# Patent

## Title
Methods for the identification of inhibitors of an isoprenoid metabolic pathway

## Abstract

The present invention relates to methods of identifying genes whose expression is indicative of activation of a particular biochemical or metabolic pathway or a common set of biological reactions or functions in a cell (“regulon indicator genes”) The present invention provides an example of such an indicator gene. The present invention also relates to methods of partially characterizing a gene of unknown function by determining which biological pathways, reactions or functions its expression is associated with, thereby placing the gene within a functional genetic group or “regulon”. These partially characterized genes may be used to identify desirable therapeutic targets of biological pathways of interest (“regulon target genes”) The present invention provides examples of such target genes. Methods for identifying effectors (activators and inhibitors) of regulon target genes are provided. The present invention also provides examples of regulon target gene inhibitors.

## Background
This application is a continuation of application Ser. No. 09/540,806, filed on Mar. 31, 2000, now abandoned, which in turn claims benefit, under 35 U.S.C. § 119(e), to U.S. provisional Patent Application No. 60/127,223, filed on Mar. 31, 1999, both of which are incorporated by reference in their entireties.


TECHNICAL FIELD OF THE INVENTION
The present invention relates to methods of identifying genes whose expression is indicative of activation of a particular biochemical or metabolic pathway or a common set of biological reactions or functions in a cell (“regulon indicator genes”) The present invention provides an example of such an indicator gene. The present invention also relates to methods of partially characterizing a gene of unknown function by determining which biological pathways, reactions or functions its expression is associated with, thereby placing the gene within a functional genetic group or “regulon”. These partially characterized genes may be used to identify desirable therapeutic targets of biological pathways of interest (“regulon target genes”) The present invention provides examples of such target genes. Methods for identifying effectors (activators and inhibitors) of regulon target genes are provided. The present invention also provides examples of regulon target gene inhibitors.
BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION
The sequencing of the S. cerevisiae genome marked the first complete, ordered set of genes from a eukaryotic organism, and revealed the presence of over 6,000 genes on 16 chromosomes (Mewes et al., 1997, Goffeau et al., 1996). The DNA sequence revealed the presence of 6275 known and hypothetical open reading frames (ORFs) encoding putative proteins longer than 99 amino acids in length. Based upon codon usage, which can serve as a predictor of whether or not an ORF is actually expressed, there are currently thought to be 6222 expressed ORFs (Cherry et al., 1997).
The sequence of the roughly 6,000 ORFs in the yeast genome is compiled in the Saccharomyces Genome Database (SGD). The SGD provides Internet access to the complete genomic sequence of S. cerevisiae, ORFs, and the putative polypeptides encoded by these ORFs. The SGD can be accessed via the World Wide Web at Stanford's website for Saccharomyces and at the Munich Information Center for Protein Sequences, Saccharomyces cerevisiae group. A gazetteer and genetic and physical maps of S. cerevisiae is found in Mewes et al., 1997 (incorporated herein by reference). References therein also contain the sequence of each chromosome of S. cerevisiae (incorporated herein by reference).
Having the complete DNA sequence of yeast available creates an opportunity to take a collectivist, rather than a reductionist, view on biology. We have developed a new technology that enables the simultaneous measurement of gene expression across an entire genome. The GENOME REPORTER MATRIXTM system (GRM) is a matrix of units comprising living yeast cells, the cells in each unit containing one yeast reporter fusion (GRM construct) representative of essentially every known hypothetical ORF of S. cerevisiae. See U.S. Pat. Nos. 5,569,588 and 5,777,888. A GRM construct comprises the promoter, 5′ upstream untranslated region and generally, the first four amino acids from one of each hypothetical ORF fused to a gene encoding an easily assayed reporter, such as green fluorescent protein (GFP), luciferin, or β-galactosidase. The GRM constructs are able to reveal changes in transcription for each hypothetical in response to specific stimuli. In addition, the GRM constructs are able to reveal changes in mRNA splicing, translation and protein stability in those cases in which the N-terminus of the protein is sufficient for regulation.
The GRM provides an unprecedented view into the compensatory changes a cell makes in the face of a changing environment. Such environmental changes may be in the form of pH, salinity, temperature, osmotic pressure, nutrient availability, as well as biochemical perturbations caused by xenobiotics, pharmaceutical compounds and mutation. Identifying the compensatory changes a cell makes in response to exposure to a chemical can provide insight into the biological target of the chemical. For example, treatment of the GRM with the cholesterol-lowering drug lovastatin causes the cells to become depleted for sterols and non-sterol isoprenoids. The yeast cells respond by significantly up-regulating the genes encoding sterol biosynthetic enzymes and thus synthesizing more of the enzymes that make sterols. One may identify those genes that are involved in sterol biosynthesis or in related metabolic pathways by assaying the GRM. Because natural selection operates on a selected outcome rather than on a particular molecular mechanism, gene expression profiling strategies that detect regulatory changes through several molecular mechanisms contribute to a fuller view of how regulatory circuits have evolved.
An understanding of the regulatory circuits of yeast serves two purposes. On the one hand, yeast is an ideal model system for eukaryotic cells, including mammalian cells. Therefore, an understanding of the metabolic pathways of yeast can be used to design or discover drugs for use in plants and animals, including humans. On the other hand, yeast possess certain metabolic pathways and genes which are unique to yeast. An understanding of the differences between yeast and higher eukaryotes will permit the design and discovery of antifungal drugs that target genes and metabolic pathways specific to yeast. See U.S. Ser. No. 60/127,272, filed concurrently herewith.
Yeast cells are eukaryotic and have many pathways that are similar or identical to those of mammalian cells. However, because yeast cells are unicellular, they are easier to manipulate experimentally and the results of such manipulations are easier to determine. Thus, yeast serves as an ideal model system for eukaryotic cells, including mammalian cells. The deduced protein sequences of the yeast genome display a significant amount of sequence identity with mammalian proteins. About one-third of the yeast ORFs, when aligned with their mammalian counterparts, produce a P-value score of less than 1×10−10 (Botstein et al., 1997). This number may in fact be a significant underestimate because the alignments were done with GENBANK® entries that make up only about 10–20% of the unique human protein sequences thought to exist.
The evolutionary conservation between yeast and humans is not limited to sequence identity. The list of human genes that can functionally substitute for their yeast counterparts is extensive. For example, H-Ras (Kataoka et al., 1985), HMG-CoA reductase (Basson et al., 1988) and the heme A:farnesyltransferase (Glerum and Tzagoloff, 1994) have been shown to functionally replace their yeast counterparts. Researchers have utilized this evolutionary conservation to clone mammalian genes through their ability to complement the corresponding yeast mutants. Two examples include CDC2 (Lee and Nurse, 1987) and CDK2 (Elledge and Spottswood, 1991).
Functional conservation between yeast and humans may be best illustrated by the notable lack of antifungal therapeutic agents available for safely treating systemic infections in humans. Antifungal agents certainly exist, but they are characterized by profound side effects likely caused by inhibition of the mammalian counterparts of the yeast target. L659,699, lovastatin, and zaragozic acid inhibit different steps in the yeast sterol pathway (G-COA synthase, HMG-CoA reductase, and squalene synthase, respectively). These inhibitors are also potent inhibitors of the corresponding mammalian enzymes (Correll and Edwards, 1994). In addition, we have found that in experiments with over 100 pharmaceutical agents used to treat a variety of distinct clinical indications in mammals, approximately 80% produced significant changes in gene expression in the GRM, indicating that there is substantial overlap in drug specificity between mammalian and yeast systems.
Yeast also contain genes that encode proteins that do not have plant and/or animal homologs. These non-homologous genes may be used as targets for the design and discovery of highly specific antifungal agents for use in plants and animals, including humans. The GRM may be used to identify genes that are expressed in particular metabolic pathways. Non-homologous genes in a pathway of interest may be used as targets for design and discovery of antifungal agents, for instance. See, e.g., U.S. Ser. No. 60/127,272, filed concurrently herewith.
One metabolic pathway of interest for identification of both homologous and non-homologous genes is the pathway for synthesis of isoprenoids. Eukaryotic cells utilize a group of structurally related compounds, the isoprenoids, for a vast array of cellular processes. These processes include structural composition of the lipid bilayer, electron transport during respiration, protein glycosylation, tRNA modification, and protein prenylation. All isoprenoids are synthesized via a pathway known variously as the isoprenoid pathway, mevalonate pathway, or sterol biosynthetic pathway. Although the bulk end product of the pathway is sterols, there are several branches of the pathway that lead to non-sterol isoprenoids. Due to the involvement of isoprenoids in a variety of physiologically and medically important processes, a comprehensive understanding of the regulation of this pathway would offer many scientific and practical benefits.
The regulation of the isoprenoid biosynthetic pathway is known to be complex in all eukaryotic organisms examined, including S. cerevisiae. The overriding principle for the regulation of this pathway is multiple levels of feedback inhibition. This feedback regulation is keyed to multiple intermediates and appears to act at numerous steps of the pathway, involving changes in transcription, translation and protein stability. Additionally, the availability of molecular oxygen, required for sterol and heme biosynthesis, also regulates the expression of genes at key steps of the pathway The emerging picture is that the isoprenoid pathway has numerous points of regulation that act to control overall flux through the pathway as well as the relative flux through various branches of the pathway.
Given the complexity of the isoprenoid pathway, it can be difficult to understand the regulation of any one step of this pathway, unless it is viewed within the context of the entire pathway. Thus, the GRM is ideal for understanding the regulation of the isoprenoid pathway because one may observe the regulation of all the yeast genes involved in the isoprenoid pathway at one time by using the GRM. In addition, analysis of the gene expression provided by the GRM (preferably using software described below) may provide information about which particular genes in the isoprenoid pathway are important regulatory genes in the pathway, those which are important indicator genes of the isoprenoid pathway, and those which are suitable targets to regulate isoprenoid synthesis.
Today we have the luxury of reflecting upon the wealth of information that has come from decades of research into the cell biology and genetics of yeast. Still, less than 20% of the hypothetical ORFs discovered by the yeast genome project had been previously identified through basic research (Goffeau et al., 1996). Additionally, 25% of the yeast ORFs with obvious human homologs have no known function (Botstein et al., 1997). The situation will likely be the same when the human genome sequence is completed.
Several research groups have created software programs that enable the comparison of both chemical and genetic expression profiles to identify related gene expression response patterns, as shown, for example, in FIG. 38. In addition, expression changes of individual genes in response to any given treatment can often be accessed through hypertext links. Currently, our software will: 1) normalize expression data; 2) rank changes in individual gene's expression relative to a particular treatment; 3) rank similarities between genomic expression profiles as a result of a chemical or genetic treatment; and 4) determine the correlation coefficient for an individual gene's expression relative to that of all other genes to identify regulons, or groups of genes that share the same regulatory programs. See U.S. application Ser. No. 09/076,668, now pending; Eisen et al. (1998); and Tamayo et al (1999).
The ability to assign ORFs to functional groups based upon their expression patterns will provide valuable information pertaining to the function of proteins from model organisms as well as their mammalian counterparts. Analysis of genomic expression patterns may also reveal upstream regulatory sequences, including promoters, with great utility for regulated or constituitive expression of recombinant genes. Such regulated sequences can be used for making reporter constructs for any selected process intrinsic to a given genome.
These functional genomics studies will provide a great deal of information that can implicate yeast genes, as well as their mammalian counterparts, in a variety of cellular functions. Associations of particular genes with specific biological pathways will be made by virtue of the genes' patterns of regulation under numerous conditions.
One particular problem in the prior art has been identifying genes whose expression is representative of a specific biological (e.g., metabolic) pathway. One would like to be able to measure the expression of a gene or its encoded protein to indicate the effect of a particular treatment on a specific pathway. Thus, there is a need for various pathway indicator genes for the various metabolic pathways.
A second problem in the prior art has been identifying genes and their encoded proteins which can be efficient targets within a specific biochemical pathway or set of associated pathways. Once good targets have been identified, pharmaceutical compounds and treatments may be designed or discovered to regulate the expression or activity of the target gene or protein.
SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION
The instant invention addresses the above problems by providing a method using genomic arrays, such as the GRM or hybridization arrays, for identifying indicator genes that are specific for particular biochemical pathways and sensitive to perturbations of these pathways. The instant invention provides one such gene, HES1, which is an indicator for the isoprenoid metabolic pathway. The invention provides the polynucleotide sequence of HES1 and vectors and host cells comprising this sequence. The invention also provides a method of producing HES1 recombinantly. The invention further provides methods of using HES1 as a specific indicator of the state of the isoprenoid pathway to identify compounds that regulate that pathway.
The instant invention also provides a method for identifying targets for one or more biochemical pathways of interest using the GRM or other types of genomic arrays, such as hybridization arrays. The instant invention also provides a number of ORFs and their encoded proteins which are targets for lipid metabolism, yeast morphology, RNA metabolism and growth control. These ORFs include YMR134w, YER034w, YJL105w, YKL077w, YGR046w, YJR041c, YER044c and YLR100w and their encoded proteins.
The invention provides the polynucleotide sequences of these ORFs and vectors and host cells comprising these ORFs for use in methods of identifying, designing and discovering highly specific anti-target agents. Specific anti-target agents include antisense nucleic acid molecules that target YMR134w, YER034w, YJL105w, YKL077w, YGR046w, YJR041c, YER044c and YLR100w and ribozymes that cleave RNAs encoded by these ORFs. The invention also provides a methods of recombinantly producing the protein encoded by these ORFs for use as a target in methods of identifying, designing and discovering highly specific antifungal agents and for producing antibodies directed against the encoded protein. Specific anti-target agents include antibodies that bind to the protein encoded by YMR134w, YER034w, YJL105w, YKL077w, YGR046w, YJR041c, YER044c and YLR100w and small organic molecules that bind to and inhibit proteins encoded by these ORFs.



BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS
FIG. 1. Summary of Characteristics for YJL105w.
FIG. 2. Plot of changes in expression of YJL105w and CYB5 in response to different chemical treatments. Each point represents the expression changes in a given chemical treatment. The fitness of the points to a line provides an indication of the level of coordinate gene expression. CYB5 functions in sterol biosynthesis through its activation of the Erg11p NADPH-cytochrome P-450 reductase
FIG. 3 Regulated Expression of YJL105w. YJL105w is significantly induced by isoprenoid biosynthetic inhibitors and mutations in HMG-CoA synthase (hmgs). “Log Ratio” refers to the natural log ratio of treated/untreated expression values
FIG. 4. Effects of lovastatin on wild-type and YJL105w knockout yeast strains. 10 μl of a 25 mg/ml solution of lovastatin (250 μg) in ethanol was applied to a sterile drug disk on a lawn of yeast (5×106 cells, ABY363). The plates were incubated overnight at 30° C.
FIG. 5. Summary of Characteristics for YMR134w.
FIG. 6. Plot of changes in expression of YMR134w and ERG2 in response to different chemical treatments. Each point represents the expression changes in a given chemical treatment. The fitness of the points to a line provides an indication of the level of coordinate gene expression. ERG2 encodes sterol isomerase.
FIG. 7. Treatments Causing Highest Expression of YMR134w. YMR134w is induced most significantly by inhibitors of the isprenoid biosynthetic pathway.
FIG. 8. Database Searches with YMR134w. Database searches with YMR134w did not reveal any apparent mammalian counterparts.
FIG. 9. Summary of Characteristics for YER044c.
FIG. 10. Plot of changes in expression of YER044c and ERG2 in response to different chemical treatments. Each point represents the expression changes in a given chemical treatment. The fitness of the points to a line provides an indication of the level of coordinate gene expression.
FIG. 11. Treatments Causing Highest Expression of YER044c. YER044c is induced most significantly by inhibitors of the isprenoid biosynthetic pathway
FIG. 12. Database Searches with YER044c. Database searches with YER044c reveal numerous mammalian expressed-sequence tag (EST) apparent counterparts.
FIG. 13. Comparison of the YER044c Predicted Protein Sequence (SEQ ID NO:1) with Mouse and Human EST Translations. Amino acid residues 23 to 136 of SEQ ID NO:1 (SEQ ID NO:4) have 35% identity to amino acid residues 93 to 434 of the Mouse EST Translation (SEQ ID NO:2). Amino acid residues 23 to 116 of SEQ ID NO:1 (SEQ ID NO:5) have 35% identity to amino acid residues 112 to 393 of the Human EST Translation (SEQ ID NO:3).
FIG. 14. Comparison of the YER044c Predicted Protein Sequence (SEQ ID NO:1) with a Rat EST Translation. Amino acid residues 23 to 136 of SEQ ID NO:1 (SEQ ID NO:4) have 35% identity to amino acid residues 63 to 404 of the Rat EST Translation (SEQ ID NO:8).
FIG. 15. Summary of Characteristics for YLR100w.
FIG. 16 Plot of changes in expression of YLR100w and CYB5 in response to different chemical treatments. Each point represents the expression changes in a given chemical treatment. The fitness of the points to a line provides an indication of the level of coordinate gene expression.
FIG. 17. Treatments Causing Highest Expression of YLR100w. YLR100w is induced most significantly by inhibitors of isprenoid biosynthesis and a mutation in the gene encoding Erg11p.
FIG. 18. Database Searches with YLR100w. Database searches with YLR100w reveal numerous mammalian expressed-sequence tag (EST) apparent counterparts.
FIG. 19. Alignment of the amino acid sequence of YLR100w (SEQ ID NO:7) to Mammalian ESTs (SEQ ID NOs:6, 9, and 10, respectively).
FIG. 20. Summary of Characteristics for YER034w.
FIG. 21. Plot of changes in expression of YER034w and GPA2 in response to different chemical treatments. Each point represents the expression changes in a given chemical treatment. The fitness of the points to a line provides an indication of the level of coordinate gene expression. Gpa2p, encoded by GPA2, is the alpha subunit of a trimer G-protein involved in pseudohyphal growth.
FIG. 22. Mutation of the YER034w Gene Leads to Increased Pseudohyphal Growth. Cells were plated onto low nitrogen plates (0.5% agarose, 2% glucose, 0.34% yeast nitrogen base without amino acids and ammonium sulfate, 0.05 mM ammonium sulfate, 20 μg/ml uracil, 30 μg/ml leucine, and 5 μg/ml histidine) and incubated for four days at 25° C. Bar height represents the average number of hyphal projections per colony (n=20)
FIG. 23. Summary of Characteristics for YKL077w.
FIG. 24. Plot of changes in expression of YKL077w and SGV1 in response to different chemical treatments. Each point represents the expression changes in a given chemical treatment. The fitness of the points to a line provides an indication of the level of coordinate gene expression. SGV1 is a Cdc28p-related protein kinase that is essential for yeast viability.
FIG. 25. Expression Correlation of YKL077w. Expression of the YKL077w gene correlates with that of genes involved in cell wall integrity and cytoskeletal reorganization.
FIG. 26. Database Searches with YKL077w. Database searches with YKL077w did not reveal any apparent mammalian counterparts.
FIG. 27. Summary of Characteristics for YGR046w.
FIG. 28. Plot of changes in expression of YGR046w and IRA2 in response to different chemical treatments. Each point represents the expression changes in a given chemical treatment. The fitness of the points to a line provides an indication of the level of coordinate gene expression. IRA2 encodes a GTPase-activating protein for Ras1p and Ras2p.
FIG. 29. Expression Correlation of YGR046w. Expression of the YGR046w gene is correlated to other genes involved in growth control.
FIG. 30. Treatments Causing the Most Significant Changes in Expression of YGR046w. Expression of YGR046w is sensitive to agents that perturb mitrochondrial function, create oxidative stress and disrupt the cytoskeleton.
FIG. 31. Summary of Characteristics for YJR041c.
FIG. 32. Plot of changes in expression of YJR041c and MED7 in response to different chemical treatments. Each point represents the expression changes in a given chemical treatment. The fitness of the points to a line provides an indication of the level of coordinate gene expression. MED7 is a component of the mediator complex involved in RNA Polymerase II transcription.
FIG. 33. Expression Correlation of YJR041c. Expression of YJR041c is correlated to genes involved in RNA metabolism including RNA polymerase I and II transcription, mRNA splicing and turnover and ribosome function.
FIG. 34. Database Searches with YJR041c. Database searches with YJR041c did not reveal any apparent mammalian counterparts.
FIG. 35. Summary of Characteristics for HES1.
FIG. 36. Expression Correlation of HES1.
FIG. 37. Treatments that Induce the HES1 Reporter. Inhibitors of the isoprenoid biosynthetic pathway cause a significant induction of the HES1 reporter.
FIG. 38. Browser Interface of Acacia's Expression Software.
FIG. 39. YJL105w DNA Sequence (SEQ ID NO:11).
FIG. 40. YJL105w Protein Sequence (SEQ ID NO:12).
FIG. 41. YMR134w DNA Sequence (SEQ ID NO:13).
FIG. 42. YMR134w Protein Sequence (SEQ ID NO:14).
FIG. 43. YER044c DNA Sequence (SEQ ID NO:15).
FIG. 44. YER044c Protein Sequence (SEQ ID NO:1).
FIG. 45. Mouse EST with Similarity to YER044c. The mouse EST (GenBank Accession No. AI386195) and the primer listed in the figure are SEQ ID NOs: 17 and 16, respectively.
FIG. 46. Human EST with Similarity to YER044c. The human EST (GenBank Accession No. W28235) and the primers listed in the figure are SEQ ID NOs: 21, 18, 19, and 20, respectively.
FIG. 47. Rat EST (GenBank Accession No. AI172515; SEQ ID NO:22) with Similarity to YER044c.
FIG. 48. YLR100w DNA Sequence (SEQ ID NO:23).
FIG. 49. YLR100w Protein Sequence (SEQ ID NO:7).
FIG. 50. Human EST with Similarity to YLR100w. The human EST (GenBank Accession No. R92053) and the primer listed in the figure are SEQ ID NOs:25 and 24, respectively.
FIG. 51. Mouse EST with Similarity to YLR100w. The mouse EST (GenBank Accession No. R92053), the oligo(dT) primer, the adaptor, and the custom primers listed in the figure are SEQ ID NOs: 30, 26, 27, 28, and 29, respectively.
FIG. 52. Mouse EST with Similarity to YLR100w. The mouse EST (GenBank Accession No. AI52381), the oligo(dT) primer, the adaptor, and the custom primers listed in the figure are SEQ ID NOs: 31, 26, 27, 28, and 29, respectively.
FIG. 53. Mouse Gene (SEQ ID NO:32) with Similarity to YLR100w.
FIG. 54. YER034w DNA Sequence (SEQ ID NO:33).
FIG. 55. YER034w Protein Sequence (SEQ ID NO:34).
FIG. 56. YKL077w DNA Sequence (SEQ ID NO:35).
FIG. 57. YKL077w Protein Sequence (SEQ ID NO:36).
FIG. 58. YGR046w DNA Sequence (SEQ ID NO:37).
FIG. 59. YGR046w Protein Sequence (SEQ ID NO:38).
FIG. 60. YJR041c DNA Sequence (SEQ ID NO:39).
FIG. 61. YJR041c Protein Sequence (SEQ ID NO:40).
FIG. 62. HES1 DNA Sequence (SEQ ID NO:41).
FIG. 63. HES1 Protein Sequence (SEQ ID NO:42).
FIG. 64. Reproducibility of the Genome Reporter MatrixTM Fluorescence from 864 independent untreated reporter-harboring yeast strains was plotted against the corresponding clones of an independent control array.
FIG. 65. Rat Gene (GenBank Accession No. 1397235; SEQ ID NO:43) with Similarity to YLR100w.
FIG. 66. DAK1 DNA Sequence (SEQ ID NO:44).
FIG. 67. DAK1 Protein Sequence (SEQ ID NO:45).
FIG. 68. PGU1 DNA Sequence (SEQ ID NO:46).
FIG. 69. PGU1 Protein Sequence (SEQ ID NO:49).
FIG. 70. STE18 DNA Sequence (SEQ ID NO:47).
FIG. 71. STE18 Protein Sequence (SEQ ID NO:48).
FIG. 72. YGL198w DNA Sequence (SEQ ID NO:50).
FIG. 73. YGL198w Protein Sequence (SEQ ID NO:51).
FIG. 74. Each dot on the 4-quadrant plot represents a treatment affecting the reporters affecting DAK1 and PGU1. Treatments are plotted as to whether DAK1 was up-regulated (above x-axis) or down-regulated (below x-axis) and whether PGU1 was up-regulated (right of the y-axis) or down-regulated (left of the y-axis) Thus, conditions where both reporters are up-regulated are in the upper right quadrant. Each division on the graph represents one natural log ratio change relative to controls. The hog1 knock-out profile is indicated at the lower right. Thus, simultaneously measuring induction of PGU1 above 2 natural log ratios and repression of DAK1 below one natural ratio specifically indicates Hog1p pathway inactivation.
FIG. 75. The plot description is the same as for FIG. 74. The subset of treatments that target mitochondrial function form a distinct group in the upper right quadrant (within rectangle). Thus, simultaneously measuring induction of YGL198w and STE18 should specifically indicate perturbations of the mitochondria.



DETAILED DESCRIPTION OF THE INVENTION
Definitions and General Techniques
Unless otherwise defined, all technical and scientific terms used herein have the meaning as commonly understood by one of ordinary skill in the art to which this invention belongs. The practice of the present invention employs, unless otherwise indicated, conventional techniques of chemistry, molecular biology, microbiology, recombinant DNA, genetics and immunology. See, e.g., Maniatis et al., 1982; Sambrook et al., 1989; Ausubel et al., 1992; Glover, 1985; Anand, 1992; Guthrie and Fink, 1991 (which are incorporated herein by reference).
A “regulon” is a group of genes that are coordinately regulated in response to a number of different stimuli, e.g., treatment with chemical compounds or mutations The member genes of a regulon comprise a functional unit by which a cell is able to adapt to a changing environment. The regulation of these genes that led to their categorization could be at the level of transcription, mRNA stability, splicing, translation or protein stability. The mode of regulation of each member gene of a given regulon need not be the same.
Genes are categorized into separate regulons based upon changes in gene expression. In order to efficiently and accurately group genes into functional groups, it is necessary to observe each gene's expression change. Since many genes function in specialized roles, it is necessary to measure global gene expression under as diverse a variety of conditions as possible. Therefore, the database of expression profiles used in this invention was made from a diverse collection of chemicals and mutant strains of yeast In general, the greater the number of diverse stimuli which cause the genes of a regulon to exhibit coordinate expression and the higher the correlation coefficient, the more confident one will be that the regulon is a robust indicator of the pathway or process of interest.
A “regulon indicator gene” (RIG) is a gene whose expression changes when a particular regulon or biochemical pathway or cellular process is activated or repressed. Although a RIG's expression may correlate with a particular biochemical pathway, the RIG does not necessarily have to be a part of the biochemical pathway for which it is an indicator. A RIG may comprise the entire gene, the 5′ region of the gene including the promoter and/or enhancer and all or a part of the coding region, or a fragment, conservatively modified variant or homolog thereof which retains the indicator function of the RIG. A RIG may be coordinately expressed with a particular biological pathway, such that when the pathway is activated the RIG is more highly expressed and when the pathway is repressed the RIG's expression is repressed as well. However, the invention also encompasses RIGs in which there is an inverse correlation with a particular pathway. In this case, activation of a pathway would lead to a repression of RIG expression, while repression of a pathway would lead to activation of RIG expression. A RIG may be coordinately expressed with a particular biological pathway, such that when the pathway is activated the RIG is more highly expressed. However, the invention also encompasses RIGs in which there is an inverse correlation with a particular pathway. In this case, activation of a pathway would lead to a repression of RIG expression. Furthermore, the invention also encompasses RIGs which are not necessarily part of the regulon, pathway or process for which they are indicators. In this case, expression of RIGs may be activated or repressed specifically in response to perturbations of a regulon, pathway or process even though the RIG itself may only be indirectly related or have no apparent relationship in function to the regulon, pathway or process.
In a preferred embodiment, a RIG is specific to a particular pathway, wherein its expression changes most significantly when a particular pathway is activated or repressed. Such a highly specific regulon indicator gene cannot always be found for a pathway of interest. In such cases, more than one RIG can be identified that, when their expression patterns are taken together, correlate with specificity to the pathway of interest. Thus, in another preferred embodiment, a plurality of RIGs is identified wherein the coordinated expression pattern of the plurality of RIGs is specific to a particular biological pathway. In this preferred embodiment, expression of each member of the plurality of RIGs may independently increase or decrease when the biological pathway of interest is activated or repressed.
In another preferred embodiment, a RIG is highly sensitive to changes in activation or repression of a pathway, such that even a small perturbation in regulation of a pathway results in a change in RIG expression. In a further preferred embodiment, a RIG has a large dynamic range, and is highly induced or repressed upon the corresponding perturbation of the pathway to which it is correlated.
In another preferred embodiment, a RIG does not contain sequences that are problematic for maintaining on plasmids when introduced into host cells. Such sequences that may be problematic include centromeric sequences or sites that are particularly susceptible to recombination.
A “target gene” or “regulon target gene” is a gene whose function is desirable to modulate. A target gene may consist of the entire gene, the 5′ region comprising the promoter and/or enhancer and all or a part of the coding region, or a fragment, conservatively modified variant or homolog thereof which retains the function of the target gene. In general, a target gene encodes a protein which is a part of the biological (e.g., metabolic or biochemical) pathway or process whose modulation would result in a desired outcome. In a preferred embodiment, a target gene is a control point in such a pathway. In one more preferred embodiment, a target gene is a control point that is relatively “upstream” in the metabolic pathway. “Upstream” means that the target gene is involved in one of the first steps of the metabolic pathway or process. In another more preferred embodiment, a target gene is a control point that is relatively “downstream” but specific to a biological pathway or a branch of that pathway or process. “Downstream” means that the target gene is involved in one of the later steps of the pathway or process.
A “target” or “target protein” is a protein whose expression or activity is to be modulated. A target may consist of the entire protein or a fragment, mutein, derivative or homolog thereof which retains the function of the target. In general, a target is a protein included within a biological pathway wherein it is desired to modulate the process which the protein is involved in. In a preferred embodiment, a target is a control point in such a biological pathway. In a more preferred embodiment, a target is a control point that is relatively “upstream” in the biological pathway. “Upstream” means that the target is involved in one of the first steps of the pathway In another more preferred embodiment, a target is a control point that is relatively “downstream” but specific to a biological pathway or a branch of that pathway. “Downstream” means that the target is involved in one of the later steps of the pathway.
A “target-dependent reporter gene” is a gene whose expression is altered in a cell in which the target gene has been altered or inactivated compared to the cell which expresses the normal target gene. The expression of the target-dependent reporter gene may increase or decrease in a cell harboring an altered or inactivated target gene, depending upon the identity of the gene. If expression of the target-dependent reporter gene increases in the cell harboring the altered or inactivated target gene, then a potential inhibitor of the regulon target gene will increase expression of the target-dependent reporter gene, and if expression of the target-dependent reporter gene decreases in the cell, then a potential inhibitor of the regulon target gene will decrease expression of the target-dependent reporter gene.
By “pathway” is meant any biological, e.g., metabolic or biochemical, set of concerted reactions which occur in response to a particular signal or stimulus in a cell The isoprenoid pathway is one example of such a pathway. Other pathways include, without limitation, amino acid and protein synthesis, lipid synthesis, protein and lipid glycosylation, protein modification, DNA synthesis and repair, RNA transcription, phospholipid synthesis, nucleotide synthesis, and energy generation and storage (e.g., glycolysis, citric acid cycle, oxidative phosphorylation, gluconeogenesis, pentose phosphate pathway, fatty acid metabolism, glycogen and disaccharide metabolism, amino acid degradation and the urea cycle), signal transduction and growth control.
By “process” is meant any biological reaction or set of reactions that occurs within a cell or organism that occurs in response to a stimulus or signal, or that occurs during growth, homeostasis, development, differentiation or death of the cell or organism.
An “isolated” protein or polypeptide is one that has been separated from naturally associated components that accompany it in its native state. Thus, a polypeptide that is chemically synthesized or synthesized in a cellular system different from the cell from which it naturally originates will be “isolated” from its naturally associated components. A protein may also be rendered substantially free of naturally associated components by isolation, using protein purification techniques well known in the art.
A monomeric protein is “substantially pure,” “substantially homogeneous” or “substantially purified” when at least about 60 to 75% of a sample exhibits a single polypeptide sequence. A substantially pure protein will typically comprise about 60 to 90% W/W of a protein sample, more usually about 95%, and preferably will be over 99% pure. Protein purity or homogeneity may be indicated by a number of means well known in the art, such as polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis of a protein sample, followed by visualizing a single polypeptide band upon staining the gel with a stain well known in the art. For certain purposes, higher resolution may be provided by using HPLC or other means well known in the art for purification.
A S. cerevisiae protein has “homology” or is “homologous” to a protein from another organism if the encoded amino acid sequence of the yeast protein has a similar sequence to the encoded amino acid sequence of a protein of a different organism. Alternatively, a S. cerevisiae protein may have homology or be homologous to another S. cerevisiae protein if the two proteins have similar amino acid sequences. Although two proteins are said to be “homologous,” this does not imply that there is necessarily an evolutionary relationship between the proteins. Instead, the term “homologous” is defined to mean that the two proteins have similar amino acid sequences. In addition, although in many cases proteins with similar amino acid sequences will have similar functions, the term “homologous” does not imply that the proteins must be functionally similar to each other.
When “homologous” is used in reference to proteins or peptides, it is recognized that residue positions that are not identical often differ by conservative amino acid substitutions. A “conservative amino acid substitution” is one in which an amino acid residue is substituted by another amino acid residue having a side chain (R group) with similar chemical properties (e.g., charge or hydrophobicity) In general, a conservative amino acid substitution will not substantially change the functional properties of a protein. In cases where two or more amino acid sequences differ from each other by conservative substitutions, the percent sequence identity or degree of homology may be adjusted upwards to correct for the conservative nature of the substitution. Means for making this adjustment are well known to those of skill in the art (see, e.g., Pearson et al.,1994, and [Henikoff et al., 1992, herein incorporated by reference).
The following six groups each contain amino acids that are conservative substitutions for one another:

    
    
        1) Alanine (A), Serine (S), Threonine (T);
        2) Aspartic Acid (D), Glutamic Acid (E);
        3) Asparagine (N), Glutamine (Q);
        4) Arginine (R), Lysine (K);
        5) Isoleucine (I), Leucine (L), Methionine (M), Valine (V), and
        6) Phenylalanine (F), Tyrosine (Y), Tryptophan (W).
    
    


Sequence homology for polypeptides, which is also referred to as sequence identity, is typically measured using sequence analysis software. See, e.g., the Sequence Analysis Software Package of the Genetics Computer Group (GCG), University of Wisconsin Biotechnology Center, 910 University Avenue, Madison, Wis. 53705. Protein analysis software matches similar sequences using measure of homology assigned to various substitutions, deletions and other modifications, including conservative amino acid substitutions. For instance, GCG contains programs such as “Gap” and “Bestfit” which can be used with default parameters to determine sequence homology or sequence identity between closely related polypeptides, such as homologous polypeptides from different species of organisms or between a wild type protein and a mutein thereof.
A preferred algorithm when comparing a S. cerevisiae sequence to a database containing a large number of sequences from different organisms is the computer program BLAST, especially blastp or tblastn (Altschul et al., 1997, herein incorporated by reference). Preferred parameters for blastp are:
















Expectation value:
10 (default)



Filter
seg (default)



Cost to open a gap:
11 (default)



Cost to extend a gap:
1 (default



Max. alignments:
100 (default)



Word size:
11 (default)



No of descriptions:
100 (default)



Substitution Matrix:
BLOSUM62










The length of polypeptide sequences compared for homology will generally be at least about 16 amino acid residues, usually at least about 20 residues, more usually at least about 24 residues, typically at least about 28 residues, and preferably more than about 35 residues. When searching a database containing sequences from a large number of different organisms using a S. cerevisiae query sequence, it is preferable to compare amino acid sequences. Comparison of amino acid sequences is preferred to comparing nucleotide sequences because S. cerevisiae has significantly different codon usage compared to mammalian or plant codon usage.
Database searching using amino acid sequences can be measured by algorithms other than blastp known in the art. For instance, polypeptide sequences can be compared using Fasta, a program in GCG Version 6.1. Fasta provides alignments and percent sequence identity of the regions of the best overlap between the query and search sequences (Pearson, 1990, herein incorporated by reference). For example, percent sequence identity between amino acid sequences can be determined using Fasta with its default parameters (a word size of 2 and the PAM250 scoring matrix), as provided in GCG Version 6.1, herein incorporated by reference.
The invention envisions two general types of polypeptide “homologs.” Type 1 homologs are strong homologs. A comparison of two polypeptides that are Type 1 homologs would result in a blastp score of less than 1×10−40, using the blastp algorithm and the parameters listed above. The lower the blastp score, that is, the closer it is to zero, the better the match between the polypeptide sequences For instance, yeast lanosterol demethylase, which is a common target of antifungal agents, as discussed above, has a Type 1 homolog in humans. The probability score (e.g., blastp score) is dependent upon the size of the database. Comparison of yeast and human lanosterol demethylases produces a blastp score of 1×10−86.
Type 2 homologs are weaker homologs. A comparison of two polypeptides that are Type 2 homologs would result in a blastp score of between 1 10−40 and 1×10−10, using the Blast algorithm and the parameters listed above. One having ordinary skill in the art will recognize that other algorithms can be used to determine weak or strong homology.
The terms “no substantial homology” or “no human (or mammalian, vertebrate, amphibian, fish, insect or plant) homolog” refers to a yeast polypeptide sequence which exhibits no substantial sequence identity with a polypeptide sequence from human, non-human mammals, other vertebrates, insects or plants. A comparison of two polypeptides which have no substantial homology to one another would result in a blastp score of greater than 1×10−10, using the Blast algorithm and the parameters listed above. One having ordinary skill in the art will recognize that other algorithms can be used to determine whether two polypeptides demonstrate no substantial homology to each other.
A polypeptide “fragment,” “portion” or “segment” refers to a stretch of amino acid residues of at least about five to seven contiguous amino acids, often at least about seven to nine contiguous amino acids, typically at least about nine to 13 contiguous amino acids and, most preferably, at least about 20 to 30 or more contiguous amino acids.
A polypeptide “mutein” refers to a polypeptide whose sequence contains substitutions, insertions or deletions of one or more amino acids compared to the amino acid sequence of the native or wild type protein. A mutein has at least 50% sequence homology to the wild type protein, preferred is 60% sequence homology, more preferred is 70% sequence homology. Most preferred are muteins having 80%, 90% or 95% sequence homology to the wild type protein, in which sequence homology is measured by any common sequence analysis algorithm, such as Gap or Bestfit.
A “derivative” refers to polypeptides or fragments thereof that are substantially homologous in primary structural sequence but which include, e.g., in vivo or in vitro chemical and biochemical modifications or which incorporate unusual amino acids. Such modifications include, for example, acetylation, carboxylation, phosphorylation, glycosylation, ubiquitination, labeling, e.g., with radionuclides, and various enzymatic modifications, as will be readily appreciated by those well skilled in the art A variety of methods for labeling polypeptides and of substituents or labels useful for such purposes are well known in the art, and include radioactive isotopes such as 125I, 32P, 35S, and 3H, ligands which bind to labeled antiligands (e.g., antibodies), fluorophores, chemiluminescent agents, enzymes, and antiligands which can serve as specific binding pair members for a labeled ligand. The choice of label depends on the sensitivity required, ease of conjugation with the primer, stability requirements, and available instrumentation. Methods for labeling polypeptides are well known in the art. See Ausubel et al., 1992, hereby incorporated by reference.
The term “fusion protein” refers to polypeptides comprising polypeptides or fragments coupled to heterologous amino acid sequences. Fusion proteins are useful because they can be constructed to contain two or more desired functional elements from two or more different proteins. Fusion proteins can be produced recombinantly by constructing a nucleic acid sequence which encodes the polypeptide or a fragment thereof in frame with a nucleic acid sequence encoding a different protein or peptide and then expressing the fusion protein. Alternatively, a fusion protein can be produced chemically by crosslinking the polypeptide or a fragment thereof to another protein.
An “isolated” or “substantially pure” nucleic acid or polynucleotide (e.g., an RNA, DNA or a mixed polymer) is one which is substantially separated from other cellular components that naturally accompany the native polynucleotide in its natural host cell, e.g., ribosomes, polymerases, or genomic sequences with which it is naturally associated. The term embraces a nucleic acid or polynucleotide that has been removed from its naturally occurring environment. The term “isolated” or “substantially pure” also can be used in reference to recombinant or cloned DNA isolates, chemically synthesized polynucleotide analogs, or polynucleotide analogs that are biologically synthesized by heterologous systems.
The term “percent sequence identity” or “identical” in the context of nucleic acid sequences refers to the residues in the two sequences which are the same when aligned for maximum correspondence. The length of sequence identity comparison may be over a stretch of at least about nine nucleotides, usually at least about 20 nucleotides, more usually at least about 24 nucleotides, typically at least about 28 nucleotides, more typically at least about 32 nucleotides, and preferably at least about 36 or more nucleotides. There are a number of different algorithms known in the art which can be used to measure nucleotide sequence identity. For instance, polynucleotide sequences can be compared using Fasta, a program in GCG Version 6.1. Fasta provides alignments and percent sequence identity of the regions of the best overlap between the query and search sequences (Pearson, 1990, herein incorporated by reference). For instance, percent sequence identity between nucleic acid sequences can be determined using Fasta with its default parameters (a word size of 6 and the NOPAMfactor for the scoring matrix) as provided in GCG Version 6.1, herein incorporated by reference.
The term “substantial homology” or “substantial similarity,” when referring to a nucleic acid or fragment thereof, indicates that, when optimally aligned with appropriate nucleotide insertions or deletions with another nucleic acid (or its complementary strand), there is nucleotide sequence identity in at least about 60% of the nucleotide bases, usually at least about 70%, more usually at least about 80%, preferably at least about 90%, and more preferably at least about 95–98% of the nucleotide bases, as measured by any well-known algorithm of sequence identity, such as Fasta, as discussed above.
Alternatively, substantial homology or similarity exists when a nucleic acid or fragment thereof hybridizes to another nucleic acid, to a strand of another nucleic acid, or to the complementary strand thereof, under selective hybridization conditions. Typically, selective hybridization will occur when there is at least about 55% sequence identity—preferably at least about 65%, more preferably at least about 75%, and most preferably at least about 90%—over a stretch of at least about 14 nucleotides. See, e.g., Kanehisa, 1984, herein incorporated by reference.
Nucleic acid hybridization will be affected by such conditions as salt concentration, temperature, solvents, the base composition of the hybridizing species, length of the complementary regions, and the number of nucleotide base mismatches between the hybridizing nucleic acids, as will be readily appreciated by those skilled in the art “Stringent hybridization conditions” and “stringent wash conditions” in the context of nucleic acid hybridization experiments depend upon a number of different physical parameters. The most important parameters include temperature of hybridization, base composition of the nucleic acids, salt concentration and length of the nucleic acid. One having ordinary skill in the art knows how to vary these parameters to achieve a particular stringency of hybridization. In general, “stringent hybridization” is performed at about 25° C. below the thermal melting point (Tm) for the specific DNA hybrid under a particular set of conditions. “Stringent washing” is performed at temperatures about 5° C. lower than the Tm for the specific DNA hybrid under a particular set of conditions. The Tm is the temperature at which 50% of the target sequence hybridizes to a perfectly matched probe. See Sambrook et al., page 9.5 1, hereby incorporated by reference.

    
    
        The Tm for a particular DNA-DNA hybrid can be estimated by the formula.

Tm=81.5° C.+16.6(log10[Na+])+0.41 (fraction G+C)−0.63 (% formamide)−(600/l) where l is the length of the hybrid in base pairs.

    
    


The Tm for a particular RNA-RNA hybrid can be estimated by the formula

Tm=79.8° C.+18.5(log10[Na+])+0.58(fraction G+C)+11.8 (fraction G+C)2−0.35 (% formamide)−(820/l).

The Tm for a particular RNA-DNA hybrid can be estimated by the formula.

Tm=79 8° C.+18.5(log10[Na+])+0.58 (fraction G+C)+11.8 (fraction G+C)2−0.50 (% formamide)−(820/l).

In general, the Tm decreases by 1–1.5° C. for each 1% of mismatch between two nucleic acid sequences. Thus, one having ordinary skill in the art can alter hybridization and/or washing conditions to obtain sequences that have higher or lower degrees of sequence identity to the target nucleic acid. For instance, to obtain hybridizing nucleic acids that contain up to 10% mismatch from the target nucleic acid sequence, 10–15° C. would be subtracted from the calculated Tm of a perfectly matched hybrid, and then the hybridization and washing temperatures adjusted accordingly. Probe sequences may also hybridize specifically to duplex DNA under certain conditions to form triplex or other higher order DNA complexes. The preparation of such probes and suitable hybridization conditions are well known in the art.
An example of stringent hybridization conditions for hybridization of complementary nucleic acid sequences having more than 100 complementary residues on a filter in a Southern or Northern blot or for screening a library is 50% formamide/6×SSC at 42° C. for at least ten hours. Another example of stringent hybridization conditions is 6×SSC at 68° C. for at least ten hours. An example of low stringency hybridization conditions for hybridization of complementary nucleic acid sequences having more than 100 complementary residues on a filter in a Southern or northern blot or for screening a library is 6×SSC at 42° C. for at least ten hours. Hybridization conditions to identify nucleic acid sequences that are similar but not identical can be identified by experimentally changing the hybridization temperature from 68° C. to 42° C. while keeping the salt concentration constant (6×SSC), or keeping the hybridization temperature and salt concentration constant (e.g. 42° C. and 6×SSC) and varying the formamide concentration from 50% to 0%. Hybridization buffers may also include blocking agents to lower background. These agents are well-known in the art. See Sambrook et al., pages 8.46 and 9.46–9.58, herein incorporated by reference
Wash conditions also can be altered to change stringency conditions. An example of stringent wash conditions is a 0.2×SSC wash at 65° C. for 15 minutes (see Sambrook et al., for SSC buffer). Often the high stringency wash is preceded by a low stringency wash to remove excess probe. An exemplary medium stringency wash for duplex DNA of more than 100 base pairs is 1×SSC at 45° C. for 15 minutes. An exemplary low stringency wash for such a duplex is 4×SSC at 40° C. for 15 minutes. In general, signal-to-noise ratio of 2× or higher than that observed for an unrelated probe in the particular hybridization assay indicates detection of a specific hybridization.
As defined herein, nucleic acids that do not hybridize to each other under stringent conditions are still substantially homologous to one another if they encode polypeptides that are substantially identical to each other. This occurs, for example, when a nucleic acid is created synthetically or recombinantly using a high codon degeneracy as permitted by the redundancy of the genetic code.
The polynucleotides of this invention may include both sense and antisense strands of RNA, cDNA, genomic DNA, and synthetic forms and mixed polymers of the above. They may be modified chemically or biochemically or may contain non-natural or derivatized nucleotide bases, as will be readily appreciated by those of skill in the art. Such modifications include, for example, labels, methylation, substitution of one or more of the naturally occurring nucleotides with an analog, internucleotide modifications such as uncharged linkages (e.g., methyl phosphonates, phosphotriesters, phosphoramidates, carbamates, etc.), charged linkages (e.g., phosphorothioates, phosphorodithioates, etc.), pendent moieties (e.g., polypeptides), intercalators (e.g., acridine, psoralen, etc.), chelators, alkylators, and modified linkages (e g, alpha anomeric nucleic acids, etc.) Also included are synthetic molecules that mimic polynucleotides in their ability to bind to a designated sequence via hydrogen bonding and other chemical interactions. Such molecules are known in the art and include, for example, those in which peptide linkages substitute for phosphate linkages in the backbone of the molecule.
“Conservatively modified variations” or “conservatively modified variants” of a particular nucleic acid sequence refers to nucleic acids that encode identical or essentially identical amino acid sequences or DNA sequences where no amino acid sequence is encoded. Due to the degeneracy of the genetic code, a large number of functionally identical nucleic acids encode any given polypeptide sequence. When a nucleic acid sequence is changed at one or more positions with no corresponding change in the amino acid sequence which it encodes, that mutation is called a “silent mutation.” Thus, one species of a conservatively modified variation according to this invention is a silent mutation. Accordingly, every nucleic acid sequence herein which encodes a polypeptide also describes every possible silent mutation or variation.
Furthermore, one of skill in the art will recognize that individual substitutions, deletions, additions and the like, which alter, add or delete a single amino acid or a small percentage of amino acids (less than 5%, more typically less than 1%) in an encoded sequence are “conservatively modified variations” or “conservatively modified variants” where the alterations result in the substitution of one amino acid with a chemically similar amino acid. Conservative substitution tables providing functionally similar amino acids are well known in the art.
The term “antibody” refers to a polypeptide encoded by an immunoglobulin gene, genes, or fragments thereof The immunoglobulin genes include the kappa, lambda, alpha, gamma, delta, epsilon and mu constant regions, as well as a myriad of immunoglobulin variable regions. Light chains are classified as either kappa or lambda. Heavy chains are classified as gamma, mu, alpha, delta, or epsilon, which in turn define the immunoglobulin classes IgG, IgM, IgA, IgD and IgE, respectively.
Antibodies exist for example, as intact immunoglobulins or as a number of well-characterized fragments produced by digestion with various peptidases. For example, trypsin digests an antibody below the disulfide linkages in the hinge region to produce F(ab)′2, a dimer of Fab which itself is a light chain joined to a VH-CH1 by a disulfide bond The F(ab)′2 may be reduced under mild conditions to break the disulfide linkage in the hinge region thereby converting the F(ab)′2 dimer to a Fab′ monomer. The Fab′ monomer is essentially an Fab with part of the hinge region. See Paul (1993) (incorporated herein by reference), for a detailed description of epitopes, antibodies and antibody fragments. One of skill in the art recognizes that such Fab′ fragments may be synthesized de novo either chemically or using recombinant DNA technology. Thus, as used herein, the term antibody includes antibody fragments produced by the modification of whole antibodies or those synthesized de novo. The term antibody also includes single-chain antibodies, which generally consist of the variable domain of a heavy chain linked to the variable domain of a light chain. The production of single-chain antibodies is well known in the art (see, e.g., U.S. Pat. No. 5,359,046) The antibodies of the present invention are optionally derived from libraries of recombinant antibodies in phage or similar vectors (see, e.g., Huse et al. (1989); Ward et al. (1989); Vaughan et al. (1996) which are incorporated herein by reference)
As used herein, “epitope” refers to an antigenic determinant of a polypeptide, i e., a region of a polypeptide that provokes an immunological response in a host This region need not comprise consecutive amino acids. The term epitope is also known in the art as “antigenic determinant.” An epitope may comprise as few as three amino acids in a spatial conformation which is unique to the immune system of the host. Generally, an epitope consists of at least five such amino acids, and more usually consists of at least 8–10 such amino acids. Methods for determining the spatial conformation of such amino acids are known in the art.
Methods for Analyzing ORF Gene Expression
The cell's ability to monitor its own biochemical ecology may be considered as a fully integrated multi-dimensional set of specific biochemical assays. The data from each individual assay manifests itself either directly or indirectly in the change in expression of a single gene or small set of genes. The individual components of the assaying capabilities of the cell may be extracted by measuring the changes in global gene expression in response to a controlled experimental challenge.
The measurement of global gene expression may be done by a number of different methods. One technique is that of hybridization to nucleic acid arrays on solid surfaces, such as “gene chips” (Fodor et al., 1991). Another method uses a reporter construct in the GRM or an equivalent matrix comprising living cells, preferably eukaryotic cells, and more preferably yeast, insect, plant, avian, fish or mammalian cultured cells. Other methods include SAGE.
DNA Chip Technology
One method for determining comprehensive gene expression profiles is DNA gene chip technology ( see, e.g., Fodor et al., 1991). A DNA gene chip can be made comprising a large number of immobilized single-stranded nucleic acids, each of which hybridizes specifically to a gene or its mRNA, representing a particular genome or a significant subset thereof Messenger RNA molecules extracted from a cell or cDNA molecules converted from such mRNA molecules can be labeled. The labeling can be accomplished, for example, radioisotopically or fluorescently by methods well known in the art. These mRNA or cDNA molecules are rendered single-stranded and then allowed to hybridize to the immobilized single-stranded nucleic acids on the gene chip. A computer equipped with a scanner then determines the extent of hybridization, thereby quantitating the amount of mRNA produced for any given gene or genetic sequence.
Profiles of gene expression generated under different conditions or in response to different stimuli such as treatment with chemical compounds are produced by treating cells with a compound, isolating the mRNA the cells, optionally producing cDNA and then hybridizing the single-stranded nucleic acids on the gene chip as discussed above. Preferably, software is used to correlate the expression of each gene on the hybridization chip relative to other genes under different conditions or in response to different treatments (see below).
Promoter elements from genes of interest that respond to an input signal can then be isolated and operatively linked to a reporter gene described above by recombinant DNA techniques well known in the art for further characterization.
GENOME REPORTER MATRIXTM system Technology
An alternative method to DNA gene chip technology is the use of a GENOME REPORTER MATRIXTM system (GRM), or an equivalent thereof. The description below of the generation of gene expression profiles utilizing the Genome Reporter MatrixTM has been described essentially in U.S. Pat. Nos. 5,569,888 and 5,777,888, both of which are incorporated herein by reference.
The promoter (and optionally, 5′ upstream regulatory elements and/or 5′ upstream untranslated sequences) of an ORF or a gene from a cellular genome (preferably a eukaryotic genome) is fused to a reporter gene creating a transcriptional and/or translational fusion of the promoter to the reporter gene. In a preferred embodiment, the genome is that of S. cerevisiae. The promoter and optional additional sequences comprise all the regulatory elements necessary for transcriptional (and optionally translational) control of an attached coding sequence. The reporter gene can be any gene that, when expressed in a suitable host, encodes a product that can be detected by a quantitative assay. Any suitable assay may be used, including but not limited to enzymatic, colorimetric, fluorescence or other spectrographic assays, fluorescent activated cell sorting assay and immunological assays. Examples of suitable reporter genes include, inter alia, green fluorescent protein (GFP), β-lactamase, lacZ, invertase, membrane bound proteins (e.g., CD2, CD4, CD8, the influenza hemagglutinin protein, and others well known in the art) to which high affinity antibodies directed to them exist or can be made routinely, fusion protein comprising membrane bound protein appropriately fused to an antigen tag domain (e.g., hemagglutinin or Myc and others well known in the art). In a preferred embodiment, the reporter protein is GFP from the jellyfish Aequorea victoria. GFP is a naturally fluorescing protein that does not require the addition of any exogenous substrates for activity. The ability to measure GFP fluorescence in intact living cells makes it an ideal reporter protein for the GRM or an equivalent matrix comprising living cells.
In a preferred embodiment, reporter constructs comprise the 5′ region of the ORF comprising the promoter of the ORF and other expression regulatory sequences, and generally the first four codons of the ORF fused in-frame to the green fluorescent protein. In a more preferred embodiment, approximately 1200 base-pairs of 5′ regulatory sequence are included in each fusion. Only 228 yeast ORFs (3.5%) possess introns Of these 228 intron-containing ORFs, all but four contain only one intron In these ORFs, fusions are created two to four codons past (3′ to) the splice junction. Therefore, these fusions must undergo splicing in order to create a functional reporter fusion.
Each reporter is assembled in an episomal yeast shuttle vector (either CEN or 2μ plasmid) or on a yeast integrating vector for subsequent insertion into the chromosomal DNA In a preferred embodiment, the gene reporter constructs are built using a yeast multicopy vector. A multicopy vector is chosen to facilitate easy transfer of the reporter constructs to many different yeast strain backgrounds. In addition, the vector replicates at an average of 10 to 20 copies per cell, providing added sensitivity for detecting genes that are expressed at a low level. In principle, introducing additional copies of a gene's regulatory region could, through titration of regulatory proteins, disrupt a response of interest. However, in practice this appears not to occur, and efforts to successfully exploit such titration effects have required much higher copy number vectors and have been largely unsuccessful. In another preferred embodiment, the reporter constructs are maintained on episomal plasmids in yeast.
In one embodiment, a plurality (all or a significant subset) of the resulting approximately 6,000 reporter constructs is transformed into a strain of yeast. The resulting strains constitute one embodiment of the Genome Reporter MatrixTM. See Example 1.
Profiles are produced by arraying wild type or mutant cells carrying the reporter fusion genes in growth media containing different drugs and chemical compounds and measuring changes in expression of the reporter gene by the appropriate assay (see below). In a preferred embodiment, where the reporter gene is GFP, measurement of changes in expression are done by measuring the amount of green light produced by the cells over time with an automated fluorescence scanner. Alternatively, the drugs or chemical compounds may be added to the yeast cells after they have been arrayed onto growth media and then measuring changes in reporter gene expression by the appropriate assay.
Over 93% of the reporters are detectable over background on rich medium. The reproducibility of individual reporters is high, with expression generally varying by less than 10%. In contrast, hybridization experiments have proven unreliable for effects of less than a factor of two. FIG. 64 depicts expression data of the GRM from two independent experiments plotted against each other.
In a preferred embodiment, the GRM is used to obtain gene expression information from a genome. The GRM is preferred to hybridization-based methods of profiling for several reasons. First, because the promoter-reporter fusions include the first four amino acids of the native gene product, the response profiles are composites of both transcriptional and translational effects. The importance of being able to monitor both levels of response is underscored by the experience with bacterial antibiotics. Those antibiotics that work at the translational level have a greater therapeutic performance than those affecting transcription. Because hybridization-based methods can reveal only effects on transcription, profiling with the GRM provides a more complete view of the full spectrum of biological effects induced by exposure to drugs or compounds.
Second, the GRM permits profiling of gene expression changes in living cells, which permits one to easily measure the kinetics of changes in gene response profiles in the same population of cells following exposure to different drugs and chemical agents. Thus, by collecting multiple data sets over time, one can identify the genes that make up primary and secondary responses.
Third, hybridization-based methods require relatively sophisticated molecular procedures to produce labeled cDNA, followed by a 14 hour hybridization of labeled cDNA probes to target DNA arrays on slides or chips. The GRM requires only that being able to produce arrays of colonies and measure emitted light. These procedures are easier to scale up in an industrial setting than are sophisticated molecular biology methods, rendering data that is more straightforward to produce and more reproducible in nature.
Gene Expression Profiles
Using the reporter construct, gene chip technology or another method for obtaining genome-wide gene expression, the gene expression profile of yeast genes can be obtained. In a preferred embodiment, either the GRM or gene chip technology is used In a more preferred embodiment, the GRM is treated with a number of pharmaceutical compounds and the resulting expression of the reporter constructs is analyzed. Generally, for each pharmaceutical compound, the expression of the reporter constructs are analyzed in the presence of the vehicle for the pharmaceutical compound alone and is compared to the expression of the reporter constructs in the presence of the pharmaceutical compound. Changes in expression of the reporter constructs in the absence and presence of the pharmaceutical compound is obtained either by subtracting the baseline level of expression from the level after treatment or dividing the baseline level of expression from the level after treatment. By looking at a large number of reporter constructs, one can assign yeast ORFs to functional groups based upon their expression patterns in response to various pharmaceutical compounds. These functional groups may provide valuable information as to the function of the yeast proteins as well as their human, non-human mammalian, avian, fish, insect and plant counterparts.
Preferably, software is used to correlate the expression of each gene in the GRM or on the DNA chip relative to other genes under different conditions and in response to different pharmaceutical compounds. In one preferred embodiment, the software is capable of producing a correlation coefficient for each gene's expression relative to every other gene across all expression profiles in a database. Such analysis reveals groups of genes that exhibit coordinate regulation (regulons) See, e.g., U.S. Ser. No 09/076,668, now pending; Eisen et al. (1998); and Tamayo et al. (1999).
In a preferred embodiment, a gene of unknown function may be placed into a functional genetic group by the following steps.

    
    
        a) generating a gene expression profile for Gene X, a gene of unknown function;
        b) comparing the gene expression profile of Gene X with expression profiles of a plurality of other genes in a database of compiled gene expression profiles to generate expression correlation coefficients;
        c) identifying based on their expression correlation coefficients a set of genes comprising Gene X that are coordinately expressed;
        d) determining if the genes whose expression is most highly correlated with that of Gene X belong to a gene regulon involved in a known biological pathway, or a common set of biological reactions or functions; and
        e) optionally testing the effect on Gene X expression of at least one altered condition or treatment known to affect the function to which Gene X hs been ascribed.

If Gene X expression is coordinate with expression of the regulon, then Gene X is placed in the regulon.

Methods to Identify Potential RIGs

    
    


A GRM (or an equivalent) is chemically treated with a large number of compounds. Regulons are identified as groups of genes that are coordinately regulated in response to genetic mutations, treatment with compounds or different environmental conditions In a preferred embodiment, regulons are identified using correlation coefficients assembled by software that does clustering analysis, such as that described in U.S. Ser. No. 09/076,668, now pending; Eisen et al. (1998); and Tamayo et al. (1999). In a preferred embodiment, genes that constitute a regulon have a correlation coefficient of greater than 0.5. In a more preferred embodiment, genes that constitute a regulon have a correlation coefficient of at least 0.6 or 0.7. In a further preferred embodiment, genes that constitute a regulon have a correlation coefficient of at least 0.8 or 0.9. The correlation coefficient may be measured by any method of obtaining correlation coefficients, including, without limitation, the method described in U.S. patent application Ser. No. 09/076,668, now pending or in Eisen et al. (1998)
Once a group of genes has been grouped into a regulon, one can identify potential regulon indicator genes (RIGs), which may or may not be a member of the regulon, pathway or process with the regulon, pathway, or process for which they are an indicator. RIGs may be either characterized or uncharacterized genes provided they have certain characteristics. Preferred characteristic include one or more of the following: 1) its expression profile is sensitive to one or more stimuli; 2) its expression profile exhibits a large dynamic range in response to one or more stimuli; 3) its expression profile exhibits a rapid kinetic response to one or more stimuli; 4) its expression profile is specific to a known biological pathway or a common set of biological reactions or functions; 5) the regulon indicator gene does not contain sequences that are problematic for maintaining on plasmids when introduced into host cells. Most preferably, their expression is relatively specific for a particular biochemical pathway or cellular condition, highly sensitive to small changes in activation of a biochemical pathway or cellular condition and exhibit a wide dynamic range of expression so that the RIG is easier to assay.
A “large dynamic range” is one in which the response in gene expression in response to a stimulus is at least four-fold over basal levels of expression in the absence of the stimulus. A response may be either an increase or a decrease in gene expression. In a preferred embodiment, the response is at least ten-fold over basal levels. In a more preferred embodiment, the response is at least twenty-fold over basal levels In an even more preferred embodiment, the response is at least 100-fold over basal levels.
A “rapid kinetic response” is one in which the response occurs in the same time period as the doubling time of the organism after stimulation with the stimulus In a preferred embodiment, the response occurs less than 10 minutes. In a more preferred embodiment, the response occurs in less than one minute
A “stimulus” or “stimuli” is a chemical compound, a genetic mutation, or a change in the environment of the cell, including, without limitation, a change in pH, temperature, osmotic pressure, salinity, light, gas concentration or partial pressure (e g O2, CO2, CO or NO).
In order to determine whether a potential RIG is specific for a particular biochemical pathway or cellular condition, expression of the potential RIG is examined under all conditions in the expression database. A desirable RIG is one whose expression is selectively induced or repressed by chemicals or mutations that are known to affect the process in question. Likewise, a desirable RIG's expression is not influenced by chemicals or mutations that are known not to affect the process in question This analysis provides information regarding whether the RIG participates in additional cellular processes or biochemical pathways. When a potential RIG is not a member of a target regulon, pathway or process, specificity is measured by analyzing expression under all conditions under which the potential RIG is activated or repressed to determine if similar conditions elicit similar responses.
Most preferably, a single RIG may be identified to be highly specific to a particular pathway, i.e., wherein its expression changes only when a particular pathway is activated or repressed, but not when other pathways are likewise regulated. Such a highly specific regulon indicator gene cannot always be found for a pathway of interest In such cases, however, more than one RIG may be identified whose coordinate expression patterns correlate with high specificity to a pathway of interest. Preferably, the coordinate expression of two RIGs provides such specificity. However, the present invention is not limited by the number of RIGs identified and used simultaneously as regulated pathway indicators. Expression of each member of a plurality of RIGs may independently increase or decrease when the biological pathway of interest is activated or repressed.
In order to determine whether a potential RIG is highly indicative of activation of a particular pathway, the gene will be activated or repressed to an expression level at least 2-fold higher or lower (if the gene is repressed) than when the pathway is not activated. In a preferred embodiment, the gene is activated or repressed to an expression level at least 10-fold higher or lower than the unactivated pathway In a more preferred embodiment, the gene is activated or repressed to an expression level at least 20-fold higher or lower than the unactivated pathway. The expression level may be represented as a natural log ratio of treated/untreated expression values. See FIG. 37, for example. In a preferred embodiment, the natural log ratio of a RIG is greater than 1, more preferably greater than 2.5, and even more preferably greater than 4.0 when the pathway or process is activated.
In order to determine the dynamic range of a potential RIG, the expression of the RIG is assessed by examining its expression in response to all the treatments and mutations in the database. In a preferred embodiment, there is a high level of change in RIG expression for small changes in activation of the pathway.
In one embodiment of the invention, expression of a regulon indicator gene correlates with the expression of at least one known gene in a group of coordinately expressed genes or provide a measure of the function of a biological process of interest. The RIG is identified by a method comprising the steps of:

    
    
        a) comparing gene expression profiles of a plurality of genes in the database to generate expression correlation coefficients;
        b) identifying based on their relative expression correlation coefficients a set of genes that are coordinately expressed;
        c) selecting a set of genes from b) which comprises one or more genes known to function in a particular biological pathway, or a common set of biological reactions or functions;
        d) selecting a member of the set of c) having one or more of the following characteristics:
        
            1) its expression profile is sensitive to one or more stimuli;
            2) its expression profile exhibits a large dynamic range in response to one or more stimuli;
            3) its expression profile exhibits a rapid kinetic response to one or more stimuli;
            4) its expression profile is specific to a known biological pathway or a common set of biological reactions or functions;
            5) the regulon indicator gene does not contain sequences that are problematic for maintaining on plasmids when introduced into host cells.
        
        
    
    


The RIG may also be co-regulated with one or more genes in the group of coordinately expressed genes of c) above. In addition, the RIG may control the expression of at least one other gene in the group of coordinately expressed genes of c) above. The RIG may be a gene of previously unknown function.
In another embodiment, the invention provides a method for identifying a regulon indicator gene in a database of compiled gene expression profiles, wherein expression of the regulon indicator gene provides a measure of the function of a biological pathway or process of interest. The method comprises the steps of:
a) examining exemplary expression profiles in response to one or more chemical or genetic treatments which target the pathway or process of interest to generate reporter sensitivity data;
b) selecting a set of genes from a) which comprises one or more genes most significantly affected in response to the treatment or treatments; and
c) selecting at least one gene from b) whose expression profile is maximized for its specificity and sensitivity to the treatment or class of treatments in a) compared to its sensitivity to all other treatments in the database.
The regulon indicator gene may be co-regulated with one or more genes in the set of genes of a) or the regulon indicator gene, upon expression, controls the expression of at least one other gene in the in the set of genes of a).
Methods to Identify Potential Target Genes and Targets
A regulon is identified as described above under “Methods to Identify Potential RIGs.” In a preferred embodiment, a regulon will contain both characterized and uncharacterized genes. In many cases, the characterized genes will have a common function or will be part of the same biochemical pathway. For instance, a regulon of the isoprenoid pathway will contain characterized genes involved in sterol biosynthesis. Uncharacterized genes will then be analyzed in terms of whether they are likely to be part of the same biochemical pathway as the characterized genes. The sequence of uncharacterized genes will be compared to the sequence of genes of known function to determine if the uncharacterized genes or their gene products have any motifs common to characterized genes.
For instance, uncharacterized genes will be examined for domains indicating enzymatic functions, including, without limitation, kinase, protease and phosphorylase activities Similarly, uncharacterized genes will be examined for domains indicating that they might be transcription factors, including, without limitation, zinc finger, PHD, steroid-binding and helix-loop-helix regions. Other domains of interest include lipid-binding and ATP-binding domains. Uncharacterized genes will also be examined for sequence similarities to secreted factors and receptors. In a preferred embodiment, target genes and their encoded target proteins are previously uncharacterized, highly correlated with a particular regulon containing genes for a specific pathway or process, and that appear to be an enzyme, secreted factor, receptor or transcription factor.
In a preferred embodiment, a novel regulon target gene may be selected from a database of compiled gene expression profiles. The target gene is selected comprising the steps of:

    
    
        a) comparing gene expression profiles of a plurality of genes in the database to generate expression correlation coefficients;
        b) identifying based on their expression correlation coefficients a set of genes that are coordinately expressed;
        c) selecting from b) a set of genes comprising one or more genes of unknown function and one or more genes known to function in a particular biological pathway, or a common set of biological reactions or functions of interest;
        d) selecting from the set of c) at least one gene of unknown function, Gene X, as a novel regulon target gene; wherein Gene X is a gene whose expression profile closely correlates to the expression profiles of the one or more genes of the set of c) known to function in the particular biological pathway, or common set of biological reactions or functions of interest.
    
    


The method may further comprise the step of generating individual correlation coefficients between the gene expression profile of Gene X and a plurality of genes in the database to assess the selectivity of Gene X as a novel regulon target gene. The method may further comprise the step of determining whether the protein encoded by Gene X exhibits substantial homology to a human, non-human mammal, avian, amphibian, fish, insect or plant protein, including, without limitation, the step of hybridizing Gene X to genomic DNA from human, non-human mammal, avian, amphibian, fish, insect or plant cells or tissue under low stringency conditions, comparing the DNA sequence of Gene X to the DNA sequences from other organisms, or obtaining an amino acid sequence encoded by Gene X and comparing it to amino acid sequences from other organisms. The DNA or amino acid sequences from other organisms may be contained within a database and the DNA or amino acid sequence encoded by Gene X may compared to the DNA or amino acid sequences from other organisms using a computer algorithm such as blastp, tblastn or another algorithm that utilizes string alignments. The method for identifying a target may further comprise the steps of:

    
    
        a) disrupting the function of Gene X or its homolog in a yeast cell; and
        b) identifying whether the function of Gene X is essential for yeast germination, vegetative growth, pseudohyphal or hyphal growth.
    
    


In another embodiment of the invention, genes that are regulated by regulon target genes of yeast or its mammalian homolog may be identified. The method comprises the steps of

    
    
        a) overexpressing the target gene in host cells of a matrix comprising a plurality of units of cells, the cells in each unit containing a reporter gene operably linked to an expression control sequence derived from a gene of a selected organism; and
        b) identifying genes that are either induced or repressed by overexpression of the target gene.
    
    


In a preferred embodiment, the target gene is selected from the group consisting of YMR134w, YER034w, YJL105w, YKL077w, YGR046w, YJR041c, YER044c and YLR100w and their mammalian homologs.
Methods for Constructing Mutant Yeast Strains
Once a potential target has been identified, one may disrupt the gene to determine the effect of inhibiting the gene's activity has on the phenotype of the yeast cell. There are a number of methods well known in the art by which a person can disrupt a particular gene in yeast. One of skill in the art can disrupt an entire gene and create a null allele, in which no portion of the gene is expressed. One may also produce and express an allele comprising a portion of the gene which is not sufficient for gene function This may be done by inserting a nonsense codon into the sequence of the gene such that translation of the mutant mRNA transcript ends prematurely. One may also produce and express alleles containing point mutations, individually or in combination, that reduce or abolish gene function.
There are a number of different strategies for creating conditional alleles of genes. Broadly, an allele can be conditional for function or expression. An example of an allele that is conditional for function is a temperature sensitive mutation where the gene product is functional at one temperature but non-functional at another, e.g., due to misfolding or mislocalization. One of ordinary skill in the art may produce mutant alleles which may have only one or a few altered nucleotides but which encode inactive or temperature-sensitive proteins. Temperature-sensitive mutant yeast strains express a functional protein at permissive temperatures but do not express a functional protein at non-permissive temperatures.
An example of an allele that is conditional for expression is a chimeric gene where a regulated promoter controls the expression of the gene. Under one condition the gene is expressed and under another it is not. One may replace or alter the endogenous promoter of the gene with a heterologous or altered promoter that can be activated only under certain conditions. These conditional mutants only express the gene under defined experimental conditions. In a preferred embodiment, the gene is under the control of a regulated promoter where the gene may be expressed at higher or lower levels depending upon the degree of activation of the promoter. For instance, a gene under the control of a regulated promoter may be expressed at any level between 0 and 100% of wild type expression, such as at 10%, 20%, 50% or 80% of its wild type level. The gene may also be expressed at levels above its usual wild type expression (overexpression). All of these methods are well known in the art. For example, see Stark (1998), Garfinkel et al., (1998), and Lawrence and Rothstein, (1991), herein incorporated by reference.
One having ordinary skill in the art also may decrease expression of a gene without disrupting or mutating the gene. For instance, one may decrease the expression of a gene by transforming yeast with an antisense molecule or ribozyme under the control of a regulated or constitutive promoter (see Nasr et al., 1995, herein incorporated by reference). One may introduce an antisense construct operably linked to an inducible promoter into S. cerevisiae to study the function of a conditional allele (see Nasr et al supra). One problem that may be encountered, however, is that many antisense molecules do not work well in yeast, for reasons that are, as yet, unclear (see Atkins et al., 1994 and Olsson et al., 1997).
One may also decrease gene expression by inserting a sequence by homologous recombination into or next to the gene of interest wherein the sequence targets the mRNA or the protein for degradation. For instance, one can introduce a construct that encodes ubiquitin such that a ubiquitin fusion protein is produced. This protein will be likely to have a shorter half-life than the wildtype protein. See, e.g., Johnson et al. (1992), herein incorporated by reference.
In a preferred mode, a gene of interest is completely disrupted in order to ensure that there is no residual function of the gene. One can disrupt a gene by “classical” or PCR-based methods. The “classical” method of gene knockout is described by Rothstein (1991), herein incorporated by reference. However, it is preferable to use a PCR-based deletion method because it is faster and less labor intensive.
A preferred method to delete a gene is a one-step, polymerase chain reaction (PCR) based gene deletion method (Rothstein, 1991). Gene specific primer pairs are designed for PCR amplification of the plasmid pFA6a-KanMX4 (Wach et al., 1994), which teachings are herein incorporated by reference. The 3′ ends of the upstream and downstream gene specific primers have been designed to include 18 basepairs (bp) and 19 bp, respectively, of nucleotide homology flanking the KanMX gene of the plasmid pFA6a-KanMX4 template. All of the gene specific primer pairs contain these complementary sequences, such that the same plasmid pFA6a-KanMX4 template can be used for all of the first round PCR reactions. At their 5′ ends, the primers each have gene specific sequence homologies. The upstream primer contains a nucleotide sequence which includes the start codon of the gene to be knocked out and the sequence immediately upstream of the start codon. The downstream primer contains a nucleotide sequence which includes the stop codon of the gene and the sequence immediately downstream of the stop codon. For each set of primers, the sequences of the gene are derived from the 5′ and 3′ ends of the target DNA sequence.
The upstream and downstream primers are then used to amplify the pFA6a-KanMX4 by PCR using standard conditions for PCR. Hybridization conditions for specific gene-specific primers can be experimentally determined, or estimated by a number of formulas. One such formula is Tm=81.5+16.6 (log10[Na+])+0.41 (fraction G+C)−(600/N). See Sambrook et al. pages 11.46–11.47. The products of the first round PCR reactions are DNA molecules containing the KanMX marker (conferring resistance to the drug G-418 in S. cerevisiae) flanked on both ends by 18 bp of gene specific sequences.
The gene specific flanking sequences are extended during the second round PCR reactions The sequences of the two gene specific PCR primers are derived from the 45 bp immediately upstream (including the start codon) and the 45 bp immediately downstream (including the stop codon) of each gene. Thus, following the second round of PCR the product contains the KanMX marker flanked by 45 bp of gene specific sequences corresponding to the sequences flanking the gene's ORF. The PCR products are purified by an isopropanol precipitation, and shipped with the analytical primers (see below) to the consortium members on dry ice. The precipitated PCR products are resuspended in TE buffer (10 mM Tris-HCl [pH 7.6], 1 mM EDTA).
The various mutations are constructed in two related Saccharomyces cerevisiae strains, BY4741 (MATα his3 Δ1 leu2 Δ0 met15 Δ0 ura3 Δ0) and BY4743 (MATα/MATα his3Δ1/his3Δ1 leu2Δ0/leu2Δ0 LYS2/lys2Δ0 met15Δ0/MET15 ura3Δ0/ura3Δ0) (Brachmann et al., 1998). Both of these strains are transformed with the PCR products by the lithium acetate method as described by Ito et al., 1983, and Schiestl and Gietz, 1989, herein incorporated by reference. The flanking, gene-specific yeast sequences target the integration event by homologous recombination to the desired locus (FIG. 1). Transformants are selected on rich medium (YPD) which contains G-418 (Geneticin, Life Technologies, Inc.) as described by Guthrie and Fink, 1991, herein incorporated by reference. Ideally, independent mutations are isolated in the haploid (BY4741) and the diploid (BY4743) strains. The heterozygous mutant diploid strain is then sporulated, and subjected to tetrad analysis (Sherman, 1991; Sherman and Wakem, 1991, herein incorporated by reference). This allows for the isolation of the mutation in a MATα haploid strain. The two independently isolated MATα and MATα haploid strains are then mated to create a homozygous mutant diploid strain.
Methods to Characterize Yeast Gene Function
One of skill in the art will recognize that a number of methods can be used to characterize the function of a yeast gene. In general, the preferred strategy depends upon the assumptions made regarding the function of the gene. For example, if one creates a conditional allele of the gene, then one can engineer a mutant strain wherein the wildtype allele has been replaced by a conditional allele. See, e.g., Stark (1998) The strain is constructed and propagated under the permissive condition, and then the strain is switched to the non-permissive (or restrictive) condition and effects upon the cell's phenotype is monitored. This can be done in a haploid cell, or in a diploid cell as either a homozygous or heterozygous mutant.
A preferred method of characterizing the function of a gene is to knockout the gene completely and then analyze the knockout yeast strain by tetrad analysis This method is preferred because one does not need to be able to engineer a conditional allele Furthermore, as the knockout is a null allele, one is assured that it is the null phenotype that is assessed, rather than a phenotype resulting from a potentially hypomorphic conditional allele. In addition, a complete knockout of the gene can be constructed in a diploid strain where the potentially essential function of the gene is complemented by the second copy of the gene.
Once the knockout has been constructed as a heterozygous mutant, the effects of the mutation is assessed in the haploid spores. Tetrad analysis of the haploid spores allows for the genetic characterization of a mutation because one can determine the effect of the homozygous gene linked to the knockout marker (G-418 resistance).
Any of a number of different tests can be performed to determine the effect of knocking out the selected target gene. For instance, one can determine whether the yeast cell is more or less responsive to various pharmaceutical compounds (e.g., see FIG. 4), pH, salinity, osmotic pressure, temperature or nutritional conditions. One can determine whether the knockout results in a different observable phenotype (e.g., see FIG. 22). In addition, yeast cells can be tested for their ability to mate, sporulate and bud relative to a wild type control. Thus, these tests may provide important information regarding the function of the target gene.
Methods to Identify Potential Homologs in Other Organisms
Once a gene has been identified as a potential target, one can determine whether the gene from yeast has homologs in other organisms, such as humans, non-human mammals, other vertebrates such as fish, insects, plants, or other fungi.
One method of determining whether an S. cerevisiae gene has homologs is by the use of low stringency hybridization and washing. In general, genomic DNA or cDNA libraries can be screened using probes derived from the target S. cerevisiae gene using methods known in the art. See above and pages 8.46–8.49 and 9 46–9.58 of Sambrook et al., 1989, herein incorporated by reference. Preferably, genomic DNA libraries are screened because cDNA libraries generally will not contain all the mRNA species an organism can make. Genomic DNA libraries from a variety of different organisms, such as plants, fungi, insects, and various mammalian species are commercially available and can be screened. This method is useful for determining whether there are homologs in organisms whose DNA sequences have not been characterized extensively.
A second method of determining whether an S. cerevisiae gene has homologs is through the use of degenerate PCR. In this method, degenerate oligonucleotides that encode short amino acid sequences of the S. cerevisiae gene are made Methods of preparing degenerate oligonucleotides and using them in PCR to isolate uncloned genes are well known in the art (see Sambrook, pages 14.7–14.8, and Crawley et al., 1997, pages 4.2.1–4.2.5, herein incorporated by reference).
The most preferred method is to compare the sequence of the S. cerevisiae gene to sequences from other organism. Either the nucleotide sequence of the gene or its encoded amino acid sequence is compared to the sequences from other organisms. Preferably, the encoded amino acid sequence of the yeast gene is compared to amino acid sequences from other organisms. The sequence of the yeast gene can be compared by a number of different algorithms well known in the art. In general, computer programs designed for sequence analysis are used for the purpose of comparing the sequence of interest to a large database of other sequences. Any computer program designed for the purpose of sequence comparison can be used in this method. Some computer programs, such as Fasta, produce results that are typically presented as “% sequence identity.” Other computer programs, such as blastp, produce results presented as “p-values.” Preferably, the target gene sequence will be compared to other sequences using the blastp algorithm.
Nucleotide and amino acid sequences of target genes may be compared to vertebrate sequences, including human and non-human mammalian sequences, as well as plant and insect sequences using any one of the large number of programs known in the art for comparing nucleotide and amino acid sequences to sequences in a database. Examples of such programs are Fasta and blastp, discussed above. Examples of databases which can be searched include GENBANK®-EMBL, SWISSPROT®, DDBJ, GENESEQ® and EST databases, as well as databases containing combinations of these databases.
As a further characterization, any potential homologs from other organisms can be assessed for their ability to functionally complement the yeast mutant. This can be achieved by first cloning the homolog into a S. cerevisiae expression vector by standard methods. This plasmid can then be transformed into the heterozygous mutant diploid strain. Upon sporulation and tetrad dissection the ability of the homolog to complement the yeast function is determined by whether or not the haploid spores complements the yeast knockout and restores the wildtype function of the haploid spore. The ability of the homolog to complement the yeast mutant would indicate shared function(s) and suggest that the homolog may be part of a similar pathway in the other organism.
Nucleic Acids, Vectors and Production of Recombinant Polypeptides
The present invention provides nucleic acids and recombinant DNA vectors which comprise S. cerevisiae RIG and target gene DNA sequences. Specifically, vectors comprising all or portions of the DNA sequence of HES1, YMR134w, YER034w, YJL105w, YKL077w, YGR046w, YJR041c, YER044c and YLR100w are provided. The vectors of this invention also include those comprising DNA sequences which hybridize under stringent conditions to the HES1, YMR134w, YER034w, YJL105w, YKL077w, YGR046w, YJR041c, YER044c and YLR100w gene sequences, and conservatively modified variations thereof.
The nucleic acids of this invention include single-stranded and double-stranded DNA, RNA, oligonucleotides, antisense molecules, or hybrids thereof and may be isolated from biological sources or synthesized chemically or by recombinant DNA methodology. The nucleic acids, recombinant DNA molecules and vectors of this invention may be present in transformed or transfected cells, cell lysates, or in partially purified or substantially pure forms.
DNA sequences may be expressed by operatively linking them to an expression control sequence in an appropriate expression vector and employing that expression vector to transform an appropriate unicellular host. Expression control sequences are sequences which control the transcription, post-transcriptional events and translation of DNA sequences. Such operative linking of a DNA sequence of this invention to an expression control sequence, of course, includes, if not already part of the DNA sequence, the provision of a translation initiation codon, ATG, in the correct reading frame upstream of the DNA sequence.
A wide variety of host/expression vector combinations may be employed in expressing the DNA sequences of this invention. Useful expression vectors, for example, may consist of segments of chromosomal, non-chromosomal and synthetic DNA sequences.
Useful expression vectors for bacterial hosts include bacterial plasmids, such as those from E. coli, including, pBLUESCRIPT® pGEX-2T, pUC vectors, col E1, pCR1, pBR322, pMB9 and their derivatives, wider host range plasmids, such as RP4, phage DNAs, e.g., the numerous derivatives of phage lambda, e.g., NM989, λGT10 and λGT11, and other phages, e.g., M13 and filamentous single stranded phage DNA. In yeast, vectors include Yeast Integrating plasmids (e.g., YIp5) and Yeast Replicating plasmids (the YRp and YEp series plasmids), Yeast centromere plasmids (the YCp series plasmids), pGPD-2, 2μ plasmids and derivatives thereof, and improved shuttle vectors such as those described in Gietz and Sugino, Gene, 74, pp. 527–34 (1988) (YIplac, YEplac and YCplac). Expression in mammalian cells can be achieved using a variety of plasmids, including pSV2, pBC12BI, and p91023, as well as lytic virus vectors (e.g., vaccinia virus, adeno virus, and baculovirus), episomal virus vectors (e.g., bovine papillomavirus), and retroviral vectors (e.g., murine retroviruses). Useful vectors for insect cells include baculoviral vectors and pVL 941.
In addition, any of a wide variety of expression control sequences—sequences that control the expression of a DNA sequence when operatively linked to it—may be used in these vectors to express the DNA sequences of this invention. Such useful expression control sequences include the expression control sequences associated with structural genes of the foregoing expression vectors Expression control sequences that control transcription include, e.g., promoters, enhancers and transcription termination sites. Expression control sequences that control post-transcriptional events include splice donor and acceptor sites and sequences that modify the half-life of the transcribed RNA, e.g., sequences that direct poly(A) addition or binding sites for RNA-binding proteins. Expression control sequences that control translation include ribosome binding sites, sequences which direct expression of the polypeptide to particular cellular compartments, and sequences in the 5′ and 3′ untranslated regions that modify the rate or efficiency of translation
Examples of useful expression control sequences include, for example, the early and late promoters of SV40 or adenovirus, the lac system, the trp system, the TAC or TRC system, the T3 and T7 promoters, the major operator and promoter regions of phage lambda, the control regions of fd coat protein, the promoter for 3-phosphoglycerate kinase or other glycolytic enzymes, the promoters of acid phosphatase, e.g, Pho5, the promoters of the yeast α-mating system, the GAL1 or GAL10 promoters, and other constitutive and inducible promoter sequences known to control the expression of genes of prokaryotic or eukaryotic cells or their viruses, and various combinations thereof. See, e.g., The Molecular Biology of the Yeast Saccharomyces (eds. Strathern, Jones and Broach) Cold Spring Harbor Lab., Cold Spring Harbor, N.Y. for details on yeast molecular biology in general and on yeast expression systems (pp. 181–209) (incorporated herein by reference)).
DNA vector design for transfection into mammalian cells should include appropriate sequences to promote expression of the gene of interest, including: appropriate transcription initiation, termination and enhancer sequences; efficient RNA processing signals such as splicing and polyadenylation signals; sequences that stabilize cytoplasmic mRNA; sequences that enhance translation efficiency (i.e., Kozak consensus sequence); sequences that enhance protein stability; and when desired, sequences that enhance protein secretion. A great number of expression control sequences—constitutive, inducible and/or tissue-specific—are known in the art and may be utilized. For eukaryotic cells, expression control sequences typically include a promoter, an enhancer derived from immunoglobulin genes, SV40, cytomegalovirus, etc., and a polyadenylation sequence which may include splice donor and acceptor sites Substantial progress in the development of mammalian cell expression systems has been made in the last decade and many aspects of the system are well characterized.
Preferred DNA vectors also include a marker gene and means for amplifying the copy number of the gene of interest. DNA vectors may also comprise stabilizing sequences (e.g., ori- or ARS-like sequences and telomere-like sequences), or may alternatively be designed to favor directed or non-directed integration into the host cell genome. In a preferred embodiment, DNA sequences of this invention are inserted in frame into an expression vector that allows high level expression of an RNA which encodes a fusion protein comprising encoded DNA sequence of interest.
Of course, not all vectors and expression control sequences will function equally well to express the DNA sequences of this invention. Neither will all hosts function equally well with the same expression system. However, one of skill in the art may make a selection among these vectors, expression control sequences and hosts without undue experimentation and without departing from the scope of this invention. For example, in selecting a vector, the host must be considered because the vector must be replicated in it. The vector's copy number, the ability to control that copy number, the ability to control integration, if any, and the expression of any other proteins encoded by the vector, such as antibiotic or other selection markers, should also be considered.
In selecting an expression control sequence, a variety of factors should also be considered. These include, for example, the relative strength of the sequence, its controllability, and its compatibility with the DNA sequence of this invention, particularly with regard to potential secondary structures. Unicellular hosts should be selected by consideration of their compatibility with the chosen vector, the toxicity of the product coded for by the DNA sequences of this invention, their secretion characteristics, their ability to fold the polypeptide correctly, their fermentation or culture requirements, and the ease of purification from them of the products coded for by the DNA sequences of this invention.
Within these parameters, one of skill in the art may select various vector/expression control sequence/host combinations that will express the DNA sequences of this invention in fermentation or in other large scale cultures.
Given the strategies described herein, one of skill in the art can construct a variety of vectors and nucleic acid molecules comprising functionally equivalent nucleic acids. DNA cloning and sequencing methods are well known to those of skill in the art and are described in an assortment of laboratory manuals, including Sambrook et al, supra, 1989; and Ausubel et al., 1994 Supplement. Product information from manufacturers of biological, chemical and immunological reagents also provide useful information.
The recombinant DNA molecules and more particularly, the expression vectors of this invention may be used to express the RIG and target genes from S. cerevisiae as recombinant polypeptides in a heterologous host cell. The polypeptides of this invention may be full-length or less than full-length polypeptide fragments recombinantly expressed from the DNA sequences according to this invention. Such polypeptides include variants and muteins having biological activity. The polypeptides of this invention may be soluble, or may be engineered to be membrane- or substrate-bound using techniques well known in the art.
Particular details of the transfection, expression and purification of recombinant proteins are well documented and are understood by those of skill in the art. Further details on the various technical aspects of each of the steps used in recombinant production of foreign genes in mammalian cell expression systems can be found in a number of texts and laboratory manuals in the art. See, e.g., Ausubel et al., 1989, herein incorporated by reference.
Transformation and other methods of introducing nucleic acids into a host cell (e.g., transfection, electroporation, liposome delivery, membrane fusion techniques, high velocity DNA-coated pellets, viral infection and protoplast fusion) can be accomplished by a variety of methods which are well known in the art (see, for instance, Ausubel, supra, and Sambrook, supra). Bacterial, yeast, plant or mammalian cells are transformed or transfected with an expression vector, such as a plasmid, a cosmid, or the like, wherein the expression vector comprises the DNA of interest. Alternatively, the cells may be infected by a viral expression vector comprising the DNA or RNA of interest. Depending upon the host cell, vector, and method of transformation used, transient or stable expression of the polypeptide will be constitutive or inducible. One having ordinary skill in the art will be able to decide whether to express a polypeptide transiently or stably, and whether to express the protein constitutively or inducibly.
A wide variety of unicellular host cells are useful in expressing the DNA sequences of this invention. These hosts may include well known eukaryotic and prokaryotic hosts, such as strains of E. coli, Pseudomonas, Bacillus, Streptomyces, fungi, yeast, insect cells such as Spodoptera frugiperda (SF9), animal cells such as CHO, BHK, MDCK and various murine cells, e.g., 3T3 and WEHI cells, African green monkey cells such as COS 1, COS 7, BSC 1, BSC 40, and BMT 10, and human cells such as VERO, WI38, and HeLa cells, as well as plant cells in tissue culture.
Expression of recombinant DNA molecules according to this invention may involve post-translational modification of a resultant polypeptide by the host cell. For example, in mammalian cells expression might include, among other things, glycosylation, lipidation or phosphorylation of a polypeptide, or cleavage of a signal sequence to produce a “mature” protein. Accordingly, the polypeptide expression products of this invention encompass full-length polypeptides and modifications or derivatives thereof, such as glycosylated versions of such polypeptides, mature proteins and polypeptides retaining a signal peptide. The present invention also provides for biologically active fragments of the polypeptides. Sequence analysis or genetic manipulation may identify those domains responsible for the function of the protein in yeast. Thus, the invention encompasses the production of biologically active fragments The invention also encompasses fragments of the polypeptides which would be valuable as antigens for the production of antibodies, or as competitors for antibody binding.
The polypeptides of this invention may be fused to other molecules, such as genetic, enzymatic or chemical or immunological markers such as epitope tags. Fusion partners include, inter alia, myc, hemagglutinin (HA), GST, immunoglobulins, β-galactosidase, biotin trpE, protein A, β-lactamase, α amylase, maltose binding protein, alcohol dehydrogenase, polyhistidine (for example, six histidine at the amino and/or carboxyl terminus of the polypeptide), lacZ, green fluorescent protein (GFP), yeast α mating factor, GAL4 transcription activation or DNA binding domain, luciferase, and serum proteins such as ovalbumin, albumin and the constant domain of IgG. See, e.g., Godowski et al., 1988, and Ausubel et al., supra. Fusion proteins may also contain sites for specific enzymatic cleavage, such as a site that is recognized by enzymes such as Factor XIII, trypsin, pepsin, or any other enzyme known in the art. Fusion proteins will typically be made by either recombinant nucleic acid methods, as described above, chemically synthesized using techniques such as those described in Merrifield, 1963, herein incorporated by reference, or produced by chemical cross-linking
Tagged fusion proteins permit easy localization, screening and specific binding via the epitope or enzyme tag. See Ausubel, 1991, Chapter 16. Some tags allow the protein of interest to be displayed on the surface of a phagemid, such as M13, which is useful for panning agents that may bind to the desired protein targets. Thus, fusion proteins are useful for screening potential agents using the proteins encoded by the target genes.
One advantage of fusion proteins is that an epitope or enzyme tag can simplify purification. These fusion proteins may be purified, often in a single step, by affinity chromatography For example, a His6 tagged protein can be purified on a Ni affinity column and a GST fusion protein can be purified on a glutathione affinity column Similarly, a fusion protein comprising the Fc domain of IgG can be purified on a Protein A or Protein G column and a fusion protein comprising an epitope tag such as myc can be purified using an immunoaffinity column containing an anti-c-myc antibody It is preferable that the epitope tag be separated from the protein encoded by the target gene by an enzymatic cleavage site that can be cleaved after purification. A second advantage of fusion proteins is that the epitope tag can be used to bind the fusion protein to a plate or column through an affinity linkage for screening targets.
In addition, fusion proteins comprising the constant domain of IgG or other serum proteins can increase a protein's half-life in circulation for use therapeutically. Fusion proteins comprising a targeting domain can be used to direct the protein to a particular cellular compartment or tissue target in order to increase the efficacy of the functional domain. See, e.g., U.S. Pat. No. 5,668,255, which discloses a fusion protein containing a domain which binds to an animal cell coupled to a translocation domain of a toxin protein. Fusion proteins may also be useful for improving antigenicity of a protein target. Examples of making and using fusion proteins are found in U.S. Pat. Nos. 5,225,538, 5,821,047, and 5,783,398, which are hereby incorporated by reference.
Production of Polypeptide Fragments, Derivatives and Muteins and Biological Assays Thereof
Fragments, derivatives and muteins of polypeptides encoded by the RIG and target genes can be produced recombinantly or chemically, as discussed above. One can produce fragments of a polypeptide encoding a target gene by truncating the DNA encoding the target gene and then expressing it recombinantly. Alternatively, one can produce a fragment by chemically synthesizing a portion of the full-length polypeptide. One may also produce a fragment by enzymatically cleaving the polypeptide. Methods of producing polypeptide fragments are well-known in the art (see, eg., Sambrook et al. and Ausubel et al. supra).
One may produce muteins of a polypeptide encoded by a target gene by introducing mutations into the DNA sequence of the gene and then expressing it recombinantly These mutations may be targeted, in which particular encoded amino acids are altered, or may be untargeted, in which random encoded amino acids within the polypeptide are altered. Muteins with random amino acid alterations can be screened for a particular biological activity. Methods of producing muteins with targeted or random amino acid alterations are well known in the art, see e.g., Sambrook et al., Ausubel et al., supra, and U.S. Pat. No. 5,223,408, herein incorporated by reference. Production of polypeptide derivatives are well known in the art, see above.
There are a number of methods known in the art to determine whether fragments, muteins and derivatives of polypeptides encoded by a target gene has the same, enhanced or decreased biological activity as the wild type polypeptide. One of the simplest assays involves determining whether the fragment, mutein or derivative can complement the gene function in a cell which does not contain the target gene. For instance, one can introduce a DNA encoding a fragment or mutein of a polypeptide encoded by a gene into a mutant yeast strain which has the gene of interest deleted (see above under “Methods of Producing Mutant Yeast Strains”). If introduction of the DNA encoding the fragment or mutein permits the mutant yeast strain to regain its wildtype phenotype, then the fragment or mutein is biologically active, and complements the deleted gene.
In one type of screening assay, the target gene or a fragment thereof can be used as the “bait” in a two-hybrid screen to identify molecules that physically interact with the target gene. See Chien et al. (1991).
In addition, one may generate genome expression profiles of yeast strains to characterize the gene's function. In order to generate such profiles, a non-functional or conditional allele of the gene in a yeast strain must be produced. The conditional or non-functional allele may be constructed by any technique known in the art, including deleting the gene as described above, making a temperature-sensitive allele of the gene or operably linking the gene to an inducible promoter for regulated expression. If the yeast strain contains a non-functional allele, a genome expression profile of the mutant strain is compared to a wild type strain. If the yeast strain contains a conditional allele, the yeast strain is first grown under the permissive condition to permit expression of the functional product of the target1 gene. Then, the yeast strain is shifted to the nonpermissive condition, in which the product of the target gene is not made or is non-functional. The genome expression profile of the yeast strain under the nonpermissive condition may be compared to the same yeast strain grown under permissive conditions or a wildtype yeast strain. Structure-function studies can be performed wherein a library of mutant forms of the gene is screened for the ability to complement the knock-out mutant strain.
Fragments, muteins and derivatives may also be micro-injected into a mutant yeast strain in which the gene of interest is deleted to determine whether the introduction of the fragment, mutein or derivative can complement the genetic defect. Similarly, fragments, muteins and derivatives may be microinjected into other cell types in which the homologous gene has been deleted.
Finally, if a particular biochemical activity of a polypeptide encoded by a target gene is known, this activity can be measured for fragments, muteins or derivatives of the polypeptide. For instance, if a target gene encodes a kinase, one could measure the kinase activity of the wild type polypeptide and compare it to the activity of a fragment, mutein or derivative.
Production of Antibodies
The polypeptides encoded by the target genes of this invention may be used to elicit polyclonal or monoclonal antibodies which bind to the target gene product or a homolog from another species using a variety of techniques well known to those of skill in the art. Alternatively, peptides corresponding to specific regions of the polypeptide encoded by the target gene may be synthesized and used to create immunological reagents according to well known methods.
Antibodies directed against the polypeptides of this invention are immunoglobulin molecules or portions thereof that are immunologically reactive with the polypeptide of the present invention. It should be understood that the antibodies of this invention include antibodies immunologically reactive with fusion proteins.
Antibodies directed against a polypeptide encoded by a target gene may be generated by immunization of a mammalian host. Such antibodies may be polyclonal or monoclonal. Preferably they are monoclonal. Methods to produce polyclonal and monoclonal antibodies are well known to those of skill in the art. For a review of such methods, see Harlow and Lane (1988), Yelton et al (1981), and Ausubel et al. (1989) herein incorporated by reference. Determination of immunoreactivity with a polypeptide encoded by an target gene may be made by any of several methods well known in the art, including by immunoblot assay and ELISA.
Monoclonal antibodies with affinities of 10−8 M−1 or preferably 10−9 to 10−10 M−1 or stronger are typically made by standard procedures as described, e.g., in Harlow and Lane, 1988 or Goding, 1986. Briefly, appropriate animals are selected and the desired immunization protocol followed. After the appropriate period of time, the spleens of such animals are excised and individual spleen cells fused, typically, to immortalized myeloma cells under appropriate selection conditions. Thereafter, the cells are clonally separated and the supernatants of each clone tested for their production of an appropriate antibody specific for the desired region of the antigen.
Other suitable techniques involve in vitro exposure of lymphocytes to the antigenic polypeptides, or alternatively, to selection of libraries of antibodies in phage or similar vectors. See Huse et al., 1989. The polypeptides and antibodies of the present invention may be used with or without modification. Frequently, polypeptides and antibodies will be labeled by joining, either covalently or non-covalently, a substance which provides for a detectable signal. A wide variety of labels and conjugation techniques are known and are reported extensively in both the scientific and patent literature. Suitable labels include radionuclides, enzymes, substrates, cofactors, inhibitors, fluorescent agents, chemiluminescent agents, magnetic particles and the like. Patents teaching the use of such labels include U.S. Pat. Nos. 3,817,837; 3,850,752; 3,939,350, 3,996,345; 4,277,437; 4,275,149 and 4,366,241, herein incorporated by reference. Also, recombinant immunoglobulins may be produced (see U.S. Pat. No. 4,816,567, herein incorporated by reference)
An antibody of this invention may also be a hybrid molecule formed from immunoglobulin sequences from different species (e.g., mouse and human) or from portions of immunoglobulin light and heavy chain sequences from the same species An antibody may be a single-chain antibody or a humanized antibody. It may be a molecule that has multiple binding specificities, such as a bifunctional antibody prepared by any one of a number of techniques known to those of skill in the art including the production of hybrid hybridomas, disulfide exchange, chemical cross-linking, addition of peptide linkers between two monoclonal antibodies, the introduction of two sets of immunoglobulin heavy and light chains into a particular cell line, and so forth.
The antibodies of this invention may also be human monoclonal antibodies, for example those produced by immortalized human cells, by SCID-hu mice or other non-human animals capable of producing “human” antibodies, or by the expression of cloned human immunoglobulin genes. The preparation of humanized antibodies is taught by U.S. Pat. Nos. 5,777,085 and 5,789,554, herein incorporated by reference.
In sum, one of skill in the art, provided with the teachings of this invention, has available a variety of methods which may be used to alter the biological properties of the antibodies of this invention including methods which would increase or decrease the stability or half-life, immunogenicity, toxicity, affinity or yield of a given antibody molecule, or to alter it in any other way that may render it more suitable for a particular application.
Therapeutic Methods Using Nucleic Acids Encoding Target Genes
Once a target gene has been identified in S. cerevisiae, the gene and its nucleotide sequence can be exploited in a number of ways depending upon the nature of the target gene. One method is to use the primary sequence of the target gene itself. For instance, antisense oligonucleotides can be produced which are complementary to the mRNA of the target gene. Antisense oligonucleotides can be used to inhibit transcription or translation of a target yeast gene. Production of antisense oligonucleotides effective for therapeutic use is well-known in the art, see Agrawal et al., 1998, Lavrovsky et al., 1997, and Crooke, 1998, herein incorporated by reference. Antisense oligonucleotides are often produced using derivatized or modified nucleotides in order to increase half-life or bioavailability.
The primary sequence of the target gene can also be used to design ribozymes that can target and cleave specific target gene sequences. There are a number of different types of ribozymes. Most synthetic ribozymes are generally hammerhead, Tetrahymena and hairpin ribozymes. Methods of designing and using ribozymes to cleave specific RNA species are known in the art, see Zhao et al., 1998, Larovsky et al., 1997, and Eckstein, 1997, herein incorporated by reference. Although hammerhead ribozymes are generally ineffective in yeast (Castanotto et al., 1998), other types of ribozymes may be effective in yeast, and hammerhead and other types of ribozymes are effective in other organisms.
As discussed above, one can use target yeast genes to identify homologous genes in plants and animals, including humans. Therefore, one can design ribozymes and antisense molecules to these genes from plants and animals, including humans
Methods Using Neutralizing Antibodies to Proteins Encoded by Target Genes
The protein encoded by the target gene can be used to elicit neutralizing antibodies for use as inhibit the function of the target protein. An antibody may be an especially good inhibitor if the target gene of interest encodes a protein which is expressed on the cell surface, such as an integral membrane protein. Although polyclonal antibodies may be made, monoclonal antibodies are preferred. Monoclonal antibodies can be screened individually in order to isolate those that are neutralizing or inhibitory for the protein encoded by the target gene. Monoclonal antibodies also may be screened for inhibition of a particular function of a protein. For instance, if it is known that the target gene in yeast encodes an enzyme, one can identify antibodies that inhibit the enzymatic activity. Alternatively, if the specific function of a target gene is unknown, one can measure inhibition of the protein by determining the genome expression profile for yeast cells contacted with the neutralizing antibody. Similarly, one can screen antibodies which are directed against animal, plant or human proteins for inhibition of the protein's activity in appropriate cells.
Monoclonal antibodies which inhibit a target protein in vitro may be humanized for therapeutic use using methods well-known in the art, see, e.g., U.S. Pat. Nos. 5,777,085 and 5,789,554, herein incorporated by reference. Monoclonal antibodies may also be engineered as single-chain antibodies using methods well-known in the art for therapeutic use, see, e.g., U.S. Pat. Nos. 5,091,513, 5,587,418, and 5,608,039, herein incorporated by reference.
Neutralizing antibodies may also be used diagnostically. For instance, the binding site of a neutralizing antibody to the protein encoded by the target gene can be used to help identify domains that are required for the protein's activity The information about the critical domains of a target protein can be used to design inhibitors that bind to the critical domains of the target protein. In addition, neutralizing antibodies can be used to validate whether a potential inhibitor of an target protein inhibits the protein in in vitro assays.
Methods of Identifying Functional Attributes of the Target
Once a target gene in yeast is identified, the GRM (or an equivalent) is used to help identify critical functional attributes of the gene. In order to determine the particular transcripts a target gene modifies, one overexpresses the target gene in the cells of the GRM. One may also overexpress a conditional allele of the gene in the cells of the GRM. Then, one identifies a subset of genes that are either induced or repressed by overexpression of the target gene. Methods for processing data using the GRM are also disclosed in U.S. Pat. Nos. 5,569,588 and 5,777,888; see also U.S. patent application Ser. No. 09/076,668, now pending. Once the genes that are regulated by a target gene are identified, one can use this information in a number of ways to identify potential inhibitors or activators of the target protein. Alternatively, one may determine the genome expression profile of a cell that has a mutation in a target gene, or a cell that has the endogenous target gene replaced either with an altered allele or with the counterpart gene from another species. Similarly, plant and animal GRMs, including human GRMs, overexpressing target genes can be used in the same way to identify potential inhibitors or activators of the target protein in these organisms.
Another method for isolating a potential inhibitors or activators of a target gene is to use information obtained from the “two-hybrid system” to identify and clone genes encoding proteins that interact with the polypeptide encoded by the target gene (see, e g., Chien et al.,1991, incorporated herein by reference). The amino acid sequences of the polypeptides identified by the two-hybrid system can be used to design inhibitory peptides to the target protein. The “two-hybrid” system using libraries of the appropriate species can also be used to identify and clone genes encoding proteins that interact with the polypeptide encoded by the target genes.
Methods of Using Target Proteins
Recombinantly expressed target proteins or functional fragments thereof can be used to screen libraries of natural, semisynthetic or synthetic compounds. Particularly useful types of libraries include combinatorial small organic molecule libraries, phage display libraries, and combinatorial peptide libraries. Methods of determining whether components of the library bind to a particular polypeptide are well known in the art. In general, the polypeptide target is attached to solid support surface by non-specific or specific binding. Specific binding can be accomplished using an antibody which recognizes the protein that is bound to a solid support, such as a plate or column. Alternatively, specific binding may be through an epitope tag, such as GST binding to a glutathione-coated solid support, or IgG fusion protein binding to a Protein A solid support. Alternatively, the recombinantly expressed protein or fragments thereof may be expressed on the surface of phage, such as M13 A library in mobile phase is incubated under conditions to promote specific binding between the target and a compound. Compounds which bind to the target can then be identified. Alternately, the library is attached to a solid support and the polypeptide target is in the mobile phase.
Binding between a compound and target can be determined by a number of methods. The binding can be identified by such techniques as competitive ELISAs or RIAs, for example, wherein the binding of a compound to a target will prevent an antibody to the target from binding. These methods are well-known in the art, see, e.g., Harlow and Lane, supra. Another method is to use a BIACORE® device to measure interactions between a target and a compound using methods provided by the manufacturer. A preferred method is automated high throughput screening, see, e.g., Burbaum et al., 1997, and Schullek et al., 1997, herein incorporated by reference.
Once a compound that binds to a target is identified, one then determines whether the compound inhibits the activity of the target. If a biological function for the target protein is known, one could determine whether the compound inhibited the biological activity of the protein. For instance, if it is known that the target protein is an enzyme, one can measure the inhibition of enzymatic activity in the presence of the potential inhibitor.
In a preferred embodiment, the target gene is selected from YMR134w, YER034w, YJL105w, YKL077w, YGR046w, YJR041c, YER044c and YLR100w and their mammalian homologs.
Another embodiment of the invention is to use the recombinantly expressed protein for rational drug design. The structure of the recombinant protein may be determined using x-ray crystallography or nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR). Alternatively, one could use computer modeling to determine the structure of the protein. The structure can be used in rational drug design to design potential inhibitory compounds of the target (see, e.g., Clackson, Mattos et al., Hubbard, Cunningham et al., Kubinyi, Kleinberg et al., all herein incorporated by reference).
In another embodiment, potential inhibitors of a regulon target gene can be identified by the following steps:

    
    
        a) creating a host cell in which the target gene has been altered or inactivated by mutation;
        b) comparing gene expression profiles in the mutated host cell to those in a host cell which expresses the normal target gene;
        c) identifying one or more potential target-dependent reporter genes whose expression is altered in the host cell in which the target gene has been altered or inactivated compared to the host cell which expresses the normal target gene; and
        d) screening one or more compounds for their effects on expression of the target-dependent reporter gene.
    
    


If expression of the target-dependent reporter gene increases in the host cell harboring an altered or inactivated target gene, then a potential inhibitor of the regulon target gene will increase expression of the target-dependent reporter gene, and if expression of the target-dependent reporter gene decreases in the host cell harboring an altered or inactivated target gene, then a potential inhibitor of the regulon target gene will decrease expression of the target-dependent reporter gene.
The method may further comprise the step, performed before step d), of assessing the specificity of a potential target-dependent reporter gene by comparing gene expression profiles the potential target-dependent reporter gene to a plurality of genes in a database of compiled gene expression profiles to generate individual expression correlation coefficients wherein a target-dependent reporter gene whose expression correlates with the expression of the regulon target gene and with a minimal number or no other gene is selected over one whose expression correlates with a greater number of genes based on expression correlation coefficients. The method may also encompass upstream sequences that control expression of the target-dependent reporter genes fused to a heterologous coding sequence, and the fusion is used to screen compounds for potential inhibitors of the regulon target gene, as discussed above.
In a preferred embodiment, the target gene is selected from YMR134w, YER034w, YJL105w, YKL077w, YGR046w, YJR041c, YER044c and YLR100w and their mammalian homologs.
Pharmaceutical Applications
Compounds that bind to target proteins or regulate target gene expression can be tested in yeast cell systems and heterologous host cell systems (e.g., human cells) to verify that they do not have undesirable side effects. In addition, the yeast GRM can be used to make sure that the compounds do not adversely alter gene transcription (e.g., in an undesirable way). Of course, certain changes in gene expression may be inevitable and many of these will not be deleterious to the patient or host organism. Once lead compounds have been identified, these compounds can be refined further via rational drug design and other standard pharmaceutical techniques.
The compounds of this invention may be formulated into pharmaceutical compositions and administered in vivo at an effective dose to treat a particular disease or condition. Determination of a preferred pharmaceutical formulation and a therapeutically efficient dose regiment for a given application is within the skill of the art taking into consideration, for example, the condition and weight of the patient, the extent of desired treatment and the tolerance of the patient for the treatment.
Administration of the compounds of this invention, including isolated and purified forms, their salts or pharmaceutically acceptable derivatives thereof, may be accomplished using any conventionally accepted mode of administration.
The pharmaceutical compositions of this invention may be in a variety of forms, which may be selected according to the preferred modes of administration. These include, for example, solid, semi-solid and liquid dosage forms such as tablets, pills, powders, liquid solutions or suspensions, suppositories, and injectable and infusible solutions. The preferred form depends on the intended mode of administration and therapeutic application. Modes of administration may include oral, parenteral, subcutaneous, intravenous, intralesional or topical administration
The compounds of this invention may, for example, be placed into sterile, isotonic formulations with or without cofactors which stimulate uptake or stability. The formulation is preferably liquid, or may be lyophilized powder. For example, the inhibitors may be diluted with a formulation buffer comprising 5.0 mg/ml citric acid monohydrate, 2.7 mg/ml trisodium citrate, 41 mg/ml mannitol, 1 mg/ml glycine and 1 mg/ml polysorbate 20. This solution can be lyophilized, stored under refrigeration and reconstituted prior to administration with sterile Water-For-Injection (USP)
Topical administration includes administration to the skin or mucosa, including surfaces of the lung and eye. Compositions for topical administration, including those for inhalation, may be prepared as a dry powder which may be pressurized or non-pressurized. In non-pressurized powder compositions, the active ingredient in finely divided form may be used in admixture with a larger-sized pharmaceutically acceptable inert carrier comprising particles having a size, for example, of up to 100 micrometers in diameter. Alternatively, the composition may be pressurized and contain a compressed gas, such as nitrogen or a liquified gas propellant. The liquified propellant medium and indeed the total composition is preferably such that the active ingredient does not dissolve therein to any substantial extent
Dosage forms for topical or transdermal administration of a compound of this invention include ointments, pastes, creams, lotions, gels, powders, solutions, sprays, inhalants or patches. The active component is admixed under sterile conditions with a pharmaceutically acceptable carrier and any needed preservatives or buffers as may be required Ophthalmic formulation, ear drops, eye ointments, powders and solutions are also contemplated as being within the scope of this invention.
The pharmaceutical compositions of this invention may also be administered using microspheres, microparticulate delivery systems or other sustained release formulations placed in, near, or otherwise in communication with affected tissues or the bloodstream. Suitable examples of sustained release carriers include semipermeable polymer matrices in the form of shaped articles such as suppositories or microcapsules Implantable or microcapsular sustained release matrices include polylactides (U.S. Pat. No. 3,773,319; EP 58,481), copolymers of L-glutamic acid and gamma ethyl-L-glutamate (Sidman et al., 1985); poly(2-hydroxyethylmethacrylate) or ethylene vinyl acetate (Langer et al., 1981, Langer, 1982)
The compounds of this invention may also be attached to liposomes, which may optionally contain other agents to aid in targeting or administration of the compositions to the desired treatment site. Attachment of the compounds to liposomes may be accomplished by any known cross-linking agent such as heterobifunctional cross-linking agents that have been widely used to couple toxins or chemotherapeutic agents to antibodies for targeted delivery. Conjugation to liposomes can also be accomplished using the carbohydrate-directed cross-linking reagent 4-(4-maleimidophenyl) butyric acid hydrazide (MPBH) (Duzgunes et al., 1992), herein incorporated by reference.
Liposomes containing pharmaceutical compounds may be prepared by well-known methods (See, e.g. DE 3,218,121; Epstein et al., 1985, Hwang et al.,1980; U.S. Pat. Nos. 4,485,045 and 4,544,545). Ordinarily the liposomes are of the small (about 200–800 Angstroms) unilamellar type in which the lipid content is greater than about 30 mol. % cholesterol. The proportion of cholesterol is selected to control the optimal rate of MAG derivative and inhibitor release.
The compositions also will preferably include conventional pharmaceutically acceptable carriers well known in the art (see, e.g., Remington's Pharmaceutical Sciences, 16th Edition, 1980, Mac Publishing Company). Such pharmaceutically acceptable carriers may include other medicinal agents, carriers, genetic carriers, adjuvants, excipients, etc., such as human serum albumin or plasma preparations The compositions are preferably in the form of a unit dose and will usually be administered one or more times a day.
EXAMPLE 1
Preparation of the Genome Report MatrixTM
Construction of Reporter Gene Fusions (Method 1)
The regulatory region of each yeast gene was cloned into one of two vectors, pAB1 or pAB2. The vector pAB1 was constructed in the following manner: First, the polymerase chain reaction (PCR) was used to amplify the transcriptional terminator region from the gene PGK1 using the oligonucleotides 5P-PGKTERM (5′-GATTGAATTCAATTGAAATCGATAG-3′; SEQ ID NO:52) and 3P-PGKTERM (5′-CCGAGGCGCCGAATTTTCGAGTTAT-3′; SEQ ID NO:53). The amplified fragment consists of the 263 base-pair region immediately downstream of the PGK1 stop codon, and contains an EcoRI site at the 5′ end and a NarI site at the 3′ end. These restriction sites were engineered into the two PCR primers (underlined sequences). The terminator was then cloned into YIplac211 that had been linearized with EcoRI and NarI, yielding pAB34. Next, the coding region of the green fluorescent protein (GFP) from Aequoria victoria was amplified by PCR using the oligonucleotides 5P-GFP-ORF (5′-CATGTCTAGAGGAGAAGAACTTTTC-3′; SEQ ID NO:54) and 3P-GFP-ORF (5′-CGCGAATTCCTATTTGTATAGTTCA-3′; SEQ ID NO:55). Again, these oligonucleotides contain engineered XbaI and EcoRI sites at the 5′ and 3′ ends, respectively (underlined). This fragment was cloned into pAB34, linearized with XbaI and EcoRI, to produce pAB35. Finally, the GFP-PGK terminator fragment was moved into the episomal vector YEplac195 (9) as an XbaI/NarI fragment, thereby producing pAB1.
The vector pAB2 is pAB1 with an altered multiple cloning site (MCS). The new MCS contains 8 basepair recognition sites for three restriction enzymes. These larger 8 base-pair recognition sites occur less frequently throughout the yeast genome than the 6 base-pair sites present in the MCS of pAB1. Thus, the utilization of restriction enzymes that recognize 8 base-pair sequences to clone the various regulatory regions (engineered into the PCR primers used to amplify the regions) would minimize the occurrence of those sites within the regions themselves. To construct pAB2, pAB1 was linearized with XbaI and SphI, dropping out the existing MCS, and an adapter containing the new MCS was ligated in. The adapter was made by hybridizing two oligonucleotides, 8Cutter (5′-CGGCGCGCCGCGGCCGCATGGCCGGCCAAT-3′; SEQ ID NO:56) and 8CutEnd (5′-CTAGATTGGCCGGCCATGCGGCCGCGGCGCGCCGCATG-3′; SEQ ID NO:57). This adapter has sites for the restriction enzymes FseI, NotI, and AscI (underlined).
The promoter regions were cloned utilizing PCR of genomic DNA prepared from a strain derived from S288c; JRY147 (MATa SUC2 mal mel gal2 CUP1) The promoter-specific primers were designed such that the proximal primer spanned the start codon of the specific gene and included a few (usually four) codons derived from the gene. The position of the distal primer was determined on a case-by-case basis depending on the distance to, and orientation of, the neighboring open reading frame (ORF) and the restriction sites present. Where the upstream ORF was positioned in a divergent orientation and within 1,200 base-pairs, the size of the promoter fragment amplified was adjusted such that all nucleotides up to, but not including, the start codon of the upstream ORF were present. In cases where the upstream ORF was situated in the same orientation, the amplified fragment was designed to extend into the coding region but not so as to include the start codon. Both primers had restriction enzyme recognition sites engineered into the ends to allow the subsequent cloning of the PCR fragment into pAB1, or pAB2.
Construction of Reporter Gene Fusions (Method 2)
In another method for constructing genome reporter constructs, a vector comprising a marker gene having an amber mutation and a supF tRNA gene which suppresses the amber mutation is used as the parent vector.
A plasmid cloning vector was constructed which comprises a mutant β-lactamase gene with an amber mutation and a supF tRNA gene. Downstream of the supF tRNA gene there is a “stuffer” DNA fragment which is flanked by BsmBI restriction sites. The BsmBI restriction enzyme cuts outside of its six base pair recognition sequence (see, e.g., New England Biolabs 96/97 Catalog, p. 23) and creates a four nucleotide 5′ overhang. When the plasmid cloning vector is digested with BsmBI, the enzyme cleaved within the stuffer DNA and within the adjoining tRNA gene and deleted the four 3′ terminal nucleotides of the gene. The deleted supF tRNA gene encodes a tRNA which cannot fold correctly and is non-functional, i.e., it could not suppress the amber mutation in the mutant β-lactamase gene (β-lactamase (amber)). Downstream from the stuffer DNA fragment is the coding region of a modified green fluorescent protein (“GFP”) gene.
The stuffer DNA was excised from the vector by digestion with BsmBI. The double-stranded DNA at the supF-stuffer fragment junction, produced by BsmBI digestion, is shown below. The tRNA gene sequences are indicated in bold:









(SEQ ID NO:58)










5′ ..supF..TC
CCCCGGAGACGTC..stuffer..



         ..AGGGGG
    CCTCTGCAG..5′



            BsmBI






The 3′ terminal sequence of the supF gene necessary for proper function is TCCCCCACCA (SEQ ID NO:59). The vector, once cleaved with BsmBI, lacks the supF tRNA ACCA terminal nucleotides if the overhangs self-anneals during re-circularization of the plasmid in the absence of insert.
A DNA insert containing the upstream regulatory sequence from a yeast ORF was generated as a PCR fragment. Two oligonucleotides were designed to flank the DNA insert sequences of interest on a template DNA and anneal to opposite strands of the template DNA. These oligonucleotides also contained a sequence at their respective 5′ ends that, when converted into a 5′ overhang (in the double-stranded PCR fragment generated using the oligonucleotides), is complementary to the overhangs on the cloning vector generated by BsmBI endonucleolytic cleavage.
Oligonucleotide #1 comprises the 5′ terminal sequence: 5° CCCCACCA . . . . The remaining nucleotides 3′ to this sequence were designed to anneal to sequences at one end of the DNA insert of choice, in this Example, to one of a multitude of yeast expression control sequences.
As highlighted in bold above, oligonucleotide #1 comprises the base pairs needed to restore the wild-type 3′ terminal end of the supF tRNA gene. These base pairs are located immediately 3′ to the sequence that allows the insert to anneal to the overhang in the BsmBI-digested pAB4 vector.
Oligonucleotide #2 comprises the 5′ terminal sequence: 5′ TCCTG . . . . The remaining nucleotides 3′ to this sequence were designed to anneal to sequences at the other end of the DNA insert of choice, in this Example, to one of a variety of yeast expression control sequences which may be used according to this invention.
The DNA template (S. cerevisiae genomic DNA) and the two oligonucleotides were annealed and the hybrids were amplified by polymerase chain reaction using KLENTAQTM polymerase and PCR buffer according to the manufacturer's instructions (Clonetech). Briefly, 15 ng S. cerevisiae genomic DNA served as template DNA in a 1 μl PCR reaction containing 0.2 mM dNTPs, PCR buffer, KLENTAQTM polymerase, and 1 μl of an 8 μM solution containing the primer pairs. The PCR reaction mixture was subjected to the following steps: a) 94° C. for 3 min; b) 94° C. for 15 sec; c) 52° C. for 30 sec; d) 72° C. for 1 min, 45 sec; and e) 4° C. indefinitely. Steps b) through d) were repeated for a total of 30 cycles. The PCR amplification product was purified away from other components of the reaction by standard methods.
To generate the desired 5′ overhangs on the ends of the PCR amplification product, the PCR fragment was treated with DNA polymerase I in the presence of dTTP and dCTP. Under these conditions, DNA polymerase I fills in 3′ overhangs with its 5′ to 3′ polymerase activity and also generates 5′ overhangs with its 3′ to 5′ exonucleolytic activity, which, in the presence of excess dTTP and dCTP, removes nucleotides in a 3′ to 5′ direction until a thymidine or a cytosine, respectively, is removed and then replaced.
The overhangs generated by this reaction are:

    a) At the 5′ end (supF tRNA restoring end) of the DNA insert:













5′ CCCCACCA..
becomes
5′ CCCCACCA..



        GGGGTGGT..

            TGGT..






    b) At the 3′ end of the DNA insert joined to the GFP coding sequence):














5′ CAGGA..
becomes
5′ C




   GTCCT..

   GTCCT..






This DNA insert, now comprising 5′ overhangs compatible with one of each of the ends of the BsmBI-cleaved pAB4 vector, was used as substrate in a standard ligation reaction with the BsmBI-cleaved pAB4 vector. The resulting ligation mixture was used to transform competent E. coli cells. The cells were plated on agar plates in the presence of ampicillin.
Colonies that grew in the presence of ampicillin were producing functional β-lactamase enzyme and each harbored the desired recombinant DNA molecule, having a DNA insert with a yeast expression control sequence inserted upstream of the modified GFP coding region. The supF gene on vectors which re-ligated without a DNA insert did not express a functional supF tRNA and did not make functional β-lactamase. Thus, they were not found in transformed host cells grown on ampicillin.
Construction of Yeast Strains
Strain ABY11 (MATa leu2Δ1 ura3-52) of S. cerevisiae was used. ABY11 is derived from S288c. GRM arrays were grown at 30° C. on solid casamino acid medium (Difco) with 2% glucose and 0.5% UltraPure Agarose (Gibco BRL) The medium was supplemented with additional amino acids and adenine (Sigma) at the following concentrations: adenine and tryptophan at 30 μg/ml; histidine, methionine, and tyrosine at 20 μg/ml; leucine and lysine at 40 μg/ml. Stock solutions of the supplements were made at 100× concentrations in water. Yeast cells were transformed with the reporter plasmids prepared by Method 1 or Method 2 (above) by the lithium acetate method (Ito et al., 1983, and Schiestl and Gietz, 1989).
Determinations of Reporter Gene Expression Levels
Solutions of test compounds were added directly to the yeast strains or were coated on plates prior to addition of the yeast strains. The individual strains comprising the GRM were maintained as independent colonies (and cultures) in a 96-well format, in medium selecting for the URA3-containing reporter plasmid. Prior to each experiment, fresh dilutions of the reporter-containing strains were inoculated and grown overnight at 30° C. A Hamilton MicroLab 4200, a multichannel gantry robot equipped with a custom pin tool device capable of dispensing 50 nanoliter volumes in a highly reproducible manner, was used to array the matrix of yeast strains in a uniform manner onto solid agar growth media at a density of 1536 reporter strains per 110 cm2 plate. Fifty nanoliters of yeast liquid cultures arrayed onto solid medium by the Hamilton MicroLab 4200 results in colony-to-colony signal reproducibility of less than 5% variation. Once arrayed, each plate was grown at 30° C. for 18 hours or at 25° C. for 24 hours.
The level of fluorescence expressed from each reporter gene fusion was determined using a Molecular Dynamics Fluorimager SI. AIS image analysis software (Imaging Research, Ontario Calif.) was used to quantitate the fluorescence of each colony in the images Generally, the drug treatments were performed at several concentrations, with the analysis based upon the concentration producing the most informative expression profile.
EXAMPLE 2
Identification of HES1 as a Regulon Indicator Gene
The effects of Simvastatin on the GENOME REPORTER MATRIXTM system were tested at a concentration of 20 μg/ml. The HES1 reporter gene construct was induced by a natural log ratio of 4.2 (treated/untreated), indicating that the HES1 reporter had an excellent signal to noise ratio induction in response to Simvastatin. The HES1 gene encodes a protein with a significant amount of similarity with oxysterol binding proteins and has been implicated in isoprenoid metabolism (FIG. 35). Analysis of gene expression data with the GENOME REPORTER MATRIXTM system revealed that HES1 expression is highly correlated with the expression of genes encoding enzymes of the isoprenoid biosynthetic pathway (FIG. 36).
The specificity of the HES1 reporter for inhibitors of ergosterol biosynthesis was tested in silico. The expression of the HES1 reporter was examined in data from 710 experimental treatments of the GENOME REPORTER MATRIXTM system. Basal levels of HES1 reporter gene expression were 0.1 units. Units are defined as an arbitrary fluorescent value that has been normalized such that a value of 1.0 equals the mean reporter fluorescent level of all members of the GENOME REPORTER MATRIXTM system in a given experiment. All treatments (a total of 51) that induced HES1 reporter gene levels to 0.5 units or greater were treatments known to inhibit ergosterol biosynthesis, indicating a high degree of specificity for this pathway (FIG. 37).
The utility of the HES1 reporter gene in a high-throughput screen was tested by incubating a yeast strain harboring the HES1 reporter in a 384-well array containing various concentraions of ergosterol biosynthesis inhibitors (Econazole and Simvastatin) and nonspecific drugs (Flucytosine and Nifedipine). Cells were grown to mid-log phase at 30° C. in casamino acids medium (0 67% yeast nitrogen base, 2% glucose, 2% casamino acids). Cell density was adjusted prior to incubation in various concentrations of drug Arrays were incubated at 30° C. for 24 hrs prior to imaging. The HES1 reporter was found to be specifically induced by Econazole and Simvastatin but not by Flucytosine or Nifedipine.
To further test the viability of this indicator gene in a high-throughput screen, the regulation of the HES1 reporter was tested in two different strain backgrounds ABY11 (MATa leu2Δ1 ura3-52) is a wild-type strain. ABY140 (MATa his3Δ1 leu2Δ0 met15Δ0 pdr5::KanMX ura3Δ0 yor1::KanMX) is a strain containing mutations in two multidrug resistance genes Induction of the HES1 reporter gene in ABY140 was found to be more sensitive to Simvastain and Econazole but not to Flucytosine or Nifedipine when compared to ABY11.
The ABY140 [HES1] strain was used to screen approximately 16,800 chemicals from a combinatorial chemistry library. One percent of these chemicals induced the HES1 indicator gene. Twenty-four of these chemical were further tested in a secondary screen for the ability to induce four additional indicator (also referred to as reporter) genes whose expression are also coordinately regulated with genes encoding ergosterol biosynthetic enzymes. Eight of these twenty-four chemicals also induced these reporter genes, suggesting that these chemicals interfere with ergosterol biosynthesis
This example reveals how a high quality promoter sequence identified from systematic genome expression data can be employed with a significant degree of confidence to identify chemicals with a desired biological activity.
The DNA and amino acid sequence of HES1 is shown in FIGS. 62 and 63, respectively.
EXAMPLE 3
Identification of YJL105w as a Target Gene
YJL105w was a previously uncharacterized ORF which contains a PHD finger suggesting that it functions as a transcription factor (FIG. 1) Gene expression correlation coefficients were calculated for 1532 reporter constructs including known genes involved in sterol biosynthesis. Several uncharacterized genes, including YJL105w, were found to have highly correlated gene expression with genes encoding sterol biosynthetic enzymes. YJL105w expression correlated very well (0.83) with expression of CYB5, a gene involved in ergosterol biosynthesis (FIG. 2). Cyb5p is thought to be an electron donor for sterol modifying enzymes (Mitchell A. G., Martin C E, J. Biol. Chem., 1995, 270(50):29766–72). Expression of YJL105w was induced considerably by drugs that inhibit sterol biosynthesis as well as by a mutation in the gene encoding HMG-CoA Synthase (FIG. 3). The YJL105w reporter construct comprises 1200 base-pairs of DNA sequence 5′ to the ATG start codon and thus, contains sequence information sufficient to confer the observed regulated expression.
To test whether YJL105w has a role in isoprenoid metabolism, a yjl105w mutant where the entire ORF was replaced with the kanamycin resistance gene was constructed. Approximately 5×106 cells of the yjl105w mutant strain and a wild-type control strain (ABY363, MATα his3Δ1 leu2Δ0 lys2Δ0 ura3Δ0) were plated onto separate non-selective agar plates. The sterol biosynthetic inhibitor lovastatin (250 μg) was applied to a sterile disk on each lawn and the cells were allowed to grow overnight at 30° C. The yjl105w mutant strain was found to be significantly more resistant to lovastatin treatment, further implicating this ORF in lipid metabolism (FIG. 4).
YJL105w appears to be fungal-specific since no apparent mammalian counterparts were found. Although YJL105w is not an essential gene, it could provide utility for constructing strains for specific applications. For instance, the resistance to lovastatin conferred by a yjl105w mutant could result from an elevated flux through the isoprenoid biosynthetic pathway. Such a condition may result from an altered composition of the cell's lipid bilayer that triggers the induction of synthesis of isoprenoid biosynthetic enzymes and/or reduces the cell's permeability to lovastatin. In either of these cases, a strain defective for YJL105w could be useful for constructing strains that could grow under extreme situations, such as in industrial applications. Examples of extreme conditions include growth at high or low temperatures (>35° C. or <20° C.) or in osmotically stressful conditions or in the presence of amphipathic solutes. Alternatively, the resistance to lovastatin in the yjl105w mutant could result from decreased expression of membrane transporters or channels that allow entry of foreign compounds (xenobiotics). In this case, overexpression of YJL105w could produce a highly permeablized strain that would have numerous applications where entry of compounds into a cell is limited by permeability or availability of compounds. A mammalian counterpart of this ORF, if found, could be useful as a diagnostic marker for people with high serum cholesterol levels. Individuals that have mutations, null or weak (hypomorphic) alleles, might be expected to have a higher rate of sterol synthesis.
The DNA and protein sequences of YJL105w are depicted in FIGS. 39 and 40, respectively.
EXAMPLE 4
Identification of YMR134w as a Target Gene
YMR134w is an ORF that had been suggested previously to be involved in iron metabolism (FIG. 5). Among 1532 reporter constructs, YMR134w expression was found to be highly correlated with the expression of ERG2 (FIG. 6) and is therefore likely to be involved in lipid metabolism. The YMR134w reporter construct was found to be highly induced by various statins (inhibitors of HMG-CoA reductase) and azole compounds (inhibitors of lanosterol 14-alpha demethylase, ERG11) (FIG. 7). The YMR134w reporter construct comprises 1200 base-pairs of DNA sequence 5′ to the ATG start codon and thus, contains sequence information sufficient to confer the observed regulated expression A database search for YMR134w-related protein sequences revealed a weak similarity to human vascular endothelial growth factor receptor (FIG. 8).
The DNA and protein sequences of YMR134w are depicted in FIGS. 41 and 42, respectively
EXAMPLE 5
Identification of YER044c as a Target Gene
YER044c was a previously uncharacterized yeast ORF with one predicted transmembrane domain (FIG. 9). YER044c expression is significantly correlated with the expression of ERG2 (0.82, FIG. 10). Statins, azoles and a deletion mutant of the ERG11 gene each induce expression of the YER044c reporter construct most significantly in 498 treatments of the GRM (FIG. 11) The YER044c reporter construct comprises 1200 base-pairs of DNA sequence 5′ to the ATG start codon and thus contains sequence information sufficient to confer the observed regulated expression. DNA and proteins sequence database comparisons with the predicted protein sequence of YER044c revealed an apparent Schizosaccharomyces pombe counterpart and numerous mammalian EST apparent counterparts (FIGS. 12–14)
The DNA and protein sequences of YER044c are depicted in FIGS. 43 and 44 respectively. The apparent mouse, human and rat EST counterparts of YER044c are depicted in FIGS. 45–47, respectively.
EXAMPLE 6
Identification of YLR100w as a Target Gene
YLR100w was a previously uncharacterized yeast ORF (FIG. 15). Expression of YLR100w correlated significantly (0.82) with CYB5 in the GRM composed of 6036 reporter constructs in 706 experimental treatments. The correlation of expression of YLR100w to the expression of CYB5 implied a role of YLR100w in lipid metabolism. Expression of the YLR100w reporter was induced significantly by statins, azoles and in a yeast erg11 mutant consistent with a role of YLR100w in lipid metabolism (FIG. 17). Searches of DNA and protein sequence databases for similar sequences revealed a GENBANK® entry for a 17-beta-hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase mouse cDNA (FIG. 18).
The sequence of the mouse cDNA is shown in FIG. 53. Given the protein sequence similarity (FIG. 19) and the fact that yeast is not known to synthesize steroid hormones, it is conceivable that the mouse cDNA encodes a protein with another role in lipid metabolism. In this case, the mammalian protein could have utility as a pharmacological target to modulate lipid metabolism. Another GENBANK® entry was found for a rat ovarian specific protein with significant similarity to YLR100w. The sequence of the rat protein is shown in FIG. 65. Two mouse ESTs were found to be significantly similar to YLR100w. The sequence of the two mouse ESTs are shown in FIGS. 51 and 52. A human EST was found that was similar to YLR100w, but to a lesser extent than the two mouse ESTs.
The DNA and protein sequences of YLR100w are depicted in FIGS. 48 and 49, respectively. The sequence of the human EST is shown in FIG. 50.
EXAMPLE 7
Identification of YER034w as a Target Gene
YER034w is a yeast ORF that had been shown previously not to be essential for cell viability (FIG. 20). Expression of the YER034w reporter construct was found to be correlated (0.75) with the expression of a GPA2 reporter construct in a GRM composed of 1532 reporters treated under 498 experimental conditions (FIG. 21). GPA2 encodes the alpha subunit of a trimeric G protein involved in pseudohyphal differentiation (Lorentz, M. C. and Heitman, J. EMBO J. 1997 16:7008–7018) This correlation suggested that YER034w had a role in the pseudohyphal growth and could represent a new antifungal target
To test this hypothesis, a diploid homozygous yer034w knockout strain was purchased from Research Genetics (Huntsville, Ala.). Wild-type cells (ABY13, MATα/MATalpha his3Δ1/his3Δ1 leu2Δ0/leu2Δ0 met15Δ0/MET15 LYS2/lys2Δ0 ura3Δ0/ura3Δ0) and the homozygous yer034w knockout strain were plated onto low nitrogen plates to stimulate pseudohyphal differentiation. After four days at 25° C., plates were examined under a microscope. The yer034w knockout strain had undergone significantly more differentiation than the wild-type control both in terms of numbers of projections per colony (FIG. 22) and the size of the hyphae. This result implicated YER034w in the dimorphic transition of cells from yeast to pseudohyphae. The ability of fungi to undergo this morphological transition has been suggested to be a critical aspect of fungal pathogenicity. A search for related mammalian protein sequences did not identify any obvious counterparts suggesting that this protein is fungal-specific and may be an amenable anti-fungal target.
The DNA and protein sequences of YER034w are depicted in FIGS. 54 and 55, respectively.
EXAMPLE 8
Identification of YKL0774w as a Target Gene
YKL077w was a previously uncharacterized ORF with one predicted transmembrane domain (FIG. 23). Expression of the YKL077w reporter construct was found to be correlated (0.92) with the expression of a SGV1 reporter construct in a GRM composed of 1532 reporters treated under 498 experimental conditions (FIG. 24) Sgv1p is a Cdc28p-related protein kinase that is essential for cell viability. In addition to Sgv1p expression, YKL077w expression correlated highly (>0 8) with PKC1 and RHO1 (FIG. 25), genes involved in cell wall integrity and cytoskeletal reorganization. Database searches with the predicted protein sequence of YKL077w did not identify apparent mammalian counterparts (FIG. 26). YKL077w could represent an antifungal target given the lack of a mammalian homolog and its proposed involvement in cellular structure and/or proliferation. Nevertheless, in the event a mammalian counterpart is discovered, it could represent an anti-proliferative target as well.
The DNA and protein sequences of YKL077w are depicted in FIGS. 56 and 57, respectively.
EXAMPLE 9
Identification of YGR046w as a Target Gene
YGR046w was a previously uncharacterized yeast ORF that has been shown to be essential for viability (FIG. 27). Expression of YGR046w correlated significantly (0.90) with IRA2 in the GRM composed of 6036 reporter constructs in 706 experimental treatments (FIG. 28). Ira2p is a GTPase activating protein (GAP) for Ras1p and Ras2p In addition to IRA2 expression, YGR046w expression correlated very well (>0.77) with the expression of known genes involved cell proliferation functions (FIG. 29). The expression of YGR046w was found to be most sensitive to agents that disrupt mitochondrial function, create oxidative stress and disrupt the cytoskeleton (FIG. 30).
Given its proposed involvement in cell proliferation, YGR046w could represent a target for modulation of cell growth. A search of protein and DNA sequence databases did not reveal any apparent mammalian homologs. Nevertheless, if such a sequence is identified, it may represent an anti-proliferative mammalian target.
The DNA and protein sequences of YGR046w are depicted in FIGS. 58 and 59, respectively
EXAMPLE 10
Identification of YJR041c as a Target Gene
Mutant strains defective for YJR041c have been shown previously to display a severe growth defect, but no function for YJR041c was known (FIG. 31). Expression of YJR041c correlated significantly (0.83) with MED7 in the GRM composed of 6036 reporter constructs in 706 experimental treatments (FIG. 32). Med7p encodes a component of the mediator complex involved in RNA polymerase II transcription YJR041c expression was also found to correlate significantly (>0.71) with several genes involved in different aspects of RNA metabolism. These processes include RNA polymerase I and II transcription, mRNA splicing, RNA turnover and ribosome function (FIG. 33).
Database searches for related sequence identified similar sequences from Schizosaccharomyces pombe (FIG. 34). No obvious mammalian counterparts were identified suggesting that YJR041c is a fungal-specific protein. Given these factors, YJR041c could represent an attractive target for antifungal therapy. In the event a mammalian counterpart is identified, it also could represent a target with utility for modulating cell proliferation.
The DNA and protein sequences of YJR041c are shown in FIGS. 60 and 61, respectively.
EXAMPLE 11
Screening Assay Using the Genome Reporter MatrixTM to Identify Target Inhibitors
A mutant or conditional allele of target yeast gene is produced as discussed above. The allele may be conditional either for function or expression. For instance, the conditional allele may be a temperature-sensitive allele of the target gene or the target gene may be operably linked to an inducible promoter for regulated expression. In a preferred embodiment, the target gene is operably linked to an inducible promoter that permits expression anywhere between 0% and 500% of wild type expression. The target gene of interest is transfected and expressed in yeast cells of the GRM that have a functional deletion of the target gene of interest. The level of expression of the conditional allele is varied between 0% and 500% of wild type expression, and the expression of the reporter constructs of the GRM is measured in response to the expression of the target gene. The expression of the reporter constructs is then correlated to the expression of the target gene. Thus, one can identify a subset of genes that are either induced or repressed by overexpression of the target gene.
The yeast strains containing the subset of genes whose expression is dependent upon overexpression, and thus the function of the essential gene, are then used to screen compounds that are potential target inhibitors. The yeast strains are incubated with the compounds. If a reporter gene in a particular yeast strain is induced by overexpression of the target gene, then potential inhibitors are screened for the ability to downregulate the reporter gene. Conversely, if a reporter gene is repressed by overexpression of the target gene, then potential inhibitors are screened for the ability to upregulate the reporter gene. Potential inhibitors are screened for the ability to appropriately upregulate and downregulate a number of the genes whose expression is dependent upon expression or overexpression of the target gene. When potential target inhibitors are identified, these candidate compounds are tested for their ability to inhibit the pathway that the target gene is part of For instance, if the target gene is YER034w, then the inhibitor may be tested for antifungal activity.
If a target gene has a plant or animal counterpart, one may express the plant or animal counterpart in a yeast strain lacking the target gene to see if the plant or animal counterpart can functionally substitute for the yeast gene. If it can, then the plant or animal counterpart can be used in the above example to screen for potential targets for either a plant or animal inhibitor. This is especially useful if the target gene has a mammalian counterpart. Similarly, even if a plant, animal or mammalian counterpart has not been identified, potential inhibitors may be tested for their ability to inhibit the pathway that the target gene is part of, if that pathway is shared by yeast and higher eukaryotes.
EXAMPLE 12
Simultaneous Tracking of Multiple Reporters as Regulon Indicator Genes
The effects of inactivating an osmotic stress pathway were tested by deleting a pathway component (Hog1p stress-activated protein kinase). Using the hog1 knock-out profile as model, multiple RIGs that would specifically indicate pathway inhibitors were identified and tested in silico by examining all conditions in which selected RIGs were activated or repressed. It was determined that simultaneously monitoring up-regulation of PGU1 and down-regulation of DAK1 gave good specificity for pathway inactivation as determined by the separation of the hog1 knock-out profile from all other conditions in which these two reporters were affected (FIG. 74). In this example, RIGs were not part of the target regulon but were chosen empirically based on behavior under all conditions.
Similarly, 2 RIGs were identified that could specifically indicate mitochondrial inactivation by comparing the behavior these RIGs in the subset of treatments that target mitochondria with all treatments that affect these RIGs. It was determined that simultaneously measuring up-regulation of 2 RIGs (STE18 and YGL198w) provides good specificity for mitochondrial perturbations as determined by the separation of this subset of common treatments from all other conditions that affect these RIGs (FIG. 75).
All publications and patent applications cited in this specification are herein incorporated by reference as if each individual publication or patent application were specifically and individually indicated to be incorporated by reference. Although the foregoing invention has been described in some detail by way of illustration and example for purposes of clarity of understanding, it will be readily apparent to those of ordinary skill in the art in light of the teachings of this invention that certain changes and modifications may be made thereto without departing from the spirit or scope of the appended claims.
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## Claims

1. A method for determining whether a compound is an inhibitor of an isoprenoid metabolic pathway in a cell, comprising the steps of:
a) determining the effect of said compound on the expression level in said cell of a HES1 gene or a homolog thereof that is able to functionally complement a mutant of said HES1 gene;
b) identifying said compound as an inhibitor of said isoprenoid metabolic pathway if said compound induces expression of said HES1 gene or said homolog.

2. The method of claim 1, wherein the cell is a cell of yeast strain ABY140.

3. The method of claim 1, wherein the cell is a cell of yeast strain ABY11.

4. The method of claim 1, wherein the isoprenoid metabolic pathway is a sterol synthesis pathway.

5. The method of claim 1, wherein said one or more compounds are from a combinatorial chemistry library.

6. The method of claim 1, wherein said compound is identified as an inhibitor in step b) if said compound alters the expression level of said HES1 gene by at least a log ratio of 1, said log ratio being a natural log of a ratio of expression level of the HES1 gene in said cell treated with said compound to expression level of the HES1 gene in a cell of the same type as said cell but not treated with said compound.

7. The method of claim 1, wherein said compound is identified as an inhibitor in step b) if said compound alters the expression level of said HES1 gene by at least a log ratio of 2, said log ratio being a natural log of a ratio of expression level of the HES1 gene in said cell treated with said compound to expression level of the HES1 gene in a cell of the same type as said cell but not treated with said compound.

8. The method of claim 1, wherein said compound is identified as an inhibitor in step b) if said compound alters the expression level of said HES1 gene by at least a log ratio of 3, said log ratio being a natural log of a ratio of expression level of the HES1 gene in said cell treated with said compound to expression level of the HES1 gene in a cell of the same type as said cell but not treated with said compound.

9. The method of claim 1, wherein said compound is identified as an inhibitor in step b) if said compound alters the expression level of said HES1 gene by at least a log ratio of 4, said log ratio being a natural log of a ratio of expression level of the HES1 gene in said cell treated with said compound to expression level of the HES1 gene in a cell of the same type as said cell but not treated with said compound.

10. The method of claim 1, wherein said step a) is carried out using a GENOME REPORTER MATRIXTM, said GENOME REPORTER MATRIXTM comprising a yeast strain which comprises a HES1 gene reporter construct.

11. The method of claim 10, wherein said HES1 gene reporter construct comprises a gene encoding a protein selected from the group consisting of green fluorescent protein (GFP), β-lactamase, lacZ, invertase, CD2, CD4, CD8, the influenza hemagglutinin protein, hemagglutinin and Myc.

12. A method for determining whether a compound is an inhibitor of an isoprenoid metabolic pathway, comprising the steps of:
a) measuring an expression level in a first cell of a cell type of a HES1 gene or a homolog thereof in that is able to functionally complement a mutant of said HES1 gene, said first cell being treated with said compound;
b) comparing said expression level measured in step a) with an expression level of said HES1 gene or said homolog measured in a second cell of said cell type, said second cell not being treated with said compound;
c) identifying said compound as an inhibitor of the isoprenoid metabolic pathway if said expression level of said HES1 gene or said homolog measured in said first cell is increased in comparison to said expression level of said HES1 gene or said homolog measured in said second cell.

13. The method of claim 12, wherein said cell type is yeast strain ABY140.

14. The method of claim 12, wherein said cell type is yeast strain ABY11.

15. The method of claim 12, wherein the isoprenoid metabolic pathway is a sterol synthesis pathway.

16. The method of claim 12, wherein said compound is from a combinatorial chemistry library.

17. The method of claim 12, wherein said compound is identified as an inhibitor in step c) if said compound alters the expression level of said HES1 gene by at least a log ratio of 1, said log ratio being a natural log of a ratio of expression level of the HES1 gene in said first cell to expression level of the HES1 gene in said second cell.

18. The method of claim 12, wherein said compound is identified as an inhibitor in step c) if said compound alters the expression level of said HES1 gene by at least a log ratio of 2, said log ratio being a natural log of a ratio of expression level of the HES1 gene in said first cell to expression level of the HES1 gene in said second cell.

19. The method of claim 12, wherein said compound is identified as an inhibitor in step c) if said compound alters the expression level of said HES1 gene by at least a log ratio of 3, said log ratio being a natural log of a ratio of expression level of the HES1 gene in said first cell to expression level of the HES1 gene in said second cell.

20. The method of claim 12, wherein said compound is identified as an inhibitor in step c) if said compound alters the expression level of said HES1 gene by at least a log ratio of 4, said log ratio being a natural log of a ratio of expression level of the HES1 gene in said first cell to expression level of the HES1 gene in said second cell.

21. The method of claim 12, wherein said expression levels are measured using a GENOME REPORTER MATRIXTM, said GENOME REPORTER MATRIXTM comprising a yeast strain which comprises a HES1 gene reporter construct.

22. The method of claim 21, wherein said HES1 gene reporter construct comprises a gene encoding a protein selected from the group consisting of green fluorescent protein (GFP), β-lactamase, lacZ, invertase, CD2, CD4, CD8, the influenza hemagglutinin protein, hemagglutinin and Myc.