Bureau of Standards

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STANDARDS

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A Review of Progress in

Commercial Standardization and Simplification

Photographed by Army Air Corps AIRPLANE VIEW CF BUREAU OF STANDARDS (LOOKING SOUTH)

ISSUED BY THE BUREAU OF STANDARDS OF THE UNITED

STATES DEPARTMENT OF COMMERCE, WASHINGTON, DC., U.S.A.

Vol. 9, No. 11 May 1933

For sale by the Superintendent of Documents, Washington, D. C. $1.00 annually ($1.60 foreign); single copy, 10 cents
U.S. DEPARTMENT OF COMMERCE

DANIEL C. ROPER, Secretary

BUREAU OF STANDARDS

LYMAN J. BRIGGS, Acting Director

COMMERCIAL STANDARDS MONTHLY, S. F. Tillman, Editor

The Commercial Standardization Group

A. S. McALLISTER, Assistant Director

DIVISION OF SIMPLIFIED PRACTICE

Edwin W. Ely

The division of simplified practice cooperates with industrial and commercial groups to reduce waSte, usually through

eliminating unnecessary variety of produCt, method, or

practice. Its function is to bring together all parties inter- ested in a projeCt of this character, and to coordinate their

work in developing a simplified pradlice recommendation.

Such work includes surveys of current pradlice, formulation of a simplified pradlice program, and presentation of that program for adlion by a general conference representing

all interests. The division then transmits to all concerned

a full report of the general conference, with a requeSt for written acceptance of the adlion taken. When the volume

of acceptances is sufficient to indicate initial success, the

Department of Commerce indorses the program and publishes

the recommendation. The division thereafter cooperates

with a Standing committee appointed by the industry concerned, in condudling periodic surveys to determine the

degree of adherence, to maintain and extend support of the

recommendation, and to secure data for reaffirmation or

revision. Simplified pradlice may be applied to any commodity or adlivity in which it will reduce

waSte. The division Slands ready to render

service in developing and making effedlive any application of simplified pradlice which

will reduce waSle, Stabilize business, or extend commerce.

BUILDING AND HOUSING DIVISION

J. S. Taylor

The division of building and housing,

formed in 1921, cooperates with business,

technical, and professional groups in furthering conStrudlion adlivities. It works to modernize building codes and to encourage improved Standards for the quality of building conSlrudlion, and the practical application of the lateSl development in design and use of building materials.

It encourages home ownership through the development

of an enlarged, Steadier, more intelligent, and more discriminating demand for dwellings—the largeSt single class of

buildings which the construction induSlries provide.

The division also cooperates with other governmental

agencies and with many private business and professional groups in efforts to distribute building activity more evenly

throughout the year and to secure less fluctuation from

year to year. The work on city planning and zoning has the broad

objective of making buildings more useful through proper

location with respeCt to other Structures, Stabilizing of land

values and property uses, well coordinated thoroughfare

sySlems, and well laid out public works.

STANDARDIZATION

..IS.. A CONTINUING PROCESS

<r-*o ITS AIM IS NOT FIXITY OR STAGNATION

..BUT.. TO ADD SERVICEABILITY

AS OFTEN AS THE POTENTIAL GAIN

MAKES IT WORTH WHILE

DIVISION OF SPECIFICATIONS

A. S. McAllister

The duties of the division of specifications are to promote

and facilitate the use and unification of specifications. In doing so it carries on activities involving cooperation with

technical societies; trade associations; Federal, State, and

municipal Government specifications making and using

agencies; producers, distributors, and consumers; and teSting

and research laboratories. It ascertains the standardization

and specifications promoting activities of the associations and societies, and brings to their attention the work being

done by the commercial Standardization group. It brings the

Federal specifications and commercial Standards to the attention of the maximum number of producers and users of commodities complying with these Standards and specifications.

It compiles and distributes liSts of sources of supply of materials guaranteed to comply with the Standards and specifi- cations. It shows both buyers and sellers the benefits from

handling nationally specified, certified, and labeled commodities. The division prepares directories of governmental and

nongovernmental teSting laboratories and the Directory of

Specifications, and is working on an encyclopedia of specifications, the firSt two volumes of which

have been issued, namely, “Standards and

Specifications in the Wood-Using Industries”

and “Standards and Specifications for Nonmetallic Minerals and their Products.” It also

aids in preparing the Standards Yearbook.

DIVISION OF TRADE STANDARDS

I. J. Fairchild

The division of trade Standards, on requeSl,

assists industrial and commercial groups in the voluntary establishment of Standards

covering grades, quality, dimensional interchangeability, or other acceptance criteria as a national

basis for marketing manufactured commodities.

The detail criteria are selected or determined voluntarily

by interested buyers or sellers, without any Government

dictation or domination, and adjusted at a general confer- ence of producers, distributors, and users so as to represent

the composite views of all branches. The division functions

chiefly as a neutral agency to see that all interested elements

are given full opportunity to be heard and satisfied; to

solicit and record acceptances; and to publish and promulgate

the Standard when a satisfactory majority of acceptances is obtained and provided there is no aCtive opposition.

Industries are encouraged to apply self-certifying labels to products meeting the commercial Standard requirements, as a means of protecting the consumer and the scrupulous seller from misrepresentation or unfair methods of marketing.

Provision is made for regular revision of the Standard

through the appointment of a Standing committee to consider periodically any necessity for revision of the Standard,

in order that it may be kept constantly compatible with

progress in the industry.

Address BUREAU^OF STANDARDS, Washington, D.C., for further information
COMMERCIAL STANDARDS MONTHLY

A Review of Progress in

Commercial Standardization and Simplification

Volume 9 WASHINGTON, D.C., MAY 1933 Number 11

SUBJECT

AIRCRAFT

Page

Radio system for landing of aircraft 246

Standardization of aircraft position lights 262

BUILDING AND HOUSING

High-temperature heat insulation 262

Shingles and moldings 250

Template hardware 254

ELECTRICAL

The ampere 246

The ohm : 264

GROUP ACTIVITIES

Activities of the American Society for Testing Materials 257-258

Activities of the American Standards Association 263

Handbook on sheet copper 245

High-temperature heat insulation 262

Marketing of farm products 258

New Federal specifications 261

Pressure and vacuum gages 264

Trade association aids 250 Uniformity of gasoline hose nozzles 258 Uphold quality through standardization 242 INTERNATIONAL AND FOREIGN

British lumber standards 263

British method of marking foundry patterns 256

Identification of chemical pipe lines 245

Labeling procedures of foreign countries 343-245

METALS

Handbook on sheet copper 245

Metal and fiber flashlight cases 261

Pressure and vacuum gages 264 Template hardware 254 Uniformity of gasoline hose nozzles 258

MISCELLANEOUS

Economies in railroad operations 254

Extracted honey containers 255-256

ANALYSIS

MISCELLANEOUS—Continued Page

Services to governmental purchasers 259-261

Standardization and research 247-249

PAPER

Dress-pattern manufacturers benefit from commercial

standard 249

Paper-testing methods 262

PUBLICATIONS

Connectors for timber construction 261 Douglas fir plywood 263 Handbook on sheet copper 245 Hosiery lengths 249 Marketing of farm products 258

Template hardware 254

Testing foundry sands 264

Trade-association aids 250

Shingles and moldings 250 QUALITY MARKS AND LABELS

Coated abrasive products 264

Domestic stokers for anthracite 253

Labeling procedures of foreign countries 243 Rug cleaning 264

Trade-association aids 250

Why governmental control? 251-253

TEXTILES AND LEATHER

Deterioration of vegetable-tanned leather 258

Dress-pattern manufacturers benefit from commercial

standard - 249

Hosiery lengths 249 Rug cleaning _ 264

WOOD

British lumber standards 263 Connectors for timber construction 261 Douglas fir plywood 263

Shingles and moldings 250

AN INVITATION TO VISIT THE BUREAU OF STANDARDS

A cordial invitation is extended to all interested in scientific progress to visit the laboratories of

the Bureau of Standards when in Washington. A personally conducted trip is organized at 2:15 p.m.

daily except on holidays. Special trips for groups may be arranged at other times by writing to the

Bureau in advance. The Bureau’s illustrated Visitor’s Manual may be had for the asking. This lists the work in progress and gives an airplane view of the ensemble and a brief statement of typical dis- coveries and inventions which have been notable, basic contributions to radio, aviation, and other

modern arts and industries.

172886—33 1 241
Uphold QUALITY

Through STANDARDIZATION

Engineers know the fallacies and dangers in lowering

coSts below the minimum which permits production of

goods having adequate quality for the service intended,

recently stated Arthur W. Carpenter, chairman of the

A.S.T.M. committee on membership. He added “They

know that safeguards mu£l be established which permit

evaluation of quality in terms of service life and which

prevent the acceptance of materials which do not conform

to the established safe limits.”

In periods like the present, of depression and falling

prices, when competition is exceedingly keen and consumers and producers alike are faced with the necessity of

cutting coSts wherever possible, then, if ever, the temptation arises to accomplish the required results even at the

expense of lowering quality, he pointed out. The pressure

on the technical organisations responsible for upholding

quality both in manufacturing operations and in purchasing of materials may become so great as to seem almoSt

irresistible.

“At such times”, said Mr. Carpenter, “Standard specifications and methods of teSt which have been expertly

prepared and carry authority of * * * are of inestimable

value in maintaining goods ‘built up to a Standard inStead

of down to a price’.”

242
May, 1933 COMMERCIAL STANDARDS MONTHLY 243

LABELING PROCEDURES OF FOREIGN COUNTRIES

Review of Certification and Labeling of Commodities in Foreign Countries

By Robert A. Martino, Bureau of Standards

The increasing demand by consumers for better

grade and quality of goods has led to the development of various plans in order to bring this about.

Within the past few years more than 100 American

technical societies and trade associations not only have

been encouraging manufacturers to produce commodities conforming to accepted standards and specifications, but also have taken definite steps to provide means and methods by which the buyer can identify

goods complying with specifications requirements.

Similar activities are at present being carried on

in foreign countries. Many of the foreign national

standardizing bodies and other organizations have

already developed or are now working out programs

relating to certification and labeling of certain types

of commodities as conforming to well-established

standards and specifications.

There are given below brief outlines of the various

programs now in actual operation in several foreign

countries. Much of the following information was

obtained through the very helpful cooperation of the

British Standards Institution, and from material re- cently received from several foreign standardizing

bodies.

Austria. —The Austrian national standardizing

body has obtained a copyright on an association mark

to be placed on products as an indication that they

comply with the requirements of certain standard

specifications. This mark carries with it a statement

of guarantee to the purchaser that commodities so stamped or labeled do actually comply with certain

specifications. The right to use this mark is under

the control of the standardizing body, and license

will be issued only upon sufficient evidence and proof

that the products which are to be stamped or labeled are in accordance with certain standard specifications

formulated by this body. Any willful abuse or ille- gal use of the mark, such as its use without approval

of the Austrian body or its use on products which

are not in accordance with standard requirements,

will subject any individual or concern to criminal

prosecution.

All specifications and rules covering the manufacture and installation of electrical apparatus in Austria

are prepared by the Elektrotechnischer Verein. A

committee of this organization is entrusted with the

responsibility of stating, at the request of the manufacturer, whether electrical apparatus and supplies

are built in accordance with the rules and specifications laid down by the electrical association.

Belgimn . —The Belgian Electrotechnical Committee grants the use of the quality mark to manufacturers of insulated wiring circuits, overhead lines,

lead and steel armored cables, low-voltage apparatus,

and electrical heating appliances. This mark certifies to purchasers that the material so marked con- forms to certain requirements for construction, per- formance, durability, and safety. The quality mark

must be associated with a distinctive “ maker’s mark

so that the manufacturer can always be identified.

Permission to use the mark may be granted to Belgian manufacturers and also to foreign firms

having Belgian agents who are acceptable to the

B.E.C. as jointly responsible for the obligations con- tracted by the manufacturer. This permission can- not be granted, however, if there is, in the country of

a foreign manufacturer, a recognized quality mark

similar to that of the B.E.C., and if the Belgian

manufacturers cannot be permitted to use it. Manufacturers who make use of this mark undertake certain obligations, one of which is that they are not to place on the Belgian market any unmarked

specimens of articles for which authority to use the

mark has been granted.

Permission to use the mark is in the hands of a board specially constituted by the Belgian Electrotechnical Committee.

Articles submitted to the board are subjected to a preliminary examination and, if this proves satis- factory, they are then tested to determine compliance

with the appropriate specifications. Where Belgium

standard specifications issued by the Belgian Electrotechnical Committee exist, these are taken as a basis

for the tests, but where such specifications do not exist recourse is had to foreign specifications, mainly those

issued in conjunction with the Installations Fragen

Kommission (mentioned below). In the absence of a standard specification the committee sometimes prescribes special tests of its own.

If the apparatus submitted to either the preliminary

examination or the test is rejected, the manufacturer

has the right to appeal to the, board. The board, however, is not bound to justify its decision nor to return

the samples submitted.

The manufacturer may not make any alteration in a marked article without the permission of the board.

Provision is made for check tests on samples se- lected at random from stocks held by the manufacturers, wholesalers, or retailers. Such tests are car- ried out at the expense of the committee. If these

tests prove any violation of the conditions under

which the mark is used, fines are imposed or permission to use the mark may be withdrawn.

The Belgian Electrotechnical Committee reserves the right to publish in the daily technical press notices

of the withdrawal of permission to use the mark, and

to take all measures that thej? consider necessary to uphold the value of the mark.

Canada. —The “ Power Commission Act ” gives

authority to the Hydro-Electric Power Commission of

Ontario to make rules and regulations governing the

construction, installation, and inspection of apparatus

and equipment used in the transmission of electric power in Ontario. The commission maintains a con- tinuous check upon the quality of apparatus by means

of label and reexamination service.

The label service applies to certain specified types

of equipment. Labels are sold by the commission and

affixed by the manufacturer to the equipment. The
244 COMMERCIAL STANDARDS MONTHLY May, 1933

control of the use of these labels is provided for in a

label service agreement.

In connection with the reexamination service, apparatus other than that included in the label service,

carries a name plate which contains the number of the

commission’s approval. This serves to identify the

equipment and is an indication to prospective purchasers and instructors that the equipment has been

approved.

Under the label and reexamination service, laboratory inspectors visit the factories periodically and

make reports to manufacturers, giving the results of

their inspection.

Steps are being taken to form a Canadian Government laboratory for the purpose of granting approval

to electrical apparatus which conform to the requirements of the Canadian National Code.

CzechoSlovakia. —Standardized electrical products

are controlled by the Czechoslovakian Standards Society, and a quality mark is affixed to them which signifies that the products conform strictly to the requirements of the standards applying to the goods. Quality

marks are now attached or placed on insulators,

switches, electric bulbs, flatirons, vacuum cleaners,

electric stoves, refrigerators, physicians’ apparatus,

etc. These marks guarantee the purchaser products

of standard quality.

Denmark. —The Danish Standards Council has

adojDted the symbol “ DS ” as a mark which may be

used by manufacturers to show that they conform to the requirements of Danish standards. The right to use the sjunbol is given free upon application, with

the proviso that the product be manufactured in Denmark, and that it actually conforms to the requirements of the standard concerned. Penalties are attached to the misuse of the symbol.

Germany.-—Electrical apparatus conforming to the

specifications of the Verband Deutscher Elektrotechniker may be approved by either the YDE mark or by the word “ Kennfaden ” for cables and wires, or by

the word “ Codex ” printed on boxes, wire, and cable

drums. It is important to note that the VDE approval does not claim to be a proof of quality, but

only claims that apparatus bearing one or the other

of the above indications of “ approval ” is fireproof

and safe.

. Since products which comply with these

two conditions, however, are considered to be of good

quality, the VDE mark has been more or less regarded

as a sign of quality.

The VDE mark may be used by German firms who

are members of the Verband and who manufacture

fuses, lampholders, plugs and sockets, switches, heating apparatus, small transformers, wireless apparatus,

insulated wires and cables, etc. The mark may also

be used by foreign firms manufacturing the abovenamed products by forwarding their application

through an authorized agent living in Germany and

who is a member of the Verband.

Products furnished with the mark must be on sale within 1 year from the date on which the mark was

granted, otherwise the approval expires. Besides the

VDE mark, a special mark of the firm must be visibly

and durably affixed. The VDE mark, when granted, can be used in advertisements, together with the firm’s mark, but no

confusion as to the product, type, voltage, and cur- rent rating must be possible.

Another agency in Germany which makes use of an identification mark on goods to denote quality is the Reichsausschuss Fur Lieferbedingungen. This

organization corresponds roughly to the Federal

Specifications Board in the United States. Through

the cooperation of producer, merchant, and user organizations it prepares specifications for raw materials and finished products.

The label issued by this organization carries the

letters “ RAL ”, signifying that goods so labeled are guaranteed to comply with quality conditions and tests given in the specifications covering these commodities.

Great Britain. —In Great Britain there is no official body responsible for approving electrical apparatus

except in the case of electricity meters, the approval

in which case is given by the Minister of Transport on

the basis of a report from the National Physical Laboratory, and ships’ lights, the approval of types of

which is given by the Board of Trade on the basis of

tests carried out by the National Physical Laboratory.

Electrical and other domestic apparatus is, entirely

unofficially, approved by the Good Housekeeping Institute. Gas meters and apparatus, such as gasoline

pumps, are officially inspected and tested by inspectors

appointed by the local authorities.

In connection with domestic appliances, manufacturers are free to submit them to the Good Housekeeping Institute for routine testing, and all equipment which reaches the institute’s standard of effi- ciency is awarded a certificate of approval, and manufacturers are free to use the seal of approval. A detailed report of the institute’s investigation is also drawn up and sent with the certificate. The certifi- cate given must be renewed yearly, and before issuing

a new one, the institute asks the manufacturers

whether the design of the apparatus has been altered

in any way. If so, the new model is submitted to further tests before another certificate is granted.

During the early part of this year there was organized in London the National Asphalt Mine-Owners

and Manufacturers’ Council for the purpose of standardizing the manufacture and application of mastic

asphalt for building construction. In order to afford users of mastic asphalt a ready means of indentification, the council adopted a trade mark and a design

of asphalt block, which together make up the mark

of quality. This mark is to be used only on materials

manufactured according to the council’s specifications.

Where the council’s standard specifications are

called for in the contract, purchasers will be entitled

to receive a warranty issued by the council under seal. This warranty will be in addition to the guarantee

given by the contracting company.

It is the aim of the council to exercise strict supervision over materials, not only from their source and

through all stages of their manufacture, but even to the actual execution of the contract. Holland. —The Dutch Testing Service for Electrical

Materials has been organized as a limited company

by the principal electricity supply undertakings of

the country. In order to give manufacturers a guarantee of impartiality there has been set up a control

committee consisting of neutral experts, such as representatives of the Government, the universities, etc. The specifications to which material must comply

are those drawn up by the Dutch General Standardization Committee. Where such specifications do not
May, 1933 COMMERCIAL STANDARDS MONTHLY

exist, provisional specifications are used. These are formulated by committees of experts and are adapted

as much as possible to regulations already valid else- where, such as the German VDE rules. In this way

are obtained the minimum requirements with which

the material must comply in order to be approved.

The results of every test are given in a report issued

by the “ testing service ”, and a list of approved materials is published every 3 months. Such materials, however, must not be confused with those which have been

granted a distinctive mark ; that is, a quality mark.

This is conferred only on products of especially good

quality, and which comply with supplementary re- quirements regarding the efficiency of the apparatus,

its life, suitability for the purposes intended, etc. The quality mark consists of an equilateral triangle

containing the letters KEMA (Iveuring van Electrotechnische Materialen, Arnhem). The word “ Iveur ”, meaning test, the date and a number indicating the

kind of material and the manufacturer are also in- cluded in the mark. This mark must be indelibly

stamped on the material or on the package containing

the material. For electric wires, this mark is replaced

by a distinctive thread. If a manufacturer obtains the

distinctive mark for one of his products he must make

a contract with the “ testing service ”. This contract

is valid for only 1 year because of possible revision

of the specifications, but it can be renewed. It contains, among other things, stipulations that the manufacturer must collaborate in the periodic testing of the

product in question by supplying samples regularly.

If the material examined in this way does not corre- spond with the approved samples, or if the manufacturer violates other provisions of the contract, the

“ testing service ” can revoke his right to the distinctive mark, and can impose a fine, the maximum amount

of which is also fixed in the contract. Italy. —Labeling is being carried on to some extent

in Italy. The Italian Electrotechnical Association

HANDBOOK ON SHEET COPPER

Announcement of the publication of a new manual

“ Sheet Copper ” for the information and guidance of

architects has been made by the Copper and Brass

Research Association, No. 25 Broadway, New York,

N.Y.

“ Sheet Copper ” supersedes earlier editions of

“ Copper Refinings ” and “ Copper Flashings.” It contains revisions and rearrangements of all the important details on the application of sheet copper in

building construction which appeared in those handbooks, and also much more new data on the subject.

One section is devoted entirely to specifications.

Material presented for the first time includes a presentation of research studies on the effect of temperature changes, the strength of seams and joints,

and data on lead-coated copper in the general section.

Also, corrugated roofing, vertical surfaces, and spandrels, which were not treated in the preceding handbooks, are covered. Special attention is invited to the details and discussions of gutter expansion joints

and of auxiliary drains. The section on drainage is virtually all new, and is intended to be of possible

aid to designers.

245

grants the use of a label, bearing the monogram of

the association, to electrical manufacturers whose

products are built in accordance with the specifications

prepared by the standardizing body in that country

(Ente Nazionale per l’Unificazione nell’ Industria).

Switzerland. —In Switzerland the duty of inspecting electrical apparatus and installations is assigned

by the Government to the Association Suisse des Electriciens. All apparatus which is in accordance with

certain required standards is labeled with a quality

mark issued by the Association.

International. —Several years ago there was organized in Holland the Installations-Fragen Kommission

consisting of delegates of associations representing

electric supply manufacturers in 12 countries, as fol- lows: Austria, Belgium, Czechoslovakia. Denmark,

Finland, France, Germany, Holland, Hungary, Norway, Sweden, and Switzerland.

The main object of this organization is to secure

international cooperation in the elimination of faulty

installation of material and accessories. A number

of countries, as has been shown in the preceding notes,

have issued regulations with a view to preventing the

use of accessories, such as switches, fuses, plugs, and

appliances which, because of conflicting requirements,

have not been approved by some recognized agency.

It is the aim of this body to design and make fittings

which would be generally acceptable in various countries. Specifications drawn up by the I.F.K. are intended

to form the basis for national specifications of various

countries participating in the work; and now that a high degree of uniformity has been attained, a further step is the mutual recognition of each other’s

“ national mark ” or its equivalent. In this way a design approved for use by the authorities in one

country, will be usable with but formal approval in another country. Negotiations along these lines are

still in progress.

IDENTIFICATION OF CHEMICAL PIPE LINES

The British Standards Institution has published a specification dealing with the identification of chemical

pipe lines carrying inflammable, explosive, toxic, and

corrosive gases. A careful survey of existing conditions in the chemical industry showed that it was essential that the

system adopted should be inexpensive to operate, and

simple and easy to memorize. In case of emergency,

the system should also permit of the quick identification of the fluids or gases conveyed through the pipes.

The British standard scheme differentiates between

the type or nature of the fluid or gas conveyed by means of a series of enameled identification plates

placed adjacent to the control valve and at such inter- vals along the pipe as is deemed necessary by the user. The identification plates are designed in such a manner as to suggest to the workman the nature of

the fluid or gas conveyed therein, and are so shaped

that sufficient room is allowed at the base for the name or chemical symbol of the gas or fluid, if so

desired. It is expected that their adoption will constitute a further step forward toward safeguarding

those engaged in operating chemical plants.
246 COMMERCIAL STANDARDS MONTHLY May, 1933 RADIO SYSTEM FOR LANDING OF AIRCRAFT

Tests Conducted by Bureau of Standards at Newark Airport Prove Most Successful

Practical tests of the radio system for the blind

landing of aircraft, developed by the Bureau of Standards for the Aeronautics Branch of the Department

of Commerce, are being carried on at the Newark

(N.J.) municipal airport. In some of these tests the

pilot lands the airplane while sitting in a hooded cockpit, so that nothing outside is visible. Other tests are being made in foggy weather, a condition which is generally not as severe as the artificial one first mentioned. The equipment at Newark is available for use by any airplane having the necessary receiving apparatus.

The present system was developed as the result of

several years of research work, divided roughly into

three stages: Fundamental experiments to devise the

component parts of the system ; practical development

of these component parts and demonstration of their

practicability in tests at the bureau’s experimental

flying field, College Park, Mel. ; and the present tests of the complete system at a commercial airport.

The system, as illustrated by the installation at Newark, includes 3 elements—-a runway localizing bea- con ; a set of 2 marker beacons ; and a landing beam.

These 3 elements give the airplane its position in all 3 dimensions continuously while landing. The run- way localizing beacon operates on about 300 kilocycles

and is similar to the visual-tyjie transmitters designed

by the Bureau of Standards for radio range-beacons

of the Federal airways.

Small low antennas are employed, so that the

ground equipment does not constitute an obstruction

to flying, and a goniometer allows the course to be

swung over an arc of 40°. This covers the northeast

quadrant from which winds are usually blowing at Newark during foggy weather. The marker beacons

operate at 10,000 kilocycles. One is placed about

2.000 feet beyond the edge of the landing area while

the other marks the edge of the field. These are lowpower transmitting sets with long, low, horizontal antennas. They operate from the commercial power

supply, and different modulation frequencies make it easy to identify the two beacons. The landing-beam

transmitter employs an ultra-high frequency (about

100.000 kilocycles). Its antenna array consists of 12

half-wave horizontal antennas, so grouped as to give

the necessary directivity of beam in the vertical plane,

while spreading the beam out horizontally to cover the

40° secor. This results in a fan-shaped beam which

provides vertical guidance for all orientations of the

runway beacon course, within the limits specified.

In using the landing beam the pilot follows a course

of equal signal intensity, below the axis of the beam,

this path being a curve tangent to the ground, thus

giving proper conditions for landing.

The receiving equipment on the airplane consists

of the regular medium-frequency receiving set com- monly used on air transport airplanes, augmented by

a reed converter and automatic volume control, for

picking up the signals of the runway localizing bea- con ; a marker-beacon receiving set operating on 10,000

kilocycles and giving aural signals in headphones;

and a landing-beam receiving set employing a detector

tube, audio-frequency amplifying tube, reed filter, and cuprous oxide rectifyer, and operating at 100,000

kilocycles.

The reed converter of the medium-frequency re- ceiving set and the landing-beam receiving set are connected to the vertical and horizontal pointers, re- spectively, of a combination indicating instrument

mounted on the instrument board of the airplane.

The vertical pointer shows whether the airplane is on

or off the course laterally, while the horizontal pointer shows whether the airplane is on, above, or below

the vertical path marked out by the landing beam. A

control panel is provided for controlling the receiving

sets, for reversing the vertical pointer to take care of

flights toward and away from the beacon, and for

adjusting the steepness of the landing path to suit the

airplane. A switch permits connecting the horizontal

pointer to the output of the reed converter to test out

the receiving sets. The method of landing is similar to that ordinarily

followed, except that the pilot, instead of watching

the horizon and the ground, watches the two pointers

of the combination indicator and listens to the signals

of the marker beacons.

The experiments at Newark cover the determination of the most suitable radio-frequency (from the

point of view of the airline operator) for the marker

beacons. In some of the tests the marker beacons were

operated on frequencies in the aircraft communication

band (3,000 to 6,000 kilocycles), so that the highfrequency radio receiving sets usually carried on

aircraft were utilized. During the past few weeks many pilots, airline

operating officials, and others have tried the system

under operating conditions at the Newark airport.

They have commented unnanimouslv upon its thorough practicability and convenience.

THE AMPERE

The value of the ampere has been determined in absolute units at the Bureau of Standards, using a current balance, in which the force between coils carrying a current is measured.

The current balance originally used by Rosa, Dorsey,

and Miller was employed, but the apparatus has been

modified in many important respects. Four sets of

coils were used. The important constant in the computation of the current from the force between the

coils is the ratio of their radii. Eight experimental determinations of these ratios

have been made giving results which are self-checking

and which show no errors larger than ±6 parts in

1,000,000. Four series of determinations of the force

give results in which the average deviation from the mean is about ±3 parts in 100,000. The present in- ternational ampere is shown to be slightly smaller

than the absolute ampere, the difference being about

6 parts in 100,000.
May, 1933 COMMERCIAL STANDARDS MONTHLY 247

STANDARDIZATION AND RESEARCH

Standardization Is a Continuing Process Whose Aim Is Not Fixity or Stagnation but to Apply and

Generalize New Science in Design and Construction

By Henry D. Hubbakd, Bureau of Standards

Standardization is the outstanding note of this

century. It ramifies to the remote details of our in- dustrial regime. Its trends are highly significant.

They tap all sources of scientific knowledge and affect every phase of designe, production, and utilization.

Research is the vital factor in standardization chiefly

through seven lines of approach : (a) Measuring the

need to be met, ( b

)

analysis of factors adapted to meet the need, (c) fixing measured controls for producing predictable quality or performance, (d) basing

such controls on correlation of fitness factors witli service utility, (e) devising methods of test of quality, (/) analysis of service experience or simulated

service to aid in improving the standard, and (g) most

important—research fundamental to the pure sciences

involved.

Measures of the need are the matrix for the specification. Point by point the measured quality must

match the measured need. The measured curvature

of the lens is made to match the measured defect of

the eye, and the result is perfected vision. The measure of the need is basic. Modern science is making

it possible not only to measure every need, but to create new stimuli and new desires to enrich life—

aviation, radio, cars, motion pictures, and the camera

are examples. Fitness for use is the definition of

quality. Fitness is best assured only when the need

to be met is scientifically measured. Such measures

should be the basis for all standardization.

Research affects every phase of the choice, treat- ment, and use of materials and energy, specifically

through the discovery and correlation of the properties

of matter and energy with useful service to man. In commerce the properties of materials are, of course, the real utilities sold, bought, and used. The utility

of things depends upon the nature, magnitude, and

stability of these properties. To determine these is the purpose of research, to correlate them with their uses is its main problem. By eliminating the useless or harmful properties and developing the magnitude

of useful properties, the net service is enhanced.

Discarding mere guess or opinion, reasearch is di- rected toward verifiable determinations through study

of those quantities or properties which assure maximum utility. This affects quality at its source, in the

design of the product, or the layout of the process by

which it is produced.

The tendency is away from mere duplication of

material once found acceptable, away from mere

“ brand ” designation, still further away from mere

descriptive or qualitative prescription. The trend is toward a precise statement in measurable terms of the

magnitudes of the pertinent dimensions or properties

which determine the utility.

The tendency is toward a minimum of standards of

quality for each service to be rendered, perhaps a sin- gle national or even international standard for each

need to be met. With precise methods of arriving at the data comes the natural unification of specifications,

the reduction in their number as they approach ideal measures of the quality desired, as science and service

make possible, and as the size of the groups interested

in a given specification widens.

Standardization is becoming an active principle in organization and administration in every field. This

is evidenced by the multiplication of standardizing

agencies, including technical committees on standards

in the great national societies of experts. Standardization is becoming an essential factor of all wellordered activity rather than an incidental activity

supplemental to others.

The art of the standardization procedure itself is being gradually standardized. A set of principles of

practice is slowly forming as to the initiation, sponsorship, participation, technical basis for requirementsS,

criticism, revision, adoption, jurisdiction, promulgation, and adherence. As the scientific basis for such

procedure becomes more convincing, acceptance by

wider jurisdiction becomes relatively easier and standardization is accelerated on a broader basis of acceptance. The boundaries of the standardization field are ex- panding, with the prospect that they will eventually

include systematically all industry and science, secur- ing the full cooperation of all concerned, focusing all pertinent facts on each item standardized, feeding

back service experience to standardizing agencies,

adopting the presumptively best feasible, making this

a general standard. The standard size postcard serves the Nation acceptably for billions of communications

annually. Modified as utility may dictate, it might

serve the world.

Standardization in varying degrees is universal in industry. The details of industry, its processes and

devices are being standardized, some by individuals or firms, others by technical organizations, still others

by the users. Many are being standardized by the Government. There is no natural limit to standardization, and the benefits to be secured from the perfected

service on well-standardized products are immeasurable. Most of all, standardization is now recognized

not as a stage to be completed but as a continuing

process—literally a systematic harvesting of experi- ence and discovery used in perfecting industry. The

Government as a buyer in its program of standardization of quality through specifications may eventually

include all articles and services used by the Government. The trend is to cooperate for the broadest jurisdictions, and this points toward national standards

assuring the best feasible products for the Nation.

Everywhere standardization is active through older

organizations and through newer agencies, both national and international. Nor is such activity limited

to the industrial field. The terminology of science, its methods, instruments, and constants are being standardized to secure accurate and comparable results for ease and speed of diffusing data. In medical research

and practice measured procedure is increasing in diag-
248 COMMERCIAL STANDARDS MONTHLY May, 1933

nosis, experiment, and treatment. The progress is notable—the struggle for new standards based on new

experience; new knowledge—innovation winning

through merit. Always the chaotic, chance qualities

and sizes give way to orderly, efficient qualities and

sizes. Evolution shows the development of standard

types of life forms adapted to a given environment.

Even the fine arts bear the impress of standards-

the metrics of verse, the rhythm of ornament and

motion, the proportions of structures. The interplay

of standards is seen in unsuspected fields where their

role is mandatory, sometimes with a rigor superior

to legal enactment.

Since 1901, when the Bureau of Standards was

founded, the varieties of measurement have multiplied

manyfold. Each requires units, standards, devices,

and methods of measurement. Their variety increases

rapidly and will continue to grow, for every aspect

of matter and energy calls for a type of measurement

with characteristic problems and becomes material

for standardization. Our mastery of nature depends

on such measurements. Precision today may be many

times that of 25 years ago within ranges then measurable. Today we measure wave lengths of light correct

to within 1 part in 20,000,000 with absolute errors less than one two-hundrecl-and-five-billionth of an inch.

We measure mass to a part in a billion. We rule scales accurate to a millionth of an inch, grind quartz true

flats to within one five-millionth of an inch. Not only

so, but the measurable ranges of each kind of meas- urement havrt been extended incredibly, from the

microcosm—diameters of atomic nuclei—to the macrocosm with cosmic distances of hundreds of millions of light years. With the rapid growth of measurements, their varieties, ranges, and precision, we now measure also

quality—the fitness for use; performance—the utility

of devices; practice—the effectiveness of processes. These call for standards of quality, performance, or

practice, complex, perhaps, but stating in measurable

terms the pertinent magnitudes which determine net

utility. They are called specifications. As they ap- proach definiteness through precise measures they

become service standards. Their full scope would

cover all industry when scientifically ordered, for measures must guide every step, every factor in making or doing things, to insure their utmost utility.

When a Federal, State, or municipal Government,

or a corporation buys commodities, the quantities in- volved forbid risk of poor quality. The demand for

quality must not be impracticable, hence to secure a product producible in the mill and usable in service

all concerned must be consulted—maker, seller, buyer,

user. A typical case of this was in formulating the

Federal specification for electric lamps in 1907. This was drafted in conference with Government lighting

experts, lamp buyers, representatives of makers and

sellers, and Bureau experts in photometry. The variety then in use was promptly simplified to a moderate number meeting all needs. The specification was

revised many times, as progress made it possible, with

the joint approval of all. Its provisions are feasible

mill practice; the Bureau inspects at the mills to minimize cost and delay, and the lamps accepted under

the specifications serve their purpose effectively. Today the Government specifications affect a vertical cross section of the entire American public largely because all concerned are parties to their formulation

and revision. A similar story may be told of portland cement.

While service is the ultimate test of fitness, production must precede service. The designer and the

producer must use the skill and data at hand, for the

buyer is waiting in the market. As a basis for purchase, sale, and use standards are drafted with diverse

degrees of thoroughness, loosely at first, definitely as knowledge permits. The cycle begins empirically, the

expert drafting a tentative specification in such terms

as the mill may be able to apply in making the product. As the public must pay, its voice must be heeded,

but the public is less concerned with the details of the

measurement controls which assure the quality.

Standards are means by which research is applied

to the production of serviceable things. In given

cases there is a best standard humidity for cotton spinning, a best compression ratio in the motor, a best

volatility curve for a gasoline, or a best diameter for a conductor for a given current avoiding both overheating and undue cost. These are matters of standardization. They are its principal task. They cannot be

fixed by service experience, for the ideal magnitude

may not, usually does not, occur in experience. It occurs as a matter of course in experimental research

which measures the effect of each factor and finds by

experiment the maximum and optimum.

Research is the appeal to the nature of things. Its findings must, through standardization, enter into the

control of the processes of industry to serve man.

Congress gave the Bureau of Standards the task,

among others, of measuring numerical constants or numerical data which express the behavior of matter

and energy. They are unlimited in number, they in- here in the nature of things, and accuracy is their sole merit. They are indispensable in planning processes

in science and industry. They become permanent

service elements in industry, playing their part no less than the tool or the energy. Dimensions are important, but the measurement of properties is now quite

as essential and exacting as control of size, and far more productive of new and superior kinds of service. Such constants are as vital to the functioning of a process as are the size and form of a key to the opening

of a lock. Research has a field in devising tests. Perhaps the

test may be regarded as a temporary expedient until

the standardized process makes the prescribed quality

inevitable. Then, with all essential factors of the

productive process standardized, the process will unfailingly deliver uniformly high quality and exact dimension.

Service research, formerly random, is becoming

recognized as the true complement of laboratory re- search in completing the standardization cycle. Research discloses facts which service alone cannot re- veal. It finds faults in materials, defects in devices,

imperfections in service. It finds their cause and cure.

It does far more, for it lays down new principles of

nature which permit progress not only by steady in- crements along old lines but by entirely new methods

creates new possibilities.

With active cooperation between maker, seller, user, and the research laboratory the specification becomes

a means of steady progress in the industry concerned,

and combined with service experience facilitates the
May, 1933 COMMERCIAL STANDARDS MONTHLY 249

more efficient adaptation of materials to their uses. Inflexible specifications or standards retard advance,

but if allowed to grow apace with new service experi- ence and research data, the specification becomes a

distinct aid to such progress. Standardization in the

nature of the case implies something of an ideal, a practical ideal it is true, but nevertheless an ideal. When it ceases to be such an ideal it ceases to be true standardization and becomes simply fixation.

Research takes service experience, analyzes it, and

gives the data to the standardizing agencies as helps

in revising the specification. Service integrates all factors determining net utility. Use is the dictator,

hence the appeal to service is logical. Service usually can tell the whole story. An excellent example is the

test structure erected by the Bureau of Standards in which 50 or more varieties of outdoor stuccos were

built into separate panels, each of a different variety.

The weather alone performed the test, the conclusions were obvious—the fittest survived. Poor types were removed from the market. Without debate a steady

progress in the quality of market stuccos resulted from

this service experience made available in a carefully

planned investigation.

Wise industrial groups may anticipate the users’

desires, even educate them to ever higher standards of

service demands. Twenty million car owners may not

be able to furnish the knowledge for designing an ideal

car, but their desires create a channel along which

effective design may well flow. Service experience,

however, must yield far more than opinions of users, namely, the scientific analysis of the service itself,

measured as carefully as we measure the parts of a machine. Hence “

tire miles ”, “ car miles ”, “ miles

per gallon ”, “ cents per mile ”, “ watts per candle ”, and the like, are shop parlance where service effi- ciencies are in daily question. Service efficiencies must be measured and the data used in revision.

Service experience, viewed in the light of the laboratory" tests, must, however, be the criterion for judging the adequacy" of the specifications themselves, or

their need for improvement.

More and more through research the most effective

dimensions and measures are wrought into materials

and devices. The standards of control measurements

are less and less a matter of opinion or even unsupported expert judgment. Experts themselves recognize that the day" of arbitrary" opinion is passing, that

experimental research and service experience can best

guide every" item of the standard. With great gaps in our precise knowledge of the properties of matter and

energy, empiricism still rules, but its domain narrows

as research gives us measured data based on scientific experiment and measurement.

No standardization is final since science is always

advancing and more effective equipment is being introduced into industry. The specification should be improved by steps not too frequent to unduly interrupt

the course of industry and trade, but often enough

not to lose the great gains from prompt use of new

knowledge. Standardization is a continuing process.

Its aim is not fixity" or stagnation, but to add serviceability" as often as the potential gain makes it worth

while.

HOSIERY LENGTHS

A letter announcing the adoption of the recom- mended commercial standard for hosiery lengths was

circulated to the industry on April 1, 1933.

This standard was established to provide standard

methods of measuring and standard measurements

for the various types of hosiery as a basis of under: standing among producers, distributors, and users of

men’s, women’s, and children’s hosiery. It is also in- tended to eliminate confusion resulting from a diversity of measurements and methods and to provide a uniform basis for lengths when no lengths are specified. The specification covers methods of measuring,

lengths and tolerances for ladies’ full-fashioned and

seamless hosiery"; ribbed cotton hosiery"; men’s and

boys’ golf, children’s and misses' ribbed, children’s

% flat knit and % hosiery; infants’ ribbed hosiery;

and children’s socles. There is also included standard

folded-cuff-lengths for infants’ and children’s anklets,

boys’ golf hose, and children’s % hosiery.

For the convenience of the manufacturer the number of needles and size of cylinder recommended for use in the various ty"pes of children’s hosiery, in- fants’ and children’s socks, and boy’s’ golf hose have

been made a part of the standard.

Mimeographed copies of the pamphlet entitled

“ Hosiery Lengths, Commercial Standard CS46-33 ” may be obtained, while the supply lasts, by addressing

the Division of Trade Standards, Bureau of Standards, Washington, D.C. Printed copies will be available later.

DRESS PATTERN MANUFACTURERS BENEFIT FROM COMMERCIAL STANDARD

Reports from manufacturers on their adherence

to Commercial Standard CS13-30, Dress Patterns,

indicate approval of the standard and continued benefits from its adoption.

A summary of reports from various manufacturers

shows that the basic measurements established by the

standard average 97.1 percent of the production of

each manufacturer. In addition to the basic size measurements, the standard also covers size classi- fications and recommended widths of material.

All reporting manufacturers indicated complete adherence to the basic requirements of the standard.

One producer stated that the standard has eliminated

size confusion. Others believe that the standard

should be broadened to cover other important measurements.

The report also indicates that manufacturers are using the commercial standard in promotional and

sales activity", especially" through the medium of

pamphlets, sales literature, and instructions to sales- men. In addition, others state that conformity to the

commercial standard is being featured in magazine

and newspaper advertising. A majority are certifying conformity to the standard by certificate, label, or trade-mark.

Several modifications to the standard were suggested but all are of a minor nature and do not warrant a revision at this time. The standard was therefore reaffirmed without change.

172SS6—33 2
250 COMMERCIAL STANDARDS MONTHLY May, 1933 TRADE-ASSOCIATION AIDS

Standardization and Quality-Grade Marking Activities Are Carried Out by Various Associations As An

Aid to Business

A survey of activities of 500 trade associations,

made last year by the Trade Association Department

of the Chamber of Commerce of the United States,

clearly indicates that trade associations are rendering

many invaluable services to business, and that they

are an essential and integral part of business management.

The Chamber of Commerce has just released a pamphlet on this survey entitled, “ Business Management

Aided by Trade Associations ”, in which are detailed some of the aids illustrative of the service field of

the trade association. Many of these aids bear on

simplification, standardization, and certification and

labeling, as well as the development of new-better

products through research.

On the subject of uniform accounting, the pamphlet

pointed out that accounting constitutes one of the

most common activities of trade associations; in fact,

it is one of the 10 activities most frequently engaged

in by the various types of associations. There are 131

associations carrying on uniform cost accounting and

the development of a uniform classification of ac- counts, 111 associations active in the field of cost

studies, including depreciation, obsolescence, appraisals, etc., as well as others engaged in such phases

as installation or supervision of accounting systems,

auditing, and related services. In a review of testing facilities, it is stated that in some cases grading rules and specifications for assur- ing quality of products purchased by members of the

industry have been established. Inspecting or laboratory testing facilities, such as those provided by the

American Institute of Baking, the National Association of Dyers and Cleaners, and the Better Fabrics

Testing Bureau, are maintained by a number of associations. Some associations certify as to the suitability

of particular items by authorizing the use of a seal of

approval.

In addition, some associations have been active in

improving purchasing procedure. Uniform contracts have been developed in order to assure the maintenance

of standard conditions of purchase. Organizations of

buyers, in cooperation with organizations of sellers,

have assisted in the development of uniform contracts

of sale or purchase; for instance, the National Coal

Association and the National Association of Purchasing Agents have formulated standard contract forms.

The value of transacting business in terms of known

quality, as well as quantity, has led to the establishment of grading rules or specifications, on the basis of

which products may be bought and sold. A large

number of trade associations have formulated definite

standards. The National Lumber Manufacturers Association and the National Cottonseed Products Association are among the leaders in such efforts. Sixtveight associations have adopted rules applying to products of the industry, and 43 associations have adopted

rules applying to the purchases of member companies.

Simplification and standardization are often the

basis for the rules themselves. Quality labels have

been adopted as a means of identifying goods of certain standards. The Institute of Carpet Manufacturers of America, Mirror Manufacturers Association,

Rail Steel Bar Association, Tanners’ Council of America, and American Petroleum Institute are a few of

the many associations which are promoting the use of

quality labels. Certification is extensively employed

as a means of guaranteeing that products or services

conform to a certain recognized standard established

by association agreement.

As a means of checking and enforcing rules and

specifications some associations maintain an inspection

service. In some instances the trained inspectors of

the association are called in only in settlement of

disputes. Inspectors in some lines make visits among

members of the industry to see that the rules are cor- rectly and uniformly interpreted. The Tire and Rim

Association maintains one or more inspectors in the

individual factories. Other associations furnish in- spection service in the principal markets and ports of

entry.

In discussing new-better products through research,

the pamphlet pointed out that scientific studies and

experiments are undertaken by many associations to

alter or improve the products or services of the industry, and to discover new products or new qualities or uses for the existing products. Byproduct and

waste utilization also receive careful attention in a number of instances. Twenty-eight percent of the

associations carry on special research work to discover new products, new qualities, or new uses. The Cotton-Textile Institute and the Malleable Iron Research

Institute have made marked progress in this field.

SHINGLES AND MOLDINGS

The Bureau of Standards has just released a supplement to Simplified Practice Recommendation No.

R16-29, Lumber (fourth edition), containing a revision of those paragraphs which pertain to shingles

and moldings.

The new molding sizes and designs of the 1931

revised 7,000 series were published for the benefit

of the lumber trade by the Central Committee on Lumber Standards about a year ago. These new de- signs and sizes, which superseded all previous stockmolding series, are the result of painstaking work of

a special committee representing the lumber and millwork producing, distributing, designing, and consuming branches of the trade. Architects, consumers,

manufacturer, and distributors characterize this new

series as the most up-to-date and architecturally cor- rect of any series ever published. The new standards

for wood shingles as a part of the American Lumber

Standards for softwood mark an advance in simplification and standardization of grades within the

shingle industry.

Copies of the supplement of shingles and moldings

may be obtained from the Superintendent of Documents, Government Printing Office, Washington, D.C.,

for 10 cents.
May, 1933 COMMERCIAL STANDARDS MONTHLY 251

WHY GOVERNMENTAL CONTROL?

Can Quality Standards Be Made Effective Without Governmental Control?

By I. J. Fairchild, Bureau of Standards

The various contacts and the vast experience of I the Bureau of Standards in the preparation of standards and specifications and in testing commodities for

compliance therewith, provide a background which

obviates any need for conjecture in the field of maintaining standards or securing adherence to specifications. It is simply a question of correlating and

evaluating the significance of the broad background of

experience in this field. In addition to the wide variety of private methods

in use for maintaining quality standards, a few have

been applied by the Government, and some additional

plans have been proposed with the Government as the

central agency. National

legislation has been applied in several instances

as a means for protecting

the consumers and the

reputable manufacturers

as well, from the sharp

practices of a relatively

small number of producers. The National Stamping Act of 1906 providing

uniform markings to denote the quality of gold and silver articles is an example of such legislation. Some States also have set up

certain laws affecting the quality of merchandise; for

example, the bedding and upholstery act of the Commonwealth of Pennsylvania which requires the application of tags certifying as to whether new or second-hand

materials have been used in the filling. Occasionally

also, municipalities have found it necessary to control

quality of articles sold within the city limits; for ex- amples, regulations on the sale of clinical thermometers

within New York City. There is also the type of legislation requiring that the composition or the formula

of the material be stated on the label ; for example, paint

formulas are required to be stated in full on the labels applied to containers in the State of Nebraska (1919).

From a commercial point of view, however, legislation is generally an unsatisfactory method of correct- ing trade evils, chiefly because of the difficulty in obtaining an agreement on the form and substance of

such legislation ; the inflexibility of the system ; the

extension of the governmental function ; and the at- tendant increase in taxation. Other reasons were

given in some detail in the first article of this series. One method of maintaining quality for contract buyers particularly, Federal, State, county, and municipal purchasing agencies, is the certification plan

whereby manufacturers are requested to certify that

a given delivery is in strict conformity with a Federal

specification or a commercial standard. In order to

facilitate the use of Federal specifications and commercial standards, there have been compiled for use of agencies making purchases out of tax moneys, lists of manufacturers who are willing to certify on request

that a given shipment complies with the Federal specification or the commercial standard.

Perhaps the most important and most promising

system now in use for maintaining quality to certain

definite standards is the voluntary application of self- identifying, quality-guaranteeing labels for goods

manufactured to comply with Federal specifications,

commercial standards, or other nationally recognized

specifications. A guarantee label is a certificate from

the seller to the buyer that the goods are in complete

conformity with some nationally recognized specification identified by the label. This guarantee becomes a binding part of the sales contract, thus giving the

buyer a justification for complaint or redress in the event the goods are not as represented. (A more

complete description of

these labels as applied to commercial standards and

the method of enforcing

them was given in the

fourth article of this series.)

In certain quarters out- side the Federal service,

there has been some active

advocation of the proposition that Federal testing

agencies should publicly release information on re- ports of tests on various commodities by trade brands

or by name of the manufacturer, and further that in

the event such reports of tests do not make the relative

order of serviceability clear, that the competing products be rated in a 1, 2, 3 order.

The idea of having information available on the

quality rating of all competing trade brands sounds

very attractive and at first glance it might seem that

the advantages to the consumer would be more or less unlimited. The Bureau of Standards has had a very

considerable experience with the essential elements of

this problem in certain commodities where continuous

tests have been in progress for several years. In connection with such a plan the first problem

that presents itself is the matter of obtaining thoroughly representative samples. If selected by the producer it would be but natural to expect an above-average sample. If purchased on the open market the

matter of pedigree is frequently in doubt and the date

of production is generally uncertain.

After the laboratory has made certain tests, questions frequently arise concerning the proper method

of correlating the tests with the performance of the

goods in actual service. Unless there is a nationally

recognized specification, upon which the industry is agreed, covering the relationship between tests and

performance, the relationship assumed by the laboratory must remain a matter of assumption and opinion, at least until such time as results of performance

in service are available for a better correlation with

the laboratory tests. The testing laboratory, of course, has no control over the quality of subsequent production. If reports

indicate a low rating, the manufacturer most likely

This is the fifth of a series of articles by Mr.

Fairchild, chief, Division of Trade Standards,

Bureau of Standards, on the whys and wherefores of commercial standards. This one, the

last of the series, responds to the question, “ How are commercial standards made effective

without extension of governmental function? ”
252 commercial standards monthly May, 1933

ay ill immediately strive to improve the quality of his

product so as to obtain a better rating, or if this seems

impracticable he will loiver the price in an effort to maintain production and sales. If the report indi- cates a high rating, the natural tendency is (1) .to attempt to increase sales on the basis of the superior

rating, or (2) to raise the price so as to obtain a greater profit. Manufacturers may also bring out new designs which may prove either superior or in- ferior to the product tested, and when the new product

bears the same trade-mark or brand, as is frequently

the case, the consumer has no means of making any

distinction between the two when attempting to fol- low the laboratory rating.

Such a system woidd lead to grave injustices to the

manufacturer who subsequently improved his products, but who through loss of reputation as a result of the Government ratings might find it impossible

to weather the storm until a more favorable report

could be obtained. Even then the unfavorable rating,

through inertia of the public mincl, would continue to be a millstone about his neck. Such reports would

be misleading also to the consumer, since he would

quite naturally assume that all of the products of the

leading company or bearing the leading trade brand

would rate similarly or be of top-notch quality. In

fact, quality ratings by a really authoritative body,

such as the Government, would tend, at least temporarily, to focus all business on certain highly rated

brands and lull the buyer into a sense of security and

complacency in making purchases of such brands.

The more or less continuous tests on dry cells at the

Bureau of Standards for the Federal Government

show that the relative order of quality among the

various producers is constantly changing and that the

manufacturers are continually striving for advantages over their competitors, much like jockeys in a never-ending horse race, so that a report of relative

position at any given time holds little or no continuing significance.

Some 70,000 leading trade brands and trade names

are listed in Thomas’ Register of American Manufacturers and this list is by no means complete. Therefore it is quite obvious that if a Federal testing laboratory should attempt to obtain representative samples

of each of the leading trade brands; to conduct the

necessary laboratory tests; prepare, correlate results,

and promulgate the report ; it would be a stupendous

task, requiring a vast extension of laboratory facilities and personnel at tremendous cost. The necessary lag

between the procurement of the representative samples

and the distribution of the index ratings on competing

items, even on a basis of highest possible efficiency,

would be great enough to introduce a very grave

question as to the reliability of the information at the

earliest possible moment it might be put into use by

the consumer. After release of the report it is reasonable to assume that the price of the poorest products would

immediately drop and the price of the best item's would begin to skyrocket so that in a short time the

value-over-price ratio might be expected to adjust

itself to a point where the consumer would receive no more service for his dollar from the items carrying

the high ratings than from the poorest.

It therefore appears that assumption by the Federal

Government of the function of issuing quality ratings

on all manufactured goods is a task of incomprehensible magnitude, entailing a tremendous cost, requiring the presence of a Government inspector in every

factory; impracticable not only because of its magnitude and cost, but because resulting price adjustments

would erase any practical advantages. The results in

many instances would be misleading to the buyer and

harmful to the seller; it would constitute an unwarranted extension of governmental function ; it would

place the Federal Government in the position of guaranteeing the quality of all manufactured products to the consumer; it would constitute an attempt on the

part of the Government to insure the purchaser against

all loss in purchasing transactions; and when com- pared with the present going plan to provide the

buyer and seller with standards or specifications em- bodying simple tests as a basis for rating, inspection,

acceptance, or certification of quality direct from the

seller to the buyer, the quality rating proposal seems

quite fantastic. In fact, when considered in the light

of experience, a critical examination of the quality

rating proposal leads in every direction to absurdity.

A basic question presents itself, “ How far should

Government go in the direction of maintaining quality

standards?” Patents, trade marks, and copyrights are keystones to certain phases of all commerce and it seems to the writer that there is a single principle

which underlies governmental participation in each

of these contacts with private enterprise. The Government provides, upon application and a satisfactory

representation of the facts, a starting point (in the

form of a patent, a trade mark, or a copyright) as a

basis from which the company or the individual may

proceed in defending himself against the unwarranted

encroachment of competitors. The holder of the patent, trade mark, or copyright must discover for himself infringements or encroachments, he must find the

necessary evidence, initiate action in the courts, and

prove his case before a remedy is granted.

In that field of commerce Avhere personal safety and

health are not involved, it seems reasonable to accept

this same principle as a basis for limiting the Government function with regard to quality standards. In

other words, I believe that the Government should, on

request of representative organizations or groups, co- operate in the adjustment, establishment, and recording of quality standards as a nationally recognized

and voluntary basis for grading, inspection, testing,

acceptance, or rejection, certification or labeling of

staple goods or services entering into daily trade.

That is, the Government should assist in establishing

yardsticks which the prudent buyer or seller may employ on his own initiative as a safeguard for his own

protection in business.

Both the procedure for the establishment of commercial standards and the guarantee labeling plan

voluntarily adopted by many industries in making

such standards effective, as described in this series of

articles, are based upon the above-named principle.

With a mere handful of employees it has been found

practicable through this method to direct the procedure; to guarantee the integrity of the process; to

see that every organization or individual directly con- cerned is given an opportunity to be heard; to provide, for the benefit of the consumer, a practical outlet

for results of research data or Government tests; to insure a full consideration of research data and labora-
May, 1933 COMMERCIAL STANDARDS MONTHLY 253

tory suggestions in the process of drafting or adjusting the commercial standard; and to confine the promulgation of standards to those really representing

the combined thought of the companies and individuals directly concerned, whether representing consumers, distributors, or producers.

A good example of the bearing which laboratory

data has on the final commercial standard is found

in Knit Underwear (Exclusive of Rayon), Commercial Standard CS3-32. The essential measurements,

tolerances, and method of measuring all types of knit

underwear as contained in this commercial standard are based almost entirely upon the results of

a research conducted at the Bureau of Standards

by C. H. Hamlin, as research associate from the

Associated Knit Underwear Manufacturers of

America.

With this work as a foundation and with adjustments which were made at the general conference, it will be clear that the commercial standard epitomizes

the results of research as well as the experience and

the best judgment of the manufacturers, retailers, and

the consumers. We are informed that at one time a large retailer

rejected and returned to the producer three carloads

of knit underwear which failed to comply with the

measurements and tolerances set forth in this commercial standard.

The reader will recall Commercial Standard CS31-

31, Red Cedar Shingles, described in the second

article of this series. According to Arthur Bevan,

secretary-manager of the Red Cedar Shingle Bureau,

the effective use of this standard as a basis for guarantee labels, backed by the manufacturers and the Red

Cedar Shingle Bureau, operated to so increase the

sale of red cedar shingles during 1932 as to cause a shortage of red cedar logs in the Seattle district. One misguided mill in order to keep busy began

sawing shingles from “ sinkers” (logs which have be- come water logged and have sunk to the bottom). It

so happened that a dealer in Wisconsin ordered a car- load of no. 1 grade shingles but failed to stipulate that

they must bear the guarantee label. In the meantime

the Red Cedar Shingle Bureau had refused to permit

the application of the guarantee label to these shingles

and the manufactured supplied a carload without

labels to the Wisconsin dealer. The latter was naturally upset and obtained, upon complaint, a very material adjustment in the price on the shipment. He

also wrote the Red Cedar Shingle Bureau, asking why

they did not bear the guarantee labels, since he found

it difficult to dispose of them without the label. The

answer of course was obvious and lie was advised on

future orders to require that the no. 1 grade shingles

bear the guarantee label. This instance indicates

rather forcibly the ease with which quality standards

can be made effective through guarantee labels without

governmental control or interference.

From the broader aspects, with special emphasis on

the functional aspect, it has been shown that (a)

commercial standards are essentially voluntary standards established at the request of and with the cooperation of producers, distributors, and users; (A) commercial standards are established by means of a procedure, the integrity of which is guaranteed by the

Government to be above reproach; (<?) commercial

standards form a basis for guarantees of quality direct

from seller to buyer for which the Government

assumes no responsibility; ( d

)

commercial standards

provide a solid foundation from which the producers

with the aid of the consumers and distributors can proceed to correct the evils attending undercut quality

and misrepresentation; ( e ) commercial standards

form a natural, logical, and effective outlet for such

results of Government research and testing as can

justify themselves to the extent of acceptance by both

buyer and seller; (/) commercial standards do not

extend the field of governmental function nor interfere

with the private control of business; ( cj

) commercial

standards require no expansion of Government testingfacilities, inspectors, or other personnel; (A) commercial standards are handled with a minimum of

Government cooperation and expenditure; ( i

) commercial standards require no legislation to make them

effective ; ( j

)

commercial standards can be made effec- tive (experience has so proven) without governmental

control; and (A) commercial standards and guarantee

labels based thereon are in full accord with American

ideals and principles.

DOMESTIC STOKERS FOR ANTHRACITE

The Anthracite Institute, maintained by the producers of Pennsylvania anthracite, which operates a research and development laboratory at Primos, Pa.,

is sponsoring the establishment of a Commercial

Standard for Domestic Stokers for Pennsylvania Anthracite (Underfeed Type) based on that Institute’s

Approval Code.

The tentative specification covers the construction,

operating requirements, and installation of underfeed

stockers having a capacity not to exceed a maximum of

50 pounds of coal per hour. Provision is made for

certification, both by the manufacturer and the instal- ling contractor, designed to insure the utmost satisfaction to the users of these devices. Safety features

and trouble-free operation are given due consideration.

The stocker code, formulated as the result of an ex- tensive study upon practically every existing domestic

stoker designed for anthracite, is the first of a series

of codes which the institute laboratory plans to submit

to the Bureau of Standards for establishment as commercial standards.

The submission of such codes in the series as those

covering magazine feed boilers, blowers, thermostatic

controls, grates, and other firing devices are designed

to place the entire domestic utilization of Anthracite

upon a sound basis. The Anthracite Institute Laboratory has been en- gaged for the past two and one half years in a comprehensive program of equipment testing in order

that devices intended for the use of this fuel might

reflect credit to the industry.

Approval codes used by the laboratory for this

work are based upon standards which safeguard the consumers comfort and interest insofar as the performance of the various types of equipment are concerned.

Compliance with these laboratory standards entitles

the manufacturer to use the Anthracite Institute’s

insignia on advertising and equipment. It is intended

that this approval plan will be continued and the

buyer will have the additional assurance of certifi- cation based on conformance to the commercial standard applied to his installation.
254 COMMERCIAL STANDARDS MONTHLY May, 1933 ECONOMIES IN RAILROAD OPERATIONS

Experience in Railroad Valuation and Maintenance Work Indicates Vast Possibilities of Scientific

Standardization

A vast saving could be effected each year by the

railroads of the country through adoption of uniform

standards for a large proportion of the huge number

of items of equipment, materials, and supplies, ac- cording to Riley E. Eigen, vice chairman of the District of Columbia Public Utilities Commission.

Mr. Eigen has set forth numerous possibilities of

economies in railroad operation in statements laid

before Commissioner Joseph B. Eastman, of the Interstate Commerce Commission, and the organization of

railroad executives. He points out that his statements

are based on many years’ experience in maintenance

and valuation work in the railroad field. Prior to his appointment with the District of Columbia Government, he served with the Interstate Commerce

Commission as an expert on valuation, specializing on depreciation and costs of reproduction.

“ There are vast unexplored realms abounding in economy plums ”, Mr. Eigen declared. “ It is, however,

a form of savings which only a strong and determined

dictator can effect, but the possibilities of such permanent year after year reductions in construction and

operating -expenses are real and can be brought about.”

Again after outlining numerous technical possibilities, Mr. Eigen declared, “ the attainment of such

uniformity could not be possible except through the

action of an authority empowered to represent all of the railroad companies. The consolidation of

railroads into larger systems, of course, would help

materially to reduce the number of different standards

now in use, but would not make unnecessary a scientific investigation, and would not have any immediate

effect tending to cure this lack of uniformity ”. “ There is no such thing as a national standard for

railroads as a whole, each operating according to its own set of rules, methods, and practices, except as to those laid down by the Interstate Commerce Commission or where movements of equipment require certain

uniformity ”, he stated. “ If standard rules, methods,

and practices were applied scientifically to all rail- roads, it would result in tremendous savings annually

in construction, operation, and maintenance expenses.

Even the specifications for track spikes which are driven into the cross ties to hold the rails in place are not standard for all railroads ”. As to possibilities of uniformity in specifications for

like conditions, Mr. Eigen reported that one railroad

will require 3,400 cross ties per mile of track while an adjacent road will require, under similar traffic conditions, only 3,000 ties. He added that one road

will require the use of tie plates on all cross ties, while

a neighboring road makes no such requii’ements.

“ There is bound to be a waste in either the practice

of one or the other ”, Mr. Eigen said.

Citing other instances of the lack of uniform re- quirements for meeting similar conditions, he mentioned wide differences in the weight of rails used, in the treatment of timbers used for cross ties, differences

in the costs of ballast material for use under tracks

carrying comparable traffic, amrUthe wide variety of

designs used for freight cars.

“ If freight cars did not have to be returned to their

home roads until tonnage was available ”, he continued,

“ a very large saving in car rental could be made.

Such economies could only be accomplished, however,

by pooling all equipment now separately owned.

However, as most of the equipment is purchased

through equipment trust bonds it should not be diffi- cult to refinance and transfer to one national company.”

Many of the best-informed railway executives, as well as representative large shippers, have expressed

opinions similar to those of Mr. Eigen. The experi- ence of many of our largest industries offers conclusive

evidence as to the savings that can be made through

the elimination of unnecessary variety of products,

materials, and methods. The railroads themselves

made an outstanding accomplishment of this kind more than 40 years ago, when they established the

present standard gage of track. The adoption of

interchangeable couplers and other similar features

represented further progress along the same line. Ample experience and technical knowledge are available to apply the same principles on a greatly extended

scale. TEMPLATE HARDWARE

The Commercial Standard CS9-33, Builders’ Template Hardware (second edition) is now available

in printed form and is obtainable from the Superintendent of Documents, Government Printing Office,

Washington, D.C., at 5 cents per copy.

The standard covers the necessary dimensions and

tolerances to provide complete interchangeability of

template lock fronts and strikes, as wel as the leading

varieties of template hinges, such as full mortise, half

mortise, full surface and half surface. It also in- cludes standard template identification symbols and

minimum clearances on butt hinges designed for

painting.

Most of the screw spacings and detailed dimensions

with tolerances which are covered in the commercial

standard have been in actual use for a period of 5 years or more and therefore may be said to have

passed the experimental stage and represent practices already well established.

Upon recommendation of the standing committee,

this commercial standard, originally published as CS9-29, was revised to include a few minor changes

adopted by the Hollow Metal Manufacturers’ Association and the Manufacturers’ Advisory Committee

on Standardization of Builders’ Hardware. In general, the changes constitute refinements which have

developed as a result of experience with the standard.

This standard should materially assist the hollow

metal door manufacturers and building contractors

in obtaining earlier delivery, complete interchangeability and ready replacement of the more important

items of builders’ template hardware, regardless of source of manufacture.

The recommendations as set forth in the commercial

standard became effective on January 1, 1933.
May, 1933 COMMERCIAL STANDARDS MONTHLY 255

EXTRACTED HONEY CONTAINERS

Industry Has Appointed a Committee to Prepare Recommendations for Simplification of Extracted

Honey Containers

By William E. Beaithwaite, Bureau of Standards

During the past few years the honey producers and

bottlers of extracted honey have given considerable

thought to the improvement of packages as a means

of stimulating sales of honey. Many types, shapes,

and sizes of containers are now in use and it is the

opinion of several leaders in the industry as well as marketing specialists in this field that the excessive

variety in sizes and types of containers has not only

resulted in confusion but has acted as a deterrent

to sales. In 1927 and 1928 a national survey of the honeymarketing situation was undertaken by the Division

of Cooperative Marketing of the United States Department of Agriculture in cooperation with the New

York State College of Agriculture at Cornell University. The purpose of this study was to obtain data

concerning the sale and distribution of honey and to determine ways and means whereby the marketing

situation might be improved in connection with the

retail distribution of honey. This survey, conducted

under the supervision of Dr. M. P. Rasmussen, re- vealed the information that extracted honey has been

packed in the following types and sizes of containers

Glass.-1, 13/4 , 2, 2%, 3, 3%, 4, 5, 51/2 , 6, 6%, 63/4 , 7,

8, 8i/

2 , 9, 10, 10i/2 , 11, 11%, 12, 12i/

2 , 13, 14, 15, 15%,

16, 17, 18, 20, 21, 22, 23, 24 (pint), 24%, 28, 29, 30, 32,

33, 36, 41, 42, 44, 48 (quart), and 72 ounces; avoirdupois, 1 pint, 1 and 2 quart.

Tin cans and pails.—1, 2%, 5, 6, 10, 12 (1 gallon),

30, 36, 40, and 60 (5 gallons) pounds; 1 and 5 gallons.

Wooden kegs. —132 (Puerto Rican imported) and

160 pounds.

Wooden loarrels —25, 30, 35, 50, and 55 gallons.

Metal drums. —50 gallons.

It will be seen that extracted honey is sold in at

least 65 different types and sizes of containers. It is surprising, however, to observe the small amount sold

in a majority of the sizes used. For instance, a number of honey producers in New York State used 21

different sizes and 3 types of packages in selling

extracted honey in 1926. Of the total amount of

honey sold by the original producers in New York

State (996,116 pounds) 96.52 percent was sold in only

6 sizes of containers. These 6 sizes, together with the

percentage of volume of honey sold in each, were

listed as follows: The 60-pound can (41.17 percent),

5-pound tin pail (31.81 percent), 160-pound wooden

keg (17.14 percent), 10-pound tin pail (3.65 percent),

16-ounce glass jar (1.60 percent), and 36-pound can

(1.15 percent).

Data were obtained from 42 honey-packing firms

which packed about 18,000,000 pounds of extracted

honey. In the Eastern States, approximately 97 per- cent of the extracted honey purchased by honey packers, bottlers, and shippers was delivered in the 60- pound tin. This size is decidedly (lie type of container preferred by the packers for buying extracted

honey in bulk. These 42 honey-packing concerns merchandised honey during 1926 and 1927 in 40 sizes and

3 types of containers. Southern packers used 7 sizes of containers, yet 4 sizes constituted 99.79 percent of

total sales. Packers in both the eastern and midwestern districts used 18 sizes of containers. Honey packers in the Pacific Coast States used 33 different sizes. The capacity of many of these sizes varied but from %

to 1 ounce from the next size. It was found that the wholesale grocery store as well as the retail grocery store operators complained,

almost without exception, that honey is put up in too many sizes and types of containers—that the multiplicity of size of honey containers is confusing to the consumer and actually serves as a deterrent to sales. Many honey packers believe that honey can be sold

only in relatively small quantities to the average con- sumer. This opinion undoubtedly influences the merchandising methods of honey packers and accounts for

the many small-sized containers in use. According to Dr. Rasmusson’s report, packers in the

East sold approximately 22 percent of their output

of extracted honey in so-called family-sized containers

holding from 1 to 12 pounds ; the equivalent figure for

the Middle West was approximately 29 percent; for

the South approximately 57 percent, and for the

Pacific Coast area 21 percent. Since a large proportion of honey is purchased through grocery stores of some type the quantity of hone}'' purchased at one time is probably determined by the sizes and types of

containers carried in stock by these stores. These

sizes of containers are in turn largely determined by

what honey packers believe to be the popular sizes and

types of containers.

In making a survey of the consumers’ attitudes to- ward honey Dr. Rasmusson mailed out at random 5,000

questionnaires to heads of families in four localities

the New York metropolitan district; Chicago, 111.; Kansas City, Mo.; and the cities of San Francisco,

and Oakland, Calif. Data were sought concerning

actual consumption of honey and the factors that

might influence such consumption. For the four

localities as a whole the 8-ounce glass jar seemed to be the most popular individual type of container,

constituting 19 percent of sales. The next most popular size was the 16-ounce jar, followed by the 48-ounce

jar, the 24-ounce (pint) jar, the 5-pound tin pail and

so on.

It is significant that containers (in either glass or

tin) holding 1 pound or more of honey, constituted

approximately 72 percent of sales. It would appear

from the results of this survey that honey packers

could probably increase sales by packing honey in containers that hold 1 pound or more and by standardizing containers in such a way that only about half

a dozen well-recognized sizes will be used. In sum- ming up his conclusions. Dr. Rasmussen directed at- tention to the need for an organized e.llort to standardize grades and containers so that the consumer can

at all times buy a uniform quality and quantity.
256 COMMERCIAL STANDARDS MONTHLY May, 1933

In line with this recommendation the American

Honey Institute, the American Honey Producers’

League, and several of the State and regional honey

producers associations cooperated in organizing a honey container simplification committee. This committee is to be responsible for the development of a simplified practice recommendation for honey containers. H. L. Enzelberger, assistant sales manager,

Food Container Division, Owen-Illinois Glass Co., is the chairman; and he also represents the Glass Container Association of America on the committee.

A meeting of this committee Avas held in St. Louis,

Mo., on February 28, at which time the simplification

of containers for extracted honey was discussed. Consideration was given to the question of the most desirable method for indicating the quantity of contents—whether by liquid measure or by weight. The

point Avas made that most beekeepers are not equipped

to check on liquid measure whereas accurate scales for weighing honey are easily obtainable. Also atten- tion was directed to the fact that honey is purchased

from beekeepers by weight and is shipped by weight.

It Avas felt tli at the variation in specific gravity and

density of honey Avould not interfere with the standardization of containers. It was pointed out also that

if honey is bottled and sold according to liquid measure there would be a great deal of confusion as to

filling points, overflow interpretation, etc. A motion

Avas made and adopted that the quantity of contents

in container be specified on weight basis and that this

action be taken into consideration in connection with

future work on the simplification of honey containers.

There Avas considerable discussion at this meeting

regarding the type, size, and design of containers that

is best adapted for use in marketing extracted honey.

Several of the bottlers present considered it necessary

to have a tall slender jar to create eye appeal for cus- tomer and to make the honey appear as light as

possible. Others considered this type of jar deceptive

and hard to handle, also a type of container that re- tarded sales on account of the difficulty encountered

in removing the contents. It Avas decided that the

matter of design or shape should be given further con- sideration and the secretary of the American Hone}^

Institute Avas asked to continue studies along this line. Another resolution Avas adopted at this meeting

recommending to the committee that standard sizes be limited, on the basis of avoirdupois weight, to the

following: Glass jars holding 2% ounces, 5 ounces, 8 ounces, 16 ounces, also the pint (21 ounces) and quart

Mason jars; Tin pails holding 2y2 pounds, 5 pounds,

10 pounds, and 60 pounds. It is believed the adoption

of this resolution is a big step forward in connection

with the honey container simplification program.

For a number of years the Division of Simplified

Practice of the Bureau of Standards has been of

service to a large number of industries in Avorking out

their container simplification problems. The Division

is cooperating closely with the honey container simplification committee and it has been proposed that the

recommendations of this committee be submitted to the industry for approval through the cooperative

procedure of the Bureau of Standards. After the

majority of the honey producers and distributors have

approved a simplified list of containers, the Bureau

of Standards will then publish and promulgate the

recommendations as representing^ the standard practice of the industry, subject to the periodic revision

by a standing committee of the industry to keep the

recommendation in line with current practice.

As pointed out by Harold J. Clay, of the LLS. Department of Agriculture, in his article on “ Simplification of Containers,” many industries have enjoyed

benefits from container simplification. Among the

industries that have recently adopted simplified practice recommendations for containers is the mayonnaise

industry. At a general conference of representatives

of glass container manufacturers, mayonnaise manufacturers, grocers’ organizations, and other interested

groups, held on June 30, 1931, a simplified practice

recommendation was approved reducing the sizes of

mayonnaise jars from 25 or more to 5 standard sizes on the basis of liquid capacity. This voluntary container simplification program Avas developed and promulgated under the cooperative procedure of the Bureau of Standards at the request of the Mayonnaise

Manufacturers Association. The five standard sizes for mayonnaise jars have since been generally adopted.

It is claimed by some of the leaders in the mayonnaise

industry that the acceptance of this container simplification program has already reduced production costs, eliminated considerable confusion in distribution and

has resulted in better marketing methods.

It is reasonable to assume that the same benefits that

have accrued to the mayonnaise industry through con- tainer simplification may like.Avise accrue to the honey

industry. It is to be emphasized of course, that reali- zation of the economies and advantages inherent in the honey container simplification program is definitely dependent upon the wholehearted voluntary co- operation of all elements of the honey industry in the

matter of adherence to a simplified list of sizes after

such a list has been approved by the majority of those

interested or affected.

It is hoped the honey producers and packers will

give the honey container simplification committee their

undivided support and that they Avill submit constructiA’e suggestions for the benefit of the committee in Avorking out a simplified list of containers.

BRITISH METHOD OF MARKING FOUNDRY

PATTERNS

The existence in England at the present time of a great diversity in the methods of marking and color- ing foundry patterns has led to a proposal that a standard system be adopted in that country.

The British Standards Institution appointed a, representative committee to consider the matter

and this committee has recommended a standard

system, which, it is believed, will interfere to the

smallest possible extent with current practice. In

order to make effective this standard, designated as Method of Marking and Coloring Foundry Patterns,

it will be necessary for some members of the British

industry to make some changes in their current methods of marking and coloring patterns. As pointed

out by the British Standards Institution, however,

it is believed that the gain which Avill result from

tlie adoption of a uniform method will be so great

as to justify the small amount of trouble involved

in certain instances of putting a neAV standard into

operation in England.
May, 1933 COMMERCIAL STANDARDS MONTHLY 257

ACTIVITIES OF AMERICAN SOCIETY FOR TESTING MATERIALS

Review of Current Activities Made by Various Committees of the Society

Current developments of the following standardization projects under the auspices and procedures of

the American Society for Testing Materials have been

reported by that society:

Steel.—The committee on steel has completed the

preparation for new specifications for alloy-steel cast- ings for structural purposes. These specifications provide for three classes of castings : class A. full-annealed, class B, normalized, and class C, liquid

quenched, for use in applications at mechanical stress where no high temperatures prevail. The completion

of new specifications for heat-treated carbon -steel elliptical springs has also been reported for publication as tentative.

A revision of the standard specifications for lapwelded and seamless steel pipe for high-temperature

service in the form of new tentative specifications has

also been acted upon by the committee. The re- vised specifications contain supplementary requirements of an optional nature for pipe intended for

use at steam pressures of 400 pounds per square inch

or over and temperatures up to 750° F., or other applications where a superior grade of pipe is required.

Approval has also been given to changes in the specifications for steels for high-temperature service, in- cluding those for castings, bolting material, flanges,

and pipe, covering in detail the use of materials at temperatures above and below 750° F., as well as proposed tables containing allowable pressure ratings

at temperatures above and below 750° F. The committee has taken action to recommend for

advancement to standard in June a number of specifications under its jurisdiction, including tentative

specifications for soft-steel track spikes, structural

rivet steel, marine boiler steel plates, structural steel for ships, heat-treated carbon-steel helical springs,

steel and iron boiler tubes, and open-hearth iron plates

of flange quality.

The committee has also approved revisions in the

standard specifications for steel tie plates, for billet steel and for rail steel concrete reinforcement bars.

Revisions affecting the size tolerances of commercialquality hot-rolled bar steels and cold-finished bar

steels and shafting in order to bring the specifications

in line with standard practice have been accepted.

Wrought iron.—The committee on wrought iron

has approved the adoption of the tentative revisions

in the specifications for stay-bolt, engine-bolt, and

extra-refined wrought-iron bars. In recommending

the advancement of these revisions to standard, the

committee took action to add requirements for flat bars three sixteenths of an inch in thickness and less. This class of material is being used for window sash,

and a demand for physical requirements has arisen.

The requirements include a tensile strength of 47,000

pounds per square inch, a yield point minimum of

six tenths ultimate strength, a minimum elongation of

22 percent, with a minimum reduction of area of 30

percent.

The revised definition of “ double-refined iron ” has

been approved for inclusion in the Standard Definitions of Terms Relating to Wrought-iron Specifications. A new definition for “ muck bar ” has been pre- pared and will be adopted as standard this year. The

definition reads : “ Muck Bar.—A bar rolled from a squeezed bloom.” Requirements for micrographic ex- amination Avill also be included in all of the wrought

iron and wrought-iron products specifications with the

exception of those covering common bars. Cast iron.—The committee on cast iron will recom- mend the adoption as standard of the tentative specifications for gray-iron castings. It will be recalled that

these specifications were formulated by the committee

with the cooperation of the Gray Iron Institute, and

were approved for publication as tentative at the June

1932 meeting of the society. These specifications which

cover seven classes of castings ranging from 20,000

to 60,000 pounds per square inch tensile strength were drawn up to supersede all individual specifications

previously existing. The introduction of the specifications as tentative has already removed an element

of uncertainty in buying and selling castings and the

specifications have been well received by the industry

during the past year. Once they have been adopted

as standard, it is expected that their value to the

industry will be still further increased.

For the past three years this committee has con- ducted a very extensive investigation on impact testing

of cast iron. Based upon a careful appraisal of the

comprehensive data resulting from this work, a report on this subject will be presented at the annual meeting

of the society in June.

Copper and coffer alloys.—The committee on copper and copper alloys has approved revisions in the present standard specifications for brass pipe to cover Muntz metal, high brass, Admiralty metal, and

red brass for use in the fabrication of pipe suitable for

use in plumbing, boiler feed lines, etc. Favorable

action lias also been taken to revise the standard

specifications for copper plates for locomotive fire boxes, copper bars for locomotive stay bolts, and

copper and brass boiler tubing and pipe, to require a minimum copper content requirement of 99.90 percent

instead of 99.88 percent as heretofore. The committee

has also approved for advancement to standard, revisions in the specifications for sheet high brass. The

specifications as revised will cover 2 grades of sheet

brass instead of 1 as formerly and 2 additional tempers

have been added, three quarters hard and extra spring.

Hollow masonry building units.—Action has been

taken by the committee on hollow masonry building

units to propose several important changes in the several standard specifications covering structural clay

tile. These revisions relate to the classification of struc- tural clay tile, and if approved by letter ballot, will eliminate the old designations of “ hard, medium, and

soft ” classification, which are considered misleading

in that they give a wrong impression of the quality

of the ware under each classification. The product

will be reclassified on the same basis of absorption

limits as now used, except that the “ hard and me- dium ” grades with absorption limits of from 6 to 16 percent will be known as “ 6-16 ”, instead of

“hard and medium ". The first and second numbers
258 COMMERCIAL STANDARDS MONTHLY May, 1933

in these designations represent the minimum and max- imum absorption limits, respectively, of the classifi- cations.

Revisions in the methods of specifying standard

weights of structural clay tile units has also been con- sidered by the committee. The committee has voted

to delete the tables of standard dimensions and weights

of units and to substitute therefor limitations on the

weights per unit of area and minimum number of cells in thickness. If approved by letter ballot of the committee, the amendments will be presented for publication as tentative at the annual meeting in June.

DETERIORATION OF VEGETABLE-TANNED

LEATHER

It has long been known that leather is deteriorated

by sulphuric acid, but the amount of acid different

leathers ivill stand without damage and a method for

determining this amount of acid have never been

satisfactorily established.

A direct analytical method for determining acid

is used in this country at the present time, and it is open to the criticisms that (1) all of the acid present

may not be determined, (2) sulphur from any source present in the leather may be determined as acid, and

(3) no indication is obtained relative to the presence

of strong organic acids which may be harmful. The

development and increased use of sulphonated and

sulphited leather-making materials, such as sulphonated oils, sulphited vegetables tanning materials,

sulphited waste liquors, and synthetic tanning materials, makes the above-mentioned limitations of great

importance. Thus the lack of a satisfactory means

of evaluating leather with respect to harmful acidity

is a handicap to both the consumers and producers of

leather and leather-making materials.

This situation has led to an examination of pH

methods for indicating the acidity of leather. Thus

the activity of hydrogen ions, which can be easily

determined electrometrically, in a water solution in

equilibrium with leather may be taken as an indication

of the complex destructive action of the acid in the

leather. This idea was first proposed by Kohn and

Crecle in 1923 but substantial evidence of its value

has been lacking.

This has now been secured as a result of researches

at the Bureau of Standards extending over a period

of 6 years, during which time the deterioration of 13

lots of vegetable-tanned leather treated with varying

amounts of sulphuric acid has been studied. The loss in strength on aging was used as a measure of the deterioration, and the results considered in relation to the original pH values of the leathers. All of the

leathers started to deteriorate at or near pH 3 regardless of the kind of vegetable tanning material used,

the degree of tannage, the amount of sulphuric

acid added to the leather originally, the aging conditions, and the pH of the original leather before treat- ment with acid. The disintegration of the leather, as measured b}^ the nitrogen extractable with cold

water, also increased sharply near pH 3, indicating

that the hide substance itself exerts the major in- fluence in the resistance of leather to destruction by

acid conditions.

This evidence warrants serious consideration of the

value of a pH measurement for indicating the harmful

acidity of leather with limiting values to be governed

by the length of service expected and the conditions

of use. Research Paper No. 547, published in the

April number of the Bureau of Standards Journal

of Research, contains a complefiTaccount of this work.

UNIFORMITY OF GASOLINE HOSE NOZZLES

Standardization, with special reference to gasoline

hose nozzles, was the basis of the talk by W. Hayes

Sims, Tulsa, Okla., distributor of a line of marketing

‘.quipment, before the recent meeting of the Purchasing

Agents Association of Tulsa.

Hose nozzles come in such a wide variety as to be a burden on the user and results in obsolescence, due to changes from time to time. Most hose nozzles are simply designed for use in filling gasoline tanks and

that’s all, in the opinion of Mr. Sims. The meter

pump, with its delicate machinery requires a nozzle

that is definitely satisfactory. For this reason manufacturers and oil companies were urged to get together

in an effort to standardize the item. Improvements

have been made in types of hose nozzles, but without

greater uniformity users are compelled to carry a

large stock of parts to repair the various types.

MARKETING OF FARM PRODUCTS

“ Research in Marketing of Farm Products ”, Report

No. 7 in a series on “ Scope and Method ” of research

in the various subfields of agricultural economics and

rural sociology, has just been released by the Advisory

Committee on Social and Economic Research in Agriculture, Social Science Research Council (230 Park

Ave., New York, N.Y. This series of reports is part

of a program of assistance to research in these fields,

upon which the committee set forth in 1925. Each re- port outlines the research of some subfield of agricultural economics or rural sociology and then reviews the

problems in methodology that are peculiar to it. In the chapter relating to Government grades for

agricultural commodities the statement is made that

the formation and revision of grades and standards is a never-ending task. Both the quality of farm products and the preferences of the markets for various

qualities change from time to time. New inspection

methods are developed, allowing the measurement of new factors and the more accurate determination of

factors already- recognized in the grades. The report

further points out that it is important if the marketing

process is to function smoothly that the grades and

standards be so revised from time to time as to keep

ace with these changes. Research is necessary as a

asis for revision as well as for the initial formulation of the grades.

According to the committee this study should be

made continuously to cover a number of crop years. Variations in the quality and size of the crop and in

the purchasing power of consumers may cause abrupt

changes in market demand, and the grades set up as a result of 1 year’s study may be unsatisfactory the

following year. Grades must be made so as to give

the best possible fit to different sizes and qualities of

crops and different conditions of the market.
May, 1933 COMMERCIAL STANDARDS MONTHLY 259

SERVICES TO GOVERNMENTAL PURCHASERS

Cooperation of Division of Specifications, Bureau of Standards, Extended to State, County, and Municipal

Agencies with Respect to their Purchasing Methods

By Spencer H. Reed, Bureau of Standards

In the days of the Delphic Oracle, and the Witch of

Endor, certain services to consumers in the form of

predictions were rendered by prophets through the

medium of mumbled incantations and brewed magic

messes. Today prophets make predictions with the

aid of the microscope, the test tube, the slide rule, and

the testing machine. As in ancient times there were

fraternities or brotherhoods of prophets, so in modern

times the prophets combine into governmental and

nongovernmental associations and societies, all having

for their ultimate goal—service to consumers. Not the least of these numerous groups is the Bureau of Standards. Among the many services it con- stant^ renders consumers, through the Division of

Specifications, are those found in the realm of purchasing. These are patently in keeping with the need

of the times, for there is an unquestionable trend

toward more efficient procurement methods, not alone

by commercial organizations, but by Federal, State,

county, and municipal agencies as well. In view of the fact that the average government

today spends anywhere from 20 to 30 percent of its annual operating budget for supplies, materials, and

equipment, it is not surprising that concerted efforts are being made to reduce such costs through the utili- zation of more scientific purchasing methods. Incidentally, it has been said that scientific purchasing is a preeminent characteristic in distinguishing a good

government from a poor one. Coincident with the efforts to reduce procurement

costs is the added importance given to standards and

to the formulation and use of specifications. It would

probably come as a distinct revelation to many to learn that the National Government, acting through

the Federal Specifications Board, of which the Director of this Bureau is chairman, has adopted and

promulgated up to the present time more than 800

Federal specifications, covering a broad range 'of commodities.

The Division of Specifications is engaged in facili- tating the use and unification of these specifications in

response to requests from Federal, State, and local governmental purchasing agencies. The services ren- dered by the Division were undertaken at the express

request of the official representatives of State Governors for assistance in solving their purchasing problems, and they have been conducted in accordance with

plans endorsed by the Chief Coordinator and approved by the Director of the Bureau of the Budget.

They have been given specific recognition and publicit}' by the Federal Standard Stock Catalog Board.

That these specifications are playing an important

part in Federal, State, county, and municipal purchasing is well attested by recent surveys of the Division of Specifications, made in order to determine the

best way to make its services helpful to local governments. It was found, for example, that at least 26

State purchasing agencies, and 30 State highway departments use Federal specifications.

Further, many States which purchase according to their own-government specifications, report the use of

Federal specifications as the basis of their own specifications. Seventeen percent of 422 counties furnishing data also purchase on Federal specifications. In more than 80 cities specifications are based on those of

national associations or on those of the. Federal

Government.

Considerable savings are reported from States and

counties utilizing centralized purchasing methods,

based on standard specifications. The average sav- ings made by States is about 21 percent; by counties,

22 percent. Eleven States reported a savings of 20

percent or better; and 2, a 40 percent saving. According to the last biennial report of the department of

control, State of Washington, more than $4,000,000

have been saved that State’s taxpayers during the last 8 years through centralized purchasing. The report

emphasizes the fact that “ no small part of the present

splendid condition of the State treasury is due to the enormous saving made possible through standardization and truly competitive buying of the State’s re- quirements.” Milwaukee reports similarly made sav- ings of $600,000 on $4,000,000 worth of purchases during the past year. A second distinct service to consumers is furnished

by the division through the “National Directory of

Commodity Specifications ”, which gives in convenient form information regarding nationally recognized specifications for more than 6.000 commodities.

Besides the “Directory”, the division, in compliance with many requests from State, county, and

municipal agencies for aid in solving some of their

purchasing problems, is preparing an encyclopedia of

specifications, which it proposes to issue in 10 vol- umes. These volumes will contain the full text of

the specifications, as contrasted with the “ Directory ”. which contains only titles, with brief descriptive

items. Three volumes of the encyclopedia have al- ready been published: (1) Standards and Specifications in the Wood Using Industries, (2) Standards

and Specifications for Nonmetallic Minerals and their

products, and (3) Standards and Specifications for

Metals and Metal Products. Governmental purchasers utilizing these volumes report them to be of great

value.

A third service rendered consumers lies in the so- called “ certification plan ”. In carrying out this

plan there have been compiled lists of manufacturers

who have expressed their desire to supply material

in accordance with certain selected Federal specifications and commercial standards, and their willingness

to certify to the purchaser, upon request, that the material thus supplied is guaranteed to comply with the

requirements and tests of the specifications. The lists of “ willing-to-certify sources of supply ” thus far

compiled relate to 349 Federal specifications and 38

commercial standards, representing 18,000 signed re- quests for listing from 8,000 firms.
260 COMMERCIAL STANDARDS MONTHLY May, 1933

Information concerning the separate lists of sources

of supply is set forth in the Federal Standard Stock

Catalog, utilized by all Federal purchasing agencies,

and to an ever-increasing extent by other progressive

tax-supported purchasing agencies. More than 30,000

copies of these lists have been sent to Federal, State,

county, and municipal purchasing agencies, about 50

percent of them going to agents for municipal governments. The usefulness of this service, which is given

free of charge, can be readily seen. Associated with the certification plan, is the “ label- ing system ”, also sponsored by the Division. In ac- cordance with this system, manufacturers are encour- aged to affix self-identifying labels to their products,

guaranteeing that the products comply with the re- quirements of certain nationally-recognized standards

and specifications. This system is being carried out

successfully in numerous commodity fields, not only

by manufacturers, but by trade associations as well. Whereas the certification plan is particularly useful

to large quantity buyers, the labeling system is in- tended to apply more especially to “ over-the-counter ” purchasers.

The foregoing paragraphs have set forth, in a summarizing manner, a few of the more representative

services rendered consumers by the Division of Specifications. The following material discusses, somewhat

in detail, the assistance given b}^ us, with respect to

specifications, to two municipal consumers—New York

City and Philadelphia.

Some months ago the then acting mayor of New

York City, Joseph V. McKee, appointed a purchasing

committee to make a report on the methods of purchasing, inspection, and storage within the city,

together with recommendations for their improvement.

The following data, taken from the committee’s re- port, furnish a brief background of New York City’s

purchasing regime with respect to the standardization

and use of commodity specifications.

Between 1913 and 1918 the city had a nation-wide

reputation in the field of standardization, and its specifications and standardization methods were

highly respected and widely copied. During that

period the city’s bureau of standardization prepared

and adopted more than 1,600 standard specifications

for mandatory use by all branches of the city.

In 1918, however, the bureau of standardization was

abolished, and its highly competent staff disbanded.

As a resxdt of this abolition, the city’s specifications

are, in many cases, now out of date, some of them not

having been altered in 19 years. The purchasing committee summed up this part of

its report by saying that there was strong need for a thorough-going investigation of all the city’s specifications. To determine what, in general, was the situation, the committee was instructed to collect from the

various departments copies of their specifications

regularly used in the purchase of staple articles. These copies, approximately 1,800 in number, were forwarded to the Bureau of Standards, where they

have been classified by the Division of Specifications and are now being appraised, specification by

specification.

The extent of the preliminary work alone involved

in this undertaking, and the exacting care required in

its execution may be recognized from the fact that

every one of the 1,800 New York City specifications

was compared (by title) with those of the Federal

Government, and of national technical societies and

trade associations, listed in the National Directory

of Commodity Specifications. This preliminary sur- vey showed that in a large majority of cases the New

York City specifications have not been revised to meet

current practice.

The preliminary report of the Division was favorably received and included in toto in the report of the

New York Purchasing Committee to the acting mayor.

Later, at the request of the Purchasing Committee

and Judge McKee, as president of the Board of Aidermen, the Bureau of Standards began a comparison of

the detailed textual requirements of the New York

specifications with the requirements of nationally rec- ognized specifications for similar commodities. This

work, handled group by group, and specification by

specification, according to the decimal system employed in the National Directory of Commodity Specifications, is nearing completion.

The final report will consist of a general detailed

statement for each commodity group, such as the one

given immediately below for the completed textile group, and in addition will contain comments regarding each specification under the group.

With respect to the New York City textile specifications, except in a few cases, where the requirements

are considerably out of line with present day nationally recognized specifications, no suggestions for

changes have been made regarding the physical properties called for. It is thought that the assignment of

values to the various properties of any textile rightly

belongs to the specifying body which is familiar with

the uses to which the material is to be put, the properties of commercial goods most nearly suitable for the

uses contemplated, the availability of material, prices,

etc. Where nationally recognized specifications are

available for materials similar to those called for in the New York City specifications, they have been cited

for purposes of comparison. Specific comments with

respect to widths, weights, thread count, tensile

strength, color requirements, and testing have also been given.

In comparing the specifications relating to animal

products, and vegetable products, the division enlisted

the aid of several agencies of the United States Department of Agriculture, chiefly the Bureau of Agricultural Economics and the Food and Drugs Administration.

The lumber group, covering materials of construction, was reviewed with a representative of the National Lumber Manufacturers Association. It was

found that the entire group, except for a certain few

items, is now obsolete so far as present purchasing

practice is concerned. Most of the specifications cov- ering lumber are dated as of 1914. Naturally, marked

changes have taken place in lumber purchasing methods since then. Lumber, today, it is pointed out, is purchased on the basis of grading rules established

by lumber associations, copies of which can be obtained

from these organizations.

With respect to the nonmetallic minerals specifications, wide use is being made of the information to be

found in the 1930 volume of the Encyclopedia of

Specifications series, Standards and Specifications for

Nonmetallic Minerals and Their Products. Additional data, incorporated in our files since the publi-
May, 1933 COMMERCIAL STANDARDS MONTHLY 261

cation of this book, have also been used. As for the

metals specifications, use is being made of the 1933

volume of the Encyclopedia of Specifications, Standards and Specifications for Metals and Metal Products.

Specifications relating to chemicals, and to miscellaneous commodities, are being compared with those

prepared by the United States Pharmacopoeial Convention, the American Chemical Society, and the

Federal Specifications Board.

It is pertinent to wonder at this point just what

savings may accrue to New York City through a revision of existing specifications and the adoption of

new specifications, based in part, at least, on our survey and recommendations. While it is, of course, impossible to give a definite answer to such query, it is to be noted that in the summary of major recom- mendations made by the Purchasing Committee of

New York, the estimated savings on commodities

through centralized purchasing, based upon standardized specifications, is given as $4,000,000.

Work similar to that done for New York City has

been done for Philadelphia. Some months ago, at the

instigation of an official of the board of public education of that city, specifications for a new administration building for one of its school districts were care- fully compared by the Division of Specifications, com- modity by commodity, with the specifications for four

other Government buildings. As a result of such comparison, copies of 118 Federal specifications, 3 commercial standards, and specifications for the 4 Government buildings were forwarded to the board.

In conclusion, the highly significant fact should be

pointed out that many farsighted purchasing officials are giving renewed attention to the belief that a large

factor in reducing the costs of running their respective units lies in the wisdom used in selecting materials—materials whose cost, strength, and durability

are well balanced in carefully drawn specifications.

New York City’s present mayor, in keeping with this

tendency, has listed as the first item on his economy

program “ the creation of a centralized purchasing

department for the purchase of all supplies paid for

from funds in the city treasury.” And this is done in

accordance with the recommendations of a committee

which has advocated the standardization of the city

specifications and the bringing of them into harmony

with good commercial practice, through the cooperation of the Bureau of Standards.

CONNECTORS FOR TIMBER CONSTRUCTION

Introduction in this country of a “revolutionary”

method of making wood joints through use of metal

connectors, strengthening timber construction at its critical point and hereby making it available for wider

consideration in major structures, is forecast in a handbook on Modern Connectors for Timber Construction

issued by the National Committee on Wood Utilization

of the United States Department of Commerce, and

prepared jointly by engineers of the committee and

of the Forest Products Laboratory of the Forest

Service, United States Department of Agriculture.

Lumber, construction, and metal stamping and cast- ing interests, as well as architectural and engineering

groups, it has been reported, have been awaiting this

report with unusual interest through its several years

of preparation. The new practices it makes available

for engineering use should result in marked economy

in construction, serve as a stimulant to the advantageous

investment of capital therein, and prove an innovation

and a boom in several special fields to which it will

afford new avenues for activity and development.

“ The application of ‘ Modern Connectors for Timber Construction ’ ”, said the Secretary of Commerce

in releasing the report, “ should be given careful

study by architects, engineers, and builders. The

principle involves economy in construction cost and

increased service from building materials ”. “ Modern Connectors for Timber Construction ” is a 147-page handbook explaining the connectors and

their use, giving the relative value and fields of utility

of the several types as determined by European practice and analyses made in this country, and American

use data including a discussion of stress and load

factors. It is paper-bound, amply illustrated, and

may be obtained at 15 cents per copy from the Superintendent of Documents, Government Printing Office,

Washington, D.C. It may also be secured direct

from the National Committee on Wood Utilization,

U.S. Department of Commerce, Washington, D.C.

METAL AND FIBER FLASHLIGHT CASES

The proposed revised simplified practice recom- mendation no. 68, covering metal and fiber flashlight

cases, has been mailed to all interests in the industry,

by the Division of Simplified Practice of the Bureau

of Standards, for their consideration and written

approval.

It is expected that the regular stock items listed in

the proposed revision, as formulated by the standing

committee of the industry, will adequately serve the

purposes for which the conventional types of flash- light case is intended. The proposed revised recom- mendation is to be effective one month after the an- nouncement by the Bureau of Standards that the

required degree of support has been accorded the

recommendation

NEW FEDERAL SPECIFICATIONS

Ten specifications were acted on by the Federal

Specifications Board during April. Of this number,

5 proposed specifications and 5 revisions have been

sent out for official comment and criticism. Copies

of these specifications are available in mimeographed

form, and further information can be obtained from

the Federal Specifications Board, Bureau of Standards, Washington, D.C.

New desig- nation Specifications proposed Old

F.S.B. No.

AA-S-271

Brass, naval, bars, rods, shapes, sheets, and strips

,\ A-F-S01 PP-H-191

PP-P-571

QQ-Z-301 WW-P-521

REVISIONS

Furniture and cabinets, office sectional, wood 359

56-la 571a

531 535

Zinc, plates, sheets, and strips Pipe-fittings, malleable-iron (threaded) 160 pounds
262 COMMERCIAL STANDARDS MONTHLY May, 1933 HIGH-TEMPERATURE HEAT INSULATION

The development of good refractory insulations

is one of the most important achievements in the re- fractories field. There are now many new products

which are reported to save operating costs, especially

in intermittently operated furnaces, by the use of in- sulation. In a good many cases these insulations are

so refractory that they have been used to face the

flame with or without a thin coating of refractory

cement. The savings reported in many cases, for

example, in heat-treating furnaces, have been phenomenal.

In view of the great importance of this work the

A.S.T.M. Committee on Refractories has decided

to begin work on the preparation of tests and specifications for higli-temperature insulation and for in- sulating refractories. Once the committee has developed standard test methods and specifications, it is expected that some of the problems of the consumer

in purchasing these materials will have been solved.

Three proposed tests for use in specifications have

been considered by the committee cover (1) shrinkage

under heat treatment, (2) transverse strength, and

(3) crushing strength.

STANDARDIZATION OF AIRCRAFT POSITION

LIGHTS

The Air Corps of the Army and the Bureau of

Aeronautics of the Navy are cooperating with the

Aeronautics Branch of the United States Department

of Commerce in a movement to bring about greater

uniformity in the red and green colors used for air- craft position lights.

Three steps are involved in the program—the preparation of suitable specifications for the colored glass- ware, the selection and measurement of the standard

filters to represent the color limits, and the provision

of the photometers required to test the glassware for

conformity with the limits. Definitions controlling

the colors of position lights have been published by

the Aeronautics Branch of the Department of Commerce. These definitions, which are a part of the air- worthiness requirements for such lights, follow

:

Left-wing lights shall be aviation red having a dominant wave length of not less than 0.613 micron and

1.00 purity. Right-wing lights shall be aviation green

having a dominant wave length not greater than 0.530

micron and purity not less than 0.42. When colored glass is used to obtain colored light

the resulting color is principally controlled by the

color of the glass, but it is also somewhat affected by

the color of the light source. In preparing standards

for color limits and specifications to control the color

of glassware, it is necessary to take this into account. For lamps to be used with standard filters, the color

is usually defined bjr the “ color temperature.” The

present primary standards of aviation red and green

have been selected for use with lamps of “ color temperature ” 2.360° K. Such lamps have about the same color as the ordinary vacuum tungsten lamps.

Copies of the primary standard filters are now being

prepared for the use of the inspectors of the Air

Corps of the Army and of the Bureau of Aeronautics

of the Navy Department. WherTfilters of the required

color are not available filters of denser color must be

ground and polished step by step until the correct

color is obtained. The transmission of the reference

standard is then carefully measured by a number of

observers so that it can be used as a standard for

measuring the transmission of other glassware.

The research division of the Aeronautics Branch of

the Department of Commerce is carrying out this

work in collaboration with the Bureau of Standards.

PAPER-TESTING METHODS

Tentative methods of testing for alpha cellulose,

copper number, total acidity, ink absorption of blot- ting paper, absorption of water by bibulous papers,

such as toweling, and water resistance were completed

by the paper-testing committee of the Technical Association of the Pulp and Paper Industry during the

past year. The methods for alpha cellulose and copper number,

used as measures of chemical purity of cellulose, are based on well-known procedures for pulp, with modifications by Burton and Rascli to adapt them to paper. Total acidity is determined essentially ac- cording to the Kohler-Hall method. The distinctive

feature of this method is three successive aqueous

extractions of finely ground test specimens to obtain

the acid for titration. The methods for absorption of

ink and of water are similar ; a measured quantity of

the liquid is delivered on the surface of the paper,

and the time for complete absorption as indicated

by no further reflection of light from the liquid is noted. Reed’s method for ink absorption of blotting

paper was used as the basis of these methods. The

water-resistance method is based on the dry-indicator

method developed by Carson. In this method the

permeation of water is measured by finding the time

required for change in the color of a sugar-dve mixture on the upper surface of test specimens floated on

water. In most cases the details of these methods are developed through joint laboratory testing by members of subcommittees. Considerable work of this

kind is in progress for development of new methods

or improvement of existing methods. Further study

is being made of means of measuring water resist- ance and grease resistance. A subcommittee on chemical methods is studying determination of pH, active

sulphur, iron, and resin. Another subcommittee,

through cooperative testing, is finding whether or not

improved accuracy in fiber analysis of paper can be

obtained by “ weight factors ” for fibers to take into

account the differences in specific gravity of fibers. In making paper, fibers are mixed by weight ; but in

testing paper, their relative proportion is estimated

by volume. The association method for strength and

other physical properties are being revised by a subcommittee recently formed for the purpose. This

work is of particular interest, as it is being done on an

international scale through the cooperation of several

foreign organizations interested in paper-testing

standards.

The testing of paper is not simple, because of its heterogeneous nature, but these cooperative studies of

the problems involved are leading to ultimate solution

of them.
May, 1933 COMMERCIAL STANDARDS MONTHLY 263

BRITISH LUMBER STANDARDS

A conference convened by the British Standards

Institution in November 1932, recommended to the

institution that a committee be created at once to pre- pare a series of British standard specifications for

timber, including sizes and grading.

The conference included representatives of all timber

supplying and using interests in the United Kingdom,

as well as representatives of the British Columbia

lumber millers and of the Australian, New Zealand,

and South African Governments.

“This step should have far-reaching effects in in- creasing trade between the mother country and

Canada in particular among the timber-growing

countries of the Empire”, states the Canada Illus- trated Weekly of London, in commenting on the measure. The magazine then points out that one of

the main obstacles to this trade has been differences

in standards and specifications, and that this will

now be removed by the adoption of the proposed

British standards specifications.

ACTIVITIES OF THE AMERICAN STANDARDS

ASSOCIATION

Electrical insulating materials.—A letter ballot is being taken on the questions involved in the initiation

of a project on the subject of electrical insulating

materials in general. The project would have the fol- lowing formal scope: Specifications and methods of

test for electrical insulating materials.

Code rubber insulation.—A letter ballot is beingtaken on the question of recommendations to the standards council on the approval as American standard

of specifications for code rubber insulation. These

proposed specifications were prepared by the sectional

committee on insulated wires and cables, which is under the sponsorship of the electrical standards committee. The specifications cover the grade of insulation known to the trade as code rubber insulation.

These are not specifications for the complete insulated

wire but only for the insulation, it being the program

of the sectional committee to prepare the specifications

for braids, insulation, the copper wire, etc., as separate

specifications.

Transformers.—A ballot is being taken on the question of recommendations to the standards council on

the approval of standards for constant current trans- formers as American standard. These standards were

submitted by the American Institute of Electrical

Engineers and constitute a revision of the existing

A.I.E.E. Standard No. 12, edition o.f May 1930.

Future revisions of these standards will be handled by

the sectional committee on transformers, the organization of which is now practically complete. This committee will also take care of standards for a large variety of other types of transformers. The proposed

standards for constant current transformers cover the

type of transformer which is used for supplying series street-lighting circuits. Protection against lightning.—A letter ballot is being taken on the question of recommendations to the

standards council on the approval as American

standard of a revision of parts 1 and 2 of the Code for

Protection Against Lightning for which the American Institute of Electrical Engineers and the Bureau

of Standards are joint sponsors. Part 1 of the code

covers the protection of persons against lightningwhile part 2 covers the protection of buildings and

miscellaneous property. Part 3 of the code, which

covers the protection of structures containing inflammable liquids and gases and is approved as American

tentative standard, is not changed by this proposed

revision.

Coal classification.—Progress of the work of the

sectional committee on classification of coals, under the

sponsorship of the American Society for Testing Materials, has been so favorable that a new subcommittee

has recently been appointed. This group, called the

technical committee on nomenclature, has been set up

to recommend names for the groups, classes, and subclasses of coal according to rank and type. Although

the literature of coal technology, including the reports

of previous work of this sectional committee, contains names that have been customarily applied to coals of

various types, it is understood that this new technical

committee will present recommendations based upon

its own investigations in this field. Portland cement.—The association recently approved the A.S.T.M. standard methods of sampling

and testing portland cement as a revision of the American standard methods of testing cement. The title of

the revised American standard has been changed to

“ Methods of Sampling and Testing Portland Cement.”

As has been the customary practice of the A.S.T.M.

and the ASA, orders for specifications for portland

cement will be filled by including with the specifications copies of the standard methods of sampling and

testing portland cement, since these two standards are

closely related. ASA Yearbook.—The establishment during the past

12 months of 31 new national industrial standards

affecting the construction, electrical, mining, oil, steel, radio, and almost every other major American industry is recorded in the American Standards Yearbook,

just published by the association. The book is issued

as a record of the cooperative achievements of nearty

3,000 scientists and engineers representing more than

500 national technical and trade organizations in the

development of a unified system of basic technical

standards for industry.

DOUGLAS FIR PLYWOOD

The Commercial Standard for Douglas Fir Plywood was released under date of March 29, 1933, to the acceptors of this standard who include the various

manufacturers of the commodity, together with a great many distributors and consumer organizations.

The commercial standard establishes grading rules

for this commodity which is a laminated board for

paneling, sheathing, concrete forms, cabinet work, and

industrial uses. In addition, there is included grade

specifications for door panels and concrete-form material, together with export designations and a glossary of terms. Copies of this standard designated “ Douglas Fir

pi>'wood, Commercial Standard CS45-33 ”, are available from the Superintendent of Documents, Government Printing Office, Washington, D.C., at 5 cents per copy.
264 COMMERCIAL STANDARDS MONTHLY May, 1933 RUG CLEANING

On March 30, 1933, a representative group of rug

cleaners met in New York and considered a proposed

commercial standard for rug cleaning, the purpose of

which is to provide standard methods of cleaning for

use by rug cleaners as a basis for certification to their customers. The standard covers cleaning process for

all classes of rugs, carpets, and floor coverings.

In the development of this standard the cleaners

have considered the hardness of the water and the types

of soap to be used under varying conditions, the tests necessary for determining the fastness of colors and

the precautions necessary in their handling. The

proposed standard also includes the detailed steps to be taken in three cleaning processes, viz, grade A,

grade B, and grade C. Methods of test for application by the customer to determine whether a rug has

been cleaned in conformity with the standard are also included in the specification.

Finally it is proposed that the following guarantee

be stamped on the invoices and on the back of identification tags attached to the rugs. The Company certifies that this rug was cleaned on 19 by the grade

method in conformity with Commercial Standard CS issued by the United States Department of Commerce. In due course it is planned to hold a general confer- ence to obtain the users’ views and to make any adjustments in the proposed standard which may be

required.

THE OHM

A determination of the ohm in terms of the units of

length and time has been made at the Bureau of Standards. The method depends on the measurement of a

self -inductance in terms of time and the present unit

of resistance, and on the computation of the inductance

from measurements of the dimensions of the inductor.

Three single-layer solenoids were measured. They

were constructed with such care that the inductance can be computed from the measured dimensions with an error of only a few parts in a million. The inductance can be measured in terms of resistance and time

with about the same accuracy. The results indicate

that the present international ohm is larger than the true (cgs) ohm by about 45 parts in 100,000.

TESTING FOUNDRY SANDS

In Letter Circular No. 363, just announced by the

Bureau of Standards, the methods of determining

the properties governing the usefulness of foundry

molding sands are discussed and illustrated by re- sults obtained in tests of a number of widely used

commercial sands.

The principal properties are the moisture content (degree of tempering), amount of clay or bonding

substance, and the fineness and distribution of the

silica grain, the strength in compression of molded

specimens, the permeability to the flow of gases

through the molded sand, and the temperature at which the grain will sinter onto a metal surface. The

various methods proposed for grading of sands for

specification purposes are discussed and some data

on the suitability of sands for different foundry purposes are included.

Copies of this letter circular may be obtained on

application to the Bureau of Standards, Washington,

D.C.

COATED ABRASIVE PRODUCTS

The majority of producers of coated abrasive

products who have accepted simplified practice recom- mendation no. R89-32 have expressed their intention

to extend their present methods of identifying the

simplified lines by including statements in catalogs

and other trade literature. Labels identifying the

simplified coated abrasive products are also being

attached to packages by manufacturers.

This recommendation, which was proposed and developed by the industry, is concerned with the size,

backing, coating, and grade numbers of the various

tj'pes of coated abrasive products.

A number of national associations representing

users of simplified commodities have for some time

strongly urged the identification of products by manufacturers who have accepted the various simplifiedpractice recommendations. The general adoption of

the identification plan should assist the abrasive in- dustry in maintaining closer adherence to the waste- elimination program. Cooperation by distributors,

buyers, and others will greatly increase the benefits

and economies possible through simplified practice.

When the simplified lines are so identified in trade

literature their selection can be made without diffi- culty and much waste formerly incurred in checking

files and auxiliary records for these data are eliminated.

Manufacturers of other of the 140 commodities, for

which simplified-practice recommendations have been

developed, have recently commenced identifying in

their catalogs those products which conform to the

simplified line. The identification plan, as applying

to simplified-practice recommendations, is described

and illustrated in a mimeographed report entitled

" Identification of Simplified Lines in Trade Litera- ture ”, copies of which may be had on request to the

Division of Simplified Practice, Bureau of Standards,

Washington, D.C.

PRESSURE AND VACUUM GAGES

The sectional committee on standardization of

pressure and vacuum gages of the American Society

of Mechanical Engineers has prepared a proposed list of definitions for the parts of pressure and vacuum

gages of the dial type, which has been circularized in

the industry for comment and criticism.

These definitions have been limited to the dial type

of gages utilizing an elastic container for confining

the pressure medium and include terms for the various

types of gages, structural details, auxiliaries, and

manufacturing and operating variables.

The committee has developed also a set of general

rules and a standard form for gage-purchase specifications which are intended for general application

by both users and manufacturers. The proposed

purchase specifications are intended to assist the buyer

in obtaining the exact type of gage best fitted for

a particular application.
SCIENTIFIC, TECHNICAL, and commercial

PERIODICAL PUBLICATIONS ISSUED BY

THE BUREAU OF STANDARDS

BUREAU OF STANDARDS

JOURNAL OF RESEARCH

The new Journal describes the Bureau’s re- search results in science and technology. The

union of science and its applications in one

journal shortens the lag between discovery

and application.

All engaged in industry and commerce should

have available for current use and permanent

reference the Bureau of Standards Journal of

Research.

Early in its firSt year the Journal developed a

liSt of paid subscribers double the anticipated

maximum.

This Journal is full of interest to executives

and technicians controlling industries and

commercial enterprises. It enables them bet- ter to promote efficiency by determining the

scientific measured controls ofprocess through

experimental and theoretical research.

Issued monthly

Subscription price, $2.50 per year

COMMERCIAL STANDARDS

=/

TECHNICAL NEWS BULLETIN

The Bureau of Standards periodical with a WAR RECORD! Started during the dark

days of 1917 to keep the Army and Navy and

other branches of the Government informed

of progress in scientific war research at the

Bureau. Upon urgent request this publication was continued and expanded to serve the

Government, science, and industry.

The TECHNICAL NEWS BULLETIN will

keep you informed of current progress in the

scientific and technical work of the Bureau’s

laboratories, and gives each month a liSt of

the publications of the Bureau. A complete

cross index is published with the December

issue.

You cannot afford to be without the TECHNICAL NEWS BULLETIN. Every article is short and to the point. The busiest executive can afford the time to read it.

MONTHLY

Issued monthly

Subscription price, 50 cents per year

STANDARDS YEARBOOK

FOR 1933

This new governmental periodical is a review

of progress in commercial simplification and

Standardization. It is the only journal of its kind. It covers the national movement ini- tiated by President Hoover for the reduction

of needless sizes and varieties of products and

the promotion of voluntary commercial

standardization by industry.

The Secretary of Commerce in the firSt issue

of this new journal said: “Certain Standards,

such as those used for weights and measures,

* * * have been fixed by legislative enactment. Mandatory Standards of this character, however, are few in number when compared with the large and Steadily growing

volume of Standards developed by industry

and commerce and voluntarily maintained.

* * * The activities of the Commercial

Standardization Group of the Bureau of

Standards are concerned with Standards

adopted by voluntary agreement.’’

Subscription price, $1 per year

The new Standards Yearbook for 1933 is the

sixth annual issue of a publication devoted

to the great and growing field of Standardization in its broad aspeCts. It gives a summary

of progress.

Standardization is a world-wide movement.

It covers all industries. It is part of the application of scientific methods to industry. Its achievements are of interest and concern to business men and manufacturers as well as to engineers. To the technician it is full of

example of methods and results of suggeStive

and Stimulating value. To business men it discloses trends which deeply concern their

interest.

NOW READY Price, $1 ORDER AT ONCE

“Standardization is becoming an aspedt of all well- ordered activity rather than an incidental

activity supplemental to others.’’

To obtain regularly tbe above-described monthly Periodicals send your order, with remittance, addressed: Superintendent of Documents, Government Printing Office, Washington, D.C. Foreign prices (countries other

than the United States and its possessions, Canada, Mexico, Newfoundland, Cuba, and Republic of Panama) are: Journal, $3.25; Bulletin, $0.70; Monthly, $1.60; Yearbook, $1 .25
THE UNITED STATES DEPARTMENT OF COMMERCE

DANIEL C. ROPER, Secretary of Commerce

“ * * * this Department * * * is devoted solely to aiding and fostering the development of higher standards of living and comfort of our people * * * its ideals are clear: That by cooperation and not by compulsion it should seek to assist in maintaining and giving the impulse of progress to commerce and industry in a nation whose successful economic life underlies advancement in every other field.

" —President Hoover, at the laying of the corner stone of the new building

of the U. S. Department of Commerce, J une 10, 1929.

AERONAUTICS BRANCH, Clarence M. Young, Assistant Secretary of Commerce for Aeronautics. Establishment of civil airways and maintenance of aids to air navigation; inspection and registration of aircraft and licensing

of pilots; enforcement of air traffic rules; investigation of acci- dents; encouragement of municipal airports; fostering of air commerce; scientific research in aeronautics; and dissemination of information relating to commercial aeronautics. (Some

of these functions are performed by special divisions of the Lighthouse Service, the Bureau of Standards, and the Coast and Geodetic Survey.)

BUREAU OF THE CENSUS, W. L. Austin, Director. Taking censuses of population, mines, and quarries, water

transportation, and religious bodies every 10 years; censuses of agriculture and electrical public utilities every 5 years; and a

census of manufactures every 2 years. Compilation of statistics of wealth, public debt, and taxation, including financial statistics of local governments, every 10 years; annual compilation of financial statistics of State and municipal governments.

Compilation of statistics of marriage, divorce, births, deaths,

and penal and other institutions annually, and of death rates in

cities and automobile accidents weekly.

Compilation quarterly or monthly of statistics on cotton, wool, leather, and other industries; annually of forest products.

BUREAU OF FOREIGN AND DOMESTIC COMMERCE,

F. M. Feiker, Director. The collection of timely information concerning world market

conditions and openings for American products in foreign countries, through commercial attaches, trade commissioners, and

consular officers, and its distribution through weekly Commerce

Reports, bulletins, confidential circulars, the news and trade

press, the monthly Survey of Current Business, and district and

cooperative offices in 65 cities. The maintenance of commodity,

technical, and regional divisions to afford special service to American exporters and manufacturers. The compilation and distribution of lists of possible buyers

and agents for American products in all parts of the world and

publication of weekly lists of specific sales opportunities abroad. The publicity of statistics on imports and exports. The study of the processes of domestic trade and commerce. BUREAU OF STANDARDS, Lyman J. Briggs, Acting Director. Custody, development, and construction of standards of measurement, quality, performance, or practice; comparison of standards used by scientific or other institutions; determination

of physical constants and properties of materials; researches and tests on materials and processes; and publication of scientific and technical bulletins reporting results of researches and

fundamental technical data. Collection and dissemination of information concerning

building codes and the planning and construction of houses. Establishment of simplified commercial practices through

cooperation with business organizations in order to reduce the wastes resulting from excessive variety in commodities.

BUREAU OF MINES, Scott Turner, Director. Technical investigations in the mining, preparation, and

utilization of minerals, including the study of mine hazards and

safety methods and of improved methods in the production

and use of minerals.

BUREAU OF MINES—Continued.

Testing of Government fuels and management of the Govern- ment Fuel Yard at Washington.

Research on helium and operation of plants producing it. Studies in the economics and marketing of minerals and col- lection of statistics on mineral resources and mine accidents. The dissemination of results of technical and economic

researches in bulletins, technical papers, mineral resources series, miners’ circulars, and miscellaneous publications.

BUREAU OF FISHERIES, Frank T. Bell, Commissioner.

The propagation and distribution of food fish and shellfish, in order to prevent the depletion of the fisheries; investigations

to promote conservation of fishery resources; the development

of commercial fisheries and agriculture; study of fishery methods,

improvements in merchandising, and collection of fishery statistics; administration of Alaska fisheries and fur seals; and the

protection of sponges off the coast of Florida. BUREAU OF LIGHTHOUSES, George R. Putnam,

Commissioner.

Maintenance of lighthouses and other aids to water navigation. Establishment and maintenance of aids to navigation

along civil airways. Publication of Light Lists, Buoy Lists, and

Notices to Mariners. COAST AND GEODETIC SURVEY, R. S. Patton, Director. Survey of the coasts of the United States and publication of charts for the navigation of the adjacent waters, including

Alaska, the Philippine Islands, Hawaii, Puerto Rico, the Virgin

Islands, and the Canal Zone; interior control surveys; magnetic

surveys; tide and current observations; and seismological investigations. Publication of results through charts, coast pilots, tide tables, current tables, and special publications.

BUREAU OF NAVIGATION AND STEAMBOAT INSPECTION, Arthur J. Tyrer and Dickerson N. Hoover,

Assistant Directors. Superintendence of commercial marine and merchant seamen.

Construction and administration of navigation laws covering

documentation, ship mortgage act, entry and clearance, move- ment of vessels, welfare of seamen, admeasurement, load line, adjudication of fines, collection of fees, tonnage tax, etc. Compilation of Federal statistics of tonnage and merchant seamen. The inspection of merchant vessels, including boilers, hulls, and life-saving equipment, licensing of officers of vessels, certi- fication of able seamen and lifeboatmen, and the investigation

of violations of steamboat inspection laws. UNITED STATES PATENT OFFICE, Thomas E. Robertson,

Commissioner.

The granting of patents and the registration of trade-marks,

prints, and labels after technical examination and judicial

proceedings.

Maintenance of library with public search room, containing

copies of foreign and United States patents and trade-marks. Recording bills of sale, assignments, etc., relating to patents

and trade-marks. Furnishing copies of records pertaining to patents. Publication of the weekly Official Gazette, showing the patents and trade-marks issued.

U.S. GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE: 1933