COMMERCIAL

STANDARDS

MONTHLY

A Review of Progress in

Commercial Standardization and Simplification

ISSUED BY THE BUREAU OF STANDARDS OF THE UNITED

STATES DEPARTMENT OF COMMERCE, WASHINGTON, D. C., U. S. A.

Vol. 8, No. 6 ' DECEMBER, 1931

For sale by the Superintendent of Documents, Washington, D. C. Price $1.00 per Year
U. S. DEPARTMENT OF COMMERCE

R. P. LAMONT, Secretary

BUREAU OF STANDARDS

GEORGE K. BURGESS, Director

COMMERCIAL STANDARDS MONTHLY, S. F. Tillman, Editor

The Commercial Standardization Group

DIVISION OF SIMPLIFIED PRACTICE

Edwin W. Ely

The division of simplified pradlice cooperates with industrial and commercial groups to reduce wa^te, usually through

eliminating unnecessary variety of producTt, method, or

practice. Its funtflion is to bring together all parties inter- ested in a projecfl of this charadler, and to coordinate their

work in developing a simplified practice recommendation.

Such work includes surveys of current pradtice, formulation of a simplified pradtice program, and presentation of

that program for adlion by a general conference representing

all interests. The division then transmits to all concerned

a full report of the general conference, with a requeSt for written acceptance of the adtion taken. When the volume

of acceptances is sufficient to indicate initial success, the

Department ofCommerce indorses the program and publishes

the recommendation. The division thereafter cooperates

with a Standing committee appointed by the industry concerned, in condudting periodic surveys to determine the

degree of adherence, to maintain and extend support of the

recommendation, and to secure data for reaffirmation or

revision. Simplified pradlice may be applied to any com- modity or adlivity in which it will reduce

waSle. The division Stands ready to render

service in developing and making effecflive any application of simplified pradlice which

will reduce waSle, Stabilize business, or extend commerce.

BUILDING AND HOUSING DIVISION

J. S. Taylor

The division of building and housing,

formed in 1921, cooperates with business,

technical, and professional groups in furthering conSlrudtion adtivities. It works to modernize building codes and to encourage improved Standards for the quality of building conStrudtion, and the practical application of the lateSl development in design and use of building materials.

It encourages home ownership through the development

of an enlarged. Steadier, more intelligent, and more discriminating demand for dwellings—the largeSl single class of

buildings which the construction industries provide.

The division also cooperates with other governmental

agencies and with many private business and professional groups in efforts to distribute building activity more evenly

throughout the year and to secure less fluefluation from

year to year. The work on city planning and zoning has the broad

objeSlive of making buildings more useful through proper

location with respeSl to other SlruSlures, Stabilizing of land

values and property uses, well coordinated thoroughfare

systems, and well laid out public works.

STANDARDIZATION

..IS.. A CONTINUING PROCESS

(T^ ITS AIM IS NOT FIXITY OR STAGNATION

..BUT.. TO ADD SERVICEABILITY

AS OFTEN AS THE

POTENTIAL GAIN

MAKES IT WORTH WHILE

DIVISION OF SPECIFICATIONS

A. S. McAllister

The duties of the division of specifications are to promote

and facilitate the use and unification of specifications. In doing so it carries on activities involving cooperation with

technical societies; trade associations; Federal, State, and

municipal Government specifications making and using

agencies; producers, distributors, and consumers; and teSling

and research laboratories. It ascertains the Standardization

and specifications promoting activities of the associations and societies, and brings to their attention the work being

done by the commercial Standardization group. It brings the

Federal specifications and commercial Standards to the atten- tion of the maximum number of producers and users of commodities complying with these Standards and specifications.

It compiles and distributes liSls of sources of supply of materials guaranteed to comply with the Standards and specifi- cations. It shows both buyers and sellers the benefits from

handling nationally specified, certified, and labeled commodities. The division prepares direcTtories of governmental and

nongovernmental teSling laboratories and the Direcflory of

Specifications, and is working on an encyclopedia of specifications, the firSl two volumes of which

have been issued, namely, “Standards and

Specifications in the Wood-Using Industries”

and “Standards and Specifications for Nonmetallic Minerals and their Products.” It also aids in preparing the Standards Yearbook.

DIVISION OF TRADE STANDARDS

I. J. Fairchild

The division of trade Standards, on requeSl,

assists industrial and commercial groups in the voluntary establishment of Standards

covering grades, quality, dimensional inter- changeability, or other acceptance criteria as a national

basis for marketing manufatflured commodities.

The detail criteria are seledted or determined voluntarily

by interested buyers or sellers, without any Government

dicflation or domination, and adjusted at a general confer- ence of producers, distributors, and users so as to represent

the composite views of all branches. The division fundlions

chiefly as a neutral agency to see that all interested elements

are given full opportunity to be heard and satisfied; to

solicit and record acceptances; and to publish and promulgate

the Standard when a satisfadtory majority of acceptances is obtained and provided there is no adtive opposition.

Industries are encouraged to apply self-certifying labels to produdts meeting the commercial Standard requirements, as a means of protedling the consumer and the scrupulous seller from misrepresentation or unfair methods of marketing.

Provision is made for regular revision of the Standard

through the appointment of a Standing committee to consider periodically any necessity for revision of the Standard,

in order that it may be kept constantly compatible with

progress in the induSlry.

Address BUREAU OF STANDARDS, Washington, D. C., for further information
COMMERCIAL STANDARDS MONTHLY

A Review of Progress in

Commercial Standardization and Simplification

Volume 8 WASHINGTON, D. C., DECEMBER, 1931 Number 6

SUBJECT ANALYSES

ELECTRICAL

Page

Telegraph communication service 187

Television as a field for standardization 166 FOODSTUFFS

Aroostook potatoes sold under labels 173 Food and drug compositions 188 Imported tea must pass strict tests 168

Increasing market for graded turkeys 165 Sausage casings to be uniform in size 178 GROUP ACTIVITIES American Standards Association 169 American Society for Testing Materials committee acts on rubber insulation standards 183

Federal Specifications 191 Watch manufacturers plan to enforce trade rules 192 INTERNATIONAL AND FOREIGN

Imported tea must pass strict tests 168

India finds need for standard jute grades 190

International cooperation in aeronautics improves 192

International specification for sieves considered 179

Progress of standardization in the Soviet Union 180 Russian cinema company proposes 30 standards 191 LANGUAGE

Standardization of language 182

Tribal communications 188 MANAGEMENT

Industrial standards 163

Legal aspects of standardization 184

Simplified calendar 191

Simplified practice, 1921-1931 165 Watch manufacturers plan to enforce trade rules 192

METAL AND WOOD

Page

Foundry patterns of wood 186 Standardization in material handling 176 Wheelbarrows 166 MISCELLANEOUS

Abrasive grain sizes simplified 191 Standardization and progress 162

Military communication sj’stem embodies standardization 1 185 PUBLICATIONS

A. S. T. M. 1931 tentative standards 190

Publications on textiles 166 QUALITY MARKS AND LABELS

Anthracite institute laboratory 175 Aroostook potatoes sold under labels 173

Certifying canned goods 177

Increasing market for graded turkeys 165 Laws for grading and inspection 174

Seal instills confidence in gas ap])liances 171 Watch manufacturers plan to enforce trade rules 192 SAFETY

Airways weather service 189

Controlling air traffic 167 Wind pressure on skyscraper tested 164 TEXTILES AND PAPER

Hosiery lengths and measurements 190 Notion and millinery paper bags 169

Publications on textiles 166

Surgical dressings 168 Waxed tissue paper 186 Wool and part-wool blankets 170

AN INVITATION TO VISIT THE NATIONAL BUREAU OF STANDARDS

A cordial invitation is extended to all interested in scientific progress to visit the laboratories of

the National Bureau of Standards when in Washington. A personally conducted trip is organized at

2.15 p. m. daily except on holidays. Special trips for groups may be arranged at other times l>y writing

to the bureau in advance. The bureau’s illustrated Visitor’s Manual may be had for the asking. This

lists the work in pi’Ogress and gives a n airplane view of the ensemble and a brief statement of typical

discoveries and inventions which have been notable; basic contributions to radio, aviation, and other

modem arts and industries.

90089—31 1 161
STANDARDIZATION

and PROGRESS

k^TANDARDizATioN is probably as much misunderstood as any

subject on the calendar. Many consider it as the end of progress

in the belief that standards, once adopted, are never changed.

The fallacy of this notion was clearly shown the other day at a meeting of the American Standards Association when several

speakers told of the benehts from standardization and how

these standards were changed whenever it seemed best to do so. As expressed by one engineering representative of a large electric company, “A standard is the best compromise available

at the moment,” which should dispel the idea that standards

prevent advancement.

The automotive industry is perhaps the best examj^le of a highly standardized industry. And yet, as has been frequently

pointed out, it is one of the most progressive industries; few

make more changes in product. Whenever an adopted standard does not meet the needs of the industry, it is changed. And

the standards used have reduced the cost of parts to an amazing

degree.

When users fully appreciate the advantages of standardization they will demand standardized products.

•—American Alachinist, October i, 1931.
DECEMBER. 1931 COMMERCIAL STANDARDS MONTHLY 163

INDUSTRIAL STANDARDS

Maintenance of Standards in Industry Just as Important for Successful Management as Their

Establishment

By V. 8. Karabasz, University of rennsijlvunia

One of the features in the cleA^elopment of industry

in the United States in recent years has been the

steady growth and improvement in industrial management. With this increasing emphasis upon management in industry came a recognition of the basic

importance of industrial standards. AVithout the

establishment of standards, control of all of the many

activities of the enterprise which is so essential under

modern manufacturing conditions is impossible. It is by means of standards that management develops the

yard.stick which it uses to measure tlie elfectiveness

of its operation regardless of whether it be the determination of the suitability of raw materials, the

efficiency of labor and machines, or the cost of the

article produced. Efficient management witliout

standards is impossible.

If standards, therefore, are the basis of modern

management, it must be clear that the maintenance

of the standard once established is no less important

than its original determination. This fact is one which is apparently not fully recognized or under

stood b}" man}^ industrial executives. Standards do

not maintain themselves. i\Iuch of the difficulty which

managei-s have with many of the mechanisms of modern management, such as wage-pa3unent plans, production-control systems, etc., can be directli" traced to the failure to maintain pro[)erly the standards originall}^ established.

It is with some of the fundamental ideas connected

with the proper maintenance of industrial standards

that this article deals. In discussing this subject the

basic importance of the following ideas will be touched

upon briefly : (1) The importance of reasonable standards, (2) the necessity of the ‘‘ preventive” approach

to the solution of the problem of maintenance, (3) the

need for regularlv scheduled and carefully defined

msjH'ctiou, (4) the 'mpoi'tance of proper lubrication

in ail}" plan of maintenance of mechanical ecpiipment,

and (5) the value of the .standing order in the maintenance of standards.

licasonable standards. —One of the most important

concepts Avhicli has to do with tlie proper juaintenance

of .standards is that the established standards shall be

reasonable standards capable of being met continually

under normal operating conditions. The .standards

established should not be idle hopes l)ut standards

which sliould be met consistently. If .standards are

I’easouable and can be met every time, any variation

from standard can be careftdly investigated and the

standard will in reality act as a I'atchet, preventing

anything inferior from being accepted. If, on the

other hand, the .standards which have, been establislied are too .severe and are seldom met, variations from

them are usual and are not the cause foi‘ concern on

the part of the operating officials. C'()use(|uentlv. ac- tual performance will (hlft lower and lower rather

than he lield up to a reasonable established stau'dai'd.

The standards of most concerns in the United

States, however, are too lenient and consequentty too

easily met, and the problem is i-ather the establishment of more carefully developed standards so that

the best will be obtained or the most accomplished

under the given set of conditions.

Preventive maintenance. —The basic idea iinderl}-

ing modern maintenance methods is prevention. No

longer does the maintenance department merely act as a repair department awaiting calls to repair machines which refuse to operate. The modern maintenance department has for its function the prevention of breakdowns and the maintenance of machinery,

equiimient, etc., in standard condition. It is no longer

satisfied, merely when the machine is ojierating, but

the machine must operate up to what has been established as .standard performance for it. Inspection . —This function of jirevention, -which

underlies all modern maintenance, is carriecl out in

industry to-day by means of periodic inspections of

plant, machinery, equi[)inent, etc. Although the idea

of preventive maintenance through regular inspection

is rather well kno-um in industiw, few' plants have

developed a technique of inspection wdiich really fulfills the purpose for which it is established.

Preventive inspection, if it is really to function,

must be the fixed responsilfilitv' of some one iierson or group of persons w'ithin the organization wdio in large organizations devote their entire time to this

Avork. Many organizations haA'e attempted to make

inspection a job AAdiich is to be pei-formed only Avhen

there is no other Avork to be done. For example, it is not unusual to find electricians Avho are expected to inspect the electrical ecpnpment Avhen they are not engaged in regular repair or replacement Avork. Needless to sajq this arrangement seldom is satis- factory because electricians and other mechanics under

these conditions are scarcely ever free for inspection

Avork. AA^ith them inspection, because of the urgenc}^

of other Avork, is of secondaiw^ importance. MoreoA^er,

if inspection is to prove really valuable and if it is not

to degenerate into a casual examination, its technique

must be carefull}^ deA'eloped and strictl}^ adhered to. In deA'eloping this technique the folloAving are some of

the basic requirements Avhich must be met: (1) Establishment of definite standards, (2) the development of

a definite schedule of inspection. (3) the development

of a tickler file, (4) the development of the method

of inspection, and (5) folloAv u]> of failures of machinery and equipment.

It is obvious that if staudar-ds are to be maintaim'd

there must first be standards. Many companies do

not haA’e clearly' defined staudai'ds of machinery and

ecjuipment and conse(iuently in siidi cases it is ditlicuh,

if not inqiossible, to determine Avhon the article being

inspected recpiii’es attentioji. It is therefore ueces-

.sarv for coiiqianies to carefully sIikIa' their ])lanl.
164 COMMERCIAL STANDARDS MONTHLY DECEMBER, 1931

macliineiy, equipment, etc., to determine detinitely

what shall be accepted as standard, ivliich, of course, should not be any less than the best under tlie given

set of conditions. Some companies with welldeveloped maintenance programs, in taking over new

factories where little attention has been paid to maintenance, make it a practice to completely overhaul

machinery and equipment to be certain that it has been

placed in the standard condition which had been determined by them as a result of careful study.

After standards have been established it is necessarj'

to develop a schedule of inspections. A careful study

should be made to determine the frequency of inspection of the various parts to be inspected. Obviously,

ail parts do not wear alike. Some may require only an annual inspection, while others may require a weekly or even more frequent inspection.

After the schedule of inspection has been developed

a tickler file should be established. This tickler will

be the means of bringing attention automatically to the time when specific inspections should be made.

The method of inspection should be carefully developed and well defined. The inspector should be told

what to inspect and how to inspect and he should be

called upon to make a written report on the result

of every inspection. If the inspector is called upon

to report on every item of his inspection, a thorough

and complete inspection is assured. Many companies

have found that unless inspection methods are clearly

defined and reports are obtained from the inspector

the effectiveness of their work is greatly reduced.

An excellent manner of checking the effectiveness

of inspections, and in improving the techniques of

inspection is to carefully check all failures of machinerj and equipment. As a result of this study of fail- ures the established inspection schedules may be modified and changes in the method of inspection lirought

about.

Lubrication.—In any discussion of preventive maintenance the importance of correct lubrication as a preventive measure in connection with mechanical

equipment must be stressed. A study of mechanical

l)reakdowns will show that a very large number can

be directly attributed to inadequate and improper

lubrication. Prevention of these breakdowns implies ^ supplying the proper quantity of lubricant and little atiention has been devoted to type of lubricant to be

used and to the points to be lubricated. In the past

there has been much waste in lubrication. At the

present time much study is being devoted to the selec- j tion of the proper lubricant, and to getting this

lubricant to the parts of the machine which need it. Wherever possible, machines are being equipped j| with automatic positive lubrication mechanisms by : means of which sutficient lubricant is forced under i pressure to every point requiring it. [ Standing order for maintenance department.—An ij invaluable aid in maintaining standarcls is the use of jj the standing order. For the maintenance department

the standing order explains in detail the purpose of .. the department, its functions, and its methods of II operation. It is a manual of operation which in- ! structs the members of the department in their work

and insures that the standards of operation which

have been established as a result of careful study of |l the work of the ilexiartment will be maintained by ;j those who are responsible for their execution. ; Maintenance of standards.—The importance of the

j maintenance of the established standards within an ,i enterprise can not be overemphasized. While it is true ! that much good can come to an organization merelj’

as a result of the careful thought and stud}" necessary , to determine standards, it is also true that after stand- ' ards are once established if they are not carefully j enforced or maintained their very existence in the ! organization is soon forgotten, and the breech between ' what can be done and should be done and what is

j act nail}" done gradually widens until the actual bears j little resemblance to the standard.

The wider this breech the greater the inefficiency in li the organization and the larger its losses. Unless constantly and persistently checked, standards tend to

j seek lower rather than higher levels. It is only by i constant vigilance on the part of those who recognize

the tremendous importance of standards to an organization that the established standards will be ; maintained.

WIND PRESSURE ON SKYSCRAPER TESTED

The Bureau of Standards has completed a model of

the Empire State Building, New York’s tallest skyscraper, for the purpose of stiul3dng wind loads. The

model is constructed on a scale of 1 to 250, and is ac- cordingly 5 feet high. On this scale the average

human being would be a little more than a quarter of an inch high. The model has been placed in the 10- foot wind tunnel at the bureau, and ])ressures developed by wind up to 00 miles per hour are being

measured.

It may appear strange that such measurements

should be undertaken after the completion of the

building, but because of unusual conditions this building oft’ers an interesting ojiportunity to advance our knowledge of wind pressure. Through the cooperation of owners, architect, engineer, builder, and the

research committee of the American Institute of Steel

Construction, observations are in progress by the re- search committee on the wind velocity at the top of

the Empire State Building, and the wind pressures

developed at the thirty-sixth, fifty-fifth, and seventy- | fifth floor levels. These observations in themselves j- will be of the greatest value.

The Bureau of Standards takes advantage of this j opportunity to demonstrate the value of model testingin the determination of wind pressure. The great ' utility of model testing has been thoroughly demonstrated, especially in the fields of aeronautics and ; hydraulics. j Thus the design of the new airship Akron was ; greatly facilitated by extensive model tests. Like- | wise, model tests have paid their cost many times in i connection with water-power developments. In the | field of wind pressure the utility and validity of model

tests have not as yet been adequately recognized, ! largely because of the absence of satisfactory com- I parisons between models and full-scale structure. The |

' Empii’e State Building offers such an opportunity, ' and will thus serve to give information to enable the !' con.struction of other still taller structures with econ- ^ omy and safety. |
DECEMBER. lOHl COMMERCIAL STANDARDS MONTHLY 1G5

SIMPLIFIED PRACTICE, 1921-1931

Industry’s Need for Simplification as Important in 1931 as in 1921

By Kay M. Hudson ^

The value of simplified practice to business has been

fully demonstrated by the increase in its use during

the 10 years in which it has been promoted by tbe

Department of Commerce.

In December, 1921, President Hoover, then Secretary of Commerce, established the division of simplified practice in the Bureau of Standards. The

country was then just emerging from the 1920-21 depression, and many industries found themselves with

excessive inventories, greatly extended lines of products, and many unnecessary sizes in those lines. Through cooperation of the division of simplified

practice with manufacturers, distributors, and users

of specific commodities, many industries developed

and adopted simplification programs designed to re- duce this needless burden on business and the buying

public. The economies which resulted from putting

these programs into effect unquestionably contributed

toward bringing about the period of prosperity which

began shortl}^ thereafter.

After the stock-market crash in 1929 industry and

hiisiness were chiefly interested in retrenchment, econoin^L and the liquiclation of invent(u-ies. The growth

of hand-to-mouth buying and rapidly changing

demand during the preceding prosperous years had

prevented the growth of inventories to such a point

as existed at the beginning of the 1920-21 depression.

Considering the actual groivth in volume of all busi- ness during that period, the variety of products was

not as excessive as it had been in 1921, although there was .still a considerable opportunity for simiilification. When the depression set in, however, competition in

.selling goods in a buyers’ mai'ket resulted as usual in a steady increase in variety in hundreds of commodities.

Manufacturers constantly brought out ucav lines, tjqies, or models to attract the buyer. This pressure toward

lariety invariably accompanies a buyers’ market, and

in the long run everybody suffers from the resulting' waste.

1 IndustriiU Gxecutiv'e, Now England Council. Formerly ,\ssistant Director of the Bureau of Standards.

Conditions in 1931 differ, however, from those in 1921, in one particular respect, in that the division of

.sinqilitied practice has been a going concern for 10

years, during which it has succeeded in planting the

idea of simplification firmly throughout industry and

commerce. While in 1921 there was no centralized

agency to coordinate the scattered efforts toward simplification, such an agency not only exi.sts to-day, but

its methods and results are widely recognized.

One consequence of this fact is that excessive variety

of iirodiicts is recognized as causing waste and exjiense throughout the whole chain of manufacture

and distribution, and those concerned know how to avoid this waste and have the means at hand for

doing so. This is demonstrated by the fact that the

divi.sion of simplified practice will complete more

ju'ojects for 1931 than for 1930. During every year since the organization of the

division the value of simplified practice has become more generally recognized, not only by business but

by the ])vd)lic. The purposes and methods of the

division are fully understood and have been approved

b_y some of the largest imbistrial groujis in the country. Simplification to-day is recognized as one of the

most important factors in keeping doAvn costs of production and distribution, and in giving the buyer full measure for his dollar. It is logical to expect that

simplification Avill continue to be used on an increasing scale by progressive manufacturers and distrib- utors not only because of their better understanding

of its usefulness, but also because of the steadily

broadening appreciation among large buyers of the

economies to l)e gained by them.

The first 10 years of simplification have demonstrated that A’oluntary cooperation for self-gwernment in bu.siness is thorouglily practicable. We may

reasonably expect that the experience of the division

Avill be used as a guide in tlie furtber application of

the princi])le of self-government as a means of .solving

the problems now faced by American indu.stry and

bu.sine.ss.

INCREASING MARKET FOR GRADED

TURKEYS

According to the NeAV England Council there is a growing demand for New England native fancy-grade

turkeys bearing the New England quality farm-products label. Directors of the State bureaus of markets

report that many unregistered turkey producers are registering and apjffying for permission to use the

label on their birds, because thej^ say that the retail markets to whom they are trying to sell the birds

are insisting that they be graded and labeled.

During the past tAvo Avinters 58,000 turkeys bearing

the NeAv England label turkey tag have been sold and

about 190 producers have used the labeled tags on

(hose of their birds that Avere of proper quality. Last

.season the sale of labe'ed birds totaled 24,594, and

the sales by States Aveiv as folloAvs: Connecticut, 8,604;

Vermont. >S.253; Massachusetts. 4,912; and Rliode

Island. 2,<S25. The number of turkey pi'odiicers using

(he label in Venuont increased almost 200 per cent

last year, amounting from 21 at the beginning of the

.sea.soii to 62 at the close. In Connecticut there was

an inciA'a.se of about 60 p('i' cent, the number gi’owing

from 25 to 10 during (he s(‘ason.
166 COMMERCIAL, STANDARDS MONTHLY DECEMBER, 1031 TELEVISION AS A FIELD FOR STANDARDIZATION

Standardization Essential for Future Development and Progress of the Art

By 0. Francis Jenkins

It will come as a surprise to many that television

needs but little standardization, as compared with

motion pictures, for example.

In motion-picture theater entertainment all the

theaters of the United States, and many of those else- where, are equipped with a choice of but three makes

of jiicture projectors. But these are served ivith films

made in man}’ cameras by camera men all over the

world.

To insure the widest usefulness, obviously it was

necessary that the common integral of the system, that

is. tlie film, should be standardized, namel}", as to ividth

of film, size of ])ictiire frame, location of frame line, dii-ection of picture-frame sequence, picture frames per

second, and perforation of film (in shape, size, separation, location, and number per picture frame).

There were many other standards adopted for con- venience and interchangeability, but none but film

standards were absolutely necessary. Nor was time an

element of consideration, for the film could be shown

a day, a week, or a year after it was taken.

In television, liowever, time is the essence, for the

person or scene can he reproduced only simultaneously

with its broadcast, the station being comparable to the camera in motion pictures.

At present there are onl}" a relatively few radiovision broadcastei’s, ami each follows his own in- clination as to the elements which go to make up the

treatment of his picture frame (scanned area). Some

use as low as 24 lines per frame, some as high as 100

lines. More television liroadcasting is done (at the present

time) on 60 lines per frame, 60 picture elements per

line, and 20 frames ]ier second than any other. The

scanning is done from left to right and from top to bottom in successive lines, as one reads the page of a book.

The present method of television, as is now rather

well known, consists of an analysis at the broadcast

station, and a simultaneous synthesis at all receivers,

of the person or scene, in successive elementary picture

areas delivered over a single radio channel.

The resultant assembly of the elementary picture

areas remind one of the dots in a half-tone printing

l)lock—coai’se screen for neivspaper work, fine screen

for book printing—with its different sizes of dots, and

which, assembled in groups of like sizes, make up the

l)lacks and Avhites and half tones of the picture.

One can imagine these thousands of dots trans- mitted and received one by one in orderly succession over a radio channel. It will also be understood that

the finer quality of picture, with its greater number

of dots, or elementary areas, all sent in a small frac- tion of a second, one-twentieth, for example, the

higher is the frequency invoh'ed, and therefore the

Avider the radio band (in kilocycles), and that only.

Therefore standardization of picture frame, as already

explained, is all that is absolutely necessary.

It is quite obvious that if television, reception is to be enjoyed by ei^eryone from all radiovision stations,

then all stations must adopt a standard of analysis of

the object or scene broadcast. OtherAvise each household Avould have to buy a receiA^er for each broadcast

station, or limit its reception to the offerings of a single station. The sooner such standardization is accepted and practiced by all interests im’olved the sooner a large and entnusiastic audience Avill be

nightly receiving television entertainment.

WHEELBARROWS

The proposed reA'ision of Simplified Practice Recommendation R105-29, WheelbarroAvs, is now before

the members of the industry for their consideration

and Avritten approAuil.

On April 26, 1929, a joint conference of representatiA^e manufacturers and users of AvheelbarroAvs, held

under the aus]iices of the Bureau of Standards,

drafted a simplified practice recommendation Avhich

Avas accepted by the industry, and promulgated by the

Department of Commerce as Simplified Practice Recommendation RlOo-29. This recommendation listed

41 sizes and types of barrows, and eliminated 84. A revision meeting, held September 22, 1931, proposed a further reduction to 27 varieties. It also rec- ommended that all steel-tray barrows be rated and

catalogued according to cubical contents of the struck

capacity, measured with dry wheat. To meet the need

for a uniform terminology, it Avas decided that the

Avheelbarrows contained in the simplification program

should be designated S-1, S-2, etc., in order of their

appearance in the list. The reAused recommendation is to be effective upon

announcement by the Bureau of Standards that the

reipiired degree of support has been secured.

PUBLICATIONS ON TEXTILES

There has been issued by the Department of Commerce the third edition of the pamphlet entitled “ Government Publications Relating to Textiles.” This

pamphlet lists all reported publications issued by Government bureaus dealing Avith the textile industry.

In the present issue there are included the names of

23 Government bureaus Avhich have issued publications

relating to textile subjects together Avith a listing of

these publications conveniently classified under A'ari- ous subject headings. Copies of this pamphlet may be

obtained from the United States Department of Commerce, Washington, D. C., Avithout charge.
DECEMBER, 1931 COMMERCIAL STANDARDS MONTHLY 167

CONTROLLING AIR TRAFFIC

Standard System of Air Marking by Cities, Towns, and Villages Recommended by Aeronautics Branch

By Clarence M. Young ^

Airmen 63Diig over any portion of the Federal air- ways system, which now covers a major portion of the

Xation, constantly are receiving guidance and assist- ance from the communications S3Lsteni of the Aeronautics Branch of the Department of Commerce.

Their courses are outlined accuratel3’ 63’ the rotating

beacon lights and the beams of the radio range beacons. They are told by radio signals from marker bea- cons when to adjust their radio sets to receive the next

radio range beacon as they near th'e limits of the beam

they have been following. Weather information is furnished periodicall3^ by the airwa3^s communications

stations working in conjunction with the automatic

telegraph-t3’pewriter circuits. Intermediate landing

fields, lighted and marked for ready identification

from the air both day and night, are nearh" always

within a short distance of the airmen.

The communications svstem of the Aeronautics

Branch is so standardizecl that it matters not where

airmen may be dying, tliey ahAupys Avill receive the same type of information pertaining to air naA'igation.

Hence, by familiarizing themselves with the communications procedure in operation on aii3" one section

of the Federal ainvays system, airmen hold the key

to the methods employed by the entire communications system of the Aeronautics Branch. That Avhich

follows mav’ serA'c to illustrate this statement:

I'he airAva3"S beacon lights on the Federal airAvays

rotate six times a minute and thereby show six dashes

in that period. The beacon lights are located at standard intervals, 10 miles apart, and are established

in series of 10 in 100-mile sections. The number of

each beacon light on each 100-mile section is dashed in code by tAvo red course lights placed on the toAA'cr platform. As the result of assistance rendered b3

" the course lights, airmen need knoAv onh’- on Avhich

section the3

' are dying to ascertain their approximate

position along the airAvav. The red course lights,

AA'hich signifv' the absence of landing facilities, are

so installed that the3^ point backAvard and forAvard

along the course. Thus, airmen know in Avhich direction the3’ Avill dnd the next beacon light if the Aveather

obscures it from vision. For day operations a concrete arroAv at the base of each heacon-light toAA’er points to the direction of the aii’Avav’. Beacon-light toAvers at intermediate landing delds

carry green course lights instead of red. In addition

to the beacon and course lights, an ijitermediate held

is identided at night by the presence of boundaiy,

apiiroach, and obstruction lights and an illuminated

wind-direction indicator. Standard boundary lights,

installed at intervals of approximatelA’ 300 feet around the perimeter, outline the field. Green lights,

installed in the l)oundary system, indicate the best

approach to the landing area. Obstructions on or near the landing area are marked in all cases bv red

lights at the height of the obstructions to bo cleared.

In ilaylight an intermediate landing field is identified from the air by a chrome-yelloAV circle at tlie intersections of the rumvay' center lines, Avith chi'omeAT'lloAV panels 20 feet long and 2 feet Avide extemling

from the outside circle along tlie runAva3

^ center lines to indicate the best landing directions. The boundaries of the field are marked by chrome-yellow sheetmetal cones 30 inches in diameter and 24 inches in

height, installed immediately beloAv the boundary

lights and attached to the boundary-light standards.

These markings and lights are standard characteristics

of all intermediate landing fields established ami

maintained by the Aeronautics Branch of the Department of Commerce.

The radio range beacons, althougli of tAvo types

(aui'al and Ausual), are standardized in their methods

of operation. Each type provides directional guid- ance bv sending out signals that mark a course for

100 miles or more. These signals are received through

earphones (for the aural beacon) and through an indi- cator on the instrument board for the visual t 3fpe.

One airAva3

', at this Avriting, is being equipped Avith the

visual-type transmitters, thereby providing identical

radiodirectional service of this particular type for

aircraft using this aiinvay.

When an aircraft nears the limit of the range

beacon course, the pilot is Avarned b3^ signals from a radio marker beacon so that he may adjust his radio

set to receive the signals from the beacon ahead. The

marker beacons are also equipped Avith radiotelephone

transmission equipment.

Aeronautical AA^eather information is gathered and

transmitted in accordance Avitli uniform })ractices.

The automatic telegraph-typeAvriter circuits first collect the data from Weather Bureau stations along the

aii'Avay^s and at points about 200 miles left and right

of the route. This material, together Avith the conditions prevailing at the automatic telegraph-typeAvriter

station, is transmitted to the airAva 3"s radioconununications stations, Avhich assemble, edit, and then broadcast it b3

^ radiotelephone to aircraft in flight along the

airAva3

'. Tlie information broadcast includes the cor- rect time, the condition of the Aveatlier, degree of visi- bility, A’elocity of the Avind, temperature, barometer

reading, and other information of importance. Tliese

broadcasts are made at regular intervals, in some cases hourly, and in others on half and quarter hour

schedules.

The jiosition reporting of aircraft in flight OA-er the

airAva3's is also conducted in accordance Avith uniform

practices. When an airman leaA’es an airport and if he requests the position-reporting service, a message

goes out over the automatic telegraph-t3q)eAvriter cir- cuit giving his name, license numher of the plane, and

point of departure and destination. This message is automaticallv reproduced on receiving machines at

strategic points along the ainvay Avhich note Ids' progress. As he passes OA'er these stations, messages

^ Assistant Secretary of Commerce for .Veronautics. to that etl'ect are sent to stations baclvAvard and foi'-
168 COMMERCIAL STANDARDS MONTHLY DECEMBER, 1031

ward along the course, so that the approximate position of the plane maj" be known throughout the

flight.

The standardization of communication facilities on

the airways, however, is only one phase of these activities of the Aeronautics Branch. There are also the

air navigation maps; the efforts in behalf of uniform

field rules, signal systems, the certification of aeronautical lights, and air marking.

The airway strip maps are prepared by the Aeronautics Branch in accordance with standards recom- mended by the Board of Surveys and Maps of the

Federal Government. The strip maps deal with the

airways and show communities, highways, airports,

streams, railroads, high points, transmission lines, and

other pertinent data to aid the airmen in following

those specific routes. Another type of map, the sec- tional airivaj^ map, covers a much larger area, but it includes the established airways and the same general

type of information as is presented on the strip map.

In an effort to bring about uniformity in airportfield regulation throughout the Finited States, the

Aeronautics Branch has prepared a set of suggested

rules for adoption b}" airports and landing fields. These have been adopted b,y many airports.

Kealizing that there exists an urgent need for the

development of standard signal systems suitable for

lioth day and night use, for controlling air traffic on and in the vicinity of air])orts, and for coimnunicating

s^iecial information to airmen, the Aeronautics Branch

is conducting special research work on this subject in

connection with its studies on airport-traffic control.

The primary object of this research is to a.ssist in

develojiing safe and efficient methods of controlling air

traffic at airjiorts and to bring about uniformity in

their application.

To further safety in air navigation, the department requires that all aeronautical lights, other than

those established and maintained by the Federal Government, be certified l>y the Department of Commerce

as true aids to air navigation. In order to serve as true aids, such lights shall be long-range lights of

suitable design, shall be distinctly aeronautical in

character, and shall have color characteristics con- forming to the uniform standard used on the Federal airways. They also are required to be in reliable

operation from sunset to sunrise each night in the

year, to mark an airport or landing field, a route leading to an airport or landing field, or a point from

which bearings may be taken leading to an airport or landing field, an outstanding landmark serving as an aid to air navigation, or an area presenting a hazard to fl3uug.

The Aeronautics Branch has also drawn up recom- mended standards to be followed in the marking of

obstructions to air navigation. Provision also is made

for marking hazardous flying areas and for the certification of high-explosive danger areas, the latter upon request! by the owners of such areas. The Aeronautics Branch has been active in an effort to stimulate the general use of a standard system

of air marking by cities, towns, and villages that will

convey the necessary information to airmen in the

simplest and most effective manner. A recommended

s^'stem for general use in this country has been worked

out as a result of extensive studies and service tests made b\" a special committee to study the subject.

The branch recommends that such markings be

placed on the most outstanding buildings or structures when suitable roof space is available, and should in- clude the name of the city or locality, a meridian

marker, and, if there is an airport in the vicinity, a combination of simple characters indicating the direction and distance to the airport, its rating, and whether

facilities are available for landplanes, seaplanes, or

both. It also recommends a system for the marking

of highway's to aid the pilot in identifying them, as they stand out verv clearly from the air and serve as one of his best landmarks.

Through the standardization of its communication

facilities, tlie Aeronautics Branch has been of much

assistance to the development of cross-country air

travel. The s^i'stem is being developed in accordance

with well-defined plans and is being extended as rapidly as authorization and appropriations permit.

IMPORTED TEA MUST PASS STRICT TESTS

C. F. Hutchinson, tea examiner for the Federal

Food and Drug Administration, has the job of making sure that all imported tea meets the standards of

the national tea act of 1897, enforced by the Food

and Drug Administration. “ When you sip your tea,”

says Mr. Hutchinson, “ ^mu are justified in letting

your mind run to romantic and exciting things.”

He, however, confesses that he does not have much

time to let his mind wander from business during

office hours. He is too bus}^ helping enforce the tea

act, by which all teas entering the United States are judged as to quality, purit^q and fitness for consumption. If a sample fails to meet tliese standards. Federal food officials refuse it entr}^ into the channels of

American trade.

The standards are strict, but importers ai'e bringing in excellent tea. The tea standards are fixed by a board of tea experts chosen by the Secretary of Agriculture. That board is composed of Mr. Hutchinson,

for the Government, and ,iix- other specialists repre- senting the East, the West, and the interior. The

board meets, selects, and submits to the Secretary of

Agriculture official standard samples by which all teas imi)orted are judged. These standard samples are

selected mainly by ta.ste, although other things are considered.

SURGICAL DRESSINGS

A summary report of the general conference which

approved a simplified practice recommendation for

surgical dressings, has been mailed by the Bureau of

Standards to all interests for their consideration and

written approval.

The recommendation, which is based on a study

made by the Hospital Research and Information

Department of the American College of Surgeons, in

cooperation with hospital executives, surgeons, manufacturers, and scientific laboratories, establishes no- menclature, sizes, and methods of preparation of

sponges, abdominal packs, sterile gauze dressings and

pads.

Subject to acceptance by the industry, the recom- mendation is to be effective one month after the day of

the Bureau of Standards general letter announcing

that the necessary degree of support has been received.
DECEMBER, 1931 COMMERCIAL STANDARDS MONTHLY 169

AMERICAN STANDARDS ASSOCIATION

Association Activity During November

The following current information concerning developments in standardization projects under the

auspices and procedures of the American Standards

Association, has been furnished by that association

The secretariat for the international committee

which the International Standards Association, in

1930, decided should be organized to discuss the possibility of arriving at international uniformity between national standards on nomenclature and methods of test of petroleum products has been assigned to the American Standards Association. An active start

is now being made in organizing the committee. Invitations are being sent to all the member bodies of the

I. S. A. and also to the three national standardizing

bodies which are not members of I. S. A. ; namel}^,

the British, Canadian, and Australian organizations.

The British organization has already been in co- operation with the sectional committee on methods of

testing petroleum products and lubricants which has

been working under A. S. A. procedure, under the

sponsorship of the American Society for Testing

Materials.

The invitations which are going out to the national

standardizing bodies contain a review of the work

which has been done in America in this field, and a

request that any national organizations interested in

cooperating preiiare a similar statement concerning

the work that has been done in their countries, with

the idea that sucli .statements will furnish a basis for

the program of the international project.

Symbols for mechanics^ structural engineering^ and

testirng mckerials.-—^The proposed standard on this

subject has been submitted to the association for

approval as American standard by the sectional committee on scientific and engineering symbols and abbreviations. This submission follows approval by the

sectional committee and the five sponsors ; the American Association for the Advancement of Science, the

American Institute of Electrical Engineers, the American Society of Civil Engineers, the American Society of Mechanical Engineers, and the Society for

the Promotion of Engineering Education.

Direct-current overhead-trolley construction.—The

American Electric Railway Association, proprietary

sponsor for the project, has advised the association

that a revision of the American standard specification

for 600-volt direct-current overhead-trolley construction is being undertaken. The work is being done by

the power committee of the A. E. R. A.

Finishes of machine surfaces.—The American Society of Mechanical Engineers has requested that a

committee be organized under the procedure of the

A. S. A. to consider the question of .standardization

of finishes of machine surfaces, and has offered to act as sponsor or joint sponsor, for the proposed project.

The establishment of a basis of measurement for the

quality of finish of machine surfaces would make it possible to classify dift'erent machine finishes, to compare them, and to designate them on shop drawings

and in specifications by a standard number, symbol, or term. The need for some kind of classification has

been more particularly felt, in the last few years, by

the manufacturers and users of grinding equipment.

Quality designations, such as “ rough,” “ commei'cial,”

“ smooth,” “ fine,” “ mirror,” extra,” “ ultra,” have

been adoiited b}^ individual companies, but such

terms are more likely than not to have a different

meaning in each organization. Moreover, in so far as they are not tied down to measurable properties, they can be interpreted only by means of samples. Sets of

such samples—also of finishes other than those Avhich are ground—are actually used by several firms as a guide for their engineering, production, and other

clepartments.

Quality of surface is, among other things, a major

factor in the fitting together of parts. This applies

in the first place to clearance fits, such as the fit be- tAveen a shaft and its bearing, where surface quality

influences the wear of the parts. The modern tendency is to give cjdindrical parts which have to function under exacting conditions a good quality of sur- face finish before assembl}^, instead of following the

old practice of letting them obtain such finish during

a “ I’unning-in ” period of the assembled machine.

Surface quality also determines the maximum resist- ance Avhich parts Avith a tight fit Avill offer to an effort to separate them. Furthermore, quality of finish is a matter to be considered in many cases Avhere no problem of fit is iiiA’olved, but where a certain appearance

of the manufactured product is required. The problem applies to surfaces of all kinds—cylindrical, flat, or otherAvise—and to the different kinds of machine

finishes used in manufacturing practice. It also applies to finishes obtained by processes not involving

the remoA’al of metal, such as cold rolling or drawing,

press finishing, etc. If the A. S. A. standards council, upon recommendation of the special committee, decides that Avork on

the project shall be started, the sponsor or sponsors

Avill organize a .sectional committee consisting of representatiA'es of all major groups having an interest in

the ]n’oject.

NOTION AND MILLINERY PAPER BAGS

The simplified practice recommendation covering

the sizes of notion and millineiy jiaper bags has receiA'ed sufficient signed acceptances from producers,

distributors, and users to insure its general adoption

by the industry, and may be considered effective as of

December 1, 1931.

In February, 1931, four simplified practice recommendations, in the field of Avrapping and packing sup90089—31—

plies as used in department stores, Avere approved by

general conferences of members of the industry. Tlie

simplification program on notion and millinery pajier

bags is tlie final one of the group of four to receive tlie Avritten approA'al of the industry. The other recom- mendations concern corrugated boxes, folding boxes,

and set-iqi boxes.

The reduction in variety effected by this sim])li(ied

jiractice recommendation is from 188 sizes of bags to

23.

.0
170 COMMI^nCIAL STANDARDS MONTHLY DKCEMBER, 1931 WOOL AND PART-WOOL BLANKETS

General Conference Approves Commercial Standard for Labeling Contents of Blankets

A standard si'steni of labeling wool and part-wool

blankets, to show the percentage of wool contained

in each blanket, received the approval of a general

conference of all interests of the industry, held under

the ausiiices of the Bureau of Standards in New York

City on Novenilier 20. The blanket industry, for ipiite some time, has real- ized tlie importance of adopting a standard of this

cliaracter, and it is the belief of leading manufactui'ers

and the merchandise managers’ division. National Retail Dry Goods Association, s]ionsors for the program,

that tlie commercial standard just approved by the

conference will l)e mutuallj' satisfactory to all concerned.

1'he pur})ose of the standard is to provide a nationwide method of labeling wool and part-wool blankets

in order to protect tlie interests of the manufacturer, distributor,

and consumer. The term “ part wool ” as it is generally used in

connection with mixed

wool and cotton blankets is misleading in

that it gives a consumer the impression that

there is more wool in a blanket than actually

exists, there being, in

fact, at least 75 per

cent of the blankets on

the market labeled part

wool that actually carry

less than 10 per cent of

wool and many only a fraction of 1 per cent. The customer seldom

knows this, and the leading factors in the blanket

industiy, feeling that this practice is unfair and deceptive, ottered a specification for incorporation into a commercial standard.

This specification as revised by the general conference states that a blanket which has less than 10

per cent wool shall not carry the word “ wool ” in

any form ; that the words “ not less than 10 per cent,

20 per cent, 30 per cent, etc.,” when used with the

words ‘‘ part wool ” in advertising or tickets, shall

appear in the same size type as the Avords “part

Avool”; that the percentage of avooI specified shall

refer to the fibers emploAMcl, and means the per- centage of Avool in the entire blanket and not in the

filling alone ; and that blankets containing betAveen

10 and 20 per cent avooI shall be labeled “ part avooI, not less than 10 jAer cent,” betAveen 20 and 30 per cent

shall be labeled not less than 20 per cent, and so on

in 10 per cent steps until a blanket containing between

00 and 98 per cent shall be labeled “ part avooI, not

less than 90 per cent,” and anything aboA^e 98 per cent

shall be an all avooI ” blanket.

The method used in the determination of the per- centage of Avool contained in a finished blanket shall

conform to the methods used and approA^ed by the

Bureau of Standards.

This action, on the part of the industry, is in line

Avith the recommendations made a feAv years ago by

the National Better Business Bureau that the ap-

])roximate percentage of avooI content of the blanket

Ite stated for tlie information of the retailer and cus- tomer. The ajiproval of this standard marks another

step foi'Avard by the industry to bring about a better

understanding betAveen the manufacturer, distributor,

and consumer of this commodity. The industry has

alreadA’ simplified the A'ariety of sizes of cotton, wool,

and mixed cotton and avooI bed blankets from 78 to 12, as published in Simplified Practice Recommendation

No. 11 of the Department of Commerce.

The formal adoption

and use of the recom- mendations embodied

in this standard will not entail any material

changes in any branch

of the blanket industry,

as it simply means re- placing all labels and

tickets Avith others that

conform to the commercial standard. For this reason the conference

set the early date of

Febniary 1, 1932, as ef- fective date for ncAV production and clear- ance of existing stocks. A report of the general conference, which

includes a revised draft of the proposed commercial

standard, is being prepared for circulation among producers, distributors, and users for Avritten acceptance.

As indicated editorially by the Daily New's Record

of November 25, “ although the problem has been

tackled by at least three ‘ outside ’ organizations, the move Avhich finally bore first fruit was that which had

been initiated Avithin the industry itself; that is, at a meeting of retailers and manufacturers.

“ The first blanket mill to offer a ‘ paid avooI ’ blanket, labeled according to the specifications approAMd

at the Bureau of Standards meeting, should certainly

be enriched Avith a valuable prestige and buyer in- doiAsement, judging from the sincerit}^ of purpose evi- dent at that meeting of buyers and sellers.” The

Avriter then pointed out that “ it was the first definite

accomplishment in the direction of ridding the blanket

industiy of an eAul Avhich has been under fire from

various agencies for the past six years and presents

a unique inerchandising possibility.”

The standard as approAMd by the general confer- ence is as folloAvs

“No finished blanket containing less than 10 per

cent Avool shall carry the Avord ‘ avooI ’ in any form.

The Avords ‘ not less than 10 per cent,' ‘ not less than

20 per cent,’ etc., in the advertising shall appear in

the same size type as the Avords ‘ part avooI .’ The avooI content refers only to the fibers employed.”

Blankets containing Shall be labeled

l)et\veeu

10 and 20 per cent “ Part avooI, not less than 10 per cent.” 20 and 30 per cent—

30 and 40 per cent 40 and 50 per cent__. 50 and 60 per cent—

60 and 70 per cent—

70 and 80 per cent___ SO and 00 per cent__. 00 and 08 per cent—

Above OS per cent

20

30

40

50

6070

SO00

“All Avool.”
DECE.MBEK, 1031 COMMEKOIAL STANDARDS MONTHLi’ 171

SEAL INSTILLS CONFIDENCE IN GAS APPLIANCES

American Gas Association Laboratory Seal of Approval a Guide in Proper Selection of Appliances

]>y F. li. Wright ^

An accurate cletenninatioii of the general utilit}^ of

a gas appliance can not he made merely by a sujierticial

inspection. This being true, the purchaser must de-

})end upon tlie skill and good faith of the manufacturer

in jiroducing a satisfactory product, or be guided by

a trade-mark, seal, or other distinguishing features.

For years symbols of this kind have been guiding the

hu3dng habits of millions of people. For example, one buying an ai'ticle of silver usualh' looks for the ‘‘ster- ling ” mark, or if of gold, then to see whether it is stamped 14 or 18 karat. Likewise, the purchasers of

gas appliances have come to depend on the American

Gas Association’s laboratoiy seal of approval as a guide in the proper selection of gas ranges, water heaters, and other domestic gas appliances.

This seal is the symbol adopted b}' the American

Gas Association’s testing laboratoiy, and is the visible

evidence of compliance with the A. G. A. approval

requirements. The.se requirements are nationally

recognized basic standards for domestic gas-burning

appliances. They^ are formulated and developed by

leading gas engineers, health authorities, home eco- nomics experts, governmental bodies, as well as all interested and allied trade associations and technical

societies, in both the United States and Canada. They

were drafted primarily to insure safetj'^ in gas-appli- ance performance. The}’ have also contributed materially to the deA^elopment of the gas industry and the

elimination of waste in production methods.

Every appliance which is approved must comply in

every detail with the above-mentioned standards. The

testing and certification of all types of domestic gas

appliances is one of the ]irincipal functions of the

laboratory. Compliance with the.se standards entails

('xhaustive and extensive tests covering both the construction and performance of every appliance submitted. Only upon full compliance with every re- quirement is the manufacturer permitted to affix the

laboratory seal of approval to his product. This program assists the manufacturer in developing a better

product and brings about standardization in essential

features upon which the public can rely in selecting an

aj)])roved appliance.

The latest A. G. A. li.st of approved appliances

shows .some 1*2,000 models of gas ranges alone, which

are now approved by the American Gas Association.

'Fhis list is published in booklet form on the first of

each month, and shows all the appliances which carry

the laboratory seal of approval.

The approval of a gas range involves compliance in

detail with 159 separate requirements; 127 of these

requirements cover the construction, assembly, and

durability of the range, while 32 specify (lefinite

standards of performance, compliance Avith which can

only be determined by extensive laboratory tests. The A. G. A. requirements for gas ranges are too extensive to be outlined in detail, since they comprise

' ITildioations odifoi-, .American Uas .Association (Inc.), testing

laboratory.

some 15 pages of jirinted matter. However, a sum- mary of some of the more imjiortant specifications

should indicate the thoroughness with which ranges

are tested. In the con.sideration of the requirements one point

should be kept in mind, namely, that they do not

specify definite forms of construction nor fix the

details of appliance design and assembly. Conse-

<iuently, a wide range of structural types, designs, and

methods of assembly may be found in approved appli- ances of the same general classification. The reason

for this is most evident, since to include such details

would not only limit initiative, a very undesirable

feature from the standpoint of the appliance manufacturer, lint would also greatly retard development

and preclude the embodiment of ingenuity of design

and improA’ement. Consistent Avith the accomplishment of the desired purposes a constant effort has been

made not to retard progress that Avould in any Avay

effect economy, time, coiiA^enience. safety, or cost to the consumer. The comstruction as Avell as the performance re- quirements apply equally to all types of ranges, ex- cept that modifications are made for alternate types of

construction, such as open and dosed top ranges. These naturally nece.ssitate alternate requirements for

the top section.

In determining the safety and durability of a range

from the constimctional .standpoint CA^ery part from

bolts to bases is carefully checked. Each sheet-metal

piece is gaged to make sure that it is of, at least, the

minimum thickness required for the purpose it serves. Every range is reiiuired to have a base of minimum

strength and durability Avith joints securely riveted

or Avelded, and capable of supporting Avithout permanent deflection a load- of 30(1 ]iounds applied on the

top of the range. Legs must be detachable, interchangeable, and rigidly held in place. The .sheets making uji the oven and broilei- bottoms, top liurner

boxes, and trays mu.st be corrosion resisting.

To facilitate the houseAvife's cleaning tasks, oven

hottoms, oA’en and broiler linings, as AA’ell as burners,

must be easily removable. For added coiiA’enience,

grates must be interchangeable, .so constructed that

they can not be inserted upside doAvn and must not

be bolted in jilace. The arms of the grates must ex- tend Avell over the Imrner to accommodate a small vessel, yet must not interfere Avith complete combustion.

They also must be beveled doAvn to Avhere they meet

the top frame so tliat pans may be slid on and off Avith- out jar. Rack supports must not IniA’e exjiosed sharji

edges and must be so constructed that they Avill preA’ent racks from tilting Avhen partially AvithdraAvn.

Oven doors of the drop type are required to be counterbalanced to prevent breakage and must lie and re- main in a horizontal jiosition. They also must have

a flat inside surface on a plane Avith the door frame

to preA'eiit pans fi'om catching on the door frame.

Doors are furtlier required to o])en Avith an internal
172 COMMERCIAL STANDARDS MONTHLY DECEMBER. 19.31

pressure not greater than 50 pounds. Another re- quirement specifies that flue collars must be so constructed that the products of combustion can escape

in case a dish or other flat object is accidentally or

intentially placed over the flue outlet. The insulating qualities of the oven and broiler are

fixed by specifying a minimum thickness of insulating

material or a width of dead air spaces, and their location. The inner linings must be so x^l^iced that if the space behind them is used for a flue way, it provides ample area for the passage of the iiroducts of

combustion.

To prevent leakage, gas cocks are required to meet

certain minimum requirements with respect to circumferential seal, bearing surface, and take-up. Similarly, manifolds into which gas cocks are screwed

must have a sufficient thickness of metal to provide

at least three and one-half full threads. Cocks must

be so marked or placed that their “ on ” and “ off' ” positions can be recognized at a glance. Oven gas

cocks must be readily distinguishable from those for

the top burners. Mixer heads and air shutters are to be so designed that a positive and easi" adjustment is possible.

Top burners are required to be cast in one piece,

while oven burners if not of 1-piece construction must

be so assembled that there is no possibilit,y of leakage.

Oven and broiler burners are not permitted in the same

oven unless the control of the burners is such tliat they can not be operated at the same time. All burners

must be securely held in a definite position vithout

bolts, yet must be easily removable. Provisions must

be made for the ready observation of oven-burner

flames. Where thermostats are used thej'^ must have

a by-pass capacit}^ sufficient to permit a minimum safe

gas flow with the thermostatic valve clo.sed. In addition, an adjustment oven pilot of substantial construction is required which must be securely supported to prevent accidental displacement so that positive ignition of the gas from the oven burner will be effected. Performance I'equirements on a gas range are very

largely devoted to safety, although other tests are made

to insure an acceptable degree of efficiency and suffi- cient speed in the initial stages of cooking. In order

better to understand the significance of the various

tests, a brief description of types of test gases, pressures, and burner capacities will be given.

The gases used for test purposes ai-e natural, coke- oven, and cai'bureted water gas. These gases are rep- resentative of practically all the types of city gases

supplied throughout the United States and Canada,

and liave widely different heating values, specific gravities, chemical comjiositions, and burning characteristics. The natural gas used has a specific gravity of 0.65 and a gross heating value of about 1.135 B. t. u. peicubic foot, while coke-oven and water gases have s]^ecific gravities of 0.38 and 0.70, and heating values of

535 and 400 B. t. u. per culfic foot, respectively. These

gases are measured by wet test meters which are ex- tremely accurate. The volume is corrected to standard

conditions of 30 inches of mercuiy column pressure

and 60° F., since the heating value determined by the

Junkers tyjie calorimeter is corrected to tins standard.

The gas pressures at which tests are made were established after a careful survey of gas pressure conditions

existing tliroughout the entire country. Thei’e are

7.0-inch water column for natural gas and 3.5-inch for

the two manufactured gases. These pressures have

therefore been taken as standards for all tests, except

additional combustion tests, which are made at

2.0-

inch pressure with coke-oven gas and 4.0-inch with

natural gas. The purpose of these additional tests is mainly to insure good combustion at standard burner

ratings, where unusually low gas pressures are encountered.

Many of the requirements are based upon the as- sumption that a certain degree of speed in cooking

o]ierations is required. By establishing a standard

of gas-burner capacities for all oven burners, and combiiung these capacities with a minimum efficiency re- quirement, a reasonable cooking speed is assured with

all approved ranges. The standard capacities of gasI'ange burners, for the purpose of all tests, are defined

as folloAvs: Regular top burners, not less than 9,000 B. t. u. per hour; giant top burners, not less tlian 12,000 B. t. u. per hour; separate simmering burner, not less than 1,800 B. t. u. per hour; broiler burner,

]iot less than 140 B. t. u. per hour for each square inch

of bi'oiling area: and oven burner, 10,000 B. t. u. per

hour per cubic foot of oven space, where such space

does not exceed 2.4 cubic feet. Where the volume of

the oven is in excess of this amount, manufacturers

have the privilege of specifying the rating, providing

it is not less than 24,000 B. t. u. jier hour.

During all tests for compliance with the per- formance requirements, gas ranges are not connected

to a flue but must depend for satisfactory performance

solely on the principles of design incorporated in

them.

The most important performance requirement from

a safety standpoint is the one which states that a gas

range shall produce no carbon monoxide. In deter- mining compliance with this requirement the gas

rate to each burner is adjusted in accordance with the

capacities specified above at normal gas pressure, and

the air shutters are regulated to produce flames with

well-defined inner cones. Samjiles of the products

of combustian are taken with the burners operating

at one-half normal pressure, normal pressure, and at one and one-quarter normal pressure. The same procedure is followed with both manufactured and nat- ural gas. When testing the top biumers for compliance with the above requirements, round luins fi/o inches in diameter are filled with water and placed

centrally over the burners. A properly designed

metal hood is placed over the entire cooking top, and

pijies leading from the pans protrude through holes

in the top of the hood so that steam generated during

the tests will pass off' into the atmosphere and not become mixed with the combustion products. The

hood is so designed that the opening around these

pipes can be closed off' and all the products of combustion forced to pass througfi a single flue outlet

in the top center of the hood. The burners are operated for a period of approximately five minutes, and

samp’es of the products of combustion are taken just

below the flue outlet of the hood, at the three pres- sures s])ecified above. The samples thus secui-ed are analyzed for carbon dioxide and carl)on monoxide,

'file analysis of the combustion products for carbon

monoxide is made by means of an iodine-pentoxide apparatus, which is accurate to 2 parts in 100,000.
DECEMBER, 1931 COMMERCIAL STAKDAEDS MONTHLY 173

Samples from the oven and broiler are taken over

the same range of pressures. AVhere the oven and

broiler are vented through the same flue and it is possible to operate both at the same time, they are tested

together as well as separately. The samples are se- cured in a similar manner except that they are taken

from the flue outlet of the range. In the case of a

solid top range, where the products are vented into the

flue of the range, the sample from the top burners is also taken from the flue outlet. Where the top burners are vented out a separate flue they are tested separately from the oven or broiler but where the top

and oven and/or broiler are vented into a common

flue from the appliance they are also operated together

and must meet the same recpnrement. These tests are designed to anticipate the most extreme conditions of

service ever encountered in the home.

Additional te-sts are made at 2 inches water-column

pressure on coke-oven gas and 4 inches pressure on

natural gas. The burners are adjusted at these pressures instead of at normal jiressure. as used in other

tests. Air shutters are adjusted to give the best flames

possible to obtain. Samples are secured at tlie pressures specified above for these two gases in a manner

as previously described. Thus a high degree of flex- ibility of performance is assured, with the result that

approved ranges will operate safely and satisfactorily

in any section of the country, if properly installed and

intelligently used.

Safety from fire hazard is assured bj^ the requirement covering floor and wall temperatures (see illus- tration), which specifies that the temperature on the

walls C) inches from the sides and back of a range and

on the floor underneath it, must not exceed 90° F. above room temperature after the appliance has been

o])crating for one hour at a gas pressure 25 per cent above normal, and with the oven temperature maintained at 550° F. During this test the most extreme

conditions are assumed, since all burners which it is possible to operate at one time are in use, and pans of

water are placed over the top burners. Therefore,

with a I'oom temperature of 75° F. the maximum allowable temperature either ou the walls or floor at the

termination of the test period would be 165° F. This

insures a wide margin of safety below a temperature

that would cause .scorching of ordinary wall or floor materials.

Leakage of gas from the range piping or controls is precluded by a test at 6 inches mercury pressure, this

being about ten times as great as the highest pressure

u.sually found in the average house piping.

Many requireinents fippl.y to oven performance, such

as heating capacit}^ thermostatic controls, OA'en and

broiler heat distribution, etc. Oven and broiler heat

fli.sti-ibution is determined by actual baking and toast- ing tests. Oven heating speed is determined by a test using a 100 D. t. u. water gas. The low heating value

AROOSTOOK POTATOES SOLD UNDER LABELS

^ -Vroostook potatoes, graded, identified by the New

Lngland quality label, packaged, and advertised, were

introduced to the Boston market at a dinnei’ given in Bo.ston in October. On this occasion two carloads

of potatoes were distributed to the unemploved of

the city.

The potatoes, which are graded to meet requireinents more severe than those of the best State and

Federal grades, will be sold in bags and boxes of such

and high specific gravit}^ of this gas have a combined

effect in reducing the rate of heat input and conse- quently the test conditions afford a very severe check on the heating capacity of the oven. Under this re- quirement the oven temperature is required to reach

500° F. within 20 minutes when operated from a cold

start. The oven heat regulator, or thermostat, is one of the

most popular and convenient devices on the modern

gas range. It is designed to maintain any desired

temperature within the oven from 250° to 550° F.

Its accuracy and performance are carefully determined under the requirements.

Other important safety requirements include tests of burners over a range of pressure for flash back, and

back pressure causing leakage of raw gas, tests on top

and oven burner lighters, and of various safet}’ valves

and controls. Cocks are required to have ample gas

capacity, must not leak raw gas, and must be capable

of injecting sufficient air into the burner along with

the gas stream to insure good combustion.

The aiiproval requirements for gas ranges, as well

as for other ttq^es of appliances, are revised by the

American Gas Association from year to year as progress is made in the utilization of gas, and the need

develops for more stringent requirements. Such re- visions are now in process to include additional tests, and to provide requirements for ranges using “ liottled gas,” and butane-air gas. A program of extensive

research has been conducted for tlie past two years

by the A. G. A. laboratory and the Bureau of Standard.s, leading to the development of revised and

additional requirements for ranges.

The interest of the laboratory in maintaining and

insuring compliance with the A-. G. A. standards for

all ranges bearing the approval seal is not relinquished upon completion of tests. Periodical inspections are made at least once each year, at the plant

of the manufacturer, at his distributor’s place of business, or on the premises of users. All ranges which

have been approved must be manufactured so as to be

identical with the model tested in order to continue

to merit the seal of approval.

thus the laboratory seal, although not a guarantee

of quality in the popular sense of the word, beyond

that specified in the requirements, is a symbol of safe

and acceptalde performance. It insures a degree of

perfection in construction and performance that the

inanufactui'er would never be in a position to offer by

himself. ]\Iany of tlie tests require expensive and

elaborate equipment that no one concern could afford

to install. The laboratory, therefore, begins ivhere

the manufacturer leaves off, by aiding him in the iml>rovement and standardization of his product, as well

as rendering an invaluable service to the ultimate consumer.

a size as to apjieal to retail customers. The “ bakers ” will be packaged in boxes, and tho.se for other use will

i)e sold ill bags having mesh windows ivhich allow the

customer to see the jiroduct. The potatoes are not only graded but carefullv cleaned of all dirt and

dust. All packages will bear the New England farm products label, which is a guarantee that the produce

meets official State grades jiromulgated by the commi.ssioner of agriculture.
174 COMMEUCIAL STANDARDS MOXTHLY DECBMBKK,

LAWS FOR GRADING AND INSPECTION

Resume of Some Legal Standards Adopted by Various States

By lioDERT A. Martino, Bureau of Staixhirds

111 recent years many of tlie State legislatures have

followed the lead taken by the Congress of the United

States in enacting laws establishing standards for and

regulating the grading and inspection of commodities

in both interstate and intrastate commerce. One of the primary objects in enacting such laws is an attempt by the States to create more markets and

to jirovide for a wider distribution of commodities

produced within their boundaries, but the chief rea- son is, perhaps, to prevent deception and fraud on the

buyer by the seller as regards the quality and grades

of the goods so sold. That the Federal Government is playing an important role in standardizing the grades of various commodities and regulating their qualit.y and inspection

is evidenced b}' the several acts which Congress has

passed from time to time in connection with grain,

cotton, tobacco, food and drugs, and other commodities

which are bought and sold in interstate commerce. Standards which are passed by Congress become

official or mandatory standards the use of which are compulsory in the conditions specified by the law

under which the particular standard is promulgated.

Congress grants to the Secretary of Agriculture power

and authority to enforce the provisions contained in

the acts. There are given below a brief re.sume of the laws

which have been pa.ssed by some of the States reg- idating the grading, quality, inspection, and sale of

certain commodities. Provisions have been made in

most State statutes for the issuance of official certificates and labels for use on graded and inspected

goods. Most statutes make the official certificates acceptable in any court in the State in which thej^ are issued prima facie evidence of the true grade, classification, quality, or condition of such commodity at the time of its inspection.

Fruit and vegetaFles.—Ca\itovi\m, Florida, Idaho,

Louisiana, Michigan, and Texas are a few of the

States whose legislatures have established standards

and standard packages for the purpose of preventing

dece|)tion in packing, grading, shiiiiung or sale of

fruits and vegetables.

Practically every State has passed laws estahlishing

standard grades and standard containers for apples.

Laws provide that every packed container of apples

sold or offered for sale must bear on the outside the

grade of the apples, name and business address of

firm, company, or corporation doing the packing, and

the same if rejiacked and date when such apples were

first packed or repacked.

Two States (Michigan and PeniLsylvania) have

enacted specific laws providing standards of quality

for grading, classifying, and packing grapes within

the State. Grapes which are not graded and classified as to quality must be marked “ unclassified ” on the

containers.

The State of California’s law with respect to canned

fruits states that fruits so canned and designated as

“ seconds ” shall have the jvoiyI embossed or litho- graphed in the tin of the top or cover of the can.

Acts establishing standard grades for the quality of

potatoes have also been passed by the legislatures of

the following States : California, Idaho, Indiana, Kansas, Michigan, Minnesota, INIissouri, and North Dakota. The provisions contained in these acts conform

in all respects to the requirements laid down by the

LTiited States Department of Agriculture.

Farm Products. —The secretaries or commissioners

of various State departments of agriculture have lieen vested with authority by their respective legislatures

to establish and promulgate standards for open and

clo-sed receptacles or containers and the grading and

classification of farm products, by which their quantity. quality, or value may be determined; and prescribe and promulgate rules and regulations governing the marks, brands, and labels which ma}' be re- quired upon receptacles or containers for farm products for the purpose of showing the name and address

of the producer or packer, the quantity, nature, and

quality of the product, and for the purpose of pre- venting deception and fraud. The laws also provide

that the standards for farm products shall conform to those established from time to time by Congress or the

United States Department of Agrievdture.

Arkansas, Florida, Iowa, Oregon, and 'Washington

have enacted laws establishing various grades of eggs. Arkansas specifically provides that any person retail- ing cold storage eggs to the public shall mark said

eggs in a sufficient manner so that the buyer may hav('

knowledge of their being cold storage eggs by said

mark.

The following States have passed laws regulating

the grading, quality, and marking of these products:

Arkansas, California, Colorado, Delaware, Indiana,

and Kansas. In connection with the .scale of “ certi- fied milk ” a few of the State laws provide that it must

conform to the methods and standards for the production and distribution adopted by the American Association of Medical Milk Commissions and must bear

the certification of a milk commission appointed by a county medical society organized and chartered liy the

State medical society.

Flaxseed or linseed —The States of Georgia, In- diana, Iowa, and Wisconsin have regulated the sale of

flaxseed or linseed oil by means of legislative acts which state that oil so sold in these States must fulfill the requirements for purity and tests recognized in the

United States Pharmacopaua. Statutes also provide

for the labeling of the oil. Grain-, hay, straiv\, etc. —Numerous States, including

California, Colorado, Iowa, Kansas, Maryland, Missouri, Nebraska, New Hampshire, North Dakota,

Oklahoma, Oregon, and Washington have adopted the

Federal Government standard grades for grain, hay,

straw, and other commercial feed stuffs, and have es- tablished methods for the grading and inspection and

the issuance of official certificates in reference thereto.

Cotton..—Georgia, Oklahoma, and South Carolina

have enacted laws stating that the official cotton standards of the United States as established and promulgated from time to time by the LTnited States Secre-
liECEMBEK, 1931 COMMERCIAL, STANDARDS MONTHLY 175

tary of Agriculture shall be the official cotton standards of these States, (frading and inspection of cot- ton conform to the re(]uirenients contained in the

Federal act. Petroleum. produefK. —In sevenil of the States the

.standards relative to the quality, purity, and sti-ength

for gasoline, kerosene, benzine, and other petroleum

pro(iucts have commanded the attention of State legislators. No less than 11 States have laws with respect

to standards for petroleum products and the labeling

of containei-s containing these products. The standards and be.M methods of petroleum products adopted

liy all of these States are those which have been pre- pared and jiromulgated by the Bureau of Mines of the

United States Department of Commerce, and the

Federal Specifications Board.

Every label, mark, or brand must show that the

gasoline conforms in all respects to the testing methods

adopted and used by the Federal Government.

The Minnesota act relating to gasoline states that it must confoi-m to the specifications set forth in the act and that certilicates must accompany shipments made

in bulk containing the following wording:

This is to cirtify that the gasoline covered by this sale has an "end pidnt” of not over 4."i0° and has been

inspected and approved by the chief, oil inspection.

Sivnod . Tliis may also be stanqted on barrels, cases, casks, or tanks.

Naval stores, pa'mts. putty. —The States of Georgia,

Iowa, Michigan, and Pennsylvania luiA’e placed on

their statute books laws Avith respect to the sale Avithin

their States td' naval stores, paints, and putty. The

laws specifically relate to the manner in Avhich containers of these commodities must be labeled in order

to prevent deception or fraud on the purchaser re- garding their nature or composition as Avell as the

(luantity in tenns of AA'eight or measure.

Mattresses.—In the interest of public health a feAV of the States luu’e passed laAvs Avith respect to fillings

used in mattresses and pilloAvs, among Avhich may be

mentioned DelaAvare, Iowa, Maine, Michigan, Minnesota, and New Hampshire. The hiAA’s of each of these

States pertaining to the selling of mattresses and pil- loAvs proA’ides for labeling. They specifically require

that each and eA’ery mattress or pilloAV sold or offered

for sale, shall bear secureh’ attached thereto and aus- ible on the outside covering, a cloth tag with a state- ment showing the kind of materials used in filling

said mattress or cover and Avhether the materials used

in filling are Avholly neAv or secondhand and indicated

as such.

Maple sirup. —The State of Vermont has passed a

hiAv regulating the grading and inspection of maple

sirup. The hiAv provides for the license of a resident

State maple sirup inspector to carry on this Avork.

Majfie sirup shall be graded and inspected in accord- ance Avith color and density standards established by

the United States Department of Agriculture.

Municipal regulation.—The legislature of the State

of ]\Iaine has given authority to the municipal officers of each toAvn Avithin the State Avhen the}^ deem it ex- pedient, to appoint one or more suitable inspectors

for the purpose of inspecting ffour and sole leather

Avhich have not been inspected in this State according

to hlAV. Inspection of flour shall be for the purpose of ascer- taining its soundness; every package inspected shall

be marked by the inspector ‘•souncl” or ‘‘unsound,'’

as the case may be. As regards sole leather, each inspector shall mark

or stamp the Avord “ Best,” “ Good,” ‘‘ Second quality,”

‘‘ Third quality,” “ Damaged,” or “ Bad,” accordmg

I to the facts in each case.

ANTHRACITE INSTITUTE LABORATORY

By Allen .T. .Tohnson, Anthracite Institute Lahoratorij

riie Antiiracite Institute maintains at Primos, Pa.,

a completely eciuijjped testing and deA'elopment laboratory. Eipiipment Avhich is submitted to the insti- tute is subjected to an extensiA’e series of tests to determine all factors Avhich Avould in any way influence

its desirability to its ultimate consumer. The.se tests are alike only iii their coiu])ieteness, as it is of course obvious that they must be ai'rauged according to the

nature of the CMpdpmeut under investigation. Thermostats are. foi' example, tested in a room surrounded

by conditioned aii- at controlled temperatures. By

means of I'ccordiug instruments, a complete record is .s(‘cured of the numbei' of o])erations of the thermostats, of their e fleet ivene.ss in maintaining constant room temperatni-es, of its lag and othei- physical details. PdoAvers and fans are tested in a standard tunnel

designed for measuring the outj)ut for all given conditions of static pre.ssure and motor s)>eed. The ar- rangement also includes the necessary instruments for

studying the O|)erations of the unit, togethei- Avith the

])OAA'er consumption of the driver motor.

The domestic stokers are subjected to a tAvo months’

investigation. Avhich usually concludes about 50 complete combustion tests under all conditions of o|)eration and Avith all types of fuel. If the results of such

te.sts indicate that they Avould be acceptable, satisfactory, and reliable for domestic use, they are listed a.s api)roA"ed, and the manufacturer is authorized to use the institute’s seal of approAuil, Avhich so certifies. An indication of the rigidness of the requirements

ma}" be gathered from the fact that approval upon

approximately 50 per cent of the devices tested are withheld until such time as deficiencies in the machine

can be corrected by redesign or further deA’eloi)nient.

HoAA'OA’er, eATiy effort is made to cooperate Avith the. manufacturer in lemoving objectionable features in

! equipment submitted before flatlA‘ refusing to ai>-

j jiroA'c the same. This, of course, in some cases results

I in ultimate appi'oval. Avhereas in others equipment is

I returned to the manufacturer Avithout public comment.

I Formal api)roval has been given bv the Anthracite

i Institute to the folloAving anthracite-coal-using ecpiipnient tested at the laboratoiy : BloAA’er system, domestic stokers Avith and Avithout ash removal, space

heaters, service Avater heaters, thermostatic ecinipment.

and A'acunm cleaners.
176 COMMERCIAL STANDARDS MONTHLY DECEMBER, 1931 STANDARDIZATION IN MATERIAL HANDLING

Lack of Standards in Manufacture of Material-Handling Equipment

By A. R. Pribil, President, Sagmaw Stamping & Tool Co.

The development of conveyors and caster equipment has been in a way parallel to the development

of onr railroads. In the early days of railroading

each line had its own standards in rolling stock, track

gages, etc. When these individual lines were brought

together into extensive systems, common standards

had to be established in order that all equipment

might be used anywhere on the sj^stem.

A similar evolution has taken place as regards con- veyor and caster equipment. In the early development of this business, individual conveyor and track

builders specified their own particular type of equipment which necessitated the production of a great

Auuiety of parts, in order to meet each individual

requirement. This not only created a very difficult manufacturing situation, but has resulted in a very

high maintenance cost to the user and in a great manj^

cases has resulted in the furnishing of inferior parts

at high prices.

Keen competition in practical!}" every line of manufacture has made imperative cost reductions that do

not sacrifice quality. This has been successfully met

by the development of a modern line of materialhandling equipment, including conveyors, caster equipment, and ti'ucks, Imt at the same time the necessity of nationally recognized standards has been fully

realized. It is generally conceded that standardization means

unified progress. Whether one is buying articles for

himself or quantities of material, he likes to feel that

he is getting good value for his money. The experience of both industry and Government purchasing

agents shows that buying according to definite standards and specifications insures quality and saves money.

Therefox'e a careful survey of the situation was

made; in fact, the matter was taken up with some of

the principal manufacturers as well as with the Bureau of Standards. The result of these etforts, however, has not been satisfactory, since each and every

manufacturer contested that his product was tlie proper specifications; therefore not much willingness

has iieen exhibited to cooperate in arriving at standard specifications.

On account of the rapid increase in the use of con- veyor and caster equiinnent, necessitated by lower

production costs, it is very evident that the adoption

of specified standards must be determined by the con- sumer or user rather than by the supplier. In other

words, the demand is concentrated upon standard

sizes, thereby promoting reduction of stocks, maintenance costs and assuring better service to everyone

concerned.

As a matter of fact no individual conveyor-equipment manufacturer nor any group of them have established by agreement any definite standardization in

this field. Such standards as do exist have resulted

from the natural selection by a majority of conveyor

[ users from the wide variety of equipment designs

ofierod. Present standards represent what has sur- vived—survived because of superior merit and greater

adaptability to existing conditions.

The economic result of any standardization is far- reaching in effect. The user pays less for his original

installation because the equipment manufacturer is able to take advantage of volume production. The

user is also able, by reason of the interchangeability

of parts in his conveyor system, to reduce his stock of

replacement units to a small fraction of that required

when a number of equipment types were used. He

pays less per unit for his replacement items and can depend on replenishing his supply on short notice.

Thus his maintenance costs as well as his original in- stallation costs are reduced, and he requires less valuable factory space for parts storage.

One of the most fertile fields in industry for the

application of improved methods in manufacturing

lies in the field of material handling, and of all classes of material-handling equipment the conveyor and the

factory truck contain the greatest possibility in reduction in production costs. The owner of a manufacturing plant, his general manager, and the men who are charged with the responsibility of economical production of manufactured products find in the study of

conveyor applications the key to greater saving and

consequently greater profits.

In approaching the question of proper materialhandling equipment, however, it is important to keep

these principles in mind and give careful consideration

to the necessity of handling, type of equipment re- quired, and the cost of handling.

In general it is safe to say that when more than one man’s entire labor is employed in handling material on trucks or moving it from one department or operation to another conveyor apparatus of some kind is necessary. However, much depends on the nature of

the operations, kind of product, the time required for

the ojxerations, etc. It is not possible to lay down

very many general rules regarding conveyor installations, as an investment which might produce the desired resxdts in one plant, might be money wasted in

another. Difi'erences in products, methods, plants,

policies, cost of manufacturing, etc., mean big differ- ences in the amount which can be invested in con- veyors of the type required, as production in the

modern plant runs on wheels.

An inclusive survey of industry shows that the

4-inch I-beam track, the open-type 2-wheel ball-bearing trolley, and the 458 chain are by a wide margin tlie mo.st common and most satisfactory equipment of this

type in use to-day. They are the standards. Reducing the size of the track under 4 inches greatly in- creases the hangers and bracing necessary to obtain

proper rigidity. Increasing the sizes of the I-beam

above 4 inches rapidly increases its weight and cost, while with the ordinary factory construction the 4-
mCCE.MUER, 1031 COMMERCIAL STANDARDS MONTHLY 177

inch track can be made adequately -strong and rigid

with a minimum amount of hangers and bracing.

Seventy per cent of all conveyors installed in the last six years carry wheels made by our coinjiany ; 3,500,000

of these units have been furnished to conveyor users

in all types of industry from coast to coast. The same comments appl}^ to industrial truck casters. Owing to the fact that each individual manufacturer

has his own dimensions as to plates, bolt holes, and

height there Avas only one course to pursue; that is, to make a listing of the principal manufacturers’

dimensions and take an average to conform to ecpiipment in most general use; also, to make them of a design and construction to meet practically ei’ery caster requirement and insure permanency of the

product by means of lubrication and rustjirooling.

Realizing the A'alue of a rustproof product in marketing, our entire caster production is noAV Parkerized.

This makes them rustproof. Parkerized casters for

all classes of service have proven most satisfactor}^ and

this, together Avitli efficient lubrication, greatl}^

increases the life of these standardized products.

A great deal of missionaiy and sales Avork has been

done on these standardized products, and statistics of

many large manufacturing plants show that by the

adoption of standard equipment great results can be

obtained in production, serAuce, and cost. As a matter

of fact a large majority of users of this equipment

liaAM adopted standardized products with most gratifying results, all of Avhich proves that Ave are correct

in our contention that specified standards must be

determined by the consumer or user.

CERTIFYING CANNED GOODS

Canned Vegetables ShoAv Quality Through Self-Identifying Labels

I’.y tA^EJLr.s A. Sherman, United Staten Deinirtmcut of Agriculture

The fruit and A’egetable division has tAVo contacts

Avith the canning and preserving industry, one of

Avhich is thi’ough the operation of the perishable agricultural commodities act in Avhicli the definition of a dealer is sufficiently broad to include all canners of

fruits and vegetables Avhose products become a part

of interstate commerce. Under the operation of this act canners are required to obtain licenses from the

Secretaiy of Agriculture, Avhich remain effective in- definite!a" upon the annual payment of $10. Canners

can avail themselves of the benefits of the act in case they purchase raAv stock from other licensees. Since canners deal largely with local groAvers avIio are not

licensed under the act they haA^e relatively fcAV opportunities to avail themselves of the rather prompt and

drastic remedies Avhich the laAV proA’ides for Auolations of contract on the part of those handling fresh

fruits and A^egetal)les in interstate commerce. A more intimate and important contact is expected

to result from tlie authority conferred upon the department to inspect and certify the grade of canned

fruits and vegetables on the request of aiy financially

interested party and upon the payment of a reasonable

fee, substantially as has been done for the .shippers

of fre.sh fruits and A’egetables since 1917.

Tlie initial appropriation is small and the grading

of canned fruits and A^egetaldes during the fiscal year

193‘i Avill be limited both as to number of products

to l)e graded and certified and as to number of points

at Avhich grading service can be had.

Provision is being made, hoAveA'cr, to i,s.sue certificates of grade on the samples submitted by the canners themselves in Avhich the department Avill not attempt to identify in any Avay the lot from Avhich

the samj)le AA^as draAvn. For such service on a sample

of one dozen cans a fee of $3 is charged. The first samples for grading Avere received almost immediately

after the elfectiA'e date of the law.

By sending frecpient samples to the neare.st point

at Avhich grading can be done the canner can keep

I himself informed from day to daj- as to the actual

grade of the foods Avhich he is producing, the recognized grades for most canned vegetables being U. S. grade A (fancy), U. S. grade B (extra standard), and

U. S. grade C (standard). If the goods fall beloAv

the minimum requirements of the standard grade,

thej' are substandard, and under the requirement of

the Mapes amendment to the food and drugs act there

must appear on the label in bold type the statement

prescrilied by the Food and and Drug Administration,

“BeloAv U. S. standard—low quality but not illegal.”

When the canned foods are in the hands of the trans- portation company, a public Avarehouse, or other dis- interested custodianship AAdiere the identity of the lot can be shoAvn on a certificate’and Avill Avith reasonable

certainty be preserved until there is a change of oAvn- ership, persons employed or licensed by the Secretary

of Agriculture for that purpose Avill sample the products and either perform the grading service or send

them to the nearest point Avhere this service can be

obtained. For this combined Avork of sanqiling and

grading the charge Avill be $5 for each carload (piantity

of 1,000 cases. Certificates of grade shoAving tliat the sanqiles Avere draAvn in accordance Avith the regulations of the Secre- taiy of Agriculture and by a disinterested party, and

that they Avere also graded by an employee of this

department Avith the result that the products Avere found to be of a certain specified grade, should be val- uable sales documents in the hands of the OAvner or broker so long as the identity of the lot to Avhicli the

certificate applies is maintained. Tlie industry uoav

suffers a con.siderable exjiense and loss tlirough the

shipment of thousands of samples to possible buyers

for cutting and imspection. It is belicA’ed tliat it Avill soon be found practical as Avell as economicial to substitute inspection certificates for the actual samples of

(lie foods.
178 COMMERCIAL STANDARDS MONTHLY DECEMBER, 1931 SAUSAGE CASINGS TO BE UNIFORM IN SIZE

Standardization Program of Industry Restoring Buying Confidence

By S. P. Wild'

In tliese times when '' standardization ” is tlie almost

mag'ic word of the day it is sometimes refreshing to remember the warning of Bernard Shaw—“ Don’t

always do to the other fellow as you ivonld have him

do to yon; Ids tastes may be different from yours.”

A certain amount of variety is, surely, the spice of

life, even '' standardized ” variety. We do not all want the same size of anything—not even sausages, for instance.

iNIuch as slieep ma_v look alike to the layman seeing

hundreds or thousands together on farm or range, we all know that they are not by any means identical.

They vary in every conceivable way, and, quite naturally, the casings derived from them vary in size, both

as to caliber and length. Variety is here the rule,

and the early sausage

maker doubtless took

the casings as they

came, wide or narroiv,

long or short, with no

thought save for the

taste of the sausage he was putting into them.

AVhen the successful

merchandising of sau- sage began to demand,

as it does to-day, standard, rather uniform

sizes for certain products, the art of select- ing. sorting, grading,

and merchandising cas- ings Avas born, and it has grown until it is tq-day a most exacting one. Constant improvement iii methods and continually

closer and closer selection and grading together with

improved methods of gaging, make it possible for the

sausage manufacturer uoav to demand, and get, natural casings in exactly any width he wants, doAvn to the

millimeter, and for other types or brands, other similarly exact sizes. 'rime was Avhen casings Avere classified into just

three rather obvious sizes—wides, mediums, and narI'OAvs. 'riie grading Avas done chiefly by eye, and

‘‘mediums,” for instance, varied from casings just too narroAA’ to be “Avides ” to others, appreciably

smaller, that the grader decided Avere too Avide to be

‘‘ narroAvs.” 'bo-day the gratling is exact, guesswork being re- placed by measurement on gages which make it possible to classify each piece Avith others of exactly the same Avidth. 'Phe number and variety of gages is considerable, ranging from those Avhich consist chiefly

of a ruled bar across AAdiich the casing is drawn while

its Avidth is read from the scale on the bar, to much

more complicated devices Avhich measure automaticall}^ both the exact Avidth and the length of the casing

as it is draAvn through.

AVhatever the method of measurement used, casings

manufacturers to-day are turning out their jiroducts

graded so closely for AvidthJJiat the casings in each

bundle are “ more alike than jieas in a pod.” And the

latest step is a move by a large group of casings firms

further to standardize their output by putting exactly

100 yards of selected sheep casings in each hank or bundle, regardless of caliber. Previously, the j'ards

per bundle depended on the caliber or width of the

casing, ranging from 80 for one size to 120 or 12.1 for

other sizes. By that system the AA^eight per bundle was

about the same, regardless of Avidth, but the buj^er had

to remember the differences in lengfh in comparing

prices.

One of the greatest improvements in casings manufacture developed in recent }'ears is the adoption of

the centrifuge in starting the cure. Using the same

principle as the cream separator and the centrifugal

drier in laundries, these

machines impregnate

the casings Avith the

curing agents, resulting

in much greater speed

of cure, less spoilage,

and a nearly perfect

uniformity. 'Phe result, of course, of the

Avide.spread adoption of

this method is, again,

better casings, more

uniform, and cheaper.

As pointed out in Resolution No. 7, passed

last August at the AVest Baden convention of

the National Association of Retail Meat Dealers, the sales Amine of casings

produced in 1930 Avas nearly $30.000,000—no small

item in itself but noteAvorthy especially because it Avas some 25 per cent loAver than in 1928. As a factor

representing millions of dollars a year, casings are an

item of importance to the farmer, in Avhose Avell-being

the entire meat industry has a vital interest. In addition to being a logical and natural container

for sausages—logical because they are there to be had,

“ manufactured ” by the same mother nature on the same American farms as the sausage meat that is to go in them—casings Inn'e the vei'y definite value of

being edible, and of retaining, in the sausage, a maximum of the real meat flavor. There is no question of

the keeping qualities of good sausage projierty stuffed

in natural casings and properly handled.

Definitely standardized as they are to-day, both for

size and quality, Avith years of research back of the

production, handling, and packing methods—research

and testing that is still going on, and that is bringing

further inq^rovements from time to time, like the cen- trifugal machine, or like the recent deAmlopment of a ueAv cleaning method of hog casings Avhich eliminates

the former fermentation period—casings meet, for

sausage meat, the need of “ standardized variety ” and

offers eA^ery one exactly the size and grade he Avants,

Avhile catering to the many different requirements of

the trade for different sizes and styles.

The National Sausage Casing Dealers Association

states that the preliminary steps taken toAvard standardization already has partially eliminated market

uncertainty and I’estored buying confidence. The

standardization program of the industry provides;

1. After September 8, 1931, all selected sheep cas- ings are to be put in hanks of 100 Awards, regardless

of caliber.

2. Starting September 8, 1931, unselected sheep

casings, knoAvn as “ cuts,” Avill be put up in hanks

not to exceed 125 yards.

3. In order to saA’e additional labor costs, present

stocks of sheep casings Avill be sold Avithout change

in present measurement for a reasonable time.

’ Butcher.? aud Backers’ Gazette, Nov. 1, 1931.
DECEMBER. 1931 COMMERCIAL STANDARDS MONTHLY 179

INTERNATIONAL SPECIFICATION FOR SIEVES CONSIDERED

Review of the Development of Sieve Specifications in the United States

P.y L. V. JuDSOxl Bureau of Standards

Sieve specifications are of particular interest to industry. Many powdered or crushed materials are

limited in their usefulness by their size as determined

hy a screening test. This subject is of particular in- terest at this time, because of the formation of an American Standards Association technical committee “ to consider this que.stion and also because of the proposal of the International Standards Association to consider the adoption of an international specification

for sieves used for testing purposes. Plans for the

organization and work of the committee are now well

under way.

In this countiy the first specification for sieves was

for Nos. 100 and 200 sieves used in cement testing.

Although these were designated in the specification as Nos. 100 and 200 siei’es, they were more commonly

i-eferred to as 100 and 200 mesh sieves. The variation

in mesh of the cloth was specified and the

nominal wire diameter,

but not the tolerance in

wire diameter. The

specification ivas indefinite in many particulars, and as a conse-

(jnence the sieving re- sults on one sieve were

not necessarily comparable with those on another sieve supposedly conforming to the same specification. The interpretation of

the specification by the Bureau of Standards was

liheral, but up to Xovember, 1911, no sieve had been

tested which passed the 190-1 specification. Somewhat

later a group of nine sjiecial sieves was made at the

re(|uest of members of the xVmerican Society of Civil

Engineers. These were made from imported cloth,

which the makers claimed as being made to conform

definitely to this specification, and yet only five were

found actuall}' to conform.

In September, 1911, a group of Government engineers met in conference, considered the residts of

measurements of sieve cloth and proposed a new specification, including Xos. 20 and 30 sand sieves in

addition to the Xos. 100 and 200 cement sieves. The next development was the adoption of a sieving

for the Xo. 200 sieves. Owners of those Xo. 200

sieves which had been certified by the Bureau of

Standards were sent .standard samples of cement and

asked to make sieving tests in accordance with instructions which accompanied the sample. Investigations were also carried out at this bureau, and as a result a sieving test was developed and incorporated in a re- vised specification for the standard Xo. 200 sieve,

which was adopted hy the Bureau of Standards,

October 1, 1911.

^ Temporary secretary, .\merican Standards A.ssociation technical committee on testing sieves. The author desires to acknowledge his u.se of a manuscript on the

subject of sieve specifications by his former assistant. Mrs. M. M.

Cardner. when preparing this article.

- Dr. L. T. Work, Columbia Universit.v, temporary chairman. Americ:in Standards Association technical committee on testing sieves.

By 1911 other industries had recognized the need

of standard sieves and the question of a suitable specification was referred to the Bureau of Standards by

the execution committee of the American Society for

Testing Materials. The subject was given a thorough

study and a conference of representatives of various

scientific and technical societies. Government bureaus,

and firms was called for April 20, 1916. The confer- ence selected as preferable a series of sieves having a ratio of \/2 : 1 between openings of successive sieves coarser than 1 millimeter, and a ratio of ‘V- • 1 between openings of successive sieves finer than 1 millimeter. The details of diameters of wires, toler- ances, etc., were left to a committee appointed to consider these subjects.

The work of this committee resulted in the so-called

“ 1916 screen scale.” The committee recommended

that the sieves be designated by their nomijial openings. The final specification was based

largely on the nominal

catalog dimensions of

sieve cloth then on the

market.

With the entrance of

this country into the war, this question of

sieve specifications was dropped until 1919. when the

subject was again given a critical study. Amendments were then made to the previous specification, and the revised specification formallv adopted

in June, 1920, as the bureau's standard, the series being designated as the U. S. Standard Sieve Series.

These amendments consisted in making the sieve oiienings an exact geometric series with the ratio :

used throughout the series regardless of existing sieves,

in revising the wire diameters to give a regnlar in- crease in the ratio of wire diameter to openinothroughout the series, in limiting the tolerances to percentage variations in the average sieve openings,

the average wire diameter and the maximum sieve

opening, and in the elimination of the word ‘‘ mesh " in the designation of the sieve. I'p to that time the

designations by ‘‘mesh” or “ Xo.” were practicallv

interchangeable, but since 1919 the sieves of the V. S. Standard Sieve Series have been designated l>y ai'bi- trary numbers which approximate to a greater oi- less degree the mesh of the cloth. Revisions in the tolerances weie made in 192-1, particularly in liberalizing the tolerance in the wire di- ameter, as it had been shown that if two sieves have

the same size openings but different wire diameters the

sieving results do not differ by measurable amounts.

The same conclusions have been reacheil more recently

bv German investigators.

The same specification has been adojited bv the

American Society for Testing Materials, but with the

recommendation that the sieve be designated by the

nominal opeiung expressed in microns.

This article traces the development of sieve specifications in this country from the first specification in

1904 to the specification now in use. It indicates the

experience which is back of the present specification,

and points out some of the problems likely to be undertaken by the committee of the American Standards

Association in preparing specifications on this subject.
180 COMMERCIAL STANDARDS MONTHLY DECEMBER, 1031

This series of sieves is both theoretical and practical. It is theoretical in that it is based on nominal

openings which progress in a ratio which is logical

and reasonable ; it is practical in that sieves are readil}^ obtainable which confoi’in to the specifications.

Nearly 5,000 sieves have been certified at this bureau

as conforming Avith this specification. The series is not restricted to one firm.

This specification has been very generally accepted

by scientific and technical societies in this country as

Avell as by laboratories and testing organizations. The

influence of this specification may be very definitely

traced in a number of sieve specifications of foreign

countries.

Not everything has been done, even in this country,

in the line of sieve standardization, and some of these

further steps Avill undoubtedly be taken by the new

committee of the American Standards Association.

Among the questions to be discussed are the standardization of the sieve frame, the best designation of

the sieves, and the preparation of a specification for

perforated metal screens.

PROGRESS OF STANDARDIZATION IN THE SOVIET UNION

Report of the Supreme Economic Council of the Soviet Union States That Standardization Must Be Completed in All Industries to Make Possible the 5-Year Plan in Four Years ^

The Supreme Economic Council of the Soviet Union

has rendered a report to the Council of Labor and Defense (S. T. O.) on standardization in industry for

1931. The report points out the importance of standardization in industry for the solution of basic production problems, defines the scope of the output by

approA-ed standards, and revieAvs the dynamics of the

3^early quantitative groAvth of standards and lists them

according to the separate branches of industry.

Standardization, the report states, must play a decisive role in raising production to a higher technical

level, in curtailing unproductive expenditures, in decreasing costs of production and, what is most important, in increasing the quality of production. Until

January 1, 1931, jthe approA'ed standards coA^ered 36

lier cent of the cost of industrial production ; about 30

]ier cent of production costs Avas covered by compulsory

standards. The number of approA^ed industrial standards on January 1, 1928, Avas 360. By October 1, 1929, this number had increased to TOO, and at the

present time has reached 1,600.

In ferrous metallurgy the cost of standardized production constitutes 72 per cent. Seventy-five standards have been promulgatefl, of Avhich 55 are coinpulsory. The approved standards for pig iron must nat- urally be subject to revi.sion in connection Avith the

huilding of great metallurgical units. Many stamps

of Martin and Besseiner lithium metal remain from

pre-revolutionary times. At present a series of projects for steel rolling mills are aAvaiting approA^al.

I'hese standards, together Avith the assortment for

rolled metals signify the complete standardization of

all the basic ferrous metals.

The number of scales of ready and rolled metals ex- ceeded 5,000, and a neAV assortment Avill mean a de- crease by 79 per cent as against pre-Avar standards.

The present construction and mechanization of agriculture require a revision of the established standards

ami the creation of neAv ones. This Avork is already

begun. Standardization of productive processes in- cludes rails, steel bands, and steel for boilers and

stamping. Standards have been projected for blast and Martin furnaces for the equipment of the metal

industry, according to which the construction of the

1 Eiialish translation of article appearing in the Apr. 15, 1931, issue

of the Bulletin of Standardization, published in Moscow.

furnaces in the reconstructed plants is being carried

on.In nonferrous metallurgy the cost of standardized

production constitutes 10.3 per cent of the total ; classi- fication of metals and allo3

"s 91.9 per cent; and tech- nical processes 18.2 per cent. Standardization of as- sortment covers the chief nonferrous, semifinished

products, and it is noAv important to establish standards of technical j^i'oce.sses for quality in mass production. By the end of 1931 the percentage of costs of

production regnlated b,v standardization of technical

processes Avill junqi from 18 to 62. In the coke indiisti'A" 20 standards have been set up,

the cost of standardized production constituting 50

per cent. The chief product (coke) has no standards

as yet. The working out of standards for chemical

apjiaratus has been started. The anthracite indiistiT has no standards; only

temporaiw technical conditions exist, subject to further studA’. A special Institute of Norms and Standards Avas created for the anthracite industry to cariu' on research in the staiulardization of this field, and,

in addition, in the planning and typification of fin- ished mineral products, typification of underground

transport, ventilation, lighting, equipment, etc. In the peat industiy there are no standards. The

standardization of peat bricks, briquettes, etc., is proceeding sloAvly, since these questions haA^e not }-et

been sufficiently iiwestigated. Work in standardization of the peat industiy has included all processes connected Avith peat.

For the purpose of mechanization the improvement

and adaptation of a .series of new machines is being

carried on at an increased speed.

In the oil industry the cost of standardized production constitutes 50 per cent of gasoline products, illu- minating and lubricating oils, fuel for boilers, and

other products. In addition, standards have been

established for tests for fuel oils and oil irroducts,

and instructions have beeji issued for testing oil Xii'oducts. Standards are being Avorked on for oil products and paraffin. As regards oil equipment,

until noAV only standards for pipe lines have been

established. Extensive Avork Avill be done in this field during the year. Work in the standardization of the poAver indu.sti'A' has not been put on an organized basis.
riECEMBER, 1931 COMMERCIAL, STAIIDARDS MONTHLY 181

In mineral ores—in the field of' mineral raw materials—only one standard has been established, for

kaolin; 47.8 per cent of the cost of production of salt

is standardized. Only separate measures have been

undertaken to standardize equipment for geological

exploration. Standardization of heavy and medium

machine construction, of lathes and e(|uipment, lags

shaiqily behind the growth of the machine and construction industry. There are no standards for heavy

machine construction; work is only just begun on this. In medium machine construction standardization is concerned exclusively with the parts of general machine construction and instruments, and partly with

textile machine construction. An extensive plan of

develoiiment in this branch was laid out for 1931.

The inconsiderable work in the standardization of

locomotive and rolling stock construction is also mainly concerned with individual parts of general

machine construction.

In Diesel construction they are working on questions

of typification and coordination in the factories.

There must be first of all a single name for parts in

locomotive, rolling stock, and Diesel construction.

Eight standards were set up for lathe construction

(covering 44 per cent of production), dealing chiefly

with standarclization of parts duplicated in the construction of lathes, and, furthermore, mass production

is envisaged for all these pai’ts on the principle of

their interchangeability. Stamlardization of instruments covers 17 per cent of the cost of production;

these include drills and arm files: that is, instruments

of very wide usage produced in huge quantities.

Standardization of agricultural machine construction was incorrectly arranged from both a political

and a practical point of view, concerning itself only

with the parts of agricultural machines and implements for horse-drawn machinery (19 standards) and

completely ignoring tractor-drawn machinery. With

regard to the wagon indirstry standards were established for the width of the wheel tracks, the diameter

of the wheels, and one and two horse wagons. Work

has only now started in the autotractor industry : till the present there were no special standards, and in

the factories general standards of machine construction were used.

About 500 standards in shipbuilding have been and

are now being ratified; a large part of them refer to

materials, semifinished products, and separate parts.

Standardization of power eipiipment for ships, t 5qii- tication of ships, and special equipment ai'e not in- cluded.

iSIore than 50 standards have been introduced in

the electrical industry, touching, however, onl}^ 20 per

cent of the products—incandescent bulbs, conduits and

cables, insulating material, electilc motors, telegraphic

appurtenances, and telephone and radio apjiaratus.

Standardization in structural wood building, not- withstanding the existence of the Institute of Norms

and Standards, is extraordinarily backward in meeting the demands of this industry. Only an insigidti- cant number of standards have been put into final form. Standards of quality exist for almost all the

old building materials, but not as yet for the new,

which are very important in construction. Twentyeight standards have been approved in the lumber and

woodworking industry for lumber materials, covering

40 per cent of production. Thei’e are no .standards for

furniture and export materials.

Standardized xiroducts in the papier industry—rags, for the manufacture of jiaxjer, for x>i'inting xDajier,

news^irint, writing xiajier, etc.—reach 38 per cent of

the cost of iH’oduction.

In the chemical industry the cost of standardized

(iroduction constitutes 44 ^ler cent. Work on the

standardization of chemical aiixiaratus has just been

started. Of 140 jn-oducts in the basic chemical industries, standards were ajiproved for only 44 of them,

including fertilizer, means of combating x^ests, and

basic chemical xii’oducts. The varnish and x>aint in- dustries have standards for colors in dry and pulverized form but none for varnish and enamel. Of 208

Xiroducts for aniline x^aints, only 37 are standardized

in organic dyes.

For artihcial libers only temx)orary standards have

been worked out for a variety of }uu'ns and artihcial

silk, and work has begun for the develox)ment of

standards for basic raAV materials and chemicals.

Twenty-eight standards have been axix^i'oved for re- agents, making the imxiort of foreign reagents sux>cr- fluous. Seventeen x^er cent of the wood-chemical

industry is standanlized. Standards in the rubber

industry—inner tubes, hose and insulating

materials, sanitary and hygienic x^i'oducts—cover 3(5 Xier cent of the cost of XH'oduction.

The cost of standardized pi’oduction constitutes 45

per cent in the light industiy. In the CO xier cent standardized fat industry, standards have been established for soaxi, glycerine, and candles. The match

industry is standardized. In the glass and x^orcelain

industry there is 73 x>er cent standardization in the

Xiroduction of x)l!iiN window glass, bottles, druggists'

ax^x^aratus. and household utensils. Standards exi.st for 36 x)er cent of the textile in- dustiy in all materials in wide use; the raAV material

has been standardized—cotton, avooI, and bast fibers. In textile machine construction standardization has

covered the selection of the t}’pe of machines, and

their basic dimensions and details. The leather in- dustiy has standards for hides, shoes, harnesses, etc.; the v'st of standardized x>i’oduction constitutes 71

Xier cent (More than 130 standards have been established in the clothing industry, chiefly in Avork clothing and uniforms, coA’ering 40 x^er cent of the cost of XN’oduction. There are no standards as yet in

the xdioto-cinema and oxitical industries.

On the Avhole, it should be .stated that, notwithstanding certain achieA’ements, standardization in in- dustry is much behind our tempo; the standai'dization

Xilan of the Siqireme Economic Council Avas only 20

Xier cent fulfilled. Underestimation of standardization as one of the most imx>ortant technical-economic

factors. bA' the leaders of industry. Avas the cause of

this. Xo attention Avas paid in the AA’orking out and establishment of standards, either to the (juestion of se- (pience nor to cinestions of technical-economic effectiveness. Consecjiienlly. many of the objects standardized

Avere of secondary importance; due attention Avas not

giA'cn to the leading branches of industry. In oi'der to broaden and hasten the Avork of standardization

the Siqireme Economic C'ouncil of the F. S. S. K. transferred all the numerous committees on standardization, and (he individual Avorkers to the bi-anch

trusts for the ci-eation of regular, ollicial standardization agency in the organs of rationalization.
182 COMMERCIAL STAJTDAEDS MONTHLY DECEMBER, 1931

Tlit'i'e ai'o iit pi’eseiit about 350 persons in the Sn-

])reine Eeonoinie Council engaged m standardization

work. However, reorganization of this work has not

given satisfactoiy results, chiefl}^ because in the over- whelming majority of branch trusts and the republics' economic councils tlvere is no clearlj^ foi-mnlated

l)iirean of standardization, and there is no system of

standardization units in tlie largest factories and

shops.

The liuge tasks of reconstructing indnstry demand

the development of standardization. This must be one

of the mo.st imi)ortant factors in rationalizing iiulus- try and fulfilling the 5-year plan in four years. The

]dan of standai-dization in industry for 1931 foresees the establishment of more than 3,000 standards

covering the cost of production by 31 per cent. By

1932 the cost of production covered by obligatory

standards will be about 45 per cent. The fulfillment

of this tremendous task requires an intensive tempo

and mass work on standardization.

The realization of standardization in the shortest

possible time in all branches of industry, and first of

all in the leading ones, is a responsible political problem. The solution of this problem depends on how

(prickly the intensive work in industrial standardization is fulfilled by the directing and planning organs

of industry and by all workers and engineering and

technical personnel.

STANDARDIZATION OF LANGUAGE

Standardization of the Language of the L^nited States and Canada During the Past Three Centuries One

of the Astounding Phenomena of History

lyv Tiioma.s a. Knott ^

Language, consisting of words of various functions,

usually interconnected and arranged in a purposive

order in sentences, and uttered with an intonation

that directs them to tlieir purpose, has apparently,

from the most primitive .stage of human society, been

a highly conventionalized instrument for the conveying of emotions, thoughts, infornration, commands,

and (piestions. Its very function has required conventionalization, for the conveying of a thought or a commaird from one consciousness to another demands

that the word or sentence should possess the same (or

nearly the same) meaning for the hearer that was

intended by the speaker.

There is, however, an almost incredible distance

between tire meiely conventionalized speech of a tiny,

i.solated, illiterate clan of hunters or nomads or crop

raisers, and .such a standardized international lan- guage as Latin or Arabic in their day, or English or Spanish to-day. This distance has been bridged by

certain steps that ma}^ be outlined (not always in a strictly clironohjgical order) as follows: (i) The

growth of moral conduct, resulting in security for life and properf}-; (2) the development of indnstry, busine.ss, and commerce; (3) the creation and distribution

of wealtli; (4) tlie more general attainment of lei- sure; (5) the spread of education, residting in the

social freeing of potentially brilliant leaders; (6) the

development of literature and the arts; (7) the study

and application of science; and (8) the development

of commnnications, especially the development or cre- ation of the road, the ship, the railway, the printing

])ress, tlie telegraph, and the radio. Most of these

steps, however, are merely prerequisites. The really

essential factors are education, literature, the printing

press, and easy transportation.

Eas3

" transportation, with the resultant constant moving about and general intermixture of nearly the

whole population, is the basic reason for the general

uniformity of pronunciation throughout the United

States and Canada, .so that it has even been said (in

spite of some slight peculiarities in the Northeast and

Southeast) that there are no-dialects in this country.

During the period Avhen our population has been growing from 3 million to 120 million—a century and a half—there has been hardly a child who grew up without changing many or most of his jila^unates, either

through moving, himself, into a new neighborhood or State (often more than once), or through the moving

of his friends. Since most individuals form their pro- nunciation habits before theA" are 15 v'ears of age, through imitation of their associatcAS, this generalization of personal contact has caused a great leveling

out of local speech peculiarities.

Another factor of the greatest importance has been

the public school with its accompan^ung agents of

instruction—the teacher and the textbook. It is impossible to overestimate the influence of such books as McGuffie's readers on the common rmcalndaries and

ideas of the pupils, or of Noah Webster’s blue-backed

spelling book on their sjielling, or of the school dictionary on their understanding of meanings and on their

common pronunciation during the formative period of our national life. A third contributing factor has l)een the lorv-priced

neAvspaper and magazine, both of them for the most

part using language of a high ty-pe and dispensing

fioods of information of great value in increasing oui- common stock of words and information. As a result chiefly of the influence of these factors, the standardization of the language of the United States and Canada during the last three centuries has been one of the

most astounding phenomena in all the history of

language.

One hundred and thirty’ millio]i descendants of

Britons, Irish, Erench, Dutch, Germans, Spanish,

Scandinavdans, Kussians, Italians, Poles, Finns, Lithuanians, Greeks, Syrians, and American Indians are

to-day^ reading, and to a reasonable extent speaking

and writing, the language of Thackeray, Dickens, and

Hawthorne. Contrast this with Avhat happened

Avithin a feAv centuries (possibly^ oi^ly five) to the

A’arious branches of the Indo-European speech when

it was carried by migrating little tribes, of a feAV thousand persons each, from eastern Europe to India,

1 General editor. Tiie Merriam AA’ebster Dictionaries. Greece, Italy, and Scandinavia, to become such mu-
nECEMUEK, 1931 COMMERCIAL STANDARDS MONTHLA;

(ually iniiriteIli”-iblo languages as- Sanskrit, Greek,

Latin, and Gothic, d’lie explanation is obvious. The

groups of Indo-European migrants lived isolated

fj-oin one another and without the conservative in- fluence of a written (or printed) literature.

So mncli for the language as unconsciously ac-

(jiiired. But when it comes to the realms entered in

tlie higher schools and the professions, the situation

is strikingly different. Here we meet subjects and

sciences like mathematics, chemistry, p.sychology and

botany, more than a score of them, each one with

a highly conventionalized or deliberately standardized

vocabulary of its own. achieved as a result of centuries or (lecades of careful, exact thinking and efforts

at tlie most precise expression. The younger and less i'xplored the field of a science, it is true, tlie more

likely its terms are to cbange their meanings. Sine,

hydrogen, obovate however, ai e settled, whatever may

result from our latest explorations into parallel lines,

atoms, behavior, or cells. Noi' can too much credit for standardization on a high level be given to the deliberate, conscious labors

of the continuous .stream of iirofe.ssional writers, from

Chaucer to the latest bud of a novelist. From generation to generation they have learned the methods

and achievements of tbeii' jiredecessors, and each generation has added its contribution to the style and

technique of both poetry and prose. The effect of

their work is cumulative. We still read Shakespeare,

the King fFames Bilile, Addison, Swift, and Fielding,

and model onr language on theirs in both speaking

and writing. This is one result of the miracle of the

printing jnvss, with its low-priced product. Five

hundred years ago. in the day of the hand-written

manuscript , a 300-[)age book cost the equivalent

of $750.

'J'o-day, in the industries and sciences, especially

in some, where the terminology lias been especially

(haotic, we are witnessing a new kind of deliberate

effoil to secure standardization. Paint, textile, and

18d

dye manufacturers are groping theii- way toward

agreement on the meanings of names of colors, al- though not officially. The Analomical Society has

adopted nearly 5,000 terms (all in Latin), covering

practically every term used in human anatomy. The

International Botanical Congress has adopted an

International Code of Botanical Xomeiiclature (devoted to scientihc names only). The Xational (American) Advisory Committee for Aeronautics has

adopted nearl_v 500 official terms and definitions, ddie

International Kesearch Council and the National

Academy of Sciences have published the International

Critical Tables for Numerical Data, Physics, Chemistry, and Technology. The Society of American Foresters has published Forest Terminology, with more

than 1,800 definitions. And committees on nomenclature are active in many other associations.

What has been said above, however, about the

changing meaning of such terms as ” atom ” and

‘‘cell” should warn us against too much conhdencc

in the possibilities of achieving absolute or permanent

standardization. Highly' valuable as most of the Avork

of standardizing terms has been and Avill be, Ave must

rememl)er that our scientific vocabulary can be hxed

Avith conqAlete finality only Avhen our sciences no

longer hav^e anything in their fields to be investigated

or discoA^ered.

The same observation may be made on all the other

])hases of our practical and intellectual life. The

meanings of many Avords, such as “ matter ” and

“ heat,” Avere thorougldy understood 25 years ago, and

to-day noliod}- understands them. When some of us

Avere boys, there Avere no airplanes; there Avere oidy

Darius Green and his flying machine. There Averc no

radios or automobiles or garages. Xot long since the

author oA'crheard a 10-3^ear-old boAy in an old-fashioned NeAv England village, especially preserA^ed near

Springfield, Mass., say to his father. “What is a blacksmith shop for?”

Our civilization and our language aie changing.

A. S. T. M. COMMITTEE ACTS ON RUBBER

INSULATION STANDARDS

Several impoi'tant actions affecting standard si)eci- fications Avere taken at a meeting of the American

Society for Testing INIatcrials committee on rubber

products, held on NoA’ember 5, 1931. NeAV performance s[)ecifications for rubber-insulated Avire Avere pre- sented to the committee b_v the subcommittee oii insulated AA'ire and cable. At present the A. S. T. M. has

in foi'ce specifications covering tAvo classes of insulation compounds. One of these, termed the tyi)e-A

compound, does not contain organic accelerators nor

antioxidants. In the othei', called the tjqie-AO compound, use of accelerators and antioxidants is ])er- inifted. Both of the.«e specifications arc of the “ materials ” type. In the neAV specifications no lequirements arc in- cluded as to composition of the rubber compound, the

(juality of Avhich is evaluated .solely on tlie basis of

test results. This insulation is designated as the per- formance-tyjie compound. The committee voted to

accejit the ncAV specifications and to recommend their

adoption by the A. S. T. IVI. as an ajiiiendix to the

present tentative specifications for insulated Avire and

cable. It is felt that ly such action the A. S. T. 1\I.

Avill be taking an important step foiward in the prejiaration of satisfactoiy rubber-pi-oduct specifications.

Ncav specifications for friction tajie AA'ere presented

to the committee meeting by the subcommittee on insulating tapes. In these specifications the requirements

are dehnitel}^ made more strict, and im})ortant changes

are giA’en in the methods of test, Avhich are presented

in considerably greater detail. The present Aveight

reipiirements are remoA’ed and minimum A’ardage per

roll is specified. The committee A'oted to accept these

specifications and to recommend that the A. S. T. INI. AvithdraAv the present standard specifications for fric- tion tape for general use for electrical purposes, adojiting the neAV specifications as tentative standards. Bevisions Avere also offered in the tentative specifications

for rubber in.sulating tape, Avhich the committee Avill recommend for adoption by the A. S. T. M.

The meeting gave considerable attention to plans for

making its service more valuable to industiy. An

open discussion emphasized the opinion that in the

])i'esent state of the industrv le.ss attention should be

given to the iirejiaration of detailed material specilications for rubbei- products and that the committee

should activel}' devote its efforts to standardization

of te.st methoils and deA'elopment of performance sjieci- fications. 'J'bis ])olic_A’ aa;is recorded b_v a formal vot('.
184 COMMERCIAL, STANDARDS MONTHLY DECEMBER, I'JSl LEGAL ASPECTS OF STANDARDIZATION

Legal Issues Involved in Buying and Selling Under Statutory Standards Reviewed

By Jacob P. Aronson ^

The efforts of private associations and governinental

bureaus to further the recognition of standardization

and grading as minimizing, if not solving, some of onr most troublesome marketing and buying problems,

have been aided in recent years by a large body of

State and Federal legislation^

Thus far, whether because of the dominant role of

the farmer in American Government, or the comparative simplicity of standardization in the field of basic raw materials, or the need of a definite basis for largescale trading, statutory grading provisions have been

largely, though not exclusively, confined to grain, cot- ton, fruits, and vegetables. The statutes generally

either adopt the grades established by the United

States Department of Agriculture pursuant to Federal statutes, or themselves fix the grades, or delegate

that power to an appropriate State agency. Provision

is made in most statutes for the issuance of official labels for u.se only on graded goods.

The size of containers is often set out in great detail. Insiiection service, either under the auspices of

the State alone, or in cooperation with the Federal authorities, is generally provided. The inspectors are usually required to issue certificates setting forth the

grade and condition of the commodity inspected, as well as other information. These certificates are given weight as evidence in all States. The value of these statutes becomes apparent Avhen we realize that to an increasing extent contracts for

the sale of goods are being made long before delii^ery

is required, and by parties separated by great dis- tances. Transactions entered on the basis of description only, without ei^en a sample of the article contracted for being shown to the buyer, flourish. Obviously some assurance is required on the one hand

that the goods. Avhen shijiped, will conform ; on the

other, that if they do they Avill lie accepted. "While

private cooperative efforts to fix grades and otherwise

to solve this difficidty have been and are of great

value, they do not jiossess the authority of statutory

provisions, and their restriction to small areas greatly

lessens their efficacy in a state-wide or nation-Avide

market.

When buyer and seller, availing themselA’es of the

facilities jirovided by one of these grading statutes (which for the most part are merely permissiA’e ) , haA’e specifically agreed upon GoA’ernment inspection (just as where a provision is made for inspection by a priA^ate party) the certificate issued by the chosen inspec- tor must shoAv that the goods conformed to the contract. When this appears, a buyer refusing to accept

the goods is liable to the seller for the contract price or damages.

The only defense available to the buyer (on the question of conformity of the goods) is fraud, in Avhich the

^ Legislation editor, Columbia Law Review, Columbia University.

2 The statutes are collected and discussed at length in Statutory Commodity Standards (1931), Columbia Law Review, p. 872.

seller is usually required to have participated. If the

certificate shoAvs on its face a noncompliance Avith the

contract, the bu3"er is entitled to reject it. That the

goods do in fact conform, and that the certificate is a mistake, is no ansAver. HoweA’er, Avhere no specific

provision for GoA^ernment inspection is made in the

contract, but the seller tenders an official certificate Avhich states that goods conform, the buyer is entitled

to produce evidence to the contrary. It is interesting

to note that the fact that the certificate has been issued

under the auspices of another State has been held not

to lessen its Aveight, and that seA-eral of the State stat- utes expressly give the same validitA' to Federal certificates that theA’ do to their oAvn. The general consensus of opinion is that these grading statutes are establishing a broad basis for intelli- gent dealing. Avith misunderstandings about grades,

unjustifiable rejection in a declining market, and the

shipment of nonconforming goods Avhen the market is climbing, all reduced to a minimum.

There is, in addition, a body of compulsory standardization statutes in most States, which are designed to protect the purchasers of fertilizers, stock feed, seeds _ and certain other articles, the quality of Avhich it is peculiarly difficult for the huA^er to discoA^er by his OAvn ' examination. Submission of samples for chemical

analysis b^A" the State is made mandatory, Avith strin- gent proA’isions as to the information to be diAudged b}"

the label. Some statutes provide in addition, for the

grading of fertilizer and feed. These enactments, Avhich are similar to the pure

' food laws of the United States and the several States,

give rise to legal problems different from those dis- cussed above. As violations of the statutes are made

penal offenses, under ordinary principles of contract / laAV, contracts calling for a performance not in compliance Avith the statutoiy requirements are Amid.

This is true eAmn though the statute does not specifically so provide. Consequently, neither party can sue upon an agi’eement containing a clause which pre- cludes conformit}^ to a mandatory grading, inspection, • or labeling statute, and a AvaiAmr of such conformity

is nugatoiy. And it is settled laAV that a seller Avhof

has not complied Avith the statutoiw requirements can

not sue on the contract. Where the contract is stilF

unperformed, the bujmr is priAuleged to abrogate it or

to reject performance Avhen tendered by the seller. It is obvious that the seller’s obligation as to the

goods and the buA'er’s remedies for bieach thereof are materially affected by the labeling and analysis stat- utes. Under the uniform sales act, there is an implied

Avarrant}^ that the goods are fit for the particular purpose for Avhich theA’ are bought, Avhere (1) that purpose is disclosed to the seller ancl (2) his skill is relied on by the biiAmr in making the purchase.

There is a conflict in the cases as to whether the

statutoiy requirement that the ingredients be set forth;

)

J
DECEMBEU, 1931 COMMERCIAL STANDARDS MONTHLY 185

on the label imposes an additional obligation on the

seller, or whether that provision merely supplants the

warranty of fitness for a particular purpose imposed

by the uniform sales act.

Another view which has received some support is that the buver’s remedy where the seller has not complied with the statute is different and apart from that

ordinaril}^ given for a breach of warranty.

MILITARY COMMUNICATION SYSTEM EMBODIES STANDARDIZATION

Standardization of Army Personnel, as Well as Equipment, Highly Desirable

By CiiRt. Fred G. Borden, Si(jiial Corps, Cnilcd fitatcs Army

Probably in no form of human activity is standardization more essential than in military organizations.

Wars usually occur suddeidy and witliout warning.

After war is declared there is no o])portunity to arrive at logical decisions as to training, equipment, and

similar matters. These must be decided in times of

peace when time is not so idtal and when opportunities

permit.

The Signal Corps is charged with the purchase,

storage, and issue of all items of signal equipment

for the Army which are of a commercial type, and

is also charged with the development, purchase, and

issue of noncommercial types of communication equipment not only for its own use but for the use of all other arms ami services. Perhaps an example of the

methods followed in })erfecting a new t}'pe of communication equipment might be of interest to readers of

CoyiMEKCiAL Standards iSIoNTHLy:.

We will assume that it becomes apparent that a

)n()tor vehicle capable of laying and recovering field wire has become necessary. This vehicle will be used

not onlj" by the Signal Corps, but b}^ the Infantry,

Field Artillery, Cavalry, Coast Artillery, and perhaps

other arms. A study is made in the office of the Chief

Signal Officer to determine the necessary characteristics of a vehicle which will most nearl}' fulfill all of

the requirements of the various using arms. A tentative set of military characteristics is compiled and

c()])ies forwarded to the chiefs of the using arms for

their comments and recommendations.

The chiefs of the arms usually submit this tentative

list of military characteristics to their respective service boards, composed of officers of long experience,

and the duty of each board is to examine the characteristics of the vehicle from the standpoint of its use by their pax'ticular arms and to forward the

board’s recommendation to its chief of arms, who

furnishes a copy to the Chief Signal Officer. After all of these recommendations have been re- ceived they are coordinated, and the military characteristics of the vehicles are reviewed to include

such changes as seem practicable and necessaiy.

Vehicles of the revised type are then obtained and

sent to the various msing arms to permit extended

service tests in the field. The I'esults of these service

tests are included in re])orts which reach the Chief

Signal Officer through the chiefs of the respective arms together with their recommendations.

Very possibly some minor changes are recom- mended, and these are again cooi'dinated by the ,Chief

Signal Officer and additional vehicles obtained, including as far as practicable, the recommended changes.

Frequently these are again given a thorough field test to insure that they will reasonably fulfill the military

requirements. Detailed specifications are then pre-

]iared and submitted to the War Department for final approval and for the adoption of the vehicles as a standard type. The vehicles are then purchased in

quantity, within limits of funds available, and issued

to the using arms. While the procedure described

might be considered as requiring too many steps, yet

the necessity for providing an article which we may

be confident will perform its necessary function during the various phases of combat Avill not permit of

any considerable curtailment.

Standardization is essential not only to insure the

suitability of the particular piece of apparatus but

from other standpoints as well. For example, wire

communication in combat units is usually furnished by means of twisted-pair insulated Avire laid on the

ground, since this is the only tyqie of construction that

time Avill permit. Wire used for this purpose must

haA’o certain characteristics Avhich are not necessary for

Avire used for commercial purposes.

For example, the Avire must lie fiat on the ground to permit foot troops and vehicles to pass over it easily.

Furthermore, the Avire mn.st liaA'e sufficient tensile

strength to permit its being laid from a rapidly moA^-

ing animal-draAvn or motor vehicle Avithout the probability of its breaking under a sudden .strain. In order

to fulfill the.se x'equirements, the conductors must be

composed of .strands of fine Avire of a special type of

steel. A study Avhich has been made indicates that

there are not enough stranding machines in the entire

country to furnish the amount necessary for our needs

in the case of an emergency. Under these circum-

.stances another tyjxe of Avire Avhich is used commercially

and Avhich can be readily obtained must be adopted as

a substitute standard in spite of the fact that it does

not entirely fulfill the above requirements. This commercial Avire is used to supplement the supjily of

standard Avix'e. Thei'e ax'e tAvo entix'ely different nxethods A\hich

might be folloAved in developing a .standax’d type of

communication exjuipment ; the first is to base the

•standai'd on jxei'fox-mance s])ccifications ; the second, by

<lefinit(‘ly designating the exact size, Aveight, and other

characteri>tics of each individual part, on detailed

con.sti uction specifications.

As an illustration let us consider a radio set. By

conxplefely designating (he size and Aveight of the set,

its i-e(|uired range, the fre<|uency on Avhich it Avill operate. the tyi)e of signals Avhich it Avill emit, etc., it is pos.^ible to obtain, under ])erfoi’mance specifications,
18G COMMERCIAL. STANDARDS MONTHLY DECEMBER,

sets ivith identical performance characteristics. Such

sets can communicate with each other and to this extent might be considered as standard. In practice, however, the results are unsatisfactory, since by law the

Signal Corps is oldiged to buy equipment from the

lowest responsible bidder.

Performance specifications might he satisfactory if ordy one order were ever contemplated, for in that

case all sets would be identical in all component parts.

Should, however, an additional quantity of a similar

equipment later become necessary, it might be found

that a different concern is the lowest bidder, and therefore receives the contract. His product would meet

all performance requirements, but the component parts

Avould not be interchangeable Avith the components of

the sets originall}" purchased. A single set of instructions for the operation and maintenance of the tAVO

difl'erently constructed sets Avoidd be impracticable

and the time reciuired to train personnel for such

operation and maintenance Avould be greatly increased.

On the other hand, provided complete detailed construction specifications, including draAvings of each

component part, are furnished to bidders, the product

of one factory Avill he identical Avith that of another,

and any component part of any set may be substituted

for a defective part of an}’ other set of the same type.

.Vlso the problem of training is greatly simplified.

The preparation of detailed construction specifications for such a complicated piece of apparatus as a transmitting and receiving radio set requires many

Aveeks or even months of effort by highly qaulified technical experts and the time required to complete the

development of such a set is necessarily considerably

increased, but by this latter method only can the Signal Corps be assured that its communication equipment for Aval’ Avill lie standard in every sense of the

Avord. During peace time the Signal Corps is responsible

for the operation of post telephone systems, radio sta- tions in the Army, and corps nets and similar peacetime activities. As regards Avire communication the

policy is to folloAv the best commercial practices.

These practices are standard throughout the United

States and have been eAmlved after many years of

research and actual functioning. Standards as adopted for use in connection AA’ith the installation

and maintenance of peace-time radio sets have been

Avorked out partly by folloAving the latest commercial

deA’elopments and partly by experience gained liy tbe

Signal Corps in the actual operation of extensiA’e

radio nets. The above discussion refers to material only, but

in the Army it is necessary that standardization be

effected for personnel as Avell. The large number of

men involved, the necessity for immediate action, and

the requirement that a military organization act as a unit necessitates standardization of the men Avho compose the organization. This is usually termed dis- cipline,” but since the object of discipline is largely

to insure that different men Avill react to similar orders

in a similar manner the effect is .standardization pure

and simple.

From a communication standpoint radio operators

are standardized as regards speed and the use of cer- tain specified code signals. Telephone operators are taught a standard method of operation for the various

switchboards. It is undoubtedly true that standardization of personnel is more nearly universal throughout a military organization than in any civilian

activity.

WAXED TISSUE PAPER

Having received tlie required degree of support

from the industry, the simplified practice recommendation for Avaxed tissue paper (S. P. R. No. RI25-31)

has been promulgated by the Bureau of Standards as one of the series of 2)rograms deA^elojDed by industry,

and Avill be considered eff'ectiA’e as of NoA’ember 1, 1931. Waxed ^laiier covered by this recommendation is 2ia2)er treated Avith i^ticaffin Avax in order to fill the

2ioi'es of the ^laper to make it resistant to moisture

and to odors. Its jirincipal use is to iirotect food

jiroducts from dust and A’ermin. The familiar bread

Avrajiper is a tyjiical examjile. The estimated total value of the annual 2^1’oduction of Avaxed jiajier is $25,000,000. The volume exceeds 250,000,000 iiounds

[Aer annum.

Idle }Drogram Avill establish unifoi'iu qualities of raAV stock for this material and will eliminate many unnecessary sizes of sheets and lengths of household

rolls. Of s^iecial interest is the recommended elimination

of the 400-sheet ream, Avhich has been in use in at

least one section of the country. The elimination of

inferior quality insure a better

])roduct to the consumer. Concentration on the

reduced number of sizes Avill be of assistance to the

manufacturer in im^Aroving his j^roduct-s and rendering better service to the distributors and users.

FOUNDRY PATTERNS OF WOOD

Much interest Avas shown by the makers of foundry

jAatterns in a recent surA’ey on Commercial Standard

CS19-30, Foundry Patterns of Wood. This standard

sjAecifies definite colors for jAainting various lAarts of

foundry jAatterns to assist the molder in x^rsp^i’big correct molds and avoiding errors in castings.

RejAlies AA’ere received from 393 makers, Avhich indi- cate that 65 [Aer cent (unweighted) of the lAattern jAroduction re|Aorted Avas marked in accordance with

the commercial standard. Benefits from the establishment of this commercial standard Avere re^Aorted

by 259 firms.

A number of suggestions for changes and additions

in the standard were receiA’ed, and Avere included in

a rejAort to the standing committee, Avhich consists

of interested makers and users of foundry [Aatterns.

and Avhose duty it is to consider suggestions for reA’ision. The recommendation of this committee Avas that the standard be reaffirmed for another year, Avith- out change, and that certain of the suggestions he

considered for inclusion in a revision to he undertaken

at a later date. It was felt that conditions do not

Avarrant undertaking a revision at this time.

As recommended by the committee, notice of the re- affirmation has been circulated to all interested makers

and iLsers of foundry patterns, together Avith a sum- mary of the results of the survey.
DECEMBER, 1931 COMMERCIAL STAS-DAEDS MONTHLY 187

TELEGRAPH-COMMUNICATION SERVICE

Standardization of Equipment Has Served the Telegraph Business With Excellent Results

By C. E. Daviks '

In telegraph-coinniuuication service standardization

of equipment and operating practices has come because

of constant effort to improve accuracy and increase

speed. Reduction of expense has, of course, followed

as a natural consecjuence.

Within the past few years the average time required

to handle telegrams has been greatly reduced. This

has been accomplished by decreasing the standard time

limits established for each operation and by intense

supervision of thoroughly trained employees, who

work with greatly improved apparatus. Improved

standard forms of transmission and routines for

handling corrections have also been responsible for

faster sjieed of service.

Inspection of several modern telegraph offices ivould

impress an observer with the fact that the apparatus

ami general arrangement in all offices is essentially

uniform, and that the employees all follow the same

general jirocedure in the performance of their respective tasks. This is the result of painstaking re.search

to discover and aii])ly the simplest, most efficient methods of handling telegrams, and to provide equipment

and office layouts that eliminate as many unnecessary

operations as possible.

One of the major factors in improving the sjieed

of service has been the rapid development and standardization of the printing telegraph. Replacing the

IMorse method of telegraphy, it has not only increased

transmission speeds, but has considerabh’ reduced the

uncertain human factor that is inherent in Morse

operation. This change has, moreover, done much to place the business on a basis where speed is subject

to engineering development, and has made it possible

to look with confidence to still further improvements,

which will permit the maximum speed attainable by

the highest type of operators to be utilized. It is jiossible to determine the maximum speed

attainable by operators at any given time, and while

the standard thus set will undoubtedly improve as time goes on, the rate of increase will be sloAver and

slower as perfection is approached. HoweA'er, standards of equipment and operating practices which now

exist or will be developed in the near future, will take

care of the probable increase in operating efficiency for years to come. This state of affairs, Avhich has

existed only in recent years, has resulted from engineei’ing research, which has met the economic need

for apparatus and circuits that work at higher speeds

than were even dreamed of a few years ago. Standards that Avere entirely satisfactory then are no longer

sufficient to meet to-day's requirements, and the}’ Iuia’c passed into disuse, as neAv standards have been developed. The present goal in apparatus and line

' Oener.al commercial engiiu-cr. AA'estern Union Telegraph Co.

.speeds is the removal of all mechanical and electrical

limitations to operators’ productivity. DeA’elopment

of the ultimate in operating per.sonnel is noAv going

forAvard under increased effort as it becomes apparent

that the maximum of efficiency is a definitely mea.surable quantity.

Another major factor in the advance of telegraphic

communication has been the standardization of the

printing telegraph as a means of speeding up the

pick-up and deliA’ery of messages to lai'ge users at terminal cities. Sup])lementiiig messenger handling,

it has. in many cases, provided a means of exchanging messages between customer and telegraph comliany much more quickly than Avould be jiossible in any other Avay. This deA'elopment necessitated standardization of equipment, both in customers' offices and

in the telegraph company’s operating rooms. In the

latter, concentration units, specially designed for the

Avork, haA'e, by means of signal lights that flash the

instant a call is receiA^ed, facilitated the prompt

ansAvering of patrons Avho Avish to .send telegrams.

Oj)erators are able to connect their machines to anj'

of a large number of circuits Avithout moving from

their jiositions. The number of idle operators is indicated by lights, thus permitting better assignment of

forces and loAvering costs. Intraoffice belt conveyors and pneumatic-tube carrier systems operating at almost double their former

speeds liaA^e adopted as the standard methods of moving messages from circuits on Avhich they are receiA'ed to those on Avhich they are sent. High-speed tubes

are also standard for u.se to near-by branch telegraph

offices Avhere conditions are such as to permit their

installation.

Dissemination of market quotations over ticker cir- cuits has been speeded up by the deA’elo[>ment and

standardization of high-speed tickers that operate at 500 letters a minute as conqiared to a maximum of ilOO letters a minute on older types of equi[)inent. The

neAv speed greatl}^ reduces delays to market ipiotations during periods of intense trading activity at the XeAV York Stock Exchange.

There are, of course, hundreds of minor Avays in

Avhich standardization has served the telegraph busi- ness Avith excellent results. Standards of illumination that increase efficiency, standard-unit SAvitchboards, luuA’ersal repeaters, tables, signs, blanks, etc., are a feAv of the man}' examples that might be mentioned. Naturally, rapid advances in the telegrajih

business haA'e, up to noAV, caused many standards to assume a status of semipermaiienco. They have, IioaveA'er, serA'ed their purpose, aud as long as they continue to be replaced by higher ones, the country is assured of having the best possible telegraphic service.
188 COMMERCIAL STANDARDS MONTHLY DECEMBER, 1031 TRIBAL COMMUNICATIONS

Early Use of Signals Shows Primitive Adaptation of Principles of Standardization

Dr. Walter Hough, Smithsoma iv Institution

Standardization in primitive arts shows only rudimentary beginnings with the inception of material

culture. The expressions are mostly in terms of the

nearest standards found in parts of the human body,

as the arms and digits, which developed extensively

before the scientific advance.

Means of communication depending on the eye and

ear are referable to another held not connected with

metrics. Language and gesture, growing up together

as we believe, represent an early agreement or standardization of meaning. These would be used for

communication over not veri^ great distance—thus,

language, near b}^; gesture, medium distance; and signals, far distance.

Sign language, which was a familiar feature of

Indian communication, had developed at the coming

of the white man intf'' a general system intelligible over a large part of the United States west of the

Mississippi. The signs represented form and motion,

conveying to the mind a picture; that is, signs were

ideographs, an extension of picture writing. Xecessaril}^ the speakers must have light in order to communicate, so that, aside from artihcial light, sign language Avas a day language.

iNIuch more effective Avas signaling Avhich conld be

carried on at any time. The familiar visual signals

Avith hre and smoke form a picturesque phase of primitive life. The night hre and day smoke served to

coiiA'ey simple messages to a far distance. By puffs

of smoke separated by manipulation of fuel and a blanket or by number of hres the Indians signaled.

At night by moving a blanket before a hre some information Avas conveyed. The code Avas simple and previously agreed upon among friends. Sometimes hre

arroAvs Avere shot up at night and by their direction

or curves to right or left conveyed a message. There

are many references in ancient Avritings to these

methods of signaling.

WigAvagging a blanket Avas a customary method of

signaling 1 )a^ the Indians. Riding a pony in a circle or other hgure Avas also a common device.

Even Avhistling signals Avere sent by some Indian

tribes. Travelers record that they could be heard

OA^er incredible distances.

Sound signals Avere of proved usefulness among

primitive peoples. The agents employed Avere drums

and wooden gongs, the latter sometimes huge, exca- vated logs of hardAvood producing a massive sound

penetrating to a long distance.

In the Congo, Herbert Ward ordered the drum

beaten to call a boat from the other shore of a Avide

African river. In ansAver he saAV a boat put out. In

ortler to test the system, he directed the beaters to

annouiK.'e that the boat Avas too small and to send a

larger one. To his surprise he saw this done.

Erroneously, travelers thought that a code was employed in drum signals, but it is noAv found that a

“ drum language ” Avas invented for the purpose. In

the Cameroons, for instance, the language is Avell knoAvn, and sometimes the natives carry on a conA'ersation by beating the language on the chest while

the explorer is quite ignorant that something is being

put over. Another and most curious drum signaling is used by some tribes in South America. A diaphragm stretched on a Avooden shell is sunk in the ground and a similar

installation made in another village. Beating on o]ie diaphragm causes jiarticles of wood or leaves to dance

on the cliaphragm of the other, thus carrying the signals desired.

There is a Avidespread use of the drum in war, coming doAvn from ancient times. First and last, bodies

of soldiers haA^e receiA^ed orders by drum and Avhole

populations roused to the threat of war. In general, the information sent out by means of

signals Avas coiiA'eyed through an agreed code Avhich

became the standard. Short cuts to language communication gaA’e rise to jargons such as pidgin English, Chinook jargon, and many others representing

agreed simplifications Avhicli suggest the process by

Avhich a universal language may arise.

FOOD AND DRUG COMPOSITIONS

That legislative authority should be granted the

Secretaiy of Agriculture to establish definitions of

food products and to prescribe limits of composition

for manufactured articles .sold under the defined

names,” and that penalties for violations of the food

and drug act lie increased, are tAvo recommendations

for legislation Avhich the Food and Drug Administration of the Department of Agriculture makes in its annual report.

The report also recommends that substandard drugs

Avhich are used in manufacturing be released from the

requirements of the food and drug act, that the “ slacklill ” package bill be passed by Congress, and that the

part of the food and drug act Avhich permits manufacturers to cloak loAv-grade jirocfucts under trade names

be .stricken out.

The so-called ‘‘ slack-fill ” bill is intended to prohibit the use of cleceptiA^e packages and has been passed

by the House of Representatives on several occasions.

It is noAv pending before the Senate Committee on

Agriculture and Forestry. The passage of this bill Avould materially increase the protection of the public.

The Food and Drug Administration recommends

that the proviso to section T, paragraph 1, in the case of drugs, be changed to include only drugs used for

manufacturing purposes and be made applicable only

to those substandard drugs Avhich the pharmacopoeia

or formulary may specify as suitable for manufacturing piu'poses. There is no evident reason why preparations of medicine (not crude drugs) should be sold

under pharmacopoeial or formulary names, if they

fail to meet the pharmacopoeial or formulary te.sts.
DECEMBER, 1931 COMMERCIAL, STANDARDS MONTHLY 18!)

AIRWAYS WEATHER SERVICE

Latest Possible Weather Reports Necessary to Pilots Flying at Speeds Exceeding 100 Miles an Hour

By Chakles F. Marvin ‘

Since the inauguration of an airways weather service in 1926, the necessity for rapid transmission of

airways weather reports, forecasts, and warnings,

from center to center and from intermediate points on the airways to the centers, has become increasingly

apparent. Airplanes flying at speeds in excess of 100

miles an hour are subject to extreme variations in

weather conditions within such a relatively short

period that the weather reports received by the pilot

must necessarily be the latest possible before entering

a given area in order that these variations may be

properly taken into account. In the early days of the service practically all communication Avas by telegraph and teleiihone, reports

being made at such times as to just anticipate the

departure of a iilane along the airway. This system

is also used at present on a number of airways over

Avhich traffic is light, consisting possibly of not more

than four plane movements a day. HoweA-er, in practically all cases such as this these reports are noAV supplemented by radiobroadcasts of terminal conditions receiA^ed by the pilot in the air so that in reality

eA'en that type of service is greatly improved under

modern conditions.

Realizing that a more rapid means of communication and one which was constantly aAnilable for use was necessary, the Department of Commerce, Avhich is charged under the air commerce act to provide facilities for air navigation, other than meteorological serA^-

ice, in 1928 installed a telephone-typeAvriter system

betAveen NeAv York and San Francisco on the trans- continental airAvay. The telephone-typeAvritcr, com- monly knoAvn as “ teletype,'’ is essentially Avhat its name implies ; that is, it is a typeAvriting machine upon

which, Avhenever a key is struck at one station, the

impulse is electrically transmitted to every other machine on the circuit and actuates the same key on those

machines, thus reproducing at all other points the

identical message placed on the machine at the sending

point. It Avill readily be seen that such a system provides for the instantaneous transmission of regular

or special reports along an airway and peimits the

sending of any number necessary AAuthout additional

co.st. and thus peculiarl}^ meets the needs of the air- Avays service. The first year's test proved the efficiency

of the teletype system as an aid to air navigation, and

it has noAV been extended to a large number of aii'Avays over Avhich traffic is relatiA’ely heavy.

Hand in hand Avith the groAvth of the teletype sys- tem there has been established a large netAvork of

radio stations at principal terminals from Avhich i-egular broadcasts of reports along designated airAvays are made. These stations are also equii^ped to haiulle

radiotelegraph traffic. In addition to being located on airAvays equipped Avith teletype, they are also

located at principal terminals along nontelet3’ped air- ways and hourly reports exchanged and broadcast for

these aii’Avays.

XoAV that AA'e have a general picture of the. equipment used, let us see exactly hoAv it is used to provide

needed Aveather information to the pilot of a trans- port plane operating, say, betAveen New York and Chicago. We Avill saA^ that the plane is scheduled to leave

NeAv York (NeAvark) at 9.30 a. m. About tAvo hours

before this time officials of the Weather Bureau at

its various stations throughout the country, of Avhich

there are more than 200, have made observations of

temperature, barometric pressure, cloudiness, precipitation, etc., and telegraphed the data to the forecast

centers. Some of these reports are also received at the

ATirious stations themseh’es. At the forecast center

at Washington, D. C., the signals Avere placed on the

long-line teletype circuit betAveen Boston and Washington and, since there is a machine at NeAvark, they

are, of course, receiA’ed there. The Weather Bureau

personnel stationed there then enters the data upon a base map, draAving in the proper lines for equal

barometric pressure and temperature, and from this a general picture of the Aveather over the entire countrv

is obtained. State forecasts extending oA-er a period

of 36 hours and a route forecast for the airAvay to be

floAvn and extending over a period of 12 hours were made up at Washington and transmitted b}^ teletype

to NeAvark. At about the same time that the regular

reports to the forecast centers Avere telegraphed cer- tain selected stations from 100 to 200 miles on either

side of the airway also transmitted to Cleveland, by means of telegraph, teletype, or radio, airways Aveather

reports giving general conditions, ceiling, visibilitA’,

Avind, temperature, dew point, and barometric pressure. These were plotted on a special map at Cleveland and from this a special summary covering the area from NeAv York to Chicago and a forecast of ex- pected conditions in this area for the next four hours

Avere prepared and transmitted by teletype to all necessarv points, including NeAvark.

When the pilot arrives at the airport, he finds that

all this information is aAuiilable for his benefit at the

Weather Bureau office. If the AA^eather appears at all unfavorable, he may also discuss the general situation

Avith the Weather Bureau official on didv'. In addition to the foregoing, the teletvpe has provided still further information, in that at a stated

minute each hour all stations betAveen Cleveland and

NeAv York (about 12) report the Aveather at that time

in sequence; that is, one station immediatel}^ folloAA's the one preceding in placing its report of Aveather conditions on the teletA'pe, the sequence starting at one end of the circuit. These reports, when available

in connection Avith the forecasts, map, and summaiy

previouslv mentioned, complete the picture of the

Aveather, as it is locally influenced ly general conditions, and provides the pilot Avith an accurate outline

of conditions to lie expected.

IIoweA'er, the service to him does not end here, but

* Chief, Weather Bureau, TJ. S. Di'partiiient of Agricullim'. extends to the flight itself, inasmuch as through his
190 COMMERCIAL STANDARDS MONTHLY DECEMBER, 1931

radio receiver he receives the broadcasts of later se- quences, or in case of a decided change in conditions,

special reports, made by the radio station. He is thus

provided Avith a means of checking the progress of

conditions as he has seen them shoAvn on the maps

and in the forecasts and has a definite knoAvleclge of

conditions both ahead and behind at all times.

It should be understood, of course, that the plan of

service described extends, with slight variations due

to topography, geographical location, etc., to practically all the heavily traveled aiiuvays of the country

and that all pilots flying the route may receive this

service.

The importance of rapid communication to this sys- tem can not be oA^erestimated. In fact it can readily

be realized that Avithout it no such service would be

possible, and it is not too much to say that Avithout

this development the tremendous volume of air traffic noAV carried on Avoidd be very seriously hampered and

very probably Avould not be practicable Avith an}' large

degree of safety.

HOSIERY LENGTHS AND MEASUREMENTS

Commercial Standard Now Before Industry for Signed

Acceptance

iMimeographed copies of the commercial standard

for hosiery lengths, as approved by a general confer- ence of the industry held October 29, 1931, have been

sent to all intei'ests for signed acceptances.

Tliese speciflcations are the result of long research

by the industry to select a method of measuring the

lengtli of hosiery and to formulate standard lengths

and tolerances Avhich, if folloAved in the manufacture

of tins commodity, Avill produce hosiery that Avill prove satisfactory to the greatest number of users. The immediate object of the adoption of standard

lengths for hosiery is to provide a better understanding l)etAveen buyer and seller as to Avhat constitutes

the normal length and tolerances for a given type and

size of hose ; to set up a basis upon Avhich satisfactory

full-size hosiery may be certified to the user ; and from

Avhich the dealers or buyers may determine Avhether or not they are receiving skimp-cut merchandise.

In measuring hosiery, each stocking is laid out, Avith- out tension, on a smoot, flat surface so that creases and Avidnkles Avill not affect the measurements; the

length is then taken to the nearest one-eighth inch,

from the bottom of the heel, through the heel gore to the top in a line parallel to the front edge.

The speciflcations and measurements embraced in

the approved standard coA'er the method of measuring, measurements, and tolerances for the lengths of

ladies’, men’s, boys’, children’s, misses’, and infants’

hosiery, and infants’ and children’s socks, together

Avith .standard folded cuff lengths for boys’ golf hose

and children’s 7/8 hosiery.

Thirty inches Avith a plus or minus tolerance of

1 inch Avas set as a standard length for ladies’ hosiery, but this measurement is in no sense intended as a specification limiting the length of hosiery. Lengths

both longer and shoi’ter than 30 inches are generally

carried in stock by the average retailer and may be

liad Avhen requested. A statement to this effect is incorjAorated in the standard.

Possibly the item next in importance is the meas- ^ urements of men’s socks, lengths of Avhich range from ^ 14 inches for a size 9 to a 14^-inch length for size /

10% and OA'er, Avith a plus or minus tolerance of ’ ^ one-half inch. Complete specifications covering the ; lengths and tolerances of the other types of hosiery ’ are included in the standard.

It is understood that formal adoption of these i! standard lengths and tolerances Avill not entail any

| material changes in present commercial practices on

J

' the part of the more reputable producers who haA'e

j been folloAving these lengths for a number of years. 1

I

I i A. S. T. M. 1931 TENTATIVE STANDARDS |

The American Society for Testing Materials has | announced the availability of its 1931 book on ten-

| tatiA'e standards. Consisting of 1,008 pages, it contains 180 tentative standards, methods of test, defi- nitions of terms, and recommended practices in effect f at the time of publication of the book. I

‘ The term “ tentative ” applies to a proposed standard f published for one or more years, Avith a aucav of elicitJ ing criticism, before it is formerly adopted as standard by the A. S. T. M. In the 1931 book, 44 of the

standards relate to metals and 136 to nonmetallic ma- ; terials and ])rodncts. Although these tentatiA'e stand-' j ards are in the trial stage of the A. S. T. M. procedure, f they represent the latest thoughts of the committees : on these specific subjects, and therefore are being ap- j

' plied in many industries. In addition, a complete list ^ of all the standards and tentative standards of the so- ciety in effect September 1, 1931, is included. ’

|

INDIA FINDS NEED FOR STANDARD JUTE

GRADES

Proposals for the establishment of a corporation in

India to fill a long-felt need for standard grades and ^ also to stabilize jute prices are contained in the majority report issued by the Indian Central Banking In- quiry Committee, according to information received j from Assistant Trade Commissioner Wilson C. Flake ; at Bombay.

The committee recommends that the governments j concerned (presumably the goA'eniments of Bengal, . Bihar, Orissa, and Assam) examine the matters of .. grading and prices and introduce an arrangement 1 suitable for all interests affected. J

'

Prompt steps by the local governments in jute-

' groAving provinces for the fixation of proper stand-

^

|f ards of jute are suggested by the committee. A fur- * | ther recommendation is that a properly organized : j

futures market be established by legislation, the com- ' f

mittee having been informed that the East Indian

j I Jute Association has failed to achieA'e its purpose of s- imparting a steady tone to jute prices. ] > The Indian Central Banking Inquiry Committee ,; Avas appointed by the Government of India in July,'®

1929, to make a thorough study of jute trade, on-®

Avhich the aboA'e-mentioned report has just been®

released.
DECE.VBElt, 1!)31 COMMERCIAL STANDARDS MONTHLY 191

FEDERAL SPECIFICATIONS

Twent3’-three specifications were acted on by the

Federal Specifications Board diiriii" the month of

November. Of this number 5 were submitted for consideration as proposed specifications, and 18 were submitted for revision. The specifications submitted for

revision bear the neAv designation in accordance with

the S3’stem used in the Federal Standard Stock Catalogue. Copies of these specifications (in mimeographed form) and further information can be obtained from the Federal Specifications Board, Bureau of

Standards, Washington, D. C.

Specifications proposed

Asphalt emulsion, quick-breaking type (for use in road work).

Slate, roofing. Glass, glazing, for transmitting ultra-violet radiations of certain wave lengths. Tents (dyed) and tent appliances (designation K-T-21I). Cambric.

New designation Specifications for revision Former

F. S. No.

QQ-B-621 272 QQ-B-691 . 172a OQ-F-1.51 Ferroehrome 1 1.39 QQ-M-7I

QQ-R-571

142 Rods, welding, nonfenoiis, (for) gas welding 269a UU-P-31 Paper, general specifications 394 UU-r-UG. Paper, photographic, black line uu-p-ns. ... AVAV-U-536 Unions, 300-pound, malleable iron or steel 580 DDn-C-4'tl... OGG-C-311 .. Cloths, wiping . . .. Chisels, gouge.s and slicks, woodworking

260

438 Cutters, glass (wncel tvpc) 435 GGG-D-351. .. Dividers _ 436 GGG-K-471 Knives, drawing 488 GGG-I/-,')1 L.adle.s, plumbers’ 474 GGG-P-791 Pullers, nail 418 GGG-S-271 Shaves, spoke 450 GGG-T-67I.... 584

SIMPLIFIED CALENDAR

Definite action to simplify the calendar is generall3

" anticipated before 1939, according to Dr. C. F. Marvin, Chief of the United States Weather Bureau. The

year 1939 Avill begin on a Sunday, and such an action

as is hoped may be taken would result in all succeeding 3’ears beginning on the fir.st da\" of the Aveek, he

said. Doctor Marvin returned recently to IVashington

after attending, as a technical representative of this

countr3", the meeting of the League of Nations committee on communications and transit, Avhich considered the reform of the calendar. The committee,

made up of delegates from 44 nations, concluded that

disturbed conditions rendered the present time inopportune for the general simplification of the calendar,

lie explained.

Tlie stabilization of the date of Easter, however, he

said, Avas recommended 1)3' the committee, Avhich proposed that this date shoidd be the Sunda3

' after the

second Saturday in April. Representatives of all

( hurches Avere asked to put this plan into effect, in a note formulated bA' the committee. The text of this note can not be made public, hoAvever, until it has been

referred to the Department of State for study and

possible suggestions for changes in its teians. As, soon

as the churches approA^e fixation of the date, the

change can be put into effect at once. It is expected

that the churches’ attitude Avill be expressed b3" 1933.

It Avas deemed preferable not to consider any reform

Avhich Avould not remech' the most serious defects of the

present calendar. For example, a mere ecpialization of

the quarters Avould not be accompanied b3' changes

sufficient to counterbalance the difficulties which must

necessarih' be encountered in connection Avith an3’ modification of traditions.

ABRASIVE GRAIN SIZES SIMPLIFIED

Reaffirmation has been given by the industiA' to the

simplification program covering abrasiA'e grain sizes. The approA’al for the recommendation, as given b3

' the

standing committee, Avill serve to place the recommendation in effect for another 3’ear without aii3

' changes

in its schedule.

This simplification (Simplified Practice Recommendation R118-30) establishes a table of alloAvable

limits for the sizing of aluminum oxide and silicon

carbide abrasiA'es for polishing uses, and for grindingAvheel manufacture.

At their recent meeting, the producers of abrasive

grains adopted a resolution stating the desirabilit3

’ of

identifying the grain made in accordance Avith the

simplified practice recommendation. The folloAving

phrase was selected b3

' them as the proper and only one to be used : “ This abrasive has been made to compl 3

' Avith Simplified Practice Recommendation R118-

30, issued b3

' the U. S. Department of Commerce.’'

RUSSIAN CINEMA COMPANY PROPOSES 30

STANDARDS

A proposal for standardizing motion-picture equipment has been presented b3

' Soyuzkino (All-L^nion

Cinema Co.) to the All-Union Committee on Standardization, according to the Soviet Union’s Bulletin

of Standardization.

The project calls for Avorking out 3<) standards

8 for raAv materials and 22 for equipment. Of these,

2G standards Avere scheduled for deA'elopment during

1931 and 4 for 1932. The raAv materials include photogelatine, negative

and positive materials for light filterers, an assort- ment of chemicals for the making of photoproducts,

auxiliaiy lighting materials and accessories. The

ecpiipment includes laboratorv and auxiliaiy equipment, cinema projecting apparatus Avith appurtenances, projecting booths, lighting ap])aratus, photoequipment, auxiliary and demonstrating equipment.

The All-Union Committee 011 Standardization has

so fai- appi-oA'cd tAvo ot the proposed standards, relat- ing to laboratory preparation foi- mounting cinema

film and lalioratoiy preparation for mounting photo

paper.
192 COMMERCIAL STANDARDS MONTHLY DECEMDER, 1031 INTERNATIONAL COOPERATION IN AERONAUTICS IMPROVES

Marked progress in international cooperation in the

operation of air services is indicated by the fact that 25

commercial air transportation companies, representing 15 countries, are now members of the International

Air Traffic Association. The association was created

in August, 1919, to meet the needs of air traffic companies operating on an international basis and constituted a free union of companies representing Germany, Denmark, Great Britain, Norway, and Sweden.

I'o bring about standardization in the operation of

air services in which two or more countries are concerned, even if difficult, and in so doing to conform

to the regulations of the International Convention for

Air Navigation and agreements lietween countries as well as national laws and regulations, are the objects

of the association.

Close cooperation is maintained Avith the International Commission for Air NaAdgation, Avhich treats

all questions lelative to public air laiv, such as certificates of airAVorthiness, pilots’ licenses, air cartography, Avireless, physical requirements of jiiiots, etc., and with the International Technical Committee of

Judicial Experts, and other kindred organizations.

WATCH MANUFACTURERS PLAN TO

ENFORCE TRADE RULES

Watch manufacturers plan to enforce trade practice

rules of the trade. A recent meeting of the manufacturers voted to effect such a program, which would

proAude for shoppers collecting Avatchcases for test- ing by purchase in the oiDen market.

The rules of the industry, as recently approved by

the Federal Trade Commission, relate to the proper

placing of a trade-mark on a Avatchcase; restrictions

of the line of time guarantee cases; official standard

for cases entitled to bear a 25-year guarantee stamp,

a 20-year guarantee stamp, a 10-year guarantee stamp,

use of the word “ gold ” or a karat mark, or both, or colorable imitations of such words or marks in cases containing less than one and one-half thousandths of an inch of gold on the outer surface ; the principle

“ that the time guarantee or any Avord or description

intended, directly or by inference, to describe the

quality of a Avatchcase, has exclusive bearing and

relationshiiA to the Avearing quality of the preciousmetal content of the case and to no other feature”;

and recommendation that all nickel or base-metal

cases be stamped with the words “nickel” or “base

metal,” as Avell as condemnation of the manufacture

and sale of cases unless so stamped.

o
GOVERNMENT BOOKLET

POINTS WAY TO HOME COMFORT

To obtain copy of

“HOUSE INSULATION

ITS ECONOMIES

AND APPLICATION,”

Mail 10 cents to Superintende'nt of Documents, Government Printing

Office, Washington, D. C., or to any

of the district offices of the Bureau

of Foreign and Domestic Commerce

located in principal cities. Also give

title of publication.

METHODS of attaining greater home

comfort are explained in a wellillustrated 52- page booklet re- cently issued.

“HOUSE INSULATION:

ITS ECONOMIES

AND APPLICATION”

presents in nontechnical language the salient facts which

the home dweller should have

concerning the advantages and

economies of insulation. It tells

how to make homes warmer in

winter and cooler in summer.

ALL TYPES of insulating material

are discussed—how and where

to apply them—including approximate insulation costs

under varying conditions.

MANY of the Nation’s foremost

building and housing authorities under the direction of

LeRoy E. Kern, representing

the American Institute of Architects, have cooperated in

this project.

Price 10 cents a copy

(Stamps not acceptable)

When purchased in lots of 100 or more,

this booklet is available at substantially

reduced prices
THE UNITED STATES DEPARTMENT OF COMMERCE

R. P. LAMONT, Secretary of Commerce

" * * * this department * * * is devoted solely to aiding and fostering the development of higher standards of living and comfort of our people * * * its ideals are clear: That by cooperation and not by compulsion it should seek to assist in maintaining and giving the impulse of progress to commerce and industry in a nation whose successful economic life underlies advancement in every other field.” —President Hoover, at the laying of the corner stone of the new building

of the U. S. Department of Commerce, June 10, 1929.

AERONAUTICS BRANCH, Clarence M. Young, Assistant Secretary of Commerce for Aeronautics. Establishment of civil airways and maintenance of aids to air navigation; inspection and registration of aircraft and licensing

of pilots; enforcement of air traffic rules; investigation of acci- dents; encouragement of municipal air ports; fostering of air commerce; scientific research in aeronautics; and dissemination of information relating to commercial aeronautics. (Some

of these functions are performed by special divisions of the Lighthouse Service, the Bureau of Standards, and the Coast and Geodetic Survey.)

BUREAU OF THE CENSUS, William M. Steuart, Director. Taking censuses of population, mines, and quarries, water

transportation, and religious bodies every 10 years; censuses of agriculture and electrical public utilities every 5 years; and a

census of manufactures every 2 years. Compilation of statistics of wealth, public debt and taxation, including financial statistics of local governments, every 10 years; annual compilation of financial statistics of State and municipal governments.

Compilation of statistics of marriage, divorce, births, deaths,

and penal and other institutions annually, and of death rates in

cities and automobile accidents weekly.

Compilation quarterly or monthly of statistics on cotton, wool, leather, and other industries; annually of forest products.

BUREAU OF FOREIGN AND DOMESTIC COMMERCE,

F. M. Feiker, Director. The collection of timely information concerning world market

conditions and openings for American products in foreign countries, through commercial attach4s, trade commissioners, and

consular officers, and its distribution through weekly Commerce

Reports, bulletins, confidential circulars, the news and trade

press, the monthly Survey of Current Business, and district and

cooperative offices in 65 cities. The maintenance of commodity,

technical, and regional divisions to afford special service to American exporters and manufacturers. The compilation and distribution of lists of possible buyers

and agents for American products in all parts of the world and

publication of weekly lists of specific sales opportunities abroad. The publicity of statistics on imports and exports. The study of the processes of domestic trade and commerce. BUREAU OF STANDARDS, George K. Burgess, Director. Custody, development, and construction of standards of measurement, quality, performance, or practice; comparison of standards used by scientific or other institutions; determination

of physical constants and properties of materials; researches and tests on materials and processes; and publication of scientific and technical bulletins reporting results of researches and

fundamental technical data. Collection and dissemination of information concerning

building codes and the planning and construction of houses. Establishment of simplified commercial practices through

cooperation with business organizations in order to reduce the wastes resulting from excessive variety in commodities.

BUREAU OF MINES, Scott Turner, Director. Technical investigations in the mining, preparation, and

utilization of minerals, including the study of mine hazards, and

safety methods and of improved methods in the production

and use of minerals. Testing of Government fuels and management of the Govern- ment Fuel Yard at Washington.

Research on helium and operR^ion of plants producing it.

BUREAU OF MINES—Continued.

Studies in the economics and marketing of minerals and col- lection of statistics on mineral resources and mine accidents. The dissemination of results of technical and economic

researches in bulletins, technical papers, mineral resources series, miners’ circulars, and miscellaneous publications.

BUREAU OF FISHERIES, Henry O’Malley, Commissioner.

The propagation and distribution of food fish and shellfish, in order to prevent the depletion of the fisheries; investigations

to promote conservation of fishery resources; the development

of commercial fisheries and agriculture; study of fishery methods,

improvements in merchandising, and collection of fishery statistics; administration of Alaska fisheries and fur seals; and the protection of sponges off the coast of Florida. BUREAU OF LIGHTHOUSES, George R. Putnam,

Commissioner.

Maintenance of lighthouses and other aids to water navigation. Establishment and maintenance of aids to navigation

along civil airways. Publication of Light Lists, Buoy Lists, and

Notices to Mariners. COAST AND GEODETIC SURVEY, R. S. Patton, Director. Survey of the coasts of the United States and publication of charts for the navigation of the adjacent waters, including

Alaska, the Philippine Islands, Hawaii, Porto Rico, the Virgin

Islands, and the Canal Zone; interior control surveys; magnetic

surveys; tide and current observations; and seismological investigations. Publication of results through charts, coast pilots, tide tables, current tables, and special publications.

BUREAU OF NAVIGATION, Arthur J. Tyrer, Commissioner.

Superintendence of commercial marine and merchant seamen.

Supervision of registering, enrolling, licensing, numbering,

etc., of vessels under the United States flag, and the annual

publication of a list of such vessels. Enforcement of the navigation and steamboat inspection laws, including imposition of fees, fines, tonnage taxes, etc. STEAMBOAT INSPECTION SERVICE, Dickerson N. Hoover,

Supervising Inspector General. The inspection of merchant vessels, including boilers, hulls, and life-saving equipment, licensing of officers of vessels, certifi- cation of able seamen and lifeboat men, and the investigation of violations of steamboat inspection laws. UNITED STATES PATENT OFFICE, Thomas E. Robertson,

Commissioner.

The granting of patents and the registration of trade-marks,

prints, and labels after technical examination and judicial

proceedings.

Maintenance of library with public search room, containing

copies of foreign and United States patents, and trade-marks. Recording bills of sale, assignments, etc., relating to patents

and trade-marks. Furnishing copies of records pertaining to patents. Publication of the weekly Official Gazette, showing the patents and trade-marks issued. RADIO DIVISION, W. D. Terrell, Chief. Inspection of radio stations on ships; inspection of radio stations on shore, including broadcasting stations; licensing radio operators; assigning station call letters; enforcing the terms of the International Radiotelegraphic Convention; and examining and settling international radio accounts.

U. S. GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE: 19 Si