosions (standardization briefs) 393

Terms and definitions of aircraft accidents (standardization briefs) 392

PAPER

Loaded paper shot shells (simplification briefs) 384

Profitable disposal of defective stamped envelopes

(standardization briefs) 393

Standardization of binders’ board 371 Uniform sizes for glassine bags 376

Variety of waxed tissue paper sizes simplified 394 HEALTH

Inter-American cooperation in control of disease 368

Street sanitation 379

Surgical gut 383

Tentative standard sought for mineral waters and shellfish 380

Uniform designation of diseases planned 369 TEXTILES

Adhesive plaster (simplification briefs) 384

Dress patterns (standardization briefs) 392

Flat knit rayon underwear for women (standardization

briefs) 391 Men’s shirts, preshrunk 388

Quality control plan for rayon textiles 367

Thickness of textiles measured (standardization briefs).. 392 United States Institute for Textile Research 376

Universal cotton standards approved 364

International standard atomic weights for 1931 378

Simplification briefs 384

Standardization briefs 391 ELECTRICAL

British standard for electrical insulating varnish (stand- ardization briefs) 392

International standard for aluminum (standardization

briefs) 394

Maintaining the standard unit of resistance at the National Bureau of Standards 377 New 24-circuit telegraph carrier perfected in Canada

(standardization briefs) 393

Simplified packaging of overhead electric railway

materials 373

Standards for transmission of speech 381 Termiziology for electrical engineering (standardization

briefs) 391 Wiring standards for panel boards and distribution boards (standarization briefs) 393

ASSOCIATIONAL AND ORGANIZATIONAL ACTIVITIES

Activities of the American Standards Association 372

Detailed specifications adopted by Indian Service 385

Federal specifications 384

Finnish Standards Association 382

Intersociety council on color specifications (standardization briefs) 391 Methods of mass production 375

Missouri to purchase by specifications (standardization

briefs) 391

Organization of Federal Statistics Board (standardization

briefs) 393 The American Society for Testing Materials 387 INTERNATIONAL

“A business parliament of the world” 365

American nations seek uniform practice on bills of lading. 386

British standard for electrical insulating varnish (stand- ardization briefs) 392

British standard for expanded metal (steel) (standardization briefs) 392

British standard for motor car wheel rims (standardization

briefs) 391 European air mail conference (standardization briefs).. 391

Finnish Standards Association 382 Proposed revision of calendar approved 370

U. S. S. R. expanding its standardization program 374

METALS

British standard for expanded metal (steel) (standardization briefs) : 392

Deterioration of zinc coatings (standardization briefs).. 393 Cut tacks and small cut nails (simplification briefs) 384

Gages for sheet metal 383 Heat conductivity of metals and alloys (standardization

briefs) 391 Heat conductivity of thermal insulating materials (standardization briefs) 391 Measuring expansion of metals under intense heat

(standardization briefs) 391

Refrigerator ice compartments (simplification briefs) 384

Revision of gage tolerances (standardization briefs) 391

Standardization of design of limit gages (standardization

briefs) 391 Standard specifications in the gray-iron industry 374

Steel barrels and drums (simplification briefs) 384

Steel wool (standardization briefs) 392

C0740—31 1 IG3
UNIVERSAL

COTTON STANDARDS

APPROVED

Sixty-five “key” sets of the Universal Cotton

Standards were approved for use by American and

European cotton exchanges and associations during the next two years, at the Fourth Biennial

International Cotton Conference which was

brought to a close May 13, 1931, at the United

States Department of Agriculture.

The conference, which was opened!May 9,

was attended by [representatives of nine leading

cotton associations and exchanges of Europe and

representatives of the United States Department

of Agriculture and the American cotton industry.

The conference was provided for by agreement

between the Secretary of Agriculture and the

European associations under which the latter have

adopted the official cotton standards of the United

States for American upland cotton, known as the

universal standards, as the basis of all their contracts for the purchases and sales of American

cotton in which grades are specified.

The final act of the conference was to seal and

deposit with the United States Treasury the “first reserve set” which will be used two years hence,

as the basis for making up new “ key ” sets for

distribution among the adherents to the international agreements on universal cotton standards.

Various European delegates at the conference urged the Department of Agriculture to

endeavor to bring improved ginning methods into

practice. Department officials replied that an

experimental gin has been established recently at

Stoneville, Miss., where investigations are being

made with a view toward improved ginning methods.

364
JUNK, 1931 COMMEECIAL STANDARDS MONTHLY 365

“A BUSINESS PARLIAMENT OF THE WORLD ”

World-Wide Economic Conditions Reviewed at Sixth Conference of the International Chamber of Commerce

The “Business Parliament of the World,” as the

sixth general conference of the International Chamber

of Commerce was termed, reviewed world economic

conditions and existing relationships between the

United States and the countries of Europe, at its Washington meeting. May 4 to 8, 1931.

The Old World came to the New World to discuss,

in more or less informal terms, the most efficient methods for the prevention of future business set- backs, and to promote the comparison of business data

through standard terminologies,

European manufacturers have always adjusted themselves to diverse languages and varying currencies,

and to various weights and measures. Prof.

Andre Siegfried, in his report, said “ that if they

[European manufacturers] export, it is difficult for

them to standardize production because of the heterogeneous character of the foreign buyers. If they

confine themselves to the home market, the element of mass production fails them.”

The need for standard methods of gathering and

interpreting cost data in production was emphasized

by various speakers at the conference. It was stated

that no uniform distinctions of terms exist, as the

accountants and economists are not in agreement with

the terms and definitions describing definite business

situations and practices. Cost comparisons between

concerns in an industry, as well as those among various

industries, are difficult to make because of the dis- similarity of accounting methods. The trend of in- dustry toward concentration and mechanization has

tended to make certain cost factors relatively more

important. An adequate evaluation of the importance

of costs of production requires accurate accounting for

all elements of cost. Such accurate accounting, in

order to yield comparable results, must be in harmony

with sound economic principles, and must be built

around a plan designed to obtain uniform results. In order to be of real benefit in interpreting business

progress in terms of economic theory uniformity of

cost determination must fulfill national and international requirements. It is only by such means that

nations can determine their status in relation to the

economic forces acting both within and without their

geographic boundaries.

The secret of the success of mass production in the

United States, as compared to its status in Europe, was expressed by Alberto Pirelli, of Italy, honorary

president of the International Chamber of Commerce,

as follows

As regards its uniformit.v, we shall not be far from the truth

in stating that 120,000.000 inhabitants of the United States are more uniform in their tastes than the few million inhabi- tants of 'the smallest Eui’opean country. It is a remarkable

fact that the European stock, so proud of its individuality in matters of taste, and so attached to its racial and traditional characteristics on the Old Continent, should so rapidly and

easily adapt itself in the New World to a uniformity which it would have considered intolerable at home. The size and

uniformity of the market afford the indispensable conditions

for enabling industry to organize on the most efficient lines.

This accounts quite largely for the success of mass production

methods in the United States, based on large-scale output and

standardization. The advantages of mass production, when conditions will permit its application, are such that it allows expenditures on research, testing, and experimenting in order to promote higher quality production, Pirelli pointed out. He further stated that

“ when the American consumer consents to limit his

demand for variety, he knows that in purchasing

standardized (simplified) goods he is getting better

value. It would, however, be a great mistake to con- clude that standardization, mass production, and

mechanization are unknown in Europe. They have

been introduced especially in the more recent industries less tied down to preexisting conditions.”

Standardization of documents used in trade re- ceived consideration at the convention. The subgroup meeting on “ sea transport,” expressed the

belief that “ uniform laws and uniform bills of lading

are required for the proper handling of international commerce. When every country has a different law

and every carrier a different form of bill of lading,

confusion and litigation must result, and international

trade is hampered by a condition which benefits no

one and is harmful to all.” Uniformity in bills of lading between North and

South America will be discussed at length at the

Fourth Pan American Commercial Conference,

scheduled to be held next October, 1931, in Washington, D. C. (See Commercial Standards ISIonthly,

May, 1931.)

“ Progress can be reported on the development of

uniform nomenclature of goods,” George Theunis,

president of the International Chamber of Commerce,

told: the convention. Continuing, he said : “ The

nomenclature established by the International Railway Union in concert with the International Chamber

of Commerce, has been introduced in international

rate schedules.” Regarding containers, he said that

much study has been given to the matter, and that in

order to arrive at rapid and reall}^ practical results,

the International Chamber of Commerce, in cooperation with the League of Nations, the International

Railway Union and other international organizations,

had instituted a competition for a standard type of

container for international transport. This competition has aroused the greatest interest in the industrial world, he pointed out. Already 19 of the most

important industries in 7 countries have sent in their

plans. A prize of $7,500 will be awarded in July,

1931.

That the distribution of standardized production is much easier and less costly than that of the distribution of specialized goods, was explained by Ferruccio

Lantine, president, the Confederazione Fascista del

Commercio, Rome, Italy. In order to secure competent and reliable statistics on distributional costs, however, he said, it is necessary to have a uniform

method of securing data from the various countries.
366 COMMERCIAL STANDARDS MONTHLY JUNE, 1!)31 MAKING AMERICAN LUMBER STANDARDS EFFECTIVE

Code of Lumber Trade Practice Recommended for all Branches of the Industry

At the annual convention of the National Lumber

Manufacturers Association held in Chicago, April,

1931, the board of directors adopted the Code of Lumber Trade Practice which had previously been ac- cepted by the retail branch of the lumber industry.

The lumber manufacturers voted to indorse the code

and the principles of lumber distribution at a joint

meeting of the manufacturers and the directors of

that association with the directors of the National

Retail Lumber 1 >ealers Association.

In the Trade Practice Code, which has been unanimously recommended to all branches of the industry,

lumber trade terms are definable in accordance with

American Lumber Standards, and basic terms and

procedure are established for all branches of the lumber industry.

The following items in the code deal with American

lumber standards, inspection, grade marks, shippers’

certificates, misbranding, and definitions of lumber

manufacturers, wholesalers, and retailers

Trade Trade terms, definitions, and all other

terms, words, or phrases relating to the manufacture,

sale, invoicing, and shipment of lumber, in the absence

of express agreements, are understood to be interpreted and applied in accordance with the applicable

provisions of Simplified practice Recommendation

RlG-29, and the published official association grading

or inspection rules applicable thereto.

Inspection.—Official inspection on complaint when

required by either buyer or seller must be by an official association inspector, applying the rules agreed upon

at the time of sale and, in the event of no such agreement, the official association grading rules and regulations, under which the lumber is commonly bought

and sold. Official reinspection when invoked by

either party with the consent of the other shall be

final and binding on both parties.

Grade murks.—Lumber is a natural product, individual pieces of which may vary sufficiently in

strength, grain, dryness, and other physical characteristics that the ordinary buyer may not intelligently

judge where his requirements are met by the product

offered. To assist buyers in securing uniformly

graded lumber, official grading standards have been

adopted by the industry and approved by the Government in Simplified Practice Recommendation R16-29

;

and as a further measure of protection, association

grade marks corresponding to each grade of lumber

and indicating its exact character have been adopted

and are now being widely branded on lumber. Standard lumber, correctly marked, should be made available by the manufacturers and its use encouraged by

wholesale, commission, and retail distributors. The

use of marks of grades or species, other than the

standard association marks, promotes confusion and

facilitates decejjtion and is condemned by the industry.

Tolerance in grading.—The tolerance of 5 per cent of degrade lumber allowed under standard grading

rules is a safeguard established for the originating

manufacturer’s graders as the reasonable measure of

maximum ordinary differences in judgment between

graders in the aijplication of standard grading rules. To take advantage of this tolerance by deliberately in- cluding off-grade material within the limit of tolerance

is condemned by the industry as an unfair trade

practice.

Sluppeds certificate and official certificate.—The use

in ordinary shijjments of the “ shipper’s certificate (or

statement) of car contents ” or “licensed shipment ” is recognized and recommended. The recommended use

of such certificate in shipments made through a wholesale distributor requires the omission at the request of

the distributor of the name of the originating manufacturer. In shipments requiring official inspection at point of origin, the use of official certificate of association inspection is recognized and recommended.

Misrepresentation.^ false invoicing.^ and nvisl>randing.—False statements by lumber purchasers or others

of prices or terms offered, or of character of business

or quality of product, designed to secure by deception

lower prices or better terms from sellers, are con- demned as unfair methods of competition. In buying

lumber it is unfair for a retailer to pose as a wholesaler, or for a wholesaler to pose as a retailer when

such is not the case. False invoicing in any branch of

the industry whether as to sizes, grades, origin, species,

dryness, tally, quantity, or price, or any other matter,

is condemned as an unfair trade practice. The misbranding of lumber as to size, grade, origin, species, or condition of dryness is condemned as an unfair trade

practice. The use of American standard grade names

or sizes or other grade names or sizes published in the

official association lumber-grading rules, as a designation of a grade or size not conforming to the standard

grade and size of the same name, is an unfair trade

})ractice; the sale or oft'ering for sale, under standard

grade names and sizes, of lumber not conforming in

fact to said grades and sizes as defined in the standard

grading rules is an unfair trade practice.

Confusion of grades.—The practices of intentionally

“ robbing,” “ hardening,” or “ sweetening ” grades

(that is, taking out the best material, or adding higher

grade material) destroy grading standards, are methods of jirice discrimination ancl price deceit, and are condemned as unfair trade practices.

Arhitration.—Disputes between bu5^er and seller wlien they are unable to come to an agreement should

be submitted to arbitration under one of the prevailing

codes.

Misuse of word “ lumiber.'’'—The use of the words

“ wood ” or “ lumber,” either alone or in connection

with other words, to describe materials not the product of the tree and/or sawmill is in and of itself a

Uiisreijresentation of the inherent nature and qualities

of the articles so described, and is condemned by the

industry as an unfair method of competition.

Lumher manufacturers., wholesalers, and retailers.—

“A lumber manufacturer ” is one who operates a sawmill with or without a planing mill, converting logs

into lumber and other kindred commodities. “A

lumber wholesaler ” is one actively, continuously, and
JUNE, 1931 COMMERCIAL STANDARDS MONTHLY 367

principally engaged in the business of buying lumber

from manufacturers or other wholesalers in quantity

lots and selling it to wholesalers, retailers, and recognized wholesale trade, who maintains a sales organization for this purpose, assume credit risks and such other

obligations that are incident to the transportation and

distribution of lumber. He may work a limited terri- tory intensively or cover a wide territory in some

specialtjc He is expected to be fully conversant with

conditions, market possibilities, values, and the general requirements of the trade in the territory which

he serves. “A lumber commission man ” is one who

sells lumber in carload lots for a manufacturer or a wholesaler and who is paid a stipulated amount

(known as a commission) on each individual sale,

and holds a relation to the seller similar to that of

a salaried salesman. “A lumber retailer ” is one who

maintains adequate and permanent storage and handling facilities, a sales organization for the consumer

trade, and carries a well-assorted stock of lumber

adapted to the needs of the consumers in his sales territory.

During the convention the board of directors of the

National Lumber Manufacturers Association voted

unanimously to continue the national trade-extension

campaign, with the cooperation of timber owners,

loggers, lumber manufacturers, wholesalers,' retailers,

and the principal lumber-consuming industries.

QUALITY CONTROL PLAN FOR RAYON TEXTILES

Failure to Use Tested Specifications Main Cause of Customer’s Complaints According to Better Fabrics

Testing Bureau

Failure of textile manufacturers to use tested

specifications is the main cause of most customer complaints, according to a report on the retailers’ return problem made by the Better Fabrics Testing Bureau,

which is the official laboratory of the National Eetail

Dry Goods Association. This bureau finds that the

buying difficulties of thousands of retailers are coming to an end with respect to getting consumer-tested

rayon under the quality control plan of tested

specifications.

In a review of more thaii 1,000 test reports on

merchandise sent the Better Fabrics Testing Bureau

laboratory for analysis by retail stores because the

customer had complained of the lack of serviceability

of the goods, one significant fact is worthy of dis- cussion. It was found that the same errors were beingmade season after season, and the same causes of complaints were uncorrected year after year. As pointed out in the report, it is apparent that the

retailer pays thousands of claims each season to cus- tomers on return goods because the merchandise was

unserviceable when sold, and likely the causes of

complaint dated back several years. The records of

the laboratory show that the retailer does little or nothing in many cases to stop complaints by correct- ing the causes at the source of manufacture, yet it seems that the only way customer returns of merchandise will ever be lessened with respect to underspecification goods will be to correct consumer defects

in manufacturing textiles. “ Kun-of-the-market merchandise is easy to buy

and hard to sell,” stated the report. “ Retailers who

merchandise for volume are finding it more difficult each season to keep sales up to quotas. In other

words, it is hard to keep customers coming back for

ordinary merchandise.”

The bureau has evidence to show that the buyingoperations of the store are centered on budget control

of purchases and price lines to meet competition, but

very little emphasis is given to the basic- worth of

the merchandise itself. A practice of this kind makes

biy'ing easier, but it makes selling to the ultimate consumer harder.

On a single point of merit in the rayon qualitycontrol plan is a partial solution to the big problem

to I’etailers everywhere—to buy serviceable rayon

merchandise. The quality-control plan is based on consumer specifications for fabrics and garments, and

the added advantage of constant tests of the merchandise truly identifies it as being of ” tested

qualit}L”

“ It is said that the retail buyer can not test all merchandise and must rely on experience with certain

lines of goods. However, there is a fly in the ointment of this age-old, tried and true habit of buying.

To-day the buyer is demanding lower prices, and getting them on merchandise which in the past was considered standard and bought at established prices. If

the manufacturer sells for less, he must reduce the

costs of merchandise, which is done by reducing con- sumer quality. ]\Iost retailers want to sell good merchandise because they know what people require in

clothing. Yet many manufacturers are too weak

under the strain of so-called easy selling methods to make things cheap, to produce good merchandise and

sell it to the retail buyer on its consumer merit.

One reason why buyers ‘ hound ’ the manufacturer

for reduced prices is because the buyer has no other

waj’- of determining whether or not he is bein<r over- charged. It is admitted that this system borders on

auctioneering to the lowest buyer, but it is nevertheless a fixture of present day buying methods.

The plan to provide the users of yarn products

with ‘tested specifications’ for the manufacture of

rayon merchandise is without precedent in the textile industry and is destined to establish a practice that

will do more than any one other fundamental thing

to correct the causes of customer returns of merchandise due to poor qualit}' and deliberate imperfections

made a part of the goods to cheapen them to a so- called bargain price, intended by the manufacturer to best the deal witli the buyei:.”
368 COMMERCIAL STANDARDS MONTHLY JUNE, 1931 INTER-AMERICAN COOPERATION IN CONTROL OF DISEASE

Causes and Control of Infectious Diseases Discussed at Second Pan American Conference of Directors of

Health

By Bolivar J. Lloyd, M. D., Medical Director United, States Publio Health Service

/

Favorably inclined as I am toward coordination,

combination, and standardization when these measures

will produce economy of effort and efficiency of

administration, I can not but view the results attained

by the Second Pan American Conference of Directors

of Health in standardization as a by-product of the

conference rather than its raison d’etre. It is a fact,

however, that the leaven of standardization was introduced into and permeated the mass product, tending

to leaven the entire lump. It may also be said that

this leaven of standardization will no doubt continue

to reproduce indefinitely as cooperation in the application of measures for the prevention of disease progresses. In order to understand inter-American cooperation in the control of disease, let us recall the following facts concerning the bodies which bring about

this cooperation. First, we have the Pan American

sanitary conferences, of which there have been eight

since 1902. Second, we have the Pan American Sanitary Bureau, which is the executive organ of the

sanitary conferences, a permanently organized, con- tinuously operating body, radicated in Washington in

the building of the Pan American Union. The sanitary bureau cooperates closely with the international

organization known all over the Americas as the Pan

American Union, which latter body is the permanently operating executive organ of the conferences

of the American republics. Finally, we have, taking

place in Washington, and held- under the auspices of

the Pan American Sanitary Bureau, the quinquennial

meetings of the national directors of health of the

American republics, of which the meeting just

terminated is the second.

It is not possible in a brief paper to do much more

than enumerate the activities in which it may be

expected standardization will result as a work of the

conference, nor is it to be supposed that this is the

first international conference in which standardization of procedure has been accomplished.

The success of practically all international conferences depends in great measure on the good will

of those participating and on opportunity for individual expression. I can not refrain here from mentioning the fact that the encouragement and public

recognition given to the conference by President

Hoover did more to establish cordiality and freedom

of expression than all else combined. The conference

set a standard in harmony, in free but rational and

courteous speech, and in cordiality, which may well be

emulated by all succeeding international bodies of

whatever nature. Among the principal topics studied and reported

upon by the conference were the following:

The prevention of blindness ; the regulation and control of the production and use of narcotics ; standards

of purity and potency for biologic products, such as

serums and vaccines ; provision of safe water and safe

milk for all the people; the prompt reporting of

communicable diseases; procedures of public health

administration; malaria; parasitic diseases; maternal

and child welfare; nutrition; white slavery and its concomitant, namely, the ravages of the so-called

social (venereal) diseases; measures against tuberculosis ; measures for the prevention, control, and

eradication of such diseases as plague, cholera, smallpox, typhus, and yellow fever ; studies and recommendations relating to a draft of proposed regulations for

the prevention of the spread of disease by aerial

navigation.

Discussing briefly some of the topics considered, it may be said that with regard to the prevention of

blindness, the conference was unanimous in the opinion that the cleansing of the eyes of the child immediately after birth and the use of a solution of

silver nitrate or an equally effective drug to prevent

infection is imperative and should be compulsory.

The widespread prevalence of trachoma among the

Indians of the United States, as revealed by surveys

made by the United States Public Health Service a few years ago, was commented upon and the suggestion made that similar surveys in other countries

having large Indian populations might possibly reveal

similar conditions among them. A number of other

causes of blindness were discussed, among them a comparatively newly discovered disease called onchocerciasis, caused by filaria and found somewhat ex- tensively in Mexico, Guatemala, and in other American countries. Measures were recommended for

further study of this insect-borne scourge. Recommendations were made looking to the adoption of more nearly uniform procedure in the control

of the manufacture and sale of habit-forming drugs.

The desirability of adopting standard requirements

for potency and purity of biologic products, such as serums and vaccines, was recognized.

The necessity of providing safe water for all the

people was stressed. This may easily be done satis- factorily by a combination of sedimentation, filtration,

and chlorination, though other methods may be used.

While recognizing the desirability of securing good,

clean milk from nontuberculous cows as a health

measure, the conference emphasized the necessity of

pasteurizing milk in order to safeguard this important

food when it is used by human beings.

It was the sense of the conference that the reporting of communicable diseases should be stimulated in

all the republics, and that methods of reporting and

blanks used should reasonably conform to one standard, in order to facilitate comparisons.

The importance of establishing a norm of public

health administration by countries. States, cities, and

other political divisions was recognized, and a resolution adopted recommending whole-time employees in

all branches of the Department of Health and also
JUNE, 1031 COMMERCIAL, STANDARDS MONTHLY 369

recommending that such positions be made permanent

in character and removed from the domain of politics.

The importance of malaria as a public-health problem was recognized, and the conference urged that

further effort be made to reduce the cost of efforts to control this disease by endeavoring to discover

less expensive methods of combating the malariabearing mosquito.

The conference advised caution with regard to the

use of the vaccine known as B C G (Calmette), which

has been administered on a rather large scale in recent

years, to infants under 10 days of age. It also brought

out the fact that we can not be sure of the harmlessness of this procedure until a number of years have

elapsed after the treatment is administered.

Perhaps the greatest achievement of the conference,

both in standardization of methods and in actual

accomplishment consisted in the studies and recom- mendations made suggesting modifications of proposed regulations for the prevention of the spread of

disease by aerial navigation. The draft of these regulations was originally prepared by a committee of the

International Office of Public Health of Paris. This

draft was submitted to the director of the Pan American Sanitary Bureau, Surg. Gen. Hugh S. Gumming,

who, in turn, some months ago, transmitted copies

in Spanish, Portuguese, French, and English to the

members of his directing council, and also to the

directing heads of the public health services of all the American republics.

A study made of these regulations indicated that

in several instances their provisions were in conflict

with the interests and safety of a number of American

countries, due no doubt to the fact that they had

been elaborated without due regard to sanitary or- ganization as it exists in the Americas, and also due

to a lack of proper recognition of differing geographical conditions and differing transportation facilities. When this came to be realized, numerous cablegraphic

requests were received by the Sanitary Bureau asking

that final adoption of these measures be postponed

until they could be considered in conference by the

directors of health and the members of the directing

council of the Pan American Sanitary Bureau. Accordingly, these regulations were further studied in

detail by the members of the conference and appropriate modifications adopted. Inasmuch as a representative of the Paris office was present and concurred

in the proposed changes, it is believed that they will

be approved substantially as proposed.

Immediately following the conference, Surgeon General Gumming, United States Public Health Service,

and Dr. Gregorio Araoz Alfaro, Director of Health

of the Republic of Argentina, left for Paris to col- laborate in the preparation of the final draft of these

important measures. UNIFORM DESIGNATION OF DISEASES PLANNED

National System of Naming Diseases by Numbers Being Prepared For One Year’s Trial

A national standard of naming diseases is being

prepared at New York Gity by the National Gonference on the Nomenclature of Disease, with which the

United States Public Health Service is cooperating.

The conference was organized about two years ago

under the auspices of the New York Academy of

Medicine, in cooperation with various medical societies and medical bureaus of the Government.

Each disease and its various aspects will be designated by code numbers, according to announcement

made by the Public Health Service. Following a meeting of the executive committee of the conference

May 11, 1931, on which the Public Health Service

is represented, it was stated that the conference would

assemble on December 14, 1931, at New York for the

purpose of adopting the new terminology of diseases

which then will be put into use in various hospitals

throughout the United States for one year’s trial. After the year’s trial is completed, the conference

will assemble again to make final corrections in the new methods of designating diseases and to adopt it for general and permanent use. Scores of specialists and medical organizations and

committees are cooperating now in the preparation of

the new standard nomenclature. Many of the various

hospitals use their own special methods of naming

disease. The Army, Navy, and Public Health Service

each has different systems of officially designating a disease or injury. It is agreed that a definite standard of terminology is seriously needed. The new

standard will make it possible to compare reports of

various institutions, hospitals, and other medical

units, which, at the present, is difficult because of the

variety of terms used to signify the diseases.

According to the Public Health Service this new

terminology of disease will be of greatest value in the

compilation of statistics on diseases and in the work

of comparing disease reports made by various hospitals and units in different sections of the country,

where, at present, different forms of nomenclature

are used.

The proposed standard system of nomenclature will

be based upon a numerical designation consisting of

six digits. The plan is a combination of two systems

First, dividing the body into 11 anatomical divisions

and the division of disease into 11 etiological catagories. For example, the numerical designation of

appendicitis under this system would be 661-100,

which indicates that the disease is located in the

digestive tract, and its cause is an infection, whereas

acute appendicitis with an abscess would be indicated

as 661-1X2.

This does not mean that physicians will write on

hospital records the numbers 661-100, instead of

appendicitis, but it means that the hospital authorities, in tabulating their records, will summarize these

diseases under the numerical designation rather than

under the written name. The new plan has been sought for a number of

years. Previous attempts to build up a new disease

nomenclature for general use throughout the country

have resulted either in direct failure or in the formation of a terminology which eventually was proven

too unwieldly for general use.
370 COMMERCIAL STANDARDS MONTHLY JUNE, 1931

PROPOSED REVISION OF CALENDAR APPROVED

American Committee Submits Recommendations to be Studied at League of Nations Meeting

The groAvth of general interest in the reform of the

calendar, the use of the 13-period calendar in business,

religious opinion on calendar reform, suggestions for

perfecting the rule for leap year and the chronology of

the Christian era are five topics discussed in a supplementary report submitted to Secretar}^ of State Henry

Stimson by George Eastman, chairman of the National

Committee on Calendar Simplification, and Dr.

Charles F. Marvin, Chief of the United States

Weather Bureau, vice chairman.

As in the case of the committee’s original report of

August 14, 1929, the additional report ivas prepared for

the State Department to enable this Government to comply with the request of the League of Nations for

information from the LTnited States on the question of

calendar simplification.

The findings of the American committee, together

with reports of national committees of other countries

which have been studying the question, were made

available to the Preparatory^ Committee on Calendar

Reform Avhich met at Geneva on June 8 to prepare for

the international conference that is to be held in

October.

The American committee finds that there has been a marked increase of public interest in calendar improvement during the last year, particularly from the point

of view of its benefits to the indiAudual, and that the

religious objections that have been raised are confined

to a small minority, principally belonging to Saturday

Sabbath-keeping sects. A survey of sentiment among

Protestant clergyunen shmvs that exclusive of tivo Saturday-keeping sects, 82 per cent had no religious objections. Reporting on the growth of general interest in this

country, the committee said

While the demand for the improvement of the calendar has

continued to be manifested, especiallj^ in commercial, industrial, scientific, and educational circles, the committee finds that there lias been a marked increase in the interest of the general public since submitting its original i-eport in August,

1929. This is undoubtedly due to the growing recognition of the fact that an improved calendar in benefiting every agency

of civilization nuist benefit the individual, and, too, that it would be of greater convenience to the individual in his per- sonal affairs, social and home life. These viewpoints have been

given emphasis in many of the public discussions throughout

the country, and appear to have done much to rectify an impression given currency by some that calendar improvement

is sought solely for the convenience of business life. To this list of 1,154 national, regional. State, and

city organizations in different fields of activity tvliich had reported their favorable interest in calendar re- form at the time of the committee’s first report, the

following are listed among those which have since

taken favorable action : American Bar Association,

American Hotel Association, Association of Government Officials in Industry, Brotherhood of Locomotive Engineers, American Optometric Association, National Council of Geography^ Teachers, Academy of

Science of Neiv HamiJshire, and the Albany Association of Credit Men.

The committee’s report also calls attention to the

calendar reform referendum of the United States

Chamber of Commerce taken in 1929 among its member chambers and trade associations which showed a majority of 57 per cent in faimr of changing the cal- endar, and of more than two-thirds in favor of the

participation of the United States in an international

conference for the purpose.

The 13-period calendar, the report says, is now being

used by^ at least 140 American manufacturing, merchandising, and publishing concerns, which exceeds by more than half the number first reported. They in- clude a number of the country’s largest corporations,

and the gross business done by all of them probably

aggregates ivell over $1,000,000,000 a year. The committee sent a questionnaire to these companies

and found that of the 110 which replied, 93 were in

favor of the adoption of the 13-period system as a universal 13-month calendar, 4 were opposed, 2 considered

it unnecessary, and 11 were noncommittal. The replies

shoAved that while the companies were unanimous in

commending the 13-period system because it enabled

them to make comparisons of costs, production, sales,

etc., in convenient equal units of time, and because it facilitated budgeting, the necessity of using the regular calendar for many of their transactions caused

/arious difficulties for the most of them. It was evident

that they preferred to put up with these difficulties as much less serious than those which the 13-period sy^s- tem removed, but it was made clear that all difficulties Avould disappear if the regular calendar were changed

into a 13-month fixed calendar, Avhich eA^erybody Avould

use. Some stated that the 13-period calendar satis- factorily solved their calendar difficulties from a busi- ness point of view, and Avere in faA'or of its adoption

as a general calendar because it would benefit all classes. The ansAvers shoAved also that in the construction of

13-period calenders out of the present irregular and

A^arying system of 12 unequal months and changing

dates of Aveek days, there Avas considerable difference

of arrangements and no standard of uniformity.

In dealing with religious opinion, the committee

emphasizes that it had originally intended to leave

the religious questions for the determination of the

international conference in consultation with the interested religious authorities Avithout reference to national limits. However, oAving to efforts of orthodox religious leaders of the JevA^s and two Christian

Saturday-keeping sects to obtain from Congress and

the GoATrnment a favorable decision in advance of

the conference on certain religious objections which

they^ alone had raised, and because of claims that the

rest of the religious population in this country had

similar grounds for objection, the committee felt obliged to conduct an inquiry into religious opinion

from a national standpoint.

The objections raised by this “small minority,” it

is explained, inAmlve a question of theological dogma.
JUNE, 1931 COMJIERCLA.L STAJTDAEDS MONTHLY 371

namely, whether the T-day week is a divine institution ordained at the Biblical creation, which would

be violated by the presence of one or two 8-day weeks

in a “

3'ear day ” calendar, such as the proposed 13

equal months fixed calendar.

Explaining that the attitude of the Koman Catholic Church on calendar reform had already been given

to the League of Nations and that there was lack of

affirmative information only in the case of the Protestant denominations, the committee reports that it con- ducted an inquiry among cross sections of Protestant

clergymen of 12 leading denominations, and sent its questionnaire also to clergymen of the two Protestant

Saturday-keeping sects—the Seventh-day Adventists

and Seventh-day Baptists.

The replies received from 1,478 ministers conclusively refute the claims of the Sabbatarian spokesmen that the Protestant denominations, in general,

share their objections with regard to the seventh-da}'

sequence, the report says. Exclusive of the Saturdaykeeping ministers, 82 per cent saw no objection on

religious grounds to a fixed, perpetual, and uniform

calendar having one 8-day week each year and two

such weeks in leap year, while To per cent favored the

adoption of such a calendar. The Saturday-keeping

clergymen were nearly unanimously opposed.

Dr. Charles F. Marvin, Chief of the United States

Weather Bureau, and vice chairman of the committee, presents in the report a scientific study of the

present leap-year rule and suggests an improvement.

Instead of omitting three days in every 400 years,

as at present, he points out that omitting four in every

500 years would keep the calendar more closely in

accord with solar conditions.

“ Never before in history,” writes Doctor Marvin,

“ has the question of perfecting the calendar received

such world-wide consideration, with reference to all

its features, as in the i^resent day. It is therefore important that no feature of the calendar be overlooked

in seeking a universal form for adoption in the

twentieth century, in order that this generation may

pass on to posterity the most perfect time-measuring

device that science and ingenuity of man permit.”

Doctor Marvin shows by mathematical calculations

that the present leap year rule as a means of keeping

the vernal equinox fixed to March 21 and the calendar

in accord with tropical year is beginning to fail. In

fact, the average date of vernal equinox is now more

nearly March 20. By the year 2000 it will actually

become March 20. The average date tends gradually,

centiuA' after centuiy. to drift back toward Januai'v 1 under the present rule. Doctor ]\Iarvin shows by diagrams that by omitting four leap days in 500 years, the calendar would be kept true to solar conditions

until the year 10000. The adoption of this rule would mean that four century years out of five would be

nonleap years instead of three out of four as at present.

Doctor Marvin also suggests that before starting a new calendar two days be struck from the present

calendar for the jiurpose of making our chronological

reckoning exact from the beginning of the Christian

era instead of to the year 321 A. D., when the rule

for the date of Easter was adopted by the Christian

Council of Nicaea. and from which the Gregorian

chronology takes its start. He points out that when

Pope Gregory in 1582 dropped 10 days from the f ault}'

Julian calendar in order to restore the date of the

vernal equinox to March 21, as fixed by the Nicaean

Council, the error in the Julian reckoning that had

accumulated between 1 A. D. and 321 A. D. was not

accounted for. This amounted to two days.

The correction of this error. Doctor Marvin further

points out, would be of impressive significance to Christianity. He shows that if the two days were

omitted in connection with the adoption of a fixed

calendar, every year would become an exact counter- part of the year 30 A. D., the last year of the life of Christ.

“ It will be impressive to know in this twentieth

century,” he sa}'s, that when we celebrate Good Friday, for example, on Friday, April 7—which is the

ninety-seventh day of the year—^it will be impressive

to know that the Good Friday in question is the exact anniversary day name, year number, and all of

the original day of the Crucifixion. In the same way Easter Sunday, Whitsunday, and every other day

of ihe year 30 A. D. will have exact counterparts in the day names and year numbers in the new fixed

calendar. If the days are not omitted, the disparity

of two days in anniversary dates and the incongruity

in calendar and chronological reckoning must prevail

indefinitely. If the calendar is changed without omitting two days and with all years beginning on Sunday,

then if Easter is fixed on the Sunday nearest the exact anniversary of the day of the Eesurrection, as many

desire, that Sunday will be April 9 (April 15 in a 13 months’ calendar), but the day will be the exact anniversary of the Crucifixion, not of the Resurrection.”

STANDARDIZATION OF BINDERS’ BOARD

Technical data on binders’ board secured by the

paper section of the National Bureau of Standards

were discussed at a joint meeting of representatives of

the Binders Board ^lanufacturers Association and the

bureau, held at the National Bureau of Standards on

April 2. 1931. These data Avere requested by the association to assist it in the establishment of quality standards for binders’ board in cooperation Avith the trade

standards diA’ision of the National Bureau of Standards. Tests were made on 35 samples of binders’

board, which comprises fiA’e different thicknesses of

board from seA-en manufacturers.

The boards were tested for thickness, weight, bursting strength, tensile breaking strength, elongation un60740—31 2

' der tensile stress, flexural strength, including deflec- tion at time of rupture, and bending strength. Values

for number of slieets per 50-pound bundle and specific

gravity Avere calculated from the tests of Aveight and

thickness. The boards Avere graded for strength in

much the same order l)y the four different strengthesting metliods used. The flexural strength test, Avhich

Avas perfonned l)y bending a .^trip until it breaks by means of stirrups affixed to a .standard tenside breaking strengtli tester, gave much the same type of information as tlie bending test. Avhicli Avas made Avith a Naumann-Schopper bending tester.

It Avas agreed that the data submitted Avere suflicient for the formidation of quality standards, and this is to be undertaken immediately by the association.
372 COMMERCIAL STANDARDS MONTHLY JUNE, 1931 ACTIVITIES OF THE AMERICAN STANDARDS ASSOCIATION

American Standards Association Has Approved 185 Standards To Date; 178 Uncompleted Projects Are

Under Study

Current developments of the following standardization projects under the auspices and procedures of

the American Standards Association have been

furnished by that associaton

“ Clean ” l)itvmiinous coal. —A request for the initia- tion of a project for the establishment of standards

for clean bituminous coal has been received by the

association from the American Institute of Mining

and Metallurgical Engineers. For some time dis- cussion has been going on in the bituminous coal

business about the meaning of “ clean ” coal. Most

coal mined and shipped has had no preparation other

than casual inspection and separation of the larger

impurities in the mine by the loader; a large percentage, in addition to this, has the coal screened at the

tipple and certain parts of it spread on picking tables

and cleaned by hand; a smaller, but rapidly increasing percentage, is. being cleaned by mechanical processes, either wet or dry, this treatment usually being

of the sizes not cleaned by hand, although sometimes

all of it is mechanically cleaned.

When coal thus treated is sold it is all sold as

“ clean ” coal, while in some sizes of some coals there

may be 0.5 per cent of pieces of impurities, others may

contain 4 per cent. The smaller amount may be the

absolute minimum which it is possible to reach, while

the larger one depends upon the methods and management used. The amounts of impurities necessarily

present will vary with the sizes of coal, being usually

greater in the smaller sizes. It is obvious that the

mine shipping “ clean ” coal on the minimum impurity

basis is handicapped in competing with one shipping

a larger amount, although both products may have

been cleaned. In these days of price competition all of these items count, and an agreed-upon basis will

be of help not only to the shipper, but also to the

consumer, who will then for the first time know what

he may expect when he buys “ clean ” coal, and will

have a standard by which he can measure it. Survey on speeds of machinery. —A questionnaire

is now being circulated by the American Standards

Association sectional committee on speeds of machinery for the purpose of determining present practice in various plants and industries with respect to the speeds of driving and driven machinery. The

questionnaire is accompanied by a table listing a proposed series of standard speeds, which is submitted

to those receiving the questionnaire for criticism and

comment as to whether the speeds designated would

cover the needs in a satisfactory manner. The table

follows

Proposed series of standard speeds (in revolutions

per minute) for driving units and driven shafts of

machines according to definitions are : 36, 56, 90, 133,

200, 300, 400, 600, 720, 900, 1,200, 1,800, 2.400, 3,600,

7,200, 10,620, 15,720, 23,400, 34,500, and 51,000.

Definitions for machine speeds were found by the

committee to be necessary in developing its work, and

a set of definitions was, therefore, worked out and

tentatively approved, as follows:

The machine speed of a built-in drive is the speed

of the shaft on which the rotating element of the

driving unit is mounted; a geared drive is the speed

of the driving pinion; a coupled drive is the speed

of the initial shaft to which the driving unit is cou- pled; a cone pulley belt drive is the speed of the

countershaft; a single pulley belt drive is the speed

of the driven pulley; a V-belt drive is the speed

of the driven sheave ; a rope drive is the speed of the

driven sheave ; a chain drive is the speed of the driven

sprocket; a friction drive is the speed of the driven

member.

In addition to the question as to whether the defini- tions of different machinery speeds mentioned above

appear to be satisfactory, the following questions

will be submitted to those canvassed: Can the proposed series of speeds be used for future design of

equipment without undue difficulty ? What speeds

of driving and driven shafts are you (a) using in

your plant, and {h) providing for in the machines

which you manufacture? State type of machines in

each case. What series of speeds of driven machinery and/or transmission equipment do you suggest

be made American standard to cover (a) the requirements of the machines you use in your plant and (&)

the machines which you manufacture? What kinds

of product do you manufacture?

Committee on certification and labeling.—The special committee of the association’s board of directors on certification and labeling has been appointed.

The appointment of the committee was first contemplated as a result of the request of the National Electrical Manufacturers Association that the American

Standards Association give consideration to the “ certification plan” advocated by the National Bureau

of Standards to popularize the products Avhich manufacturers certify to be in accordance with specifications. The appointment of a committee to study the

subject was authorized by the board of directors, but

it was decided that the formation of a general committee should await a preliminary studj'^ of the subject by a committee of the board.

American Standards Association Yearbook for

1931. —The American Standards Yearbook for 1931

has just been published. The yearbook reviews the

activities of the association during the past 12 months,

describes developments in international standardization, and the cooperative activities of trade associations, technical societies, and Government departments in national standardization work in this country. Many important standardization projects were

initiated during the past year under American Standards Association procedure, according to the yearbook. These projects include the standardization of

foundry equipment, specifications for sieves for test- ing purposes, approval and installation requirements

for domestic gas-burning appliances, and a code for
JUNE, 1931 COMMERCIAL STANDARDS MONTHLY 373

the prevention of dust explosions in coal pneumatic

cleaning plants.

Several new safety codes were added to the large

group of safety standards being set up under American Standards Association auspices for the guidance

in accident prevention work of practically all branches of industry. Among the new codes are safety code for mechanical refrigeration, . recommended practice for the use of explosives in bitumi- nous coal mines, the standard for fire-fighting equipment in metal mines, and safety code for woodworking plants.

One hundred and eightj^-five standards, including

46 during the past year, have been approved by the

association, and 178 uncompleted projects are now

under way.

AIDING THE SMALL LUMBER MILLS

Southern Pine Association Offers Its Facilities to Small

Lumber Mills of the South

The Southern Pine Association has blazed the trail to a general raising of the standards of the lumber

industry by its development of a plan to make its facilities and services available to the large and important number of small mills in the South, editorially

observes The Lumber Co-Operator. The demand for

better lumber and better construction is constantly

growing, and on the ability to meet that demand rests the security of the lumber industry and its markets.

The editorial points out that “ with the present

set-up of manufacturing lumber, the small mills produce a large portion of this material and every effort that is made to strengthen the position of lumijer and

fortify its standards must take into consideration the

position of the small mill and its methods of operation and marketing. It is commendable that plans

are materializing for an improvement and standardization of the products of these small mills ; improvements in operation, in better merchandising, and in

cooperation with other and large manufacturers.

This development bids fair to be an important one in

keeping the markets for lumber large ; in keeping these

markets inviolate from the attacks of other materials

which strive continuall}'^ to replace it.” Standardization or lack of it ; stabilization or demoralization ; quality or inferiorit}^^ of product is tied

up intimately with the operation of the small mills.

On this point the editorial writer of The Lumber

Co-operator said that:

The Southern Pine Association has made definite progress by

placing its services at the disposal of these small southern

mills. Further progress is evidenced by the wide acceptance on the part of many of these small operators.

With all the expenditures being made for promotion of lumber and for stimulating the demand and keeping the markets receptive, it is obvious that this lumber should come to the consumer in a standardized manner with the least amount

of confusion and the greatest amount of uniformity so that it will be easy to know lumber, to use it, and to specify it with

the assurance that it is going to be always wbat it is expected

to be. With this knowledge as a foundation, then it is easy

to see that merchandising and promotion can go to greater

heights and can offer greater inducements to increase the markets for lumber. STANDARD TYPE POWER BOATS AND

BARGES

The Inland WaterAvays Corporation has designed

and is building an express boat of 2,200-horsepower

Diesel direct drive, with a draft of only 6 feet, as part

of its program of standardizing equipment. Twenty

standard-type barges for both bulk and merchandise

cargo are also being built. It is contemplated tliat within the near future poAver boats and barges of

standardized construction Avill be used over the entire

Avaterways system.

In his annual report to the Secretar}’^ of War Maj.

Gen. T. Q. Ashburn, chairman of the corporation,

stated that they have four express boats capable of carr3nng 1,600 tons on an 8-foot draft, and, if demand

requires, the corporation expects to put the new Diesel

direct-drive boat, the Herbert Hoover^ in this serAuce. This boat Avill be capable of carrying a tow of two or

three barges through as fast as a self-contained unit

of the express boat type, Avith two or three times the

amount of cargo at approximately one-half the cost.

SIMPLIFIED PACKAGING OF OVERHEAD

ELECTRIC RAILWAY MATERIALS

A simplified practice recommendation covering the

jDackaging of 20 items of OA^erhead electric railway

materials was approA^ed by a general conference of

representatiA-es of all interests, held under the auspices

of the division of simplified practice. National Bureau

of Standards, May 7, 1931, at Pittsburgh, Pa. Mimeographed copies of this recommendation will be mailed

to the industry for consideration and signed approval.

The recommendation concerns the packaging of the

following materials : Protecting trolley armor, pole

bands up to and including 6 inches, pole bands 7 inches

and over, fork bolts Avith insulator one-half inch diameter, fork bolts with insulator fiA^e-eighths inch diameter, angle cross-arm braces, flat steel cross-arm braces,

crossings or crossoA^ers, trolley wire clinch ears, trolley

frogs, straight line hangers, cap and cone insulators,

section insulators, strain globe and giant insulators,

Avood strain insulators, feeder pins for steel cross arms,

straight line suspension pullovers, trolley Avire splicing

sleeves (soldered), trolley Avire splicing sleeves (mechanical), and line section switches.

It has been estimated that light and power companies make more than 1 per cent of the country’s total annual purchases. This amount, Avhich seems small

when expressed in percentage, actually runs into an

annual total of many millions of dollars. Any program of simplified practice which successfully elimi- nates any portion of the aAmidable waste formerly in- cident to the disbursement of such large sums of

moneAq should make possible substantial savings.

Wliile this jjarticular simplified practice recom- mendation is confied to metliods of packing and handling items of oA’erhead electric raihvay materials, it is expected that engineers, purchasing agents, works

superintendents, and all Avho are engaged in the production and distribution of light and power Avill deriA’e such tangible results from the recommendation

that it Avill become desirable to extend the application

of the principles of simidification to other items in the

electrical industrA'.
374 COMMERCIAL STANDARDS MONTHLY JUNE, 1931

U. S. S. R. EXPANDING ITS STANDARDIZATION PROGRAM

Program of U. S. S. R. Standards Committee for Current Year Outlined

During the current year the glass and porcelain

industry of the U. S. S. R. (Union of Socialist Soviet

Republics) will submit to the All-Union Standards

Comjuittee a total of 86 standardization projects for

approval, according to A. Bogoslavsky, in the Standardization Review, official organ of the U. S. S. R.

Standards Committee, with offices at Moscow.

Mr. Bogoslavsky states that the development of

standards for finished products of the industry will

be nearly completed this year, and after the conclusion of this program, recommends that the activities

he directed toward the development of better types

of machinery and to the standardization of processes. In the same issue of the publication D. G. Budnevitch, 'vice president of the U. S. S. R. Standards

Committee, explains the general standardization plan

of the committee for 1931. The plan comprises 4,500

items from various industrial fields. In his article

he shows by many examples taken from different in- dustries, that through the elimination of waste great

savings are annually obtained amounting in some

cases to several millions and even to hundreds of million roubles with regard to some standardized items.

The difference of the principles on which Soviet

standardization is based, from the standardization

methods of other countries is clearly shown b}^ the

writer. Whereas standards in other countries are a product of agreement between competing groups, in

U. S. S. R. under the economic conditions with no

conflicts arising between individual industries, where

there is no competition nor anarchy of production,

standards are the product of the planning reason of

the state, he points out. There is contained in the Standardization Review a thorough discussion of the importance of standardization work for the coal industry in connection with

the development outlined by the 5-year state plan, by

M. Grigorovitch and J. Beresnevitch. The article

deals in detail with the plan for 1931 and with its general principles. The figures originally outlined

by the 5-year plan for 1931, amounted to 54,800,000 tons of coal, and have recently been increased to 83,000,000 tons, the latter figures exceeding more than

73.5 per cent the production of 1930. The writers

point out that typization and standardization would

accelerate and cheapen the opening of new pits, adding that standardization should cover methods of

sampling, testing and analysis, classification, handlingequipment, mine transportation (mine cars, tracks,

signals, switches), illumination, i^entilation, and concentrators. There are 230 items in this field scheduled

for standardization.

In order to shorten the terms of building new

district power plants and to eliminate in this way

the disproportion between the growth of industry

and the supply of electric power, J. Tzyshevsky suggests in his article. Some Problems of Standardization in Electric Construction, that all district power

plants be subdivided into three groups dependent

upon the remoteness of consumers. All proper types

of equipment should be prepared in good time con- sidering that the rate and tempo of building the

power plants in question depend exclusively on the

fact whether their equipment has been prepared in

time, he said. Though several standards for Avhite pigments, red

lead, etc., have already been approved by the

U. S. S. R. Standards Committee, S. Volcovisky

points out a whole series of measures that should be

undertaken to increase to a great extent standardization in the industry. This is of special importance in

connection with the fact that the Russians must make

use of artificial drying oils in the manufacture of

paints and colors. A thorough discussion of the I'ecently approved

standard for the ash contents of Donetz and Kuznetsk

coking coals is given by A. Greener. The author

illustrates the enormous consequence of this standard

for improving the quality of the coals. This standard

for the first time in the history of Donetz coal district

sets up a standard ash content for coals of separate

pits and mines, taking into account both natural fac- tors and concentrators, and is of special importance

for the standard operation of coke ovens and for

obtaining coke of uniform quality.

In a discussion of standardization of types for rail- way rolling stock, N. Tshapov and V. Feodorovitch

draw attention to the unsatisfactory service of types

used for the railway rolling stock. The requirements

types have to meet at present, according to the existing specifications, are quite inadequate, especially for

the heavy conditions of service. Comparing these

requirements with those of some foreign standard

specifications, the authors insist upon including in the

specifications new requirements, such as definite class of steel, chemical composition, etc.

STANDARD SPECIFICATIONS IN THE GRAY

IRON INDUSTRY

Both the National Association of Purchasing

Agents and the California Chamber of Commerce

have given recognition to the sales agreement and

trade customs defining the conditions covering the

sale of gray iron castings as developed and adopted

by the Gray Iron Institute. The first-mentioned

organization has approved these conditions which

have been given indorsement and publicity by the

Chamber of Commerce of California. Incorporated

in the sales agreement and customs are recommendations relating to colors for painting the various parts

of foundry patterns. These colors, Avhich have been

agreed to by several organizations in the foundry

trade, formed the basis of Commercial Standards

CS19-30 isstied by the National Bureau of Standards.

Considerable progress is now being made by the

technical department of the Gray Iron Institute in

developing standard siDecifications for different types

of gray iron castings for various services.
JUNE, 1931 COMMERCIAL STANDARDS MONTHLY 375

METHODS OF MASS PRODUCTION ^

Testing and Inspection of Purchased Materials Facilitated Through Use of Standard Specifications

By William Butteeworth, United States Chamhcr of Commerce

The development of mass production methods of

manufacture is recognized as a significant factor in the

phenomenal expansion of American industry during

the past 30 years. The rajiid growth of a number of

large-scale industrial enterprises lias given rise to the

belief that the industries of the United States are dominated large corporations manufacturing tremendous quantities of goods by mass production methods.

Mass jiroduction is frequently confused ivitli any type

of quantity production by the use of machinery. As

a result, both the volume of goods made under mass

Iiroduction methods and the extent of their adoption

are frequently overestimated.

The term “ mass production ” promptly calls to mind

a picture of large factories employing thousands of

workers. Yet the average manufacturing establishment in the United States employed only 42.3 wage

earners in 1929, the latest year for which complete data

are available. It can not be assumed that even the majority of the plants employing more than 500 wage

earners are operating on a mass production basis. In

its technical sense mass production refers to method

rather than to quantity. No definition of this term

which satisfactorily distinguishes between mass production and other methods of quantity production has

gained general acceptance.

Mass jH’oduction methods are not adaptable to the

manufacture on a large scale of nonstandardized products Avhich are fabricated on special order. Products

of this type include machine tools, locomotives, highgrade clothing, power-house equipment, steel girders, cut stone, and other materials used in building construction. It is possible, however, to produce under mass production methods standardized piece parts

which are used in completed articles produced with

general purpose machinei'}^ on an individual basis. The terms large-scale production ” and “ mass production ” have been popularly regarded as being synonymous. There is, however, an essential difference

between the two terms although the boundary line be- tween mass production and large scale or quantity production is often difficult to determine. The distinguishing factor is the degree to which, in mass production, variable factors, such as materials, sizes, quality,

finish, color, and methods of fabrication, are reduced to

a minimum. A plant turning out job lot orders on a quantity basis may often introduce a modified type of mass production methods by an increase in the lot quantity, the specialization of labor and the use of

single purpose machinery.

Complete uniformity of a product can only be obtained Avhen the materials Avhich enter into its manu-

* Abstracted from the report prepared by the American section of the International Chamber of Commerce and submitted 1o the Jlay I to 9 convention. Mr. Butterworth, former president of life United States Chamber of Commerce, was cliairman of the .American section preparing

the report.

factui’e are Avholly .standardized. The purchase of

raAv materials and component parts entering into the

finished product has become a highly specialized management function. Most mass-production companies

maintain a distinct purchasing staff. The responsibility for securing materials Avhich Avill meet the re- quirements of mass production is frequently divided

betAveen the purchasing department, the engineering

department, and the inspection or research laboratory.

The need for absolute uniformity of materials has

led to a trend toward buying on contract from tested

A’endors instead of relying upon competitive bidding.

A combination of these tAvo systems is nevertheless

quite common. Of course, all purchased material

must be ordered from definite specifications. These

specifications are drawn up by the company’s technical staff. Standard specifications for many basic

commodities have been prepared by the National Bureau of Standards and by various technical organizations and trade associations, such as the American

Society for Testing Materials and the Society of Automotive Engineers.

An investigation into the manufacturing methods

and materials used by potential suppliers precedes

the development of specifications for products purchased by one large electrical manufacturing company.

The specifications Avhen finally draivn up thus can be

readily met by the suppliers at most adAutntageous

prices. Rigid requirements of quality are insisted

upon, and complied with Avithout difficulty because of

the adjustment of the specification to the production

facilities of the supplier.

Aside from the technical necessity for standard materials entering into mass production there is a dis- tinct price advantage to be attained through

standardized purchasing methods. In the first place,

feAver A’arieties of material need to be ordered. There

is a corresponding increase in the quaiuities required.

Large quantities of a single uniform material may be

ordered in advance of actual manufacturing demand

in order to take advantage of favorable market quotations. In some companies using completely standardized materials or component parts, the purchasing

depariments are permitted to order enough stock to meet the requirements for several months’ production.

In other companies Avliich liaA^e standing contracts

Avith suppliers, excessive inventories may be avoided

through the purchase of small quantities of identical

materials or parts in a volume suflicient onl}- to meet

the demands of seA'^eral days’ production. Such a policy also results in a substantial decrease in the

storage facilities required.

The testing and inS]iection of purchased material

are greatly facilitated through the adojition of standard specifications. Usuall_y, because of the large

quantities of goods purchased, a sampling method of

checking the quality'^ is adopted. Some plants make

a practice of’ testing samples before entering into contracts for supplies.
376 COMMERCIAL STANDARDS MONTHLY JUNE, 19.S1 UNITED STATES INSTITUTE FOR TEXTILE RESEARCH

Simplification of Plans for Research is Being Effected by Our Second Largest Industry

By Waeeen E. Emley, Naticmal Bureau of Standards

The American public spends more money for textiles than for any other purpose except foods. The

textile industry may, therefore, be called our second

largest. It is so large, in fact, as to have lost coherenca,

and people usually speak of the cotton industry, the

carpet and rug industry, the laundry industry, etc., thus breaking down the great textile industry into its component parts.

A multiplicity of trade associations serve the various

branches of the industry. Some of these are composed

of users of a particular fiber, such as the National Association of Wool Manufacturers; others are composed

of the manufacturers of a particular kind of product,

such as the Cordage Institute. The distributors have

the National Retail Drygoods Association, the con- sumers the American Home Economics Association,

and the refreshment branches have the National Association of Dyers and Cleaners, and the Laundryowners’ National Association. In general, an individual

in the textile industry can avail himself of the services

of three or four national organizations. Their functions run the entire gamut from the highly commercial Association of Cotton Textile Merchants of New

York, to the highly technical American Association of

Textile Chemists and Colorists.

All of these organizations are engaged in research

work—scientific, technical, or economic. Many manufacturers support research laboratories which are noted for the excellence of their equipment and per- sonnel. So also, are those of the textile schools. Leading retailers employ commercial testing laboratories, or maintain their own, and it has frequently

happened that these laboratories have been forced

into research work to develop new testing methods

or to learn more about new fabrics. The home eco- nomics departments of our State colleges have been

looking after the interests of the consumers. The

refreshment industries have their own laboratories,

and also maintain research associateships, the dry

cleaners at the National Bureau of Standards and

the laundry owners at Mellon Institute.

One would expect that this vast army of research

workers would soon put the textile industry in the van of progress, and great progress has indeed been

made in the past few years. These workers, however, are chiefly engaged in the application of known

UNIFORM SIZES FOR GLASSINE BAGS

A general conference of representatives of manufacturers and distributors of glassine bags used in the

confectionery and baking business adopted a simplified

practice recommendation for the sizes of these bags at a meeting held under the auspices of the Division of

Simplified Practice, National Bureau of Standards, on

April 28, 1931, in New York, N. Y.

The program establishes uniform sizes for both flat and square bags for specific purposes, such as bread.

facts to the solution of their problems. With increasing frequency they have found themselves facing

situations where the needed facts are not yet known.

When this happens, there are two courses of action

open; to use an assumption instead of a fact, or to divert the efforts into scientific research to find the

fact. Since the latter course is apt to be quite ex- pensive, and will likely require a kind of personnel

and equipment not available at the time, the former

course is the one usually taken.

A few laboratories—the National Bureau of Standards, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Yale

University, and others—are conducting scientific re- search work; finding the facts for the textile industry to use. The industry has recently given formal

recognition to the value of this work by organizing

the United States Institute for Textile Research, in- corporated under the “ membership laws ” of the State

of New York. The avowed puroose of the institute

is to stimulate and support research for the benefit

of the industry as a whole. It has already become

evident that only the scientific research needs stimulating; applied research needs correlating.

The first requirement of the institute was exact information as to just what textile research work

is now being conducted, and who is doing it. Fortunately, the Textile Foundation (Inc.), was willing

to finance this survey, which is now nearing completion. When this information becomes available, unnecessary duplication of effort can be readily avoided,

and problems can be referred to those laboratories

which are best equipped to handle them. Moreover,

information will be developed as to those facts which

are missing and which are now needed, and scientific research can, therefore, be directed toward ends known

to have an immediate practical application.

With Dr. Samuel W. Stratton as president, and

with a board of directors fairly representative of the

many interests of which the textile industry is composed, the institute is now in a position to function.

It is planned to correlate the vast amount of research

work which is under way; to direct the research

efforts more along scientific lines, in order that the

foundation of the industry may be firmly established

;

and to make the textile industry more attractive to the younger scientists.

pies, and cakes, and the sizes of general-purpose bags

of capacities from 1 ounce to 2 pounds used in the

confectionery trade. The sizes adopted represent a

substantial reduction in the sizes heretofore carried in

the trade for all uses. While the present proposal,

which will become effective one month after approval

by all interests, is limited to this tj^pe of bag, the in- dustry intends later to simplify the sizes of other types

of bags used in the confectionery, baking, and other

trades.
JUNE, 1931 COMMERCIAL STANDARDS MONTHLY 377

MAINTAINING THE STANDARD UNIT OF RESISTANCE AT THE NATIONAL

BUREAU OF STANDARDS

Improved Type of Resistance Standard Devised as a Means at Maintaining Constant Value for the

International Ohm

By J. L. Thomas, National Bureau of Standards

The unit of electrical resistance, known as the “ international ohm,” is defined as the resistance of a column

of mercury of specified length and mass, measured at the temperature of melting ice. While the definition

is rather simple, the realization of this unit to the desired accuracy is extremely difficult. Even the most

skilled experimenters—working with the greatest care—have been unable to set up mercury columns

which will give duplicate results of sufficient accuracy

for present-day needs. The result is that there is now

an uncertainty in the value of the international ohm of

at least 20 parts in 1,000, although precision resistance

standards of nominally the same value may readily be

compared to within 1 or 2 parts in 1,000,000.

Because of the large amount of work involved in

setting up mercury ohms and the uncertainty of the

unit realized from them, a unit has been maintained

in the National Bureau of Standards by means of

wire-resistance coils. Values were assigned to these

reference coils in 1910 in terms of the average of the

international ohms as realized in England and in

Germany from a number of mercury ohms set up only

a short time previously in each of these countries.

At that time this particular international ohm, since

known as the Washington unit, was recommended for

general use. It gave the different countries the same

basis of reference, although it was understood that

this basis might be changed later if more accurate mercury ohm determinations were made.

Since its establishment, the Washington unit has

been maintained for this country by means of a group

of ten 1-ohm coils of manganin wire. These coils are intercompared at regular intervals and a value

assigned to each on the assumption that the average

value of the resistance of the coils remains constant. The individual coils seldom change as much as 3 or 4 parts in 1,000,000 a year with respect to the

average. If any coil of the group changes in resist- ance by an unusually large amount, it is replaced

from a reserve stock by a coil that has remained

sufficiently constant in the preceding several years. While it is possible that the resistances of all 10 of

these coils vary in the same way by large amounts,

their relative values changing but little, it is not

probable that they do so. Intercomparisons are made

with other countries whenever they set up mercury

ohms and these intercomparisons seem lo show that our unit has remained very constant. As nearly as can be told, the average yearly change has not been more than 1 part in 1,000,000 during the last 20 years. The standards used since 1910 to maintain the unit

of electrical resistance are of the sealed type developed

at this bureau by Rosa. One-ohm coils of silk-covered

manganin wire were wound on brass tubes about 1 inch in diameter and 3 inches long. After winding,

the coils were impregnated with shellac varnish and

baked for several hours at 140° C. This baking not

only dried out the varnish, leaving a fairly impervious

insulating coating, but it also increased the stability

of the resistance of the coils. After baking, the coils were kept for several months, then carefully adjusted,

and sealed in air-tight containers filled with oil. During the baking, the resistance of manganin coils will generally decrease, probably as the result of a

partial annealing of the wire. After the baking,

however, the resistance will generally increase, fairly

rapidly at first, then more and more slowly. Hence,

for resistance standards of the highest quality it is necessary to keep the coils for several months after

baking before making final adjustment of their

resistance. During this time the rise in resistance will

often amount to 100 parts in a million.

The need for increased accuracy in technical electri- cal measurements has made it seem desirable to in- crease the stability of standards used for maintaining

the unit of electrical resistance. For this purpose a new type of 1-ohm standard has been developed at the

National Bureau of Standards which promises to be

highly satisfactory. The change in resistance in the

first few months after baking is only 2 or 3 parts as contrasted with the change of about 100 x^^rts in 1,000,000 which often occurred in coils of the older

type. It seems reasonable to expect a considerably

greater stability over a period of years for standards

of the new form, since they are so much more stable

immediately after baking.

In making the new standards, bare manganin wire

is wound tightly on a steel tube, and then heated in a furnace to about 500° C. This so thoroughly anneals the wire that it will retain its helical shape when

it is removed from the steel tube upon which it is annealed. These coils are x^ut on silk-insulated brass

tubes, the turns separated by winding linen thread

between, and then the coil is shellacked and baked at 80° C. to dry out the shellac. The brass tube upon which the coil is mounted

forms the inner wall of a double-walled container.

A second brass tube of slightly lai’ger diameter is put

over this one, and the two are sex^arted by means of

brass rings at each end. The container is made air- tight by soldering the brass rings to the tubes. Wires to connect to the ends of the resistance coils are brought

through small holes drilled through the inner wall of

the container. These holes are then sealed with gum

shellac. No oil or other cooling liquid is x>id in this

container, and the standards quickly come to the temX^eratui’e of the oil bath in which they are measured.

A number of these new 1-ohm resistance standards

have been constructed and are now under observation

at the bureau. It is exx^ected that the unit of resist- ance will be maintained with a groux) of these staiul- ards if they continue as stable in resistance as they have

been so far. They have already proved their superiority in international coinx^arisons, as they apx:>ear to be

free from the change of resistance during shipment

which occurred in sealed standards of the Rosa tyx^e.
378 COMMEBCIAL STANDARDS MONTHL'S JUNE, 1931 MISLEADING DISPLAYS OF BEEF CUTS CONFUSE PURCHASERS

Federal Stamp Aids Consumer and Livestock Producer to Identify Grade and Quality of Beef

By AY. C. Davis, United States Department of Agriculture

Probably no food product possesses a greater range

of qualitj- than beef, as the term is generally used.

Recent investigations show that the great majority

of consumers do not know how to select beef on the

basis of quality. This condition has become intensified because of misleading meat displays, and misleading advertising regarding its quality. As a result con- sumers become confused, and while they long for an

appetizing steak or roast, theA'^ hesitate “ to take an- other chance.”

This is largely because consumers have not been

clearlj^ informed about beef and the factors which

insure its satisfactory quality. Beef of the best qualitj^

must be from a Avell ‘‘ finished ” animal. “ Finish ” in

the live animal means that the meat from that animal

Avill be interspersed with ivhite fat particles. The

presence of firm Avhite fat in beef is a sure indication

of high qualitj^ It contributes to tenderness and

palatability.

Best quality in beef implies full, firm muscular

tissue or flesh with a minimum of strength in fiber and connective tissue. Beef of this sort possesses a high proportion of juice to dry fiber, but this moisture must be of such consistency that the flesh ivlien chilled remains firm and resilient. The cut surface

of this beef has fine grain and is smooth and velvety

to sight and touch. The color is a light or cherry

red. The cut surface also presents a sheen or reflec- tion not apparent in beef of poorer quality which is relatively dry or Avatery, and of coarser fiber. All lean beef, hoAveAer, will not make satisfactory

roast and steaks, because it lacks the essential ele- ments Avhich contribute to tenderness and palatability.

YelloAv fat, and particularly soft j^elloAv fat, indi- cates low qualit5^ It is generally associated Avith cow beef and more specially Avith beef from dairy

cows. Generally these are not slaughtered until after

they have ceased to be economical milk producers,

hence liaA^e passed the age Avhen it might be possible

to convert them into satisfactoi’y meat cuts for the

table. Because of these conditions and the uncertainties

Avhich accompanied consumers’ beef purchases the

Government Beef Grading and Stamping Service was

instituted. This service Avas inaugurated May 2, 1927,

at 10 of the larger slaughtering centers. The service

has since been extended to seA^en more large markets.

The grades in order of excellence are : Prime, choice,

good, medium, and common.

Beef carcasses and cuts are graded and stamped at the packing plant by official beef graders. Beef is graded on the basis of conformance, finish, and qualit}^, and every official grader has been thoroughly

trained in Government grade standards. Beginning

at the hind shank, a continuous ribbonlike imprint

is made on each side of the carcass. The stamp is so placed that at least a portion of its imprint is left on

each retail cut. Both class and grade are shown

;

for instance, a steer carcass carries the Avord “ steer ”

evenl}^ spaced and followed by the grade term. The

ink used for stamping the beef is a pure A^egetable

compound and is entirely harmless.

It has nOAV been definitely proved that such a serv^- ice is not only practical and Avorkable, but that it is essential to both consumers and livestock producers.

It is essential to consumers in that it proAudes a means

of identifying the grade or quality of the beef Avhich

they purchase. They are no longer compelled to rely on the judgment or advice of the individual market man. The Government grade .stamp on the beef is the GoA^ernment’s statement of quality to the con- sumer. The grading and stamping service is essential to livestock producers because it eliminates possible substitution and misrepresentation in the sale of their

products to consumers. Those Avho produce the better grades of beef do not haA^e to come into competition Avith those Avho produce the poorer grades; their

products are sold for exactly Avhat they are, because

the grade stamp indicates their quality.

INTERNATIONAL STANDARD ATOMIC

WEIGHTS FOR 1931

The publication of a ncAv revised table of atomic

Aveights of the chemical elements is an event of unusual

importance. Tlie 1931 report of the International

Committee on Atomic Weights of the International

Union of Chemistiw Avas issued on May 6, 1931, by

G. P. Baxter, chairman of the committee. It is printed in the May issue of the Journal of the American Chemical Societ3^

The table contains an alphabetical list of the offi- cially accepted names of the chemical elements, and

the symbol, atomic number, and atomic weight of each.

The atomic number is simply the serial number in the

table of the 92 chemical elements beginning Avith hydrogen. No. 1, and ending Avith uranium, 92. Atoms

numbered 43, 61, 85, and 87 are not included in the

official table as theA^ are either undiscoA^ered or their

discoA'^ery has not yet been adequately demonstrated

and accepted.

The atomic weight is the aA^erage atomic Aveight of

the atoms of an element. Ei^en for the same element

the atoms maA" differ in Aveight. The indiAddual atoms

all haA^e whole numbered or nearly whole numbered

atomic Aveights (based on oxygen = 16.0000 as standard) . The irregular projiortions of these whole numbered atomic weights make the usual a Average atomic

weight fractional.

While the atomic number is the one and only dis- tinctive characteristic of all the atoms of a given ele- ment, the average atomic Aveight is still the practical

datum required in chemical anah'ses.
JUNE, 1931 COMMERCIAL STANDARDS MONTHLY 379

STREET SANITATION

Rapid Growth of Cities Creates Complex Problems for Sanitation Officials

By Donald C. Stone '

Street sanitation officials are finding themselves in

charge of highly complex and technical activities due

to the fact that during the past few years cities have

grown tremendously in both area and population. The

demands of citizens that their city governments dis- pose of all types of municipal waste have added new

burdens. In brief, sanitation officials find that instead

of a simple problem which confronted them a few

years ago they now face the intricate problem of management; that is. the organizing of men and putting

machinery and materials into effective service.

As in all undertakings which rely upon a combination of men, machines, and materials, the street sanitation official must receive a continuous stream of in- formation concerning his work and what it is cost- ing. He must know how much work is being produced ; that is, how many miles of streets are cleaned,

how much refuse is removed, etc. He needs to know

the extent to which work accomplished conforms to work planned, if new methods of work or equipment

are actually more effective than those replaced, and

the difference in costs of various methods and

machines.

Standard measures needed.—These questions can

not be answered without the use of measures. We

need to measure the amount of work performed, the

efficiency with which it is performed, the cost, and the

quality of results obtained. To be of value such measures should be uniformly prepared and employ

well-defined work units which mean the same thing on one occasion as on another. Lineal measurement

would be absurd if a foot meant 10 inches to one, 12 to another, or 15 to a third. Likewise, in street sanitation unless the work units for streets cleaned

or for refuse removed mean the same thing each

time they are applied, either in one city or in several

cities, the units are meaningless as measures of work

accomplished. Or, if the same classes of expenses are not included in cost statements they are robbed of all value as measures. orh of the Committee on Uniform Street Sanitation Records.—Appreciating this evolution in the

technique of street-sanitation work and the need of

standard measures for determining work performed

and costs, a Committee on Uniform Street Sanitation Records has been established by the International

Association of Public Works Officials (formerly the

International Association of Street Sanitation Offi- cials), in conjunction with the International Cit}^

Managers’ Association, the National Committee on Municipal Standards, the American Municipal Association, the American Public Health Association, the

American Road Builders’ Association, the American

Society of Civil Engineers, the American Society of

Municipal Engineers, the Govenunental Research

Association, and the National Municipal League.

'Director. Committee on Uniform Street Sanitation Records. International Association of Rublic Works OtEcials, 923 East Sixtieth Street, Chicago, lil.

This committee has already' published a tentative

report, entitled “ The Measurement and Control of

Municipal Sanitation,” which discusses generally the

need for standard measures and costs, and how they

may be applied to the benefit of the sanitation official. The final report of the committee’s work is now under

preparation and will describe in detail the work units

and unit costs which will be established as standai’d

throughout the country, and just how these measures

can be utilized into dail}", weekly, monthly, and

annual administrative reports. The committee’s

report will also describe how a scientific work program and budget is devised and how these instruments can operate to control the work of sanitation

operations.

Many officials have suggested that a central clear- ing house be established to collect information from

each city concerning its Avork, cost, and other pertinent information; all to employ the standard units

and standard schedules. The committee is hoping to make possible the establishment of such a clearing

house.

Value of standard measures.—-The word ” standard,” as employed bj' the Committee on Uniform

Street Sanitation Records, diffei'S somewhat from the

ordinary understanding of this Avord in commercial

practice. The attempt at this stage is not to standardize materials, articles, and equipment employed by

sanitation officials, but rather to standardize their

methods of gathering information and of measuring

their activities. This sort of standardization Avill make it possible to compare the methods in one city

with those in another and to make it possible for one

official to benefit by the experience of others since

they can present the products of their experience in

comparable form. Ultimately, as certain types of

commodities and equipment emerge as the most

economical and practical, the way Avill be paved for

standardizing them.

Unit cost standards.-—Perhaps the most unusual fea- ture of the committee’s Avork is the attempt to establish a unit cost standard. This standard is not a

specific unit cost for an operation which may serve

as a goal for every sanitation department in the

country. Unfortunately, the conditions and problems facing each department are far too varied to permit such a simple measure as this.

'

IIoAveA’er, unless the sanitation official can compare

his costs and other statistical measures Avith some

standai’d, their value is great Iv reduced. He may

compare them AA’ith costs in iirevious months or years, but there is nothing to sIioaa' him that the ]u-eA’ious

figures Avere any more indicative of efficiency than the

present ones. Without knoAving Avhat his costs should

be, there is no Ava}' for the official to measure his current results or to control the various expenditures

entering into these costs. As an alternatiA'e to a cost standard of nation-Avide

application, the committee proposes that the aboA’e problem be met. in iiart. by each sanitation official
380 COMMERCIAL STANDARDS MONTHLY JUNE, 1931

establishing a standard cost for each operation in his

city. These standard costs may differ in dollars and

cents from one department to another, all hough the same procedure is followed in devising them. They

correspond generally to the standard costs as employed

in industry.

The work program and budget. —These standard measures of work performed and unit cost standards

have particular value in formulating a work program

for the year. In the past, public officials have esti- mated their budget needs on the basis of how much

money was spent for particular objects during past

periods. Seldom have their estimates been based upon

a definite program of work to be performed. Obviously, the preparation of a budget under such conditions is merely guesswork.

In place of tMs, the committee recommends that a very carefully prepared program of the work shall

be formulated at the beginning of the year which

shows the exact amount of work of each variety to be

done, the time at which it is to be done, and the esti- mated unit costs and total costs for doing it. This estimated cost is the unit cost standard described above. Once the work program is prepared,

the financial budget can be constructed. This budget

will enumerate the expenditures required to execute

the work program using an object classification; that

is, personal services, contractual services, materials and

supplies, etc. The budget will also state the source of revenue for financing these operations which should be,

in this case, appropriations from the general fund.

During the year the periodic work and cost statements

will indicate if the actual results conform to the esti- mated and the unit cost standards. This will furnish

the official with an excellent tool for controlling his

day-to-day operations.

TENTATIVE STANDARD SOUGHT FOR MINERAL WATERS AND SHELLFISH

Kesolutions providing for the formulation of a plan for safeguarding the production and distribution of shellfish, and to work out a tentative standard

for potentially dangerous mineral waters sold fi’om

various commercialized springs and wells in the

country, were adopted April 30, 1931, at the closing

session of the conference of State and Territorial

health officers in Washington.

The resolution to safeguard present measures re- garding the distribution of shellfish requests that the

United States Public Health Service develop a defi- nite scheme or table for rating the sanitary control over the production and the handling of shellfish. This table or plan is then to be submitted to the

producing States for their approval.

The second resolution provides that the Surgeon

General of the Public Health Service shall be notified of the advisability of working out a method to

set up standards of what shall constitute potentially

dangerous mineral water, these standards to be based

upon suggestions submitted to him.

Sanitary Engineer R. E. Tarbott, of the Public

Health Service, read a paper on A Proposed Method

of Renorting Efficiency of State Control Over Shellfish Sanitation, and the resolution calling for the

working out of such ' a plan was adopted after his

proposals had been discussed by other delegates.

State health departments should work with the Federal Food and Drug Administration in enforcing reg- ulations regarding mineral waters bottled and shipped

at approximately 400 wells and springs in the United

States, W. S. Frisbie, chemist in charge of the office of cooperation. Food, Drug, and Insecticide Administration of the Department of Agriculture, told the

conference.

Before making his paper, entitled “ The Coordination of the Sanitary Control of Bottled Mineral

Waters,” available to delegates, Mr. Frisbie outlined

the work of his bureau in prohibiting the adulteration

or the misbranding of bottled mineral waters. Samples of such water first are obtained at their source. Afterwards, he explained, the bureau is constantly

collecting samples in the open market. However, in- asmuch as the Food, Drug, and Insecticide Administration has no sanitary engineers, the cooperation of

State health departments which do have sanitary

engineers is necessary in the work of controlling mineral waters, according to Mr. Frisbie.

STANDARD THICKNESS OF LEATHER

RECOMMENDED

A conference held at the Roosevelt Hotel, New York,

N. Y., on April 28, 1931, representing all interests of

the bag, case, and strap leather industry, recommended

for universal adoption a standard covering the selling

thickness for bag, case, and strap leather.

The conference was called by the division of trade

standards, National Bureau of Standards, at the re- quest of the Bag, Case, and Strap Leather Group of

the Tanners’ Council of America, who formulated the

proposed standard for the purpose of eliminating the

confusion and misimderstanding that has hitherto

existed in the purchase and sale of bag, case, and strap

leathers. Four methods of designating thickness are set forth

in the standard as recommended by the conference.

The term “ ounce,” because of its long and general

use in the industry, is regarded as the preferred term. For those familiar with the metric system and for use

in export trade, the thickness is designated in millimeters. A designation—64ths of an inch—is included

for use by the layman unfamiliar with the terms of

the leather industry, and the fourth designation of

thousandths of an inch is included for the use of those

buying or selling by this unit. The instrument rec- ommended for determining the thickness of bag, case, and strap leather is the Woburn Leather Gage, or its equivalent, accurately calibrated in the four thickness

designations.

Those interested in bag, case, and strap leather may

obtain mimeographed copies of the recommended commercial standard by addressing the division of trade

standards. National Bureau of Standards, Washington, D. C.
JUNE, 1931 COMMERCIAL STANDARDS MONTHLY 381

STANDARDS FOR TRANSMISSION OF SPEECH

Industry Adopted Reference Circuit 25 Years Ago

By William H. Harrison, American Telephone & Telegraph Co.

Since the earliest days of the telephone, the need

for a unit in which to measure the transmission

efficiency of telephone facilities has been recognized.

The introduction of cable in 1896 afforded a stable

basis for a convenient unit and the “ mile of standard ” cable came into general use shortly thereafter. This

unit was employed up to 1923 when a new method of

designating the efficiency was adopted as being more

suitable for modern telephone work. The new method

involves the use of a term widely employed by foreign

telephone organizations, which recently was given the

name of “ decibel ” at the suggestion of the Inter- national Advisory Committee on Long Distance

Telephony.

As employed in telephone engineering, the decibel

may be defined by the statement that two amounts of

power differ by 1 decibel when they are in the ratio

of 10 and any two amounts of power differ by N

decibels when they are in the ratio of ION The

number of decibels expressing the ratio of any two

powers is, therefore, ten times the common logarithm

of that ratio. This method of designating the gain or loss of

power in telephone circuits permits direct addition or subtraction of the units expressing the efficiency of

different parts of the circuit and is therefore especially

advantageous in facilitating the design and mainte- nance of the telephone plant. The decibel is also of

particular advantage in that, being based purely on power ratio, it has the same value for the same

ratio at different frequencies. The “ mile of standard ” cable, because of its distortion characteristics,

expressed a different ratio of power at different

frequencies.

As a basis for expressing transmission efficiency, a standard reference circuit was adopted about 25 years

ago, the circuit consisting of standard commercial

transmitting and receiving equipment, cord circuits,

and an artificial line variable in equivalent length.

Improvements in the art during recent years have

permitted the replacement of the older reference sys- tem with a new circuit which is substantially free

from distortion.

This new “ master reference,” as it is called, consists

of transmitting and receiving elements interconnected

by a variable artificial line. The transmitting element

of this reference system consists essentially of an air- damped condenser type transmitter with a stretched

duralumin diaphragm and an associated vacuum tube

amplifier. The receiving element is composed of an

air-damped receiver of the moving coil type and an

associated vacuum tube amplifier.

The connecting line or attenuating element is composed of a distortionless resistance line with a variable

range from 0 to 101 decibels in steps of 0.2 decibel.

The transmitting and receiving elements both have

electro-acoustic characteristics that are substantially

distortionless and, as the impedance of the different

elements are matched, the air-to-air reproduction ratio

is practically distortionless.

The electrical and acoustic specifications of all jiarts

of this master reference system are defined and measured in terms of definite physical quantities and every

part of the system can, therefore, be exactly re-pro- duced from the specifications. Each element is also

provided with suitable adjustments for maintaining

the standard of performance as determined by measuring and calibrating equipment associated with the

system.

The artficial line can, of course, be calibrated by

common methods. For the basic calibration of the

transmitting and receiving elements, however, a thermophone is employed. This instrument expresses a

definite relation between electrical input and acoustic

power and is itself capable of specification in definite

physical constants. In order to facilitate the measurements of commercial circuits which are not free from distortion, provision is made in the master reference system for the

insertion of distortion net works.

This master reference system has also been recently

adopted by the International Advisory Committee.

By the adoption of the same reference system throughout the world and similar or comparable transmission

units, a very great step has been taken toward the development of generally accepted world-wide standards

of reference for all measurements relating to telephone

transmission. In view of the rapidly expanding scope

of intercontinental telephony at this time, it is particularly fortunate that these common standards have been

adopted.

BROOM BUYING MADE EASY

Brooms, because of their farm ancestry, are now

among the commodities labeled according to standards

set by the United States Department of Agriculture.

By a decision of the Broom Institute (Inc.), recently

organized in New York, N. Y., under the auspices of

the National Standards Council, all brooms made by

member manufacturers must conform to comparable

standards for broomcorn.

These broomcorn standards are among the many

drawn up by the Department of Agriculture in the last 15 years to help the farmer get prices commensurate

with the quality of his products, and to provide a re- liable guide for buyers.

Under the new standards household brooms are in

three general grades ; supergrade, made from selected,

fine-fiber A quality broomcorn ; fancy grade, made

from the regular run of A quality broomcorn; and

service grade, made from B quality broomcorn, which

although not so good as A quality, is still of high

quality. Warehouse and industrial brooms come in

two grades ; service grade, for which B quality broomcorn is specified; and utility grade, for which C quality broomcorn (sound, serviceable broomcorn, but with

certain defects) is used.
382 COMMERCIAL STANDARDS MONTHLY JUNE, 1931 FINNISH STANDARDS ASSOCIATION

Scope of Association’s Functions Reviewed

By A. WiLLBEKG, Secretary Finnish Standards Association

When the Finnish Standards Association was started

in 1924, it concentrated principally on solving the

problems of mechanical engineering. Such restriction

of its activities was a natural outcome of the development of standardization in Finland.

Tlie formation of a standards organization was the

work of our leaders in engineering who subsequently

gave the organization the greatest support both in labor

and finance. The association intended to cover all branches of trade, and thus become a central body in

which all standardization work in the country wouhl

be concentrated.

The standardizing work of the Finnish Standards

Association at present embraces mechanical' engineering, electrical engineering, the paper trade, fire-fighting technology, packing,, and the graphics industry.

The work is carried out partly by. committees ap- pointed by the association and partly by the standards

office. An exception is the committee for standardizing agricultural machinery, which was appointed by

the Central Union of Agricultural Producers in Finland. During the past few years, however, the woik

has been taken over more and more by the office of the

association, as the voluntary committees Avork too

sloAvly.

In mechanical engineering the Avork includes basic

standards, machine parts, piping, transmissions, and

agricultural machinery. Machine parts, among Avliicii ScreAvs, nuts, rivets, Avedges, etc., are noAv ready, form

the largest category. Among transmission standards,

bearings and accessories have received most attention.

Only the main dimensions for piping have been standardized, but other factors are being considered. The

standardization of agricultural machinery is still in a preparatory stage. In Avorking out these standards,

chief attention has been paid to reducing the number

of types and insuring interchangeability. Only in isolated cases has tlie Avork been extended to include

specifications as to quality^ and Avorkmanship.

Standards in electrical engineering have been confined exclusively to rules goAmrning the installation

and safeguarding of electrical apparatus. These are

collected in a book published by the electrical inspectors. In the paper trade the standards embrace the

sy^stem of dimensions for finished sizes and their

uses; that is, for letters, eiiA^elopes, blank forms, etc. The projects in preparation refer to specifications of

quality, weight, and testing.

Standards for fire hose and couplings are almost

ready. Preliminary Avork has also been done in standardizing the various kinds of fire engines, both hand

and motor, and in drafting rules governing the materials to be used for fire-extinguishing apparatus. For

packing there are two standards, one for Avhortleberry

cases and one for moss cases, Avorked out with a AueAV to exports. The standards for the graphics industry

refer to certain letter types, pictures, and signboards.

Besides strictly standardization work, the association has conducted investigations, so far as time and means permitted, Avhich should act as a basis for future

Avork. These studies haA^e dealtwfith agricultural implements, iron and steel qualities, tar and turpentine

qualities, mathematical and phy^sical units, mathematical tables, standard figures, etc. Further, the

association has kept in touch with international standardization work and has dealt Avith such questions as

affect Finnish interests. Altogether the approved standards number 195 and

the projects being Avorked out number more than 500. The folloAving table gives an idea of the distribution

of the Avork in different groups

:

Industrial groups Approved In preparation

A. General standards- - - 25 B. Mechanical engineering- 163 250

1 100

50

520

3 20

Z. Miscellaneous, fire-fighting equipment, packing, etc 28 40

Total 195 510

In addition to the continuation of Avork already

started, efforts are being made to extend the association’s actiAuties into neAv fields. It is proposed, for

instance, Avhen circumstances and funds alloAV, to broaden the Avoi'k in mechanical engineering to in- clude fittings, machine tools, textile machinery, hoisting machinery, and Avelding technology.

In the immediate future electrical engineering work

Avill deal with electric machinery, transformers, in- stallation material, Avires and cables, etc. The

standardization of sizes is of particular interest in

the jAaper trade. With regard to fire-fighting technology, it is proposed to standardize all kinds of

equipment.

Among the neAv projects considered for standardization are agricultural, building, wooclAvorking, and

tlie metal trade. The chemical industry, the glass

and pottery trades, and transport have also been

considered, all of Avhich are in great need of

standardization.

In jAarticular the Avork in the agricultural field is receiving the greatest attention. As this Avill include

machinery, implements, and specifications of materials, as Avell as quality and packing of agricultural

lAroducts, the first steps in this direction Avill consist

in centralizing the Avork. Building trade. —In the building trade Avork will

begin by standardizing doors, AvindoAvs, moldings,

fittings, etc., and extend it later to other building

equipment and materials. Standards for drainage,

road and bridge construction, etc., are also proposed

in this connection.

Woodu'orking industry.

In deA'-eloping standards

for the Avoodworking industry, uniform dimensions,

for both saAvn and planed timber, is the first problem

to be studied. In the metal trade the Avork is to include specifications of quality and testing of iron

and steel.
JUNE, 1931 COMMEECIAL STANDAEDS MONTHLY 383

As the committees are proceeding cautiously, a re- organization of the method of work has been suggested. Accordingly, committees will act only as advisory and criticizing bodies. The actual work ivill be performed by the association.

The realization of the plans of the Finnish Standards Association depends principally upon financial

support, both State and private. Up to the present.

State support has amounted to Fmk. 100,000 annually,

and private contributions to about Fmk. 70,000 a year. In addition, certain individuals have contributed their

services. By exercising the strictest economy these

funds have sufficed to maintain the work in its present

extent, but not without some sacrifices so far as thoroughness and effectiveness are concerned.

In comparison with other countries, the Finnish

association functions with the smallest funds. For

instance, the support granted to the standards asso- ciation in Sweden is Sw. Or. 52,000; in Norway, N. Cr.

13,000; in Denmark, Dr. Cr. 19,325; private supiiort in

Norway amounts to N. Cr. 27.000; in Denmark, D. Cr.

19,000; and in Sweden, Sw. Cr. 7,500; in cash besides

volunteer work. According!}", the plans carried out

in Finland demand annually about Fmk. 100,000; of

which amount the State should contribute at least Fmk. 250,000.

Kegidating production and consumption on a proper

basis is generally known under the name of rationalization and is strongly supported everywhere by State

and private intei'ests. The Finnish Standards Association is convinced that responsible circles in Finland

Avill promote greater understanding in standardization. This Avill constitute an important link that will

eventually benefit the whole country.

SIMPLIFYING TRUNK SIZES AND WOMEN’S

SUITCASES

The trunk, luggage, and leather goods manufacturers of America, recognizing the commercial value

of establishing a simplified list of sizes for trunks,

appointed a committee to study the problem as it related to the range of sizes necessary to meet public

needs. It was felt that a simplified schedule of sizes would effect economies to the merchants in continually

carrying a complete stock at a minimum investment

and that the maitufacturers would likewise benefit

in a reduction of numbers of models and standardization of parts.

The industry has felt that the great variety of

sizes in which trunks and hand luggage are produced

has acted as a drag on the advancement of the trade,

according to Stanley Klein, chairman of the committee. He pointed out that it was the belief of some

of the leaders of the industry that the simplification

of sizes would aid the manufacturer in solving his

production problems.

The work of the committee was brought to a conclusion on May 11, 1931, when a general conference

of the various interested groups—manufacturers, dis- tributors, and transportation officials—met in Washington to consider a proposed program of trunk sizes,

and also a simplified schedule of sizes for women’s

suitcases. Both recommendations were approved by

this conference, and will now be circulated among the

trade for written acceptance.

W. E. BraitliAvaite, representing the National Bureau of Standards at the conference, said that the

membership of the standing committee for the re- spective simplified practice recommendations would

be announced by the bureau at the time of circularizing the industry for acceptance. In discussing the

effect of the conference in developing the tAvo recommendations, Mr. Braithwaite said that “ the adoption

of a standard of practice is a constructive step, but

unless the industry through a representative standing

committee continues its efforts Avilh a periodic audit

to ascertain the degree of adherence, and unless the

manufacturers, distributors, and users make every

effort to conform to the schedule, the maximum benefits inherent in the program Avill not be realized.”

GAGES FOR SHEET METAL

Stock sizes of metal sheets and plates are based

either on definite thicknesses or definite Aveights per

unit area. Such a list of thicknesses of weights constitutes what is known as a “ gage.”

In the United States there are several gages in use

for sheet metal, a situation which frequently causes confusion and inconvenience in the trade. In order

that definite information covering the entire field might be available, the National Bureau of Standards

has issued Circular No. 391, which presents customary

practice as to standard thicknesses, Aveights, and tol- erances of sheet metal. It is not the purpose of the

circular to promulgate standards, although some of the

gages included are officially recognized standards, but

merely to make readily accessible information as to current practice.

The gages dealt with are those which apply to the

folloAving metals and alloys : Wrought iron, steel, commercially pure open-hearth iron, saAv steel, zinc-coated

or galvanized iron and steel, tin plates, terneplates,

copper, aluminum, brass, and other nonferrous alloys.

Monel metal, zinc, and lead. The circular also includes gages or stock lists for

sheet metal widely iTsed in Europe, particularly England, France, Germany, and in Japan. Copies may be

obtained from the Superintendent of Documents, Government Printing Office, Washington, D. C., at 10 cents

each.

SURGICAL GUT

A meeting of leading manufacturers of surgical gut,

representing 85 to 90 per cent of production, met in

NeAv York, N. Y., on April 29, 1931, to consider a tentative draft of a commercial standard for surgical

gut, prepared by the American lIos]Aital Association.

The specifications Avere rcAueAved in detail at this

meeting and some changes recommended. The manufacturers requested that some policing agency be set up to insure adherence to the standard, and individuals

Avere designated to approach the American Hospital

Association, the American College of Surgeons, and

the American Medical Association to seek the cooperation of these bodies to that end.
384 COMMEECIAL STANDAEDS MONTHLY JUNE, 1931 SIMPLIFICATION BRIEFS

Steel Ijarrels omd dnrnis.—Simplified Practice Recommendation R20-28, Steel Barrels and Drums, has

been reaffirmed by the standing committee of the industry, without change, for another year, according to an announcement by the National Bureau of Standards

This simplification program has been instrumental in

reducing the number of varieties of steel barrels and

drums from 66 to 25, or approximately 62 per cent.

Cut tachs and s'lrudl cut nails.—It has just been an- nounced by the National Bureau of Standards that

Simplified Practice Recommendation R47-28, Cut

Tacks and Small Cut Nails, has been reaffirmed by the

standing committee of the industry, without change,

for another year. This recommendation has been in- strumental in reducing the number of sizes of cut tacks and small cut nails from 421 to 182, or approximately 57 per cent; and packing weights from 423 to

121, or 71 per cent.

Adhesive plaster.—Simplified Practice Recommendation No. R85-28, Adhesive Plaster, has been reaffirmed by the standing committee of the industry,

without change, for anotlier year, according to an an- nouncement of the National Bureau of Standards.

This recommendation, which Avas instrumental in ef- fecting a reduction in the number of rolls of adhesive

plaster from 3 to 2, and in reducing the number of

widths of spools from 8 to 5, and their lengths from

23 to 13, has been in effect since September 1, 1928.

Refrigerator ice compartments.—The National Bureau of Standards announces that Simplified Practice

Recommendation R109-29, Refrigerator Ice Compartments, has been reaffirmed by the standing committee

of the industry, without change, for another year. The recommendation covers capacities and dimensions

of ice compartments for two types of domestic refrigeration known as side icers and front icers. Copies of

this recommendation may be obtained from the Superintendent of Documents, Government Printing Office,

AVashington, D. C., for 10 cents each.

Skid platforms.—The revision of Simplified Practice Recommendation R95-30, Skid Platforms, is now

available in printed form, according to an announce- ment by the National Bureau of Standards. This rec- ommendation (copies of which may be obtained from

the Superintendent of Documents, Government Printing Office, Washington, D. C., for 5 cents each) provides for the clear height from the bottom of runners

FEDERAL SPECIFICATIONS

Status of 13 Projects Announced

The Federal Specifications Board submitted 13 specifications, proposed for revision, to the interested Government departments, bureaus, and other establishments, for criticism and comment, during the month

of May. Copies of the proposals, in mimeographed

form, may be obtained from the Federal Specifications

Board, National Bureau of Standards, Washington,

D. C. ^

or other supports to underside of platform ; the minimum horizontal distance between inside of runner or other supports, and for the over-all dimensions for

platforms of the Nos. 1 and 2 skids.

Packaging of dental plaster.^ investment., and a/rti- ficial stone.—Simplified Practice Recommendation

R117-30, Packaging of Dental Plaster, Investment,

and Artificial Stone, is now available in printed form,

according to announcement by the National Bureau of

Standards. Copies of this recommendation, which has

been instrumental in reducing the number of package

sizes of dental plaster from 22 to 3, and dental investment from 26 to 13, can be obtained from the Superintendent of Documents, Government Printing Office,

AVashington, D. C., for 5 cents each.

Loaded paper shot shells.-—It has just been an- nounced by the National Bureau of Standards, that

the revision of Simplified Practice Recommendation

R31-30, Loaded Paper Shot Shells, is now available

in printed form. Prior to the adoption, by the industry, of the original draft of this recommendation, 4,067

different loads of paper-shot shells were in existence.

Since that time, the recommendation has been revised on four occasions. In the current edition of the recom- mendation, 343 different loads are listed. The total re- duction in A^ariety is approximately 91 per cent. Copies

of the revised recommendation can be obtained from

the Superintendent of Documents, Government Printing Office, AVashington, D. C., for 5 cents each.

Color for school furniture.—According to announce- ment by the National Bureau of Standards, Simplified

Practice Recommendation Rlll-30, Color for School

Furniture, has been reaffirmed by the standing committee of the industry, without change, for another

year. The color for stock varieties of school furniture,

as established by the recommendation, is known as school furniture brown. The industry has fixed light

and dark limits of shades within this color and, while

any shade within these limits will be considered as conforming with the requirements for school furni- ture brown, it is understood that every effort is to be

made by the industry to conform as nearly as possible

to the selected median shade. Master color blocks,

selected by the industry as representing the permissible

range of shades of this color, shall be used in the

preparation of duplicate color blocks for matching in

manufacturing and for sales purposes.

Designation Specifications

• F. S.No

-W-F-SOl 176’ 378a QQ-I-676 126a rr_C-271 348 ZZ-B-111 64a ZZ-H-421 47 ZZ-H-521 45 CCC-C-521

JJJ-P-791 629a jjj-S-71 630a jjj_S-611 631a JJJ-T-571 632a Prunes, evaporated (or dried) .. 634a
JUNE, 1931 COMMERCIAL STANDARDS MONTHLY 385

DETAILED SPECIFICATIONS ADOPTED BY INDIAN SERVICE

Use of Definite Specifications Has Resulted in a Closer Understanding Between Various Industries and

Indian Service

By W. B. Fey, Chief, Purchase Division, Bureau of Indian Affairs, Department of Interior

Slowly, perhaps, but with a decidedly forward trend,

the development and use by the Indian Service of the

Interior Department o-f detailed specifications in the

purchase of articles of supplj^, equipment, etc., has be- come an active feature of its operating program.

Those familiar with conditions existing in that service some years ago must realize how indefinitely and

inadequately procurement specifications were prepared

in those days. The article to be purchased was merely

named and usually samples were called for, leaving it more or less to the election of the prospective bidder to determine the character and quality he should offer. The awarding official made his selection from what

was placed before him.

Much latitude, therefore, was given him both as to the determination of the “ acceptable quality ” and as

to the rejection or acceptance of bids based upon that

determination. It was customary for him to proceed

in the consideration of the proposals from the cheapest

sample offered to the point where a selection could he

made of the commodity which, in his opinion, was adequate to the requirements of the Indian Service both in

quality and in price. Consequently, the procedure developed into simply a matter of personal preference.

Some other official, under exactly the same conditions,

probably would have made a different selection.

The inadequacy and unfairness of any system of purchasing on sample without an accompanying detailed

description of the article to enlighten the bidder as to what is wanted and at the same time fix for the awarding officer a standard by which he shall be guided in

making the award must be apparent to everyone. Such

a system was altogether too indefinite and unsatisfactory to both the Government and the bidders to justify

its continuance.

While this system -was followed in the Indian Service there was a decided tendency to buy the cheapest

article offered. For the purchasing officer who did not

have to consume or use the article bought, that was the

simplest thing for him to do and in doing that he

avoided arguments with both the accounting officials and the lower bidders whose proposals might, under

a different system, be rejected. It needs no particular

imagination to picture the results of such a policy and

the reaction of those who Avere required to get certain

results from inferior equipment, stores, etc. It was recognition of the failure of the cheaper lines

of goods to meet the conditions under Avhich they were

to be used that created a strong desire to improA'e their

quality, which could be. done only by selecting standards in the various items and drafting more or less detailed descriptions thereof that would justify the elimination of proposals on merchandise infei'ior to those

detailed specifications. Progress necessarily was sIoav because of the always pressing necessity for making

the available funds stretch as far as possible ; nevertheless, the improvement Avas steady.

Supporting the desire for better merchandise and

the necessity for eliminating proposals on the inferior lines, in order that definite standards of quality

might be maintained, was the attitude of the Comptroller General of the United States against the elimination of loAV bids unless the articles bid on failed to measure up to the requirements of the advertisement.

If no standards were set in the advertisement the

natural inference was that anything would do and

very properly the Comptroller General has ruled that

the cheapest bid should be accepted. It became more

and more difficult for the awarding official to elimi- nate the low bids successfully when the determination was based merely upon the opinion of that official that the low bids were not acceptable because they

represented something that Avas inferior to his needs.

As a measure of protection to himself it became

necessary to fix, by means of detailed specifications,

minimum standards upon Avhich bids on articles not

meeting those standards might properly be eliminated.

It developed that when proper specifications were pre- pared, samples in many instances Avould not be re- quired in support of the proposals but, if still desired,

the number and type avouIcI be considerably reduced

because of the elimination of “ guessing ” on the part

of the bidder which caused him to submit numerous

samples on the same item of different types and qualities, in order that he might meet all possible contingencies that might arise in the mind of the awarding

officer. On the other hand, it became evident that, if samples were not to be called for, it was absolutelj'^

essential that each job specification should be descriptively complete in itself. The Indian Service now has a fair group of detailed specifications of its own, in addition to the

mandatory Federal specifications and those which

have not been made mandatory, except for military

units, but which are utilized because they provide for

grades and qualities of articles procurable at prices

Avhich that service can afford to pay. It not onlj'^ has developed these specifications for itself, but has

called on experts for various industries and from

other branches of the Government to assist in the

preparation, and also has adopted the specifications of

other GoA^ernment branches when deemed suitable to

its needs. Cooperation between the administrative

branch of the service and the purchasing branch has

deA^eloped A^ery definite ideas as to what the Indian

Service needs and can afford to buy, and it is only

necessary that those ideas be expressed in concrete form in order to develop suitable job specifications.

The use of definite specifications has resulted in a

closer understanding betAveen the various industries

invoh^ed and the Indian Service. Confusion of ideas on the part of tlie bidder as to Avhat Avas the most suitable thing to offer and on the part of the contracting

officer as to Avhat Avas the most suitable thing to buy

has been eliminated.

The expense to the bidder of submitting numerous

samples of different quality and price on the sa»^e
386 COMMERCIAL STANDARDS MONTHLY JUNE, ]'J31

article has, likewise, been eliminated. The opportunity to bid for those who handle only the cheapest

grade of an article is no longer present when a better

quality is desired. The improved quality of mer- i chandise purchased gives to the Governinent more for

the money invested and the units for which the articles are purchased are greatly benefited thereby through

the greater service obtained.

Likewise, definiteness as to what is required en- courages bidders of the more desirable class to quote

and, last but not least, the sei’vice has in advance of

the purchase a mental picture of what it is going to get even before the bids are opened. The Indian Service is conscious of greater security, to say nothing

i of satisfaction, through the use of detailed specifications as compared to any other method of purchasing,

and will continue to produce new specifications as it has oppoi’tunity and time to do so. To that end, within the purchase division of the

Indian Office, there has been created a committee

whose special duty it will be meet regularly for the

purpose of producing additional job specifications.

AMERICAN NATIONS SEEK UNIFORM PRACTICE ON BILLS OF LADING

Commerce Conference in October to Consider Legislation on

Practices of Shippers

To make uniform the practices of the 21 American

republics in respect to bills of lading, legislation on

this shipping document will be discussed at the Fourth

Pan American Commercial Conference, October, 1931,

in Washington. This subject has recently been added

to the program of the conference (announced in Commercial Standards Monthly, May, 1931) and will

round out that portion of the agenda devoted to national and international juridical problems at present

affecting trade between American nations.

Business leaders from all the American countries are expected in Washington for the conference, which

will meet the Aveek of October 5 to 12, under the

auspices of the Pan American Union. Discussion of

uniform legislation on bills of lading Avill be Avel- comed, especially by shippei’s and exporters who will

have an opportunity to express their views from the

practical side of the subject. In addition, the Inter- American High Commission has drafted a project of

principles for presentation to the delegates which

embodies the most advanced ideas on this subject.

International action looking toAvard the unification

of laAvs on bills of lading Avas taken at the meeting

of the Fifth International Congress of Chambers of

Commerce at Boston in 1921. This subject had been

studied at the first meeting of the Inter-American

High Commission in 1916, the second Pan American

Financial Conference in 1920, and Avas discussed by

the Committee on Maritime Law of the Association of

International Law. In 1921 The Hague conference

discussed and formulated a code embodying the jjrovisions of the laws of the various countries. The provisions of this code, as modified by the International

Convention at Brussels in 1922, are folloAved, in the

main, in the Codes of Commerce of the American

republics. However, interpretations of the principles

vary, and some of the codes have omitted fundamental

clauses. Therefore, the Inter-American High Commission, after studying the codes of commerce of the

American countries and the Iraa^s referring to bills of lading in the United States, has drafted the project

to principles noted above.

It is expected that definite action will be taken at the forthcoming commercial conference in an attempt

to bring about unification in the legislation of the

several American republics in those laws covering bills of lading. In addition to this subject, discussions of

the questions of uniformity of consular fees and the

simplification and standardization of consular procedure are also expected to prove of importance to shippers and foreign traders in general.

DEVICE TO TEST AUTO BRAKES

The Federal Government is interested in brake lin- ings that Avill give satisfactory service in the great

variety of motor vehicles included in its fleet. Tests by the National Bureau of Standards to provide comparatiA^e ratings for all brake linings submitted for

approval are required under the Federal specifications. The test equipment, shown above, is built on

the lines of a cradle dynamometer, so that the torque

may be measured on the frame of the machine re- gardless of the method of drive adopted for the shaft

carrying a brake drum. The oscillating frame carries the tAvo jjressure arms carrying a brake shoe.

The pressure is applied by means of the adjusting

linkage connecting the front ends of the upper and

loAver pressure arms; this includes a ring gage for

measuring the tension in this linkage and from the

reading of this gage the pressure on the shoe is computed.
JUNE, 1931 COMMERCIAL STANDAEDS MONTHLY 387

THE AMERICAN SOCIETY FOR TESTING MATERIALS

The Development of Standards for Materials by the American Society For Testing Materials Outlined

Step by Step

By R. E. Hess, American Society for Testing MaterUtls

For 29 years the American Societ}- for Testing

Materials has been one of the leading groups engaged

in standardization ivork. Its objects, as stated in its charter, are “ the promotion of knowledge of the materials of engineering and the standardization of specifications and methods of testing.” The society has

striven earnestly to fulfill the statement of its purpose

as given by its founders.

To-day the society has more than 4,400 members,

including more than 500 in foreign countries. The

members are draivn from all of the important industries of the country and fall roughly into three

groups, namely, (1) producers of raw materials, semifinished and finished jiroducts in the various fields covered by the society’s activities; (2) major groups

of material users, such as railroads, automotive industry, public utilities, etc., and all branches of the Government; and (3) general-interest group, including

consulting engineers, testing experts, technologists,

and scientists affiliated with the Government departments and technical schools.

The promotion of knowledge of engineering materials is effected by thorough investigations into the

properties of materials by committees and members

of the society, and by the joint researches of other

groups, the results of which are presented at annual

meetings as reports and paiJers which are discussed

and subsequently published in the proceedings. The

standardization of specifications and methods of test- ing is carried on through representative committees

as described below.

The standardization Avork implies, in general, the

development of methods of testing materials; the set- ting up of standard definitions and systems of nomenclature; the formulation of specifications defining the

quality and tests of materials and pi’oducts; and the

preparation of recommended practices coA^ering cer- tain processes in the utilization of materials. The

actual work of developing standards is assigned to standing committees which function under .carefully

prescribed rules. These committees are authorized

also to conduct studies and research in the field of

materials, many of Avhich studies may be related to standardization. Their reports are made annually to the society, Avhich has the final responsibility for the

standard.

Only those standards for materials that are satis- factory to both producing and consuming interests can ever come into general commercial use. Accordingly, the society from the beginning adopted the

principle that the producer and consumer of materials

must be brought together upon an equal footing in

committees that are to deA^elop commercial standards

for materials, and all such committees are made up on

the basis of adequate representation in these tAvo groups and a third, or “ general interest ” group, comprising independent authorities wlio have expert

knowledge of materials to be studied, but Avho are not

concerned directly with either production or use. The

producer group ma}' not predominate on an}’ committee.

Standards should be founded upon as accurate

knowledge as possible of properties of materials and

upon suitable tests for determining such properties.

Finally, eA^ery opportunity should be afforded for all interests fully to express their AueAvs both in committees and before the society, to present data bearing

upon standards in the course of development, and in

eA'ery way to participate in the decisions that lead

to standards. This is insured through the proceedure that goA’erns committee and society action on

standards.

The steps in the development of a material standard may be outlined briefly: (1) It is necessary to agree upon acceptable methods for determining the

various properties of materials. (2) There should be

agi’eement as to acceptable definitions of terms relat- ing to a particular group of materials inAmh^ed. (3)

The committee then discusses requirements of proposed specifications. Here full account must be

taken of the influence of manufacturing processes,

stresses, and other conditions to which materials

would be subjected into serA’ice, etc. The committee

must come to agreement upon the properties of the

materials to be specified, methods of test, methods of

inspection, marking, and so on. At times a compromise between the somewhat extreme vieAvs that

may be held by producer and consumer is necessary

in reaching a tentatiA^e agreement, although the more

clearly problems involved are understood the more

easily a logical agreement can be reached. (4) After

full consideration at meetings and final action by

“ letter ballot ” of the entire committee, the proposed

standard is presented to the society for discussion and

is published for a year as tentatiA’e, during which time

it is on trial by industry. (5) When a tentative

standard has been found acceptable it is jjroposed to the society membership as a whole at an annual meeting for adoption as standard. This requires a letter ballot Amte of the entire society membership. (6)

Each standard is in the hands of a permanent committee, res|Donsible to the society for a particular

standard. Therefore, reA’isions can be considered at any time. It is recognized that occasional reA’isions in quality standards are necessary to keep abreast of

improA^ements in design, construction, or for other

reasons. As a rule tentatiA’e standards are subject to

reAusion annually but standards only ouce in three

years. The use of standards in industry must rest on the

merits of the standards themseh’es and upon the fact

that their formulation by producer and consumer has

brouglit into existence an equitable standard that can

be readily introduced to the advantage of both the

buying and selling interests. The methods of test must be scientifically and technically sound and specifications must form an adequate basis technically and

commercially for the exchange of materials.
388 COMMERCIAL STANDARDS MONTHLY JUNE, 1931

The following are ways in which the standards of

the society are used : (1) They are used without modification. (2) They are used by reference; for example,

contracts will require materials to conform to certain

A. S. T. M. (American Society for Testing Materials) specifications, which are then given by title. (3) Standards that are not adopted outright are used

as the basis for specifications written by others. This

is a very important use, since the setting up of the

guide is in itself a tremendous factor in preventing

great diversification. (4) The A. S. T. M. specifications have been expressive of American practice and

have therefore been of particular value as standards

for export business in materials. Foreign language

editions of A. S. T. M. specifications have been dis- tributed by the Department of Commerce throughout

the world by means of its agencies in foreign countries,

and they have been largely used by American industries engaged in export business.

The benefits to both producer and consumer for

standard specifications that have been applied are very

evident and convincing. There are certain advantages

of particular importance to producers. As soon as a

specification is accepted for a material, quantity production is possible; this results in lower prices. In

times of general business depression when orders are low and buying is at a standstill the manufacturer

can continue to produce “ standard ” material, knowing

that when business picks up he will have a market

for it. Such consideration is of great importance in

that it substantially reduces the waste in industry re- sulting from excessive labor turnover, shutting down

of plants, etc., and which in turn is an economic burden

upon the entire community. The adoption of standards reduces the variety of commodities that must

be kept in stock. The producer knows exactly what

he must furnish and how it will be tested and inspected by the consumer. This reduces misunderstandings

to a minimum.

Benefits to consumer come, of course, indirectly

from the items mentioned above and in addition others

may be enumerated; for example, truly competitive

bids on the same quality material can be secured, purchasing details are simplified and standardized, standard methods of test and inspection can be established

as a routine procedure, thus insuring greater uniformity and reliability of standard material.

In its essentials standardization is simply a process

of selection of types, designs, materials, or practices

that in the course of time have thoroughly proved

their value. It has been found that the introduction

of materials standards prepared by the American Society for Testing Materials has conserved time and en- ergy for the study of new developments and that

standards of quality and tests for materials are readily

modified to keep in step with the pace of industry.

The society is particularly qualified by the character

of its membership and the support given to it by the

industries throughout the country, its principles and

procedures, and its experience for 29 years to develop

standards for materials. It welcomes the cooperation

of all groups desiring to engage in standards development and it affords an opportunity to participate in

the formulation, in a thoroughly representative manner, of equitable materials standards.

VISUAL REED INDICATOR GUIDES AIRCRAFT

The visual reed indicator, developed by the National

Bureau of Standards for the Aeronautics Branch of

the Department of Commerce, is used in conjunction

with a radiobeacon for guiding aircraft. It consists

of two vibrating reeds tuned to the frequency of the

modulated signals received by a special radio receiving

set on the airplane.

When the two signals received are of equal intensity

the reeds vibrate with equal amplitude. If the plane

drifts to the left of its true course, the left-hand reed

vibrates through a greater distance than the righthand reed. In case the plane drifts to the right, the

right-hand reed vibrates through a greater distance.

These reeds, with their operating mechanism, are con- tained in a small case which is plugged into a socket on the airplane instrument board.

Only the ends of the reeds are visible to the pilot,

and when vibrating have the appearance of two equal

or unequal parallel white lines. These reed indicators are now in commercial production, and the National

Bureau of Standards has been called upon to set up

standard methods for testing them.

The bureau is therefore studying methods of adjusting and calibrating reed indicators and is trying to improve their performance. By using Allegheny electric metal (a nickel-steel alloy) for the magnets which

cause the reeds to vibrate, the sensitivity of the indi- cator has been increased 100 per cent, which has re- sulted in an increased useful range or distance from

the radiobeacon. This improvement also reduces interference from radio stations. The necessary toler- ances to be followed in constructing these indicators

have been established so that satisfactory performance

is obtained without undue expense.

It will be readily understood that the reed indications are reversed when flying toward or away from a beacon. Turning the case upside down, so that the left reed becomes the right reed, overcomes this difficulty

and permits the pilot merely to remember “ longest

line shows side off course.”

Specifications for construction of the reed indicators

may be obtained upon application to the National

Bureau of Standards, Washington, D. C.

MEN’S SHIRTS, PRESHRUNK

As a stejD toward standardizing the measurements

of men’s shirts, the National Association of Shirt

Manufacturers has requested* the division of trade

standards of the National Bureau of Standards to survey the industry to determine the prevailing practice in respect to the dimensions of shirts made of

preshrunk material, and the shrinkage limit of which

it is practicable to maintain.

Studies made by textile laboratories have indicated

that it is possible to maintain a shrinkage tolerance

within 2 per cent. Accordingly, the National Association of Shirt Manufacturers proposes that a shrinkage tolerance not to exceed this amount be

established in conjunction with the measurements of

finished shirts. The manufacturers have been cir- cularized for their reaction to these proposals.
JUNE, 1931 COMMERCIAL, STANDARDS MONTHLY 389

LEAD PENCILS

Lack of Standard Laboratory Tests Prevent Development of Reliable Specifications

By C. E. Waters, National Bureau of Standards

Even in these days of alluringly advertised auto- matic pencils there are conservatives who use the oldfashioned kind, to the number of several billions a

year. They are doled out more or less freely at the

office, and can be bought at innumerable stores, some

for as little as 1 cent apiece. Pencils are taken for

granted, and we rarely stop to think how much technical skill goes into their making, or by how many steps

the finished article is removed from the raw materials.

As for standardizing pencils—well, we usually prefer

a No. 2, and like a certain brand best, but will take

any other kind if we must, though it may be as hard

as a No. 3 of the first brand.

Nobody knows who first discovered that a certain

black, flaky mineral would make marks almost the same in appearance as those made by a piece of metallic lead, but when the discovery was made, the name

that obviously fitted the mineral was “ black lead.”

Later, it was called graphite, a name derived from the

Greek graphein, to write, and ite, the usual terminal

syllable in mineral names. No doubt the first lead, or graphite, pencils were

simply chunks of a convenient size, and were good

enough in the days when memoranda were jotted

down on the nearest flat rock. Not until the sixteenth

century, when a deposit of unusually good graphite was found at Barrowdale, in England, was there any

advance in the quality of lead pencils. This graphite was sawed into thin strips or rods, which were sold

without any further treatment. This was a very

wasteful process because graphite so easily flakes and

crumbles. The grittiness of the pencils can be

imagined. A step in advance was to inclose the

graphite in wood. This permitted the use of thinner

strips of graphite and made it possible to make rea- sonably fine lines when writing.

The idea upon which the pencil industry is based did

not occur to anybody until 1795 and then, simultaneously, two inventors, one in Franee and the other in

Austria, began to make pencils of the modern kind.

Clay was found to be an ideal binder, not only be- cause it holds the particles of graphite together, but

because its plasticity makes it possible to shape the

leads by extrusion through a die. The first step in the manufacture of a lead pencil

is the selection of the raw materials. There are different types of graphite and a number of grades of

each type. These are not equally suitable for making

pencils. In the manufacture of pencils two or more

grades are usually blended.

The graphite as it comes from the mines is con- taminated with gritty particles which must be care- fully removed, by stirring the powdered mixture with

water, allowing the heavier particles to settle, and

drawing off the suspension of graphite. This treat- ment can not remove the finest particles of grit, be- cause they will settle no faster than a large part of

the graphite.

In another way of removing the grit, the finest and

lightest bits are blown out of the mixture by means

of a regulated stream of air.

It is said that chemical treatment, especially with

hydrofluoric acid which dissolves the mineral impurities, is sometimes resorted to. Whatever course of

purification is followed its efficiency, together with

that of the subsequent grinding, is shown by the comparative rarity of gritty pencils.

The clay that is mixed with the graphite serves not

only as a binder, but its plasticity makes it possible to mold the leads by forcing the moist mass through a die with a hole of the desired size. The clay should

be selected as carefully as the graphite, and it must be

treated with equal pains to remove grit.

In general, the hardness of a pencil lead depends

upon the percentage of clay it contains, but this does

not mean that all pencil manufacturers use the same

formula for a given grade of hardness. Lampblack is sometimes used to make the color more intense, and

it is said that the mineral stibnite—a lustrous, gray,

easily fusible sulphide of antimony—is an ingredient

of many leads. Both of these would have an effect upon the hardness.

Whatever the composition, the mixture is thoroughly

ground with water, in a ball mill or otherwise, until

the particles are exceedingly fine and the mass is perfectly homogeneous. Most of the water is removed by

filtration and the remaining stiff doughy mass is ex- truded through dies in a hydraulic press. The dies

must be made of a very hard material to prevent un- duly rapid enlargement of the holes by the abrasive

action of the mixture.

The extruded mass emerges in a long string, and is cut into 3-pencil lengths, straightened and laid on

boards to dry. When dry the leads are cut into pencil

lengths and packed in the graphite crucibles or boxes

in which they are baked. Sometimes, especially in this

country, the moist lead is at once cut into pencil

lengths, which are dried on an endless belt while on

their way to the oven, where the leads are baked at a temperature high enough to cause sintering, but not

fusion, of the particles of clay.

After removal from the oven, the leads are usually

ready to be encased in wood, but are sometimes first treated with a waxy mixture to make them write more

smoothly.

By far the best wood is the common red cedar of the

eastern United States, and the wood of a closely related

Mexican tree. The wood has straight, fine and even

grain, and is just brittle enough to break away easily

when the pencil is sharpened. A more suitable wood

could hardly be imagined, and no wholly satisfactory

substitute for it has ever been found.

As cedar is becoming scarce, wood from more or less closely related trees, as well as from some species of

broad-leaved or “hardwood” trees, is also used -in large quantities. Among the best of these other woods

is a kind of cedar from East Africa. It strains the

credulity to read about the vast amount of wood that

is used in this country for making pencils. The statistics include also the quantity of lower-grade wood
390 COMMERCIAL STAI7DARDS MONTHLY JUNE, 1931

made into iien holders. Accordin^^ to the Forest Service, in 1928 the manufacturers used 39,982,000 feet,

board measure, of wood of different kinds, of Avhich 8.7 per cent was red cedar, including the Mexican species.

The Avood is usually 'saAved into “ slats ” Avhich are 7^

inches long, 2% inches wid^ and about % inch thick.

Each pair of these will suffice for six pencils of the

usual length, 7 inches. The manufacturer prefers slats of these dimensions, but Aviil accept those which are

Avide enough for only tAvo pencils if the wood is cedar.

On one side of each slat are cut grooves of a depth

equal to the radius of the leads. The leads are laid in

the grooves and a second slat is glued to this to encase

the leads. When the glue is dry the pencils are cut apart, shaped, smoothed, painted, or otherwise finished,

and stamped.

The leads in colored pencils, including the copyingpencils commonly called indelible, are composed of

coloring matter mixed Avith kaolin, a pure form of

clay. Gum tragacanth or other similar binder is used

because the leads can not be baked to make the mixture hold together. For the ordinary colored pencils

almost any pigment of the desired hue can be used,

but in the copying pencils there must be some watersoluble dye, so that copies can be made on damp paper

in a press. Crystal Auolet or a similar dye is generally selected because so little of it will give an

intense color to the copy. The only reason for calling

these pencils indelible is that it is nearly impossible

to erase the Avriting Avithout smearing and staining

the paper.

Pencils for writing on glass, porcelain, and similar

smooth surfaces contain pigments held together by a waxy mixture. They do not Avrite well on cold surfaces, but if the object is hot enough to soften the

Avax, the marks may be too heavy.

It may be wondered why there are no specifications

for lead pencils. One reason is that there qre no

satisfactory, or at least no standard, laboratory tests, and Avithout these a specification would be of little value.

The most important difference betAveen pencils is their hardness, or resistance to Avearing aAvay while

writing. It is not difficult to construct a machine

for Avearing aAvay the lead under controlled conditions. A slowly traveling holder for the pencil and

a rotating cylinder or disk covered Avith paper are the essentials. The details require considerable

thought. A cylinder, for instance, has two serious

disadvantages. It is a practical impossibility to fit the paper to it exactly, so at every revolution the

pencil point is- given a slight bump as it passes over

the lapped ends of the paper, or falls into the space

betAveen them. Then, too, if the lead flakes off, the

pieces fall aAvay and are lost unless a special attachment for catching them is made. Loose pieces would

remain on a disk and could be collected and weighed

if this Avere thought desirable. As the disk Avould be

coA^ered Avith a circular piece of paper, there would

be nothing to cause the pencil to bump at each

revolution.

In order to obtain comparable results, the hardness

and surface finish of the paper (qualities hard to define and measure) Avould have to be standardized.

Its thickness, unless a cushioning effect Avas demonstrated, could be neglected.

The pressure of the pencil against the paper would

have to be great enough to cause a reasonable amount

of wear Avith pencils of medium hardness, so as to show a marked difference between those classed as hard and soft. As the rate of Avear of the pencil depends upon its friability, or ease Avith Avhich it can be

crumbled, rather than upon its true hardness, • or

resistance to scratching or indentation, the pressure

should be carefully controlled. With leads of differ- ent diameters it would be necessary to adjust the

Aveight of the pencil holder so that the pressure upon

a unit area Avould be the same for each lead. The speed Avith which the paper is drawn under

the loaded pencil may have little to do with the rate of wear on a disk, but it would seriously affect the force

of the bumps on a, cylinder.

Almost nobody holds a pencil perpendicular to the

surface on Avhich he is writing, but that is the best

position for it in a machine for determining the rate of wear, because it makes it easiest to measure the

shortening of the lead. If fixed at any other than a right angle, the end of the lead Avill be beveled to something like a chisel edge, Avhich will make the

flaking off of particles almost inevitable Avith the best

of pencils. If the pencil holder is geared so that the

pencil is sloAvly rotated, the end of the lead will be

Avorn to a cone. In either of the two latter cases it would be necessary to make a preliminary run to get

the end of the lead to its final shape. OtherAvise, start- ing Avith a squared end, the thicker of two leads of

the same actual hardness would haA^e the advantage

because more material would have to be worn aAvay,

and thus a longer line be drawn, before the final shape was attained.

After all of the experimental difficulties have been

overcome, and the testing machine has been standardized and has come into wide use, it would be possible to write a satisfactory specification for lead

pencils, based upon their rate of Avear, Avith possibly a feAv other tests, such as the brittleness of the leads. If the pencil user judged the hardness by the appearance of the Avriting, a determination of the blackness might be preferable to measuring the rate of wear. The general problem of standardizing a machine for

testing and the method of using it Avould be the same

as before. The blackness of the indivudual lines could

not be measured accurately, but the grayness of the

paper when revolved rapidly could be determined.

Somebody, perhaps, after considering difficulties such as those outlined in this article, has suggested

that an analysis of a pencil lead Avould be the best means for ascertaining its hardness. Inspection of the

analytical results obtained in another department on a multitude of pencils shows what should have been

foreseen in advance; there is absolutely no connection

betAveen the ash or any other constituent and the grade

of the pencil. Pencils of the same brand, one 4B and

the other 5H, contained the same percentage of ash. The last part of this article has not been Avritten for

the purpose of discouraging efforts to put the grading

of pencils upon a sound basis. It should be possible to express hardness numerically in terms of rate of wear

or in some other Avay susceptible of measurement, but

a proper procediu’e can not be developed without con- sidering a great many details. Whether it would be

Avortli Avhile is another question.
JUNE, 1931 COMMEECIAL STANDARDS MONTHLY 391

STANDARDIZATION BRIEFS

European air mail conference.—The nations of Europe will discuss their air mail problems and present new proposals for closer international air cooperation

at a conference to be held in Brussels, Belgium, next

October, 1931, according to advices received in the

Commerce Department from Trade Commissioner

W. L. Finger, at Paris.

Flat Imit rayon undenaear for women.—^There will

be a general conference of producers, distributors,

and users of circular flat knit rayon underwear for

women at 10 a. m. (daylight-saving time) Wednesday,

June 1931, at the Hotel New Yorker, New York,

N. Y., to consider the establishment of a commercial

standard covering measurements and tolerances for

this commodity. All who are intei’ested in this

subject are invited to attend.

Measuring expansion of metals under intense

heat. —The thermal expansion of various metal alloys

has been the subject of recent laboratory tests at the

National Bureau of Standards. The apparatus used

in these investigations is capable of permitting such

measurements at temperatures up to 1,000° C. Coefficients of expansion are determined with an ac- curacy of one-tenth of 1 per cent under favorable

conditions.

Revision of gage tolerances.—The National Screw

Thread Commission (Dr. George K. Burgess, chairman) held a meeting in Dayton, Ohio, on May 21,

1931, and took up several questions as to minor revisions of the 1928 report (B. S. Misc. Pub. No. 89).

The most important items were a proiDosed revision

of the class 4 fit, designed to render it more commercially practicable, and a corresponding revision

of class X gage tolerances.

British standard for motor-car wheel rims.—A re- vised edition of the British standard for dimensions

of Avheel rims and tire bands for pressed-on tires for

motor cars has been issued by the British EngineeringStandards Association. The principal revision consists in the elimination of the 740-millimeter size of

rim and the inclusion of 26, 28, 30, and 34 inch sizes.

Missouri to purchase hy specifications.—All requests

hereafter made for bids and proposals for materials,

products, supplies, provisions, and other needed articles to be purchased in Missouri at public expense,

are to be made in general terms and by general specifications and not by brand, trade name, or other individual mark, according to terms of a bill passed by

the Missouri State Legislature on April 27, 1931.

Inter-Society Council on Color Specifications.—At a color conference held February 26, 1931, in New York,

N. Y., under the auspices of the Optical Society of

America and the American Physical Society, it was

unanimously voted to recommend the formation of an

Inter-Society Council on Color Specifications. The

council will be composed of delegates from national

societies and associations interested in the standardization, descriptions, and specifications of color.

Standardization of design of limit gages.—The

American Gage Design Committee (Col. J. O. Johnson, chairman) held a meeting in Dayton, Ohio, on

Ma}^ 20, 1931, and approved a program for continuing

the standardization of design of limit gages. The

work on plain and thread plugs and rings will be con- tinued up to 12 inches, and snap gages and length snap

gages will also be taken up. The committee voted to approve an alternate design for reversible type plug

gages in the size range 1.510 to 4.510 inches.

Terminology for electrical engineering.-—A committee appointed by the American Standards Association

has been working for 18 months on the preparation of

definitions of terms used in electrical engineering. The

National Bureau of Standards has taken an active

part in this work, being represented on many of the

subcommittees and having the chairmanship of 7 of

the 17 subcommittees. A preliminary set of definitions, including about 3,000 terms, will be printed

during 1931.

Heat conductivity of thermal insulating materials.

The need for standardization of methods of measuring the heat insulating values of high temperature in- sulating materials has long been recognized. One of

the current researches at the National Bureau of

Standards is the development of a siiitable method

and apparatus for such tests. The aim is to develop an instrument of as simple a form as seems feasible,

which can be set up and operated in industrial plants

without excessive cost or difficulty.

Heat conductivity of metals and alloys.—A knowledge of the heat conductivities of industrial metals

and alloys, particularly at high temperatures, is of

increasing importance in metallurgical and engineering fields. Data available at present are very few and

subject to great uncertainty. A comparatively simple yet accurate method for such measurements has

recently been developed at the National Bureau of

Standards, and tests on various heat-resisting steels and other alloys are in progress.

Freezing and thawing tests on sand-line brick.

Absorption determinations and freezing and thawing

tests were made at the National Bureau of Standards

on sand-line brick primarily to determine the value

of absorption requirements in specifications as an

index of weather resistance. Little relation between

amount of absorption and resistance to freezing and

thawing was ai)parent. It was found, however, that

a brick having both a fast rate of absorption in partial immersion and a high strength was likely to withstand freezing and thawing satisfactorily.
392 COMMERCIAL, STANDARDS MONTHLY JUNE, 1931

Thickness of textiles measv/red.—As a progress re- port of the subcommittee on thickness measurements

of Committee E-1 on Testing Methods, American Society for Testing Materials, it is recommended that

the thickness of textiles and similar materials be meas- ured by means of a gage having a presser foot 1 square inch in area which is pressed against the substance being measured by a load of 2 pounds. There

are at present 26 different gages recognized in the

American Society for Testing Materials specifications,

differing from each other chiefly in the area of presser foot and the load.

Steel wool.—A tentative draft of a proposed commercial standard for steel wool, covering dimensional

limitations for the various grades of steel wool, as well

as the chemical and physical requirements for the material, was considered at a manufacturers’ preliminary

conference on May 14, 1931, and a revised draft will

be issued as a basis for discussion at a general confer- ence of producers, distributors, and users to be held at 10 a. m. (daylight-saving time) on Thursday, June 25,

1931, at the Governor Clinton Hotel in New York,

N. Y. All who are interested in this subject are invited to attend.

Dress patterns.—As a result of a survey among the

manufacturers to determine adherence to the commercial standard for dress patterns, CS13-30, a summarized report was released recently indicating that

among reporting manufacturers 89.5 per cent of production conformed to the requirements of the standard.

In accordance with the recommendation of the standing comraittee. which was appointed by the general

conference to consider comment, the existing standard was reaffirmed, without change, for another year beginning December 18, 1930.

Connecticut marks miles to check odometers.—

A

new method of checking the accuracy of odometers is being made available on Connecticut highways, according to announcement by the highway commissioner,

John A. MacDonald. The highway department, he

said, is now in the process of accurately measuring and

definitely marking 1 mile of State road in each of the

eight counties of the State, so that automobile drivers

will themselves be enabled to check their own odometers as to the reliability in measuring the distance.

“ Timing ” tests by drivers attempting to negotiate the

stretch in the shortest possible period will not be per- mitted, the commissioner said.

British standard for expanded metal {steel).—

A

new standard for expanded metal (steel), developed

by the British Engineering Standards Association,

contains several clauses dealing with the quality of

the steel from which the expanded sheets are made,

a standard method of measurement for the size of

mesh and a comprehensive table of properties and

dimensions of expanded sheets, providing for 74

British standard sheets. It will be possible in the

future, therefore, to order these sheets to a definite

British standard number. A description of a test on

the finished material, after being expanded, is included

in the specifications.

Lamb graded for quality.—Meat consumers in some

cities can now buy dressed lamb graded for quality ac- cording to standards of the United States Department

of Agriculture. This new service has been started by

the Bureau of Agricultural Economics in four cities,

namely, St. Louis, Detroit, Buffalo, and Erie. The

guaranty of quality which the bureau’s stamp on beef

carries lias created a demand by the trade for a similar

service for lamb. It is expected that the lamb-grading

service will gradually be extended to other cities.

Terms and definitions of aircraft accidents.—The

terms, with definitions, used by the Aeronautics Branch

in analyzing accidents were prepared by a special

committee consisting of representatives of the National Advisory Committee for Aeronautics and the

Departments of War, Navy, and Commerce. A complete re2iort describing the method of analysis of

aircraft accidents may be purchased from the Superintendent of Documents, Government Printing Office, at 10 cents jier copy. The title of this report is Aircraft Accidents (Method of Analysis), Report No.

357, National Advisory Committee for Aeronautics.

High rise hank of elevator cars.—At the spring con- vention of the Elevator Manufacturers Association of

the United States, which met at the National Bureau

of Standards on May 7 and 8, Bassett Jones, consulting engineer, told the members of some of the problems

involved in the elevator layout for the Empire State

Building. The high rise bank of cars has a travel of

approximately 1,000 feet, and a speed of 1,200 feet 2)er minute. A 16-foot drop test of a safety Avas shown

the members. The record of the stop was developed

and displayed to members within 20 minutes after

the time the drop Avas made.

British standard for electrical insulating varnish.

A sjjecification for clear baking oil insulating varnish

for electrical purjjoses has been issued by the British

Engineering Standards Association. This standard

deals with varnish suitable for the general dipping

or impregnation of coils used for motors, generators,

transformers, and the like. It jArovides limiting

A^alues for drying time, electric strength, resistance

to moisture, aging, and acidity, or alkalinity. Moreover, recommendations are made with regard to volatile matter, specific gravity, and viscosity. Tests to insure comiDliance with the provisions of the specifications are given in aj)pendices.

Mineral oils suitable for luhrication of clocks. —^Well

refined and narrow cut mineral oils which do not be- come too viscous at Ioav temperatures appear to be well

adajjted to the lubrication of clocks and other delicate

mechanisms, according to studies noAv in progress at the National Bureau of Standards. For many years

poiqjoise-jaw oil has been regarded as the ideal lubri- cant for timepieces, but it can not noAV be secured in

sufficient quantity. It has been the common opinion

that mineral oils sjAread on metals, while fatty oils do

not ; but the bureau’s experiments show that porpoisejaw oil spreads almost, if not quite, as rapidly as mineral oils of comparable viscosity. The discovery
JUNE, 1931 COMMERCIAL, STANDARDS MONTHLY 393

that it does spread would seem to remove the last remaining objection to the use of mineral oils.

Elevator Safety Code for 1931.—The Elevator

Safety Code, revision of 1931, gives a pit depth in

terms of the over-all dimensions of the oil bulfer. In

an address before the Elevator Manufacturers’ Association of the United States, Bassett Jones stated that

at the present time no two manufacurers had the same

over-all dimensions for buffers of a given stroke and

that it was necessary for an architect or engineer to

call on the elevator manufacturer to determine this

height before laying out the elevator pit. Where the

building plans are drawn before the contract is let, which is frequently the case, the architect must lay

out a pit depth for the longest buffer made of that

particular stroke. Mr. Jones pointed out that this was a fine field for standardization on the part of the

eleA^ator manufacturers.

Wiring standards for panel hoards and distribution

hoards.—A pamphlet just issued by the National Electrical Manufacturers’ Association presents in detail

wiring standards for panel boards and distribution

boards. This pamphlet shows design and construction

features which experience and research have indicated

to be satisfactory mechanically and electrically from

the standpoint of safety and service. It was prepared

by the Panel Board and Distribution Board Section

of the association, the members of which have produced a large majority of all such equipment since the

year 1918. A valuable new section of the pamphlet

contains a list of definitions of various terms used in

connection with panel boards and distribution boards.

These have been made to correspond closely with the

definitions of the Association of Electragists, International.

Deterioration of zinc coatings.—Among the materials in the National Bureau of Standards’ investigation of soil corrosion and protective coatings are galvanized sheets and pipes with several base metals and

several thicknesses of the zinc coatings. Since no

satisfactory method of removing the corrosion products without removing some of the zinc also has been

developed, determinations of loss of weight are not

satisfactory indications of the conditions of the speci- mens. Therefore, the bureau has requested representatives cf the cooperating manufacturers and of the national societies interested in zinc coatings to inspect

the specimens and attempt to construct a rating sheet

whiclr will, by means of letters or symbols, furnish a word picture of the conditions of the specimens. The

sheet will probably divide the specimens into four or

five classes representing the progress of their deterioration.

New safety code to avoid dust explosions.—A new

safety code for terminal grain elevators was presented

before the annual meeting of the National Fire Protection Association at Toronto, Canada, on May 12,

1931, by David J. Price, chemical engineer of the

United States Department of Agriculture, who is chairman of the association’s committee on dust explosion hazards in industrial plants. In addition to the new regulations for grain elevators, Mr. Price’s report

included recommended safety codes for wood flour- manufacturing establishments, spice-granding plants,

starch factories, and sugar and cocoa-pulverizing

plants. Investigations by the Bureau of Chemistry

and Soils of the United States Department of Agriculture have resulted in a number of recommendations

for lessening the danger of dust explosions. These

suggestions have been promptly adopted by the industries affected, and have been instrumental in reducing

loss of life and property where exj^losions have oc- curred.

New '^Dcircuit telegraph carrier perfected in

Canada.—Described as the world’s greatest telegraph

capacity for one pair of wires, a new service has just

been put into effect between Toronto and Winnipeg,

providing 24 circuits, according to advices received

in the Commerce Department from Trade Commissioner Harvey A. Sweetser at Toronto. This system

makes use of a double modulation principle by working tAvo types of carrier systems, one superimposed on

the other, having a theoretical maximum telegraphic

speed of about 9,600 words per minute. It is expected

to take care of transmission requirements between the

east and the west for a number of years to come. It

also demonstrates that progress in telegraphic communication has made possible a simplification of in- stilments used since the neAV 24-channel equipment

takes up only half as much more space as that re- quired for the 10-channel system installed a few years

ago to handle the Toronto-Winnipeg business.

Organization of Federal Statistics Board.—On

April 10, 1931, Director J. ClaAvson Roop, of the Federal Bureau of the Budget, announced the establishment of the Federal Statistics Board, consisting of a chairman, designated by the Chief Coordinator, and

representatives of four Federal departments and seven independent establishments. The assigned duty of

the board is “ to study the existing situation with re- gard to the collection, compilation, dissemination, and

utilization of statistics by agencies of the Federal Government and to make recommendations to the Chief

Coordinator looking to the elimination of needless

duplication in statistical work and the fullest possible

utilization of statistical information collected and the

personnel and facilities concerned therewith, as well

as the most effectiA^e and economical means of procuring additional statistics for Avhich there may be a reasonable demand.” Capt. Howard D. Lamar, of

the Supply Corps, United States Nav}’-, has been

designated as chairman of tlie board.

Profttdble disposal of defective stamped envelopes.

Deinking tests of Avaste stamped euA^elopes have been

successfully comiDleted at tlie National Bureau of

Standards’ paper mill. The tests Avere made at the

request of the Post Office Department to assist in profitable disposal of the defectiA^e em-elopes produced

in the course of inanufactAire of over 3,000,000,000 en- velopes annually. While the number of defective en- velopes is relatively small, the aggregate tonnage is AAmrthy of consideration for reuse in making paper.

The appearance and tests of papers made from the

deinked Avaste on semicommercial scale shoAv that a

A’^ery satisfactory pulp can be prepared from the mutilated stamped-enA’elope AA-aste by the ordinary deink-
394 COMMERCIAL STANDARDS MONTHLY JUNE, 1031

ing process. Paper consisting entirely of redeemed

envelope waste nearly met the Government specification for stamped-envelope paper, and paper consisting, of 40 per cent stamped-envelope waste and 60 per

cent sulphite pulp was above the specification.

International standard for alwiiinum. —About 10

years ago an international standard for aluminum to be used as electrical conductors wafe initiated by the

International Electrotechnical Commission and has for

its purpose the promotion of international trade.

During the 10 years many tests have been made in the

National Bureau of Standards and the natio'nal laboratories of England, Germany, and France of aluminum inductors of both American and foreign make.

Various manufacturers have cooperated by furnishing

samples of their product, and the American manufacturers have supplied a vast amount of data obtained

in their control tests. The investigation has led to the

formulation and adoption of an American standard

for conductor aluminum and to a partial agreement

concerning an international standard. More than half

the world’s supply of conductor aluminum is made on

the American continent and this is of better electrical

conductivity than that made abroad, hence the delay

in reaching complete international agreement.

Accelerometer for engineering studies of earthquakes. —Earthquakes occasionally cause great losses of property and, incidentally, of life. Structural en- gineers are attempting to design buildings, bridges,

etc., for active earthquake regions so as to withstand

such shocks as may reasonably be expected. To make

such designs, information is needed concerning actual

ground movements in the vicinity of major earthquakes. The National Bureau of Standards, in cooperation with the Coast and Geodetic Survey and

others, is working on the design and construction of

apparatus for recording ground accelerations within

the destructive region of earthquakes. Such records,

if and when attained, would enable the structural en- gineer to calcidate the forces any particular building

in the vicinity either withstood or failed to withstand.

Should a considerable number of such records be obtained, they would give some information as to the

forces to which buildings either already constructed

or contemplated might be subjected and lead to the

most economical designs consistent with reasonable

safety.

Use of labels on fcnrm products. —Agriculture is by

far Maine’s most important industry. To-day there

are approximately 39,000 farms in Maine with a total

acreage of 4,500,000, having a total value including

land, buildings, and implements of $225,000,000. In

1928 the New England Council began a campaign for

the use of distinctive labels on New England agricultural products. Maine farmers have slowly been

adopting this plan with the result that up to April 1, 1931, the Department of Agriculture was able to report

a total sale of nearly 95.000 labels. The total number

of labels sold in the New England States for that pe- riod was 5,335,992. The use of containers or packages was likeAvise advocated. The United States Department of Agriculture reports that over 26,000 of these

packages Avere sold during the period. Products

])ackaged or labeled in Maine are principally eggs,

jAotatoes, and apples. It is reported that in many

cases farmers have been able to command a premium

of 5 cents per dozen over the market price for packaged

eggs. The chief value of the package and the label is, of course, that it guarantees to the consumer a superior

product.

VARIETY OF WAXED TISSUE PAPER SIZES SIMPLIFIED

A general conference of representatives of the industry, held under the auspices of the division of simplified practice of the National Bureau of Standards, in

conjunction Avith a meeting of the American Waxed

Paper Association, in Ncav York, N. Y., on May 20,

1931, approved a simplified practice recommendation

covering the sizes, count, and method of packing

waxed tissue paper. The specific items included in

the recommendation are Avaxed sheet tissue, lunch

rolls, lunch envelopes, butter Avraps, and household

rolls. A summary report of the conference will be

mailed to all interests for their consideration and

Avritten approval.

A standing committee of the industry, composed of

representatives of manufacturers, distributors, and

consumers, Avas also authorized by the conference to review periodically the recommendation and to make

such changes as may be necessary to keep the program

abreast Avith current practice in the industry.

AN INVITATION TO VISIT THE NATIONAL BUREAU OF STANDARDS

A cordial ihAutation is extended to all interested in scientific progress to visit the laboratories of the

National Bureau of Standards- when in Washington. A personally conducted trip is organized at 2.15

p. m. daily except on holidays. Special trips for groups may be arranged at other times by writing to the bureau in advance. The bureau’s illustrated Visitor’s Manual may be had for the asking. This lists the work in progress and gives an airplane view of the ensemble and a brief statement of typical dis- coveries and inventions which have been notable, basic contributions to radio, aviation, and other modern

arts and industries.

George K. Burgess, Director.

o
JSiow is the best time

to Repair Your Home

To aid you

The U. S. Department of Commerce

Bureau of Standards

Division of Building and Housing

has issued a new handbook

Pare and Repair of the House

By V.B. PHELAN

A nail in time saves nine

Do you want—

To paint the walls, the down spouts,

and the window frames?

To repair the roof, and the cracks in

the plaster?

To fit new glass in the window frames,

and paint and hang the screens?

This new book tells how to repair all

parts of the house and equipment,

and maintain them in the most useful condition.

It will enable the home owner to do much of

his own repair work. It suggests when he can

safely undertake the work, and when he

should call in a skilled mechanic.

It should be useful to householders; to deal- ers in tools and materials; to all who are interested in making homes well equipped, thoroughly repaired, comfortable, and

attractive.

Pay 20 cents toward improving your home in

100 different ways.

Popular edition

Paper bound

121 pages

30 illustrations

Siz;e approximately

6 by 9 inches

For sale hy the Superintendent

of Documents, United States Government Printing Office Washington, D. C.

Price 20 cents

[For foreign countries

(other than Canada,

Cuba, Mexico, Newfoundland, and the

Republic of Panama)

add one-third.]
THE UNITED STATES DEPARTMENT OF COMMERCE

R. P. LAMONT, Secretary of Commerce

“ * * * this department * * * is devoted solely to aiding and fostering the development of higher standards of living and comfort of our people * * * its ideals are clear: That by cooperation and not by compulsion it should seek to assist in maintaining and giving the impulse of progress to commerce and industry in a nation whose successful economic life underlies advancement in every other field.” —President Hoover, at the laying of the corner stone of the new building

oj the U. S. Def^artment oj Commerce, June 10, 1929.

AERONAUTICS BRANCH, Clarence M. Young, Assistant Secretary of Commerce for Aeronautics. Establishment of civil airways and maintenance of aids to air navigation; inspection and registration of aircraft and licensing

of pilots; enforcement of air traffic rules; investigation of acci- dents; encouragement of municipal air ports; fostering of air commerce; scientific research in aeronautics; and dissemination of information relating to commercial aeronautics. (Some

of these functions are performed by special divisions of the Lighthouse Service, the Bureau of Standards, and the Coast and Geodetic Survey.)

BUREAU OF THE CENSUS, William M. Steuart, Director. Taking censuses of population, mines, and quarries, water

transportation, and religious bodies every 10 years; censuses of agriculture and electrical public utilities every 5 years; and a

census of manufactures every 2 years. Compilation of statistics of wealth, public debt and taxation, including financial statistics of local governments, every 10 years; annual compilation of financial statistics of State and municipal governments.

Compilation of statistics of marriage, divorce, births, deaths,

and penal and other institutions annually, and of death rates in

cities and automobile accidents weekly.

Compilation quarterly or monthly of statistics on cotton, wool, leather, and other industries; annually of forest products.

BUREAU OF FOREIGN AND DOMESTIC COMMERCE,

William L. Cooper, Director. The collection of timely information concerning world market

conditions and openings for American products in foreign countries, through commercial attaches, trade commissioners, and

consular officers, and its distribution through weekly Commerce

Reports, bulletins, confidential circulars, the news and trade

press, the monthly Survey of Current Business, and district and

cooperative offices in 65 cities. The maintenance of commoditjq

technical, and regional divisions to afford special service to American exporters and manufacturers. The compilation and distribution of lists of possible buyers

and agents for American products in all parts of the world and

publication of weekly lists of specific sales opportunities abroad. The publicity of statistics on imports and exports. The study of the processes of domestic trade and commerce. BUREAU OF STANDARDS, George K. Burgess, Director. Custody, development, and construction of standards of measurement, quality, performance, or practice; comparison of standards used by scientific or other institutions; determination

of physical constants and properties of materials; researches and tests on materials and processes; and publication of scientific and technical bulletins reporting results of researches and

fundamental technical data. Collection and dissemination of information concerning

building codes and the planning and construction of houses. Establishment of simplified commercial practices through

cooperation with business organizations in order to reduce the wastes resulting from excessive variet}' in commodities.

BUREAU OF MINES, Scott Turner, Director. Technical investigations in the mining, preparation, and

utilization of minerals, including the study of mine hazards, and

safety methods and of improved methods in the production

and use of minerals. Testing of Government fuels and management of the Govern- ment Fuel Yard at Washington.

Research on helium and operation of phnvts producing it.

BUREAU OF MINES—Continued.

Studies in the economics and marketing of minerals and col- lection of statistics on mineral resources and mine accidents. The dissemination of results of technical and economic

researches in bulletins, technical papers, mineral resources series, miners’ circulars, and miscellaneous publications.

BUREAU OF FISHERIES, Henry O’Malley, Commissioner.

The propagation and distribution of food fish and shellfish,

in order to prevent the depletion of the fisheries; investigations

to promote conservation of fishery resources; the development

of commercial fisheries and agriculture; study of fishery methods,

improvements in merchandising, and collection of fishery statistics; administration of Alaska fisheries and fur seals; and the

protection of sponges off the coast of Florida. BUREAU.OF LIGHTHOUSES, George R. Putnam,

Commissioner.

Maintenance of lighthouses and other aids to water navigation. Establishment and maintenance of aids to navigation

along civil airways. Publication of Light Lists, Buoy Lists, and

Notices to Mariners. COAST AND GEODETIC SURVEY, R. S. Patton, Director. Survey of the coasts of the United States and publication of charts for the navigation of the adjacent waters, including

Alaska, the Philippine Islands, Hawaii, Porto Rico, the Virgin

Islands, and the Canal Zone; interior control surveys; magnetic

surveys; tide and current observations; and seismological investigations. Publication of results through charts, coast pilots, tide tables, current tables, and special publications.

BUREAU OF NAVIGATION, Arthur J. Tyrer, Commissioner.

Superintendence of commercial marine and merchant seamenSupervision of registering, enrolling, licensing, numbering

etc., of vessels under the United States flag, and the annual

publication of a list of such vessels. Enforcement of the navigation and steamboat inspection laws,

including imposition of fees, fines, tonnage taxes, etc. STEAMBOAT INSPECTION SERVICE, Dickerson N. Hoover,

Supervising Inspector General. The inspection of merchant vessels, including boilers, hulls, and life-saving equipment, licensing of officers of vessels, certifi- cation of able seamen and lifeboat men, and the investigation of violations of steamboat inspection laws. UNITED STATES PATENT OFFICE, Thomas E. Robertson,

Commissioner.

The granting of patents and the registration of trade-marks

prints, and labels after technical examination and judicial

proceedings.

Maintenance of library with public search room, containing

copies of foreign and United States patents, and trade-marks. Recording bills of sale, assignments, etc., relating to patents

and trade-marks. Furnishing copies of records pertaining to patents Publication of the weekly Official Gazette, showing the patents and trade-marks issued. RADIO DIVISION, W. D. Terrell, Chief. Inspection of radio stations on ships; inspection of radio

stations on shore, including broadcasting stations; licensing radio operators; assigning station call letters; enforcing the terms of the International Radiotelegraphic Convention; and

examining and settling international radio accounts.

U. S. GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE: 1931



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