POLICY AND PROGRAM STUDIES SERVICE

A Descriptive Evaluation of the

Federal Class-Size Reduction Program

Executive Summary

2004

U.S. DEPARTMENT OF EDUCATION

DOC # 2004-18

OFFICE OF THE DEPUTY SECRETARY
A Descriptive Evaluation of the

Federal Class-Size Reduction Program

Executive Summary

By

Mary Ann Millsap

Jennifer Giancola

W. Carter Smith

Dana Hunt

Abt Associates Inc.

Cambridge, Mass.

Daniel C. Humphrey

Marjorie E. Wechsler

Lori M. Riehl

SRI International

Menlo Park, Calif.

Prepared for:

U.S. Department of Education

Office of the Deputy Secretary

Policy and Program Studies Service

2004
This report was prepared for the U.S. Department of Education under Contract No. HS 282-98-0006, Task 

19. The project monitors were Stacy Kotzin and Tracy Rimdzius in the Policy and Program Studies Service. 

The views expressed herein are those of the contractor. No official endorsement by the U.S. Department of 

Education is intended or should be inferred.

U.S. Department of Education

Rod Paige

Secretary

Office of the Deputy Secretary

Eugene Hickok

Deputy Secretary

Policy and Program Studies Service

Alan L. Ginsburg

Director

Program and Analytic Studies

David Goodwin

Director

August 2004

This report is in the public domain. Authorization to produce it in whole or in part is granted. Although 

permission to reprint this publication is not necessary, the citation should be: U.S. Department of Education, 

Office of the Under Secretary, Policy and Program Studies Service, A Descriptive Evaluation of the Federal 

Class-size Reduction Program: Executive Summary, Washington, D.C., 20202.

This report is available on the department’s web site at 

http://www.ed.gov/about/offices/list/ods/ppss/reports.html.

On request, this publication is available in alternative formats, such as Braille, large print, audiotape, or 

computer diskette. For more information, please contact the Department’s Alternate Format Center at (202) 

260-9895 or (202) 205-8113.

Evaluation of the Federal CSR Program: Executive Summary i

Acknowledgements

We want to thank the more than 500 district staff and almost 500 principals who completed the two 

national surveys on class-size reduction. We also appreciate the cooperation and goodwill of the six 

states, 12 districts, and 24 schools whose personnel were so generous with their time as we visited 

their offices, schools, and classrooms. We are particularly pleased with our collaborative relationship 

with SRI International, who was an equal partner with us in each aspect of this evaluation. They 

visited half the states, and authored Chapter 3. Their prior knowledge of the class-size reduction 

efforts in California greatly informed this evaluation. We also want to thank our colleagues at the 

CSR Research Consortium, the partnership researching California’s class size reduction reform. 

They were very generous in sharing their early evaluation findings as well as their instruments; we 

adapted several survey items for use in our surveys. We also appreciate the advice, support, and 

guidance of our federal Project Officers Tracy Rimdzius and Stacy Kotzin in the U.S. Department of 

Education.

Evaluation of the Federal CSR Program: Executive Summary 1

Executive Summary

Overview of the Program

The federal Class-Size Reduction (CSR) Program, first authorized in PL 105-277, begun in Fiscal 

Year 1999, represented a major federal commitment to help school districts hire additional qualified 

teachers, especially in the early elementary grades, so children would learn in smaller classes. The 

CSR program also allowed funds to be spent as professional development, in part to help teachers 

take advantage of instructional opportunities in smaller classes. The ultimate goal of the program was 

to improve student achievement, particularly in reading, by reducing class size in grades K-3 to 18 

students. 

Through the Department of Education Appropriations Act of 1999, $1.2 billion was initially 

appropriated for this program. States allocated 100 percent of the funds to school districts based upon 

a formula distribution using poverty and enrollment data. There was neither a ceiling nor a floor on 

district allocations. School districts were required to use a minimum of 82 percent of the funds for 

recruiting, training new teachers, and teacher salaries. No more than 3 percent was to be used for 

local administration and no more than 15 percent to pay such costs as professional development. The 

initial emphasis was on reducing class size in grades 1 to 3. In FY 2000, the appropriation totaled 

$1.3 billion, the grade span was expanded to include kindergarten, and the proportion of funds 

potentially available for professional development increased from 15 percent to 25 percent, whereas 

the portion required to be used on teacher salaries correspondingly decreased from a minimum of 82 

to 72 percent. The FY 2001 appropriation rose to $1.623 billion.

As part of the reauthorization of the 2001 Elementary and Secondary Education Act of 1965 (ESEA), 

the CSR program was folded into Title II. Although no longer a separate federal program, class-size 

reduction remains an allowable use of funds under Title II, Part A. It is one of many ways that 

districts can use their Title II, Part A funds to improve teacher quality and student achievement in 

their schools. Therefore, this evaluation provides valuable lessons not just about the federal CSR 

program, but also about a major component of Title II, Part A of NCLB.

Purposes of the Evaluation

The evaluation was designed to address multiple research questions, organized into three main 

categories: (1) distribution and uses of federal CSR funds; (2) implementation of CSR; (3) and 

effects of CSR on class size. This evaluation was not intended to provide data on the effects of CSR 

on classroom practices or student achievement. Under the uses of funds, we were particularly 

interested in how districts used their funds, the numbers of teachers hired, the schools selected to 

receive CSR teachers, spending issues such as the extent of carryover from 1999-2000, and the 

coordination of federal CSR funds with other funding sources. Questions about CSR implementation 

included sources and qualifications of new teachers, types of recruitment activities undertaken, nature 

and quality of professional development provided, and availability of facilities for reducing class size. 
Evaluation of the Federal CSR Program: Executive Summary 2

To assess the impact of the federal CSR program on class size, we were interested in the methods 

used to reduce class size as well as average class size before and after the program went into effect.1

Methodology

The evaluation used mixed data collection methods. Surveys of district staff and school principals 

provided generalizable information about the federal CSR program, while site visits to six states, 12 

districts (two in each state), 24 schools (two in each district), and 48 CSR classrooms (two from each 

school) provided qualitative information that illuminated and helped verify the survey findings. The 

surveys and site visits were conducted in the spring of 2001, during the federal CSR program’s 

second year of funding, and most data correspond to the 2000-2001 school year. 

Research on Class-Size Reduction

Support for the federal CSR program was based on research that found that small classes could have a 

positive influence on student achievement. For example, research from Tennessee’s Project STAR 

(Student-Teacher Achievement Ratio) found that students who had been randomly assigned to small 

classes (13 to 17 students) in grades K-3 outperformed their peers in regular classes (22 to 25 

students) and in regular-plus-aide classes on standardized and curriculum-based tests (Achilles et al., 

1996). Additionally, by eighth grade, those students who had been placed in small classes through 

Project STAR were still outperforming students who had been placed in regular classes or regularplus-aide classes in K-3 (Finn, 1998; Nye, 1995).

The Wisconsin Student Achievement Guarantee in Education (SAGE) study led to conclusions 

similar to the STAR study—students in SAGE classrooms (12 to 15 students) achieved higher scores 

than students in comparison classrooms (21 to 25 students) (Molnar et al., 1999). In the SAGE study, 

teachers reported that they had more knowledge about students, more instructional time allowing 

them to cover more content and individualize instruction, and fewer discipline problems. These 

changes in their classrooms increased job satisfaction, reduced the stress of teaching many students, 

and allowed teachers to work with other teachers in more effective ways.

Other researchers, however, have argued that the external validity of the Tennessee experiment 

(STAR) has not been established sufficiently to warrant generalizing the results across different 

populations and settings in the United States. These critics claim that further randomized experiments 

are needed (Hanushek, 1999) and that class-size reduction in the context of teacher shortages can 

reduce teacher quality and effectiveness and can shrink or eliminate any benefits of having fewer 

students in the classroom (Jepsen & Rivkin, 2001). Additionally, researchers suggest that most 

teachers do not change their instructional practices when class size is reduced, and “only teachers 

whose instructional methods benefit from smaller classes—e.g., those who work with small groups, 

those who depend on personal relationships with students, those who emphasize hands-on projects—

are more productive with smaller than with larger classes” (Ehrenberg, Brewer, Gamoran & Willms, 

2001).

 

1 Because the school survey is limited to schools that had hired at least one teacher with federal CSR funds, average class 

size was computed only in those grades in which teachers were placed. The average class size then will be smaller than 

a nation-wide average across all grades and schools.
Evaluation of the Federal CSR Program: Executive Summary 3

Findings from California’s class-size reduction initiative confirm some of these critic s’ concerns. 

Under a law passed in 1996, the state provided districts with $650 per student for each K-3 classroom 

with 20 or fewer students. An evaluation of this class-size reduction initiative found that class-size 

reduction was associated with declines in teacher qualifications and inequitable distribution of 

credentialed teachers; i.e., as districts reduced class size in K-3 classrooms, they hired more teachers 

without full credentials, most of whom were hired by schools serving the most disadvantaged 

students. Additionally, although parents said they liked the reduced size classes, and teachers 

reported giving students more individualized attention in these classes, teachers did not report 

covering more curriculum as a result of small class size, nor did the evaluation link reduced class size 

to changes in student achievement (Bohrnstedt & Stecher, 2002).

Findings from the Federal Evaluation

Distribution and Uses of Funds

• In the first year, federal CSR funds were distributed to states based upon the greater of a 

state’s share of funds under Part A of Title I or the Eisenhower Professional Development 

State Grants program formula. In years 2 and 3, state distributions were proportional to 

the year 1 distribution. Within states, all funds were distributed to school districts based 

on the number of children in poverty (80 percent) and school enrollment (20 percent).

• States and districts received their funding allocations under the law, and spent it 

according to the mandated guidelines. In 2000-2001 for example, teacher salaries made 

up 84 percent of the funding, with 14 percent for professional development and 1 percent 

each for administrative procedures and new teacher training and testing.

• In 2000-2001, about 25,000 teachers were hired with federal CSR funds. Ninety-four 

percent were regular classroom teachers rather than specialist teachers. Three percent 

were reading specialists and 2 percent were in other categories. Schools with the largest 

class sizes in their district were typically the recipients of the federally funded CSR 

teachers. Sixty percent of schools hired one teacher, 30 percent hired two teachers, and 

10 percent hired more than two teachers.

• In keeping with the law’s explicit intent, two-thirds of all districts coordinated federal 

CSR funding with other funding sources, including funds from Title I of the Elementary 

and Secondary Education Act and Title II of the Higher Education Act, as well as state 

and local CSR initiatives. When districts received state or local CSR funds, those funds 

were typically five times the size of the federal CSR allocation but often came with more 

strings attached, such as restricting funding to teachers in separate classrooms.

• Although only 1 percent of the teachers hired with federal CSR funds were special 

education teachers, 16 percent of districts reported coordinating their CSR program with 

the Individuals with Disabilities Education Act (IDEA). The study did not explore how 

these programs were coordinated. In addition, sixty-nine percent of the districts offering 

professional development with CSR funds reported including special education teachers 

in this professional development. It is not clear why the professional development was 

not offered to special education teachers in every district.
Evaluation of the Federal CSR Program: Executive Summary 4

• The single largest funding issue was the large carryover of first year funds into a second 

year of activities, not unexpected given the very short timeline to hire teachers and the 

uncertainty of second year funding. More than 60 percent of large distric ts, and 34 

percent of medium and small districts, carried over funds from 1999-2000 to 2000-2001. 

Some made a strategic decision in 1999-2000 to carry funds over, whereas others either 

did not have enough time to hire teachers or could not find qualified teachers. Some 

$150 million were carried over to the 2000-2001 school year.

Implementation

• Recruiting and hiring fully certified teachers was a problem in almost one-third of large 

districts, and in 10 percent of smaller districts. Many large districts were engaged in 

large-scale recruitment initiatives (often with different funding sources), but a lack of 

credentialed applicants was a major problem (and more of a problem than noncompetitive salaries or single year funding). In 40 percent of all districts, over 50 percent 

of the new hires were novice teachers.

• Although permitted to use up to 15 percent of federal CSR funds in 1999-2000 for 

professional development, and up to 25 percent in 2000-2001, districts spent an average 

of 13 percent in 1999-2000 and 14 percent in 2000-2001. Only 39 percent of districts 

chose to spend CSR funds on that activity. According to district personnel, the 

professional development offered typically focused on reading (80 percent of districts) 

and/or math (57 percent) rather than on instructional strategies to optimize the use of 

small class size (38 percent). In lieu of professional development, districts used funds to 

hire teachers to reduce class size.

• Just as large districts had trouble finding qualified teachers, they also were more likely 

than smaller districts to have shortages of space. Almost 60 percent of large districts 

reported facilities problems, typically not enough additional rooms and insufficient funds 

to modify existing facilities. In response, districts promoted team teaching or converted 

non-classroom space (other instructional rooms like gymnasiums, or non-instructional 

rooms like teachers’ lounges) into classrooms. Overall, 42 percent of the schools that 

hired CSR teachers did not place them in self-contained classrooms.

• CSR implementation has been affected by other administrative and resource-related 

issues: the lack of state administrative funds resulted in minimal state involvement in the 

program; districts were unable to hire teachers due to the late notification of the 

availability of funds; district administrators were wary about the uncertainty of the 

program’s future; and allocations for rural districts were too small to create a meaningful 

program.

• Based upon observations in 48 CSR classrooms in 24 schools, some teachers took 

advantage of smaller classes to tailor instruction and maximize one-on-one time with 

students, giving students more time and attention. At the same time, other CSR classes 

functioned like non-CSR classes, with desks in rows and the teacher lecturing from the 

front of the room.
Evaluation of the Federal CSR Program: Executive Summary 5

Changes in Class Size

• In the schools and grades where federally funded CSR teachers were placed, average 

class size decreased with the advent of federal CSR funds, typically by one or two 

students. After the federal CSR program, overall average class size ranged from 18 

students per class in kindergarten, to 20 in grade 1 and 21 students per class in grades 2 

and 3. There are two reasons for the modest reduction in average class size. Many 

schools (44 percent) did not assign the CSR teacher to a separate classroom, but rather 

assigned the teacher to special subjects or team teaching. Even in schools where teachers 

were assigned to their own classrooms, 52 percent had simultaneous increases in 

enrollment that mitigated class size reduction. Overall, 73 percent of schools either did 

not assign teachers to separate classes or had enrollment increases that reduced CSR’s 

impact.

• In grade one, the largest decrease in the average class size in a single school was nine 

students per classroom; in grade 2, the largest decrease was ten students per classroom, 

and in grade 3, the largest decrease was 12 students per classroom.

• To reduce class size, 57 percent of schools placed CSR teachers in separate classrooms, 

24 percent hired teachers to reduce class size in particular subjects (e.g., reading or 

mathematics). One in six schools (17 percent) created additional sections in priority 

subjects, and about 10 percent used team teaching.

• Schools most often used federal CSR funds to reduce class size in grades 1-3. Based 

upon our case studies, grade one was targeted to advance early literacy goals, whereas 

grade 3 was targeted to prepare students for state-mandated grade 4 assessments.
Evaluation of the Federal CSR Program: Executive Summary 6

References

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Bohrnstedt, G. W. & Stecher, B.M. (eds.). 2002. What we have learned about class size reduction in 

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Ehrenberg, R.G., Brewer, D.J., Gamoran, A., & Willms, J.D. 2001. Class size and student 

achievement. Psychological Science in the Public Interest 2: 1-30.

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