POLICY AND PROGRAM STUDIES SERVICE

Educator Sexual Misconduct:

A Synthesis of Existing Literature

2004

U.S. DEPARTMENT OF EDUCATION

DOC # 2004-09

OFFICE OF THE UNDER SECRETARY
2

Educator Sexual Misconduct:

A Synthesis of Existing Literature

Prepared for the U.S. Department of Education

Office of the Under Secretary

Policy and Program Studies Service

By Charol Shakeshaft

 Hofstra University and Interactive, Inc.

Huntington, N.Y.
This report was prepared for the U.S. Department of Education under Purchase Order

ED-02-PO-3281. The views expressed herein are those of the authors. No official

endorsement by the U.S. Department of Education is intended or should be inferred.

U.S. Department of Education

Rod Paige

Secretary

June 2004

This report is in the public domain. Authorization to reproduce it in whole or in part is

granted. While permission to reprint this publication is not necessary, the citation should

be: U.S. Department of Education, Office of the Under Secretary, Educator Sexual

Misconduct: A Synthesis of Existing Literature, Washington, D.C., 2004.
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CONTENTS

1.0 Purpose and Methods of Synthesis 1

1.1 Definitions

1.2 Scope of synthesis search

1.3 Methods of synthesis

2.0 Description of Existing Research, Literature, or Other Verifiable Sources 4

2.1 Categories of discourse

2.2 Systematic studies 

2.3 Practice-based accounts with first or third person descriptions

2.4 Newspaper and other media sources

2.5 General child sexual abuse data sets and instruments

2.6 Availability of research

3.0 Prevalence of Educator Sexual Misconduct 16

3.1 Sources and methods

3.2 Prevalence in the United States

3.3 Prevalence in the United Kingdom

4.0 Offender Characteristics 22

4.1 Job of offenders

4.2 Sex of offenders

4.3 Age of offenders

4.4 Same-sex offenders

5.0 Targets of Educator Sexual Misconduct 27

5.1 Sex of targets

5.2 Race/ethnicity of target

5.3 Disability and targets

6.0 Patterns of Educator Sexual Misconduct with Students 31

6.1 Context

6.2 Selection

6.3 Maintaining secrecy and silence

6.4 Geography of abuse

7.0 Allegations and Response 34

7.1 Allegations

7.2 Response to allegations

7.3 Investigative practices

7.4 False accusations

8.0 Extent and Impact of Legal Initiative 37

8.1 Federal laws

8.2 State child sexual abuse laws
3

8.3 State sexual assault laws

8.4 State educator sexual misconduct laws

8.5 Limitations of state laws

8.6 Tenure and licensure

8.7 Fingerprinting

9.0 Effects of Educator Sexual Misconduct 42

9.1 Effects on abused students: Academic, emotional and

developmental

9.2 Effects on other students

10.0 Consequences of Allegations of Educator Sexual Misconduct 44

10.1 Consequences for abusers

10.2 Consequences for targets

11.0 Union and Professional Organization Roles 46

11.1 Actions of teacher unions

11.2 Actions of professional organizations

12.0 Prevention of Educator Sexual Misconduct 47

12.1 Develop district and school level policies

12.2 Hiring practices

12.3 Screen employees

12.4 Assign a case coordinator and centralize information

12.5 Report all allegations to both child protection and law enforcement

agencies

12.6 Develop thorough investigative practices

12.7 Educate employees

12.8 Educate students

12.9 Be aware of signs of educator sexual misconduct

12.10 Change state educator certification regulations

12.11 Provide adequate state registry

12.12 Provide adequate federal registry

12.13 Enact and standardize state policies and statutes

12.14 Enact laws giving immunity to public employees who provide

references

12.15 Expand Title IX

13.0 Summary of Existing Studies and Recommendations for 51

Additional Analysis

Appendix I Newspaper, News Wire, and Broadcast References 53

Appendix II Surveys and Studies on Child Sexual Abuse 81

Bibliography: Educator Sexual Misconduct 89
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TABLES

Table 1. Empirical Studies of Educator Sexual Misconduct 6

Table 2. Summary of Practice-Based, First Person Reports and 9

Third Person Reports

Table 3. Empirical and Practice Studies of Educator Sexual Misconduct 13

Table 4. Studies of Prevalence of Educator Sexual Misconduct in the 16

United States

Table 5. Percent of U.S. Students Who Have Experienced Educator 20

Sexual Misconduct by Method

Table 6. Sources for Descriptions of Offenders 23

Table 7. Percent of Student Targets by Job Title of Offender 24

Table 8. Sex of Offenders 25

Table 9. Same-Sex Misconduct 26

Table 10. U.S. Sources for Descriptions of Targets 27

Table 11. Targets by Sex 28

Table 12. Targets by Race/Ethnicity vs. Sample 28

Table 13. Targets by Race/Ethnicity and Sex vs. Sample 29

Table 14. Sexual Abuse Reports by Disability Status, in Institutional Settings 30

Table 15. Sources for Descriptions of Patterns 31

Table 16. Sources for Allegations and Response 34

Table 17. Suggestions and Recommendations from the Literature for Possible

Legislation and Regulation 39

Table 18. Effects of Educator Sexual Misconduct 42

Table 19. Educator Sexual Misconduct: Data Available and Needs 51

For Future Research
Preface

Any adult misconduct or sexual abuse in schools is of grave concern to students, parents,

educators, and the Department of Education. This literature review of sexual abuse and sexual

misconduct responds to the mandate in Section 5414 of the Elementary and Secondary Education

Act of 1965 (ESEA), as amended, to conduct a study of sexual abuse in U.S. schools. To satisfy

this mandate, the Department of Education contracted with Dr. Charol Shakeshaft of Hofstra

University. Using the limited research that is available in this area, her literature review

describes, among other topics: prevalence of educator sexual misconduct, offender characteristics,

targets of educator sexual misconduct, and recommendations for prevention of educator sexual

misconduct. We note that the author offers several new recommendations that may be worth

considering, although some may be at odds with current law.

Although the author’s findings are in part broader than the congressional mandate and therefore

could be perceived by some as insufficiently focused, we believe that sexual misconduct in

whatever form it takes is a serious problem in our nation’s schools and one about which parents

and taxpayers have a right to be informed. The Department of Education is currently investigating

ways to obtain more reliable evidence on the extent of sexual abuse in schools.

It is important to note some of the Department’s reservations about the findings in the literature

review. Specifically, the author focuses in large measure on a broad set of inappropriate behaviors

designated as “sexual misconduct,” rather than “sexual abuse,” which is the term used in the

statute. Specifically, section 5414(a)(3) of the ESEA requires the Secretary of Education to

conduct “[a] study regarding the prevalence of sexual abuse in schools. . . .” (emphasis added)

The distinction between “sexual misconduct” and “sexual abuse” is significant in legal and other

terms. However, both are of concern to parents and the Department.

The author’s use of the two words interchangeably throughout the report is potentially confusing

to the reader. Federal law gives separate and specific meaning to the words “sexual abuse,” and

such words should not be confused with the broader, more general concept of “sexual

misconduct.” Specifically, “sexual abuse” has been a defined term for over 17 years [18 U.S.C. §

2242]. It involves an act where one knowingly “causes another person to engage in a sexual act

by threatening or placing that other person in fear. . .” or “engages in a sexual act with another

person if that other person is—(A) incapable of appraising the nature of the conduct; or (B)

physically incapable of declining participation in, or communicating unwillingness to engage in,

that sexual act. . . .” Id. “Sexual abuse” carries a penalty of a fine or imprisonment for not more

than 20 years, or both. Id.

Finally, despite some of the above reservations about this study, the Department believes that this

topic is of critical importance and that releasing the report is clearly in the public’s interest. The

overwhelming majority of America’s educators are true professionals doing what might be called

the “essential” work of democracy. The vast majority of schools in America are safe places.
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Nevertheless, we must be willing to confront the issues that are explored in this study. We must all

expand our efforts to ensure that children have safe and secure learning communities that engender

public confidence.

Eugene W. Hickok

Deputy Secretary
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Educator Sexual Misconduct:

A Synthesis of Existing Literature

1.0 PURPOSE AND METHODS OF SYNTHESIS

Section 5414 of the Elementary and Secondary Education Act of 1965, as

amended by the No Child Left Behind Act of 2001, requires “a national study of sexual

abuse in schools.” This synthesis reviews existing data which relate to educator sexual

misconduct including the methods used to collect those data. This report documents

research on educator sexual misconduct, not advice or practice recommendations unless

supported by data.1 Using data related to sexual misconduct, the synthesis examines:

Incidence and prevalence.

Offender descriptions.

Target/victim descriptions.

Patterns of misconduct.

School district responses.

Legal remedies.

Effects on targets and others.

Consequences to offenders of allegations.

Union and professional organization roles.

Prevention.

1.1 Definitions. The phenomena examined in this synthesis include behavior

by an educator that is directed at a student and intended to sexually arouse or titillate the

educator or the child. In this review, “educator” includes any person older than 18 who

works with or for a school or other educational or learning organization. This service

may be paid or unpaid, professional, classified or volunteer. Adults covered by this

review might be teachers, counselors, school administrators, secretaries, bus drivers,

coaches, parent volunteers for student activities, lunchroom attendants, tutors, music

teachers, special education aides, or any other adult in contact in a school-related

relationship with a student.

“Students” include any person, whatever age, in an educational institution up

through 12th grade. This review does not examine the literature on postsecondary or

higher education educator-to-student sexual misconduct.

The behaviors included in the review are physical, verbal, or visual. Examples

include touching breasts or genitals of students; oral, anal, and vaginal penetration;

showing students pictures of a sexual nature; and sexually-related conversations, jokes,

or questions directed at students.

 1 Practice guidelines can be found in Bithell, 1991; Hendrie, 1998 and 2003; Jennings and Tharp, 2003;

Olson and Lawler, 2003; Robins, 1998; Ross and Marlowe, 1985; Seryak, 1997; Shakeshaft and Cohan,

1994 and 1995; Shakeshaft, 1994, 2002, 2003; Shoop, 2004; Willmsen and O’Hagan, 2003; Zemel and

Twedt, 1999.
2

“Molestation,” “rape,” “sexual exploitation,” “sexual abuse,” “sexual harassment”—

these words and phrases are often used to describe adult-to-student sexual abuse in

schools. Shoop (2004) defines these behaviors as educator sexual exploitation. There is

considerable discussion concerning the appropriate label for these actions. While

“educator sexual abuse” is a common reference, “educator sexual misconduct” is a more

appropriate term for the purposes of this review.

In naming the focus of this inquiry, I use as a guide the policy of the Ontario

(Canada) College of Teachers that recommends the term educator sexual misconduct

because the phrase “educator sexual abuse” fails to include the larger set of

inappropriate, unacceptable and unprofessional behaviors.

By referring to “sexual abuse” the emphasis is placed on the victim, and the

question of whether the victim did or did not suffer abuse or harm. This is

not the appropriate focus. The proper emphasis must not be on the

student, but on the teacher, who is solely responsible for his or her

professional conduct” (Ontario College of Teachers, 2001, p. 3).

Using the Ontario College of Teachers “Professional Advisory on

Professional Misconduct Related to Sexual Abuse and Sexual Misconduct” (2002,

p. 2) as a guide, educator sexual misconduct in this review is defined as any

“behavior of a sexual nature which may constitute professional misconduct.”

(p. 1). Included in this broad listing are several types of conduct including overt

and covert actions:

Any conduct that would amount to sexual harassment under Title IX

of the (U.S.) Education Amendments of 1972.

Any conduct that would amount to sexual abuse of a minor person

under state criminal codes.

Any sexual relationship by an educator with a student, regardless of

the student’s age; with a former student under 18; with a former

student (regardless of age) who suffers from a disability that would

prevent consent in a relationship. All students enrolled in the school

and in any organization in which the educator holds a position of

trust and responsibility are included.

Any activity directed toward establishing a sexual relationship such

as sending intimate letters; engaging in sexualized dialogue in

person, via the Internet, in writing or by phone; making suggestive

comments; dating a student.

This definition includes criminal, civil, and professional codes of conduct and

responds to the missing elements in much of the literature on child sexual abuse.

This definition covers what is also commonly referred to as sexual abuse and/or

sexual harassment of children. This definition is central to the development of

future studies on educator sexual misconduct.

1.2 Scope of synthesis search. Using the general descriptor “educator

sexual misconduct” (and its subsidiary or component behaviors), I have identified nearly
3

900 relevant citations including sui generis original studies, secondary analyses of

existing data, journalistic articles, reports for professional and governmental

organizations, and other related scholarship. I searched reference databases in

education, juvenile and criminal justice, social sciences, law and public policy.

I augmented those searches by contacts through Listservs and Web site

destinations. More than 1,000 researchers, educators and policymakers were contacted

to identify current studies of educator sexual misconduct. In particular, I examined

sources identified for data on educator sexual misconduct that:

Document frequency.

Describe offenders/predators.

Describe student targets/victims.

Identify patterns of misconduct.

Detail school district responses.

Examine legal solutions.

Describe effects on targets.

Document consequences for offenders.

Detail union and professional organization involvement.

Document prevention interventions.

1.3 Methods of synthesis. Appropriate synthesis techniques depend on the

design of studies and the types of data in the research literature. Normally, a research

synthesis includes search, review, categorization, frequency analysis, comparative

analysis and weighting or evaluating the results. A researcher synthesizing data usually

will follow these steps:

Assign studies to topical areas.

Screen for studies based upon empirical data.

Categorize by research method.

Assess research quality and design.

Assign confidence intervals by research design type and quality.

Synthesize results using lists of findings, counts of expert judgments, and/or

meta-analysis.

Unfortunately, there are few empirical studies on educator sexual misconduct. As

a result, there are insufficient studies to undertake even the simple synthesis method of

counting the votes, let alone to merit the more formal and rigorous methods of synthesis

such as meta-analysis. Thus, this synthesis is confined to a review of existing empirical

literature and identification of issues which need initial or further study. This report does

not review discussions of best practice that are not based upon data.
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2.0 DESCRIPTION OF EXISTING RESEARCH, LITERATURE, OR OTHER

VERIFIABLE SOURCES

2.1 Categories of discourse. The citations identified can be categorized as:

Books, government reports, and journal articles that describe systematic

studies that can be replicated or verified.

Books, government reports, and journal articles that include first or third

person accounts of cases or incidents of educator sexual misconduct within

a context of practice-based knowledge.

Newspaper or popular magazine reports of cases or descriptions of

educator sexual misconduct.

2.2 Systematic studies. Although I identified nearly 900 citations in the

literature2 that discussed educator sexual misconduct in some format, there were only 14

U.S. 3 and five Canadian or UK4 empirical studies on educator sexual misconduct. Of the

U.S. studies, only one (Shakeshaft, 1994, 1995) received federal funding (U.S.

Department of Education). None of these studies—either singly or as a group—answers

all of the reasonable questions that parents, students, educators, and the public ask

about educator sexual misconduct, and they certainly do not provide information at a

level of reliability and validity appropriate to the gravity of these offenses. Nevertheless,

the purpose and approach of these studies, which are briefly described in Table 1, are

the best currently available.

2.2.1 U.S. nationwide studies. Four studies include survey data from

national samples, but only the American Association of University Women (AAUW)

studies are based upon data from a representative national sample (AAUW, 1993; 2001;

Cameron et al., 1986; Stein, Marshall, and Tropp, 1993; SESAME, 1997). There are

three studies which examine national samples of cases or regulations (Hendrie, 1987,

2003; Zemel and Twedt, 1999).

The AAUW Hostile Hallways surveys, administered to a nationwide sample of 8thto 11th-grade students in 1993 and again in 2000, are the only studies that provide

reliable nationwide U.S. data on educator misconduct. The purpose of these two studies

was not specifically to document educator sexual misconduct. Peer sexual harassment

is the primary focus of the surveys and the reports. However, the data from these studies

were subjected to a secondary reanalysis which focused only on educator sexual

misconduct (Shakeshaft, 2003).

Cameron, Coburn, Larson, Proctor, Forde, and Cameron (1986) surveyed five

metropolitan areas in different geographic locations to gather data on sexual attitudes,

 2 The bibliography includes all sources that were screened for an empirical or systematic analytic

foundation.

3 AAUW 1993, 2001; Cameron et al., 1985; Corbett, Gentry, and Pearson, 1993; Hendrie, 1998, 2003;

Jennings and Tharp, 2003; SESAME, 1997; Shakeshaft and Cohan, 1994, 1995; Shakeshaft, 2003; Stein,

Marshall, and Tropp, 1993; Willmsen and O’Hagan, 2003; Wishnietsky, 1991; Zemel and Twedt, 1999.

4 Abuse and Disability Project, 1992; Robins, S., 1998. UK studies: Cawson, Wattam, Brooker, and Kelly,

2000; Freel, 2003; Gallagher, 2000.
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activities, and experiences. Although not the direct focus of this inquiry, questions were

included that documented respondent experience with teacher sexual misconduct.

Stein, Marshall, and Tropp (1993) analyzed results of a survey included in

Seventeen Magazine. Although they came from across the United States, respondents

were not representative because all were female readers of the magazine who

volunteered to return the survey.

SESAME (1997) also surveyed volunteers who had been targets of educator

sexual misconduct. The respondents sample came from all parts of the United States

and included both sexes but was a volunteer sample.
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Table 1. Empirical Studies of Educator Sexual Misconduct

Study Description

Abuse and Disability Project (1992).

Edmonton, Canada: University of

Alberta. Edmonton,

1992.

Analysis of 162 cases of sexual abuse of children or adults

with disabilities in Canada. Reports on abuse by

transportation workers.

American Association of University

Women (1993). Hostile Hallways,

Washington, D.C.: AAUW

Educational Foundation.

1,632 field surveys of U.S. public school students in grades 8

to 11 in 79 schools. The sample was representative of

students in public schools in the United States. Students in

this sample were asked questions about physical, verbal, and

visual sexual harassment

American Association of University

Women (2001). Hostile Hallways,

Washington, D.C.: AAUW

Educational Foundation.

Replication of 1993 study. Consisted of 2,063 field surveys of

U.S. public school students in grades 8 to 11. The sample

was representative of students in public schools in the United

States. Students in this sample were asked questions about

physical, verbal, and visual sexual harassment.

Paul Cameron, William Coburn Jr.,

Helen Larson, Kay Proctor, Nels

Forde, and Kirk Cameron (1986).

“Child molestation and

homosexuality.” Psychological

Reports, 58, 327-337.

Cluster sample of five metropolitan areas. Door-to-door

sampling and administration of a 550 question survey about

sexual attitudes, activities, and experiences. 4,340 surveys

were retuned, a 45.5 percent response rate.

Pat Cawson, C. Wattam, S. , Brooker,

and G. Kelly (2000) Child

Maltreatment in the United Kingdom:

A Study of Prevalence of Child Abuse

and Neglect. London: NSPCC.

Interviews of UK national random sample of 2,869 young

people ages 18-24 on incidence of sexual abuse as children.

Kelly Corbett, Cynthia Gentry, and

Willie Pearson Jr. (1993). “Sexual

harassment in high school.” Youth

and Society, 25(1), 93-103.

Survey of 185 college students in an introductory sociology

course. Survey asked students to estimate sexual

harassment of a student in high school by a teacher, both

about other students and themselves.

Mike Freel (2003). “Child sexual

abuse and the male monopoly: An

empirical exploration of gender and a

sexual interest in children.” The

British Journal of Social Work, 33

(481-498).

Paper and pencil survey of 92 female and 91 male UK public

sector child care workers examining their sexual interest in

children as well as incidence of sexual abuse as children.

Bernard Gallagher (2000). “The

extent and nature of known cases of

institutional child sexual abuse.”

British Journal of Social Work, 30

(795-817).

Search of 20,000 child protection files from eight English and

Welsh regions. Descriptions of reports of child sexual abuse

by a worker in the institution.

Caroline Hendrie, (Dec. 2, 9, 16,

1998) “A trust betrayed. sexual abuse

by teachers.” Education Week.

Compilation of 244 cases active in either criminal or civil

courts or being handled by school district investigators

between March and August of 1998. Survey of officials from

each of the 50 states on their laws and policies on sexual

relations with students and the reporting of alleged abuse by

school employees.
7

Table 1. Continued

Study Description

Caroline Hendrie, (April 30 and May

7, 2003) “Trust betrayed. An update

of sexual misconduct in schools.”

Education Week.

Two-part series updating the 1998 three-part series. Survey

of state sexual misconduct policies.

Diane Jennings and Robert Tharp

(May 4, 5, 6, 2003) “Betrayal of trust.”

The Dallas Morning News.

Three-part series examined 606 cases of educator sexual

abuse in Texas from records about disciplined educators

maintained by the State Board of Educator Certification.

Sydney L. Robins, (2000). Protecting

Our Students: A Review to Identify

and Prevent Sexual Misconduct in

Ontario Schools.

Content analysis of 120 cases of sexual misconduct brought

before the Ontario Teachers’ Federation and Ontario College

of Teachers between 1989 and 1997. Review of 100 criminal

cases against teachers between 1986 and 1997.

SESAME, 1997, www.sesamenet.org Survey of 100 survivors of educator sexual misconduct in the

United States. Data from 74 girls and 26 boys who had been

victimized. Educators identified by staff positions held and

survivor reports of consequences for perpetrators.

Charol Shakeshaft and Audrey

Cohan, (1995, March). “Sexual abuse

of students by school personnel.” Phi

Delta Kappan, 76 (7) 513-520.

(1994). In loco parentis: Sexual

abuse of students in schools. What

administrators should know. Report

to the U.S. Department of Education,

Field Initiated Grants.

Survey of 778 superintendents in New York State on

incidence of educator sexual misconduct. Telephone survey

of 225 school superintendents who reported they had dealt

with educator sexual misconduct. Follow-up interviews with

others involved in the cases.

Charol Shakeshaft (2003) “Educator

sexual abuse.” Hofstra Horizons,

Spring, 10-13

Secondary reanalysis of AAUW Hostile Hallways data to focus

on educator sexual misconduct. 2,063 field surveys of public

school students in grades 8 to 11. The sample was

representative of the overall population of students in public

schools in the United States.

Nan D. Stein, Nancy L. Marshall and

Linda R. Tropp (1993). Secrets in

public: Sexual harassment in our

schools. Wellesley, Mass.:

Wellesley Centers for Women.

Survey in Seventeen Magazine on sexual harassment. 4,200

girls in grades 2 through 12 responded.

Christine Willmsen and Maureen

O’Hagan (Dec. 14-16, 2003).

“Coaches who prey,” The Seattle

Times.

Series on coaches in Washington state who sexually abuse

students. Analysis of school district records that identified 159

coaches that had been reprimanded or fired for sexual

misconduct between 1993 and 2003.

Dan H. Wishnietsky (1991).

“Reported and unreported teacherstudent sexual harassment.” Journal

of Educational Research, 84 (3), 164-

169.

Survey reports from 300 graduates of North Carolina high

schools asking their experiences with educator sexual

misconduct.

Jane Elizabeth Zemel and Steve

Twedt (Oct. 31 to Nov. 2, 1999).

“Dirty secrets,” Pittsburgh PostGazette.

Three-part series on educator sexual abuse in the Pittsburgh

Post-Gazette. Results from survey of state education

departments on reasons for revocation of teacher licenses.

Data from 45 states and the D.C. public schools.
8

Hendrie examined newspaper reports of educator sexual misconduct nationwide

(1998) and state criminal and education laws (1998, 2003). Zemel and Twedt (1999)

also surveyed state education departments.

2.2.2 Regional studies. In addition to national coverage, there are six

regional studies (Corbett, Gentry, and Pearson, 1993; Jennings and Tharp, 2003;

Shakeshaft and Cohan, 1994, 1995; Willmsen and O’Hagan, 2003; Wishnietsky, 1991;

Zemel and Twedt, 1999). These focus on Texas, New York, Washington, North Carolina

and Pennsylvania.

2.2.3 Canadian and UK studies. Five Canadian and UK studies provide

data on educator sexual misconduct. Cawson, Wattam, Brooker, and Kelly (2000)

surveyed a random sample of young people in England on the prevalence of sexual

abuse of children and included questions on the professional identity of offenders. Freel

(2003) surveyed child care providers in England, asking about their sexual attraction to

children. Gallagher (2000) in England and Wales, Robins (1998) in Canada, and the

Abuse and Disability Project (1992) in Canada, all examined public records of educator

sexual misconduct. In the Gallagher study, 20,000 referred cases to social services or

the police between January 1988 and December 1992 were searched for instances of

sexual abuse of students in institutional settings by those who worked in these settings.

2.3 Practice-based accounts with first or third person descriptions. The

publications in this category describe incidents of educator sexual misconduct from a

practice perspective. The U.S. cases have been collected in a variety of ways: Bithell

(1991), Olson and Lawler (2003), Ross and Marlow (1985), and Shoop (2004) report on

incidents encountered during their professional lives. Seryak (1997), also an educator,

invited adults who had experienced childhood sexual abuse to contribute their stories.

Robins (2000) describes situations of educator sexual misconduct included in his data set

of 120 cases brought before the Ontario Teachers Federation and Ontario College of

Teachers as well as documenting 100 criminal cases against teachers. Table 2 lists

these accounts.
9

Table 2. Summary of Practice-Based, First Person Reports, and Third Person

Reports

Source Description

Sherry B. Bithell (1991).

Educator Sexual Abuse.

Boise: Tudor House

Publishing.

Summary of information on child sexual abuse necessary for

educators to effectively intervene. Portrayals of offenders

based upon interviews, observations, and court records.

Written by an educator with 26 years in the public schools

who also developed a statewide program in child abuse

prevention.

Matthew D. Olson and

Gregory Lawler (2003).

Guilty until Proven Innocent.

Stillwater, Okla.: New

Forums Press.

Includes descriptions of five cases in which a Colorado

teacher was wrongly accused of mistreatment or abuse of a

student. Written by the defense attorney and the union

representative involved with the case, the descriptions were

based upon their interactions with the accused, court

records, and newspaper accounts.

Victor J. Ross and John

Marlowe (1985).

The Forbidden Apple: Sex

in the Schools.

Palm Springs, Calif.: ETC

Publications.

Two administrators share their experiences with cases of

educator sexual misconduct, provide an overview of the

issues, and include advice on preventing sexual abuse of

students by adults in schools.

Sydney L. Robins (2000).

Protecting Our Students: A

Review to Identify and

Prevent Sexual Misconduct

in Ontario Schools. Ontario,

Canada: Ontario Ministry of

the Attorney General.

Description of educator sexual misconduct cases in Ontario,

Canada. Provides guidance for recognizing and preventing

sexual abuse of children by educators.

John M. Seryak (1997).

Dear Teacher, If You Only

Knew! Adults Recovering

from Child Sexual Abuse

Speak to Educators. Bath,

Ohio: The Dear Teacher

Project.

Publication of a project in which adults wrote letters to an

imaginary or surrogate teacher about the childhood sexual

abuse they experienced. While the abuse described is not

generally by educators, the focus is on the behaviors and

cries for help that educators should hear.

Robert J. Shoop (2004).

Sexual Exploitation in

Schools: How to Spot It and

Stop It. Thousand Oaks,

Calif.: Corwin Press.

Interviews, newspaper reports, journal articles, court

documents and personal experience describe educator

sexual misconduct in schools. Guidelines for recognizing

and preventing abuse are included. Includes descriptions of

cases of educator sexual misconduct.
10

2.4 Newspaper and other media sources. Most public knowledge about

educator sexual misconduct comes from newspaper reports. Appendix I is a list of

newspaper articles reviewed for this synthesis. Journalists report allegations and these

news stories increase public awareness. The newspaper items excerpted below

appeared in one month, February 2003, and are a small sample of the incidents that

come to the attention of school and law enforcement officials.

Henderson, N.C.: The Henderson Count School Board agrees to pay $1.78

million to the families of 17 children who were alleged sexual victims of a

former teacher assistant.

Augusta, Wisc.: Family alleges sexual assault of 12-year-old boy by male

teacher.

Ann Arbor, Mich.: Male high school teacher assaults female student.

Indiana: Former principal of a Baptist school to be sentenced for taking an

11-year-old female student across country to have sex with her.

Omaha, Neb.: Wrestling coach sentenced to 45 days in jail and required to

apologize publicly to female student he assaulted.

Sarasota, Fla.: Former female high school assistant coach pleads no

contest to unlawful sexual activity and committing a lewd and lascivious act

with two students on her basketball and softball teams.

Westminster, Colo.: Male coach gets six years in prison for sexually

assaulting seven girls on his softball team.

Amelia, Ohio: Former male high school administrative assistant gets 18

month sentence for having sex with female high school student.

Hackensack, N.J.: 42-year-old female middle school teacher admits sexual

intercourse with sixth-grade male student.

Yonkers, N.Y.: 50-year-old male Montessori teacher fondles 7-year-old

student in bathroom.

Bullhead City, Ariz.: Male ESL teacher has sexual contact with 12-year-old

female student. Teacher is a registered sex offender in Florida.

While most articles are single reports of cases, several series which include data

collection were found. Education Week produced two multipart reports of educator

sexual misconduct using newspaper reports as the primary data (“A trust betrayed:

Sexual abuse by teachers,” December 1998; “Trust betrayed: Update on sexual

misconduct in schools,” April 2003. Hendrie, C. and Drummond, S., eds.). Zemel and

Twedt (1999) analyzed educator sexual misconduct in a three-part series, including

results of a survey of state education departments to document the reasons behind

teacher license revocations.

Two recent series, one in the Dallas Morning News (Jennings and Tharp, May

2003) and the other in the Seattle Times (Willmsen and O’Hagan, December 2003),

examined educator sexual misconduct in their respective states. Jennings and Tharp

focused on 606 cases of educator sexual misconduct from Texas State Board of

Educator Certification records and Willmsen and O’Hagan targeted abuse by coaches.

In both instances, reporters commented on the difficulty of obtaining information on

educator sexual misconduct. O’Hagan and Willmsen (Dec. 14, 2003) write:
11

When the Seattle Times asked the Bellevue School District for

information about teachers and coaches accused of sexual misconduct,

school officials and the state’s most powerful union teamed up behind

the scenes to try to hide the files. Bellevue school officials even let

teachers purge their own records at union-organized “file parties” to

prevent disclosure.

Good Housekeeping magazine covered educator sexual misconduct (May 2003;

December 2003 follow-up) and also sponsored a write-in campaign from readers to

encourage federal action to prevent educator sexual misconduct

(http://magazines.ivillage.com/goodhousekeeping/pring/0,,572804m00,html).

2.5 General child sexual abuse data sets and instruments. Appendix II lists

the most cited surveys, instruments, data sets, or reports that include data on child abuse

or that are developed to collect data on child abuse. While the studies in Appendix II

aren’t specifically focused on educator sexual misconduct, they provide insights into both

sexual abuse of children by adults and methods for studying child sexual abuse.

Many of the Appendix II studies and surveys on child sexual abuse—and certainly

the most significant ones—are federally funded. However, there are no national

government funded studies that document the prevalence of educator sexual misconduct.

It is relevant to note that none of the federally funded data sets or reports on child sexual

abuse listed below and/or included in Appendix II even contain questions that would

enable analysis of educator sexual misconduct. Studies examined were:

Fast Response Survey System: Principal/School Disciplinarian Study;

Violence and Discipline Problems in U.S. Public Schools; Violence and

Crime at School.

Indicators of School Crime and Safety, National Center for Educational

Statistics and Bureau of Justice Statistics.

Longitudinal Studies on Child Abuse and Neglect (LONGSCAN).

Questionnaire, Children’s Bureau, U.S. Department of Health and Human

Services.

Metropolitan Life Survey of the American Teacher, 1999: Violence in

America’s Public Schools.

Monitoring the Future 2002, 2002, 2003, National Institute on Drug Abuse.

National Crime Victimization Survey and School Crime Supplement, Bureau

of Justice Statistics, National Center for Education Statistics.

National Incidence Studies, National Center of Child Abuse and Neglect

(NIBRS).

National Longitudinal Study of Adolescent Health, National Institutes of

Child Health and Human Development (NICHHD).

National Survey of Adolescents in the United States.

National Survey of Family Growth, National Center for Health Statistics.

National Violence Against Women Survey, National Institutes of Justice and

Center for Policy Research.
12

National Youth Victimization Prevention Programs: A National Survey of

Children’s Exposure and Reactions.

Youth Risk Behavior Surveillance System, Centers for Disease Control,

National Institutes of Health.

Most information on child sexual abuse comes from either child welfare or law

enforcement agencies. A typical example of how studies that report sexual abuse of

children are not helpful for understanding educator sexual misconduct is the National

Incidence-Based Reporting System (NIBRS). NIBRS collects data from law enforcement

agencies on reported crimes. However, there is no category in this data set that allows

identification by professional caretaker status such as “teacher”; instead, these incidents

are included in a category of “acquaintances.” In some state data sets, cases of teacher

sexual misconduct would be reported as a “nonfamily caretaker” or under another

general category.

2.6 Availability of research. There are 24 sources which meet the criteria for

review. These studies include systematic focus on issues related to educator sexual

misconduct and/or case and practice accounts (Table 3).
13

Table 3. Empirical and Practice Studies of Educator Sexual Misconduct

Study Description

Abuse and Disability Project (1992).

Edmonton, Canada: University of

Alberta. Edmonton,

1992.

Analysis of 162 cases of sexual abuse of children or adults

with disabilities in Canada. Reports on abuse by

transportation workers.

American Association of University

Women (1993). Hostile Hallways,

Washington, D.C.: AAUW

Educational Foundation.

1,632 field surveys of U.S. public school students in grades 8

to 11 in 79 schools. The sample was representative of

students in public schools in the United States. Students in

this sample were asked questions about physical, verbal, and

visual sexual harassment

American Association of University

Women (2001). Hostile Hallways,

Washington, D.C.: AAUW

Educational Foundation.

Replication of 1993 study. Consisted of 2,063 field surveys of

U.S. public school students in grades 8 to 11. The sample

was representative of students in public schools in the United

States. Students in this sample were asked questions about

physical, verbal, and visual sexual harassment.

Sherry B. Bithell (1991).

Educator Sexual Abuse.

Boise: Tudor House Publishing.

Summary of information on child sexual abuse necessary for

educators to effectively intervene. Portrayals of offenders

based upon interviews, observations, and court records.

Written by an educator with 26 years in the public schools who

also developed a statewide program in child abuse prevention.

Paul Cameron, William Coburn Jr.,

Helen Larson, Kay Proctor, Nels

Forde, and Kirk Cameron (1986).

“Child molestation and

homosexuality.” Psychological

Reports, 58, 327-337.

Cluster sample of five metropolitan areas. Door-to-door

sampling and administration of a 550 question survey about

sexual attitudes, activities, and experiences. 4,340 surveys

were retuned, a 45.5 percent response rate.

Pat Cawson, C. Wattam, S. , Brooker,

and G. Kelly (2000) Child

Maltreatment in the United Kingdom:

A Study of Prevalence of Child Abuse

and Neglect. London: NSPCC.

Interviews of UK national random sample of 2,869 young

people ages 18-24 on incidence of sexual abuse as children.

Kelly Corbett, Cynthia Gentry, and

Willie Pearson Jr. (1993). “Sexual

harassment in high school.” Youth

and Society, 25(1), 93-103.

Survey of 185 college students in an introductory sociology

course. Survey asked students to estimate sexual

harassment of a student in high school by a teacher, both

about other students and themselves.

Mike Freel (2003). “Child sexual

abuse and the male monopoly: An

empirical exploration of gender and a

sexual interest in children.” The

British Journal of Social Work, 33

(481-498).

Paper and pencil survey of 92 female and 91 male UK public

sector child care workers examining their sexual interest in

children as well as incidence of sexual abuse as children.

Bernard Gallagher (2000). “The

extent and nature of known cases of

institutional child sexual abuse.”

British Journal of Social Work, 30

(795-817).

Search of 20,000 child protection files from eight English and

Welsh regions. Descriptions of reports of child sexual abuse

by a worker in the institution.

Caroline Hendrie, (Dec. 2, 9, 16,

1998) “A trust betrayed. sexual abuse

by teachers.” Education Week.

Compilation of 244 cases active in either criminal or civil

courts or being handled by school district investigators

between March and August of 1998. Survey of officials from

each of the 50 states on their laws and policies on sexual

relations with students and the reporting of alleged abuse by

school employees.
14

Table 3. Continued

Study Description

Caroline Hendrie, (April 30 and May

7, 2003) “Trust betrayed. An update

of sexual misconduct in schools.”

Education Week.

Two-part series updating the 1998 three-part series. Survey

of state sexual misconduct policies.

Diane Jennings and Robert Tharp

(May 4, 5, 6, 2003) “Betrayal of

trust.” The Dallas Morning

News.

Three-part series examined 606 cases of educator sexual

abuse in Texas from records about disciplined educators

maintained by the State Board of Educator Certification.

Matthew D. Olson and Gregory

Lawler (2003). Guilty until Proven

Innocent. Stillwater, Okla.: New

Forums Press.

Includes descriptions of five cases in which a Colorado

teacher was wrongly accused of mistreatment or abuse of a

student. Written by the defense attorney and the union

representative involved with the case, the descriptions were

based upon their interactions with the accused, court records,

and newspaper accounts.

Sydney L. Robins, (2000). Protecting

Our Students: A Review to Identify

and Prevent Sexual Misconduct in

Ontario Schools.

Content analysis of 120 cases of sexual misconduct brought

before the Ontario Teachers’ Federation and Ontario College

of Teachers between 1989 and 1997. Review of 100 criminal

cases against teachers between 1986 and 1997.

Victor J. Ross and John Marlowe

(1985).

The Forbidden Apple: Sex in the

Schools.

Palm Springs, Calif.: ETC

Publications.

Two administrators share their experiences with cases of

educator sexual misconduct, provide an overview of the

issues, and include advice on preventing sexual abuse of

students by adults in schools.

John M. Seryak (1997). Dear

Teacher, If You Only Knew! Adults

Recovering from Child Sexual Abuse

Speak to Educators. Bath, Ohio: The

Dear Teacher Project.

Publication of a project in which adults wrote letters to an

imaginary or surrogate teacher about the childhood sexual

abuse they experienced. While the abuse described is not

generally by educators, the focus is on the behaviors and cries

for help that educators should hear.

SESAME, 1997, www.sesamenet.org Survey of 100 survivors of educator sexual misconduct in the

United States. Data from 74 girls and 26 boys who had been

victimized. Educators identified by staff positions held and

survivor reports of consequences for perpetrators.

Charol Shakeshaft and Audrey

Cohan, (1995, March). “Sexual abuse

of students by school personnel.” Phi

Delta Kappan, 76 (7) 513-520.

(1994). In loco parentis: Sexual

abuse of students in schools. What

administrators should know. Report

to the U.S. Department of Education,

Field Initiated Grants.

Survey of 778 superintendents in New York State on

incidence of educator sexual misconduct. Telephone survey

of 225 school superintendents who reported they had dealt

with educator sexual misconduct. Follow-up interviews with

others involved in the cases.

Charol Shakeshaft (2003) “Educator

sexual abuse.” Hofstra Horizons,

Spring, 10-13

Secondary reanalysis of AAUW Hostile Hallways data to focus

on educator sexual misconduct. 2,063 field surveys of public

school students in grades 8 to 11. The sample was

representative of the overall population of students in public

schools in the United States.
15

Table 3. Continued

Robert J. Shoop (2004). Sexual

Exploitation in Schools: How to Spot

It and Stop It. Thousand Oaks, Calif.:

Corwin Press.

Interviews, newspaper reports, journal articles, court

documents and personal experience describe educator sexual

misconduct in schools. Guidelines for recognizing and

preventing abuse are included. Includes descriptions of cases

of educator sexual misconduct.

Nan D. Stein, Nancy L. Marshall and

Linda R. Tropp (1993). Secrets in

public: Sexual harassment in our

schools. Wellesley, Mass.:

Wellesley Centers for Women.

Survey in Seventeen Magazine on sexual harassment. 4,200

girls in grades 2 through 12 responded.

Christine Willmsen and Maureen

O’Hagan (Dec. 14-16, 2003).

“Coaches who prey,” The Seattle

Times.

Series on coaches in Washington state who sexually abuse

students. Analysis of school district records that identified 159

coaches that had been reprimanded or fired for sexual

misconduct between 1993 and 2003.

Dan H. Wishnietsky (1991).

“Reported and unreported teacherstudent sexual harassment.” Journal

of Educational Research, 84 (3), 164-

169.

Survey reports from 300 graduates of North Carolina high

schools asking their experiences with educator sexual

misconduct.

Jane Elizabeth Zemel and Steve

Twedt (Oct. 31 to Nov. 2, 1999).

“Dirty secrets,” Pittsburgh PostGazette.

Three-part series on educator sexual abuse in the Pittsburgh

Post-Gazette. Results from survey of state education

departments on reasons for revocation of teacher licenses.

Data from 45 states and the D.C. public schools.
16

3.0 PREVALENCE OF EDUCATOR SEXUAL MISCONDUCT

3.1 Sources and methods. Studies documenting child sexual abuse by any

adult are conducted using two approaches. Incidence studies examine child sexual

abuse official reports to child protective or criminal agencies. Prevalence studies ask

children or adults if they have ever been sexually abused as a child by an adult.

Incidence rates are generally lower than prevalence, since many more children are

sexually abused than report this abuse to authorities. Only 5 to 6 percent of child sexual

abuse cases become known to social services or the police (Kelly et al., 1991).

Results of prevalence studies differ based upon definitions of sexual abuse,

sample, and data collection methods but range from 13 to 34 percent of females and 7 to

16 percent of males (Freel, 2003). Gorey and Leslie (1997), in a review of prevalence

studies where they controlled for response rates and operational definitions concluded

that 15 percent of women and 7 percent of men were sexually abused as children.

While there is no national U.S. incidence or prevalence study that has examined

educator sexual abuse as its primary purpose, there are seven U.S. studies using six

data sets that have examined prevalence of educator sexual misconduct from either an

ancillary or regional perspective (Table 4).

3.1.1.1AAUW data and Shakeshaft secondary analysis. This

analysis used data collected for American Association of University Women in Fall 2000

by Harris International. Eighth through 11th grade students in the sample responded to a

survey administered by trained interviewers during English classes. The survey asked

students about their experiences of various forms of sexual harassment or abuse in

school using the question below. Students responded to each of the 14 types of sexual

harassment listed below by selecting one of the following frequencies: “often,”

Table 4. Studies of Prevalence of Educator

Sexual Misconduct in the United States

American Association of University Women (1993). Hostile Hallways. Washington,

D.C.: AAUW Educational Foundation.

American Association of University Women (2001). Hostile Hallways. Washington,

D.C.: AAUW Educational Foundation.

Paul Cameron, William Coburn Jr., Helen Larson, Kay Proctor, and Nels Forde and

Kirk Cameron (1986). Child molestation and homosexuality. Psychological Reports,

58, 327-337.

Kelly Corbett, Cynthia S. Gentry, and Willie Pearson Jr. (1993) Sexual harassment in

high school. Youth and Society, 25 (1), 93-103.

Charol Shakeshaft (2003). Educator Sexual Abuse. Hofstra Horizons, Spring, 10-13.

Nan D. Stein, Nancy L. Marshall and Linda R. Tropp (1993). Secrets In Public:

Sexual Harassment in Our Schools. Wellesley, Mass.: Wellesley Centers for

Women.

Dan H. Wishnietsky (1991). Reported and unreported teacher-student sexual

harassment. Journal of Educational Research, 84 (3), 164-169.
17

“occasionally,” “rarely,” “never,” or “don’t know.” The 14 stems were developed by an

advisory panel of experts in the field of sexual harassment and correspond to behaviors

that legally constitute sexual harassment, abuse, or misconduct. The question focuses

on experiences that occurred in school. The gating question asked students to respond

to each type of behavior, no matter who the abuser had been. Follow-up questions for

each of the behaviors identified the role of the abuser (student, teacher, other school

employee, etc.) and the place where the abuse occurred. The question asked students

was:

During your whole school life, how often, if at all, has anyone (this includes

students, teachers, other school employees, or anyone else) done the following

things to you when you did not want them to?

Made sexual comments, jokes, gestures, or looks.

Showed, gave or left you sexual pictures, photographs, illustrations,

messages, or notes.

Wrote sexual messages/graffiti about you on bathroom walls, in locker

rooms, etc.

Spread sexual rumors about you.

Said you were gay or a lesbian.

Spied on you as you dressed or showered at school.

Flashed or “mooned” you.

Touched, grabbed, or pinched you in a sexual way.

Intentionally brushed up against you in a sexual way.

Pulled at your clothing in a sexual way.

Pulled off or down your clothing.

Blocked your way or cornered you in a sexual way.

Forced you to kiss him/her.

Forced you to do something sexual, other than kissing.

For each behavior the respondent identifies as having experienced, she or he is

asked a series of follow-up questions, including the role of the offender (student, teacher,

counselor, etc.), where the incident took place, and when the incident happened. All

analyses of these data are based upon the stems above, which constitute civil and

criminal definitions of sexual abuse and harassment.

The sample was drawn from a list of 80,000 schools to create a stratified twostage sample design of 2,065 8th to 11th grade students. Trained Harris Interactive

researchers administered surveys in schools to 1,559 public school students in grades 8

to 11; 505 public school 8th to 11th grade students completed online surveys. The

sample included representative subpopulations of Latino/a, white, and African descent

students. The findings can be generalized to all public school students in 8th to 11th

grades at a 95 percent confidence level with a margin of error of plus or minus 4

percentage points.

Responses from students who indicated they had experienced one of the listed

behaviors were analyzed using descriptive statistics and frequencies. This analysis

(Shakeshaft, 2003) indicates that 9.6 percent of all students in grades 8 to 11 report

contact and/or noncontact educator sexual misconduct that was unwanted. 8.7 percent
18

report only noncontact sexual misconduct and 6.7 percent experienced only contact

misconduct. (These total to more than 9.6 percent because some students reported both

types of misconduct.) Of students who experienced any kind of sexual misconduct in

schools, 21 percent were targets of educators, while the remaining 79 percent were

targets of other students.

To get a sense of the extent of the number of students who have been targets of

educator sexual misconduct, I applied the percent of students who report experiencing

educator sexual misconduct to the population of all K-12 students. Based on the

assumption that the AAUW surveys accurately represent the experiences of all K-12

students, more than 4.5 million students are subject to sexual misconduct by an

employee of a school sometime between kindergarten and 12th grade.

Possible limitations of the study would all suggest that the findings reported here

under-estimate educator sexual misconduct in schools. The limitations which might

result in under reporting are:

Students report on their entire school career, thus making it difficult to

determine prevalence by year or grade.

Sample includes only 8th- to 11th-graders which might miss earlier

incidents not remembered later.

Questions on educator sexual misconduct are limited.

Analysis was broad-brushed and cursory, excluding many details of

educator sexual misconduct.

Survey only asked about incidents that were unwanted, excluding reports of

misconduct that were either welcome or that did not fall into either a

welcome or unwelcome category.

3.1.2 Cameron et al. data. An earlier survey of 4,340 adults examining

sexual attitudes and experiences reported that 4.1 percent of respondents had a physical

sexual experience with a teacher. Respondents were asked:

Sometimes people in charge of us or who bear an especially powerful

relationship to us have sexual desires for us. For each of the following

kinds of persons, we would like to know how many have made serious

sexual advances to you and with how many you have had physical sexual

relations (at their initiative or yours). We would also like to know your age

when either or both of these things first occurred (p. 329).

This question was followed by a list of 36 different caretakers including secondary,

elementary, and private teachers.

The limitations, which suggest an undercount, are:

A full range of educators was not studied. Only teachers are included in the

list of possible offenders.

Only physical sexual misconduct was included.

There is a possibility of nonresponse bias. Only 45.5 percent of those

sampled completed surveys.
19

The sample is not proportionate to the population. White respondents are

overrepresented. The sample sites were all metropolitan areas.

3.1.3 Corbett et al. data. 185 students in Wake Forest and another

university who were taking introductory sociology courses completed a survey on

frequency of sexual harassment by a teacher in high school. The students were asked

questions both about other students and about their own experiences. The sample was

nearly equally representative of males and females and included 84 percent white, 13

percent black and 3 percent Asian students. Limitations include the local nature of the

study as well as a voluntary sample.

3.1.4 Wishnietsky 1991. Prior to the AAUW studies, and for a regional

population, Dan Wishnietsky tried to determine the extent of sexual abuse by staff in

schools, analyzing 148 responses to his survey of North Carolina 1989 high school

graduates. His findings of students who have been the targets of educator sexual

misconduct are five times the rate of prevalence of those of the AAUW study. In his

survey he used this definition of sexual harassment and abuse:

Unwelcome sexual advances, requests for sexual favors, and other

verbal or physical conduct of a sexual nature constitute sexual

harassment when (1) submission to such conduct is made either

explicitly or implicitly as a term or condition for academic advisement,

(2) submission to or rejection of such conduct by an individual is

used as a basis for academic decisions affecting such individual, or

(3) such conduct has the purpose or effect of unreasonably

interfering with an individual's academic performance or creating an

intimidating, hostile, or offensive academic environment (1991, p.

167).

Wishnietsky then asked the graduates, “Based on the above definition, do you believe

that you experienced sexual harassment during your high school years?” Forty three

percent reported insulting comments, looks, or gestures by a teacher; 17.5 percent

reported sexual touching; and 13.5 percent reported sexual intercourse with a teacher.

The criticisms of Wishnietsky's study are that:

The response rate was only 49.3 percent.

Students were asked only about sexual abuse by a teacher, leaving out

administrators and other school personnel.

Students were only asked about high school abuse, leaving out any lower

grade sexual abuse.

With the exception of the weakness in the response rate, the other two criticisms argue

that the results are an underestimate.

3.1.5 Stein et al. data. In a joint project of the Center for Research on

Women at Wellesley College and the NOW Legal Defense and Education Fund, Nan

Stein, Nancy L. Marshall, and Linda R. Tropp analyzed data from a sexual abuse survey

published in Seventeen Magazine. The Seventeen Magazine survey asked students:
20

Did anyone do any of the following to you when you didn't want them to in the last

school year?

Touch, pinch, or grab you.

Lean over you or corner you.

Give you sexual notes or pictures.

Make suggestive or sexual gestures, looks, comments, or jokes.

Pressure you to do something sexual.

Force you to do something sexual.

Of the 4,200 girls in grades 2 through 12 who voluntarily responded that they had

been sexually harassed or abused during the 1992-93 school year, 3.7 percent said the

abuse came from a teacher, administrator, counselor, or other member of the school

staff.

The primary criticism of this study is that:

Sample is all female.

Sample is volunteer.

Sample is drawn from people who read Seventeen Magazine.

Asked about incidents only for prior year.

3.2 Prevalence in the United States. As a group, these studies present a

wide range of estimates of the percentage of U.S. students subject to sexual misconduct

by school staff and vary from 3.7 to 50.3 percent (Table 5). Because of its carefully

drawn sample and survey methodology, the AAUW report that nearly 9.6 percent of

students are targets of educator sexual misconduct sometime during their school career

presents the most accurate data available at this time.

Table 5. Percent of U.S. Students Who Have Experienced Educator Sexual

Misconduct by Method

AAUW

2000/Shakeshaft

Secondary

Analysis 2003

Cameron

et al.

Corbett

et al.

Personal

Experience

Corbett

et al.

Others

Stein

et al.

Wishnietsky

Contact 6.7 4.1 Not reported 21.1 Not reported 17.5

Noncontact 8.7 Not

Studied

Not

reported 19.5 Not reported 43

All

Misconduct 9.6 NotStudied 6.5 50.3 3.7 NotReported

3.3 Prevalence in the United Kingdom. A 2000 random probability sample of

2,869 young people between 18 and 24 in a computer-assisted survey focused on abuse

and maltreatment of children (Cawson, Wattam, Brooker, and Kelley). One section of the

survey covered sexual abuse and asked respondents if they had experienced a number

of behaviors and, if so, with whom. The results of this study indicated that .3 percent of

the respondents had experienced sexual abuse with a professional, a category which

included priests, religious leaders, case workers, and teachers. This is the only study
21

available that includes prevalence data on educator sexual misconduct for the United

Kingdom.

Gallagher (2000) in an incident study of 20,000 child protective referrals to social

services or the police, found that less than 1 percent took place in institutional settings.

Of those, 31 percent were reports of cases in some type of institutional school setting.
22

4.0 OFFENDER CHARACTERISTICS

Terminology used to identify offenders ranges from pedophile to molester to

abuser. This confused terminology often clouds descriptions and identification of

offenders. Pedophilia is an adult psychosexual disorder “characterized by a preference

for prepubescent children as sexual partners” (Herek, 2003). Hebephilia is the sexual

preference of adults for adolescents. Both of these are diagnostic labels. Child sexual

abuse is sexual contact between adults and children and is an action. Not all pedophiles

or hebephiles engage in sexual contact with children; many never act upon their sexual

preference. And, not all sexual contact with children is delivered by a pedophile or

hebephile. Because diagnostic labels are not perfectly correlated with action, Finkelhor

and Araji (1986) note that descriptions such as pedophile are not very helpful and

suggest that offender sexual orientation be labeled on a scale from exclusive interest in

children to exclusive interest in adult partners. Among the cases of educator offenders

studied by Shakeshaft and Cohan (1994), there were those who were exclusively

interested in children or adolescents and those who were more likely to be exploiters of

any sexual situation, whether children or adult.

The limited available data (Hendrie, 1998; Jennings and Tharp, 2003; Shakeshaft,

2003; Shoop, 2004; Zemel and Twedt, 1999) indicate that teachers who sexually abuse

belie the stereotype of an abuser as an easily identifiable danger to children. Many are

those most celebrated in their profession (Shakeshaft and Cohan, 1994).

Although we do not know how many or what percent of school employees are

offenders, several studies describe the employees who have been identified (Table 6)

using both surveys and first or third person descriptions of incidents of educator sexual

misconduct. A number of the studies below, as well as newspaper and court reports,

indicate that many are chronic predators; thus, the number of teachers who abuse is

fewer than the number of students who are abused.

4.1 Job of offenders. Reflecting the reanalysis of the 2000 Hostile Hallways

data (published in 2001), Table 7 documents the percent of students who have been

targets of educator sexual misconduct by role of educator. Teachers are reported most

often, followed by coaches. Gallagher (2000) reported that teachers accounted for 90

percent of the school institutional sexual abuse cases in his analysis5.

Teachers whose job description includes time with individual students, such as

music teachers or coaches, are more likely to sexually abuse than other teachers.

Jennings and Tharp found that 25 percent of the educators in Texas who were disciplined

for sexual infractions involving students between 1995 and 2003 were coaches or music

teachers. Willmsen and O’Hagan found Washington state teachers who coach were

“three times more likely to be investigated by the state for sexual misconduct than noncoaching teachers.” The AAUW data do not identify the abuser by job position in a way

that can be connected to type of misconduct.

 5

 Calculated from tables in Gallagher (2000).
23

Table 6. Sources for Descriptions of Offenders

American Association of University Women (1993). Hostile Hallways, Washington,

D.C.: AAUW Educational Foundation

American Association of University Women (2001). Hostile Hallways, Washington,

D.C.: AAUW Educational Foundation

Sherry B. Bithell (1991). Educator Sexual Abuse, Boise: Tudor House Publishing,

1991.

Paul Cameron, William Coburn Jr., Helen Larson, Kay Proctor, and Nels Forde and

Kirk Cameron (1986). Child Molestation and Homosexuality. Psychological Reports,

58, 327-337.

Kelly Corbett, Cynthia S. Gentry, and Willie Pearson Jr. (1993). Sexual harassment in

high school. Youth and Society, 25(1), 93-103.

Mike Freel (2003). Child sexual abuse and the male monopoly: An empirical

exploration of gender and a sexual interest in children. British Journal of Social Work,

33 (481-817)

Bernard Gallagher (2000). The extent and nature of known cases of institutional child

sexual abuse. British Journal of Social Work, 30, 795-817.

Caroline Hendrie (Dec. 2, 9, 16, 1998). “A trust betrayed. sexual abuse by teachers.”

Education Week.

Caroline Hendrie, (April 30 and May 7, 2003). “Trust betrayed. An update of sexual

misconduct in schools.” Education Week.

Diane Jennings and Robert Tharp (May 4, 5, 6, 2003). Betrayal of Trust. The Dallas

Morning News.

Victor J. Ross and John Marlowe (1985). The Forbidden Apple: Sex in the Schools

Palm Springs, Calif.: ETC Publications.

John M. Seryak (1997). Dear Teacher, If You Only Knew! Adults Recovering from

Child Sexual Abuse Speak to Educators. Bath, Ohio: The Dear Teacher Project.

SESAME (1997) Survivor Survey. www.sesamenet.org; (1997-2003) Survivor Stories.

Charol Shakeshaft and Audrey Cohan (1995, March). “Sexual abuse of students by

school personnel.” Phi Delta Kappan, 76 (7) 513-520.

——— (1994). In loco parentis: Sexual abuse of students in schools. What

administrators should know. Report to the U.S. Department of Education, Field

Initiated Grants.

Charol Shakeshaft (2003) “Educator sexual abuse.” Hofstra Horizons, Spring, 10-13

Robert J. Shoop (2004). Sexual Exploitation in Schools: How to Spot It and Stop It.

Thousand Oaks, Calif.: Corwin Press.

Nan D. Stein, Nancy L. Marshall and Linda R. Tropp (1993). Secrets In Public:

Sexual Harassment in Our Schools. Wellesley, Mass.: Wellesley Centers for

Women.

Christine Willmsen and Maureen O’Hagan (Dec. 14-16, 2003). “Coaches who prey.”

The Seattle Times.

Dan H. Wishnietsky (1991). “Reported and unreported teacher-student sexual

harassment.” Journal of Educational Research, 84 (3), 164-169.

Jane Elizabeth Zemel and Steve Twedt (Oct. 31 to Nov. 2, 1999). "Dirty secrets.”

Pittsburgh Post-Gazette.
24

.

Table 7. Percent of Student Targets by

Job Title of Offender

Job Title Percent

Teacher 18

Coach 15

Substitute Teachers 13

Bus Driver 12

Teacher’s Aide 11

Other School Employee 10

Security Guard 10

Principal 6

Counselor 5

Total 100

Source: Shakeshaft, 2003; AAUW, 2001

4.2 Sex of offenders. Sex of offenders is documented in three types of

studies: analysis of newspaper reports or state education disciplinary records; surveys or

interviews of adults; and surveys of students.

Three studies examined public records. Jennings and Tharp (2003) searched

educator sexual misconduct discipline proceedings of 606 teachers in Texas; 12.7

percent were females and 87.3 percent males. The Hendrie (1998) analysis of 244

cases in newspapers in a six month period reports a higher proportion of female

offenders than the later Jennings and Tharp analysis; 20 percent were female offenders

vs. 80 percent who were males. Gallagher (2000) reports 96 percent male and 4 percent

female offenders.

Freel (2003) and Shakeshaft and Cohan (1994) surveyed and interviewed adults

in schools. In telephone interviews of 225 superintendents, Shakeshaft and Cohan

documented that 4 percent of the educators investigated for educator sexual misconduct

were females and 96 percent males. Freel surveyed 183 child care workers in West

Yorkshire, England, and found that 15 percent of men and 4 percent of women

expressed sexual interest in children. When asked if they “would have sex with a child if

it was certain no one would find out and there would be no punishment” (p. 489), 4

percent of men and 2 percent of women indicated they would have sex with a child.

In studies that ask students about offenders, sex differences are less than in adult

reports. The 2000 AAUW data indicate that 57.2 percent of all students report a male

offender and 42.4 percent a female offender with the Cameron et al. study reporting

nearly identical proportions as the 2000 AAUW data (57 percent male offenders vs. 43

percent female offenders).
25

Table 8. Sex of Offenders

AAUW and

Shakeshaft

secondary

analysis

Cameron

et al.

Corbett

et al.

Gallagher Hendrie Jennings

and Tharp

Shakeshaft

and Cohan

Percent

Males 57.2 57 85 96 80 87.3 96

Percent

Females 42.8 43 15 4 20 12.7 4

Except for the Gallagher and Shakeshaft and Cohan studies, the reports of

educator sexual misconduct by sex of offender are in contrast to the research on child

sexual abuse in general. Researchers who study child sexual abuse report a “monopoly”

by male abusers (Freel, 2003). Finkelhor (1986), in a review reports, 90 to 98 percent of

females and 18 to 86 percent of males are sexually abused by a male. Analysts

speculate that female abusers might be underreported if the target is male, because

males have been socialized to believe they should be flattered or appreciative of sexual

interest from a female. On the other hand, it is hypothesized that males might also

underreport sexual abuse by another male, because of the social stigma of same-sex

sex. The issue of male underreporting has more relevance to the number of males that

are sexually abused than to the sex of the abuser.

Analysts are more likely to explore, as a separate category, the reasons why

females abuse than the reasons why being male leads to being an abuser. For instance

Hendrie (1998), Robins (1998), and Shoop (2004) discuss female offenders as a

separate category. Hislop (2001) devoted an entire book to a synthesis of the research

on female sex offender, including cases of female teachers who sexually abused

students (Chideckel, 1935: Larson and Maison, 1987; Peluso and Putnam, 1996).

Finkelhor and Russell (1984) assert that treating females as a special group grows out of

a set of societal beliefs that sex abuse by males is “normal” (although unacceptable)

while sexual abuse by females is defined as abnormal and, therefore, in need of

additional discussion.

4.3 Age of offenders. Hendrie (1998) found the age of offenders ranged from

“21- to 75-years-old, with an average age of 28.”

4.4 Same-sex offenders. Same-sex misconduct ranges from 18 to 28 percent

of the reported cases, depending upon the study (Table 8). Same-sex sex is not the

same as sexual identity. For instance, in Shakeshaft and Cohan (1994), of the 24

percent of males who targeted other males, all of the offenders described themselves as

heterosexual, with most living in married or heterosexual relationships.
26

Table 9. Same-Sex Misconduct

AAUW 2000

and

Shakeshaft

Reanalysis

Cameron

et al.

Corbett

et al.

Shakeshaft

and

Cohan

Percent Male

Educator and

Male Student

15.2 8.9 7.5 24

Percent Female

Educator and

Female Student

13.1 8.9 0 3

Percent SameSex Misconduct

as Percent of

All Misconduct

Reported

28.3 17.8 7.5 27

Researchers have failed to find a consistent connection between sexual

identification or sexual orientation label and child sexual abuse. For instance, Jenny et

al. (1994) reviewed 350 cases of child sexual abuse and found no patterns. In another

study (Freund et al., 1984), researchers found that homosexual males responded no

differently to pictures of male children than did heterosexual males to pictures of female

children.
27

5.0 TARGETS OF EDUCATOR SEXUAL MISCONDUCT

The matter of how to “name” students who have been sexually abused by

educators is more than semantic; it is also political. Complainant connotes a legal

perspective and hints that the abuse is merely alleged. Victim is believed by some to

attach weakness to the student. Survivor describes a process. While I believe that all

are accurate, I have chosen to use “target” in identifying students who are sexually

abused by educators. Target is a reminder that someone other than the student is

responsible for the act of sexual abuse. Table 10 lists studies, both quantitative and

qualitative, in which there are data that help to describe who is targeted in schools.

Table 10. U.S. Sources for Descriptions of Targets

American Association of University Women (1993). Hostile Hallways. Washington,

D.C.: AAUW Educational Foundation.

American Association of University Women (2001). Hostile Hallways. Washington,

D.C.: AAUW Educational Foundation.

Sherry B. Bithell (1991). Educator Sexual Abuse. Boise: Tudor House Publishing,

1991.

Kelly Corbett, Cynthia S. Gentry, Willie Pearson Jr. (1993). “Sexual harassment in

high school.” Youth and Society, 25(1), 93-103.

Bernard Gallagher (2000). “The extent and nature of known cases of institutional

child sexual abuse.” British Journal of Social Work, 30, 795-817.

Caroline Hendrie (Dec. 2, 9, 16, 1998). “A trust betrayed. Sexual abuse by teachers.”

Education Week.

Diane Jennings and Robert Tharp (May 4, 5, 6, 2003). “Betrayal of trust.” The Dallas

Morning News.

Victor J. Ross and John Marlowe (1985). The Forbidden Apple: Sex in the Schools.

Palm Springs, Calif.: ETC Publications.

John M. Seryak (1997). Dear Teacher, If You Only Knew! Adults Recovering from

Child Sexual Abuse Speak to Educators. Bath, Ohio: The Dear Teacher Project.

SESAME (1997) Survivor Survey. Survivor Stories (2004) www.sesamenet.org.

Charol Shakeshaft and Audrey Cohan (1995, March). “Sexual abuse of students by

school personnel.” Phi Delta Kappan, 76 (7) 513-520.

——— (1994). In loco parentis: Sexual abuse of students in schools. What

administrators should know. Report to the U.S. Department of Education, Field

Initiated Grants.

Charol Shakeshaft (2003). Educator Sexual Abuse. Hofstra Horizons, Spring, 10-13.

Robert J. Shoop (2004). Sexual Exploitation in Schools: How to Spot It and Stop It.

Thousand Oaks, Calif.: Corwin Press.

Nan Stein, Nancy L. Marshall and Linda R. Tropp (1993). Secrets In Public: Sexual

Harassment in Our Schools. Wellesley, Mass.: Wellesley Centers for Women.

Christine Willmsen and Maureen O’Hagan (Dec. 14-16, 2003). “Coaches who prey.”

The Seattle Times.

Dan H. Wishnietsky (1991). “Reported and unreported teacher-student sexual

harassment.” Journal of Educational Research, 84 (3), 164-169.

Jane Elizabeth Zemel and Steve Twedt (Oct. 31-Nov. 2, 1999). “Dirty secrets.”

Pittsburgh Post-Gazette.

5.1 Sex of targets. While the majority of students who are sexually
28

targeted by educators are females, the proportions vary by type of study. As is illustrated

in Table 11, the three studies that examine formal reports (Gallagher, 2000; Hendrie,

1998; Shakeshaft and Cohan, 1994) find a higher percent of female students as targets

than do the studies that ask students directly. These findings suggest that abuse of

females is more likely to be reported than abuse of males, but that the differences

between the percentages of males and females who are abused may be much smaller

than has been previously reported.

The differences in reports of educator sexual misconduct by sex of target

depending upon the data source need further examination, particularly in understanding

reporting patterns by sex.

Table 11. Targets by Sex

AAUW 2000

and

Shakeshaft

Reanalysis

Cameron

et al.

Corbett

et al

Gallagher Hendrie Shakeshaft

and

Cohen

Percent

Female

Students

56 57 77 54 76 66

Percent

Male

Students

44 43 23 46 24 33

5.2 Race/ethnicity of targets. Using the Shakeshaft reanalysis of the 2000

AAUW data as a guide, students of color (African descent, American Indian, and

Latina/o) are overrepresented as targets of educator sexual misconduct in comparison

with their representation in the sample, while Caucasian and Asian students are

underrepresented. Students of color account for 44 percent of the targets but 33.2

percent of the sample.

Table 12. Targets by Race/Ethnicity vs. Sample

Percent of Students Who

Are Targets of Educator

Sexual Misconduct

Percent of All Students in

Sample

Caucasian 51.5 58.6

African Descent 25.3 19.8

Latina/o 15.7 12.4

American Indian 3.0 1.0

Asian 0.5 2.7

No response 4.0 5.5

Total 100.0 100.0

Table 13 gives a breakdown of the percentage of students by race and sex who

report having been sexually abused by an employee of a school district. Females, and

particularly females of color, are overrepresented as targets of educator sexual

misconduct in relation to their proportion of the population. Females are 53 percent of
29

the sample and 57 percent of the targets of educator sexual abuse. Females of color are

18.2 percent of the sample and 27.3 percent of those targeted.

Table 13. Targets by Race/Ethnicity and Sex vs. Sample

Percent of Students Who Are

Targets of Educator Sexual

Misconduct

Percent of All Students in

Sample

Male Female Male Female

Caucasian 24.7 26.8 28.1 30.5

African Descent 10.1 15.2 9.2 10.6

Latina/o 5.1 10.6 5.2 7.2

American Indian 1.5 1.5 0.5 0.4

Asian 0.0 0.5 1.6 1.0

No Response 1.5 2.5 2.4 3.3

Total 42.9 57.1 47 53

5.3 Disabilities and targets. There is scant U.S. data on sexual abuse of

students with disabilities, and none on educator sexual abuse of students. Studies do

indicate that students with disabilities are more likely to be maltreated than students

without disabilities (Sobsey, 1994; Sobsey, Randall, and Parrila, 1997; Sullivan and

Knutson, 2000).

Examining this question using data from the National Data Archive on Child Abuse

and Neglect, Sobsey et al. (1997) found that nearly twice as many disabled girls than

disabled boys were sexually abused and nearly four times as many non-disabled girls

than non-disabled boys were sexually abused. However, of those sexually abused, 53

percent of boys were disabled compared with 11.4 percent of girls. These data don’t tell

us the percent of the total population by disability that were sexually abused since this

was a study looking only at children with substantiated sexual abuse.

Sullivan and Knutson (2000) were able to document the proportion of all children

by disability status with substantiated reports of sexual abuse. Merging the electronic

data base of 50,278 students in the Omaha, Neb., schools system with the records from

the Central Registry of the Nebraska Department of Social Services, the Nebraska Foster

Care Review Board records, and the victimization records from the county sheriff and

Omaha police, Sullivan and Knutson (2000) were able to document maltreatment by

disability status. Using data tables in their report, I calculated that 8.8 percent of students

with disabilities vs. 2.8 percent of students without disabilities were sexually abused.

Students with behavior disorders are more than five times as likely as non-disabled

students to be sexually abused, with mentally retarded students more than three times as

likely6.

While very helpful, these data do not distinguish by role of offender, so there is no

way to determine how many of these reported cases are examples of educator sexual

misconduct. Further, since this is a study of cases reported to the child welfare or

 6 Tables provided sample n’s that were used to disaggregate findings.
30

criminal justice systems, these percentages do not include all children who were sexually

abused.

Gallagher’s UK (2000) examination of reported incidents in institutional settings,

which included schools, found that students with special needs were targets in 17 percent

of the cases. The University of Alberta Abuse and Disability Project (1992) documented

that 7 percent of the sexual abuse of disabled children came from bus drivers, an

important finding since children with disabilities are often transported off-site for services.

Table 14. Sexual Abuse Reports by Disability Status, in

Institutional Settings

Number in

Population

Number

Sexually

Abused

Percent

Sexually

Abused

None 36,949 1,044 2.8

Behavior disorder

and autism

688 104 15.1

Communication

disorder:

Speech, language,

hearing, learning

disabilities

1161 61 5.3

Health/orthopedic:

Visual, orthopedic,

health

515 30 5.8

Mental retardation 898 91 10.1

 Subtotal disabilities 3,262 286 8.8

 

 Numbers in table calculated from data reported in Sullivan and Knutson (2000).
31

6.0 PATTERNS OF EDUCATOR SEXUAL MISCONDUCT WITH STUDENTS

Both qualitative and quantitative sources provide information on patterns of

educator sexual misconduct (Table 15).

Table 15. Sources for Descriptions of Patterns

American Association of University Women (1993). Hostile Hallways. Washington,

D.C.: AAUW Educational Foundation.

American Association of University Women (2001). Hostile Hallways. Washington,

D.C.: AAUW Educational Foundation.

Caroline Hendrie (Dec. 2, 9, 16, 1998). “A trust betrayed. Sexual abuse by teachers.”

Education Week.

Matthew D. Olson and Gregory Lawler (2003). Guilty until Proven Innocent.

Stillwater, Okla.: New Forums Press.

Sydney L. Robins (2000). Protecting Our Students. Ontario, Canada: Ontario

Ministry of the Attorney General.

SESAME (1997) Survivor Survey. Survivor Stories (2004) www.sesamenet.org.

Charol Shakeshaft (2003) “Educator sexual abuse.” Hofstra Horizons, Spring, 10-13.

Charol Shakeshaft and Audrey Cohan (1995, March). “Sexual abuse of students by

school personnel.” Phi Delta Kappan, 76 (7) 513-520.

——— (1994). In loco parentis: Sexual abuse of students in schools. What

administrators should know. Report to the U.S. Department of Education, Field

Initiated Grants.

6.1 Context. Sexual abuse of students occurs within the context of schools,

where students are taught to trust teachers. Schools are also a place where teachers are

more often believed than are students and in which there is a power and status

differential that privileges teachers and other educators (Shakeshaft and Cohen, 1994).

While we know very little about the contexts in which students are sexually abused by

adults in schools, newspaper data and interview studies suggest that—like sexual

predators anywhere—sexual abusers in schools use various strategies to trap students.

They lie to them, isolate them, make them feel complicit, and manipulate them into sexual

contact. Often teachers target vulnerable or marginal students who are grateful for the

attention. And, students that adults regard as marginal are also unlikely to be accepted

as credible complainants against a celebrated teacher (Shakeshaft and Cohan, 1994).

In elementary schools, the abuser is often one of the people that students most

like and that parents most trust. The abusers of children younger than seventh grade

have different patterns than those who abuse older children (Shakeshaft, 2003). The

educators who target elementary school children are often professionally accomplished

and even celebrated. Particularly compared to their non-abusing counterparts, they hold

a disproportionate number of awards. It is common to find that educators who have been

sexually abusing children are also the same educators who display on their walls a

community “Excellence in Teaching” award or a “Teacher of the Year” certificate. This

popularity confounds district officials and community members and prompts them to

ignore allegations on the belief that “outstanding teachers” cannot be abusers

(Shakeshaft and Cohan, 1994).
32

Many educators who abuse work at being recognized as good professionals in

order to be able to sexually abuse children. For them, being a good educator is the path

to children, especially those who abuse elementary and younger middle school students

(Shakeshaft and Cohan, 1994). At the late middle and high school level, educator

abusers may or may not be outstanding practitioners. At this level, the initial acts are

somewhat less premeditated and planned and more often opportunistic, a result of bad

judgment or a misplaced sense of privilege (Shakeshaft and Cohan, 1994).

6.2 Selection. Whether premeditated or opportunistic, selection is influenced

by the compliance of the student and the likelihood of secrecy. Because most educator

abusers seek to conceal their sexual contact with students, offenders often target

students that they can control. In some cases, control is characterized by force.

However, most abuse occurs within the much subtler framework of grooming and

enticement. While almost all children respond to positive attention from an educator,

students who are estranged from their parents, who are unsure of themselves, who are

engaged in risky behavior or whose parents are engaged in such behavior are often

targeted, not only because they might be responsive but also because they are more

likely to maintain silence (Robins, 2000; Shakeshaft and Cohan, 1994).

Robins (2000) describes the process of grooming, where an abuser selects a

student, gives the student attention and rewards, provides the student with support and

understanding, all the while slowly increasing the amount of touch or other sexual

behavior. The purpose of grooming is to test the child’s ability to maintain secrecy, to

desensitize the child through progressive sexual behaviors, to provide the child with

experiences that are valuable and that the child won’t want to lose, to learn information

that will discredit the child, and to gain approval from parents (Robins, 2000). Grooming

allows the abuser to test the student’s silence at each step. It also serves to implicate the

student, resulting in children believing that they are responsible for their own abuse

because, “I never said stop.”

Grooming often takes place in the context of providing a child with extras like

additional help learning a musical instrument, advisement on a science project, or

opportunities for camping and outdoor activity. These opportunities not only create a

special relationship with students, they are also ones for which parents are usually

appreciative.

Although not every instance of educator sexual misconduct includes a grooming

phase, because grooming precedes sexual engagement, grooming has the added benefit

to the abuser of being a way in which to test a child’s compliance. Any complaint can be

discredited because it does not yet constitute identifiable sexual misconduct. Robins and

others believe that grooming patterns must be better understood if educator sexual

misconduct is to be prevented or detected.

6.3 Maintaining secrecy and silence. Some of the children who are sexually

abused by educators do not characterize what is happening as abuse. That is not to say

they don’t identify what is happening as shameful, unwanted, wrong, or frightening. In
33

many cases, they are told that what is happening is love. Many abusers of children at all

ages couch what they are doing to the children as love, both romantic and parental.

Offenders work hard to keep children from telling. Almost always they persuade

students to keep silent either by intimidation and threats (if you tell, I’ll fail you), by

exploiting the power structure (if you tell, no one will believe you), or by manipulating the

child’s affections (if you tell, I’ll get in trouble; if you tell, I won’t be able to be your friend

anymore).

Thus, childish or adolescent naiveté is taken advantage of to keep children silent.

Because many children who are targeted have previously been abused by others, the

legacy of abuse increases the likelihood of silence. Fear of discovery and punishment or

shame for doing something forbidden also keep children from speaking. Boys abused by

men often don’t tell because of homophobia.

Because children often get something positive in the transaction—attention, gifts,

physical pleasure, and feelings of belonging or attractiveness—they can be made to feel

responsible. Offenders use this to their advantage.

Finally, abuse is allowed to continue because even when children report abuse,

they are not believed. Because of the power differential, the reputation difference

between the educator and the child, or the mindset that children are untruthful, many

reports by children are ignored or given minimal attention.

6.4 Geography of abuse. An analysis of documentation from legal

proceedings and from interviews with school officials and student targets indicates that

sexual misconduct by educators occurs in the school, in classrooms (empty or not), in

hallways, in offices, on buses, in cars, in the educator’s home, and in outdoor secluded

areas. Sometimes the abuse happens right in front of other students. Within the

documents found in case law, there are instances where a teacher has taken a student

into a storage room attached to the classroom and had sexual intercourse while the rest

of the class does seat work (Shakeshaft and Cohan, 1994; Shakeshaft, 2003). Often

teachers touch students during movies. In one class, boys reported that the teacher

would call them up to his desk at the front of the room and, one at a time, while

discussing homework, would fondle each boy’s penis. Every child in the room knew what

was happening and students talked about it among themselves. The teacher repeated

this behavior for 15 years before one student finally reported to an official who would act

upon the information that everyone knew (Shakeshaft and Cohan, 1994).
34

7.0 ALLEGATIONS AND RESPONSE 

Nine studies include data on patterns of educator sexual misconduct in schools.

Table 16. Sources for Allegations and Response

American Association of University Women (1993). Hostile Hallways. Washington,

D.C.: AAUW Educational Foundation.

American Association of University Women (2001). Hostile Hallways. Washington,

D.C.: AAUW Educational Foundation.

Caroline Hendrie (Dec. 2, 9, 16, 1998). “A trust betrayed. Sexual abuse by teachers.”

Education Week.

Matthew D. Olson and Gregory Lawler (2003). Guilty until Proven Innocent.

Stillwater, Okla.: New Forums Press.

Sydney L. Robins (2000). Protecting Our Students. Ontario, Canada: Ontario Ministry

of the Attorney General.

SESAME (1997) Survivor Survey. Survivor Stories (2004) www.sesamenet.org.

Charol Shakeshaft (2003) “Educator sexual abuse.” Hofstra Horizons, Spring, 10-13.

Charol Shakeshaft and Audrey Cohan (1995, March). “Sexual abuse of students by

school personnel.” Phi Delta Kappan, 76 (7) 513-520.

——— (1994). In loco parentis: Sexual abuse of students in schools. What

administrators should know. Report to the U.S. Department of Education, Field

Initiated Grants.

Robert Shoop (2004). Sexual Exploitation in Schools: How to Spot It and Stop It.

Thousand Oaks, Calif.: Corwin Press.

7.1 Allegations. According to Shoop (2004), notice of educator sexual

misconduct comes to the attention of school officials in five ways: formal complaints,

informal complaints, observed abuse, observed suspicious behaviors, or rumors and/or

anonymous reports.

Formal and informal complaints are most likely to originate from targets or parents

of targets, although parents of a target’s friend sometime report the abuse. Seldom is the

abuse reported by a teacher, even if the child has told the teacher.

 Several studies estimate that only about 6 percent of all children report sexual

abuse by an adult to someone who can do something about it. The other 94 percent do

not tell anyone or talk only to a friend. (And they swear their friend to secrecy) (Finkelhor,

Hotaling and Kerti Yllo, 1988; National Resource Center on Child Sexual Abuse, 1994).

However, a reanalysis of the AAUW data set found that 71.2 percent of students who had

been targets of peer and/or educator sexual misconduct told someone, with 56.6 percent

telling more than one person. Most students told a friend (69.7 percent), followed by

someone else (44.9 percent), then a parent (31.8 percent), a teacher (14.6 percent), or

another school employee (14.1 percent).7

 7 However, although these are reports by students who have reported educator sexual misconduct, nearly

75 percent have also been sexually harassed by a student. These findings should be used with caution

because of the inability to disaggregate these data. The question about reporting the misconduct and

harassment focuses on all types of abuse and cannot be disaggregated by whether the report was about

educator sexual misconduct or peer harassment.
35

 

When asked if they would complain to a school employee if sexually harassed by

a teacher or other school employee, 71 percent responded affirmatively. However,

among the students who were harassed by a school employee, only 11.6 percent

actually told a teacher while 10.6 percent reported to another employee. While some of

the “other employees” might qualify as a school official who has the authority to stop the

abuse, most aren’t, therefore limiting the number of incidents in which the school district

can be held financially liable to fewer than 10 percent . As discussed in greater detail

below, the Supreme Court’s Title IX rulings limited liability for monetary damages for

educator sexual misconduct to those instances in which, among other things, a school

district official with authority at a minimum to institute corrective measures had actual

knowledge of the misconduct.

While formal reports might not be made in school, informal information is passed

on through rumor, innuendo, and jokes. Often it is a friend of the target or a parent of a

friend who brings the issue to school authorities.

When students do report, they almost always report incidents of contact sexual

abuse—touching, kissing, hugging, or forced intercourse. Verbal and visual abuse are

rarely reported to school officials8. Of the cases that come to a superintendent’s

attention, nearly 90 percent are contact sexual misconduct (Shakeshaft and Cohan,

1994). When alleged misconduct is reported, the majority of complaints are ignored or

disbelieved (Shakeshaft and Cohan, 1994). Other students note this lack of response

and conclude that teachers (or coaches or administrators) cannot be stopped

(Shakeshaft, 2003). If the school will not act, what can a mere student do?

Few students, families, or school districts report incidents to the police or other law

enforcement agencies. When criminal justice officials are alerted, it is almost always

because parents have made the contact. Thus, most cases are not entered into criminal

justice information systems (Shakeshaft and Cohan, 1994). As one consequence,

abusers are subject only to informal personnel actions within the relative privacy of

school employee records (Shakeshaft and Cohan, 1994).

7.2 Response to allegations. Robins (2000) found that the most common

reason that students don’t report educator sexual misconduct is fear that they won’t be

believed. Research indicates that students have good reasons to suspect they won’t be

believed. Robins documents the case of a teacher, Kenneth DeLuca, who was convicted

of sexually abusing 13 students between the ages of 10 and 18 over a period of 21 years.

Nearly all of the students reported this abuse at the time. However, school officials did

not take these accusations seriously.

Overwhelmingly, the girls experienced a disastrous response when they

told about DeLuca’s behavior. Many were disbelieved, some were told to leave

schools, parents were allegedly threatened with lawsuits (129-130).

 8

 While sexual misconduct is most often thought of as physical, verbal sexual abuse such as harassing or

sexually explicit language and visual sexual abuse such as pornography or sexual gestures are more

common in the school setting, but rarely reported (Shakeshaft, 2003).
36

7.3 Investigative practices. Only one study (Shakeshaft and Cohan, 1994)

has examined school district response to allegations. This study is limited but documents

that investigative skills of school administrators are poor. In many cases, no formal

investigation was conducted. If a police investigation did occur, districts often failed to do

their own reporting in terms of violations of district policy or Title IX requirements.

7.4 False accusations. The possibility of a false accusation is included in this

section because there is widespread belief that false accusations are common. Because

this is the prevailing mental model, students are often not believed.

Currently, there is no mechanism for determining how many false accusations

occur. Because many of the accusations involve behavior that might not be easily

prosecuted under criminal statutes, for instance verbal and visual abuse or physical

abuse that is not penetration, there is confusion about what constitutes abuse. While this

issue will be explored in more detail in a subsequent section, the distinction between a

criminal offense that can be proven beyond a reasonable doubt and an incident of sexual

misconduct is sometimes blurred, leaving the impression that if there is not a prosecution

(or a criminal charge), the accusation must have been false.

There are no systematic studies of false accusations of educators, but studies of

child sexual abuse in general indicate that false allegations are not common. In a 1991

review of false or mistaken accusations of sexual abuse, Yates concludes that the

majority of false accusations occur in custody cases and that in other circumstances, the

incidence of false accusations appears rare.

In the Shakeshaft and Cohan (1995) study of 225 allegations of educator sexual

misconduct, there was not one in which the actions reported weren’t proved to have

happened. Although the accuracy of student reports of educator behavior was

unanimous, the meaning of the behavior differed between student and educator. In a

handful of cases, the student’s characterization of the act as sexual misconduct was

labeled by the educator and administrative officials as touching with no sexual intent.

However, both Robin (1992) and Yates (1991) have pointed out that false

accusations can cause serious emotional stress to the person falsely accused. Olson

and Lawler (2003) have compiled cases in which educators have been falsely accused of

maltreatment of students, including accusations of sexual abuse. Their accounts describe

the harm that false accusations coupled with inadequate investigations can yield.
37

8.0 EXTENT AND IMPACT OF LEGAL INITIATIVES

When referencing the legal principles noted below, case law and Title IX

regulations address "sexual harassment", not "sexual misconduct." Therefore, the term

"sexual harassment” will replace “sexual misconduct" in this section.

While there are several sources that present and discuss the foundations of the

laws that govern educator sexual misconduct, there are no studies that examine the

impact of initiatives or trace the legal reasoning of current federal law. Therefore, this

section briefly describes relevant federal and state laws and regulations, as well as

professional organization policies. Depending upon the nature of the behavior, educator

sexual misconduct violates a number of federal and state laws.

8.1 Federal laws. The primary federal legal remedy for sexual misconduct in

schools is Title IX of the Education Amendments of 1972. The language of Title IX

doesn’t mention sexual harassment but, rather, is a statute that prohibits discrimination

on the basis of sex in any educational organization that receives federal funds.9 Title IX

provides for federal enforcement of the prohibition on sexual discrimination and the

possibility of loss of federal funds for any educational institution in violation of Title IX or

its regulations.

Twenty years after the enactment of Title IX in 1972, the Supreme Court in

Franklin v. Gwinnett County Public Schools, 503 U.S. 60 (1992) ruled that students may

seek monetary damages from schools for sexual harassment visited on them by school

employees. Although it was a breakthrough in equating sexual harassment in schools

with sex discrimination and in assigning schools monetary liability for damages, Franklin

did not provide educators a clear framework for understanding their legal responsibilities

to provide a harassment-free school.

The Office for Civil Rights (OCR) enforces Title IX and its regulations and

publishes guidelines to help schools recognize and effectively respond to sexual

harassment of students in educational programs as a condition of receiving Federal

financial assistance.10 OCR provides technical assistance to schools in developing

sexual harassment policies to clarify the responsibilities of school personnel. Schools are

responsible for prohibiting and responding effectively to sexual harassment and there are

potential legal consequences for ignoring sexual harassment of students by staff or

students.

The Supreme Court’s 1998 ruling in Gebser v. Lago Vista Independent School

District (524 U.S. 274 (1998)) made it more difficult for students to secure monetary

damages in staff-to-student sexual harassment cases. In Gebser, the Supreme Court

determined that for a district to be liable for monetary damages for the sexual harassment

of a student by a staff member, someone with the authority to take corrective action must

 9 Title IX states that "No person in the United States shall, on the basis of sex, be excluded from

participation in, be denied the benefits of, or be subjected to discrimination under any education program or

activity receiving Federal financial assistance" (Title IX, Section 1681).
38

have had actual knowledge of the sexual harassment and the school district must have

acted with deliberate indifference to its knowledge of the discrimination. The Court

acknowledged, by contrast, the power of Federal agencies, such as the Department of

Education, to effectuate Title IX’s prohibition of sex discrimination, even under

circumstances that would not result in liability for monetary damages.

In Davis v. Monroe County Board of Education (526 U.S. 629 (1999), the Supreme

Court applied the stringent requirements found in Gebser to claims for monetary

damages for student-on-student or peer sexual harassment. Davis is the first Supreme

Court ruling that affirms that school staff members can be held liable for monetary

damages for peer harassment under Title IX but only if a staff member with authority to

take corrective action has actual knowledge of the harassment and responds with

deliberate indifference to the victim. Additionally, in Davis, the justices ruled that to

obtain monetary damages the harassment must be so severe, pervasive, and objectively

offensive that it effectively bars the target student’s access to an educational opportunity

or benefit.

However, Davis left unclear a number of issues, including how “deliberate

indifference” is determined.

Prior to interpreting Title IX coverage to include sexual harassment as a

form of sex discrimination, there was little in the law that was available to victims of

educator sexual harassment in schools, beyond criminal statutes that were unavailable

for most cases of harassment and certainly not in sexually harassing speech incidents.

By holding school districts and individual actors within schools liable for damages if they

permitted a hostile and harassing environment, Title IX raised the stakes in the

prevention of sexual harassment. Teachers and administrators were on notice that if

they did not intervene to stop harassment, they might become personally liable for

damages. This threat, combined with increased public awareness of both the definition

of sexual harassment and the responsibilities of school personnel, has resulted in more

student awareness of rights and expectations (AAUW, 2001). However, there are no

studies that examine the relationship of liability to prevention or reduction of educator

sexual misconduct.

To change the limited scope of school district liability for monetary damages

educator sexual misconduct under Title IX would require federal legislation. Justice

O’Connor, writing for the majority in Gebser, noted that: “Until Congress speaks directly

on the subject, however, we will not hold a school district liable in damages under Title IX

for a teacher’s sexual harassment of a student absent actual notice and deliberate

indifference.”

Table 17 summarizes possible federal and state initiatives that have been

discussed in the literature as possible remedies to reduce educator sexual misconduct.

However, these initiatives have neither been developed nor studied.

8.2 State child sexual abuse laws. Depending upon a number of factors

(age of student, age of educator, type of sexual misconduct, etc.) educators who sexually

abuse might be prosecuted under a variety of statutes. Criminal codes are not uniform
39

Table 17. Suggestions and Recommendations from the Literature

for Possible Legislation and Regulations

Liability School districts shall be held liable in damages under Title IX for a

teacher’s sexual harassment of a student based upon the same

guidelines as Title VII.

Prohibition No person in a position of trust may engage in sexual conduct with

students 18 years old and younger, regardless of any state’s age of

consent. Violation would be a Class C felony.

Prohibition No confidential settlements with alleged abusers; no discretion for

judges in imposing settlements.

Reporting Violators of the federal law would be required to register as sex

offenders.

Reporting Mandated reporting of conviction by adjudicating agency and by

educator; failure to report would be a gross misdemeanor and result in

the forfeiture of professional education license.

Reporting Required reporting to the state licensing agency of all allegations of

educator sexual misconduct, including those that result in a termination

or resignation.

Reporting State data collection and reporting on extent of educator sexual

misconduct.

Reporting National clearinghouse on educator sexual misconduct.

Requirement 10 year statute of limitations on filing complaints, bringing charges.

Requirement Mandatory background and interim employment career checks for all

teachers and school employees (not just newly hired), including

fingerprinting.

Requirement School officials must ask former employees whether a job applicant had

a history of sexual misconduct allegations.

across the states. While all states have laws that prohibit adults from having sex with

children, each state defines that crime differently. Child sexual abuse, sexual assault,

anti-stalking, and lewdness with a minor are legal categories under which state laws

might exist. For instance, if the abuse is physical and the child is younger than the age of

consent (which differs by state), child sexual abuse statutes might be invoked. If the

misconduct is not physical, lewdness with a minor covers sexual acts with children 14

and under in some states.

State laws regarding “consensual sex” (referred to generally as statutory rape

laws) prohibit adult-child relationships but define childhood differently, depending upon

the state. Although research indicates that children under 17 or 18 cannot make

informed choices about sex with an adult, in one state, 15-year-olds are considered to be

adults; in 32 states, 16-year-olds are legally able to consent to sex under general

statutory rape laws; in six states, the age is 17; and in 11, the age is 18 (Park, 2003). I

found no studies of state criminal statues that cover educators who sexually abuse

students.

8.3 State sexual assault laws. While sexual assault laws prohibiting coercive

or forced sex cover some types of educator sexual misconduct, these laws don’t cover all
40

of the ways in which educators might sexually abuse students. Anti-stalking laws also

exist in all states and often cover educator sexual misconduct behavior. As is true of the

other legal categories synthesized, there were no studies exploring state sexual assault

laws and educator sexual misconduct (Park, 2003).

8.4 State educator sexual misconduct laws. In addition to general sexual

assault laws and criminal statutes prohibiting adult sexual contact with children, some

states have adopted laws that specifically prohibit sexual abuse by educators or people in

a position of trust. Ohio’s Sexual Battery law (Section 2907.3) and Colorado’s Sexual

Assault by One in a Position of Trust (Statute 18-3-405.3) are examples of laws that

protect children 18 and under from sexual misconduct by adults in a position of trust. As

of March 2003, 27 states have laws prohibiting a person in a position of trust from sexual

activity with a minor, with Iowa moving legislation forward. Of those, two protect students

up to age 15; 20 states protect students up to 17; and five have no limit on the age of

students (Park, 2003).

8.5 Limitations of state laws. From a national perspective, there are

several drawbacks to using state statutes to address educator sexual misconduct. (1)

Many of the laws include only students who have not reached the age of consent and the

age of consent differs by state; (2) Many do not require those found guilty under these

statutes to register as sex offenders (see, for instance, Nevada Revised Statutes:

Chapter 201); (3) There is no uniform legal definition of child sexual assault or criminal

sexual activity from state to state; (4) There is no uniform penalty for similar actions

across the states; and (5) The age of minors varies by state.

I found no reports that codify educator sexual misconduct statutes by state.

Neither did I find studies on convictions of educators nor that examined impact on

students’ behavior.

8.6 Tenure and licensure. Besides federal, civil and criminal approaches to

identifying and stopping educator predators, legally enforceable codes of professional

conduct, generally in connection with state licensure, exist in most states. The language

in many of the states such as New York’s “conduct unbecoming a teacher” is inclusive of

a wide variety of behaviors. As a result, it is often difficult to categorize the various

behaviors that have been found to be prohibited. However, sanctions by state teacher

certification agencies do provide for revocation of a professional license for misconduct

(LaRue, 1996). Like criminal approaches, these regulations vary by state.

Most states require criminal background checks which use FBI and state records

in addition to fingerprinting. An April 2003 Education Week report notes that only eight

states do not require these checks.

I found no formal studies of licensure revocation in cases of educator sexual

misconduct, although there are newspaper accounts that document local or state

instances (see section 2.4). Seventeen states require school officials to report any

alleged educator misconduct to state education officials. To insure safety in reporting, 17
41

states11 (although not all the same states as require reports to state officials) protect

school officials from lawsuits based upon job references.

A 1996 study of tenure laws (LaRue) notes that most states include language that

covers a broad range of behaviors in their statutes for revoking tenure. Thus, educator

sexual misconduct might be covered by prohibitions such as “immorality,” “conduct

unbecoming a teacher,” or “moral turpitude.” Twelve states have no category into which

educator sexual misconduct would fit. However, LaRue found no state that specifically

listed educator sexual misconduct (or language that was similar) as a reason for

terminating or dismissing an employee.

National teacher associations, to date, have not included suggestions for

preventing educator sexual misconduct nor conducted studies of incidence. Suggestions

for collective bargaining model language from the two national teacher unions do not

specifically include language on educator sexual misconduct.

8.7 Laws on fingerprinting. Many states have passed fingerprinting laws for

teachers and other educational professionals. However, there is no data about the

effectiveness of such legislation for preventing or detecting sexual abusers.

Typical of state legislation is New York State’s Chapter 180 of the Laws of 2000

regulations that require applicants for teaching and administrative certification and other

employees of schools to undergo a fingerprint-supported criminal history background

check. The law went into effect on July 1, 2001, but exempted “individuals who have

provided services to the covered school in the previous year” (New York State Education

Department, Office of School Personnel Review and Accountability,

http://www.highered.nysed.gov/tcert/ospra/geninfo.htm). Volunteers, student teachers,

employees in private schools, and bus drivers are also not required to be fingerprinted.

 11

 Arizona, Colorado, Delaware, Florida, Louisiana, Maryland, Michigan, Minnesota, New Mexico, North

Carolina, North Dakota, Ohio, Rhode Island, South Carolina, Utah, Virginia, Wisconsin (Education Week,

April 30, 2003, p. 17).
42

9.0 EFFECTS OF EDUCATOR SEXUAL MISCONDUCT

The data collected by the AAUW studies offers student reports of effects of

educator sexual misconduct, while the three remaining studies in Table 16 provide

accounts from or about targets.

Table 18. Effects of Educator Sexual Misconduct

American Association of University Women (1993). Hostile Hallways, Washington,

D.C.: AAUW Educational Foundation.

American Association of University Women (2001). Hostile Hallways, Washington,

D.C.: AAUW Educational Foundation.

Victor J. Ross and John Marlowe (1985). The Forbidden Apple: Sex in the Schools

Palm Springs, Calif.: ETC Publications.

John M. Seryak (1997). Dear Teacher, If You Only Knew! Adults Recovering from

Child Sexual Abuse Speak to Educators. Bath, Ohio: The Dear Teacher Project.

SESAME (1997) Survivor Survey. www.sesamenet.org; (1997-2003) Survivor Stories.

9.1 Effects on targeted students: Academic, emotional and

developmental. Reanalysis of the AAUW data indicates that targets of educator sexual

misconduct report that they suffer emotional, educational, and developmental or health

effects. At least a third of students report behaviors that would negatively affect

academic achievement:

Avoid the teacher or other educator (43 percent).

Do not want to go to school (36 percent).

Do not talk much in class (34 percent).

Have trouble paying attention (31 percent).

Stayed home from school or cut a class (29 percent).

Found it hard to study (29 percent).

About a quarter of students who were targets of educator sexual misconduct report

academic or discipline repercussions that they attribute to the incident.

Thought about changing schools (19 percent).

Changed schools (6 percent).

Received a lower grade on a test or assignment (25 percent).

Received a lower grade in a class (25 percent).

Got into trouble with school authorities (25 percent).

Felt less likely to get a good grade (23 percent).

Health effects such as sleep disorder and appetite loss were reported by 28 percent of

students. A substantial number of students report negative feelings of self worth because

of the abuse.

Felt embarrassed (51 percent).

Felt self conscious (39 percent).

Less sure of self or less confident (37 percent).
43

Felt afraid or scared (36 percent).

Felt confused about identity (29 percent).

Doubted whether could ever have a happy romantic relationship (29

percent).

For most children, being the victim of sexual misconduct does damage that lasts

well into adulthood, and for most it is never fully repaired (Kendell-Tackett, 1993). Child

sexual abuse targets lose trust in adults and authority figures, suffer physical ailments

and lowered immune systems, and do less well in school (Finkelhor & Brown, 1985).

They often drop out of or avoid school. Sexually abused children are more likely than

children who are not sexually abused to be substance users as adults and to have

difficulty forming intimate relationships (Finkelhor, 2001). David Finkelhor (2001), the

premier researcher of child sexual abuse, notes that the same sense of betrayal and

shame that attaches to incest is found in sexual abuse by teachers where the pseudo

parental relationship that the teacher plays has been sexualized.

9.2 Effects on Other Students. In addition to costs to the targeted child, there

are costs to society when educator sexual misconduct is not adequately addressed by

school officials. For instance, a report on sexual abuse in the New York City schools

indicates that more than $18.7 million was paid between 1996 and 2001 to students who

were sexually abused by educators, and 110 cases were still active. Fees for attorneys

and investigators are in addition to the settlement amounts (Campanile and Montero,

2001). A 2004 report (Campanile, Jan. 20, 2004,

http://www.nypost.com/news/retionalnews/16207.htm) lists more than 600 legal claims

and lawsuits filed against New York City public schools in the three years since 2001 at a

cost of hundreds of millions of dollars if the claims prevail. If educator sexual misconduct

had been prevented, the effort and resources necessary to respond to the claims might

have been put to better use.

Where educator sexual misconduct is not adequately addressed, the negative

effects spread to other staff and students. Studies of sexual harassment in the workplace

indicate that the climate and culture changes when sexualization and abuse are not

prevented (Shakeshaft, 1992). There are no studies that examine the effects on school

climate and the others who exist within that climate.

Thus, the additional harm to other students as well as the cost of litigation is an

area about which little is known and which would benefit from examination.
44

10.0 CONSEQUENCES OF ALLEGATIONS OF EDUCATOR SEXUAL

MISCONDUCT

The studies which include documentation of the consequences of educator sexual

misconduct primarily focus on what happens after allegations are made. Most document

the ways in which schools and districts fail to remove abusers from the classroom.

10.1 Consequences for abusers. In an early study of 225 cases of educator

sexual abuse in New York, all of the accused had admitted to sexual abuse of a student

but none of the abusers was reported to authorities and only 1 percent lost their license

to teach (Shakeshaft and Cohan, 1994). All of the accused had admitted to physical

sexual abuse of a student but only 35 percent received a negative consequence for their

actions: 15 percent were terminated or, if not tenured, they were not rehired; and 20

percent received a formal reprimand or suspension. Another 25 percent received no

consequence or were reprimanded informally and off-the-record. Nearly 39 percent

chose to leave the district, most with positive recommendations or even retirement

packages intact.

Of those who left, superintendents reported that 16 percent were teaching in other

schools and that they had no idea what the other 84 percent were doing. A recent report

on sexual abuse in New York City indicates that 60 percent of employees who were

accused of sexual abuse were transferred to desk jobs at offices inside schools and 40

percent of these teachers were repeat offenders (Campanile and Montero, 2001). In

many instances, agreements are made to avoid legal battles with the alleged abuser

(Shakeshaft and Cohan, 1994). .

Several investigative reports have publicized individual cases and the response by

districts to allegations of educator sexual misconduct. For instance, O’Hagen and

Willmsen report that of 159 Washington state coaches “who were reprimanded, warned,

or let go in the past decade because of sexual misconduct . . . at least 98 of them

continued coaching or teaching afterward.” (Dec. 15, 2003) Many school districts make

confidential agreements with abusers, trading a positive recommendation for a

resignation. O’Hagan (2004) details two examples of coaches in Washington that

illustrate this practice.

In 1995, a Sharples Alternative School student accused tutor Sione

Hefa of going to her home at 3 a.m. and forcing her to have sex with

him. “At one point, he held her neck with his arm so she couldn’t get up,”

according to investigative notes. “She kept telling him she did not want

to have sex with him.”

When the district investigated, Hefa refused to answer questions,

citing his Fifth Amendment rights. His Seattle Education Association

representative denied the accusations.

The district’s human-resources director later told Hefa in a letter:

“The District investigation revealed that you went to the home of one of

your female students at 3:00 a.m. on Sunday, January 22, 1995, you

were let inside, and that you forced her to have sex with you.”
45

Records indicate the district suspected that Hefa may have

victimized other girls. After negotiations, the district allowed Hefa to

resign, promising in writing not to tell future employers about the

allegations.

In another example, O’Hagen (2004) reports that a Seattle educator, Luke

Markishtum, had two decades of complaints of sex with students and providing alcohol

and marijuana to students prior to his arrest for smuggling six tons of marijuana into the

state. The district paid Markishtum the remainder of his salary that year, agreed to keep

the record secret, and gave him an additional $69,000.

There is little data on sentencing within states or across states. An analysis of

state of Nevada sentences in educator sexual abuse cases between 1994 and 2003

illustrates the lack of uniformity of response and consequences. In several instances,

teachers were allowed to resign from their positions after being found guilty of sexually

abusing a student and received no criminal penalty. One abuser received life in prison

with the possibility of parole within five years, while an offender in a similar case was

given up to 5 years probation. We know little about the legal consequences for abusers.

10.2 Consequences for targets. The school or district rarely prescribes a

therapeutic and healing intervention for targets of educator sexual misconduct or for

others in the school. I have found no descriptions of policies and procedures that debrief

other students or their parents. Neither have I been able to locate any suggestions for

types of support a targeted student should receive from the school. Most school officials

report that if action is taken against the abuser, they have done all that is necessary

(Shakeshaft and Cohan, 1993).

Limited data from interviews, newspaper reports, and court documents indicate

that there is often a negative public response to the student who is seeking protection

from educator sexual misconduct. Student targets report that other teachers single them

out for threats. Additionally, it is not uncommon for educators and the public to come to

the assistance of the accused educator (Shakeshaft and Cohan, 1993).
46

11.0 UNION AND PROFESSIONAL ORGANIZATION ROLES

11.1 Actions of teacher unions. Until recently, teacher unions in many states

have actively opposed legislation that would require positive identification (e.g., fingerprinting) of teachers convicted of sexual abuse of students. In most states, teachers who

are already employed are exempt from regulations such as fingerprint identification.

There is no research that documents teacher union attempts to identify predators

among their members

11.2 Actions of professional organizations. Administrative professional

organizations have hosted workshops and talks at annual meetings on the topic of

educator sexual abuse and the School Administrator, the official publication of the

American Association of School Administrators, published an issue devoted to the topic.

However, specific guidance and direction to members has not been formal nor did I find

evidence that professional organizations for teachers have addressed the topic for their

members.
47

12.0 PREVENTION OF EDUCATOR SEXUAL MISCONDUCT

Educator sexual misconduct has not been systematically addressed in schools.

While the advent of money damages to targets of sexual harassment, a result of Title IX

legislation, and newspaper and other media coverage have prodded some school district

officials to acknowledge educator sexual misconduct, educator sexual misconduct is still

occurring. Some believe that the rights of adults are favored over the safety of children

(Sesame, 2003; Shoop, 2003).

Because so little has been done to prevent educator sexual misconduct, it is not

surprising that there are no studies of the effectiveness of prevention programs or

legislation. However, although not empirically documented, there are practices that many

believe are likely to reduce educator sexual misconduct. In New York City, under the

leadership of the late Edward F. Stancik who was special commissioner for

investigations, a commission assembled a list of 35 recommendations for reducing

educator sexual misconduct (Final Report of the Joint Commission of the Chancellor and

Special Commissioner, October 1994). Follow-up investigations indicate that these

recommendations have not been implemented.

The following recommendations are based upon all of the literature reviewed for

this report. These suggestions are ones most often included in the professional

literature. While there are no studies that examine the effectiveness of these strategies,

best practice advice identifies these practices as possibly creating a climate in which

educator sexual misconduct is reduced or eliminated.

12.1 Develop district and school level policies. All school districts need

written policies prohibiting educator sexual misconduct and inappropriate educatorstudent relationships to include consensual relationships between staff and students. The

behaviors prohibited should be described in the policy so that there is no ambiguity about

what types of actions are unacceptable. In addition to making clear the prohibitions

against adult-to-student sex, the group United Educators (2004) has suggested that

policies should include reference to:

Descriptions of educationally appropriate touching.

Limitations on closed-door and after-hours activities with only one student.

Investigatory rights without formal complaint.

Required reporting by other teachers and employees.

Required reports of any criminal investigation or conviction during period of

employment.

Required chaperones, at least one male and one female, for off-site trips.

Deadlines for reporting allegations with the option for waiving the time limit.

12.2 Hiring practices. A common form should be used for all applications

which includes questions on work history, identification that will facilitate background

checks, and all information on criminal history. The form should include a statement that

incomplete or false information can result in termination. Interviewers should be trained

to identify red flags in applicant backgrounds.
48

12.3 Screen employees. Screening applicants requires multiple methods that

include references, background checks, license information, and application information.

Prior to making an employment offer, personnel information from the current employer

should be reviewed.

Background checks with fingerprint screens should be completed for all current

and new employees. Where collective bargaining agreements prohibit screening of

current employees, steps should be taken to change these restrictions. While screening

will not identify the majority of educators who have or will sexually abuse, it signals

seriousness on the part of the district. To make background screens more effective,

those who hire should check for gaps in employment, inquire into reasons for movement

between schools or districts, contact school personnel in previous sites reaching beyond

those listed as references, ask direct questions, and search DWI offenses. The social

security numbers of new hires need to be verified. Finally, all offers of employment

should Include a probationary period.

12.4 Assign a case coordinator and centralize information. Appoint a case

coordinator who handles all incidents of educator sexual misconduct. In the most

effective structure, the case coordinator is outside of district control but with regulatory

authority within the district.

One reason that educator sexual misconduct continues is that in most schools and

school districts there is no one person to whom all rumors, allegations, or complaints are

channeled. As a result, patterns of behavior are often not detected. Selecting one

person to whom all school personnel must report any rumor, allegation, complaint, or

suspicion is helpful in insuring that no student falls through the crack and patterns of

misconduct are quickly and effectively identified. However, because the designated

employee may engage in misconduct, a school district or school may want to assign

more than one employee to handle allegations of educator sexual misconduct and have

these employees coordinate their efforts to identify any patterns of behavior. Also, each

school receiving Federal financial assistance must designate at least one employee to

coordinate its Title IX obligations. Schools also are required by the Title IX regulations to

publish a policy that prohibits sex discrimination and grievance procedures providing for

prompt and equitable resolution of sex discrimination complaints. .

Record all allegations and outcomes in employee personnel file. Do not agree to

expunge molestation findings.

12.5 Report all allegations to both child protection and law enforcement

agencies. The majority of allegations of educator sexual misconduct are not reported to

the police by the school districts. District policy should require that the allegation be

reported to both the police and child protection agencies. Consult police immediately and

build relationships for shared investigation.

12.6 Develop thorough investigative practices. Train regional investigators

who can respond quickly to allegations. Ensure that investigations are completed within

48 hours and reports are presented to school authorities, students, and parents. Define

the roles of all parties in the investigation including their notification responsibilities. Do
49

not terminate investigation if employee resigns. Complete investigation and file report

internally, with criminal justice authorities, and with state licensing entities.

12.7 Educate employees. With rare exceptions, sexual abuse prevention

training for educators and school staff—whether preprofessional or while on the job—

does not include educator sexual misconduct. These programs focus on what to do

when sexual or any other kind of abuse or maltreatment is suspected from a source

outside the school. Therefore, additional training for educators and other staff about

educator sexual misconduct is important. Training outlines the behaviors that are not

acceptable so that everyone—both those who abuse and those who do not abuse—are

working from the same set of expectations. By making expectations explicit and public,

school decision makers are also helping educators understand their own responsibility in

reporting behavior that does not conform to those expectations. Thus, the training will

educate employees about unacceptable behavior and to remind them of their

responsibility to report abuse.

12.8 Educate students. Like staff, students need to understand the boundaries

that educators should not cross. This is important both for students who might be

targeted and for students who observe such behaviors. Both sets of students need to

know that such behavior is prohibited and that there is a person to whom they can and

should report such incidents. Materials and programs that have been developed to

protect students from sexual abuse rarely include examples of predators who are

educators. Students need to know that educators might cross boundaries and what to do

if this happens.

12.9 Be aware of signs of educator sexual misconduct. To increase the

possibilities for identification of educator sexual misconduct, educators, parents, and

students need to know:

Any employee, including volunteers, might molest.

Educator sexual predators are often well liked and considered excellent

teachers.

Special education students or other vulnerable students are often targets of

sexual predators.

Adults who have access to students before or after school or in private

situations are more likely to sexually abuse students than those who don’t

(coaches, music teachers, etc.).

Physical signs of sexual abuse include difficulty walking or sitting, torn

clothing, stained or bloodied underwear, pain or itching in the genital area,

venereal disease, pregnancy, and changes in weight.

Behavior indicators in students might include age inappropriate sexual

behavior, late arrivals to class, changes in personality, and increased time

at school with one adult.

Rumors are an important source of information on educator sexual

misconduct.

Behaviors of adults who molest include close personal relationships with

students, time alone with students, time before or after school with

students, time in private spaces with students, flirtatious behavior with

students, and off-color remarks in class.
50

12.10 Change state educator certification regulations. State certification

requirements for educators need to include required training on educator sexual abuse.

New entrants to the field need to understand the professional expectations and ethics in

regard to student relationships.

12.11 Provide adequate state registry. In most cases where educators cross

boundaries, the educator does not lose her or his license. Therefore, a national list of

educators by state who sexually abuse, which is maintained by the state certification

office, would be a place where future employers or parents can turn to check

backgrounds.

12.12 Provide adequate federal registry. Currently there is no electronic federal

registry that can be accessed to search for educators who have had certification and

licenses suspended. Nor is there central place that lists those who engage in sexual

misconduct.

12.13 Enact and standardize state policies and statutes. State laws which

prohibit educators who abuse their positions of trust should be implemented to include

any student, no matter what age, in an educational institution. Criminal background

checks using FBI and state records along with fingerprinting should be required by all

states and the information stored in a federal repository that can be accessed easily.

State laws should require school officials to report any alleged sexual misconduct or the

resignation or suspension of educators accused of sexual misconduct to state education

officials. Laws protecting school officials from lawsuits for job references given should be

in place in every state. The age of consent should be standardized across states as

should the definition of what constitutes child sexual abuse.

12.14 Enact laws giving immunity to public employees who provide

references. State laws that protect employers who give good-faith references on former

employees will help increase the information exchange across districts. Although state

personnel laws already protect former employers in this process, additional laws will

increase feelings of security.

12.15 Expand Title IX. Make the damage intent of Title IX clear, using Title VII

parameters in deciding liability.
51

13.0 SUMMARY OF EXISTING STUDIES AND RECOMMENDATIONS FOR

ADDITIONAL ANALYSIS

Educator sexual misconduct is woefully under-studied. We have scant data on

incidence and even less on descriptions of predators and targets. There are many

questions that call for answers. Table 19 summarizes the research (or lack of research)

synthesized in this report and suggests possible responses in each of the categories.

The report recommends a series of studies to deepen the understanding of

educator sexual misconduct and strategies to prevent the abuse of students.

Table 19. Educator Sexual Misconduct: Data Available

And Needs for Future Research

Topic Studies

Available

Recommendations for Future Study

Prevalence Limited national data Nationwide study, representative sample of households with

children 12 and older. Questions on prevalence, patterns,

outcomes, descriptions of targets, descriptions of predators,

reporting patterns, effects on academic performance, and effects

on social interactions.

Offenders No profile data Study of educators convicted of sexual misconduct with students.

Random sample of educators, using newspaper stories and court

files to identify predators. Telephone, face-to-face, and paper-andpencil surveys. Representative sample of teachers to determine

false accusations.

Targets Limited data on

profile, patterns,

effects

Study of children who have been targets of educator sexual

misconduct. Questions on patterns, experiences with schools, and

experiences with law enforcement. Parent involvement in

stopping abuse.

Patterns Limited data on

patterns

Content analysis of court documents; survey data from

households.

Effects on

targets

Limited data Longitudinal and retrospective studies of students abused by

educators..

Effects on other

students

No data Study of schools in which educator sexual misconduct has

occurred. What was the effect on other students, other teachers,

and parents? On the reputation of the school? On administrators?

What were the financial effects?

School and

district

responses

Little data on

effective prevention

strategies

Study of prevention strategies. What is different in schools and

districts without educator sexual misconduct vs. those with

substantial sexual misconduct?

Consequences

for offenders

Little data on

distribution or gravity

of legal

consequences.

Examination of sentencing records of convicted educators.

Comparison of laws across states for consequences of same

actions.

Public

responses

Little data on public

response to

allegations

Survey of households; response to allegations; cases studies of

public and school responses to allegations.

Responses of

professional

organizations

Little data on

professional

organization

educational support

Survey studies.

Investigative

practices

Little data on most

effective

investigative

practices

Observational, interview, survey studies.
52

investigative

practices

Legal analyses No analyses of the

development of legal

arguments, policies,

regulations, and

laws

Analysis of relationships between Title VII, Title VI and Title IX

decisions; comparison of state laws; analysis of the efficacy of

federal and state responses.
53

Appendix I

Newspaper, News Wire, and Broadcast References

Newspaper Accounts

Abuse case ends in mistrial. (2003, June 20). The Baltimore Sun.

Abuse gets teacher 46 years. (2003, June 7). The Arizona Republic.

Abuse jury is told of secret taping. (2002, Dec. 13). Evening Chronicle. Newcastle,

(UK).

Accused coach has record of sex abuse (2003, Feb. 4). Washington Post.

Accused molester facing another charge. (2003, April 2). Island Packet (S.C.).

Accused teacher quits. (1987, Sept. 17). Newsday, p. 37.

Ahearn L.A. (2000, Feb. 17). Giving a voice to the victims: Our criminal justice system

must empower children who have been sexually abused. Newsday. p. B7.

Alcott, J. (1987, May 13). Mahopac teacher charged with molesting. Gannett Westchester

Newspapers, p. 3.

Allen, J.L. (2003, Feb. 28). Ex-coach accepts plea agreement: Jennifer Brooks takes a

three-year prison term in her felony case. Sarasota Herald-Tribune (Fla.).

Anthony, S. (2001, April 25). Parents search for answers after teacher is arrested; Some

aren’t sure how to discuss sexual abuse. St. Louis Post-Dispatch.

Area news briefs: Probation given in sex case. (1986, Feb. 12). The Daily Star, p. 3.

Arrested in kid-sex. (1991, Oct. 3). Daily News, p. 28.

Attorney general: Sexual predators lurk in Ontario schools. (2000, April 7). The Ottawa

Citizen (Canada).

Bail is reset for teacher in sexual assault retrial. (2003, March 14). Cherry Hill Courier

Post (N.J.).

Bailey, S. (2001, June 16). Youth board set to hear charges against two. The

Birmingham News.

Barac, L. V. (1991, Oct. 3). Probable cause: School district failed to handle sexual

harassment. Chaska Herald, pp. 1, 10.

Barac, L. V. (1990, Aug. 30). School district accused of failure to act against sexual

harassment. Chaska Herald, pp. 1, 12-13.

Barrie teacher acquitted of sex assault. (2002, July 19). Ottawa Citizen (Canada).

Barringer, F. (1993, June 2). School hallways as gauntlets of sexual taunts. The New

York Times, p. B7.

Bartsch, P. (2003, April 14). Abuser back on the job. The Sunday Times (Perth,

Australia).

Basler, G. (1989, Aug. 29). JC may suspend coach with pay. Press and Sun Bulletin, pp.

1B, 3B.

Baxter students finally to get abuse settlement. (2003, Feb. 25). Kennebec Journal

(Maine).

Beaven, Stephen. (2001, Dec. 3). Ex-Oregon city teacher sentenced for sex crimes. The

Oregonian. p. C02.

Benham, K. (2003, July 28). Principal case sparks ‘uproar.’’ St. Petersburg Times, Fl. p.

1B

Bennett, D. (2000, Jan. 28). Grand jury to hear case. The News Herald. Ashtabula, Ohio.

Berger, J. (1991, Oct. 11). Cover-up charged in school official’s sex abuse case. The
54

New York Times, pp. B1, B2.

Bernstein, N. (1996, Feb. 11). Civil rights lawsuit in rape cases challenges integrity of a

campus. The New York Times, pp. 1, 32.

Bessent, A. E. (1991, Feb. 21). In abuse case, kids face trial too. Newsday, p. 29.

Bessent, A. E. (1990, June 25). Despite record, hired to teach. Daily News, pp. 3, 28.

Bessent, A.E. (1990, March 28). Teacher convicted of sexual abuse. Newsday, p. 20.

BHS teacher charged in rape case (2003, March 12). Brookline Tab (Mass.)

Bill eases path for child sex-abuse suits. (2003, Jan. 15). Louisville Courier-Journal (Ky.).

Blackwell, T. (2000, April 8). Sex abuse by Teachers ‘not isolated’ report warns:

Pedophile educators are allowed to move and ‘hunt’ again. The Ottawa Citizen.

Blame game: Girl’s troubles with Internet at issue. (2003, Sept. 6. The News Tribune

(Jefferson City, Mo.).

Board hears alleged improper relationship case. (2003, May 1). Ruidoso News (N.M.).

Bolten, K. (2003, May 17). State bans teacher after affair. Des Moines Register.

Bolton, M.M. (2001, April 4). Professor faces additional sex abuse charges. The Times

Union. (Albany, N.Y.). p. B7.

Bono, A. (Feb. 13, 2004) Picture of child sex abuse in U.S. society clouded by lack of

data. Catholic News Service

Boodman, S.G. (2002, July 29). How deep the scars of Abuse? Some victims crippled;

others stay resilient. Washington Post.

Boomsma, J. (1993, Nov. 14). Principal recalls effort to keep matter quiet. The Grand

Rapids Press, p. B2.

Boult, T. (1993, Nov. 14). Spared by her teacher. The Grand Rapids Press, p. B3.

Bowers, C. L. (1993, Sept. 5). After 15 years of lies, Price #didn't see any sense in

denying anymore'. The Sun, p. 1C.

Bowers, C. L. (1993, June 10). School knew in 1989 of rumors Price was involved with

10 girls. The Sun, pp. 1B, 3B.

Bowers, C. L., and O'Brien, D., with Siegel, A. F. (1993, Aug. 10). 3rd Northeast teacher

faces pupil-sex count. The Sun, pp. 1B, 4B.

Bowles, P. (2001, Feb. 8). Teacher charged in city assaults. Newsday.

Bowles, P., and Kowal, J. (1995, Oct. 19). Girl: Bus driver molested me. Newsday, p.

A30.

Bradley, E. (2002, Aug. 9). School district violated state law: Placing a student in a

teacher’s home illegal in Wisconsin. The Northwestern. (Oshkosh, Wisconsin).

Bradley, E. (2002, June 7). Counselor’s case differs from Mosher’s. The Northwestern.

Oshkosh, Wis.

Breuer, H. and Myerhoff, M. (2002, June 14). Girl, 16, testifies against former coach.

Pasadena Star News.

Bricker, J. (2002, July 20). Sexy notes not enough to convict teacher. National Post.

Canada

Bright, M. (2002, Nov. 17). Surgical tags plans for sex offenders: Silicon chip to be

inserted under skin. The Observer. UK.

Broderick, D. (1993, July 9). Parents rip ed board over sex scandal. New York Post, p.

14.

Broderick, D. (1993, July 8). School sex shocker: Counselor had affair with 2 students.

New York Post, p. 2.

Brooks, A. P. (1995, July 7). When flirting becomes hurting in the schools. Austin

American-Statesman, pp. A1, A11.
55

Brooks, J. (2001, June 6). Coach facing more counts of sex abuse: Total charges up to

9, concern boys under 13. The Arkansas Democrat-Gazette.

Broussard, S. (1989, July 23). School bus driver in sex rap. Daily News, p. 14.

Buckey son to be retried. (1990, Feb. 1). Daily News, p. 11

Buder (1988, March 29). A pornographer given 10 years by a U.S. Judge: L.I. teacher

also faces sentence in state case. The New York Times, p. B4.

Buettner, R. (1995, May 11). Teacher, teen on the run for love. Newsday, p. A6.

Burke, C. (1995, June 2). Trying to punish these perverts is a joke. New York Post. p. 5.

Burke, C. (1992, June 13). Bronx teacher in sex shocker. New York Post, p. 7.

Campanile, C. (2001, May 24). Roy’s state bill: Make schools report sex cases. The New

York Post.

Campanile, C. and Montero, D. (2001, Aug. 6). You pay for school assaults. New York

Post.

Campbell, J. (1996, Feb. 25). New York disclosure law snares a school chief. The New

York Times, p. 37.

Camron, V.A.F. (2002, May 25). State drops sex abuse charges. Kane County

Chronicle.

Cannizaro, S. (2001, June 13). Reports of child sex abuse increases; Task force helping

teachers to spot signs. The Times-Picayune.

Career is over for principal who says he was falsely accused. (2003, May 31).

St. Louis Post-Dispatch.

Carmichael, A. (2001, May 17). Teacher who sent teenaged boy love letters loses

teaching license. Canadian Press

Carmichael, A. (2001, May 16). Psychologist concedes teacher’s actions toward student

were predatory. Canadian Press.

Campanile, C. (Jan. 20, 2004). Savage school halls. New York Post Online Edition.

Carr, N. (2002, July 15). Crush letter ‘a joke’ teacher’s husband testifies. The Star.

(Barrie, Ontario, Canada).

Cassese, S. (1992, Feb. 11). Mom suing school for $5M in sex abuse case. Newsday,

p. 25.

Charge is gone, but stigma remains. (2003, May 31). Orange County Register (Calif.).

Charges for teacher. (1989, April 7). New York Daily News, p. 35.

Charlotte coach who had sex with players is freed. (2003, Nov. 18) The News-Press.

(Ft. Myers, Fla.)

Chiles, N. and Gardiner, S. (2001, May 5). 2 more boys say teacher molested them:

Chancellor fires investigator who conducted 1998 inquiry. Newsday.

Chiles, N. and Gardiner, S. (2001, May 4). More accuse teacher. New York Newsday.

Ciotta, R. (1989, April 12). 5 accused of abuse were escorts for children's outings two

staff members were charged before taking patients outside. The Buffalo News.

Ciotta, R. (1989, March 9). Sex claims at child center date to '83. The Buffalo News, pp.

A1, A11.

City, board sued over abuse-case grilling. (1991, May 28). Daily News, KSI , p. 2.

Clayton, Chris. (2002, Feb. 14). Abuse alleged at Glenwood Center. The Omaha WorldHerald. p. 1A.

Clinton teacher charged with sexual assault. (2003, June 18), The Hartford Courant.

Coach accused of molesting six girls. (2002, Dec. 4). Chicago Daily Herald.

Coach accused of 7th molestation. (2003, Jan. 10). Chicago Sun-Times.

Coach accused of touching female student. (2003, May 30). Sarasota Herald-Tribune.
56

Coach background checks get scrutiny. (2003, Feb. 10). The Common Denominator.

Coach guilty of molesting student. (2003, July 13). The Tennessean.

Coach in court charged with player affair. (2003, March 12). Morganton News Herald

(N.C.).

Coach had run-in with girl’s folks, police say. (2003, May 31). Albuquerque Tribune.

Coach may face private prosecution. (2003, March 20). The Courier Mail, Brisbane

Australia.

Coach-player relationship is examined by SI. (2001, Sept. 6). Philadelphia Daily News,

Coach surrenders over alleged sex with student. (2003, March 21), Phoenixville News,

Pa.

Coaches face scrutiny. (2003, July 6). Florida Sun-Sentinel.

Cochran seeks suit dismissal. (2003, June 6). The Adrian Daily Telegram (Michigan)

Cohen, T. (2001, June 9). Suspect Loses Right to Teach Driving Course. Portland Press

Herald

College rape trends studied. (1992, Aug. 17). Newsday, p. 13

Communication is the best defense against abuse. (2003, June 17). The Washington

Times. Sports.

Complaints against teacher ignored for years. (2003, Oct. 26). Lawrence Journal World

(Kan.)

Compton, J. (2002, July 31). Glen Dale parents learn to talk to kids about sexual

aggression. The Intelligencer -Wheeling News Register.

Cool, L.C. (2001, Aug. 8). The Bullying Epidemic. Ladies Home Journal.

Court rules schools can be liable for unchecked sexual harassment. (1999, May 25). The

New York Times, p. A24.

Court rules teacher should go to jail for sex with student. (2002, July 26). Asbury Park

Press (N.J.).

Court upholds sentencing of LA-area coach. (2003, Nov. 26). San Jose Mercury-News

(Calif.).

Covello, D., as told to Willen, L. (1996, February). I was abused by my guidance

counselor. Good Housekeeping, pp. 70-75.

Craig, T. (2001, March 22). 2 more charge martial arts teacher with sexual abuse. The

Baltimore Sun.

Crombie, N. (2001, March 17). Middle school teacher charged with sexual abuse. The

Oregonian.

Crossing the line. (2003, June 18). The Washington Times. Sports.

Crowd rallies to back Old Forge teacher. (2003, Sept. 25). Times Leader (Pa.).

Cummins, H. J. (1995) Crushes usually harmless, counselors say. Newsday, pp. 27, 29.

Cummins, H. J. (1995, May 27). Dealing with harassment in your child's classroom.

Newsday, pp. B2-B3.

Dale, C. (2003, April 16). Teacher’s appeal denied by state education board.

Parkersburg News and Sentinel, W.Va.

Dance teacher convicted. (2003, Sept. 22). North Jersey Herald and News. (N.J.)

Dance teacher is found guilty of sexual abuse. (2003, July 17). The Baltimore Sun.

Dance teacher seeks new trial. (2003, July 31). The Baltimore Sun.

Danks, H. (2001, Sept. 10). Forest Grove School District sued over sexual abuse case.

The Oregonian. p. E05.

Danks, H. (2001, Jan. 5). Teacher convicted of sexual abuse. The Oregonian.
57

Davis, Cary. (2002, May 31). Testimony may alter teacher’s sex case. St. Petersburg

Times.

Dayton teacher charged in sex assault. (2003, March 12). Cleveland Advocate.

De La Cruz, J. (2002, Aug. 10). E. Rapids teacher reassigned after sex allegations.

Lansing State Journal.

Decades of sexual abuse alleged. (2003, April 13). Canadian Press.

Defiant Volkers vows to keep on coaching. (2003, April 5). The Courier Mail (Brisbane,

Australia)

Demoretcky, T. (1995, Oct. 3). Warnings of sex abuse unheeded, lawyer says.

Newsday, p. A23.

Dentzer, B. (1996, Feb. 20). Mistrust strains classroom relationships, experts say. The

Citizen Register, p. 5A.

Deopere, J. (2001, March 7). Girl’s mother sues school board over sex case. The Ledger.

DeStefano, A.M. (1992, May 25). Kids who lie: Most sex charges against teachers prove

to be false. Newsday, p. 5.

Details arise of control, sex abuse at Oregon group home. (2001, Feb. 7). Kennebec

Journal. (Augusta, Maine).

Deutsch, L. (1990, Jan. 19). 2 cleared in child sex rapes. Daily News, p. 2.

Diesenhouse, S. (1988, Jan. 31). Child sex abuse cases rising in MA. The New York

Times, p. 43.

Dillon, S. (1994, June 28). Teacher tenure: Rights vs. discipline. New York Times, p. 1.

District lets accused teacher go. (2003, July 5). Rockford Register Star (Illinois).

District severs ties with teacher. (2003, April 10). The Arizona Republic.

Driving teacher accused of rape pleads innocent. (2003, April 13). The Lowell Sun

(Mass.).

Duddy, J., Sheridan, D. (1991, May 3). Aide held in five rapes: Pregnant student, 14,

sparks inquiry. Daily News, p. 7.

Echtenkamp, J. (2002, July 16). Band director gets prison for sex abuse. Loudon Times

Mirror.

Edelman, S. (2000, March 13). Teachers axed: One who exposed abuse pays price. The

New York Post.

Educator gets 18 months for sex with teen. (2003, March 4). Cincinnati Enquirer.

Educators scrutinize contact with students. (1996, Feb. 20). The Reporter Dispatch, pp.

1, 5A.

Educators seek safeguards against child sex abuse. (2003, July 9). The Oregonian.

Egelko. B. (2003, Feb. 24). State law opened door to sue on alleged long-ago abuse.

Defense lawyers cry foul, but prosecutors point to safeguards. San Francisco

Chronicle. P. B2.

Elizabeth, J. (2003, Feb. 6). A question of quality: Paperwork and legal threats

discourage teacher firings. Pittsburgh Post-Gazette.

Emerson, J., and Wait, T. F. (1989, July 29). Fallsburg delays report on abuse. The

Times Herald Record, pp. 3, 10.

Equestrian coach begins prison term for sex assault. (2003, July 9). The Hartford

Courant (Conn.).

Evans, F. (1987, May 7). Teacher facing court, district probe. The Smithtown News, pp.

1, 14.

Evans, H. (1991, May 4). Suspect in rapes not aide. Daily News, p. 6.

Ex-coach gets probation in sex assault. (2003, March 1). Omaha World-Herald (Neb.).
58

Ex-coach sentenced. (2003, July 30). The Virginian-Pilot (Norfolk, Va.).

Ex-Livingston coach jailed on child sex charges. (2003, June 4). The Houston

Chronicle.com 

Ex-Pine View teacher pleads guilty to raping 17-year-old. (2001, April 1). The Deseret

News..

Ex-student, administrator settle sex molestation suit. (1995, June 27). The Star-Ledger

p. 20.

Ex-swim coach gets nine-year sentence. (2001, Nov. 11). Milwaukee Journal Sentinel.

Ex-teacher accused of sex abuse. (2003, June 20). The Syracuse Post-Standard.

Ex-teacher charged with sexual abuse. (2001, Dec. 14). The Salt Lake Tribune. p. C2.

Ex-teacher gets 7 years for abuse. (2001, Nov. 11). The Record (Bergen County, N.J.).

Experts: Sexual predators often present benign façade. (2003, May 1). The Arizona

Republic, Phoenix, Ariz.

Fabbre, A. (2001, July 27). Geneva High teacher faces more charges that he sexually

abused a female student. Chicago Daily Herald.

Fabbre, A. (2001, July 27). Geneva high teacher denies new sexual abuse charges.

Chicago Daily Herald. p.1.

Family sues over child sex assault. (2003, Feb. 23). Eau Claire Leader-Telegram (Wis.).

Farrell, B. (1993, June 24). Probation for driver in sex abuse of boys. Daily News, p. 20.

Farrell, B. (1993, March 9). Teacher held on sex rape. Daily News, p. 16.

Father testifies about alleged abuse. (2003, Feb. 27). Stamford Advocate (Conn.).

Feld, J.J. and Maxey, A. (1999, Jan. 6). Teacher placed on leave: Dobbs Ferry educator

ran New Castle program for third-grade boys. Gannett Suburban Newspapers.

(Westchester, Putnam and Rockland counties, N.Y.).

Ferris, R. (2002, Aug. 13). Questions raised about CISD official’s knowledge of

teacher/student affair. The Courier. (Montgomery County, Texas.

Finn, R. (1999, March 7). Growth in women’s sports stirs harassment issue. The New

York Times. p. A1, 24.

Fitz-Gibbon, J. (1994, March 15). Janitor raped me, girl, 10, testifies. Daily News, p. 25.

Fitz-Gibbon, J. (1994, March 8). PS janitor rape trial under way. Daily News, Metro p. 1.

Flaws in system allowed molester back in school. (1993, Nov. 14). The Grand Rapids

Press, p. B1.

Florence, E. (2000, November). Who’s at school with your kids? Readers’ Digest

Canada.

Foderaro, L.W. (2002, April 14). Conduct by a teacher causes doubt and fear. The New

York Times.

Former band director sentenced. (2003, Oct. 24). Minneapolis Star Tribune.

Former basketball coach sentenced to prison. (2003, Sept. 5). The Wilmington Star

News (North Carolina).

Former Beaverton teacher gets 10 years. (2003, Nov. 4). The Oregonian.

Former coach is given a year in prison. (2003, Nov. 8). Lorain Morning Journal (Ohio).

Former coach pleads innocent. (2003, July 9). Wisconsin Rapids Daily Tribune.

Former coach pleads not guilty. (2003, Aug. 10). The Daily Democrat. (Woodland,

Calif.)

Former coach, teacher convicted. (2003, Aug. 2). Dayton Daily News (Ohio).

Former Dons coach Otis might return. (2002, Oct. 23). Long Beach Press-Telegram.

(Calif.).

Former Hopatcong teacher sentenced to prison. (2003, Sept. 26). New Jersey Herald.
59

Former school coach admits to using drugs with students. (20303, June 8). The Seattle

Post-Intelligencer.

Former school coach sentenced to 40 years for violating probation. (2003, Aug. 1).

Houston Chronicle.

Former student seeks damages of $75,000. (2002, Dec. 19). Topeka Capital-Journal.

Former teacher, coach acquitted on sex charges (2003, Feb. 3). Macomb Daily (Ill.).

Former teacher faces trial in abuse case. (2003, Sept. 9). The Ahwatukee Foothills

News (Ariz.)

Former teacher sentenced. (2003, Sept. 25).. The Concord Monitor (N.H.).

Former Wauconda teacher faces felony sex charges. (2003, Feb. 26). Chicago Daily

Herald.

Former Waverly teacher sentenced. (2003, Feb. 23). Towanda Daily and Sunday

Review (Pa.).

Forrest, S. (1991, March 7). Bus driver charged in sex abuse. Newsday, p. 31.

Four more families sue former Clovis teacher. (2002, Oct. 23). Amarillo Globe-News.

4th-graders lied about molestation. (1994, May 19). Newsday, p. A19.

Frank, R. (2001, Jan. 3). Judge dismisses three of 15 charges against teacher. The

Oregonian

Frownfelder, D. (2003, May 3). Teacher pleads not guilty. The Lenawee Connection/

The Daily Telegram. Adrian, Mich.

Fukumoto, Ken. (2002, Feb. 11). Failing the grade; Japanese are scandalized by a wave

of arrests of schoolteachers accused of sex-related crimes. Newsweek. p.19.

Gaines, Judith. (2002, Jan. 13). A test of character: When Paul Christopher became

headmaster of the Berkshire school he brought with him credentials as an ethicist

and champion of traditional values. Now he’s embroiled in a sexual harassment

scandal. Boston Globe. p. 10.

Galarneau, A.Z. (2001, May 12). Parents confront teacher who molested pupils. The

Buffalo News.

Gallagher, M. (1992, April 16). Abuse charge for teacher: NY probe found no basis for

girl’s sex complaint. Newsday, pp. 7, 31.

Gallotto, A.A. (1995, Aug. 17). Teacher sentenced for public masturbation. The StarLedger, p. 41.

Gardiner, S. (2001, Jan. 19). Ex-teacher charged in sex abuse. Newsday.

Garrison, J. and Hayasaki, E. (2001, Sept. 6). Schools roll out plans to get tough on

bullies. Los Angeles Times.

Gearty, R. (1993, Sept. 22). Cortines: Ax pedophile: ‘Man-boy lover’ found unfit to

teach, he'll appeal. Daily News, p. 8.

Gendar, A., Marzulli, J. and Goldiner, D. (2001, May 5). P.S. sex probe expands. New

York Daily News.

Gendar, A. and Weir, R. (2001, May 25). Fury over silence after sex attack on Bronx

students. New York Daily News.

George, K. (1986, Dec. 28). Debate continues over school's handling of abuse case.

Press and Sun Bulletin, pp. 1A, 10A.

George, K. (1986, Dec. 28). Sex-abuse law soft on schools. Press and Sun Bulletin, pp.

1A, 10A.

George, K. (1986, Dec. 20). SV's abuse probe draws fire. Press and Sun Bulletin, pp. 1A,

11A.

George, K. (1989, Oct. 6). Judge drops Hudy sex case. Press and Sun Bulletin,
60

pp. 1A, 6A.

George, K. (1989, Sept. 26). Stanbro charged in sex cases: JC coach accused of

abusing two girls at school. Press and Sun Bulletin, pp. 1A, 4A.

George, K. (1986, Sept. 5). Teacher accused of sex abuse. Press and Sun Bulletin, pp.

1A, 8A.

Gerard, W. (1992, July 11). Molesters prey on ‘passive’ disabled women. Toronto Star.

A1-A2.

Gerber, J. (1993, Nov. 14). Nightmares awaken old feelings. The Grand Rapids Press,

pp. B1-B2.

Giles, D. (1996, Feb. 22). Girl, 10, wears wire to nail teacher who fondled her. New

York Post, p. 2.

Gillespie, K. (2001, June 3). Hidden and unreported: Sexual abuse of students. We admit

that it goes on, but we’re not stopping it. The Toronto Star.

Girl’s mother sues school, teacher. (2002, Dec. 23). Rochester Democrat and Chronicle.

Giusti, M. (2001, June 3). Breach of trust: Unwrapping the saga of ‘Coach Ron.’ The

Daytona Beach News-Journal.

Giusti, M. (2001, June 3). Private schools receive less stringent background checks.

Trust Abuse articles and media reports: The Daytona Beach News-Journal.

Glaser, C. (1993, Nov. 14). The Grand Rapids Press, p. B2.

Goetz, K. (200, Sept. 28). Net sex charges follow teacher: Popular educator faces 34

counts. The Cincinnati Enquirer.

Goldberg, C. (1995, May 21). Betraying a trust: Teacher-student sex is not unusual,

experts say. The New York Times, p. 37.

Goldberg, C. (1995, May 12). Mother tapes video plea to teen-age girl who ran off with

teacher. New York Times, p. B3.

Goldberg, N. (1994, July 2). NY bill makes firing teachers easier. Newsday, p. A8.

Goldman, D. (2001, April 2). Bullying is a horrible reality the state will not ignore. Adweek.

p.14.

Good, O.S. (2001, June 26). Parents of abuse victims sue: Employees are accused of

knowing that founder of Boulder private school had molested students. Rocky

Mountain News. p. 16A.

Goodnow, C. (2002, May 21). Nasty clique behavior among girls draws new attention.

Seattle Post-Intelligencer.

Goodrich, R. (2001). Junior high student says gym teacher touched her repeatedly,

offered her money to disrobe; but she admits she has made up stories and was

angry with the man. St. Louis Post-Dispatch.

Goodstein, Laurie. (2003, June 110. Louisville Archdiocese to pay $25 million abuse

settlement. The New York Times.

Goodyear, C. and Bell, E. (2002, Feb. 26). Teacher accused of sex with 16-year-old

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Teacher sentenced for sexual assault. (2002, July 28). The Associated Press State and

Local Wire. Retrieved July 29, 2002 from www.zwire.com.

Teacher sentenced to 35 years for sex assault, child porn. (2002, May 24). The

Associated Press. Retrieved June 3, 2002 from www.caller.com.

Teacher sentenced: Former Coquille woman gets 5 years. (2002, July 29). The

Associated Press State and Local Wire. Retrieved July 29, 2002 from

www.theworldlink.com
79

Online Media—Web Publications

Cobb teacher charged with child molestation. (2003, Aug. 8). SouthernVoice.com.

(Atlanta, Ga.)

Ex-Lady Vol Davis charged for sex with student. (2003, Sept. 19). http://

sportsillustrated.cnn.com/2003./basketball/ncaa/wp,em/0919/davis.arrested.ap/.

Ex-teacher’s rape conviction upheld. (2003, July 31). www.nynews.com (The Journal

News: A Gannett suburban Web-paper for Westchester, Rockland, and Putnam

counties, N.Y.).

Field, H. (2001, May 30). Investigative report: UF hired sexual predator. Florida public

colleges, universities have no background check policy. Click10.com (WPLG-TV

Miami). Retrieved Feb. 25, 2002 from Circle of Trust Abuse articles and media

reports: The Zero 5.0laf–The official Web site of Andrew Vachss.

http://www.vachss.com/help_text/archive/uf_hired.html.

Former coach gets life. (2003, July 13). The Associated Press. Picked up by KVOA.-

TV, Tucson, Ariz. http://www.kvoa.com/stories/7/7132003_6.html.

Former Farwell basketball coach convicted of sexual assault. (2001, May 31). The

Associated Press. Retrieved on June 3, 2002 from www.lubbockonline.com.

Former state champion coach sentenced to 7 years. (2003, June 18). The Associated

Press. www.nola.com (New Orleans news online from the Times Picayune, La.).

Herek, G.M. Facts about homosexuality and child molestation.

http://psychology.ucdavis.edu/rainbow/html/facts_molestation.html.

High school basketball coach convicted for having sex with teen. (2002, June 20). The

Associated Press. Retrieved June 25, 2002 from www.signonsandiego.com.

Miller, A. (2003, March 2). How kids charmed sex-rap teacher. The New York Post.

Online Edition.

Molestation charge dropped, but Panhandle ex-coach still jailed. (2003, July 16). The

Associated Press. www.al.com (Alabama news online)

Softball coach gets 6 years for sex assault. (2003, Feb. 19). The Associated Press.

http://thedenverchannel.com/news/1991639/detail.html.

[A] suburban family in hell. (2003, May 30). Salon (www.salon.com).

Teacher gets house arrest. (2003, Sept. 9).

http://www.azcentral.com/news/articles/0909-ON.html.

Teacher gets 2 years for sex with student. (2003, June 21). The Associated Press.

http://www.dailybulletin.com/Stories/0,1413,203~1469775,00.html.

Teacher in abuse case gets probation. (2002, May 24). The Associated Press. Retrieved

June 3, 2002 from www.washingtonpost.com.

Teacher sentenced to prison. (203, Aug. 2). The Associated Press. Seacoastonline.com

(Portsmouth, N.H., online news)

Thomas, J. (2001, April). Principal resigns amid sex probe. 11Alive.com (Atlanta).

Valley teacher at center of sex probe reinstated. (2003, June 6). Penn Live.com

(Allentown-Bethlehem, Pa.).

Watson, C. (2001, June 17). Educators increasingly accused of sex crimes. The

Oklahoman Online.

Watson, C. (2001, June 17). Guidelines may prevent false accusations. The Oklahoman

Online
80

Youth hockey coach sentenced on molest. (2003, June 18). The Boston Channel

WCVB-TV, Channel 5, Boston Online).

Broadcast News Media

Coach acquitted of molesting player. (2003, March 12). WPVI Philadelphia.

Ex-coach could lose teaching license. (2003, April 2). WSOC-TV News. Southington,

Conn.

Ex-teacher, ex-student now can be together. (2000, July 31). KOMO-TV. Seattle, Wash.

Ex-teacher wins lawsuit over sex abuse claims. (2003, Jan. 16). WAVE-TV (Louisville,

Ky.).

Flagler teacher faces sex charges. (2001, Nov. 16). WESH News.

Man fired from tennis club because of 20-year-old accusations. (2003, Oct. 24).

http://www.wfsb.com/Global/story.asp?S=1495054 (WFSB Eyewitness News,

Connecticut)

Northern governments face lawsuits over sex crimes against students. (2003, Oct. 17).

CBC (Canadian Broadcasting Corporation)

Olympic coach jailed for sex assaults. (2002, Sept. 17). BBC News.

Parents say school didn’t do enough to protect kids from alleged molester. (2003, April

4). KTUL (Tulsa, Oklahoma).

“Public School Sex Abuse: A Report Card.” (1984, Nov. 10). Transcripts from Cable

News Network (CNN) Special Assignment Unit. Reporter: Larry Woods, Producer:

Sandee Myers.

School faces second suit over alleged sexual relationship between coach and student

(2003, Feb. 20). NBC4, Los Angeles.

Schools settle molestation case for $1.78 million (2003, Feb. 27). WSOC-TV

(Hendersonville, N.C.).

Soccer coach gets two years for molesting players. (2003, June 13). KGTV-Channel

10 News, San Diego

Students accuse Amelia High School coach of harassment. (2003, May 2). WCPO/

Channel 9 News. Cincinnati, Ohio.

Teacher appears in court. (2003, July 15). Capital News 9 (Albany, N.Y.). Time Warner

cable station.

Teacher arraigned on sex charges. (2001, Dec. 13). News12.com/Westchester.

Teacher charged with sexual assault faces new allegations. (2003, March 14). NBC-10

Philadelphia.

Teachers told of drama tutor’s abuse. (2002, Sept. 26). BBC News.

Teens testify against former lacrosse coach. (2003, Jan. 31). KYW Philadelphia.

Tucker, D. (2003, May 5). Sexual abuse and Texas’ Teachers. Fox14 TV, Amarillo,

Texas.

Youngsters targeted by digital bullies. (2002, April 15). BBC News. .
81

Appendix II

Surveys and Studies on Child Sexual Abuse

STUDY DESCRIPTION RELEVANT

Adapted Oregon Youth Risk

Behavior Survey

(1993)

Self report survey of 2,332students

in 25 schools in grades 9-12.

Reports physical and sexual

abuse.

No

relevant

data.

Alberta Adult Victimization Survey,

(Gomez, et al., 2000 )

Alberta Law Foundation

Random sample of 10,000 adults

in Alberta Canada were surveyed

about whether they had been

victimized. Telephone surveys of

56 adults who reported they had

been victimized examined

seriousness of incident,

experience with police, filing a

victim impact statement, and

access to services provided to

victims.

No

relevant

data.

Alberta Youth Victimization, Crime,

and Delinquency Survey

(Gomez, et al., 1999 ) Canadian

Research Institute for Law and the

Family, Calgary

A representative sample of 490

Edmonton 7th to 12th grade

students was asked about

victimization including being

"touched against one's will."

No

relevant

data.

Child and Adolescent Psychiatric

Assessment (CAPA)—Traumatic Life

Events Section

(Amaya-Jackson, et al., 2000;

Angold et al., 1995; Costello et al.,

1996)

Interview instrument for children

and parents to assess child’s

psychiatric symptoms, functional

impairment, demographics, and

family structure and functioning.

No

relevant

data

Childhood Experiences of Violence

Questionnaire

(Walsh and MacMillan, 1999)

No Information No

relevant

data

Child Maltreatment—2001.

Administration for Children and

Families, DHHS

Based on all known cases referred

to state Child Protective Services

and forwarded to NCANDS, this

reports sexual abuse.

Nonfamily perpetrator

characteristics are reported only as

“non-parent.”

No

relevant

data.

Children’s Report of Exposure to

Violence

(Cooley, Turner, and Beidel, 1995)

Study of development of a selfreport instrument assessing

exposure to community violence.

Development included

administration of the survey to 228

public school students ages 9-15.

No

relevant

data

Conflict Tactics Scales—Parent

Child Version (Straus et al., 1998)

Instrument which measures

aggression and physical assault

scale, nonviolent discipline scale,

scale for neglect, and questions on

discipline methods and sexual

abuse. Development included

No

relevant

data
82

STUDY DESCRIPTION RELEVANT

Child Version (Straus et al., 1998) aggression and physical assault

scale, nonviolent discipline scale,

scale for neglect, and questions on

discipline methods and sexual

abuse. Development included

administration to 1,000 participants

who were parents of children from

infancy to 17 years old.

relevant

data

Determining Our Viewpoints of

Violent Events

Self report scale for children that

documents attitudes toward

violence.

No

relevant

data

Exposure to Violence in Minority

School-Based Adolescents

The study administered the 14-

item exposure to violence

screening instrument to 94 sixth- to

eighth-graders in a NYC parochial

school.

No

relevant

data

Exposure to Violence Screening

Measure

Survey of 352 10-19 year old

inner-city teenagers

No

relevant

data

Exposure to Violence Subscale of

Chicago Stress and Coping Interview

Survey of 245 African-American

and Latinos aged 11-15 and

caregivers.

No

relevant

data

Fast Response Survey System

(FRSS)

Principal/School Disciplinarian

Survey

National Center for Education

Statistics

(Violence and Discipline Problems in

U.S. Public Schools: 1996-1997;

Violence and Crime at School, FRSS

Principal/School Disciplinarian

Survey 1996)

The FRSS is a survey system

designed to collect small amounts

of information on issues in a short

time. The 1997 survey focused on

incidents of crimes and offenses

that happen in schools. The

sample for FRSS includes 1,234

public school principals selected

from the 1993-1994 NCES

Common Core of Data Public

School Universe File. Study

reports the number of incidents of

rape or other sexual battery report

to school and/or law enforcement

officials.

No

relevant

data.

Finland Prevalence Study

1990

National representative self report

survey of 7,349 children ages 15

and 16 on violence. Include sexual

violence.

No

relevant

data

Great Smokey Mountains Study

(1993-1995)

Face to race and telephone study

of 1,422 children in grades 9

through college. Includes

questions on sexual abuse.

No

relevant

data

Indicators of School Crime and

Safety, National Center for Education

Statistics and Bureau of Justice

Statistics,

Reports made every year from

1997 to 2000. Synthesis of data

from four data sets: Fast

Response Survey System:

Principal/School Disciplinarian

Survey on School Violence (1997);

No

relevant

data
83

STUDY DESCRIPTION RELEVANT

Safety, National Center for Education

Statistics and Bureau of Justice

Statistics,

October 2000 (NCJ 196753).

1997 to 2000. Synthesis of data

from four data sets: Fast

Response Survey System:

Principal/School Disciplinarian

Survey on School Violence (1997);

National Household Education

Survey (1993, school and safety

supplement), National Crime

Victimization Survey (1992-99);

School Crime Supplement to the

NCVS (1989, 1995, 1999); School

Associated Violent Death Study

(1992-1994; 1994-1999); Youth

Risk Behavior Survey (1993, 1995,

1997, 1999); and School and

Staffing Survey (1993-94, Teacher

victimization supplement.). Data on

rape and sexual battery.

relevant

data

Juvenile Victimization Questionnaire

(Hamby and Finkelhor, 1999)

Reports data on 35 offenses

against children and youth (8 – 17)

six general areas (e.g., “sexual

assault”).

No

relevant

data

Longitudinal Studies on Child Abuse

and Neglect (LONGSCAN)

Questionnaire

Children’s Bureau, U.S. Dept. of

Health and Human Services

Reports on 1,70 maltreated

children.

No

relevant

data

Maltreatment and the Academic and

Social Adjustment of School Children

National Data Archive on Child

Abuse and Neglect, 1987-88, 2000

Data (1987-88) on abuse of 8,600

children, including sexual abuse

and on K-12 school and

adjustment consequences. Effects

of child sexual abuse.

No

relevant

data

Management of Sex Offenders by

Probation and Parole Agencies in the

United States, 1994

National Institute of Justice / InterUniversity Consortium for Political

and Social Research (ICPSR)

(Kim, 1994)

Examined various ways states

approach and sanction sex crimes

(i.e., child sexual abuse, incest,

and sexual assault) and sex

offenders.

No

relevant

data

Metropolitan Life Survey of the

American Teacher, 1999: Violence in

America’s Public Schools—Five

Years Later

Teacher Survey, Student Survey,

Law Enforcement Officer Survey

Survey of students, teachers and

law enforcement officials on

violence in public schools.

Excluded data collection about

sexual abuse or harassment

No

relevant

data
84

STUDY DESCRIPTION RELEVANT

(Binns and Markow, 1999)

Louis Harris and Associates, Inc.

Minnesota Adolescent Health Survey

University of Minnesota, 1987

Survey of 36,254 students in

grades 7 to 12. Issues of sexual

contact.

No

relevant

data

Monitoring the Future 2001, 2002 ,

2003

Victimization Questions

National Institute of Drug Abuse

1978 through 2002

(Bachman, O’Malley, and Johnston,

1978; Wells and Rank, 1995)

Annual national survey of attitudes,

behaviors and values of 12,000-

15,000 secondary students about

drug use and other risk behaviors.

No

relevant

data

My Exposure to Violence (My ETV)

(Selner-O-Hagan et al., 1998)

Structured interview protocol that

includes 6 scales covering both

lifetime and past year victimization,

witnessing of violence, and total

exposure. Development study

interviewed 80 participants, ages 9

to 24.

No

relevant

data

National American Indian Adolescent

Health Survey 1991

Survey of 13,454 students grades

7-12 from 55 tribes in 8 of the 12

Indian Health Service areas.

Questions include incidents of risk

behavior and victimization.

No

relevant

data

National Crime Victimization Survey

Bureau of Justice Statistics

School Crime Supplement

Bureau of Justice Statistics and

NCES

This is the primary source of

information on crime victimization

and victims of crime in the U.S. for

people ages 12 and older. The

annual survey, begun in 1972,

collects data on many crimes

including rape and sexual assault

and includes crimes reported as

well as those not reported to police

The School Crime Supplement

was included in 1989, 1995, and

1999 to document crimes in

schools as well as traveling to and

from school (NCES). Sample size

differs by year but ranges from

8,398 to 10,449. Rape is reported

separately but not other sexual

abuse or harassment. No

information on perpetrators.

No

relevant

data

National Household Education

Survey, 1991, 1993, 1995, 1996,

1999, 2001, 2003

A data collection system that

provides descriptive data on the

condition of education in the U.S.

It is a bi-annual series that

describes homes and parents but

does not deal with sexual abuse.

No

relevant

data
85

STUDY DESCRIPTION RELEVANT

Survey, 1991, 1993, 1995, 1996,

1999, 2001, 2003

National Center for Education

Statistics

provides descriptive data on the

condition of education in the U.S.

It is a bi-annual series that

describes homes and parents but

does not deal with sexual abuse.

(The 1993 Household Education

Survey focused on general school

safety, not sexual abuse.)

relevant

data

National Incidence Studies

National Center on Child Abuse and

Neglect. NIS-3, 1993.

Third National Incidence Study of

Child Abuse and Neglect, National

Center on Child Abuse and Neglect,

DHHS

(Sedlak, Hantman, Schulta, 1997)

Three studies (NIS-1, NIS-2, NIS3)

that report data from child

protection agencies and others on

child abuse, sexual abuse and

maltreatment. Information about

perpetrators includes only “caretaker” and “non-relative.”

No

relevant

data

National Institutes of Mental Health

Community Violence Project

1990

Study of 77 students, ages 6 to 10

and 51 students ages 10 to 18.

Questions in small group format.

No

relevant

data

National Longitudinal Study of

Adolescent Health (NICHHD) 1998

Analyzes social context for

wellness and health including

sexual activity. Data are from

90,000 students in school and

20,000 students at home. No

information on perpetrators of

abuse.

No

relevant

data

National Survey of Adolescents in

the United States,

(1993-1995)

Victimization questions (Kilpatrick et

al., 2000)

National household sample of

4,023 adolescents ages 12 to 17.

Includes questions regarding

history of sexual assault, physical

assault, and harsh physical

discipline including a description of

the event and perpetrator, extent

of injuries, age at abuse. Did not

identify perpetrators by job title.

No

relevant

data

National Survey of Family Growth

National Center for Health Statistics

1973, 1976, 1988, and 1995.

(Abma, Driscoll, and Moore, 1998)

These surveys were based on

personal interviews conducted in

the homes of a national sample of

women and men 15-44 years of

age. Focus on experience in the

family and victimization.

No

relevant

data

National Violence Against Women

Survey

1995-1996

Surveys of 8,000 women and

8,005 men 18 and older on

incidents of violence. Survey

includes sexual abuse questions.

No

relevant

data
86

STUDY DESCRIPTION RELEVANT

National Institutes of Justice and

Center for Policy Research

(Tjaden and Thoennes, 1998)

includes sexual abuse questions.

National Youth Survey

(1977-1981)

Face to face interviews of a U.S.

sample of 1,725 students

(depends upon year). Some

questions on sexual assault.

No

relevant

data

National Youth Victimization

Prevention Programs: A National

Survey of Children’s Exposure and

Reactions. Family Research

Laboratory, New Hampshire

University, Durham

(1992-1993)

Telephone interviews with 2,000

youth (10-16) to measure their

exposure to victimization

prevention programs. Information

on sexual abuse, but not on

educator predators.

No

relevant

data

Ontario Health Supplement Survey

1990-1991

Self report survey of 1,891 young

people that reports physical and

sexual abuse.

No

relevant

data

Parenting Among Women Sexually

Abused in Childhood NDACAN,

Study of women sexually abused

and their parenting behaviors

No

relevant

data

Perceptions of Peer Support Scale

(Kochenderfer and Ladd, 1996)

Self-report survey of 1,891 children

ages 15 – 24 that includes

incidents of physical and sexual

abuse.

No

relevant

data

Recent Exposure to Physical

Violence

A 22-item scale that asks children

questions about experiences with

violence, either as victims or

witnesses.

No

relevant

data

School Associated Violent Death

Study

Centers for Disease Control and

Prevention

U.S. Department of Education

U.S. Department of Justice

1992-1994; 1994-1999;

Two studies (1992-1994; 1994-

1999) that examine school

associated violent deaths. Data

from school and police officials.

No information about sexual

perpetrators.

No

relevant

data

Schools and Staffing Survey (SASS)

NCES 1993-1994

Three surveys (1987-88; 1990-91;

1993-94) that provide national and

state level data on public and

private schools, principal, school

districts and teachers. The 1993-

94 survey provided information on

teacher victimization. .

No

relevant

data

Screen for Adolescent Violence

Exposure

 (Hastings and Kelley, 1997)

Survey developed using 1,250

inner city adolescents that

examines traumatic violence,

indirect violence, and

physical/verbal violence.

No

relevant

data
87

STUDY DESCRIPTION RELEVANT

physical/verbal violence.

Sexual Abuse of Deaf Children in the

Residential Setting,

Mark Lineberger,

mtlinebe@uncg.edu

Estimates prevalence of problem

but no information on perpetrators.

No

relevant

data

Sexual Assault of Young Children as

Reported to Law Enforcement:

Victim, Incident, and Offender

Characteristics

National Center for Juvenile Justice

July 2000 (NCJ 182990) Howard N.

Snyder

Data (through 1996) from law

enforcement agencies in 12 states

about 60,000 incidents of four

categories of sexual assault.

Specificity of perpetrator data

stops at “non-residential” and

“acquaintance.”

No

relevant

data

Sexual Experiences Survey Instrument for assessing degrees

of sexual aggression among male

offenders and female victims.

No

relevant

data

Social Experience Questionnaire –

Self Report

The questionnaire has been used

to measure the reports of 474

third- to sixth-graders of the

frequency of their victimization by

peers, only. No adult perpetrator

information.

No

relevant

data

Survey of Children’s Exposure to

Violence

(Richters and Martinez, 1993)

Violence Institute of New Jersey

As part of an NIMH project on

community violence, this 15-item

structured interview was

developed for 436 AfricanAmerican 6- to 14-year-old

students. No data collection on

specific perpetrators.

No

relevant

data

Survey of Probation and Parole

National Institute of Justice

1994

Data from probation and parole

officers who manage sex

offenders. No data on schoolrelated offenses or offenders.

No

relevant

data

Violence Against Women Survey,

1996

Retrospective data collected from

8,000 female and 8,000 male

victims of violence, rape and

sexual assault including

characterization of perpetrator as

“acquaintance” or not.

No

relevant

data

Violence Exposure Scale for

Children

(Fox and Leavitt, 1995)

Scale to determine how much

violence children experience

No

relevant

data

Violence in America’s Public Schools

Five Years Later: Metropolitan Life

Survey of the American Teacher,

1999: (Binns and Markow, 1999)

Louis Harris and Associates, Inc.

Survey of students, teachers and

law enforcement officials but

excluded data collection about

sexual abuse or harassment.

No

relevant

data
88

STUDY DESCRIPTION RELEVANT

Violence Screening Survey

1990

Study of 1,011 students in 6 inner

city schools, ages 10 to 19. Self

report survey in incidents of

violence.

No

relevant

data

Voice of Connecticut Youth

1996

Self report survey of 12,402 young

people in 7th-, 9th-, and 11thgrade students. Includes sexual

behavior questions

No

relevant

data

Washington State Adolescent Abuse

Study

(1999)

Self report survey of 4,790

students in 44 schools in grades 1,

10, and 12. Includes questions on

physical and sexual molestation.

No

relevant

data

Youth Risk Behavior Surveillance

System, Centers for Disease Control,

1993, 1995, 1997, 1999, 2001

Developed by the Centers for

Disease Control and prevention to

monitor the prevalence of youth

behaviors that most influence

health, this system includes data

from a national sample of students

in grades 9 to 12. Surveys ask

about sexual attacks and

harassment.

No

relevant

data
89

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