Districts’ Use of Weighted Student Funding Systems 

to Increase School Autonomy and Equity:

Findings From a National Study

Volume 1 — Final Report

Districts’ Use of Weighted Student Funding 

Systems to Increase School Autonomy and 

Equity: Findings From a National Study

Volume 1 — Final Report

Prepared for:

Policy and Program Studies Service

Office of Planning, Evaluation and Policy Development 

U.S. Department of Education

Prepared by:

Jesse Levin

Karen Manship

Steve Hurlburt

Drew Atchison

American Institutes for Research

Ryoko Yamaguchi

Adam Hall

Plus Alpha Research & Consulting, LLC

Stephanie Stullich

U.S. Department of Education

2019
This report was produced under U.S. Department of Education Contract No. GS-00F-347CA: ED-PEP-16-

A-0004 with American Institutes for Research. Joanne Bogart served as the contracting officer’s

representative. The views expressed herein do not necessarily represent the positions or policies of the

U.S. Department of Education. No official endorsement by the U.S. Department of Education of any

product, commodity, service, or enterprise mentioned in this publication is intended or should be

inferred. For the reader’s convenience, this publication contains information about and from outside

organizations, including hyperlinks and URLs. Inclusion of such information does not constitute an

endorsement by the Department.

U.S. Department of Education

Betsy DeVos

Secretary

Office of Planning, Evaluation and Policy Development

James Blew

Assistant Secretary

Policy and Program Studies Service

Greg Fortelny

Director

October 2019

This report is in the public domain. Authorization to reproduce it in whole or in part is granted. While 

permission to reprint this publication is not necessary, the citation should be: U.S. Department of 

Education, Office of Planning, Evaluation and Policy Development, Policy and Program Studies Service, 

Districts’ Use of Weighted Student Funding Systems to Increase School Autonomy and Equity: Findings 

From a National Study, Washington, D.C., 2019.

This report is available on the Department’s website at: 

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Content Contact:

Stephanie Stullich 

Phone: 202-401-2342

Email: Stephanie.Stullich@ed.gov
Districts’ Use of Weighted Student Funding Systems to Increase School Autonomy and Equity

iii

Contents

List of Exhibits..................................................................................................................................... iv 

Acknowledgments ............................................................................................................................. vii

Executive Summary ............................................................................................................................ ix

Study Purpose .................................................................................................................................. x 

Methodology and Study Limitations................................................................................................ x 

Summary of Findings ...................................................................................................................... xi

Conclusions...................................................................................................................................xvii

1. Introduction .................................................................................................................................. 1

Policy Context .................................................................................................................................. 1 

Study Purpose .................................................................................................................................. 4 

Study Design .................................................................................................................................... 4 

Prevalence of WSF Systems............................................................................................................. 8 

Chapter Summary .......................................................................................................................... 11

2. Goals and Structure of WSF Systems............................................................................................ 13

District Goals for School Funding Systems..................................................................................... 13

Key Features of WSF Formulas Used to Allocate Funds to Schools...............................................15

Other WSF Policy Decisions ........................................................................................................... 30

Transparency of WSF Systems....................................................................................................... 33

Predictability and Stability of Resource Allocations ...................................................................... 34

Chapter Summary .......................................................................................................................... 36

3. School Autonomy ........................................................................................................................ 37

School and Principal Autonomy..................................................................................................... 37

Accountability and Support Systems............................................................................................. 47

Chapter Summary .......................................................................................................................... 50

4. Funding Equity............................................................................................................................. 51

Methods Used to Examine Equity Outcomes................................................................................ 52

Equity With Respect to Student Poverty ....................................................................................... 55

Equity With Respect to English Learners....................................................................................... 61

Equity With Respect to Students With Disabilities........................................................................ 64

Chapter Summary .......................................................................................................................... 67

5. Conclusions ................................................................................................................................. 69

References......................................................................................................................................... 71
Districts’ Use of Weighted Student Funding Systems to Increase School Autonomy and Equity

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Exhibits

Exhibit 1. Characteristics of the nine WSF case study districts.............................................................. 6 

Exhibit 2. Districts identified as implementing a WSF system in 2018–19, by year of adoption .......... 8 

Exhibit 3. Districts identified as having adopted and discontinued a WSF system prior to 

2018–19 ................................................................................................................................. 9 

Exhibit 4. Growth in number of WSF districts, 1993–94 through 2018–19......................................... 10

Exhibit 5. Distribution of WSF and non-WSF districts, by various demographic 

characteristics, 2015–16 ...................................................................................................... 11

Exhibit 6. Percentage of district administrators reporting that various goals are a high 

priority for their district’s system of allocating resources to schools, in WSF and 

non-WSF districts................................................................................................................. 13

Exhibit 7. Types of funding adjustments used in WSF allocation formulas, by case study 

district .................................................................................................................................. 16

Exhibit 8. WSF base allocations per pupil in each case study district, 2016–17 to 2018–19 .............. 18

Exhibit 9. WSF base allocations per pupil after grade-level adjustments, by case study 

district .................................................................................................................................. 19

Exhibit 10. Number of WSF districts reporting the use formula adjustments to provide 

additional funding to schools based on various student needs categories......................... 20

Exhibit 11. WSF funding adjustments for students from low-income families, by case study 

district .................................................................................................................................. 22

Exhibit 12. WSF funding adjustments for English learners, by case study district ................................ 23

Exhibit 13. WSF funding adjustments for students with disabilities, by case study district.................. 25

Exhibit 14. WSF funding adjustments for student or school performance, by case study 

district .................................................................................................................................. 26

Exhibit 15. Funding adjustments for specialized programming, by case study district......................... 27

Exhibit 16. Average percentage of unrestricted and restricted funding provided to schools to 

use at their discretion, in WSF and non-WSF districts......................................................... 38

Exhibit 17. Percentage of principals and district administrators reporting that decisions about 

hiring staff were mostly made by school staff and stakeholders, in WSF and non-WSF 

districts................................................................................................................................. 39

Exhibit 18. Percentage of principals and district administrators reporting that decisions about 

selecting instructional materials and other non-personnel resources and services 

were mostly made by school staff and stakeholders, in WSF and non-WSF districts......... 40
Districts’ Use of Weighted Student Funding Systems to Increase School Autonomy and Equity

v 

Exhibit 19. Percentage of principals and district administrators reporting that instructional 

programming and professional development decisions were mostly made by 

school staff and stakeholders, in WSF and non-WSF districts............................................. 42

Exhibit 20. Percentage of principals reporting that certain stakeholders have moderate or 

significant influence over schools’ budget decisions, in WSF districts................................ 43

Exhibit 21. Percentage of principals and district administrators in WSF districts reporting that 

their district offers schools various supports for budget development and 

management........................................................................................................................ 46

Exhibit 22. Percentage of WSF principals and district administrators reporting that certain 

actions could take place if a school’s end-of-year spending was more than its 

discretionary budget............................................................................................................. 48

Exhibit 23. Percentage of WSF principals and district administrators reporting that certain 

actions could take place if schools did not meet performance targets............................... 49

Exhibit 24. Example showing estimated base per-pupil spending level, and additional amount 

of per-pupil spending and implicit weights associated with various school 

characteristics in District 1, in 2016–17............................................................................... 53

Exhibit 26. Example of using implicit weights to estimate the additional per-pupil spending 

associated with various school characteristics in high- and low-poverty schools in 

District 2, 2016–17............................................................................................................... 57

Exhibit 27. Estimates of the relationship between students from low-income families and 

school per-pupil spending from unrestricted funds and total funds (unrestricted 

plus restricted)..................................................................................................................... 58

Exhibit 28. Trends in tercile differences and implicit weights for school per-pupil spending 

from unrestricted funds relative to students from low-income families, in five WSF 

districts................................................................................................................................. 60

Exhibit 29. Estimates of the relationship between English learners and school per-pupil 

spending from unrestricted funds, using the tercile and implicit weight 

approaches, in nine WSF districts, in the most recent year for which data were 

available ............................................................................................................................... 61

Exhibit 30. Trends in tercile differences and implicit weights for school per-pupil spending 

from unrestricted funds relative to English learners, in five WSF districts ......................... 63

Exhibit 31. Estimates of the relationship between students with disabilities and school perpupil spending from unrestricted funds using the tercile and implicit weight 

approaches, in nine WSF districts, in the most recent year for which data were 

available ............................................................................................................................... 64

Exhibit 32. Trends in tercile differences and implicit weights for school per-pupil spending 

from unrestricted funds relative to students with disabilities, in five WSF districts........... 66

Districts’ Use of Weighted Student Funding Systems to Increase School Autonomy and Equity

vii

Acknowledgments

We wish to thank all of those who contributed to the successful completion of this study. In particular, 

we are grateful for the considerable time and effort provided by staff in the nine case study districts 

who participated in interviews and provided documents and data for our analyses, as well as the 

hundreds of principals and district administrators who responded to the surveys.

We also thank members of the study’s Technical Working Group — Mark Ferrandino, Matt Hill, Betty 

Malen, Amy Ellen Schwartz, and Jason Willis — who provided thoughtful feedback throughout the study.

We also extend our gratitude to the AIR staff who contributed to this report in various capacities, 

including Jay Chambers, Alexa Cinque, Megan Eccleston, Sandy Eyster, Lynn Hu, Vaibhav Jain, Korantema 

Kaleem, Caitlin Kearns, Kerstin Le Floch, Kathy Sonnenfeld, and Cong Ye. 

Finally, we appreciate the guidance and support of staff in the U.S. Department of Education, especially 

Joanne Bogart, Leticia Braga, and Oliver Schak of the Policy and Program Studies Service.

Although we greatly appreciate the assistance and support of these individuals, any errors are the 

responsibility of the authors.

Districts’ Use of Weighted Student Funding Systems to Increase School Autonomy and Equity

ix

Executive Summary

Over the past 25 years, a small but growing number of school districts have implemented weighted 

student funding (WSF), a type of school-based budgeting system, as a way to increase school-level 

autonomy and flexibility and more equitably distribute funding among schools. In these districts, 

education leaders have implemented policies that allocate dollars to schools rather than staffing 

positions, using weights to provide higher levels of funding for certain types of students who need 

additional support, such as students from low-income households, English learners (ELs), and students 

with disabilities (SWDs). In addition, these systems are intended to provide more autonomy at the 

school level, shifting more of the decision-making responsibility over resource allocation and school 

programming to principals and other school stakeholders (such as teachers, parents, and other 

community members). 

This study identified 27 school districts that were implementing WSF systems as of the 2018–19 school 

year; these systems vary considerably in their longevity and in the specific features of their allocation 

formulas. This report examines how WSF districts have implemented these systems, the types of 

weights and other adjustments that they used, how they compare with districts that use more 

traditional resource allocation practices, and funding equity outcomes. The report is based on surveys of 

district administrators and principals in a nationally representative sample of WSF and non-WSF districts 

as well as in-depth case studies of nine WSF districts.

Highlights from this study include the following:

• WSF districts were more likely than non-WSF districts to classify principal autonomy and

transparency as high-priority goals for their system of allocating resources to schools.

• The most common student subgroup weighted in WSF formulas were students from low-income

families, English learners, and students with disabilities.

• Although all WSF case study districts reported that their schools use average rather than actual

teacher salaries in developing their budgets, three districts also used actual salaries, either for

some of their schools or by incorporating them into their weighting scheme.

• On average, WSF district administrators reported that over half (53 percent) of their total

operational spending was under school discretion, compared with 8 percent in non-WSF

districts.

• Despite the flexibility to make decisions about resources, principals in all nine WSF case study

sites reported that their effective autonomy was constrained by district requirements to fill

certain "non-negotiable" staff positions, collective bargaining agreements, and resource

limitations.

• In six of the nine WSF case study districts, higher-poverty schools had higher per-pupil spending

levels than lower-poverty schools, but after controlling for other school characteristics, only two

had a positive relationship between poverty and spending, while three had a negative

relationship.

• Among the five WSF case study districts with sufficient trend data, three showed increases in

relative funding levels for high-poverty schools after WSF implementation.
Districts’ Use of Weighted Student Funding Systems to Increase School Autonomy and Equity

x 

Study Purpose

Few studies to date have investigated how WSF systems operate and their outcomes related to resource 

allocation. This nationwide study is intended to help fill this gap based on surveys of both WSF and nonWSF districts, site visits and interviews in nine WSF case study districts, and analysis of school-level 

expenditure data. The study examines three main study questions:

1. How are resources allocated to schools in districts with WSF systems, and how do they compare 

with districts with more traditional resource allocation practices?

2. In what ways do schools have autonomy and control over resource allocation decisions, and 

how does this vary between WSF and non-WSF districts? 

3. Do WSF districts have higher levels of per-pupil spending in their higher-need schools, and has 

funding equity increased since the adoption of the WSF system? 

This study is intended to provide both practitioners and policymakers with detailed information about 

the design, implementation, and outcomes of WSF systems in the United States. Readers should note 

that study results are descriptive and the design of the study does not support causal inferences about 

the effects of WSF. However, the findings may enable districts who are implementing WSF — or 

considering whether to adopt a WSF system — to learn from the examples and experiences of other 

districts who have pursued this approach to improving equity and governance in education.

Methodology and Study Limitations

To address the above study questions, the study team administered surveys to district administrators

and principals in a nationally representative sample of 400 districts and 679 schools between 

December 2017 and June 2018, including all 26 districts identified as implementing WSF at the time of 

sample selection. Survey responses were received from 253 district administrators (including 13 of the 

26 WSF districts) and 318 principals. The surveys included questions about the resource allocation 

system and perceptions of equity, autonomy, accountability, stakeholder engagement, and 

transparency.

In addition to the surveys, site visits were conducted to collect more detailed information from a subset of 

nine WSF districts: Baltimore City, Boston, Cleveland, Nashville, Denver, Indianapolis, Milwaukee, Prince 

George’s County, and San Francisco. In these districts, site interviews were conducted with a district 

finance administrator, a district academic administrator, three school principals, and two respondents 

most knowledgeable about the WSF system from the following groups: union representatives, school 

board members, or other district administrators. The interview data were analyzed to better identify 

themes surrounding the motivation behind developing a WSF system and challenges implementing such a 

system, as well as the perceived changes in school-level control over resources and equity across schools.

The case studies also included collection of documents describing the allocation of funding to schools, 

documents describing the school-level budgeting process or other district budgeting guidelines, and 

data on school-level expenditures. This information was used to provide descriptions of how the WSF 

mechanisms distributed funding to schools and to perform an empirical analysis of resource equity 

across schools. Eight of the nine case study districts also responded to the district survey.
Districts’ Use of Weighted Student Funding Systems to Increase School Autonomy and Equity

xi

One limitation of the study is the relatively low response rates achieved on the district administrator and

principal surveys (63 percent and 47 percent, respectively). In particular, the 13 WSF districts responding 

to the survey tended to be less urban and to have lower percentages of children in poverty and ELs than 

the full set of 27 WSF districts. In addition, the nine districts that served as case studies are not nationally 

representative, and those findings cannot be generalized to all WSF districts in the nation. Finally, 

although all of the case study districts were asked to provide expenditure data for five years prior to

WSF implementation and all years since WSF implementation, some districts’ data systems were limited 

in their ability to provide this information, especially if the WSF system was adopted more than 10 years

ago. 

Because the study findings are based on a non-random sample of case study sites and on surveys with 

relatively low response rates, they do not necessarily generalize to the nation as a whole. Additionally, in 

the analyses of survey results, reported differences between WSF and non-WSF district and schools are 

intended to be descriptive, not causal, and do not necessarily mean that these differences were caused 

by the use of WSF.

Summary of Findings

Goals and Structure of WSF Systems

WSF districts were more likely than non-WSF districts to classify principal autonomy 

and transparency as high-priority goals for their system of allocating resources to 

schools. 

Nearly all district survey respondents in WSF district reported that allowing principal control over 

budgeting decisions at their schools was a high priority (95 percent, compared with 49 percent in non-WSF 

districts). Similarly, nearly all WSF districts reported that transparency in how resources are allocated to 

schools was a high priority (95 percent vs. 64 percent). In case study interviews, district leaders in seven 

of the nine WSF case study districts indicated that improving equity of resource distribution was a 

driving motivation behind moving to a WSF system.

The most common student subgroups weighted in WSF formulas were students from 

low-income families, English learners, and students with disabilities. 

District documentation of the WSF systems for 14 districts (including the nine case study districts and an 

additional five districts that provide links to such documentation via the district survey) revealed that 10 

the 14 used weights for students from low-income families, nine used weights for ELs, and seven used 

weights for SWDs. Six of the districts used weights for low-performing students, while three used 

weights for gifted and talented students. Two districts used weights for students who are homeless. 

The size and structure of the weights to address student needs varied considerably 

among the nine case study districts. 

For example, weights for individual students from low-income families ranged from 0.05 to 0.15, and 

three of the districts provided additional funding for schools with high concentrations of these pupils

(Baltimore, Boston, and Denver), bringing the combined weights for low-income students up to a high of 

0.275 in Denver. For EL students, some districts varied the weights by English proficiency level while 

others used a single weight for all ELs. Similarly, weights for students with disabilities often varied by 
Districts’ Use of Weighted Student Funding Systems to Increase School Autonomy and Equity

xii

type and severity of disability. Weights for ELs and SWDs were often larger than those for low-income 

students; EL weights ranged as high as 0.94, and SWD weights were over 1.0 in three districts, with a 

high of 7.25 in one district. 

Among the nine case study districts, seven provided larger per-pupil amounts for lower grade levels, but 

they differed in the specific grades that were favored. Six case study districts supplemented their WSF 

allocations with additional allocations for specialized programming such as specialty schools and 

vocational programs. 

All WSF case study districts made at least one change to their weighting schemes in 

recent years.

Among the nine WSF case study districts, two-thirds reported reviewing their weighting schemes on an 

annual or otherwise regular basis. The most common change, reported by five WSF case study districts, 

was to add a weight for one or more new student need categories, including students from low-income 

families (Baltimore, Denver, and Nashville), homeless students (Boston and San Francisco), gifted 

students (Baltimore), and SWDs (Denver).

Although all nine WSF case study districts reported that their schools use average 

teacher salaries in developing their budgets, three of the districts also used actual 

salaries, either for some of their schools or by incorporating them into their weighting 

scheme. 

Boston, Denver, and Prince George’s have adopted methods to introduce actual salaries into their WSF 

schemes to address resource inequities resulting from the distribution of teachers with respect to 

experience and educational attainment. In both Boston and Denver, about one-third of the schools had 

opted to use actual salaries for budgeting purposes. Because the schools that choose this option 

generally have below-average salaries, using actual salaries for budgeting means the schools’ budgeted 

salaries are less than they would be if using district average salaries, which effectively provides the 

schools with additional funds that can be used to expand or improve other services and resources. 

Prince George’s took a different approach: instead of addressing teacher salary differences across 

schools by using actual salaries for budgeting, it incorporated a measure of schools’ differences between 

actual and average salaries into its weighting scheme. Specifically, Prince George’s tailored the base 

allocation for each school by applying a weight to account for differences in teacher salary levels across 

schools, as well the resources that some schools (particularly specialty programs) receive in addition to 

their WSF dollars.

School Autonomy

On average, WSF district administrators reported that over half (53 percent) of their 

total operational spending was under school discretion, compared with 8 percent in 

non-WSF districts.

District operational funds include both unrestricted funds and restricted funds. Most district funds flow

through the “general fund,” which provides unrestricted funding for a wide range of school and district 

functions. In addition, districts have restricted funds that must be used for particular students and/or 

purposes, including categorical programs such as Title I of the Elementary and Secondary Education Act of 
Districts’ Use of Weighted Student Funding Systems to Increase School Autonomy and Equity

xiii

1965 (ESEA), the Individuals with Disabilities Education Act, and state compensatory education programs. 

WSF districts, on average, reported providing somewhat higher shares of their unrestricted funds for 

schools to use at their discretion (59 percent) than they did for restricted funds (48 percent). The share of 

funds reported as under school discretion varied across WSF districts; among the case study districts, 

the percentage of unrestricted funds over which principals had discretion ranged from 27 percent to 

54 percent.

Principals in WSF districts often reported that decisions about hiring staff, selecting 

instructional materials, and instructional programming were mostly made at the school 

level. 

For example, 85 percent of principals in WSF districts reported that decisions about hiring regular 

classroom teachers were mostly made by school staff and stakeholders, compared with 56 percent of 

principals in non-WSF districts. Responses of district administrators showed similar patterns.

Principals in WSF districts were more likely than their counterparts in non-WSF districts to indicate that 

decisions about hiring school-level staff were mostly made by school staff and stakeholders. However, 

most of these differences were not statistically significant in conditional analyses that controlled for 

certain differences between WSF and non-WSF districts (such as enrollment size), with the exception of 

instructional coaches. 

WSF principals were more likely than their non-WSF counterparts to report that decisions about 

selecting instructional materials were mostly made by school staff and stakeholders, although this was 

less common than for decisions about selecting staff. For example, 48 percent of WSF principals 

reported that school staff and stakeholders made most decisions about selection of instructional 

software, compared with 10 percent of non-WSF principals.

WSF principals were also more likely than those in non-WSF districts to report that school staff and 

stakeholders made most decisions about before- and after-school programming (59 percent vs. 

30 percent), elective and non-core classes (56 percent vs. 26 percent), and summer programming

(33 percent vs. 9 percent). WSF principals were also more likely to report such autonomy for 

professional development (30 percent vs. 9 percent).

Despite the flexibility to make decisions about resources, principals in all nine WSF 

case study districts reported that their effective autonomy was constrained by district 

requirements and other factors. 

In the case study interviews, principals in WSF districts reported that district policies required them to 

fill certain “non-negotiable” staff positions, which limited the amount of funds in the school’s annual

budget that they could actually control. School staff in case study districts also reported constraints 

related to collective bargaining agreements and resource limitations. 

Principals in WSF districts reported that the most significant challenge to budgeting is 

difficulty in predicting school resources from year to year.

Just over half (56 percent) of WSF principals reported that predicting school resources from year to year 

is a major or moderate challenge for them, compared with 35 percent of non-WSF principals.
Districts’ Use of Weighted Student Funding Systems to Increase School Autonomy and Equity

xiv

In six of the nine WSF case study districts, district administrators reported challenges 

related to building and sustaining principal capacity around the planning and 

budgeting process, citing concerns specifically about principals’ understanding of the 

financial aspects of making resource allocation decisions.

Interviewees often noted that managing the business aspects of running a school is not part of a 

principal’s traditional skill set. Several district respondents spoke about the unevenness in principals’ 

knowledge of budgeting and skill in making effective spending decisions, particularly among novice 

principals and districts experiencing high principal turnover.

Principals in WSF districts reported having access to a variety of district supports for budget 

development and management, including having a specific district staff person assigned to their school 

to assist with budget development and management (75 percent); availability of district staff to provide 

technical assistance as needed, either by phone (73 percent) or in-person (62 percent); and online 

resources such as documents, videos, and/or training modules (66 percent).

Stakeholder Inclusion in the Budgeting and Planning Process

Principals in WSF districts often reported that teachers and other school stakeholders 

had moderate or significant influence over school budget decisions.

Not surprisingly, principals most often reported themselves as having moderate or significant influence 

over school budget decisions (96 percent). In addition, 81 percent reported that teachers had moderate 

or significant influence, followed by other school administrative staff (79 percent), district staff 

(77 percent), school support staff (59 percent), and parents (47 percent). 

All of the WSF case study districts had policies requiring principals to engage school stakeholders during 

the budgeting process, and principals and district administrators often emphasized the value of seeking 

their input. For example, one administrator described how this process can build community support for 

the school, saying “you have to go in with some ideas as a recommendation; then you come out with 

what the feeling of the school community is.”

Accountability

Principals in WSF districts reported that the most likely consequence of a school 

spending more than its allotted amount was that the amount overspent could be 

deducted from the school’s budget the following year.

Fifty-seven percent of principals and 60 percent of district administrators in WSF districts reported that 

if a school’s spending exceeded its budget, the overage could be deducted from the school’s budget the 

following year. In the case study interviews, district administrators described providing supports to 

principals to help them meet budgetary requirements, and principals said it is rare for a school to 

overspend, given the frequent district oversight and guidance.
Districts’ Use of Weighted Student Funding Systems to Increase School Autonomy and Equity

xv

More than half of principals and district administrators in WSF districts indicated that 

not meeting performance targets could result in closer district monitoring of a school’s 

budget. 

For example, 74 percent of principals reported that a school not meeting performance targets could 

result in the district more closely evaluating the school’s proposed budget for the next year, and 

52 percent said the district could more closely monitor implementation of the school’s budget. However, 

the case study data suggest that accountability systems for school performance may not be directly 

connected to WSF financial systems; interviewees were unable to point to any specific mechanisms or 

procedures that apply budgetary consequences for poor academic performance. 

Funding Equity

To examine this issue, we used school-level expenditure data provided by the nine WSF case study 

districts to examine equity patterns within each district using two approaches. First, we compared

average per-pupil spending in higher-need versus lower-need schools in terms of poverty rates and 

percentages of ELs and SWDs. Second, we used regression analysis to estimate implicit weights that 

measure the extent to which schools with higher levels of student needs tend to have higher per-pupil 

spending after controlling for other school characteristics. 

Examining equity trends in WSF districts is challenging due to the difficulty in obtaining detailed schoollevel expenditure data both before and after the implementation of WSF. Because of the limited amount 

of pre- and post-WSF implementation data, the trend analyses in this report are presented as 

descriptive, not causal, analyses, and should be interpreted with caution. 

In six of the nine WSF case study districts, higher-poverty schools had higher per-pupil 

spending levels than lower-poverty schools, but after controlling for other school 

characteristics, only two had a positive relationship between poverty and spending, 

while three had a negative relationship. 

Although high-poverty schools had higher funding levels than low-poverty schools in six of the districts, 

they also typically had higher needs in terms of special education and ELs. Although this analysis is based 

on unrestricted funds, and did not include categorical funds that are restricted to serving SWDs and ELs, 

it is possible that the higher spending in high-poverty schools could in part reflect other funds provided 

to help meet the needs of those students. The implicit weight approach, which uses regression analysis 

to control for other student needs (EL and SWD), school size, and grade level, indicated that in three of 

the case study districts, high-poverty schools spent less per student than otherwise similar schools with 

low poverty rates. 

It may seem surprising that not all WSF districts have higher per-pupil spending in their high-poverty 

schools, given that WSF formulas allocate funds to schools at least in part based on indicators of student 

needs. However, equity outcomes may be influenced by a variety of factors, such as whether the WSF 

formula contains weights for students from low-income families and the relative size of those weights. A 

second factor that could reduce equity results is if funds outside the WSF formula are provided to 

support programs serving more advantaged students. 

In addition, the use of average salaries for budgeting the funds that are allocated through the WSF 

formula, rather than the amounts actually paid to those teachers, could result in schools with lower-paid 
Districts’ Use of Weighted Student Funding Systems to Increase School Autonomy and Equity

xvi

teachers having lower actual per-pupil expenditures than they appear to have “on paper.” Because 

higher-poverty schools often have teachers with less experience and lower salaries, these schools may 

then have lower per-pupil expenditures than lower-poverty schools, even if the WSF formula uses 

weights to provide them with larger allocations. 

Looking at total school-level expenditures, rather than just spending from unrestricted 

funds, provides a more positive view of school spending patterns in relation to poverty. 

Restricted funds are those that are targeted to specific student groups or programs, such as the federal 

Title I program, state compensatory education programs, and programs serving English learners and 

students with disabilities. Typically these restricted funds are not allocated to schools through WSF 

formulas, which is why this report focus on unrestricted funding. However, because these funds are part 

of the total resources that are available in schools, we also examined equity patterns for these funds, in 

the eight case study districts that provided data on restricted funds. 

Across the eight districts, the number of districts in which high-poverty schools received more than lowpoverty schools rose from five districts (for unrestricted funds) to seven districts (for both unrestricted 

and restricted funds). After controlling for other factors, one district showed a positive relationship1

between poverty and total spending and the other seven districts showed no significant differences.

Among the five WSF case study districts with sufficient data to examine trends before and 

after WSF implementation, three showed a more positive relationship between spending 

and poverty after the adoption of WSF, after controlling for other variables. 

High-poverty schools experienced gains in per-pupil spending from unrestricted funds, relative to lowpoverty schools, in four of the five districts. After controlling for other school characteristics, three of 

these districts showed increases in their implicit weights for students from low-income families. 

In four of the nine WSF case study districts, schools with higher concentrations of 

English learners had higher per-pupil spending, on average, than low-EL schools, but 

only two districts had a positive relationship between percentage of EL students and 

spending levels, after controlling for other variables. 

The other seven districts showed no relationship between EL concentration and per-pupil spending. 

Among the five districts with sufficient data to examine trends, two showed relative average gains for highEL schools after WSF implementation, compared with low-EL schools. After controlling for other school 

characteristics, three districts showed increases in their implicit weights for EL students. 

Most of the WSF case study districts showed substantially higher spending levels in 

schools with higher proportions of students with disabilities, both before and after 

WSF implementation.

In eight of the nine case study districts, schools with higher concentrations of students with disabilities 

had higher spending levels than other schools, and this relationship was statistically significant after 

1 One of the two districts that showed a significant positive relationship between poverty and spending from unrestricted funds 

was not included in the analysis of total spending.
Districts’ Use of Weighted Student Funding Systems to Increase School Autonomy and Equity

xvii

controlling for other school characteristics. This is not surprising given that children eligible under IDEA 

are entitled to a free appropriate public education.

Four of the five case study districts with sufficient trend data largely maintained their distribution of perpupil spending resources with respect to students with disabilities in the post-WSF time period.

Conclusions

WSF is a policy that aims to increase school-level autonomy and funding equity. The survey results from

this study indicate that WSF districts allocate over half of their total operational spending to schools to 

be used under principals’ discretion — more than six times the amount reported by non-WSF districts. In

addition, principals in WSF districts reported a higher degree of school autonomy in a number of areas

than did their counterparts in non-WSF districts, including hiring instructional coaches, selecting 

curricular materials and instructional software, and making decisions about extended time programs

and professional development. However, in the case study interviews, WSF principals often reported 

that their autonomy was constrained to some degree by requirements to fill non-negotiable staff 

positions and other factors. 

In terms of equity, the findings from this study are mixed. Although districts often targeted similar

student need categories in their WSF systems — in particular, students from low-income families, 

English learners, and students with disabilities — they varied considerably in the magnitudes of the 

weights they used, as well as in other formula details. Analyses of expenditure data in the nine WSF case 

study districts found that while some WSF districts had progressive equity outcomes and appeared to 

make equity gains after WSF implementation, others did not. Although WSF is a tool that may be used to 

direct higher levels of funding to schools with greater needs, its effectiveness in improving the equitable 

distribution of funds will be affected by the types and sizes of weights used, the share of total funding

distributed through the formula, and whether schools use actual or average salaries for budgeting the 

funds that are allocated to them. 

In short, the WSF districts in this study have grappled with a variety of challenges in their efforts to use 

this approach to increase equity and school autonomy. Some districts have just begun to implement 

their WSF approach or are in the process of deciding whether to embark on this path, while others have 

seen their systems evolve over many years and changes in leadership — yet all may benefit from 

learning from the examples and experiences of other districts who have pursued this approach to 

improving equity and governance in education.
Districts’ Use of Weighted Student Funding Systems to Increase School Autonomy and Equity
Districts’ Use of Weighted Student Funding Systems to Increase School Autonomy and Equity

1 

1. Introduction

Over the past 25 years, a small but growing number of school districts have experimented with the use 

of weighted student funding (WSF), a type of school-based budgeting system, as a way to increase 

school-level autonomy and flexibility and more equitably distribute funding among schools. While 

school districts in the United States typically distribute most school-level resources in the form of staff, 

instructional materials, and other tangible resources to schools, districts with WSF systems allocate 

dollars to each school and assign the schools greater responsibility and control over how those funds are 

spent. Under WSF systems, individual school allocations are based on a formula that includes weights 

for certain types of students, such as students from low-income families,2

 English learners (ELs), and 

students with disabilities (SWDs),3 in order to provide additional resources to meet the needs of those 

students.

This study identified 27 school districts that were implementing WSF systems as of the 2018–19 school 

year; these systems vary considerably in their longevity as well as the specific features of their allocation 

formulas. This report examines how WSF districts have implemented these systems, the types of 

weights and other adjustments that they used, how they compare with districts with more traditional 

resource allocation practices, and funding equity outcomes. The report is based on surveys of district 

administrators and principals in a nationally representative sample of WSF and non-WSF districts as well 

as in-depth case studies of nine WSF districts.

Policy Context

Most school districts in the United States distribute school-level resources in the form of staff, 

instructional materials, and other tangible resources, rather than allocating specific dollar amounts to 

individual schools. These traditional resource allocation systems typically determine the number of 

teachers, school administrators, and other types of staff for each school based on its total student 

enrollment; supplemental support for particular groups of students (e.g., students from low-income 

families, ELs, and SWDs) is provided through federal- and state-funded categorical funding programs. In 

addition, decisions about the allocation and use of those categorical funds often may be made at the 

district level. 

Under these systems, school leaders and other stakeholders such as teachers and other school staff, 

parents, and community members may have little discretion or influence over how dollars are spent at 

their schools, or even understand how much money is being spent on their school. In addition, a large 

2 This report frequently refers to “students from low-income families,” who are defined as those who are eligible for free and 

reduced-price lunch (FRPL) under the National School Lunch Program. FRPL eligibility is determined based on documentation 

obtained from a student’s parents or other household members, or through direct certification based upon administrative 

records (e.g., records from the Temporary Assistance for Needy Families program or Supplemental Nutrition Assistance 

Program). These students are also sometimes referred to as “economically disadvantaged” students.

3 In this report, the term “students with disabilities” is not specifically limited to students who have Individualized Education 

Programs (IEPs) and who receive special education services under the Individuals with Disabilities Education Act (IDEA). The 

documentation provided by WSF districts most often referred to “students with disabilities” and not students with IEPs, and it 

is possible that some WSF systems may consider the term to include a broader category of students, such as those covered 

under Section 504 of the Rehabilitation Act, as well as students with IEPs served under the IDEA. 
Districts’ Use of Weighted Student Funding Systems to Increase School Autonomy and Equity

2 

percentage of those resources may be fixed because of staffing decisions made at the district level, as 

well as staffing obligations required by district policies and/or collective bargaining agreements. 

In addition, some researchers and advocates have raised concerns that traditional resource allocation 

systems can result in inequities in the distribution of resources. One concern is that schools with higher 

concentrations of at-risk students may not receive sufficient additional resources to meet the complex 

needs of those students (Rubenstein, Schwartz, and Stiefel 2006). Another concern is that teacher 

assignment practices and patterns can result in higher-poverty schools having lower per-pupil 

expenditures compared with other schools in the district, because higher-poverty schools often have 

teachers with less experience and lower salaries and districts typically allocate staff to specific schools 

without regard to their actual salaries (Roza and Hill 2004).

In contrast, districts with WSF systems have implemented policies that allocate dollars to schools rather 

than staffing positions, using weights or other funding adjustments to provide higher levels of funding 

for certain types of students who need additional support,

4 while also shifting more of the decisionmaking responsibility over resource allocation and school programming to principals and school 

stakeholders. 

Under the WSF approach, providing schools with more autonomy may enable school leaders to use 

resources more effectively to meet the specific needs of their school’s students. Some prior research 

suggests that increased principal autonomy may be associated with improved school quality and student 

outcomes (Mizrav 2014; Steinberg 2014). By devolving more control over programming and resource 

decisions to schools and providing more transparency about the level and types of resources in each 

school, WSF systems may also increase the level of accountability placed on school leadership and staff 

to deliver results and encourage greater stakeholder involvement in decision-making. Finally, using 

weights to allocate higher per-pupil amounts to schools with higher concentrations of students from 

low-income families, ELs, SWDs, and other kinds of at-risk students may provide the additional resources 

those schools need to help those students attain better educational outcomes.5 

Federal Student-Centered Funding Pilot Program

A new federal pilot program to encourage the adoption of WSF systems was included in the Every 

Student Succeeds Act of 2015 (ESSA), the most recent reauthorization of the Elementary and Secondary 

Education Act of 1965 (ESEA). Under this law, the Department of Education is authorized to enter into 

local flexibility demonstration agreements with school districts that allow a district to consolidate 

certain federal education funds with its state and local funds and to allocate these funds to schools 

through a weighted student formula.6 Initial applications for the Student-Centered Funding (SCF) pilot 

4 The literature on education finance widely recognizes that additional costs are associated with achieving similar outcomes for 

students with specific needs and circumstances such as students from low-income families, ELs, and SWDs (Duncombe and 

Yinger 2008).

5 Baker (2016) provides an overview of the case that additional spending on students with specific needs can effectively 

improve outcomes.

6 ESEA programs for which funds could be consolidated under the pilot are: Title I, Part A; Title I, Part C; Title I, Part D; Title II; 

Title III; Title IV, Part A; and Title V, Part B. Participating districts must still meet the purposes of the federal programs but 

would not have to provide a separate accounting for the funds. 
Districts’ Use of Weighted Student Funding Systems to Increase School Autonomy and Equity

3 

were due in March 2018, and six districts have submitted applications; none are currently approved to 

participate in the pilot (as of September 2019).

7

Under the SCF pilot, participating districts must follow a number of statutory requirements, including: 

1. Provide “substantial” weights for students from low-income families and for English learners.

The formula must allocate substantially more funding for these students than for other

students. A district may also choose to apply weights for other student characteristics

associated with educational disadvantage; if it does so, then the formula must also allocate

substantially more funding for those students than for other students.

2. Allocate a “significant percentage” of the district’s funds through the formula. The share of

state, local, and federal funds allocated through the student-centered funding system must be a

significant percentage8 that is sufficient to carry out the purposes of the demonstration

agreement and meet the requirements of ESEA section 1501(d).

3. Use actual expenditures, not districtwide averages or other proxies. When charging schools’

expenditures against the funding allocated to each school, the district must use actual

expenditures, “including staff salary differentials for years of employment.” Similarly, districts

must also use actual expenditures for non-personnel resources.

4. Report annual data on funding equity outcomes. Participating districts are required to publicly

report school-by-school data on per-pupil expenditures and ensure funding gains for highpoverty schools. More specifically, a participating district must ensure that each high-poverty

school receives more per-pupil funding for students from low-income families, and at least as

much per-pupil funding for ELs, in the first year of the demonstration agreement as it received

in the previous year.9 

Although this study is not directly examining the SCF pilot program, its findings may help illuminate 

some of the issues and decisions facing districts and policymakers as they consider how to implement 

the program. The law does not define the terms “substantial” or “significant percentage”; this study may 

help practitioners and policymakers think about appropriate levels and expectations by providing 

information on the types and sizes of weights used by other districts that have implemented weighted 

student funding formulas. With regards to the use of actual expenditures, a Frequently Asked Questions 

(FAQs) document issued by the Department in February 2018 acknowledged that “this is not currently a 

common practice [and] many LEAs currently charge an average salary for each position after allocating 

funding to schools” (U.S. Department of Education 2018, p. 15).10 This study examines the extent to 

which, and how, the case study districts used actual versus average personnel expenditures in their WSF 

systems — which may help prospective pilot applicants consider ways that they might propose to meet 

7 Several applicants were seeking flexibility that was already available to them under federal law. One district was initially 

approved but that approval was later withdrawn because the district did not meet statutory requirements.

8 When calculating the significant portion of funds to be allocated to the school level, a district must also include all school-level 

actual expenditures for instructional staff and non-personnel resources.

9 This report makes use of data on various measures of incidence of students from low-income families, including children with 

approved applications for free and reduced price lunch, those who are directly certified for free lunch through verified 

enrollment in programs such as Supplemental Nutrition Assistance Program, Temporary Assistance for Needy Families or 

Medicaid, or child poverty measures developed by the U.S. Census such as the Small Area Income Population Estimates. Note 

that Census poverty data are available for school districts but not at the school level. In this report we use the terms low 

income and poverty interchangeably.

10 The FAQs for the Student-Centered Funding pilot are available at https://www2.ed.gov/policy/elsec/leg/essa/scfp/faqs.pdf. 
Districts’ Use of Weighted Student Funding Systems to Increase School Autonomy and Equity

4 

this requirement. The study’s analyses of longitudinal fiscal data for the case study districts provide 

examples of outcomes that have been achieved by some WSF districts and demonstrate methods that 

can be used to examine equity outcomes and how they change after WSF implementation. Finally, study 

information on the challenges experienced by WSF districts and schools — and the strategies they used 

to address those challenges — may be useful to both practitioners and policymakers considering ways to 

improve the implementation and efficacy of WSF systems.

Study Purpose

Few studies to date have investigated how WSF systems operate and their outcomes related to resource 

allocation, such as whether school leaders and stakeholders have experienced greater autonomy and 

how they use that autonomy, whether there have been increases in the equity with which resources are 

distributed among schools, and how resource allocation and use differ between WSF and non-WSF 

districts.

To help fill this gap, this study examined resource allocation practices in both WSF and non-WSF districts 

to explore these issues, as well as examining changes in the distribution of funding across schools after 

the implementation of a WSF system. The study focused on three main study questions:

1. How are resources allocated to schools in districts with WSF systems, and how do they compare 

with districts with more traditional resource allocation practices?

2. In what ways do schools have autonomy and control over resource allocation decisions, and 

how does this vary between WSF and non-WSF districts?

3. Do WSF districts have higher levels of per-pupil spending in their higher-need schools, and has 

funding equity increased since the adoption of the WSF system?

This study is intended to provide both practitioners and policymakers with detailed information about 

the design, implementation, and outcomes of WSF systems in the United States.11 Readers should note 

that study results are descriptive and the design of the study does not support causal inferences about 

the effects of WSF. However, the findings may enable districts who are implementing WSF — or 

considering whether to adopt a WSF system — to learn from the examples and experiences of other 

districts who have pursued this approach to improving equity and governance in education.

Study Design

To address the above study questions, the study conducted surveys of district administrators and 

principals in both WSF and non-WSF districts, as well as conducting case studies to obtain more in-depth 

data in nine WSF districts, including interviews, document reviews, and analysis of school-level 

 

11 In addition to the study results presented in this volume (Volume 1), a set of technical appendices is provided in Volume 2 

containing supplemental information for the interested reader. Appendix A provides short profiles of the WSF systems used 

in each case study district. Appendix B provides the statutory authorizing language for the Student-Centered Funding pilot. 

Appendix C provides a more detailed description of the study methodology, including sample selection and data collection 

and analysis methods for the surveys, interviews, extant documentation, and fiscal data. Appendix D provides supplemental 

data tables and charts. Appendix E provides the data collection instruments.
Districts’ Use of Weighted Student Funding Systems to Increase School Autonomy and Equity

5 

expenditure data. This section describes these data sources, selection of the study samples, procedures 

for data collection and analysis, and study limitations. 

Data Sources

To address the above study questions, the study used three primary data sources:

1. District and principal surveys were administered to a nationally representative sample of 400 

district administrators and 675 school principals in both WSF and non-WSF districts. The surveys 

were completed by 253 district administrators and 318 principals from this sample, for response 

rates of 63 percent and 47 percent, respectively. The goal of the surveys was to better 

understand the experiences and perceptions of practitioners in WSF and other districts across 

the country regarding resource allocation practices. Specifically, the surveys included questions 

about the resource allocation system and perceptions regarding equity, autonomy, 

accountability, stakeholder engagement, and transparency. 

2. Interviews and document reviews were conducted in a purposive sample of nine case study 

districts that were implementing WSF systems in 2017–18. The case studies included in-person 

interviews with district and school staff, including district program officers, chief financial 

officers, school principals, union representatives, and school board members, as well as 

examination of district documents describing their WSF weights and other formula features. 

3. School-level expenditure data were collected from the nine case study districts to examine 

patterns in the distribution of school-level resources before and after the implementation of 

WSF. Districts were asked to provide these data for five years prior to WSF implementation and 

all years since WSF implementation, if possible. The longitudinal expenditure data were used to 

examine the relationship between school-level per-pupil spending and various indicators of 

student need and whether this relationship changed after WSF implementation. 

Sample Selection

For the nationally representative surveys, 400 districts were randomly selected from public school 

districts in the United States that have at least six schools (3,389 districts); this threshold was selected 

because the smallest district identified as implementing WSF at the time of sample selection had six 

schools.

12 The sample was designed to include 26 districts identified as implementing a WSF system 

during the 2017–18 school year, as well as five districts identified as having previously implemented 

WSF. This list of 31 current or previous WSF districts was developed by consulting with school finance 

experts, drawing on reports such as the Reason Foundation Weighted Student Formula Yearbook (Snell 

and Furtick 2013) and a presentation by Koteskey and Snell at the Future of Education Finance Summit 

(Koteskey and Snell 2016), and examining district websites; these districts were selected with certainty 

to guarantee their inclusion in the study sample.13

12 The smallest district that we identified as a WSF district at the time of sample selection was later determined to be not in fact 

implementing WSF; the smallest WSF district in our final set of known WSF districts had 22 schools in 2018–19 (see Exhibit 2). 

13 Among the 26 districts identified as WSF implementers at the time of sample selection, the study team later learned (during 

the data collection phase of the study) that two were not in fact implementing WSF systems.
Districts’ Use of Weighted Student Funding Systems to Increase School Autonomy and Equity

6 

For the principal survey, 675 schools were randomly selected from the sample districts. In each of the 31 

WSF districts, up to 10 schools were selected, for a total of 306 schools in WSF districts. In the remaining 

369 districts, one school per district was selected, for a total of 369 schools in non-WSF districts.

For the case study component, we selected a purposive sample of nine districts identified as currently 

implementing a WSF system. The specific sites were selected to yield a diverse set of districts with 

respect to geographic location, age of WSF system, and formula design (Exhibit 1).

Exhibit 1. Characteristics of the nine WSF case study districts

District name State Year established Enrollment 

Number of 

schools Urbanicity 

Milwaukee Public Schools WI 2000–01 77,316 167 City 

San Francisco Unified CA 2002–03 58,414 127 City 

Denver School District CO 2007–08 88,839 191 City 

Baltimore City Public Schools MD 2008–09 84,976 189 City 

Boston Public Schools MA 2011–12 54,312 120 City 

Prince George’s County Public Schools MD 2012–13 127,576 211 Suburb

Cleveland Municipal School District OH 2013–14 39,365 102 City 

Metro Nashville Public Schools TN 2015–16 84,069 164 City 

Indianapolis Public Schools IN 2016–17 31,794 67 City 

Exhibit reads: One of the nine case study districts was Milwaukee Public Schools, which established its WSF system 

in the 2000–01 school year. The district had 77,316 students and 167 schools in the 2015–16 school year and was 

located in a city.

Sources: Information on the year the WSF system was established is based on review of school district documents and websites and personal 

communication with district administrators. Other data are from National Center for Education Statistics, Common Core of Data Local 

Education Agency (School District) Universe Survey Data (2015–16).

Data Collection and Analysis

The nationally representative surveys were administered electronically between December 2017 and 

June 2018. In each of the case study districts, the study team conducted interviews with a district 

program officer, a district finance officer, three school principals,14 and two respondents from the 

following three groups — a union representative, a school board member, or an additional district 

administrator. The two individuals selected depended on such factors as the existence of a union in the 

district and which respondents were most knowledgeable about the WSF system. Case study site visits 

were conducted in spring and summer of 2018, including interviews and collection of extant documents; 

follow-up phone calls were also conducted during the 2018-19 school year to collect additional 

information where needed. WSF system characteristics are based on information for 2018–19. Eight of 

the nine case study districts also responded to the district survey.

In addition, the study team collected a variety of documents and data from the case study districts, 

including documents describing how funding and other (personnel and non-personnel) resources were 

allocated to schools; documents describing the school-level budgeting process or other district 

budgeting guidelines; and audited end-of-year, school-level fiscal files. We asked the districts to provide 

 

14 For each case study district, the three principal interviewees were purposively selected from the 10 randomly selected 

schools included in the survey sample, with the aim of including variation in school grade levels. 
Districts’ Use of Weighted Student Funding Systems to Increase School Autonomy and Equity

7 

expenditures for at least five years prior to WSF implementation and at least five years after 

implementation (but ideally for all post-WSF years), as possible.

Data from surveys were weighted to produce national estimates of the frequency of practices and 

attitudes collected through the survey items. Fiscal data were analyzed to examine trends in pre- and 

post-WSF relationships between spending and student need for each case study district. Interview and 

document data were organized and analyzed using the tagging function in Microsoft OneNote. At least 

two respondents in a given case study district must have mentioned a fact or concern for it to have been 

included as a theme for that district.

Study Limitations

The study surveys collected information from district administrator and principal respondents in both WSF

and non-WSF districts and schools in an effort to compare responses on many items that asked for

individuals’ perceptions about the resource allocation system being used, which by definition could be

subjective. In addition, the survey response rates for the district survey (63 percent) and principal survey

(47 percent) were lower than the Office of Management and Budget target for federal program 

evaluations (85 percent).15 Consequently, the survey results are not necessarily generalizable to the 

populations of WSF and non-WSF districts and schools across the country. While the survey weights

account for nonresponse bias based upon the sample site characteristics, a comparison of the WSF 

districts that responded to our survey shows some differences from the population of known WSF districts. 

Specifically, the 13 WSF districts responding to our survey tended to be less urban and have lower levels of 

both poverty and ELs than the full set of 27 known implementers.

16

 

In addition, WSF and non-WSF districts differ along several dimensions other than their decision to 

implement a WSF system. Specifically, WSF districts tend to be larger and more urban and to have 

higher poverty rates and other need indicators. In our comparative analyses of WSF and non-WSF survey 

responses we have attempted to control for these types of differences through statistical conditional 

analysis. However, these adjustments cannot control for unobserved differences in the characteristics of 

the two groups. Consequently, the comparisons between WSF and non-WSF survey responses are 

presented as descriptive analyses and do not necessarily mean that these differences were caused by 

the use of WSF. 

There are also some limitations to the interpretation and generalizability of the study findings stemming 

from the case study districts. Although the nine case study sites represent a relatively large proportion of 

the 27 districts identified as implementing WSF, they are not nationally representative, so the case 

studies findings cannot be generalized to the nation as a whole. It also should be noted that although 

the district-level interviews included a variety of officials, the school-level interviews were limited to 

principals, whose views about the involvement of teachers and other school stakeholders may not 

match the perceptions of those groups. Finally, although all of the case study districts were asked to 

provide expenditure data for years prior to WSF implementation, sometimes the data systems were 

limited in their ability to provide this information, especially if the data systems and/or WSF systems

were old.

15 This study is not evaluating a federal program, so selected districts and principals were not required to participate in the 

surveys. In addition, some survey items asked for factual budgetary and fiscal information, which may have discouraged 

some respondents from continuing because these items are more challenging than simple opinion or perception questions. 

16 A comparison of the characteristics between the WSF survey respondent districts and the group of districts representing our 

best approximation of the population of WSF implementers is included in Exhibit C-5 in Appendix C. 
Districts’ Use of Weighted Student Funding Systems to Increase School Autonomy and Equity

8 

Prevalence of WSF Systems

The study identified 27 school districts that were implementing WSF systems as of the 

2018–19 school year; these districts enrolled 9 percent of the nation’s students.

Minneapolis Public Schools was the first district in the country to implement a WSF system, starting in 

the 1993–94 school year. Seven of these districts adopted their WSF system 15 or more years ago, while 

16 adopted WSF in the past 10 years. The most recent adopters were Indianapolis, Atlanta, and Shelby 

County, with full WSF implementation taking place in 2016–17 in Indianapolis and in 2018–19 in Atlanta 

and Shelby County (Exhibit 2).

Exhibit 2. Districts identified as implementing a WSF system in 2018–19, by year of adoption

District name State

Year 

adopted Enrollment 

Number 

of schools

Poverty

rate Urbanicity 

Minneapolis Public Schools MN 1993–94 36,793 86 24% City 

Prince William County Public Schools VA 1994–95 87,793 92 9% Suburb

Cincinnati Public Schools OH 1999–2000 34,227 54 33% City 

Houston Independent School District TX 2000–01 215,627 283 31% City 

Milwaukee School District* WI 2000–01 75,749 158 34% City 

San Francisco Unified School District* CA 2002–03 58,865 116 12% City 

St. Paul Public School District MN 2002–03 37,698 103 27% City 

Hawaii Department of Education HI 2006–07 181,995 289 10% Suburb

Denver Public Schools* CO 2007–08 90,235 189 20% City 

New York City Public Schools NY 2007–08 981,667 1,579 26% City 

Poudre School District CO 2007–08 29,527 53 9% City 

Baltimore City Public Schools* MD 2008–09 83,666 182 31% City 

Douglas County School District CO 2008–09 66,896 89 2% Suburb

Falcon School District 49 CO 2010–11 20,561 22 8% City 

Boston Public Schools* MA 2011–12 53,885 120 28% City 

Charlotte-Mecklenburg Schools NC 2011–12 146,211 164 17% City 

Newark Public School District NJ 2011–12 40,889 65 33% City 

Prince George's County Public Schools* MD 2012–13 128,936 207 12% Suburb

Adams 12 Five Star Schools CO 2013–14 39,287 53 10% Suburb

City of Chicago School District 299 IL 2013–14 387,311 591 27% City 

Cleveland Municipal School District* OH 2013–14 39,410 101 43% City 

Metro Nashville Public Schools* TN 2015–16 85,598 154 23% City 

Jeffco Public Schools CO 2015–16 86,731 165 7% Suburb

Santa Fe Public Schools NM 2015–16 13,265 33 20% City 

Indianapolis Public Schools* IN 2016–17 31,371 67 41% City 

Atlanta Public Schools GA 2018–19 51,500 89 33% City 

Shelby County Schools TN 2018–19 114,487 208 34% City 

Exhibit reads: Minneapolis Public Schools adopted a WSF system in the 1993–94 school year, enrolls 36,793 

students, has 86 schools, a poverty rate of 24 percent, and is located in a city.

Note: Data on enrollment and number of schools are for the 2015–16 school year. School districts included in the case study sample are 

indicated with an asterisk (*) and boldface text. 

Sources: Information on the year the WSF system was established is based on review of school district documents and websites and personal 

communication with district administrators. Enrollment, number of schools, and urbanicity are based on data provided from the National 

Center for Education Statistics, Common Core of Data Local Education Agency (School District) Universe Survey Data (2015–16). Poverty rates 

are based on the 2016 Census Small Area Income Poverty Estimate (SAIPE) data for school districts.
Districts’ Use of Weighted Student Funding Systems to Increase School Autonomy and Equity

9 

As can be seen from Exhibit 2, school districts that have implemented WSF systems are predominantly 

large, urban districts. Although the 27 known WSF districts comprised less than 1 percent of all school 

districts in the United States, they accounted for 11 of the 40 largest districts (28 percent) and nine of 

the 20 largest urban districts (45 percent). Collectively they enrolled 3.2 million students in the 2015–16 

school year, or 9 percent of the nation’s students in public elementary and secondary schools.

Nearly a quarter (23 percent) of the districts identified as implementing a WSF system were in Colorado. 

Collectively, the six WSF districts in Colorado represented 30 percent of public schools and 37 percent of 

students in the state.

There may well be additional WSF districts that we were not able to identify through review of prior 

research, consultation with school finance experts, and the study’s district survey.17 Based on the district 

survey results, we estimate that approximately 33 districts nationwide are using a WSF system. 

The study team also identified five districts that previously had implemented WSF but discontinued 

those systems prior to 2018–19 (Exhibit 3). Seattle, for instance, eliminated WSF in 2008–09 over 

concerns from multiple stakeholders — including principals, community members, the district’s budget 

advisory team, and other district staff — around the perceived complexity and inefficiencies of the 

approach. In its place, Seattle adopted a Weighted Staffing Standards system, which the district said 

“retains the principle of funding a school according to the needs of its student population, but . . . is 

much simpler to use” (Seattle Public Schools 2008). Under Seattle’s revised approach, all schools receive 

funding for instructional staff (e.g., teachers, librarians, instructional support) and for non-instructional 

staff (e.g., administrators, office staff, counselors, and nurses). In addition, all schools receive 

discretionary funding based on total student enrollment, the number of students eligible for free and

reduced-price lunch, and the presence of specific special needs programs (Seattle Public Schools 2019). 

In at least four of the five districts, the decision to end WSF followed a change in district leadership.

Exhibit 3. Districts identified as having adopted and discontinued a WSF system prior to 2018–19

District name State

Year

adopted

Last year

implemented Enrollment 

Number 

of schools

Poverty 

rate Urbanicity 

Seattle Public Schools WA 1996–97 2007–08 53,317 105 10% City 

Oakland Unified School District CA 2004–05 2013–14 49,098 121 22% City 

Hartford Public Schools CT 2008–09 2014–15 20,874 66 35% City 

Twin Rivers Unified School District CA 2010–11 2012–13 31,137 54 33% Suburb

Rochester City School District NY 2010–11 2011–12 28,886 54 42% City 

Exhibit reads: Seattle adopted a WSF system in the 1996–97 school year and discontinued it in 2007–08. 

Note: Data on enrollment and number of schools are for 2015–16.

Sources: Review of school district documents and website for districts that various experts initially identified as previously implementing a 

weighted student funding system. National Center for Education Statistics, Common Core of Data Local Education Agency Universe Survey Data 

(2015–16). Poverty is based on the 2016 Census Small Area Income Poverty Estimate (SAIPE) data for school districts.

17

Indeed, one of the 27 WSF districts listed in Exhibit 2 was part of the random sample of “non-WSF” districts selected for the 

surveys. This district provided survey responses suggesting that it was implementing WSF, and the study team followed up 

with phone calls, as well as reviewing district documentation available online, to confirm that the district did indeed have a 

WSF system. Four other survey districts also provided survey responses suggesting that they were implementing WSF, but 

the study team determined, based on follow-up communications with the districts and reviews of district documentation, 

that they were not in fact using WSF formulas to allocate funds to schools. 
Districts’ Use of Weighted Student Funding Systems to Increase School Autonomy and Equity

10

The total number of districts identified as implementing WSF systems, though small, has grown steadily 

over the past 25 years, from one district in 1993–94 to six districts by 2001–02, 15 by 2009–10, and 27 

as of 2018–19 (Exhibit 4). 

Exhibit 4. Growth in number of WSF districts, 1993–94 through 2018–19

Exhibit reads: The number of school districts implementing WSF grew from one in 1993–94 to 27 in 2018–19.

Sources: Review of school district documents and websites for districts identified in prior research and by various experts as previously 

implementing a weighted student funding system.

WSF districts were more likely to be large, urban districts than non-WSF districts and 

to enroll a greater percentage of students from low-income families than non-WSF 

districts.

Over three-quarters (78 percent) of WSF districts were located in urban areas, compared with 6 percent 

of all non-WSF districts and 17 percent of non-WSF districts with more than six schools.18In contrast, 

none of the identified WSF districts were located in town or rural areas. Nearly two-thirds (63 percent)

of WSF districts had student enrollments of at least 50,000 students, compared with 1 percent of nonWSF districts. Almost half (48 percent) of WSF districts had a student poverty rate greater than

25 percent, compared with 21 percent of non-WSF districts. Districts with 20 percent or more of their 

students identified as ELs accounted for 26 percent of WSF districts, compared with 6 percent of all nonWSF districts and 11 percent of non-WSF districts with more than six schools (Exhibit 5).

18 To provide a more comparable set of non-WSF districts, the survey sample of non-WSF districts was drawn from districts that 

had six or more schools, which represented the smallest number of schools in a district that we had identified as 

implementing WSF at the time of sample selection. Exhibit 5 compares the population characteristics of the 27 known WSF 

districts to that of all non-WSF districts and of non-WSF districts with six or more schools.

 
Districts’ Use of Weighted Student Funding Systems to Increase School Autonomy and Equity

11

Exhibit 5. Distribution of WSF and non-WSF districts, by various demographic characteristics,

2015–16

Characteristic

WSF districts

(n = 27)

Non-WSF districts with 

six or more schools

(n = 3,389)

All non-WSF 

districts

(n = 16,388)

By urbanicity

City 78% 17% 6%

Suburb 22% 42% 23%

Town 0% 22% 18%

Rural 0% 19% 53%

By district enrollment size 

Very large (50,000 or more students) 63% 2% 1%

Large (25,000–49,999) 30% 5% 1%

Medium (10,000–24,999) 7% 16% 5%

Small (less than 10,000) 0% 76% 93%

By poverty rate

Highest poverty quartile (25% or more) 48% 22% 21%

Second highest poverty quartile (17–24%) 15% 25% 24%

Second lowest poverty quartile (10–16%) 11% 25% 29%

Lowest poverty quartile (less than 10%) 26% 28% 26%

By percentage of English learners (ELs)

High-EL (20% or more) 26% 11% 6%

Medium-EL (5–19%) 59% 30% 18%

Low-EL (less than 5%) 15% 59% 76%

Exhibit reads: School districtslocated in cities accounted for 78 percent of WSF districts, 17 percent of non-WSF districts 

with six or more schools, and 6 percent of all non-WSF districts.

Note: The 27 districts classified as WSF are listed in Exhibit 3. It is possible that the comparison group of “non-WSF” districts may include some 

additional WSF districts that we were not able to identify as such; however, these are likely to be few in number and to have a negligible impact on 

the demographic statistics presented for non-WSF districts. The reported percentages defining poverty quartiles are rounded approximations of the 

actual cutoffs between quartiles. 

Sources: Urbanicity, enrollment, percentage of ELs, and number of schools are based on data provided from the National Center for Education 

Statistics, Common Core of Data Local Education Agency (School District) Universe Survey Data (2015–16). Poverty is based on the 2016 Census 

Small Area Income Poverty Estimate (SAIPE) data for school districts. 

Chapter Summary

The WSF approach to combining formula-based resource allocations to schools with increased schoollevel autonomy is used in only a small set of predominantly large, urban districts. Even so, WSF has 

spread markedly in recent years — nearly two-thirds of current WSF districts adopted their WSF systems 

in the past decade, and over one-third did so within the past five years.

This report provides a broad examination of the WSF landscape across school districts in the United 

States, with the aim of understanding how WSF is being implemented, including the types of weights 

and other adjustments that are used, how WSF districts compare with districts that use more traditional 

resource allocation practices, and funding equity outcomes. The next chapter describes the goals and 

structure of WSF systems, as well as stakeholder perceptions regarding the transparency and stability of 

these systems. Chapter 3 looks at school autonomy and stakeholder engagement in decision-making

about resource allocation, and Chapter 4 explores funding equity in the nine WSF case study districts. 

Districts’ Use of Weighted Student Funding Systems to Increase School Autonomy and Equity

13

2. Goals and Structure of WSF Systems

Districts that choose to adopt WSF may have a variety of goals for these systems, such as a desire to 

increase school autonomy and flexibility, funding equity, stakeholder engagement in decision-making, 

and budget transparency. In addition, WSF districts vary in the types of students that are weighted, the 

magnitude of these adjustments, and other features of these systems. This chapter examines districts’ 

goals for their WSF systems, the types of student weights used and other WSF policy decisions, and 

stakeholder perceptions regarding the efficacy, transparency, and stability of WSF systems.

District Goals for School Funding Systems

WSF districts were more likely than non-WSF districts to classify principal autonomy

and transparency as high-priority goals for their system of allocating resources to 

schools. 

The largest difference between WSF and non-WSF districts was for the goal of allowing principal control 

over budgeting decisions at their schools (95 percent vs. 49 percent) (Exhibit 6). Similarly, nearly all WSF 

districts (95 percent) reported that transparency in how resources are allocated to schools was a high 

priority for the district’s resource allocation system, compared with 64 percent of respondents in nonWSF districts. For three other potential goals — equitable resource allocation, stakeholder participation 

in school decision-making, and principal accountability — there was no significant difference between 

WSF and non-WSF districts. However, in case study interviews, district leaders in seven of the nine 

districts cited improving equity in resource allocation as a driving motivation behind their WSF systems.

Exhibit 6. Percentage of district administrators reporting that various goals are a high priority for 

their district’s system of allocating resources to schools, in WSF and non-WSF districts 

Exhibit reads: Principal control over budgeting decisions was reported to be a high priority for the district’s 

resource allocation system by 95 percent of WSF districts and 49 percent of non-WSF districts. 

Note: Asterisks denote a statistically significant difference between WSF and non-WSF districts (**p < .05). In addition to the simple frequency 

data presented here, regression analyses were run to control for differences in certain district characteristics between WSF and non-WSF 

districts; the two significant differences in this chart persisted after controlling for district size, urbanicity, and percentage of FRPL students (see 

Exhibit D-1 in Appendix D). 

Source: District survey, Q20 (n = 13 WSF, 237 non-WSF).
Districts’ Use of Weighted Student Funding Systems to Increase School Autonomy and Equity

14

Autonomy

While increased principal autonomy in decision-making was mentioned as a priority for WSF across all 

case study districts, respondents in three case study districts specifically highlighted autonomy as a key 

reason for adopting a WSF system. These districts, however, differed in their rationale for increasing 

principal autonomy. In one district, for instance, district administrators strengthened principal decisionmaking authority to address principal concerns with the district’s top-down approach to budgetary 

policies and decision-making. A district program officer explained the frustration that principals felt 

before the shift to the WSF system:

If you are a principal trying to make changes and [are] told this is the process and it’s a onesize-fits-all for everybody, this was frustrating for a lot of our principals who expressed, “I 

know best how to educate our students, and you need to allow me to do this.” 

In another district, the initial decision to decentralize decision-making authority was based on the 

superintendent’s belief that school principals were better equipped to make funding decisions because 

their close contact with students gave them a better understanding of their students’ needs. In later years, 

however, this district began to reduce the amount of school-level autonomy, following a change in 

superintendents to one who saw a need for greater centralization to ensure additional basic services to all 

schools. As a district administrator explained, “There are some things that . . . just really, truly just need to 

be centralized and just automatic, [such as] art, music, physical education . . . in elementary school.”

Some respondents stated that increased principal autonomy may improve efficiency in budgetary 

decision-making. For example, one district adopted WSF because of budgetary constraints at the district 

level and a view that affording principals with greater budgetary autonomy under WSF — thereby 

delegating decision-making responsibility to those more attuned to students’ needs — would result in 

improved student outcomes per dollar spent.

Transparency

The case study data suggest several connected motivations for prioritizing transparency as a goal of the

WSF system. First, districts may seek to improve financial transparency so that external stakeholders 

such as families and community members may better understand how education dollars are distributed. 

Increasing transparency may also be done to reinforce other goals of the WSF system — most notably, 

equity, accountability, and autonomy. In two districts, for instance, district respondents reported on the 

need for transparency to assess how equitably the system allocates resources. As one school board 

member stated, 

. . . there had been a number of concerns around how dollars are being used, where they 

were going, and why they were going where they were. . . . People wanted to know 

where the money was going and if it was being distributed in an equitable way. In order 

to know that, you had to be able to see [school-level allocations]. 

In another district, administrators viewed transparency as a means to facilitate principal autonomy. 

According to the district financial officer, the district sees more transparent information as a means to 

developing a school-level culture of decision-making “that takes into account resource efficiency and 

effectiveness.” 
Districts’ Use of Weighted Student Funding Systems to Increase School Autonomy and Equity

15

Accountability

Case study respondents in three districts explicitly reported that promoting accountability among school 

leadership for budget decisions and student outcomes is a major priority of the WSF system. 

Respondents in each of these three districts stressed the importance of pairing principal autonomy with 

principal accountability. As one district administrator explained, 

Handing over control to the principals in how they dictate their dollars meant they did 

get that autonomy they needed, but it also held them accountable . . . we need[ed] to 

stop blaming [the] Central Office and put power in the hands of the principals who are 

there and then support them to be able to make the best decisions as possible.

A principal in another district described how the WSF system helped ensure that “we’re accountable for 

the spending” and that “students are getting equitable services.” 

Equity

Among the nine case study districts, respondents in seven districts cited improving equity in resource 

allocation as the issue driving their respective WSF systems. By using student weights and other factors 

to determine school funding allocations, these districts sought to provide more resources for high-need 

schools and underserved student populations. One district administrator expressed the idea simply: 

WSF helps ensure that “monies follow the needs of students.” One school board member, for instance,

described the reactions of stakeholders when they learned how much money each school was receiving 

under the previous resource allocation model:

. . . the [school board] and the public were shocked at the inequities in the previous 

[staffing] formula. . . . Plain and simple, we saw schools that had received favoritism over 

the years. Not usually from a malicious viewpoint, but it had just built up over time. . . . 

Once it became clear to us, we had to support a weighted student funding formula because 

that was what we perceived as the most equitable way to distribute funds.

Key Features of WSF Formulas Used to Allocate Funds to Schools

Under WSF systems, schools receive a base allocation for each student served, along with a series of 

funding adjustments based on student characteristics and other factors the district believes affect the 

cost of providing educational services.19

In general, the formula factors used in WSF systems can be 

divided into five categories:

19 Note that WSF formulas do not include all of a district’s or school’s total funding. Typically they exclude funding for capital 

expenditures and debt service, federal and state funding for categorical programs, and funds for districtwide programs and 

services (e.g., central office staff). The study did not collect data on WSF allocations to individual schools and we do not have 

information on the share of funding allocated through the WSF formula for the case study districts. However, Chapter 3 

provides estimates of the share of funding distributed to schools to use at their discretion, as reported on the district survey, 

which can be thought of as a proxy for the share of funding that flows through the WSF formula (see Exhibit 16).
Districts’ Use of Weighted Student Funding Systems to Increase School Autonomy and Equity

16

1. Base allocation. Amount that a school receives for each pupil served, regardless of any specific 

needs the pupil may have. 

2. Grade-level adjustments. These adjustments provide differential amounts for students in 

elementary, middle, or high school or in specific grades (e.g., kindergarten). 

3. Student need adjustments. These adjustments provide additional funding based on student 

need characteristics (e.g., socioeconomic status, EL status, special education status). 

4. Performance adjustments. These adjustments provide additional funding based on student 

academic or behavioral outcomes (sometimes as rewards for positive outcomes, sometimes

using negative outcomes as indicators of need). 

5. Allocations for specialized programming. Additional funding provided to specific academic 

programs or schools that are considered to be more resource-intensive (e.g., vocational 

programs; programs with a particular theme, such as science, technology, engineering, and 

mathematics [STEM]; arts programs).

Under WSF systems, schools receive a base allocation for each student served, along with a series of 

funding adjustments, which can be defined in either of two ways: as weights relative to the base 

allocation or as additional per-pupil dollar amounts (Education Resource Strategies 2018). As an 

example of how weights are used to calculate funding adjustments, consider a weight of 0.20 for 

students from low-income families. This would provide schools with an additional 20 percent of the base 

allocation for each student served from a low-income family. Alternatively, the funding adjustment may 

be defined in absolute terms — for instance, each school would receive an additional $1,000 per lowincome student. For comparability purposes, the study team mathematically converted absolute 

weights used by case study districts to equivalent relative weights and vice versa. Exhibit 7 summarizes 

the different types of funding adjustments used by the case study districts. For full descriptions of the 

WSF systems used in each case study district, see the case study profiles in Appendix A; in addition, 

Exhibit D-2 in Appendix D provides a detailed comparison of WSF features across the nine sites. 

Exhibit 7. Types of funding adjustments used in WSF allocation formulas, by case study district 

Grade 

level 

Students from 

low-income 

families 

English 

learners 

Students 

with 

disabilities 

Homeless 

students

Other 

needs 

group

School/ 

student 

performance

Specialized 

programming

Baltimore ● ● ● ● 

Boston ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● 

Cleveland ● ● ● ● ● ● 

Denver ● ● ● ● ● 

Indianapolis ● ● ● 

Milwaukee ● ● ● 

Nashville ● ● ● ● 

Prince George’s ● ● ● 

San Francisco ● ● ● ● ● 

Total 8 6 7 7 2 2 5 4 

Exhibit reads: Baltimore’s school funding formula included adjustments for grade level, students from low-income 

families, students with disabilities, and gifted and talented students.

Note: WSF system features are based on information for 2018–19.

Source: Extant documentation from case study districts. 
Districts’ Use of Weighted Student Funding Systems to Increase School Autonomy and Equity

17

How Districts Developed Their Specific Formula Adjustments

District staff who were interviewed in the case study districts often described a considerable investment

of time and effort in developing specific funding adjustments used in their formulas, including both the 

types of student and school characteristics considered and the specific weights or per-pupil amounts for 

each. Many of these districts sought outside assistance with developing their WSF formulas.20 In 

addition, respondents in several districts described appointing a design team consisting of various 

district- and school-level stakeholders to provide input on key design decisions, such as determining 

which student characteristics to include in the system. One district administrator summarized the earlystage design process: 

The work that went into it involved the design team, school-based leaders, and central 

office leaders. Initially you take inventory of all the resources that they have in schools. 

Everything from security officers, football coaches to teachers to secretaries to books 

and curricular materials . . . In determining the weights, the first calculation is of implicit 

weighting. What are we spending now in these different areas? And then calculate 

implicitly the amount [that] the base is for a standard kid, for special education, gifted 

and talented, English language learners, struggling students, etc. Engaging people in the 

question — how many more dollars do English language learner students need than a 

general education student? . . . How much more time and resources do they need?

The ways in which base per-pupil amounts, funding adjustment sizes, and other WSF policy factors may 

affect each other make it difficult to estimate the right size of funding adjustments, particularly at the 

onset of introducing a WSF system (Education Resource Strategies 2018). Indeed, respondents in several 

case study districts described a level of ambiguity in initially defining the size of the funding adjustments. 

As one district administrator explained, 

There’s an art and a science to it. There is no “correct” weight. It’s just a combination of 

past practice, desired practice, and you negotiate the intersection.

Similarly, in another district, an administrator suggested that, while “there was research to support the 

idea that there were some categories of students that needed more support,” there was little evidence 

to specify the precise value of its funding adjustments. To help refine the model in the early stages, four 

case study districts reported conducting a one- to two-year pilot with a subset of schools, using this 

experience to adapt the model prior to full implementation across the district. In addition, all of the case 

study districts have revised their weighting formulas at least once since developing the initial scheme. 

Base Funding

WSF formulas for allocating funds to schools generally provide a base amount of per-pupil funding for all 

students to support school operations, prior to adding funds for specific kinds of students and programs. 

In the case study districts, the base allocation per student ranged from $3,060 in Prince George’s to 

$5,521 in Baltimore (Exhibit 8). Between 2016–17 and 2018–19, Cleveland experienced the largest 

growth in base funding, a 21 percent increase from $4,051 per student to $4,887 per student. In 

20 Seven of the WSF case study districts consulted with Education Resource Strategies (ERS), a non-profit organization, to 

support initial planning around the funding adjustments. ERS worked with each of these seven districts (Baltimore, Boston, 

Cleveland, Denver, Indianapolis, Nashville, and Prince George’s) to conduct a detailed analysis of its existing resource 

allocation strategy and student needs to inform the design of the funding system. 
Districts’ Use of Weighted Student Funding Systems to Increase School Autonomy and Equity

18

contrast, Milwaukee saw a 13 percent decline in base funding, due to a combination of diminishing 

revenues and recentralizing management of school costs to the district.

Exhibit 8. WSF base allocations per pupil in each case study district, 2016–17 to 2018–19

District 2016–17 2017–18 2018–19 Percentage change

Baltimore $5,693 $5,416 $5,521 −3%

Boston $4,100 $4,100 $4,291 5%

Cleveland $4,051 $4,860 $4,887 21%

Denver — $4,051 $4,283 — 

Indianapolis — $3,758 $4,985 — 

Milwaukee $3,620 $3,329 $3,163 −13%

Nashville $4,350 $4,425 $4,600 6%

Prince George’s $3,000 $3,300 $3,060 2%

San Francisco $3,475 $4,529 $3,904 12%

Exhibit reads: In Baltimore, the base per-pupil amount declined from $5,693 in 2016–17 to $5,521 in 2018–19, 

a decrease of 3 percent over the three-year period.

Notes: Baltimore and Milwaukee provided base allocations that differ by grade level; this exhibit presents the lowest of their grade-level base 

allocations. A dash indicates data were not available. Denver did not provide data on base allocations for 2016–17. Indianapolis began 

implementation of its WSF system in 2017–18, so base allocation data did not exist for 2016–17. 

Source: Extant documentation from case study districts.

Grade-Level Funding

Seven of the nine WSF case study districts provided larger per-pupil amounts for lower 

grade levels, but they differed in the specific grades that were favored.21

Although Milwaukee and Nashville prioritized all elementary schools, four districts focused just on early 

grades (prekindergarten in Indianapolis, grades K–1 in Prince George’s, and grades K–3 in Cleveland and 

San Francisco). Boston used a more complex set of six grade-level categories. For most of these districts, 

the elementary or early-grade supplement was about 10 percent of the base allocation; however,

Indianapolis provided a 23 percent supplement for prekindergarten and San Francisco, a 26 percent 

supplement for grades K–2, while Boston’s weights for elementary grade categories ranged from a 

30 percent supplement for grades 3–5 to an 80 percent supplement for prekindergarten (Exhibit 9).

In contrast, Denver did not differentiate base funding amounts by grade level, and Baltimore provided a 

larger per-pupil amount to high schools, amounting to an additional 10 percent over the base allocation. 

Also, three of the districts that provided larger amounts in the early grades also provided larger amounts 

to high schools than to middle schools, with this supplement amounting to 1 percent of the base 

allocation in Cleveland, 4 percent in Milwaukee, and 18 percent in San Francisco. Nashville, however,

provided 5 percent more to middle schools than to high schools, and Indianapolis provided 

supplemental funding for each student in grades 7 and 9 “to ensure students experience success as they 

enter middle and high school” (Indianapolis Public Schools 2018).

21 Two districts provided base allocations that differ by grade level (Baltimore and Milwaukee), while six districts provided the 

same base allocation regardless of grade level but then make grade-level funding adjustments (Boston, Cleveland, 

Indianapolis, Nashville, Prince George’s, and San Francisco).
Districts’ Use of Weighted Student Funding Systems to Increase School Autonomy and Equity

19

Exhibit 9. WSF base allocations per pupil after grade-level adjustments, by case study district 

District Grade-level category Per-pupil allocation Grade-level weight 

Baltimore Elementary $5,521 1.00

Middle $5,521 1.00

High $6,096 1.10

Boston Prekindergarten $7,724 1.80

Kindergarten $6,866 1.60

1–2 $6,007 1.40

3–5 $5,578 1.30

6–8 $6,007 1.40

9–12 $5,149 1.20

Cleveland K–3 $5,349 1.10

4–8 $4,860 1.00

9–12 $4,925 1.01

Denver All grades $4,283 1.00

Indianapolis Prekindergarten $4,895 1.23

K–6, 8, 10–12 $3,985 1.00

Grades 7 and 9 $4,385 1.10

Milwaukee Elementary $3,465 1.10

K–8 $3,469 1.10

Middle $3,163 1.00

High $3,294 1.04

Nashville Elementary $5,060 1.10

Middle $4,830 1.05

High $4,600 1.00

Prince George’s K–1 $3,305–$3,397 1.08–1.111 

2–12 $3,060 1.00

San Francisco K–3 $4,934 1.26

4–5 $3,904 1.00

6–8 $4,529 1.16

9–12 $4,606 1.18

Exhibit reads: In Baltimore, the base per-pupil amount allocated to elementary schools was $5,521.

Notes: For districts that reported funding adjustments as additional per-pupil amounts, we mathematically converted them to equivalent 

relative weights, and vice versa; calculated figures are presented in italics (San Francisco reported funding adjustments both as additional perpupil amounts and their equivalent relative weights). Baltimore and Milwaukee provided base allocations that differ by grade level, while 

Boston, Cleveland, Indianapolis, Nashville, Prince George’s, and San Francisco provided the same base allocation regardless of grade level but 

then made grade-level adjustments. The exhibit presents adjusted base allocations for all districts for comparability purposes only. WSF system 

characteristics are based on information for 2018–19. 1 Prince George’s WSF formula did not use fixed school-level grade-level base per-pupil allocations; rather, these vary slightly across schools in 

order to limit funding losses and gains to schools from year to year. 

Source: Extant documentation from case study districts. 
Districts’ Use of Weighted Student Funding Systems to Increase School Autonomy and Equity

20

Student Need Adjustments

The most common student subgroups weighted in WSF formulas were students from 

low-income families, English learners, and students with disabilities. 

District documentation of the WSF systems for 14 districts (including the nine case study districts and an 

additional five districts that provided links to such documentation in response to the district survey) 

revealed that 10 of the 14 used weights for students from low-income families, nine used weights for 

ELs, and seven used weights for SWDs. Six of the 14 districts implemented adjustments for students 

performing below grade level, while three had weights for gifted and talented or high-performing 

students. Two districts allocated additional funds through their formula based on numbers of students 

who are homeless (Exhibit 10). Note that a WSF formula typically applies only to a district’s unrestricted 

funds and does not necessarily represent all funds allocated based on these types of students; schools 

likely receive additional funds outside of the WSF formula for students who have particular needs 

requiring additional support, including through federal and state categorical programs, grants, and other 

restricted funding sources. 

Exhibit 10. Number of WSF districts reporting the use formula adjustments to provide additional 

funding to schools based on various student needs categories

Exhibit reads: Ten out of 14 WSF districts reported using weights or other formula adjustments to provide 

additional funding to schools based on their numbers of students from low-income families. 

Source: Extant documentation from the nine case study districts and from five additional WSF districts that provided links to such 

documentation in response to the district administrator survey (n = 14).
Districts’ Use of Weighted Student Funding Systems to Increase School Autonomy and Equity

21

Among the six case study districts providing funding adjustments for students from 

low-income families, the weights for individual students ranged from 0.05 to 0.15. 

Three districts — Baltimore, Boston, and Denver — provided additional allocations for 

schools with high concentrations of these pupils.

Two of the six districts used free and reduced-price lunch (FRPL) eligibility as the basis for this 

adjustment (Denver and San Francisco), while five districts used direct certification (DC) data, under

federal provisions that allow districts to certify students as eligible for free lunch based on shared data 

on other forms of assistance such as the Supplemental Nutrition Assistance Program22(Baltimore, 

Boston, Denver, Indianapolis, and Nashville). Direct certification data may reflect a lower income ceiling 

for defining low-income families than the traditional FRPL application process, depending on the specific 

programs used to determine DC eligibility,23and may also provide a more accurate measure of student 

socioeconomic status by capturing students who are eligible for FRPL but do not apply to receive them

(Chingos 2016; Hoffman 2012). In Denver, schools received additional funding from adjustments for 

both FRPL-eligible students and DC students, with DC students getting the cumulative amount for both

adjustment categories (Exhibit 11). 

Weights for individual FRPL-eligible students ranged from 0.09 in San Francisco to 0.13 for high school 

students in Denver. For DC students, Nashville had both the lowest and highest weights for individual DC 

students (0.05 for middle and high school students and 0.15 for elementary students). Denver had a 

combined weight of 0.15 for high school students who were both FRPL-eligible and DC.

Among the three districts with additional funding adjustments for high concentrations of students from

low-income families, Denver had the largest maximum funding adjustment. Indeed, DC students in

Denver schools with a high percentage of such students would have qualified for all four low-income

funding adjustments (i.e., FRPL-eligible, DC student, and additional adjustments for high concentrations

for FRPL students and for high concentrations of DC students), thus receiving a weight of up to 0.265 in

elementary schools and 0.275 in high schools. In Baltimore, the additional allocation for schools with a

high concentration of DC students (0.04) applied only to elementary and K–8 schools and increased the 

weight for those students to equal the basic weight provided to DC students in high schools (0.11). 

Baltimore and Denver applied the additional funding adjustment to all students from low-income 

families, whereas Boston used the added weight for high concentration only to the number of DC 

students above the concentration threshold.24 Baltimore, Boston, and Denver also differed in the 

thresholds used for these additional allocations, ranging from a 50 percent DC concentration in Boston

to an 80 percent DC concentration in Baltimore (Exhibit 11).

22 Since the passage of the Healthy, Hunger-Free Kids Act of 2010, the National School Lunch Program (NSLP) has allowed 

districts to directly certify students as eligible for free meals based on shared data on family eligibility for other forms of 

assistance such as the Supplemental Nutrition Assistance Program, Temporary Assistance for Needy Families, and Medicaid, 

as well as children who are homeless, migrant, or in foster care or Head Start. Under this approach, children who are directly 

certified to receive free meals at school do not have to submit annual eligibility forms to receive benefits (Food Research and 

Action Center 2018).

23 Students are eligible for free lunches if their family’s income is no more than 130 percent of the official poverty line and 

reduced-price lunch eligibility extends up to 185 percent of the poverty line, while eligibility for other programs can have a 

lower income ceiling and sometimes varies by state.

24 As an example, consider a high school in Boston with 1,500 students, of which 850 are DC students. The school would only 

receive the additional high-concentration funding for the 100 students in excess of the 50 percent concentration threshold of 

750 students.
Districts’ Use of Weighted Student Funding Systems to Increase School Autonomy and Equity

22

In dollar terms, the combined funding adjustments for low-income students ranged from $230 for a 

middle or high school student in Nashville to a high of $1,132 in Denver for a high school student who is 

both FRPL-eligible and directly certified and is in a school with a very high concentration of such 

students.

Exhibit 11. WSF funding adjustments for students from low-income families, by case study district

District Adjustment category Per-pupil allocation Weight 

Baltimore Student who is directly certified (DC) as eligible 

for free school lunch

E, EM: $400

H: $700

E, EM: 0.07

H: 0.11

Additional allocation for each DC student in a 

school with a high concentration of DC 

students (at least 80%) 

E, EM: $200 E, EM: 0.04

Boston DC student $429 0.10

Additional allocation for each DC student 

above the 50% DC concentration threshold

$429 0.10

Denver Student eligible for free or reduced-price lunch 

(FRPL)

E: $498

H: $537

E: 0.12

H: 0.13

Additional allocation for each FRPL-eligible 

student in a school with a high concentration 

of FRPL students (at least 60%)

1 

$183–$415 0.04–0.10

DC student $80 0.02

Additional allocation for each DC student in a 

school with a high concentration of DC 

students (at or above the 50th percentile)1 

$40–$100 0.01–0.025

Indianapolis DC student $500 0.13

Nashville DC student2 E: $690

M, H: $230

E: 0.15

M, H: 0.05

San Francisco FRPL-eligible student $351 0.09

Exhibit reads: Baltimore allocated an additional $400 for each student who is directly certified as eligible for free 

lunch in elementary and elementary/middle schools, which is equivalent to a weight of 0.07 per DC student.

Notes: Cleveland, Milwaukee, and Prince George’s are excluded from the table because they did not include adjustments for students from lowincome families. For districts that reported funding adjustments as additional per-pupil amounts, we mathematically converted them to 

equivalent relative weights, and vice versa; calculated figures are presented in italics (San Francisco reported funding adjustments both as 

additional per-pupil amounts and their equivalent relative weights). WSF system descriptions are based on information for 2018–19. 

E = elementary school, M = middle school, EM = elementary/middle school, H = high school. 1Denver used a progressive formula to provide additional funds for schools with high concentrations of FRPL students, ranging from $183 per 

FRPL student in schools with a FRPL rate between 60 to 63.9 percent up to $415 for schools with a FRPL rate of 90 percent or more. For DC 

students, the additional amount provided for schools with high concentrations of DC students ranged from $40 per DC student up to $100 in

schools where the percentage of DC students was at or above the 50th percentile among district schools. 2 For middle schools and high schools, Nashville applied a weight based on prior academic performance. Because there is no prior performance 

for incoming students at the elementary level, Nashville applied an extra 0.10 poverty weight to elementary schools as a proxy for prior 

academic performance, in addition to the 0.05 poverty weight applied to all schools in the district. 

Source: Extant documentation from case study districts.
Districts’ Use of Weighted Student Funding Systems to Increase School Autonomy and Equity

23

Among the seven case study districts providing funding adjustments for English 

learners, weights varied considerably, ranging from 0.01 for an elementary bilingual 

program participant in Milwaukee to 0.94 for a high school student with limited or 

interrupted formal education in Boston.

Three of the seven districts varied the EL weights by level of English proficiency level (Boston, Cleveland, 

Prince George’s, and San Francisco), while two used a single weight for all ELs (Denver and Nashville) 

and one varied the weights only by grade level (Milwaukee). In addition, Boston included a weight for 

students with limited or interrupted formal education (SLIFE) — EL immigrant students whose gaps in 

formal education left them far behind academically (Exhibit 12).

Exhibit 12. WSF funding adjustments for English learners, by case study district 

District Adjustment category Per-pupil allocation Weight 

Flat allocation

Boston Student with limited or interrupted formal 

education (SLIFE)

Grades 4–5: $2,146

6–8: $3,604

9–12: $4,034

4–5: 0.50

6–8: 0.84

9–12: 0.94

Denver English language learner (ELL) student $431 0.10

Milwaukee Bilingual program participant $50 E, K–8: 0.01

M, H: 0.02

Nashville ELL student $1,104 0.24

Allocation by 

proficiency level

Boston Foundational English learner (EL) student K–5: $1,030

6–8: $2,188

9–12: $2,618

K–5: 0.24

6–8: 0.51

9–12: 0.61

Boston Transitional EL student $86 0.02

Cleveland Prefunctional limited English proficiency (LEP) 

student

$2,399 0.49

Beginning-level LEP student K–8: $2,000

H: $2,240

K–8: 0.41

H: 0.46

Intermediate- or advanced-level LEP student K–8: $1,600

H: $2,000

K–8: 0.33

H: 0.41

Prince George’s ELL student1 $826–$2,020 0.27–0.66

San Francisco Beginner/intermediate EL student E: $200

M: $240

H: $530

0.0512

0.0615

0.1358

Long-term EL student $240 0.0615

Advanced EL student $155 0.0397

Exhibit reads: Boston allocated an additional $2,146 for each EL student with limited or interrupted formal 

education (SLIFE), which is equivalent to a weight of 0.50 per student.

Notes: Baltimore and Indianapolis are excluded from the table because they did not include adjustments for EL students. For districts that 

reported funding adjustments as additional per-pupil amounts, we mathematically converted them to equivalent relative weights, and vice 

versa; calculated figures are presented in italics (San Francisco reported funding adjustments both as additional per-pupil amounts and their 

equivalent relative weights). WSF system descriptions are based on information for 2018–19. 

E = elementary school, M = middle school, H = high school.

1

 Prince George’s WSF model did not use fixed school-level weights, rather weights varied slightly by school to reflect differences across schools 

in the composition of EL students served with respect to English proficiency (Newcomer, Beginner, Intermediate, and Advanced) and to limit 

funding losses and gains to schools from year to year. 

Source: Extant documentation from case study districts. 
Districts’ Use of Weighted Student Funding Systems to Increase School Autonomy and Equity

24

Four of the seven districts provided adjustments that amounted to more than $1,000 per student, while 

the other three provided adjustments of less than $600 per student (Exhibit 12). In Boston, the funding 

adjustment for SLIFE students amounted to between $2,146 and $4,034, depending on grade level, 

while the allocation for ELs determined to be at a foundational level (at or below proficiency) was 

between $1,030 and $2,618. In Cleveland, funding adjustments for ELs ranged from $1,600 to $2,399, 

depending on proficiency level and grade level. Nashville’s adjustment amounted to $1,104 per EL 

student. Smaller adjustments were provided in Milwaukee, San Francisco, and Denver (Exhibit 12).

Among the seven case study districts providing funding adjustments for students with 

disabilities, weights often varied by type of disability, ranging from 0.0128 for a student 

with a low-severity disability in San Francisco to 7.25 for student with a high-severity 

disability in Nashville.

Two districts’ WSF formulas provided a flat supplemental allocation for SWDs taught in a self-contained 

classroom (Baltimore and Indianapolis) and Denver provided a flat supplemental allocation for each 

student above the average school caseload of students with mild/moderate disabilities. In contrast, four 

districts varied the size of the funding adjustment based on disability type (Boston, Cleveland, Nashville, 

and San Francisco). 

As with the EL adjustments, the size of the adjustments for SWDs varied considerably. The three districts 

providing flat supplemental allocations ranged from $641 to $910 per student. In the four districts with 

adjustments that varied by disability type, the range in weights was often quite wide ($4,291 to $28,750 

in Boston, $729 to $7,918 in Cleveland, and $2,300 to $33,350 in Nashville). At the low end of the 

spectrum, San Francisco’s adjustments were between $50 and $100 (Exhibit 13). It is important to note 

that the case study districts may differ in the extent to which they provide state and local funding for 

students with disabilities through or outside of the WSF formula. 

Three case study districts used additional categories of student need in determining 

school allocations.

Cleveland provided a student mobility weight of 0.15 to all K–8 schools for students who moved two or 

more times in the previous year. In San Francisco, schools with at least 25 homeless students received 

$4,000 plus $96 for each homeless student. In Boston, homeless students received a 0.10 weight plus a 

0.10 weight for the projected number of homeless students above a 5 percent concentration threshold.
Districts’ Use of Weighted Student Funding Systems to Increase School Autonomy and Equity

25

Exhibit 13. WSF funding adjustments for students with disabilities, by case study district 

District Adjustment category Per-pupil allocation Weight 

Flat allocation

Baltimore Student with disability (SWD) taught in a 

self-contained classroom

$641 E, M: 0.12

H: 0.11

Denver SWD above the average caseload of students 

with mild/moderate disabilities

$800 0.19

Indianapolis SWD in a self-contained classroom $910 0.23

Allocation by 

disability type

Boston SWD with low-severity disability $4,291 1.0

SWD with moderate-severity disability $6,007 1.4

SWD with high-severity disability $8,153–$28,750 1.9–6.7

Cleveland SWD with emotional disturbances or 

requiring intensive behavior interventions 

$729 0.15

SWD taught in a resource room or inclusion 

setting 

K–8: $7,918

H: $,5938

K–8: 1.63

H: 1.22

SWD taught in a self-contained classroom K–8: $4,524

H: $2,545

K–8: 0.93

H: 0.52

Nashville SWD (varies by disability type) $2,300–$33,350 0.50–7.25

San Francisco SWD with low-severity disability 

(in grades K–12)

$50 0.0128

SWD with moderate- or high-severity 

disability or in prekindergarten

$100 0.0256

Exhibit reads: Baltimore allocated an additional $641 for each student with disabilities taught in self-contained 

classroom, which is equivalent to a weight of 0.12 for elementary and middle schools. 

Notes: Milwaukee and Prince George’s are excluded from the table because they did not include adjustments for SWDs. For districts that 

reported funding adjustments as additional per-pupil amounts, we mathematically converted them to equivalent relative weights, and vice 

versa; calculated figures are presented in italics (San Francisco reported funding adjustments both as additional per-pupil amounts and their 

equivalent relative weights). WSF system descriptions are based on information for 2018–19.

E = elementary school, M = middle school, H = high school.

Source: Extant documentation from case study districts. 

Performance Adjustments

Five of the nine case study districts included performance-based funding adjustments 

in their WSF systems, sometimes for low-performing students and sometimes for highperformers. 

Prince George’s had the largest weights in this category, ranging from 0.35 to 0.71; performance weights 

in the other four districts ranged from 0.02 to 0.30 (Exhibit 14). Prince George’s employed a broad set of 

factors associated with student academic need, including multiple student assessment scores for all 

grade levels and low-performance risk measures for middle schools and high schools based on student 

outcomes such as grade point average, attendance, and student assessment scores. Similarly, Boston 

included additional allocations for high school students at high risk of dropping out based on chronic 

absenteeism, poor academic performance, and insufficient credit accumulation. In Nashville, middle 

schools and high schools were provided a weight for students with poor prior academic performance, 
Districts’ Use of Weighted Student Funding Systems to Increase School Autonomy and Equity

26

and in Cleveland, schools received a weight for students below proficient in reading and a weight for 

high school students with chronic absenteeism. 

Three districts included performance adjustments for high-performing students. Cleveland provided a 

weight for students above proficient in reading, Baltimore employed a weight for students identified as 

high performing or high potential, and Denver provided a weight for gifted and talented students.

Exhibit 14. WSF funding adjustments for student or school performance, by case study district

District Adjustment category Per-pupil allocation Weight 

Baltimore Student identified as high performing or 

having high potential

$400 0.07

Boston High-risk student1 $858 (grade 9)

$215 (grade 10)

0.20 (grade 9)

0.05 (grade 10)

Cleveland Chronically absent student (10+ days) in 

grades 9–12

$750 0.15

Student below proficient in reading (based on 

proficiency in grades 3 and 8)

$1,500 0.30

Student above proficient in reading (based on 

proficiency in grades 3 and 8)

$750

$1,500

0.15 (K–8)

0.30 (9–12)

Denver Gifted and talented student $130 0.03

School identified as low performing under 

School Performance Framework (SPF)

3–5 years of 

phased funding

N/A

Student in school showing schoolwide 

improvement under SPF

$65–$115 0.02–0.03

Nashville Low-performing student $460

$230

0.10 (M)

0.05 (H)

Prince George’s Multiple factors including state assessments, 

at-risk probability ratios, grade point 

average, attendance, suspension/expulsion 

requests, and student retention2 

$1,071–$2,173 0.35–0.71

Exhibit reads: Baltimore allocated an additional $400 for each student identified as high performing or having high 

potential, which is equivalent to a weight of 0.07.

Notes: Indianapolis, Milwaukee, and San Francisco are excluded from the table because they did not include adjustments for student or school 

performance. For districts that reported funding adjustments as flat per-pupil allocations, we derived the equivalent weights, and vice versa; 

calculated figures are presented in italics. WSF system descriptions for all districts are based on information for 2018–19.

E = elementary school, M = middle school, H = high school.

1 Boston defined high-risk students as high school students at high risk of dropping out, as evidenced by chronic absenteeism, poor academic 

performance, and insufficient credit accumulation. 

2 Prince George’s WSF model did not use fixed school-level weights; rather, weights varied slightly by school to reflect differences across schools 

in the composition of students with respect to student performance and to limit funding losses and gains to schools from year to year. 

Source: Extant documentation from case study districts.

While performance adjustments were typically applied for student performance, Denver’s WSF system 

also focused on school-level performance. Under Colorado’s district and school accountability system, 

the School Performance Framework (SPF), schools were evaluated on key performance indicators, 

including academic achievement, academic growth, and for high schools, postsecondary and workforce 

readiness. Under the SPF, a school is assigned a rating: blue (distinguished), green (meets expectations), 

yellow (accredited on watch), orange (accredited on priority watch), and red (accredited on probation). 

Denver offered additional funding, referred to as tiered supports, to low-rated schools (red or orange), 

as well as extra per-pupil funding (0.02 to 0.03) for schoolwide improvement on the SPF.
Districts’ Use of Weighted Student Funding Systems to Increase School Autonomy and Equity

27

Allocations for Specialized Programming

Four of the case study districts supplemented their standard WSF funding adjustments 

with additional allocations for specialized programming, such as specialty schools and 

vocational programs. 

In general, these additional funds were earmarked for unique academic programs or schools that were 

deemed to be more resource intensive. Milwaukee, for instance, featured several such allocations, 

including providing specialty schools (e.g., art schools, International Baccalaureate schools, gifted and 

talented, career and technical education) with an additional 1.0 FTE teacher and $150 per student; 

providing Montessori, language immersion, and dual language schools with an additional 2.25 FTE 

paraprofessionals; and providing schools with culinary arts or Turnaround Arts programs (integrated arts 

models in high-need schools) with an additional 1.0 FTE teacher (Exhibit 15). In Cleveland, the WSF 

formula model included extra allocations for specialty schools (e.g., career and technical education, 

STEM, and performing arts) and new school transition funding typically offered for three to four years to 

support start-up costs of new schools. Denver offered $7,480 for each Center Program (programs 

offering individualized support and instruction to students with special needs), and Boston provided a 

weight of 1.0 ($4,291 per student) for students in vocational programs and a weight of 0.35 ($1,502 per 

student) for students receiving inclusive supports.

Exhibit 15. Funding adjustments for specialized programming, by case study district

District Adjustment category Adjustment

Boston Vocational program 1.00 ($4,291 per student) 

Student in inclusive setting 0.35 ($1,502 per student) 

Cleveland Specialty schools Additional funding per school

Newly created schools Additional funding (up to 4 years) per school 

Denver Center Program at a school1 $7,480 per program

Milwaukee Specialty schools 1.0 FTE teacher and $150 per student

Montessori, language immersion, and dual language 2.25 FTE paraprofessionals 

Culinary arts, Turnaround Arts 1.0 FTE teacher

Exhibit reads: Boston provided a weight of 1.0 per student for vocational programs.

Notes: Baltimore, Nashville, Prince George’s, and San Francisco are excluded from the table because they did not include adjustments for 

specialized programming. WSF system descriptions for all districts are based on information for 2018–19. 1 Denver defines “Center Programs” as programs that provide individualized support and instruction to SWDs. 

Source: Extant documentation from case study districts.

Changes to Funding Adjustments Over Time

Seven of the case study districts reported regularly reviewing their weighting schemes, on either an 

annual basis or some other regular basis. For example, Nashville convened a focus group of principals 

and district leaders each year to discuss changes to the WSF model. In Cleveland, the district retained 

the services of an external non-profit organization to regularly provide consultation on remodeling the 

formula as well as ensuring the weights are appropriate. In contrast, Baltimore reviewed and adjusted 

its WSF system for the 2018–19 school year, which marked the first time in 10 years that district leaders 

and stakeholders had revisited the model. As one district administrator explained, “We [as a district] 

collectively reached a tipping point. . . . Costs have gone up and down, so the weights have had to be 
Districts’ Use of Weighted Student Funding Systems to Increase School Autonomy and Equity

28

adjusted to reflect this. We’ve identified other factors that affect the ways kids learn, which [needed to 

be] factored in [to the system].”

All WSF case study districts had made at least one change to their weighting schemes 

in recent years.

Over the past five years (or since transitioning to WSF in districts that started implementing the system 

more recently), the most common change, reported by five of the nine case study districts, was to add a 

funding allocation for one or more new student need categories, including students from low-income 

families (Baltimore, Denver, and Nashville), homeless students (Boston and San Francisco), gifted 

students (Baltimore), and SWDs (Denver).

In addition, Boston was experimenting with integrating contextual need factors into its WSF formula. 

Boston introduced an Opportunity Index for the 2018–19 school year, which “incorporates a range of 

data representing factors that are outside of the schools’ control but are also predictive of students’ 

academic outcomes.” These factors consisted of indicators related to students’ neighborhoods, 

including safety, socioeconomic status, educational attainment, and physical environment, as well as 

factors specific to individual students and their families, such as participation in state-administered 

programs for low-income populations, student academic achievement, student behavior, and chronic 

absenteeism. The Opportunity Index was not a part of Boston’s WSF system, although “district officials 

[were] exploring the possibility of incorporating the index into the budget process more deeply in 

subsequent years” (Boston Public Schools 2018).

Conversely, two districts removed weights from their respective WSF systems. Baltimore eliminated 

performance weights for students at the basic or advanced level and for high school students at risk of 

dropping out, while Indianapolis eliminated its base weight for K–2 students.

Case study districts also frequently reported adjusting the size of weights or per-pupil allocations. 

Boston, in particular, made several changes to weight magnitudes in recent years, including a mix of 

increases and decreases to the weights for several high-severity disability categories and EL categories, 

as well as a reduction in the size of its base weight for grades 9–12 (from 1.30 to 1.20). Denver also 

revised several weights, specifically increasing allocations for FRPL-eligible students, ELs, and gifted and 

talented students.

Perhaps the most substantial change to a WSF system came from Prince George’s, which shifted away 

from a fixed-weight approach in spring 2017.

PGCPS [Prince George’s County Public Schools] relies on a formula built from a series of 

[dynamic] weights. First, PGCPS identifies student characteristics that it believes to affect 

the cost of providing educational services to different types of students in different 

contexts (these are weight categories, e.g., performance, or ESOL [English for speakers of 

other languages]). PGCPS then assigns specific weight values within each category to 

[each] school based on [its position relative to other schools in the district]. The weight 

amounts are meant to reflect the relative need students have. These weights are then 

added together to get a student’s (or school’s) total funding allocation. (Miller 2018)
Districts’ Use of Weighted Student Funding Systems to Increase School Autonomy and Equity

29

Stakeholder Perceptions on the Efficacy of Funding Adjustments

Case study respondents with positive views about WSF described the funding 

approach as a valuable instrument for providing resources to schools serving students 

with the greatest needs and as generally targeting the appropriate student categories.

As a Boston principal summarized, “I think [the WSF system] takes into account a lot of factors . . . the type 

of students you’re getting [and] the type of resources that are going to be needed to have these students 

educated successfully.” Respondents also tended to view the weighting schemes as a work of continual 

improvement. In Boston, a district administrator described the process as a “constant evolution that WSF 

needs to go through.” In Denver, one district finance officer shared the following observations:

I think it’s getting there [in terms of meeting the needs of students]. I think it’s better 

than doing it without weights. . . . I think we probably need [to get to] where, for every 

non-need kid . . . for every one dollar they get, you probably need to be at $1.35 to 

$1.40, when you start to look at the risk factors. We are probably at $1.20 to $1.30. A 

couple of years ago, we were probably at $1.05 to $1.20, so we are making progress. I 

don’t think it is where it needs to be, but it is much closer today than it was even a 

couple of years ago.

Among case study participants, the most common critiques of WSF weighting schemes 

were limited capacity to provide significant funding adjustments for all categories of 

student need and inability to keep pace with evolving student populations.

First, respondents in several case study districts described finite resources as a limiting factor in 

developing funding adjustments of sufficient magnitude for all student need categories. For example, 

one district administrator argued that their weighting scheme is unable to capture the needs of some 

high-need students because their formula was too general and the weights were not suitably nuanced. 

In another district, a district administrator explained that the core issue is the inability “to grow the pie” 

because of the state formula, suggesting that “adding a weight in a different place at this point just 

takes it from someplace else.” A district official in a third district voiced a similar concern about their 

funding system: 

We do the best we can, but we operate on less than $10,000 per student per year. There 

is a limited amount of differentiating that we can do within that dollar amount. We 

would like to add more weights for . . . some of these other subgroups, but with such 

limited funding, it’s tough. . . . 

Similarly, a fourth district chose to limit its number of weighting categories due to resource constraints. 

As one district administrator explained, the district wanted to ensure that each individual weight carried 

a sufficient amount of funds, but given the level of state and local funding, they could not adequately 

support a larger number of weights. 

In another district, a principal described the additional amount of funding received through the weights 

as too little to be meaningful: 

The crazy thing is all this talk . . . about adjusting weights, holding forums, and getting 

principal and teacher feedback . . . but really, when the weights are such a small 

percentage for a poverty school, and literally, you’re getting an extra $100 per kid. They 
Districts’ Use of Weighted Student Funding Systems to Increase School Autonomy and Equity

30

created this big fanfare and [declared] it would totally upset the system, but if you 

looked at everyone’s funding — from what they were getting this year compared to last 

year — it’s fairly neutral. We wasted so much time for massive changes, and what it 

amounted to is $40,000 to $50,000, which is nothing to sneeze at. But $40,000 to 

$50,000 on a $3.4 million-dollar budget is like we created fanfare over a rounding error.

A second theme common across several case study districts was a perception that certain student 

populations — in particular, immigrant students — were not being adequately counted in WSF 

formulas. One principal shared the following: 

My principal friend in [another part of the city] is at a high-poverty school, but his direct 

certified is low because of a lot of undocumented kids. The undocumented kids are not 

certified. So, it looks like his free and reduced rate is 40 percent. . . . The district knows 

this but won’t do anything about it. They won’t do any adjustments to these schools at 

all, which they know have high undocumented populations. This school is showing as one 

of the more affluent schools in the district because they have a ton of kids showing as 

not certified.

In another district, which had experienced a growing number of immigrant students and families in 

recent years, a principal acknowledged that the allocation for ELs was higher than that for non-ELs, but 

questioned whether the weight assigned to ELs was “a fair amount at this particular point in time” or

“high enough based on some of the needs of families.”

Other WSF Policy Decisions 

In addition to the specific funding adjustments included in a WSF system, there are aspects important to 

the WSF funding structure, including the use of average versus actual teacher salaries, hold-harmless 

strategies, and small-school provisions.

Hold-Harmless and Small-School Provisions

Seven WSF case study districts reported having hold-harmless provisions to limit the 

amount of funding losses that a school could experience from year to year. Eight 

districts reported having small-school provisions.

Among those districts with hold-harmless provisions, Cleveland, Indianapolis, and Nashville had used these 

strategies to help ease the transition to WSF, limiting the amount of per-pupil funding that a school could 

lose compared with the resources they received prior to WSF. To offset these costs and stay within 

budget, the districts also had to cap the amount of funding that a school could gain. At the time this report 

was published, Cleveland and Nashville were phasing out these protections, gradually increasing both the 

gains cap and loss limit each year,25 while Indianapolis, still in the early phases of WSF implementation, is 

no longer using a hold-harmless policy for middle and high schools and is planning to eliminate it for 

elementary schools. As one school board member explained, “At the end of the day, those things will not 

continue to exist because they perpetuate inequities.” 

25

In Nashville, hold-harmless protections will continue for schools designated as Priority Schools. 
Districts’ Use of Weighted Student Funding Systems to Increase School Autonomy and Equity

31

In Baltimore, the district allocated $5.2 million in additional funding as a temporary measure to hold all 

schools harmless for the 2018–19 school year after the significant cuts experienced in the prior year. The 

three other districts — Boston, Prince George’s, and San Francisco — adopted ongoing, hold-harmless 

provisions. For example, San Francisco provided, on average, $60,000 per school annually for schools 

experiencing budget declines due to actual enrollments in the fall being lower than projected enrollments 

in the spring. The additional amount often did not cover the full amount caused by enrollment 

adjustments, but it did, as one district administrator explained, “grant [a] school some latitude in making 

budget decisions about consolidating staff.” As part of its WSF formula, Prince George’s capped its schools’ 

per-pupil dollar losses to no more than 1.5 percent, and Boston introduced a series of new supports in 

2018–19 for schools with declining enrollments, particularly those that are lower performing.

Eight of the case study districts provided additional funds to very small schools to help cover the basic 

operational costs of running a school. For example, Nashville provided roughly $16 million in its WSF 

system to support small schools, mostly in a part of the district that has experienced significant 

enrollment declines to “[make] sure [they] can afford the non-negotiables, on top of their teaching staff 

and principal.” In San Francisco, the allocation formula included a “floor plan” mechanism, which takes 

into account minimum staffing ratios to ensure that “base staffing is achieved.” Similarly, Baltimore, in 

cooperation with an external partner, developed a series of algorithms to determine supplemental 

requirements to support baseline needs.

Use of Actual Versus Average Teacher Salaries

As noted in Chapter 1, one concern about traditional resource allocation systems is that allocating set

amounts of staff to each school through staffing formulas can result in an inequitable distribution of

resources across schools because higher-poverty schools often have teachers with less experience and 

lower salaries. As a result, the amount of money spent in high-poverty schools may be less than in 

lower-poverty schools, all else being equal, thus creating an implicit subsidy from higher-poverty schools 

to lower-poverty schools (Baker and Thomas 2006; Levin et al. 2013; Malen et al. 2015; Roza and Hill 

2004; Shambaugh, Chambers, and DeLancey 2008). WSF systems have the potential to change this 

dynamic, but only if school budgets are based on the actual salaries of the staff employed in each 

school. By doing so, a high-poverty school with teachers who are less experienced and lower salaried, on

average, would have lower salary expenditures than a school with higher-paid teachers (for the same

number of teachers) and could use its “left-over” funds to purchase additional resources such as an

instructional coach, professional development for teachers, instructional materials, computers, or

lowering class sizes. In this way, WSF could enable districts to compensate for within-district inequities

related to such factors as higher teacher attrition in high-poverty schools or a tendency of experienced 

teachers to choose to teach in more affluent schools. However, if schools are “charged” for each teacher

based on a districtwide average salary rate rather than the teacher’s actual salary, that potential benefit

is lost and schools with lower-paid teachers will appear to have the same level of expenditures as 

schools with higher-paid teachers. 

Although all nine WSF case study districts reported that their schools use average

teacher salaries in developing their budgets, three of the districts also used actual 

salaries, either for some of their schools or by incorporating them into their weighting 

scheme. 

In general, in all of the case study districts, schools used a constant, districtwide average teacher salary 

when developing their budgets, regardless of the specific pay levels of the teachers in each school. Many 
Districts’ Use of Weighted Student Funding Systems to Increase School Autonomy and Equity

32

district- and school-level respondents perceived this practice as beneficial, stating that use of average 

salaries simplifies staffing costs, encouraging principals to hire “based on quality [and] not about how 

much it costs” and to “not penalize [principals] for using veteran staff.” One principal shared the 

following observations:

The pluses [are] that if I used the actual salary, I would not have enough monies to pay for 

the individuals. Here, my staff doesn’t leave. They’re going to stay. The majority of 

teachers here have taught 10 [years] or above. So, if you paid them their salary out of my 

budget, I would not have enough funds for that to happen.

Three of the case study districts, however, adopted methods to introduce actual salaries into their WSF 

schemes to address the issue of “implicit subsidies” from higher-poverty schools to lower-poverty 

schools. In both Boston and Denver, local initiatives and state policy established a set of autonomous 

schools that have been granted greater control over matters such as staffing, educational programming, 

calendars and scheduling, and budgeting. Schools with autonomous status were offered the option of 

choosing to use actual or average salaries for WSF system budgeting — an option that was primarily 

used by higher-poverty schools with relatively low-salaried teachers. 

Roughly one-third of WSF-funded schools in Boston (34 schools) and Denver (65 schools) were 

autonomous schools in 2018–19, of which most had decided to use actual salaries. Because these 

schools typically had below-average salaries, the shift to actual salaries increased the effective buying 

power of their funding allocation, creating, in essence, a sizable windfall for these schools — at least 

initially — to use as they see fit. Once an autonomous school had chosen to use actual salaries, 

however, the school could not simply revert to average salaries if that became more beneficial in a 

subsequent year. In Boston, autonomous schools using actual salaries were permitted to elect to return 

to using average salaries only after actual school salaries had exceeded the district average for three 

consecutive years. Similarly, autonomous schools in Denver that opted to use actual salaries were 

required to continue until, as one school principal explained, “you’ve reached that threshold where you 

don’t have enough money to fund your staff.” 

Boston had experienced schools electing to change back to average salaries. In the last three school 

years, five schools switched back and district administrators expected the number to rise in the coming 

years. As district administrators explained, schools that are successful in improving the school culture 

and student performance tend to build a positive reputation, which, in turn, may improve their ability to 

recruit and retain more experienced (and more expensive) teachers. As a result, the size of the school’s 

“windfall” gradually evaporated. In contrast, Denver officials suggested that they did not view such a 

situation as likely because the distribution of teacher experience within schools — and, therefore, 

school-level averages of actual salaries — tended to be more or less constant over time.

Critics of using actual salaries may argue that this approach could encourage principals to hire less 

qualified (and thereby less expensive) teachers. To help guard against such claims, Denver required a 

school vote to withdraw from negotiated agreements with the district, such as shifting from average to 

actual salaries: At least 60 percent of teachers were required to support such measures for a school to 

make any changes. 

The use of actual salaries for lower-salary schools in a district effectively provides those schools with 

additional funds that they can choose to spend on other things, and those funds have to come from 

somewhere. In both Boston and Denver, district officials said that introducing the use of actual salaries 
Districts’ Use of Weighted Student Funding Systems to Increase School Autonomy and Equity

33

across all schools in the district in the same year would have caused significant budgetary strains on the 

district; however, because schools gradually opted in to using the actual salary approach, the district 

was able to phase in the additional costs over time. As a district administrator in one of the districts 

explained, the additional cost each year was about $200,000, which he characterized as “a drop in the 

bucket” in comparison to the overall operating budget of $400 million. 

Prince George’s County took a different approach to adjusting for the uneven distribution of more 

experienced teachers: Rather than directly using actual salaries, it incorporated a measure of schools’ 

differences between actual and average salaries into its weighting scheme. Specifically, Prince George’s 

tailored the base allocation for each school by applying a weight to account for differences in teacher 

salary levels across schools in the district, as well as the resources that some schools (particularly specialty 

programs) receive in addition to their WSF dollars. This weight was based on three specific components: 

(1) the three-year average variance between the average and actual salaries from unlocked instructional

positions (positions purchased through WSF funds), (2) the number of locked instructional positions

(positions funded and staffed by the central district office) in a school, and (3) the total of the average

salaries of these locked positions in the school.

Transparency of WSF Systems 

In four case study districts, the majority of respondents characterized budgeting and 

resource allocation under WSF as largely transparent. Among the remaining case study

districts, perceptions were mixed.

Respondents with positive perceptions of the transparency of their WSF system characterized the level 

of communication from the district and information made available to school-level stakeholders as 

beneficial. In these districts, principals often received, alongside their total school allocation, specific 

information on their projected enrollment numbers, the base amount of funding per student, and 

funding adjustments for specific student characteristics. This allowed principals to visualize how student 

population counts translate into dollars and to better understand their budgets. Several respondents 

also emphasized the level of district support as key to promoting transparency and understanding. For 

example, two districts provided each school with a “budget partner,” a district staff person who served 

as the primary point of contact for guiding principals through the budgeting process. Principals 

expressed appreciation for those budget partners, with one stating how “they go line by line with you 

[through the budget], explaining any questions you may have.” Similarly, in another district, principals 

received a budget guide, which one principal described as “invaluable . . . because it gives us . . . the 

rules of the game: ‘Okay, this is what you can do; this is what you can’t do.’” 

In those districts in which stakeholder perceptions on WSF transparency were mixed, district-level 

respondents typically held more favorable views than their school-level counterparts. Although both 

groups generally agreed that districts were sharing more information on budgets and resource 

allocation than they did before adopting WSF, principals often viewed the materials as highly complex 

with not enough guidance to help explain the system’s technical details. As a result, principals in these 

districts typically expressed a strong understanding of the broad aspects of their WSF system, but not its 

particulars. For instance, a principal in one district explained, “For the weights, they give us a 

comparison every year . . . [but it’s] not exactly easy to understand. You have to analyze it and be good 

at math.” Similarly, in another district, a principal indicated that the funding adjustments were unclear: 

“I mean, I understand how it [operates], but I don’t know the exact dollar amounts that those weights 

carry or receive.” In a third case study district, all three principal respondents suggested the system was 
Districts’ Use of Weighted Student Funding Systems to Increase School Autonomy and Equity

34

not adequately transparent. As one principal stated, “It’s not very transparent, not due to their 

unwillingness to explain it but because . . . the average person has a hard time explaining what the 

metrics were for the formula here.” 

Across all case study districts, including those in which respondents held largely positive perceptions of 

their WSF system’s level of transparency, there were two commonly cited areas of confusion related to 

aspects of resource allocation, though independent of WSF. First, some respondents — primarily 

principals — reported a lack of clarity around locked positions (positions funded and staffed by the 

central district office). A district administrator in one district explained why the rationale for positions 

funded centrally was unclear to school principals: 

For example, in special education, deciding that an ABA [applied behavior analysis] 

specialist is needed for an autism program for a basic number of students. It’s 

transparent in the sense that it’s clear this is what you should be allocating for, but I 

think schools would feel what’s not transparent is, ‘Why do I need to do this? Why do I 

need to have that ABA specialist? Why can’t I decide that . . . I’m not going to go with an 

ABA specialist? I’m going to contract out with [another] group of people because they 

think they’re much more meaningful to my students and they can still meet the IEP

[individualized education program] needs. Why do I need to do that?’ 

A principal in another district expressed similar frustration with perceived inconsistencies in district 

mandates for certain positions, explaining that some schools purportedly were granted exemption from 

having to employ a guidance counselor and adding, “I wished I had known ahead of time that other 

principals were allowed to say no, because I would have said no too, which would have allowed us to 

have the behavior coach.” In a third district, a district administrator indicated that, because of increased 

transparency around funds included in the WSF system, principals may turn to locked funds (funds 

controlled by the central district office), which lack the same transparency, to secure additional 

resources. Savvier principals who can navigate the budgetary channels and advocate for their schools, 

may convince the district to provide extra resources through these centrally controlled funds, which 

could lead to inequities within the district. 

Second, and on a note related to the first critique, principals in several districts suggested a lack of 

transparency around the basis for funding provided to schools through sources outside of WSF, such as 

special education or Title I of the ESEA. Similarly, in one case district, the central office sets aside a 

limited amount of funds for supplemental budget requests, which one principal respondent reported 

was “not as transparent as it needs to be.” Specifically, the principal contended that the district did not 

provide any form of explanation for rejecting certain supplemental budget requests. 

Predictability and Stability of Resource Allocations

In five WSF case study districts, respondents reported that school budgets were not 

sufficiently predictable or stable. In three districts, respondents had mixed perceptions 

of how stable the budgets were.

The majority of respondents in five case study districts shared concerns about the predictability or 

stability of their school budgets from year to year. In the principal survey, just over half (56 percent) of 

WSF principals reported that the predictability of school resources from year to year is a major or 

moderate challenge for them, compared with 35 percent of non-WSF principals. Depending on 
Districts’ Use of Weighted Student Funding Systems to Increase School Autonomy and Equity

35

enrollment numbers — both in the aggregate and by student need category — schools may see large 

swings in their allocated budget from one year to the next. Respondents in three districts expressed 

mixed perceptions. While some stakeholders experienced stable resources and were satisfied with their 

ability to predict and plan ahead, other stakeholders experienced swings in resources from year to year 

and challenges in retaining teachers.

In all nine districts, the stability of the budget was directly tied to the stability of student enrollment at 

both the district and the school levels. In multiple districts, demographic shifts and population changes 

in the geographic area led to declines in enrollment as well as shifts in the types of students whom the 

districts were serving. One principal explained how rapidly shifting demographic changes in their city 

may affect a school’s ability to plan from year to year:

[City demographic changes] can have a huge impact on your budget . . . [a change that 

might impact us] the next year — revitalizing some of those inner-city housing projects. 

When they do that and they make a mixed income, that can have a huge impact. [Some 

students] bused out here are EL, they’re poverty, they’re — some of them are special ed. 

They generate quite a lot of funds. . . . If you lose 12 of those students, you’ve lost a 

teaching position, if you think of it in just simple dollars and cents.

Moreover, the timing for publishing final enrollment numbers was another consideration cited as an 

influence on the stability of school budgets. In many instances, enrollment figures were not complete 

until October. In cases in which actual enrollment exceeded projected enrollment, schools were 

obligated to contend with additional students for whom they had no extra funding. Conversely, schools 

in which actual enrollment was lower than the projected numbers often were required to return funds 

to the district, with the loss of anticipated funds requiring adjustments to staffing or programs. As one 

principal explained: 

For this school year . . . we were given numbers of projections that were higher than 

what we ended up getting in October . . . then we had to pay back the district the 

amount that we were short with [WSF] funds, even though we continued to get kids in 

November and December and January. We’re at where the district projected us to be, 

but we weren’t there in October, which [resulted] in us losing out on those funds.

Respondents across districts reported a few strategies to overcome these challenges and to promote 

stability and predictability in annual budgets through the WSF system — most notably, the use of holdharmless provisions, as discussed in the previous section.

School choice policies and charter schools in districts were also perceived as influences on the stability 

of school budgets in WSF systems. In districts with school choice policies, popular schools may have seen 

increases in funding yearly, while less popular schools with declining enrollment may have faced 

decreases in funding. While some principals expressed dissatisfaction with the way school choice 

policies may decrease their funding, other principals and stakeholders saw the competition between 

schools and potential for increased funding for popular schools as a positive aspect of school choice. 
Districts’ Use of Weighted Student Funding Systems to Increase School Autonomy and Equity

36

Chapter Summary

Although the survey and case study findings show commonalities in the student need categories that 

districts targeted in their WSF systems — in particular, students from low-income families, ELs, and 

SWDs — there is clear variation in how districts define these student categories and in the magnitudes 

of the corresponding weights. In addition to these major categories of student need, districts have 

developed other funding adjustments to reflect their priorities, such as performance-based funding 

adjustments to provide additional resources for low-performing or at-risk students, and additional 

resource allocations for specialized programing, such as career and technical education, International 

Baccalaureate, and performing arts schools.

Although all WSF case study districts reported that their schools use average teacher salaries in 

developing their budgets, three districts also used actual salaries, either for some of their schools or by 

incorporating them into their weighting scheme. Two of these districts allowed schools to opt in to using 

actual teacher salaries — and the schools that did so were generally higher-poverty schools, which were 

able to increase their effective level of resources by making this choice. Because schools gradually opted 

in to using the actual salary approach, the two districts were able to phase in the additional costs over 

time, which may provide a model for other districts for how to shift to using actual salaries without 

inordinate disruption or budgetary strain.

Case study findings also show WSF design to be an ongoing, iterative process. Over time, the case study 

districts have made changes to their weighting schemes, such as adding weights for new student need 

categories or modifying the size of certain weights. These revisions were made to keep pace with 

shifting student demographics and district priorities, but they also serve to illustrate that setting weights

is not an exact science. While districts have included detailed analyses of existing resource allocations in 

their decision-making processes and have considered research on identifying categories of students 

most in need, there does not appear to be a strong evidence base from which districts have been able to 

draw to determine what an appropriate value for various weights should be. However, the examples 

from the case studies at least provide information on the range of weights used in various categories, 

which may enable districts to make more informed decisions about the size and structure of their own 

weights.
Districts’ Use of Weighted Student Funding Systems to Increase School Autonomy and Equity

37

3.School Autonomy 

One of the defining goals of WSF systems is to give principals and their schools more control over 

educational resources and instructional decisions. In theory, this may enable schools to better serve 

their students, by putting the money in the hands of those closest to the students, since school 

personnel who work with their students every day may have a deeper understanding of their needs than 

staff in the district office. School leaders given expanded autonomy under WSF systems could use this 

autonomy to make more efficient spending decisions and to implement educational practices and 

programs intentionally designed to meet their specific students’ needs (Roza, Davis, and Guin 2007). 

Some research suggests that these shifts may be associated with improved school quality (Mizrav 2014) 

and student achievement (Steinberg 2014), especially when autonomy initiatives are focused on 

teaching and learning, and principals are given more than token discretion (Honig and Rainey 2013).

Although school districts can choose to increase school autonomy through other types of policies, the 

hallmark of a WSF system is that schools receive a specific allocation of funds over which they have 

some measure of discretion and control, which may make this autonomy more tangible.

WSF systems also aim to create systems to engage and empower school faculty and staff, parents, 

students, and other community stakeholders by involving them in school-level resource allocation 

decisions. Such stakeholder involvement may promote budgets that better support student needs and 

reflect community priorities. Finally, WSF systems typically also include structures to hold principals 

accountable for the decisions they now have the discretion to make. This chapter examines how school 

autonomy, stakeholder engagement, and accountability systems vary among districts with and without 

WSF systems.

School and Principal Autonomy

26

On average, WSF district administrators reported that over half (53 percent) of their 

total operational spending was under school discretion, compared with 8 percent in 

non-WSF districts.

Most district funds flow through the general fund, which provides unrestricted funding for a wide range 

of school and district functions, while supplemental funding is provided through various categorical 

programs such as Title I of the ESEA, the Individuals with Disabilities Education Act, and state 

compensatory education programs that provide restricted funding for specific purposes. Though there 

are rules regarding what restricted funds may be used for, districts may still allow schools the discretion 

to make decisions about the specific uses of these funds, within those broad rules. For both WSF and 

non-WSF districts, the average share of funds provided to schools for discretionary use was similar for 

unrestricted and restricted funds (Exhibit 16). The share of funds reported as under school discretion 

varied across WSF districts; among the case study districts, the proportion of unrestricted funds over 

which principals had discretion ranged from 27 percent to 54 percent. 

26 Total operational spending refers to expenditures on day-to-day programs and services; it excludes capital expenditures and 

debt service.
Districts’ Use of Weighted Student Funding Systems to Increase School Autonomy and Equity

38

Exhibit 16. Average percentage of unrestricted and restricted funding provided to schools to use at 

their discretion, in WSF and non-WSF districts 

Exhibit reads: On average, WSF districts provided 55 percent of their unrestricted funds to schools to use at their 

discretion, compared with 8 percent in non-WSF districts; this difference was statistically significant.

Note: Asterisks denote a statistically significant difference between WSF and non-WSF districts (**p < .05). In addition to the percentages 

presented here, regression analyses were run to control for differences in certain district characteristics between WSF and non-WSF districts; 

the significant differences in this chart persisted after controlling for district size, urbanicity, and percentage of FRPL students (Exhibit D-3 in 

Appendix D). 

Source: District survey, Q12 (n = 9 WSF, 173 non-WSF).

This chapter examines three ways in which principals can allocate resources at their discretion: (1) hiring 

and selecting staff, (2) selecting non-personnel materials and services, and (3) making instructional 

programming decisions. For the following analyses, we examine the percentages of WSF principals and 

district administrators that reported that decisions about allocating various types of resources were 

mostly made by school staff and stakeholders, in comparison to reports from principals and 

administrators in non-WSF districts. However, it is important to note that WSF and non-WSF districts 

differ in size, urbanicity, and student demographics, and potentially on other unobservable 

characteristics, which could mean that any differences found between them are due to their different 

characteristics and are not necessarily related to the system used to distribute resources to schools. To 

explore this issue, we also conducted conditional probability analyses that used multiple regression to 

control for differences in observable district characteristics between WSF and non-WSF districts, 

including enrollment size, urbanicity, and percentage FRPL. Some differences that were statistically 

significant based on the unadjusted percentages were no longer statistically significant after controlling 

for district size, urbanicity, and percentage of FRPL students. In such cases, the exhibit includes a note 

indicating which variables do not show statistically significant differences in the conditional analyses.

Regardless, all of the comparisons between WSF and non-WSF are only meant to be descriptive and 

should be interpreted with due caution.
Districts’ Use of Weighted Student Funding Systems to Increase School Autonomy and Equity

39

Hiring and Selecting Staff 

Principals in WSF districts often reported that decisions about hiring teachers, aides, 

and instructional coaches were mostly made by school staff and stakeholders.

Over two-thirds of WSF principals reported that school staff and stakeholders mostly made the decisions 

about hiring regular classroom teachers (85 percent), resource and special area teachers (71 percent), 

special education teachers (69 percent), instructional aides (80 percent), and instructional coaches

(70 percent). Responses of district administrators showed similar patterns, though few district 

administrators in WSF districts reported that schools had discretion over hiring special education 

teachers (Exhibit 17).

Exhibit 17. Percentage of principals and district administrators reporting that decisions about hiring 

staff were mostly made by school staff and stakeholders, in WSF and non-WSF districts

Principals District administrators 

WSF Non-WSF WSF Non-WSF

Regular classroom teachers 85% 56% ** 95% 36% **† 

Resource teachers and other special area 

teachers (e.g., music, technology)

71% 39% ** 78% 29% **

Special education teachers 69% 37% ** 11% 15% † 

Instructional aides 80% 54% ** 68% 47% * 

Instructional coaches 70% 21% **† 67% 17% **† 

Pupil support staff 33% 18% ** 43% 11% **

Assistant principals 52% 18% ** 41% 8% **

Principals 21% 4% ** 12% 2% **

Exhibit reads: Eighty-five percent of principals in WSF districts reported that decisions about hiring regular 

classroom teachers were mostly made by school staff and stakeholders, compared with 56 percent of principals in 

non-WSF districts; this difference was statistically significant.

Notes: Asterisks denote a statistically significant difference between WSF and non-WSF districts (**p < .05, *p < .10). However, some of these 

differences were not statistically significant in conditional analyses that controlled for certain differences between WSF and non-WSF districts 

(enrollment size, urbanicity, and percentage of FRPL students); differences that remained significant in the conditional analyses (or became 

significant) are indicated with a cross (†)). Exhibit D-4 in Appendix D provides the results of the conditional analyses. Exhibit D-5 provides 

complete responses to the survey items, including the percentages of respondents reporting that decisions were shared between the district 

and school or were mostly made by the district.

Sources: Principal survey, Q10 (n = 104 WSF, 213 non-WSF); District survey, Q13 (n = 13 WSF, 238 non-WSF).

Principals in WSF districts were more likely than their counterparts in non-WSF districts to indicate that 

decisions about hiring school-level staff were mostly made by school staff and stakeholders. For 

example, 85 percent of principals in WSF districts reported that decisions about hiring regular classroom 

teachers were mostly made by school staff and stakeholders, compared with 56 percent of principals in 

non-WSF districts, a statistically significant difference. However, most of these differences were not 

statistically significant in conditional analyses that controlled for certain differences between WSF and 

non-WSF districts (enrollment size, urbanicity, and percentage of FRPL students), with the exception of 

instructional coaches.

Case study principals provided several examples of how they were using their autonomy to select staff 

to meet the needs of their students. Principals in multiple schools mentioned using autonomy to provide 
Districts’ Use of Weighted Student Funding Systems to Increase School Autonomy and Equity

40

additional academic supports, such as additional in-school tutoring, resource teachers, reading 

specialists, and paraprofessionals, and principals in three schools reported adding academic supports for 

special populations, such as ELs and SWDs. In one school, for example, the principal explained how the 

district had assigned 1.5 EL teachers based on the school’s projected EL enrollment, but because she felt 

this was insufficient to support her EL students — many of whom were newcomers to the country with 

little or no English proficiency — she used her discretionary funds to add an additional 1.5 FTEs. As a 

result, the school had a total of three EL teachers “who are implementing a co-teaching model and can 

pull out small groups for more intensive instruction that the kids might need.”

Some of the school principals interviewed focused funds at their discretion on staff providing 

nonacademic supports. One school hired a dean of students to address the increasing population of 

students entering the school with “social-emotional deficits,” and another school allocated funds for a 

school social worker and a school psychologist to support its homeless student population and other 

students with mental health needs.

Selecting Instructional Materials and Other Non-Personnel Resources and Services

WSF principals were more likely than their non-WSF counterparts to report that 

schools have autonomy in purchasing instructional software, curricular materials, 

textbooks, and contracted services.

For example, 48 percent of principals in WSF districts reported that decisions about selecting 

instructional software were mostly made by school staff and stakeholders, compared with 10 percent of 

principals in non-WSF districts (Exhibit 18). Similarly, WSF principals were more likely to report that 

school staff and stakeholders mostly made the decisions about selecting curricular materials (31 percent 

vs. 8 percent), textbooks (25 percent vs. 8 percent), and contracted services (37 percent vs. 7 percent). 

Exhibit 18. Percentage of principals and district administrators reporting that decisions about 

selecting instructional materials and other non-personnel resources and services were 

mostly made by school staff and stakeholders, in WSF and non-WSF districts

Principals District administrators

WSF Non-WSF WSF Non-WSF

Instructional software 48% 10% **† 51% 8% **† 

Curricular materials 31% 8% **† 30% 7% ** 

Textbooks 25% 8% **† 25% 7% ** 

Office supplies 96% 77% ** 100% 73% ** 

Contracted services 37% 7% **† 61% 9% **† 

Food services 3% 1% † 0% 2% * 

Exhibit reads: Forty-eight percent of principals in WSF districts reported that decisions about selecting 

instructional software were mostly made by school staff and stakeholders, compared with 10 percent of principals 

in non-WSF districts; this difference was statistically significant. 

Note: Asterisks denote a statistically significant difference between WSF and non-WSF districts (**p < .05, *p < .10). However, some of these 

differences were not statistically significant in conditional analyses that controlled for certain differences between WSF and non-WSF districts

(enrollment size, urbanicity, and percentage of FRPL students); differences that remained significant in the conditional analyses (or became 

significant) are indicated with a cross (†)). Exhibit D-6 in Appendix D provides the results of the conditional analyses. Exhibit D-7 provides 

complete responses to the survey items, including the percentages of respondents reporting that decisions were shared between the district 

and school or were mostly made by the district.

Source: Principal survey, Q11 (n = 104 WSF, 213 non-WSF); District survey, Q14 (n = 13 WSF, 238 non-WSF).
Districts’ Use of Weighted Student Funding Systems to Increase School Autonomy and Equity

41

Case study data provide examples of how WSF principals used their autonomy to purchase nonpersonnel materials. Among the WSF case study districts, principals and district staff reported putting 

funds toward curricular materials. Examples include intervention materials for reading and 

mathematics, writing programs, books, and other academic resources. One principal explained that her 

school had used its autonomy to move away from textbooks promoted by the district and toward 

technology-based resources “because that’s not the way our kids are learning these days.” In another 

school, the principal described how they had recently introduced a new science, technology, 

engineering, arts, and math (STEAM) initiative, which required the purchase of many new instructional 

and curricular materials. 

Some principals in case study districts reported that technology, including information technology 

equipment and instructional software, was a major non-personnel expenditure over which they had 

discretion. In six case study districts, principals used WSF allocations to purchase computers and other 

equipment, and instructional software. One school, for example, used WSF funds to adopt a new literacy 

program and digital platform, designed to help students grow critical thinking skills through personalized 

learning (i.e., instruction tailored to the learning preferences, skills, and specific interests of different 

learners). 

School leaders also described the regular need to compromise between spending on personnel and 

spending on non-personnel resources. Office supplies were often a point of focus in the budgetary 

trade-offs. As one principal stated, 

We’re pushing our school body to make some hard decisions in terms of sacrifice, like, 

“Ok, if you want a reading specialist and that costs $100,000, are you willing to sacrifice 

one box of copy paper per quarter [per teacher]?” Really having them do the math and 

do the comparison. I think the challenge for some people is that they may not 

understand economic sustainability. Just making sure we’re not wasting our resources 

and we’re being very intentional with resources. . . . Are we being as productive as 

possible to get the biggest bang for our buck?

Instructional Programming and Professional Development Decisions

WSF principals were more likely than those in non-WSF districts to report that 

decisions about instructional programming and professional development were mostly 

made by school staff and stakeholders.

Overall, 59 percent of WSF principals reported that decisions about before- or after-school programming 

were mostly made by school staff and stakeholders, compared with 30 percent of non-WSF principals 

(Exhibit 19). WSF principals were also more likely to report having more discretion over elective or noncore classes (56 percent vs. 26 percent), summer programming (33 percent vs. 9 percent), and 

professional development (30 percent vs. 9 percent). 
Districts’ Use of Weighted Student Funding Systems to Increase School Autonomy and Equity

42

Exhibit 19. Percentage of principals and district administrators reporting that instructional 

programming and professional development decisions were mostly made by school staff 

and stakeholders, in WSF and non-WSF districts

Principals District administrators

WSF Non-WSF WSF Non-WSF

Before- or after-school programming 59% 30% **† 54% 25% ** 

Elective or non-core classes 56% 26% **† 84% 28% **† 

Summer programming 33% 9% **† 11% 10%

Professional development for staff 30% 9% **† 24% 3% ** 

Daily schedule 66% 64% 52% 38%

Exhibit reads: Fifty-nine percent of principals in WSF districts reported that decisions about before- or after-school 

programming were mostly made by school staff and stakeholders, compared with 30 percent of principals in nonWSF districts; this difference was statistically significant. 

Note: Asterisks denote a statistically significant difference between WSF and non-WSF districts (**p < .05). However, some of these differences 

were not statistically significant in conditional analyses that controlled for certain differences between WSF and non-WSF districts (enrollment

size, urbanicity, and percentage of FRPL students); differences that remained significant in the conditional analyses (or became significant) are 

indicated with a cross (†)). Exhibit D-8 in Appendix D provides the results of the conditional analyses. Exhibit D-9 provides complete responses 

to the survey items, including the percentages of respondents reporting that decisions were shared between the district and school or were 

mostly made by the district. 

Source: Principal survey, Q12 (n = 104 WSF, 213 non-WSF); District survey, Q15 (n = 13 WSF, 238 non-WSF).

In case studies, one principal expressed appreciation for the flexibility to implement new programs, 

stating, “I feel like if I wanted to present something, I could bring it forth during my meeting [with the 

district] and say, ‘This is the initiative I want to try.’” Several principals also suggested that independence 

from district curriculum decisions was a welcome result of WSF.

Case study principals who reported using WSF funds to purchase professional development services 

explained this choice by highlighting the importance of building teachers’ capacity and matching training 

to the needs of the school. They also felt “freed” from district-sponsored professional development, 

which they suggested often does not meet the unique needs of their schools. For example, in explaining 

the choice to employ professional development contracts outside the district, a principal of a 

Montessori school stated, “[I]t takes special training to be a Montessori teacher.” 

A district finance officer stated that, with WSF in place and the autonomy that accompanies it, school 

principals can “. . . have an extra fourth-grade teacher and have smaller class sizes or have this afterschool program or have field trips.” A principal also offered a good example of this autonomy, describing 

how he was able to select electives to address student interests: 

When I got here, there were about three or four electives that the kids had. It wasn’t 

enough. It was all core. I mean, how do we stimulate these kids? How do we intrigue them 

to be in our building? We began to create different electives such as drama, guitar, piano, 

that were not available in hopes that we would get more kids interested in our building.

Other interviewees offered additional instructional programming choices they made using discretion 

that WSF systems offer. For example, programming changes designed to meet the specific needs of 

prekindergarten students, ELs, and homeless youth were mentioned in multiple districts.
Districts’ Use of Weighted Student Funding Systems to Increase School Autonomy and Equity

43

Stakeholder Inclusion in the Budgeting and Planning Process

Principals in WSF districts often reported that teachers and other school stakeholders 

have moderate or significant influence over school budget decisions.

Not surprisingly, principals most often reported themselves as having moderate or significant influence 

over school budget decisions (96 percent). In addition, 81 percent reported that teachers had moderate 

or significant influence, followed by other school administrative staff (79 percent), district staff 

(76 percent), school support staff (59 percent), and parents (47 percent). Fewer principals reported that 

other community stakeholders (24 percent) or students (19 percent) had such influence (Exhibit 20). 

Exhibit 20. Percentage of principals reporting that certain stakeholders have moderate or significant 

influence over schools’ budget decisions, in WSF districts 

Exhibit reads: Ninety-six percent of principals in WSF districts reported that principals have moderate or significant 

influence over school budget decisions.

Source: Principal survey, Q17 (n = 104).

Respondents in eight of the nine case study districts reported that teachers, parents, 

and other school stakeholders were involved in the budgeting process, and 

administrators often emphasized the value of seeking their input.

All of the case study districts had policies requiring principals to engage school stakeholders during the 

budgeting process, and administrators often reported that stakeholder participation is important to 

ensure that the budget is aligned with community needs. For example, one district administrator 

explained that budgets should not be done “in a vacuum” and that stakeholder participation is meant to 

ground the budgets in school and community needs. In that district, principals make recommendations 

to a school committee that includes parents, teachers and other staff, and at least one community 

member, and the committee provides feedback to the principal. The administrator described how this 
Districts’ Use of Weighted Student Funding Systems to Increase School Autonomy and Equity

44

process builds community support for the school, saying “you have to go in with some ideas as a 

recommendation; then you come out with what the feeling of the school community is.”

Challenges to School and Principal Autonomy

Despite the flexibility to make decisions about resources, principals in all nine WSF 

case study districts reported that their effective autonomy was constrained by 

district requirements to fill certain non-negotiable staff positions, collective 

bargaining agreements, and resource limitations. 

Principals in WSF systems interviewed as part of the case study reported that they must fill at least some

staff positions to meet district requirements. These positions, mandated by the district, must be 

budgeted as part of the school’s annual budget. One principal described how this requirement was 

presented during principal training: 

We came to a principals’ meeting and were given a guide to WSF, and one of the pages 

had the new non-negotiables. If you have a school between 500 and 750 kids, you must 

purchase one of these. We were told, based on the number of kids we have, that we had 

to have a certain number of school counselors. We also have to purchase a reading 

specialist. Before WSF, the district would say, “Because we require this, we are paying 

for every school to have a reading specialist.” Now, it’s like, “We [the district] are not 

keeping the money, but you still have to buy it.”

In one district, the district finance officer said that the district has to impose limits on choices that 

principals can make as a result of the collective bargaining agreement in place between the district and 

the teachers’ union, specifically around class size:

We definitely have limits that are imposed based on our contractual obligations with the 

teacher’s union. A school comes in and says, “We want our fifth-grade class size to be 

30, because we’re projected to have 30 kids. We want to have one class, [and] we have 

one great teacher who can do it.” We have to say “no” because we have an agreement 

with the teachers’ union that says that the class size maximum is 25; you need to have 

two classes for 30 kids, not one.

Similar concerns regarding collective bargaining agreements were expressed by principals during the 

case study interviews. Principals in three districts expressed a concern about the quality of staff 

available in “the pool,” a group of teachers not currently assigned to a particular school from which 

principals are expected to staff their schools first. Another issue raised in case study interviews was that

of minimum staffing requirements that can limit creative staffing solutions, whereby a principal may be 

required to have an additional position filled that might not align optimally with the needs of the 

students. For example, one principal stated that she and her assistant principal had decided to use funds 

to contract with a community organization that would provide staff to support students’ socialemotional needs in the classroom, freeing the principal to focus more on instructional leadership. Using 

the community organization instead of district staff also enabled the school to afford a part-time music 

teacher. However, the district did not approve the school’s budget because of a new requirement for all 

schools to hire a guidance counselor, leaving no remaining funds to cover the social-emotional support 

and music teacher.
Districts’ Use of Weighted Student Funding Systems to Increase School Autonomy and Equity

45

Case study interviewees also discussed other challenges such as loss of economies of 

scale and uneasiness about changing roles under WSF. 

Both principals and district administrators pointed to the loss of economies of scale when individual 

schools need to purchase things that previously were bought in larger quantities by the central office. As 

one district administrator explained:

There are economies of scale that principals cannot realize that we can [realize] at the 

district [level]. For example, if I want to set up a cleaning contract at my school, I would 

have to go hire someone, set up a contract, and clean for 200 hours a year. If I want 

some company to clean my 175 schools, I can probably negotiate a better deal. For 

computer purchases or anything we spend money on, doing this at the school level is 

sometimes more expensive than doing them on a macro level.

Interviewees provided other examples where loss of economies of scale could be a concern, including 

instructional materials, educational technology, office supplies, and contracted services. Some of the 

case study districts have established systems and procedures to avoid this problem; for example, Denver 

set up a centralized purchasing system that allows schools to place their own orders while retaining the 

large-scale buying power with vendors. 

Some respondents also expressed uneasiness with changing roles under WSF. For example, some 

principals and district administrators in case study districts expressed concerns about the evolving role 

of school leaders as entrepreneurs focused on a “business model” that involves securing funds. Some 

respondents also reported that the close monitoring of student enrollment for specific types of students 

and the recruitment of students to increase school budgets required adapting their leadership and their 

thinking regarding student population shifts.

Perceived Benefits of Increased Autonomy

Principals interviewed as part of the case studies often perceived themselves as being best suited to 

make staffing decisions to meet the needs of their schools. As one principal asserted, “I know what’s 

best for my school because I’m in the school,” adding that the district had never opposed her staffing 

decisions. In describing the benefits of giving principals autonomy, another principal reported, 

“Principals likely know more than the [district] what it takes to make their school successful. Principals 

are engaged in . . . analyzing their data and seeing what their schools need.”

Principals also often reported appreciating the opportunity that autonomy gives them to innovate and 

try new things. One case study principal said: “I love being able to manage budget and being able to 

make instructional choices. It’s allowed us to do cool things like instructional services, the recreation 

center, the wrap-around services, and the field trips. The contracts we have are very innovative.” 

Another principal noted that “[the] type of latitude [WSF offers] really allows you to do a lot of things to 

meet the needs of your particular school and the demographic that you serve.”
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Principal Capacity to Develop and Manage Budgets

In six of the nine WSF case study districts, district administrators reported challenges 

related to building and sustaining principal capacity around planning and budgeting, 

specifically citing concerns about principals’ understanding of the financial aspects of 

making resource allocation decisions.

Interviewees often reported that managing the business aspects of running a school is not part of a

principal’s traditional skill set. Several district respondents spoke about the unevenness in principals’ 

knowledge of budgeting, particularly among less experienced principals and districts with high 

principal turnover. District respondents focused on principals’ inability to connect funding [to 

budgeting decisions] to effectively support the needs of their students. One school board member 

stated that there is substantial variation in principal knowledge and that more training is needed: 

I think [principal knowledge about budgeting] is all over the place. Some are very good. 

Some of them are clueless. One of the things we do not have in this system is a good 

principal preparation system. We have relied to some degree on the universities more 

than we should have. There’s no principal academy, and there have been some talks 

about that, but we haven’t ever created it.

Principals and district administrators in WSF districts reported a variety of district 

supports for budget development and management. 

According to survey responses, principals in WSF districts often reported having a specific district staff 

person assigned to their school to assist with budget development and management (75 percent). Other 

supports included making district staff available to provide technical assistance as needed, either by 

phone (73 percent) or in-person (62 percent), and providing online resources such as documents, 

videos, and/or training modules (66 percent). Similarly, high percentages of district administrators also 

reported providing these supports (Exhibit 21). 

Exhibit 21. Percentage of principals and district administrators in WSF districts reporting that their 

district offers schools various supports for budget development and management

Principals 

District 

administrators

A specific district staff member is assigned to our school to assist with budget 

development and management

75% 64%

District staff are available by phone to provide technical assistance as needed 73% 89%

District staff are available for in-person technical assistance as needed 62% 89%

Online resources are available, including documents, videos, and/or training 

modules

66% 88%

Exhibit reads: Seventy-five percent of principals in WSF districts reported that a specific district staff member was 

assigned to their school to assist with budget development and management.

Source: Principal survey, Q31 (n = 104); District survey, Q24 (n = 13).
Districts’ Use of Weighted Student Funding Systems to Increase School Autonomy and Equity

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Accountability and Support Systems

Under WSF systems, districts typically implement accountability and support systems to ensure that 

schools do not spend over or under budget; the goal is to “zero out” the annual allotted budget. In 

addition, WSF districts may institute accountability measures that focus on ensuring that positive student 

outcomes arise from schools’ budgeting and programming decisions. In many districts across the country, 

budgetary accountability is overseen by the district finance office, and accountability for student outcomes 

is overseen by the academic office. Survey findings and case study interviews provide information about 

both types of accountability systems.

Because district administrator and principal perceptions regarding accountability may differ, we 

compared the responses between these two groups. However, principal response rates for these survey

items were relatively low (about 54 percent of all WSF principals responding to the survey), and we did

not conduct tests of statistical differences between the administrator and principal responses due to the 

small sample sizes, so the reported differences should be interpreted with caution.27

District Actions If Schools Overspend

Principals in WSF districts reported that the most common consequence of a school 

spending more than its allotted amount was that the amount overspent could be 

deducted from the school’s budget the following year.

Fifty-seven percent of principals and 60 percent of district administrators in WSF districts reported that 

if a school’s spending exceeded its budget, the overage could be deducted from the school’s budget the 

following year (Exhibit 22). Approximately two-thirds of district administrators in WSF districts also 

reported that principals could be given additional training in budget development (60 percent) or 

budget monitoring (66 percent) if they overspent their budgets. No district administrators and few 

principals (6 percent) reported that overspending could result in the principal being given control over a 

smaller proportion of the budget the following year.

District leaders in the case study districts stated that they were providing supports to principals to help 

them meet accountability requirements related to budgets; district administrators specifically described 

monitoring school plans throughout the budget process. For example, one administrator commented, 

From a budgeting perspective, the accountability piece is in the budget collaboratives 

[budget meetings between district and school staff], along with the back-and-forth of 

whether the principal’s plan for the school will be able to meet the requirements and 

regulations. Because we have that check early on, they don’t have the freedom to do 

something which will get them out of line from a budget regulations standpoint.

27 The principal survey items reported in Exhibits 22 and 23 were only asked of respondents in WSF districts. Several items at 

the beginning of the survey were intended to identify whether respondents were from WSF or non-WSF districts, but 

principals in WSF districts often did not answer the filter questions in a way that accurately identified whether they were in a 

WSF district. Therefore, many principals in WSF districts were skipped out of those survey items even though they were in 

fact in WSF districts, leading to low response rates for the items in these two exhibits.
Districts’ Use of Weighted Student Funding Systems to Increase School Autonomy and Equity

48

Principals in the case study districts reported that, in reality, it is difficult and rare for a school to 

overspend, given the frequent district oversight and guidance. Indeed, some principals interviewed in 

WSF districts reported that it is impossible to overspend, given the systems in place.

Exhibit 22. Percentage of WSF principals and district administrators reporting that certain actions 

could take place if a school’s end-of-year spending was more than its discretionary budget

Exhibit reads: In WSF districts, 57 percent of principals reported that if a school spent more than its discretionary 

budget in a given year, the amount of overspending could be deducted from the school’s budget in the following 

year. 

Note: Differences between districts and principals were not tested for statistical significance due to small sample sizes responding to this survey 

item; therefore, differences should be interpreted with caution.

Source: Principal survey, Q36 (n = 56); District survey, Q28 (n = 12).

Interviewees in case study districts largely described accountability through district monitoring systems.

For example, one district program officer commented, 

You don’t just get your money and do what you want outside of the locked positions. 

There’s a space for you to justify. There are times when they come back throughout the 

year to look at the plan and see how it is going, in an effort to see a return on 

investment.
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District Actions If Schools Do Not Meet Academic Performance Targets

More than half of principals and district administrators in WSF districts indicated that 

not meeting performance targets could result in closer district evaluation and 

monitoring of budget development and implementation. 

For example, 74 percent of principals reported that a school not meeting performance targets could 

result in the district more closely evaluating the school’s proposed budget and site plan for the next 

year, and 52 percent said the district could more closely monitor implementation of the school’s budget

and site plan (Exhibit 23). Smaller percentages reported that principals could lose some of their 

autonomy over hiring and personnel decisions (27 percent of principals) or be given control over a 

smaller portion of the school’s budget (11 percent). 

Exhibit 23. Percentage of WSF principals and district administrators reporting that certain actions 

could take place if schools did not meet performance targets

Exhibit reads: Among WSF districts, 74 percent of principals reported that the district could more closely evaluate 

next year’s budget and site plans if a school did not meet performance targets.

Note: Differences between districts and principals were not tested for statistical significance due to small sample sizes responding to this survey 

item; differences should be interpreted with caution.

Source: Principal survey, Q37 (n = 57); District survey, Q29 (n = 12).

The case study data suggest that accountability systems for academic performance 

may not be directly connected to WSF financial systems.

Although the survey results indicated that principals and district administrators often believed that 

certain consequences related to school-level budgeting “could” occur if a school did not meet academic 

performance targets, interviewees in the case study districts were unable to point to any specific 

mechanisms or formal procedures that addressed this. In addition, no interviewees provided specific 

examples of budgetary consequences that occurred for schools that did not meet performance targets. 
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Chapter Summary

WSF systems aim to give more spending autonomy to schools, to allow school personnel who work 

directly with students to make decisions about how to use school resources to meet their students’

specific needs. Our survey data show that WSF districts provided more than six times as much

discretionary funding to schools than did non-WSF districts. WSF principals reported that decisions

about hiring teachers and other staff, selecting instructional materials, and instructional programming

were mostly made by school staff and stakeholders. In addition, WSF principals reported having more

autonomy in a number of areas than did their counterparts in non-WSF districts, including more schoollevel control over hiring instructional coaches, selecting curricular materials and instructional software,

and making decisions about extended time programs and professional development. However, in the 

case study interviews, principals often reported that their autonomy was constrained to some degree 

by non-negotiable staff positions required by districts, collective bargaining agreements, or limited 

amounts of flexible resources. 

WSF districts often experienced challenges with principals’ capacity to serve in a planning and budgeting 

role, which was new to many principals. Districts in turn provided training and other supports to help 

prepare principals to serve in this capacity. Principals reported that accountability measures for both 

academic performance and budget management are in place, and that these include consequences such 

as increased district monitoring or deductions of overspent funds from the following year’s budget. 

Districts, however, often had support and monitoring systems in place to make school overspending 

unlikely to happen.
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4. Funding Equity 

A key goal of WSF systems is to improve equity in the distribution of resources among schools within a 

district — indeed, interviewed staff in seven of the nine case study districts cited equity as the primary 

motivation for adopting a WSF system. To explore equity outcomes under WSF systems, this chapter 

uses school-level expenditure data provided by the nine WSF case study districts to examine equity 

patterns in the most recent available year using two measures: a simple comparison of per-pupil 

spending levels in higher-need versus lower-need schools, and a statistical analysis that uses multiple 

regression to compute “implicit weights” for various indicators of student needs. In addition, we 

examine changes in these two measures before and after implementation of the WSF system, in the five 

districts that were able to provide school-level expenditure data for at least two years before and after 

adoption of the WSF system.

Each of the equity analyses in this chapter has limitations, and the results should not be interpreted as

evidence of the effectiveness of WSF systems for improving equity. First, the equity analyses were 

conducted only in the nine WSF case study districts, and we do not have a control group of non-WSF 

districts with which to compare them. The cross-sectional analyses that include all nine WSF districts are 

based on a single year, which reflects different timepoints in the evolution of each district’s 

implementation of WSF. For the longitudinal analyses, we excluded four of the nine districts because 

they were not able to provide school expenditure data for at least two years before and after adoption 

of the WSF system. Even among the five districts that were able to provide more extensive longitudinal 

data, one was able to provide data for only two years prior to WSF implementation, and one provided 

only two years of post-implementation data.

Various factors may influence the effectiveness of WSF systems in promoting an equitable distribution 

of funds, including the share of total school funding allocated through the WSF formula, the types of

weights used, and the relative strength of those weights. In addition, a district’s use of average salaries 

rather than actual salaries to charge personnel expenditures against each school’s budget may

undermine the potential equity effects of its WSF formula. Higher-poverty schools often have less 

experienced, lower-paid staff (Goldhaber, Lavery, and Theobald 2015; Roza and Hill 2004), but using

average salary figures to charge personnel expenditures against school budgets may mask those 

differences, with the result that the actual expenditures in those schools may be considerably less than 

the amounts that they receive “on paper.”28

This is why it is important to examine actual expenditures 

to more accurately examine how equity evolved in WSF districts, and not rely only on analyzing the 

progressivity of WSF formulas and weights. Indeed, the equity analyses presented in this chapter rely on

actual per-pupil expenditure data for individual schools, and not simply the per-pupil allocations

provided through the WSF formulas.

For this chapter, we have masked the district identities because the intent here is not to evaluate 

individual districts’ effectiveness and outcomes but rather to explore equity outcomes for a group of WSF 

districts and to demonstrate some approaches that districts can use to examine their own equity 

outcomes.

28 Alternatively, charging those actual, below-average salaries against these schools’ budgets would leave them with additional 

funds “left over” with which they could purchase additional staff or other resources.
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52

Methods Used to Examine Equity Outcomes

All nine WSF case study districts provided school-level expenditure data for at least five school years — 

in one case for as many as 16 years. However, as noted above, four of the districts were not able to

provide data for at least two years before and after the initial implementation of WSF; these districts 

had adopted WSF either very recently or many (more than eight) years ago. Consequently, most of this

section examines change in funding patterns in the five districts that were able to provide at least two 

years of pre and post data.29 We do, however, begin with a cross-sectional examination of equity 

patterns in the most recent available year (2016–17 for eight districts and 2015–16 for one district) for 

all nine case study districts. 

For both the cross-sectional and longitudinal analyses, we focus on expenditures made from 

unrestricted funds (general funds) and exclude restricted (categorical) funds; however, we also briefly 

look at how equity patterns differ when restricted funds are included. Whether it is appropriate to 

include restricted funds in examining the equity outcomes of WSF systems may depend on the specific 

types of restricted funds under consideration and whether any dollars from those funds are distributed 

through the WSF formula. For example, federal education funds typically carry a requirement that they 

supplement, not supplant, state and local funds; to the extent that federal and other restricted funding 

sources are intended to supplement an equitably distributed base of unrestricted funds, it may be more

meaningful to examine the equity of the unrestricted funds. Indeed, in the nine case study districts, the

funding distributed through the WSF formula consisted almost exclusively of unrestricted funds. That

being said, it is also of interest to better understand how implementation of a WSF may impact resource 

equity in terms of spending from both restricted and unrestricted funding sources. We therefore 

present a brief analysis of changes in equity associated with WSF when all funding sources are

considered. 

Throughout this section, we use two approaches to examine the extent to which student need factors 

are related to school expenditure levels within a district: 1) a simple comparison of per-pupil spending 

levels in higher-need versus lower-need schools, and 2) a statistical analysis that computes “implicit 

weights.” For both measures, we use three indicators of student need: students eligible for free and

reduced-price lunch, students identified as English learners, and students with disabilities.

For the first approach, we divided schools within each district into three equally sized groups — or 

terciles — based on the level of a specific student need characteristic, and then compared average perpupil expenditures in the highest and lowest terciles, calculating the relative (percentage) difference 

between these two groups for each school year.

For the second approach, we used multiple regression analysis to estimate models that relate schoollevel, per-pupil spending to various measures of student need and other school characteristics. In 

addition to variables for the percentage of FRPL students, ELs, and SWDs, we also included measures of 

school size and the proportions of school enrollment served in the elementary, middle, and high school 

grade ranges. Each of these regression analyses generates a constant term that represents the estimated 

base level of per-pupil spending — in a particular district and year — for the average student with no 

specific need characteristics attending an average-sized school with all of its enrollment in the 

29 These five districts each provided between 8 and 16 years of school expenditure data. The four districts for which we did not 

conduct longitudinal analyses provided between 5 and 7 years of data; one of these districts could provide data for only one 

post-implementation year, and the other three were not able to provide any pre-implementation data. Equity outcome 

results by year for all nine districts are provided in Appendix D, in Exhibits D-14 through D-19. 
Districts’ Use of Weighted Student Funding Systems to Increase School Autonomy and Equity

53

elementary grades. In addition, the regressions provide coefficients that represent an estimate of the 

additional amount of per-pupil spending associated with each variable (student need and other school 

characteristics).

These additional spending amounts are not directly comparable across districts or years because 

spending levels vary across jurisdictions and time. To create a consistent metric, we divided the 

additional spending amounts by the estimated base per-pupil spending to produce an implicit weight for 

each variable. For example, in District 1, the estimated base per-pupil spending amount was $5,487, and 

the additional per-pupil spending associated with each student with a disability was $1,781, producing 

an implicit weight of 0.32 (Exhibit 24).

Exhibit 24. Example showing estimated base per-pupil spending level, and additional amount of 

per-pupil spending and implicit weights associated with various school characteristics 

in District 1, in 2016–17

Estimated base 

per-pupil spending

Estimated additional 

per-pupil spending

Implicit 

weight 

Percentage of students with disabilities $5,487 $1,781 0.32** 

Percentage eligible for FRPL $5,487 $1,426 0.26** 

Percentage in high school grades (9–12) $5,487 $875 0.16** 

Percentage of English learners $5,487 −$502 −0.09

Percentage in middle school grades (6–8) $5,487 −$506 −0.09** 

Enrollment (relative to mean) $5,487 −$1,564 −0.29** 

Exhibit reads: In District 1, the estimated base per-pupil spending level was $5,487 and estimated additional amount of 

spending associated with each student with a disability was $1,781, resulting in an implicit weight of 0.32.

Notes: FRPL = free and reduced-price lunch. “Base spending” represents the estimated amount spent on elementary students with no 

additional needs attending a school with average enrollment. “Additional spending” represents the estimated additional dollar amount 

associated with one unit of each variable (e.g., one student with a disability). “Implicit weight” represents the relative difference from the base 

amount associated with a particular characteristic and is calculated by dividing the additional per-pupil spending by the base per-pupil 

spending. Asterisks denote a statistically significant difference from zero (**p < .05).

Source: Calculations based on district-provided data on school-level expenditures, student enrollment, and other demographic characteristics.

The asterisks in Exhibit 24 indicate whether the implicit weights estimated by the regression model are 

statistically significantly different from zero. In the following analyses, we only discuss implicit weights 

that are statistically significant. Note that we do not use such asterisks in the analyses of tercile 

differences because those are based on simple comparisons and not a statistical model. 

The two approaches — tercile differences and implicit weights — have different advantages and

disadvantages. The tercile approach is simple to calculate and easy to understand, and it provides an

intuitive descriptive measure of whether higher-need schools receive more (or less) than lower-need 

schools.30 However, it does not take into account other school characteristics that may potentially have 

a stronger influence on school expenditure patterns. For example, high-poverty schools often have 

higher concentrations of students with disabilities and EL students than do low-poverty schools, and 

30 A similar approach has been used in studies of the targeting of federal funds among school districts, which have commonly 

examined the distribution of funds among district poverty quartiles based on census poverty data (for example, Chambers et 

al. 2009; Stullich, Eisner, and McCrary 2007). For our analysis, we used terciles rather than quartiles due to the relatively 

small number of schools within each case study district, and we used FRPL data because census data are not available at the 

school level. Within each district, schools were ranked by their percentage of FRPL students, and high- and low-poverty 

schools were defined as those in the top and bottom thirds of the ranking.
Districts’ Use of Weighted Student Funding Systems to Increase School Autonomy and Equity

54

these factors could contribute to the spending differences found between schools in the high- and lowpoverty terciles.

In contrast, the implicit weight approach uses regression analysis to try to disentangle the multiple

associations between school-level spending and various school characteristics and isolate the relationship 

between each individual school characteristic and per-pupil spending while holding other variables 

constant.31 However, it is also more complicated to calculate and may be harder for district and school 

stakeholders to understand.

For both measures, a positive number indicates a progressive system, in which higher-need schools have 

higher per-pupil spending levels than lower-need schools, while a negative number indicates a

regressive system, in which higher-need schools have lower per-pupil spending levels than lower-need 

schools.

The line graphs used to present the longitudinal data on trends in tercile differences and implicit weights 

were designed to present all five districts on a single page, but may be somewhat difficult to read. The 

full data for each chart are provided in Exhibits D-14 through D-19 in Appendix D. 

As a reminder, the per-pupil expenditure data used for these analyses are not the same as the per-pupil 

allocations provided through the WSF formulas for two reasons. First, the WSF allocations are budgeted 

amounts determined at the beginning of the school year, whereas expenditure data reflect the amount 

of funds that were actually spent. Second, WSF allocations per pupil are generally less, sometimes 

considerably less, than the total expenditures that occur at the school level because of funds that are 

distributed outside of the WSF formula. This is why when examining equity outcomes, it is important to 

use actual expenditure data rather than simply examining WSF formulas and allocations.

31 The regression modeling used is consistent with the body of research on school finance equity analysis (Chambers et al. 2008; 

Duncombe and Yinger 2005, 2011; Gronberg et al. 2004; Gronberg, Jansen, and Taylor 2011; Imazeki 2008; Levin et al. 2013;

Taylor et al. 2018).
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55

Equity With Respect to Student Poverty

In six of the nine WSF case study districts, high-poverty schools had higher per-pupil 

spending from unrestricted funds, on average, than low-poverty schools, in the most 

recent year for which data were available. 

In three of these six districts, the additional amount in schools in the high-poverty tercile amounted to 

18−20 percent over the average per-pupil spending level in the low-poverty tercile of schools. In the 

other three districts, the additional amount was 5−6 percent of spending levels in low-poverty schools. 

Among the three districts where high-poverty schools had lower per-pupil spending than their lowpoverty counterparts, the differential amounted to 22 percent less than the average spending level in 

low-poverty schools in one district; in the other two districts, this differential was 5 percent (Exhibit 25).

Exhibit 25. Estimates of the relationship between students from low-income families and school 

per-pupil spending from unrestricted funds, using the tercile and implicit weight 

approaches, in nine WSF districts, in the most recent year for which data were available

Tercile Approach Implicit Weight Approach

High-poverty 

schools

Low-poverty 

schools

Relative 

difference

Base 

spending

Additional 

spending

Implicit 

weight 

District 1 $7,268 $6,156 18% $5,487 $1,426 0.26** 

District 2 $10,054 $8,404 20% $5,116 −$1,290 −0.25

District 3 $10,163 $8,497 20% $6,108 −$507 −0.08

District 4 $7,509 $7,896 −5% $6,429 −$1,650 −0.26** 

District 5 $4,744 $4,520 5% $4,668 −$226 −0.05

District 6 $5,622 $7,201 −22% $5,921 −$1,427 −0.24

District 7 $8,491 $8,980 −5% $8,623 −$1,721 −0.20** 

District 8 $7,099 $5,999 18% $5,452 $2,208 0.40** 

District 9 $8,593 $8,162 5% $7,726 −$2,311 −0.30** 

Exhibit reads: In District 1, average per-pupil spending in the high-poverty tercile of schools ($7,268) was 

18 percent higher than in the low-poverty tercile of schools ($6,156). Using the implicit weight approach, base perpupil spending was estimated as $5,487, and additional spending for poor students was estimated as $1,426 per 

pupil, resulting in an implicit poverty weight of 0.26.

Notes: Data are for 2016–17 for eight districts and 2015–16 for one district. Asterisks denote a statistically significant difference from zero 

(**p < .05). Exhibit D-10 in Appendix D provides the regression results used to generate the implicit weights in each of the nine case study

districts. 

Source: Calculations based on district-provided data on school-level expenditures, student enrollment, and other demographic characteristics.

It may seem surprising that not all WSF districts have higher per-pupil spending in their higher-poverty 

schools, given that WSF formulas allocate funds to schools at least in part based on indicators of student 

needs. However, equity outcomes may be influenced by a variety of factors, including the specific 

student categories receiving higher weights and the size of those weights, the share of total funding 

distributed through the formula, and the use of actual versus average salaries for budgeting the funds 

that are allocated through the formula. 

For example, three of the nine case study districts did not have weights for students from low-income 

families, and the remaining six case study districts had weights that ranged from 0.02 to 0.15. A district 
Districts’ Use of Weighted Student Funding Systems to Increase School Autonomy and Equity

56

that uses a larger weight for low-income students may be able to achieve a more progressive 

distribution of funds than a district that uses a smaller weight or no weight for low-income students.

A second factor is the extent to which some funds flow to schools outside the WSF formula. For 

example, if “side pots” of funding are distributed to schools in a regressive manner (such as to support 

special programming for higher-performing students), this could counteract the potential benefits of a 

progressive WSF formula.

A third factor is that if a district uses districtwide average salaries for budgeting and charging salary 

expenditures against a school’s budget, rather than the amounts actually paid to those teachers, then 

schools with lower-paid teachers will have lower actual per-pupil expenditures than they appear to have 

“on paper.” Multiple studies have found that high-poverty schools tend to have teachers with less 

experience and lower salaries than teachers in low-poverty schools. Consequently, even if the WSF 

formula itself is progressive, the use of average salaries could result in lower per-pupil expenditures in 

higher-poverty schools than in lower-poverty schools.

Two of the nine WSF districts had a positive implicit poverty weight for unrestricted 

spending that was statistically significant, indicating that higher-poverty schools in 

that district had higher levels of per-pupil spending, on average, than schools with 

lower poverty rates, after controlling for other factors that may affect per-pupil 

spending.

Looking at the second half of Exhibit 25, the implicit weight approach indicates that in Districts 1 and 8, 

an elementary school with average enrollment, a poverty rate of 100 percent, and no other student 

needs spent 26 percent and 40 percent more per pupil, respectively, compared with an otherwise 

similar school with no poor students. An alternative, and perhaps more intuitive, interpretation is as a 

student weight: An elementary student from a low-income family in District 1, with no additional needs

and attending a school with average enrollment, was associated with, on average, 26 percent more 

spending than an otherwise similar student who is not from a low-income family.

In contrast, three of the districts had a significant negative implicit poverty weight for unrestricted 

spending, and four had implicit poverty weights that were not statistically different from zero. This 

outcome indicates that most of the WSF case study districts spent similar amounts or less per pupil on 

high-poverty schools than did lower-poverty schools with otherwise similar characteristics.

At first glance, the results of the tercile analysis and the implicit weight analysis examining the 

relationship between the percentage of student poverty and levels of per-pupil spending may appear to 

be contradictory. However, an important difference between these two methods is that the implicit 

weight analysis simultaneously controls for other factors thought to drive spending whereas the tercile 

analysis does not. District 2 showed the largest difference in results between the tercile and implicit 

weight analysis. As shown in Exhibit 26, the school characteristic associated with the largest increase in perpupil spending in District 2 was the percentage of students with disabilities, and this percentage was almost 

twice as high in high-poverty schools as in low-poverty schools (26 percent vs. 14 percent). After controlling 

for this and other school characteristics, the per-pupil spending differential associated with the implicit 

poverty weight was negative (−$1,241 in high-poverty schools). This result indicates that the higher 

spending in high-poverty schools found in the tercile analysis may be driven by differences in other 

student needs that are associated with poverty (in particular, disability status), rather than poverty 

itself.
Districts’ Use of Weighted Student Funding Systems to Increase School Autonomy and Equity

57

Exhibit 26. Example of using implicit weights to estimate the additional per-pupil spending associated 

with various school characteristics in high- and low-poverty schools in District 2, 2016–17

School characteristic

Implicit 

weight 

Observed average values

Estimated base spending level 

and additional spending 

based on implicit weight

High-poverty 

schools

Low-poverty 

schools

High-poverty 

schools

Low-poverty 

schools

Base per-pupil amount $5,116 $5,116

Percentage of students with disabilities 2.89 26% 14% $3,844 $2,070

Percentage in grades 6–8 0.94 22% 19% $1,058 $914

Percentage in grades 9–12 0.44 21% 33% $473 $743

Enrollment (relative to mean) −0.61 −14% −9% $437 $281

Percentage of English learners 0.45 12% 7% $276 $161

Percentage eligible for FRPL −0.25 97% 69% −$1,241 −$883

Estimated overall per-pupil spending 

(base + estimated additional spending)

$9,963 $8,402

Exhibit reads: In District 2, the school characteristic associated with the largest increase in per-pupil spending was the 

percentage of students with disabilities (SWDs), with an implicit weight of 2.89, and high-poverty schools have a higher 

concentration of SWDs than low-poverty schools (26 percent vs. 14 percent). The additional per-pupil spending that was 

associated with SWDs was $3,844 in high-poverty schools and $2,070 in low-poverty schools.

Notes: The additional spending amounts associated with each school characteristic was calculated by multiplying the implicit weight by the base 

spending level and the observed average values for high- and low-poverty schools. For example, for high-poverty schools, the additional spending 

amounts associated with SWDs is calculated as 2.89 × $5,116 × 26% = $3,844.

Source: Calculations based on district-provided data on school-level expenditures, student enrollment, and other demographic characteristics.

Looking at total school-level expenditures, rather than just spending from unrestricted 

funds, provides a more positive view of school spending patterns in relation to poverty. 

Restricted funds are those that are targeted to specific student groups or programs, such as Title I of the

ESEA and other federal programs, state or local compensatory education programs, and programs

serving English learners and students with disabilities. Typically these restricted funds are not allocated 

to schools through WSF formulas, which is why our primary analyses focus on unrestricted funding.

However, when districts design their WSF formulas, they may take into consideration certain restricted 

funding streams as they choose specific categories and weighting levels. For example, a district might 

decide not to use weights for ELs in allocating unrestricted funds to schools because state categorical 

programs are providing funds to meet the additional needs of those students.

32

Exhibit 27 compares the tercile and implicit weight outcomes when using spending from only restricted 

funds and when using spending from both unrestricted and restricted funds. For the tercile analysis, the 

number of districts showing that high-poverty schools received more than low-poverty schools rose 

from five to seven districts. For the implicit weight analysis, the three districts showing that high-poverty 

schools received less than low-poverty schools, after controlling for other factors, all changed to 

32 However, a district may not use federal Title III funds to provide English learners with the core instructional program that it is 

required to provide to meet its civil rights obligations. Those funds may only be used to supplement and not supplant state,

local, and other federal funds.
Districts’ Use of Weighted Student Funding Systems to Increase School Autonomy and Equity

58

showing no statistically significant differences related to poverty rate. Overall, seven of the eight 

districts showed no significant difference when examining both unrestricted and restricted funds, and

one showed a significant positive implicit poverty weight of 0.50, indicating that an elementary school 

with average enrollment, a poverty rate of 100 percent, and no other student needs spent 50 percent 

more per pupil, compared with an otherwise similar school with no poor students.33

Exhibit 27. Estimates of the relationship between students from low-income families and school 

per-pupil spending from unrestricted funds and total funds (unrestricted plus restricted)

Tercile differences Implicit weights

Unrestricted funds Unrestricted + Restricted Unrestricted funds Unrestricted + Restricted

District 1 18% NA 0.26** N/A 

District 2 20% 33% −0.25 −0.18

District 3 20% 22% −0.08 0.05

District 4 −5% 1% −0.26** −0.18

District 5 5% 16% −0.05 0.11

District 6 −22% −19% −0.24 −0.12

District 7 −5% 3% −0.20** −0.03

District 8 18% 24% 0.40** 0.50** 

District 9 5% 18% −0.30** 0.03

Exhibit reads: In District 2, the high-poverty tercile of schools spent 20 percent more than the lowest poverty 

tercile when considering just unrestricted funds, but 33 percent more when restricted funds are also included.

Notes: District 1 is not included in the analyses of total funds because it did not provide data on school-level spending from restricted revenue 

sources. Data are for 2016–17 for eight districts and 2015–16 for one district. Asterisks denote a statistically significant difference from zero 

(**p < .05).

Source: Calculations based on district-provided data on school-level expenditures, student enrollment, and other demographic characteristics.

33 Exhibit D-13 in Appendix D shows similar comparisons of equity outcomes (based on unrestricted funds alone versus both 

unrestricted and restricted funds) in relation to EL students and SWDs.
Districts’ Use of Weighted Student Funding Systems to Increase School Autonomy and Equity

59

Equity Trends With Respect to Student Poverty

Examining equity trends in WSF districts is challenging due to the difficulty in obtaining detailed schoollevel expenditure data both before and after the implementation of WSF. Although the nine case study 

districts were asked to provide expenditure data for years prior to WSF implementation, sometimes the 

data systems were limited in their ability to provide this information, especially if the data systems 

and/or WSF systems were old. Even among the five districts that were able to provide more extensive 

longitudinal data, one was able to provide data for only two years prior to WSF implementation, and 

one provided only two years of post-implementation data. Because of the lack of more extensive preimplementation and post-implementation data, the trend analyses in this report should be 

interpreted with caution. More specifically, they are presented as descriptive analyses and should not 

be interpreted as the causal effect of WSF systems on equity.

In four of the five districts with sufficient data to examine trends before and after WSF 

implementation, the high-poverty tercile of schools showed gains in per-pupil spending 

from unrestricted funds, relative to low-poverty schools, after adopting WSF.

Three of the four districts showed a progressive relationship between poverty and per-pupil spending 

that became more progressive after the adoption of WSF (Districts 1, 2, and 3). District 5 showed a 

regressive relationship prior to WSF that became progressive after WSF; this district — for which we 

have 14 years of post-implementation data — lost some ground after about seven years of 

implementation, but the most recent years appear to show a trend toward increasing progressivity 

based on the tercile measure. In contrast, District 4 became more regressive after WSF, continuing a 

trend that appeared in the years prior to WSF adoption (Exhibit 28).

Trends in implicit poverty weights appear to show some improvement in three of the five 

districts after WSF implementation.

District 3 showed the clearest pattern of improvement. Before WSF implementation, District 3’s implicit 

poverty weight was regressive, ranging between −0.30 and −0.54 during the four years prior to WSF. In 

the first year of WSF implementation, the implicit weight for poverty showed an immediate 

improvement, falling from −0.46 to −0.24, and it continued to improve over the next several years, reaching 

−0.03 in the fourth year of implementation.

District 1 is the only one of the five districts that showed positive implicit poverty weights prior to WSF, 

and this relationship became more progressive in the first two years under WSF. Because this district 

began its WSF system very recently, data are not yet available to examine longer-term outcomes. 

In District 5, the implicit poverty weights show a fluctuating pattern similar to that for its tercile 

differences — initially they became less regressive (particularly in the first four years of 

implementation), but then worsened, reaching levels similar to their pre-WSF implicit weights. In the 

most recent year, the implicit weight improved again, but it remains to be seen whether this is the 

beginning of a trend toward more equity or simply another data fluctuation. 

For Districts 2 and 4, the implicit poverty weights showed regressive funding patterns before and after 

WSF implementation, with no discernible progress on this measure after the adoption of WSF.
Districts’ Use of Weighted Student Funding Systems to Increase School Autonomy and Equity

60

Exhibit 28. Trends in tercile differences and implicit weights for school per-pupil spending from 

unrestricted funds relative to students from low-income families, in five WSF districts

Exhibit reads: In District 1, schools in the high-poverty tercile had higher per-pupil spending from unrestricted 

funds than low-poverty schools, indicating a progressive funding pattern, and the degree of progressivity increased 

after the adoption of WSF. In the same district, the implicit weights for student poverty also indicate a progressive 

pattern, after controlling for other school characteristics, that increased after WSF implementation.

Note: The vertical green line in each panel represents the first year of WSF implementation. Tercile differences and implicit weights for each 

year are provided in Exhibits D-14 and D-15 in Appendix D. 

Source: Calculations based on district-provided data on school-level expenditures, student enrollment, and other demographic characteristics.
Districts’ Use of Weighted Student Funding Systems to Increase School Autonomy and Equity

61

Equity With Respect to English Learners

In four of the nine WSF case study districts, schools with higher concentrations of 

English learners spent more on average than low-EL schools.

District 8 had the highest tercile difference for this measure, with high-EL schools spending 14 percent 

more than low-EL schools. In the other three districts with higher spending in high-EL schools, the 

relative differences ranged from 2 percent to 8 percent. In contrast, five districts had lower average 

spending levels in high-EL schools than in low-EL schools. Among these districts, the range of relative 

differences was from −5 percent to −18 percent (Exhibit 29).

Exhibit 29. Estimates of the relationship between English learners and school per-pupil spending 

from unrestricted funds, using the tercile and implicit weight approaches, in nine WSF 

districts, in the most recent year for which data were available

Tercile approach Implicit weight approach

High-EL

schools

Low-EL 

schools

Relative 

difference

Base 

spending

Additional 

spending

Implicit 

weight 

District 1 $6,151 $7,009 −12% $5,487 −$502 −0.09

District 2 $9,151 $8,842 4% $5,116 $2,284 0.45** 

District 3 $9,459 $8,731 8% $6,108 $901 0.15

District 4 $7,906 $8,503 −7% $6,429 $2,015 0.31** 

District 5 $4,688 $4,575 2% $4,668 $267 0.06

District 6 $5,576 $6,838 −18% $5,921 −$1,233 −0.21

District 7 $8,649 $9,134 −5% $8,623 −$264 −0.03

District 8 $7,017 $6,149 14% $5,452 −$1,219 −0.22

District 9 $8,063 $8,681 −7% $7,726 $717 0.09

Exhibit reads: In District 1, average per-pupil spending in high-EL schools ($6,151) was 12 percent lower than in 

low-EL schools ($7,009). Using the implicit weight approach, base per-pupil spending was estimated as $5,487 and 

the per-pupil spending differential associated with EL students was estimated as −$502 per pupil, resulting in an 

implicit EL weight of −0.09.

Notes: EL = English learners. Data are for 2016–17 for eight districts and 2015–16 for one district. Asterisks denote a statistically significant 

difference from zero (**p < .05). Exhibit D-10 in Appendix D provides the regression results used to generate the implicit weights in each 

district.

Source: Calculations based on district-provided data on school-level expenditures, student enrollment, and other demographic characteristics.

Two of the nine WSF districts had a positive implicit weight for EL students for 

unrestricted funds that was statistically significant, indicating that higher-EL schools in 

those districts had higher levels of spending on average than otherwise similar schools 

with lower percentages of EL students.

In Districts 2 and 4, the implicit weights for ELs were 0.45 and 0.31, indicating an EL student in these 

districts was associated with 45 percent and 31 percent more funding, respectively, than an otherwise 

similar student. In the other seven districts, the implicit EL weights were not statistically significant 

(Exhibit 29).
Districts’ Use of Weighted Student Funding Systems to Increase School Autonomy and Equity

62

Among the five districts with sufficient trend data, two showed relative gains after WSF 

implementation for the high-EL tercile of schools, and three showed increases in implicit 

EL weights.

For Districts 3 and 5, the tercile measure showed the relative level of per-pupil spending in high-EL 

schools increased after WSF adoption; however, District 5 later began to lose ground, and after 14 years 

of implementation, the relative spending level in the high-EL schools was about the same as prior to 

WSF adoption. In contrast, District 4 became more regressive after WSF, continuing a trend that 

appeared in the years prior to WSF adoption. The remaining two districts showed fluctuations with no 

clear pattern (Exhibit 30).

In the implicit weight analysis, Districts 1 and 2 showed increases in the implicit EL weight after 

implementing WSF. District 5 also showed increases in about half of the 14 post-WSF years available for 

this district, but its implicit weight in the most recent year was similar to those in the two years before 

WSF implementation. In the other two districts, the implicit EL weight in the post-WSF time period was 

either lower (District 3) or stayed relatively constant (District 4).
Districts’ Use of Weighted Student Funding Systems to Increase School Autonomy and Equity

63

Exhibit 30. Trends in tercile differences and implicit weights for school per-pupil spending from 

unrestricted funds relative to English learners, in five WSF districts

Exhibit reads: In District 1, schools in the high-EL tercile had lower per-pupil spending from unrestricted funds than 

low-EL schools, and their relative funding level did not increase after the adoption of WSF. In the same district, the 

implicit weights for EL students, after controlling for other school characteristics, increased after WSF adoption.

Notes: EL = English learners. The vertical green line in each panel represents the first year of WSF implementation. Tercile differences and 

implicit weights for each year are provided in Exhibits D-16 and D-17 in Appendix D. 

Source: Calculations based on district-provided data on school-level expenditures, student enrollment, and other demographic characteristics.
Districts’ Use of Weighted Student Funding Systems to Increase School Autonomy and Equity

64

Equity With Respect to Students With Disabilities

In eight of the nine WSF case study districts, both the tercile approach and implicit 

weights indicated that schools with higher concentrations of students with disabilities 

had higher spending levels than other schools.

Additionally, the relative tercile differences and the estimated implicit weights were much higher than 

the implicit weights for poverty or EL. Whereas the largest implicit weights for poverty and EL were 0.40

and 0.45, respectively, those for students with disabilities were greater than 1.20 in six districts and 

greater than 2.60 in three districts. District 5, however, shows quite different results, with negative 

figures for both the tercile and implicit weight analyses, indicating that in this district, schools with 

higher concentrations of students with disabilities tended to have lower per-pupil spending levels than 

other schools (Exhibit 31).

Exhibit 31. Estimates of the relationship between students with disabilities and school per-pupil 

spending from unrestricted funds using the tercile and implicit weight approaches, in 

nine WSF districts, in the most recent year for which data were available

Tercile Approach Implicit Weight Approach

High-SWD 

schools

Low-SWD 

schools

Relative 

difference

Base 

spending

Additional 

spending

Implicit 

weight 

District 1 $7,155 $6,076 18% $5,487 $1,781 0.33*

District 2 $10,677 $8,208 30% $5,116 $14,791 2.91** 

District 3 $11,175 $7,909 41% $6,108 $17,099 2.80** 

District 4 $9,401 $7,680 22% $6,429 $17,278 2.69** 

District 5 $4,583 $4,698 −2% $4,668 −$3,326 −0.71** 

District 6 $6,887 $5,726 20% $5,921 $7,316 1.24*

District 7 $9,986 $8,490 18% $8,623 $11,835 1.37** 

District 8 $7,103 $6,029 18% $5,452 $5,180 0.95

District 9 $9,463 $7,701 23% $7,726 $12,236 1.59** 

Exhibit reads: In District 1, average per-pupil spending in high-SWD schools ($7,155) was 18 percent higher than in 

low-SWD schools ($6,076). Using the implicit weight approach, the additional spending associated with students 

with disabilities was estimated as $1,781 per pupil, resulting in an implicit SWD weight of 0.33.

Notes: SWD = students with disabilities. Data are for 2016–17 for eight districts and 2015–16 for one district. Asterisks denote a statistically 

significant difference from zero (**p < .05, *p < .10). Exhibit D-10 in Appendix D provides the regression results used to generate the implicit weights 

in each district.

Source: Calculations based on district-provided data on school-level expenditures, student enrollment, and other demographic characteristics.
Districts’ Use of Weighted Student Funding Systems to Increase School Autonomy and Equity

65

While improvements in the distribution of spending with respect to poverty (and perhaps ELs) might be

expected when implementing a WSF system, it seems less obvious that WSF systems would be expected 

to target more resources from unrestricted funding sources to their SWDs than they had prior to 

adopting WSF. Under IDEA, individualized education programs determine the specific services that must

be delivered to eligible SWDs, and requirements for the level of resources to support these students 

must be met regardless of whether a WSF system is in place;34this type of requirement does not exist 

for ELs or students from low-income families. Readers may want to take this context into account when

examining the trend data.

Four of the five case study districts with pre- and post-WSF data on special education 

largely maintained their distribution of resources with respect to students with 

disabilities in the post-WSF time period.

Only District 2 appears to have consistently targeted more school-level spending for special education 

students in the post-WSF time period than it had prior to the adoption of WSF. District 3 showed 

increases in Years 5 and 6 after WSF adoption, though not in earlier years. District 4 showed some 

declines in funding for SWDs after WSF, but its implicit weights were relatively high both before and 

after WSF adoption. Districts 1 and 5 showed fluctuating patterns with no clear trends after WSF 

implementation (Exhibit 32). 

34 District 3, for example, largely determined the special education weights in its WSF formula by calculating what weights 

would be needed to maintain the necessary ratios of staff to special education students.
Districts’ Use of Weighted Student Funding Systems to Increase School Autonomy and Equity

66

Exhibit 32. Trends in tercile differences and implicit weights for school per-pupil spending from 

unrestricted funds relative to students with disabilities, in five WSF districts

Exhibit reads: In District 1, schools in the high-SWD tercile had higher per-pupil spending from unrestricted funds 

than low-SWD schools, and this relationship did not change substantially after the adoption of WSF. In the same 

district, the implicit weights for SWDs were positive, after controlling for other school characteristics, and did not 

increase after WSF implementation.

Notes: SWD = students with disabilities. The vertical green line in each panel represents the first year of WSF implementation. Tercile 

differences and implicit weights for each year are provided in Exhibits D-18 and D-19 in Appendix D. 

Source: Calculations based on district-provided data on school-level expenditures, student enrollment, and other demographic characteristics.
Districts’ Use of Weighted Student Funding Systems to Increase School Autonomy and Equity

67

Chapter Summary

Examining equity funding outcomes in WSF districts is challenging, due to the difficulty in obtaining 

detailed school-level expenditure data before and after the implementation of WSF. Because of the 

limited amount of pre- and post-WSF implementation data, the trend analyses in this report are 

presented as descriptive, not causal, analyses.

The findings from this study regarding equity are mixed. While some WSF districts had progressive 

equity outcomes and appeared to make equity gains after WSF implementation, others did not. In six of 

the nine WSF case study districts, higher-poverty schools had higher per-pupil spending levels than 

lower-poverty schools in the most recent year of data. However, after controlling for other school 

characteristics, only two had a statistically significant positive relationship between poverty and 

spending, while three had a statistically significant negative relationship. Among the five districts with 

sufficient data to examine school spending patterns before and after WSF implementation, three 

appeared to show some gains in relative funding levels for high-poverty schools after WSF 

implementation, after controlling for other school characteristics.

For EL students, two of the nine districts tended to have higher per-pupil spending in schools with higher 

concentrations of EL students than in those with lower EL rates, after controlling for other factors. Two 

of the five districts with sufficient trend data showed a more positive relationship between school 

percentage of EL students and per-pupil spending after WSF was implemented. For students with 

disabilities, all but one of the case study districts had substantially higher spending levels in schools with 

higher concentrations of students with disabilities than other schools before adopting WSF; these 

patterns were generally sustained after WSF was implemented. 

The question that remains is why we did not observe stronger positive equity outcomes for WSF 

districts. One contributing factor may be the types of weights used and the relative sizes of those 

weights. Three of the nine case study districts did not have weights for students from low-income 

families, and the remaining six districts had weights that ranged from 0.05 to a high of 0.275. A second 

factor is the extent to which some unrestricted funds flow to schools outside the WSF formula. For 

example, if “side pots” of funding are distributed to schools in a regressive manner (such as to support 

special programming for higher-performing students), this could counteract the potential benefits of a 

progressive WSF formula.

A third factor is the use of districtwide average salaries rather than actual salaries for budgeting the 

funds that WSF formulas allocate to schools. If WSF systems use actual salaries, then a high-poverty 

school with below-average salaries would have additional funds left over after paying for a standard 

allotment of teachers, which it could use for supplemental resources such as additional teachers or 

instructional materials and equipment. However, if they use average salaries, then schools with lowerpaid teachers may end up with lower per-pupil expenditures even if the WSF formula itself is 

progressive. Although all WSF case study districts reported using average teacher salaries, two districts 

allowed schools to opt in to using actual teacher salaries — and the schools that did so were generally

higher-poverty schools.

In short, WSF is a tool that may be used to direct higher levels of funding to schools with greater needs, 

but its effectiveness in improving the equitable distribution of funds will be influenced by the details of 

the formula, the share of funds distributed through the formula, and the use of actual versus average 

salaries for budgeting the funds that are allocated to schools through the WSF formula.

Districts’ Use of Weighted Student Funding Systems to Increase School Autonomy and Equity

69

5. Conclusions 

A growing number of policymakers and educators have shown interest in the WSF approach as a means 

for promoting principal and school autonomy over budget decisions and increasing funding equity 

among schools. As of the 2018–19 school year there were 27 school districts nationwide, predominantly 

large urban districts, that were implementing WSF. In addition, the 2015 authorization for a SCF pilot 

program was intended to encourage more districts to implement WSF systems, although so far few have 

expressed interest and none are currently approved. This study is not directly examining the SCF pilot 

program, but its findings may help to illuminate some of the options and challenges facing districts and 

policymakers as they seek to implement the program, as well as more broadly informing those who are 

considering adopting a WSF system or refining their existing system. 

The surveys of principals and district administrators indicate a number of differences between WSF 

districts and those with traditional resource allocation systems. Respondents in WSF districts were more 

likely than their non-WSF counterparts to indicate that principal autonomy and transparency were key 

priorities. WSF districts reported allocating, on average, over half of their total operational spending to 

schools to be used under principals’ discretion — more than six times the amount reported by non-WSF 

districts. However, the share of funds reported as under school discretion varied and was as low as 

27 percent in one case study district.

Principals themselves reported more autonomy in WSF districts than in non-WSF districts in a number of

areas, including hiring instructional coaches, selecting curricular materials and instructional software, 

and making decisions about extended time programs and professional development. In the case study 

interviews, however, principals often said their autonomy was constrained by requirements to fill 

specific staff positions, collective bargaining agreements, and the amount of resources under their 

control. District and principal interviewees also discussed challenges related to principals’ budgeting 

skills and additional workload for principals that may extend beyond their training.

The specifics of the WSF formulas varied considerably across the nine districts examined in the case 

studies. Although the districts often used weights to direct additional funding to schools with higher 

concentrations of students from low-income families, English learners, and students with disabilities, 

they varied considerably in the magnitudes of the weights they chose — with weights for low-income 

students, for example, ranging from a low of 0.05 to a high of 0.275. In addition, the districts developed 

other funding adjustments to reflect their priorities, such as performance-based funding adjustments to 

provide additional resources for low-performing or at-risk students, and supplemental allocations for 

specialized programing, such as career and technical education, International Baccalaureate programs, 

and performing arts schools. Although all WSF case study districts reported that their schools use 

average teacher salaries in developing their budgets, some also used actual salaries, either for some of 

their schools or by incorporating them into their weighting scheme — which may suggest strategies that 

districts applying for the federal SCF pilot could propose to meet this requirement. 

In case study interviews, district leaders in seven of nine WSF districts indicated that improving equity of 

resource distribution was a driving motivation for implementing the WSF system. However, the findings

from this study on whether they achieved that goal is mixed. Analyses of expenditure data in the nine 

case study districts found that while some WSF districts showed progressive equity patterns and 

appeared to make equity gains after WSF implementation, others did not. This is perhaps unsurprising 

given the variation in the size and structure of the weights that these districts used, and the fact that 
Districts’ Use of Weighted Student Funding Systems to Increase School Autonomy and Equity

70

most used average rather than actual salaries for budgeting school personnel expenditures. Although 

WSF is a tool that may be used to direct higher levels of funding to schools with greater needs, its 

effectiveness in improving the equitable distribution of funds is influenced by the types and sizes of 

weights used, the share of total funding distributed through the formula, and whether schools use of 

actual or average salaries for budgeting the funds that are allocated to them. 

The WSF districts in this study have grappled with a variety of challenges in their efforts to use this 

approach to increase equity and school autonomy. Their ability to direct more funds to schools with 

greater needs — as well as principals’ ability to use flexibility to produce meaningful changes in school 

programming and quality — may depend in part on the broader fiscal environment, such as whether the 

overall district budget is expanding or contracting. Other challenges may include navigating district 

policies and practices that potentially conflict with the goal of school autonomy and the need to provide 

additional training and support for principals to help them use their autonomy effectively. Some districts 

have just begun to implement their WSF approach or are in the process of deciding whether to embark 

on this path, while others have seen their systems evolve over many years and changes in leadership — 

yet all may benefit from learning from the examples and experiences of other districts that have 

pursued this approach to improving equity and governance in education.
Districts’ Use of Weighted Student Funding Systems to Increase School Autonomy and Equity

71

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