COMMERCIAL

STANDARDS

MONTHLY

A Review of Progress in

Commercial Standardization and Simplification

AIRPLANE VIEW OF NATIONAL BUREAU OF STANDARDS

ISSUED BY THE NATIONAL BUREAU OF STANDARDS OF THE

UNITED STATES DEPARTMENT OF COMMERCE, WASHINGTON, D.C., U.S.A.

Vol. 6, No. 11 MAY, 1930

For sale by the Superintendent of Documents, Washington, D. C. See page 3 of cover for prices
U. S. DEPARTMENT OF COMMERCE

R. P. Lamont, Secretary

NATIONAL BUREAU OF STANDARDS

George K. Burgess, Director

COMMERCIAL STANDARDS MONTHLY

S. F. Tillman, Editor

DIVISIONS OF THE COMMERCIAL STANDARDIZATION GROUP

DIVISION OF SIMPLIFIED PRACTICE, Edwin W. Ely.

The division of simplified practice was formed in November,

1921, to provide a clearing house or centralizing agency through

which the manufacturer, distributor, and consumer groups

could meet to discuss their common problems and decide upon

eliminations which would prove of mutual benefit to all concerned. The activities of the division are purely cooperative

in character. It orders nothing; it dictates nothing; the ini- tiative must come from business itself. It has no regulatory nor police powers to enforce adherence to the simplified-practice

recommendations that industry develops under the auspices

of the United States Department of Commerce. Its chief function is to serve as a neutral meeting ground for the purpose

of bringing together producers, distributors, and consumers, whose aims are sometimes divergent and possibly antagonistic,

and who would be unwilling to cooperate, except through some

unbiased central agency. Following the approval of the tentative simplified-practice recommendation by a general conference

of all interested elements thereof, the project is then presented

to the entire industry by letter referendum for its approval and

written acceptance, the publication and indorsement of the recommendation on the part of the Department of Commerce

being dependent upon acceptance of the program by at least 80 per cent, by volume, of the manufacturers, distributors, and

users concerned.

BUILDING AND HOUSING DIVISION, J. S. TAYLOR. The division of building and housing cooperates with business, technical, and professional groups in practically all its undertakings on building and housing. Its work to modernize

building codes and to encourage improved standards for the

quality of building construction promotes the practical application of the latest development in design and use of build- ing materials. This division was also formed in 1921. In furthering home ownership, an effort is made to develop an enlarged, steadier, more intelligent, and more discriminating

demand for soundly built dwellings, the largest single class of buildings which the construction industries provide. The

division also cooperates with many business and professional groups in efforts to distribute building activity more evenly

throughout the year, and to secure less fluctuation from year

to year. The work on city planning and zoning has in mind

the broad objective of buildings made more useful because

well located with respect to other buildings, a well-coordinated

street system, and appropriate public works. Good city

planning and zoning likewise encourages stability in land

values and property uses, and thereby contributes to the demand for durable structures.

DIVISION OF SPECIFICATIONS, A. S. McAllister.

The duties of the division of specifications are to promote and

facilitate the use and unification of specifications. In doing so

it carries on activities involving cooperation with technical

societies; trade associations; Federal, State, and municipal

Government specifications making and using agencies; producers, distributors, and consumers; and testing and research

laboratories. The cooperation with technical societies and

trade associations includes ascertaining the standardization

and specification promoting activities of these organizations,

and bringing to their attention the work being done by the commercial standardization group. The cooperation with

governmental agencies and other consumers includes the bringing of Federal specifications and commercial standards to the

attention of the maximum number of producers and the maximum number of users of commodities complying with these

specifications and standards, thereby assisting in broadening

the field of supply. The cooperation with producers involves the compilation and distribution of lists of manufacturers who

have expressed their willingness to certify to purchasers, upon

request, that material supplied by them on contracts based on

certain Federal specifications or commercial standards comply

with the requirements thereof. The cooperation with distributors involves bringing to their attention the benefits to be

derived by them as both buyers and sellers from handling

nationally specified, certified, and labeled commodities. The

division prepares the directories of governmental and nongovernmental testing laboratories; the Directory of Specifications;

and is working on an encyclopedia of specifications, the first volume of which, Standards and Specifications in the WoodUsing Industries, has been issued. It also aids in preparing the Standards Yearbook.

DIVISION OF TRADE STANDARDS, I. J. Fairchild.

The commercial standards unit, now known as division of trade standards, was created on October 1, 1927, for the purpose

of aiding those industrial and commercial groups desiring to establish standards of grades, quality, or measurements for their products or their purchases on a purely voluntary basis. The division functions only at the direct request of the in- dustry concerned. Its procedure is similar to that of the divi- sion of simplified practice, except that at least 65 per cent of the industry, by volume of annual production, must accept

the commercial standard in writing before it is published by

the Department of Commerce. A certification plan is applied on request as a means of increasing the effectiveness of such

standards. Provision is made for regular revision of the standard

through the appointment of a standing committee to consider

periodically any necessity for revision of the standard, in order that it may be kept constantly compatible with progress in the

industry.

Except where otherwise indicated, for further information address

BUREAU OF STANDARDS

WASHINGTON, D. C.
COMMERCIAL STANDARDS MONTHLY

A Review of Progress in

Commercial Standardization and Simplification

Volume 6 WASHINGTON, D. C., MAY, 1930 Number 11

CONTENTS

FEATURE ARTICLES

Page

Brick standards reduce production cost 335

Building “good will” in business 324 Census to gather data on construction industry 343

Establishing standards for masonry openings 330

Facilities for testing structural materials 353

Nongovernmental support for Canadian standardization. 332

Qualities of rubber studied to increase utility of products. 348

Standard container law 341 Standardization and research work and workers at the National Bureau of Standards 350

Standardization in sport 325

Standardized specifications aid Veterans’ Bureau 334

Studies of textiles are conducted to increase usefulness and wearing quality 345 Thermal insulation of homes 328

Value of standards to the War Department 338

TRADE STANDARDS ITEMS

Builders’ template hardware 333 Diamond core drill fittings 334

Interchangeable ground glass joints 342 Mop sticks 333

Standard-weight malleable-iron unions 331 SIMPLIFIED PRACTICE ITEMS

Accountants support simplified practice 339

Full disk buffing wheels 333

Industry reviews paving-brick simplification 344

SIMPLIFIED PRACTICE ITEMS—Continued Page

Paint industry may simplify containers 340

Standard sizes of folding boxes for coffee established 327 STANDARDIZATION ITEMS

Computing chart for helix angles of screw threads 337 Conference considers screw-thread changes 354

Current activities of the American Standards Association _ 336

Current activities of American Marine Standards Committee 344

Federal specification for storage batteries 352

1930 handbook of automotive standards 352 Measurement of X radiation 346

Revision of railway control standards 327

Standard method for determining vapor pressure of gasoline 329

Standards for compressed-air machinery 331 Standards Yearbook for 1930 : 349

Testing equipment for autotruck scales 340

Textile safety code 337

Types of die sets reduced 339 Value of specifications for paving materials and machinery 339 FOREIGN ITEMS

Australian standards association conference 354

Canadian electrical code 342 Prague conference on standardization in building industry. 340

Rationalization m Germany 347

AN INVITATION TO VISIT THE BUREAU OF STANDARDS

An interesting fact in the growth of the bureau is the steady increase in the number of visitors. From all over the world experts come to see the work in progress in many specialties. Not alone the

experts but in growing numbers many of our people visit the bureau from a public-spirited desire to acquaint themselves with its research work. All visitors, from the newspapermen, who have called the

bureau a "house of wonders,” to the specialists, who use its services, are welcome, for it is their bureau

in a very real sense. They are the owners of the business and its beneficiaries. The annual per capita

cost of 2 cents which the average citizen pays toward the operation of the bureau yields returns sometimes a hundredfold or a thousandfold. How science turns wastes into profits, increases the useful life of materials, adds new efficiencies to industry, advances new arts, such as aviation and radio, by research

and discovery—these are to be seen first hand in the scientific and technical laboratories of the bureau.

A cordial invitation is extended to all citizens interested in scientific progress to visit the laboratories

of the Bureau of Standards when in Washington. A personally conducted trip is organized at 2.15 p. m.

daily except on holidays. Special trips for groups may be arranged at other times by writing to the

bureau in advance. The bureau’s illustrated Visitor’s Manual may be had for the asking. This fists the work in progress and gives an airplane view of the ensemble and a brief statement of typical discoveries and inventions which have been notable, basic contributions to radio, aviation, and other modern

arts and industries.

George K. Burgess, Director.

1 1 1 305 -30 i (323)
—

BUILDING “GOOD WILL” in BUSINESS

Commercial Standards Clarify Relationship

Between Buyer and Seller

'"^ONTACTS of the National Bureau of Standards with industry in

fi the development of more than 100 simplified practice recommen- ^ dations, revealed a very definite demand for a means whereby

special nomenclature, definitions, grading rules, specifications, and other

commercial standards for the quality or service characteristics of a com- modity might be established and recorded as a basis for everyday trade,

in order to clarify the understanding between buyer and seller, and to

repair for entire industries the foundations of “good will” which had

suffered from neglect as well as from undercutting of quality to meet a price.

In order to satisfy this demand, the Bureau of Standards, in October, 1927, arranged a procedure whereby industries might establish

commercial standards as a basis for everyday trade. The procedure is very similar to that of simplified practice, cooperation of the bureau being

available only upon written request in order that there may be no possibility of Government interference with business.

The function of the Bureau of Standards in such work is fourfold;

first, to act as a referee to secure adequate consideration of the needs of

all interests; second, to supply such assistance and advice in the development of the program as past experience with similar programs may

suggest; third, to solicit and record the extent of adoption and adher- ence to the standard; and fourth, to add all possible prestige to the

standard by publication and promulgation after it is adopted and ac- cepted by all elements directly concerned.

“Good will” is recognized everywhere as a most important business

asset. It requires a long time, earnest and steadfast effort to build, but

is easily destroyed. It is bought and sold and yet is given freely to those

whose policies of honesty and fair dealing are plainly evident. A constantly increasing number of industries, recognizing the new competition in which whole industries vie with one another for a share of the

consumer’s dollar, are building foundations for greater good will for

themselves as a group by the establishment of commercial standards.

(324)
325

STANDARDIZATION IN SPORT

Recent Standardization Activities Relate to Growing Uniformity of Practice and to Exact Measurement of

the Aspects and Factors in Sport; Amateur Athletic Union and Olympic Games Committee Sponsor

Standard Practices of Many Sports

By Henry D. Hubbard, National Bureau of Standai'ds

Modern sport is a standardized activity based on supreme efficiencies of the human machine. To it we

are now adding power mechanisms with unlimited out- look for ever new speeds, skill, and daring. Standardization in sport began with the aim to secure a smooth

conduct of play for the players and a worthy display

of skill for spectators.

Such standardization in sport is not neAV. In many

sports oral tradition still passes along the standard

practice to the next generation. Recent standardization relates to progress toward world-wide uniformity

of practice and to exact measurement of all aspects and

factors in sport player, play, tools of play, equipment,

facilities, grounds, rules, measurement and scoring,

schedules, records, and awards.

Keen interest in sport standardization through

measurement is shoAvn by the rich technical literature

in this field of research. A. V. Hill's Muscular Movement, Thooris’s La Vie par le Stade, and Schulte’s Eignungs und Leistungsprufung in Sport show neAV trends

toward scientific measurement of athletes, classification

into motor ability and aptitude groups, and the meas- urement of achievement, reactions, and the physical

and chemical processes of the athlete during action

and recovery. Brace’s Measuring Motor Ability presents a practical

technique for rating in schools. Sargent’s Physical

Tests of a Man ; Hetherington’s Decathlon Tests ; McCall’s Hoav to Measure in Education; and Schwegler

and Engelhart’s A Test of Physical Efficiency are typical of published researches. Wood and Cassidy’s

New Physical Education presents the strong case for

natural movement and freer play.

Sport and its standardization.

Sport is performance. The bodily machine is the

performer. Standardized sport means standard play

by qualified players selected, trained, standardized under measured control, using standard rules, equipment,

and facilities. The performance depends upon the ef- fectiveness of the bodily machine.

Diverse individual characteristics of bodily mechanisms determine specific aptitudes. Each sport calls for a definite group of aptitudes, each aptitude in turn

resting upon certain human characteristics—speed,

skill, endurance, agility, strength, coordination, strat- egy, and other measurable factors in varying proportion. Collocations of sport of widening constituency

bring variant usages face to face and standardization

assimilates the best details. The Amateur Athletic Union and the Olympic

Games Committees sponsor standard practice of many

sports and broaden the scope of sport standardization,

while specialized groups intensively standardize details of their respective sports. Assimilation of local experience into national and international standardization makes for smooth procedure at the great events

in turn, such standardization or synthesis of local ex- perience flows back to local usage to the gain of sport

everywhere, perfecting its details, making it a flawless

display of skill with a minimum of dispute.

Standard terminology.

Each sport has its standard vocabulary, unique at the center, fading imperceptibly into the vernacular.

Failure to use it accurately marks the novice. Fluent

use of this technical vocabulary of the sport is a matter

of pride and ends in habituation to a language un- known to the uninitiated.

The colloquial abounds in apt and picturesque words

and idioms, standard for some sports, often unknown

to the dictionary. These unique terms feed in from local groups and usages. As a class they are in principle

like other special vocabularies. So far as they enter

into sport practice they are subject to strict definition

in the rules or standards of practice. Flawless defini- tion devolves upon expert sportsmen, for experience

and intimate knowledge of the sport are essential in

standardizing its terminology. The terms then invade

the dictionaries.

Sport abounds also in standard emblems, symbols,

team initials, pennants, club devices, medals, cups, in

endless variety. In yachting, for example, the color

and shape of pennants are used as signals and to identify the club or the OAvner, to tell whether a flag officer

is aboard and his rank. Events have standardized in- dications by flag or pennant. At night lights indicate

the rank. Another convention is the standard system

of “ bells ” used in nautical practice to indicate time.

Standard schedules.

Sports are seasonal. Their seasonal grouping provides a standard sequence of sports, each in turn a focus of interest. Many sport schedules are adjusted

to meet weather conditions—winter sports call for ice

and snoAv, tennis and canoeing being mild weather

sports. Highly developed sport schedules are found

in professional baseball leagues and similar sport or- ganizations. In some tournaments handicaps allotted

to players by a standard system are designed to give

every player, with a given increment of extra effort, an even chance to win e\r en against highly skilled players. Local schedules in some sports serve to pick winners for a graduated series of matches up to the big

national and international tournaments.

Measuring sport achievement.

While achievement is measured in sport, the results measure the players themselves, permitting them to gage themselves to find out Avhat each lacks of a fair

degree of ability in a variety of sports selected as

criteria of well-rounded development. Systems of

scoring, measurements, championships, and records are maintained, standardized in many cases, diverse in

others. Scores or ratings are promptly announced and
326

transferred to score boards on the field and broadcast

everywhere. Great interest centers in breaking existing records, and the new records become sport history.

Prescribed officials or judges control ratings. Standard measuring equipment and methods are used to measure performance. Some of these are elaborate.

The varying accuracy of judges’ decisions is itself studied by comparisons with electrical autographic

records. (See fig. 1.) A glance shows the variance

of different judges on the same events. Automatic

recording devices are now standard . and their auto- graphic records add precision to sport decisions. The

accuracy of such recording instruments is assured and

standardized scientifically as one example will show.

The homologation of altitude flights by aviators is based upon international rules of practice. The elastic and temperature characteristics of barographs cause them to read high in climbing up past a given level and to read low coming down past the same level. The “ standard atmosphere ” adopted for aeronautical purposes is based upon the relation between alti- tude, air pressure, and temperature, and affords the

standard basis for homologation of air-flight records.

True altitudes in such flights are now determined with

TIMING ERRORS OF JUDGES OF RUNNING. -GRAPHS SHOWING TYPES

TIME SCALE IN HUNDREDTHS OF A SECOND (Tuning Fork Trace)

VVWVW\AA/WI mimiNMNN

ACTUAL TIME RUNNER PASSES GOAL (Electrically Recorded)

V—-

STOP WATCH TIMING BY JUDGE (Electrically Recorded)

DELAYED

Too S low EXACTLY CORRECT

ANTICIPATED

Too Fast

Errors of judges timing a race, electrically recorded in comparison with true time

great care at the National Bureau of Standards by

tests, under controlled laboratory conditions, causing

them to repeat the time-pressure-temperature history

of the flight.

Standard fields of play.

The design and layout of the modern stadium, and

the surfacing and marking of baseball and football

fields and tennis courts are examples of standardization of fields of play, in prescribing dimensional units

of measure. Analogous to these are the standard design and construction of billiard tables, bowling alleys,

and chess boards.

In boxing for a world championship, the roped ring

or arena may be less than 24 feet square, while the

spectators may exceed 140,000, raising the factor of

the distance from which a sport may be viewed ac- ceptably. A football field inclosed on all sides with

tiers of seats extends far from actual play, but the size of the ball and length of punts and runs make it attractive as a spectacle even at such a distance.

Many sport fields have standard dimensions ; others

call for merely standard patterns. The standard limits of play may function in the plaj^. The cushions

in billiards, the wall in handball, furnish rebound as part of the play. Added limitations within the standard boundaries increase the demand on skill and en- hance the interest, as, for example, the use of balk

lines and anchor spaces in billiards. Some sports do not permit standardizing the course. Balloon races for distance or altitude can have no

standard course. “Hare and hounds” has no standard course, the hare’s track being found by confetti

dropped on his way as “ scent ” for the hounds, suggestive of the fox hunt. No standard course can be

fixed for cross-country ski races as wind and traverse change the ski course hourly. Every ski race course

is unique, new, never twice alike. Standards of practice.

Standardization is effective in the rules of action

or play. Rules for sport are standards of practice

based upon experience and expert judgment. They

are revised in the light of service experience. Rules

promote fair play (the essence of good sportsmanship) and efficiency in the conduct of play. Some of

them are provocative of an interesting variety of action, the “ forward pass,” for example, and thus evoke

a maximum of the skill or prowess characteristic of

the sport. They thus improve it for player and spec- tator and reduce hazard. Baseball shows few fatalities, but deaths in football, 37 of which were reported

for 1928, call for safety measures. Rules assign standard functions to the players and

govern the play. Some rules provide rotation of function as in baseball batting, or tennis service, which

alternates in singles. In some games, handball and

others, a definite number of points concludes the game.

In races and some games standard goals must be

reached. Decisions on points to be scored and method

of scoring are equally standardized, a maximum wins

certain games, such as polo, a minimum winning in others, such as golf.

Standard costumes.

Standard sport costumes are evolved from choice

to meet conditions encountered in sport. From a minimum in water sports to electrically heated garments

in altitude record breaking, each sport has more or

less standard attire. To the demand for efficiency is often added a desire for style or color, to lend gaiety

to a sport. The jockey’s bright colors of the entrant owner aid the eye to indentify horses in a race. Fox chase costume is fixed by custom of long standing, while the popularity of golf rescues it from

stylistic fixity. Fashion seeks novelty, tradition seeks

fixity, but good taste, based upon service as well as

stylistic grounds, is most effective in standardizing

sport costume. Standard tools of play.

Sport experts fix the dimension, weight, quality,

and design of the basic tools of their respective sports.

To permit useful variation it is usual to fix only the

essential or more noteworthy details. Equipment is standardized to improve the quality of play, to protect, or to identify the players. Apart from standard

bats, balls, racquets, skis, skates, and the like needed

for the play itself, masks, shoes, gloves, and other

protective devices are standardized for safety, as are emblems and costumes for distinguishing the players

and team. Altogether thousands of articles are well
327

standardized while others might well be simplified by

eliminating the less effective varieties.

The design and production of the vast variety of

sport equipment form a diversified group of industries. Each sport calls for the best equipment obtainable so that designers and makers vie for the reputation of high quality. Precise methods and mass production prevail in making sport equipment. Provision for sport facilities and equipment is to-day among

the more profitable groups of industries. Its output

is entertainment for the spectator and it ranks even

higher as a health giving and stimulating activity for

the participants. The equipment of sport offers the same opportunity and gains in standardization, as do

any other commercial products.

Standardization of equipment, however, has other

than economic advantages, since players gain a basis

of greater fairness and skill if equipment is standard.

From the expert sportman’s point of view, the welfare

of the sport and its display of skill have a better

chance with standard tools and equipment well designed and constructed. The tennis ball, football, and

other balls in great variety are thus standardized

sometimes to the point of precision.

The design and balance of a golf ball or club are as

effectively standardized by specification and test as the parts of a motor car. The ball must be in true

balance. The billiard ball is an accurate sphere, of

perfect balance, with no preferential tendency to roll in a given direction on a flat surface. This standard

balance is required by the highly developed skill of

expert billiardists, whose best plays are impossible

without such high accuracy.

Arrows rated by weight.

In archery, arrows are rated by weight (in shillings)

which must be constant and uniform, with feathers

(fletching) oriented to rotate the arroAV in flight like

a rifle ball. Weight standardization is necessary so that a standard pull on the bow string gives the arrow

a definite momentum. With fairly standard bows,

and arrows of uniform weight and balanced structure,

the recent revival of the ancient sport of archery on a

new basis of skill is made possible by precise methods

in the factory.

During the astonishing modern development of

baseball as a leading national sport, the ball and bat,

its basic tools, have for half a century been acceptably standardized. The standard baseball specification to-day is in the exact language given in the original playing rules of the National League adopted February 2, 1876. As therein specified, the standard

baseball must weigh at least 5 ounces avoirdupois, but

not more than 5x/4 ounces and must measure in cir- cumference not less than 9 nor more than 9)4 inches,

and it must also be “ the best ball that can be manufactured.” Scope for improvement was thus permissible and the “ best ball ” has been greatly improved

in resiliency, doubtless by higher standards in the factory, including make-up and construction acceptable

to the national association.

The need is the matrix for the specification. An

example of experimental development is found in the

shaping of sport tool handles or grips by first grasping a plastic material to obtain the impression of the

inside of the closed hands. Such experiments are used

in designing grip handles for sport tools, such as bats,

racquets, polo sticks, and similar methods are being

tested for designing shoes or other foot equipment for

sport.

Some sports easily standardized.

Some sports are easily standardized as to equipment. Basket ball, fencing, swimming, and races are

possible with simple equipment. Nevertheless, scientific researches have been, and are being made, on

almost every basic tool of sport, the boomerang, golf

ball, billiard ball, top, arrows, and cliabolo. Moore’s recent study of “ scientifically designed golf

clubs ” is a good example, his “ centerline clubs ” being so designed that, for example, as Moore states, “ with the improved brassie the ball is struck with the

face of the club at a point where the axis of the shaft

crosses the center of the club face, thus realizing the

greatest possible efficiency from the stroke.”

STANDARD SIZES OF FOLDING BOXES FOR

COFFEE ESTABLISHED

There have been in use more than 100 combinations

of dimensions for 1-pouncl folding boxes for coffee; there are now only 2. This summarizes the action of a general conference of representatives of coffee roasters,

coffee packers, manufacturers of folding boxes, producers of filling machines, grocers’ organizations, and

allied groups, convening in New York, N. Y., on March

28. The meeting took place under the auspices of the

division of simplified practice of the National Bureau

of Standards, upon the specific joint request of the

National Coffee Roasters’ Association and Paperboard

Industries Association.

The two recommended sizes, measuring 4% by 2%

by 6 inches and 4% by 234 by 6% inches, respectively,

will adequately care for differences in bulk. If approved by the industry, this recommendation will be

effective as of May 1, i930.

REVISION OF RAILWAY-CONTROL

STANDARDS

A revision of American Institute of Electrical Engineers standard No. 16, Railway Control and Mine

Locomotive Control Apparatus, has been approved by

the A. I. E. E. standards committee, and is shortly to be issued in report form in order to permit industry

to familiarize itself with the suggested changes, ac- cording to the Journal of the A. I. E. E. The present

standard, No. 16, will remain in force until x-evisions are finally accepted. Incidentally, standard No. 16

has been split into two parts, as follows : Railway Control Apparatus, and Mine Locomotive Control Apparatus. A section committee, under the joint sponsorship of the Amei’ican Mining Congress, National Electrical Manufacturers Association, and the American

Institute of Electrical Engineers, is to be formed to develop an American standard for mine locomotive

control apparatus.
328

THERMAL INSULATION OF HOMES

Location and Fuel Cost Are Factors in Determining the Proper Insulation a House Should Have

By J. L. Finck, National Bureau of Standards

When fuel was cheap and insulating materials were

expensive or not readily obtainable, the incentive for

using insulation was almost lacking, but under present

conditions the fuel saving resulting from use of insulation may be made to pay a substantial return on the

increased investment. In addition to materials which

have been produced primarily as insulators, such as cork, a large variety of materials formerly considered

as waste, such as corn stalks, straw, wood waste, flax straw, and sugar-cane fiber, are being utilized in the

manufacture of insulating and building materials.

Understanding of terms.

Before considering the

question of insulation in

detail, it may be well to clear up a common misunderstanding with regard

to terms. One is fre- quently asked with regard

to the “ heat and cold ” insulating properties of a

material. In general,

there is no distinction.

The material is always

used to reduce the flow of

heat from a warmer to a

colder space. It is sometimes desired to control

the temperature of the warmer space, and sometimes that of the colder.

The insulation of a house

illustrates the former condition in winter, and the

latter in summer. In winter the insulation reduces

the amount of heat which must be supplied by burning fuel to keep the house warm. In summer the in- sulation keeps the temperature inside the house from

going as high as it otherwise would during the day,

or, if the building is to be kept cool with a refrigerating machine, reduces the amount of power used by

the machine.

Any wall, no matter what kind, has some insulating

value. This is most commonly seen in the fact that

windows are effective in helping to keep a house warm. The glass in a window is effective for two reasons

:

first, because it prevents the cold outer air from enter- ing; and second, because heat is transferred rather

slowly from the inside air to the glass, and again from

the glass to the outside air. A large proportion of the

insulating value of a pane of glass is due to these so- called surface resistances, which are essentially the same regardless of the thickness of the material. For

this reason two panes of glass, one twice as thick as the

other, have nearly the same insulating value. The

influence of surface resistance is also utilized by introducing air spaces; for example, by the use of furring strips, or by double windows.

Value of weather-stripping.

The importance of preventing excessive leakage of

cold air into a house through cracks and crevices may

be seen from the comparatively large improvement

resulting from the use of weather-stripping and building paper. The building paper is so thin that its value

as an insulator is negligible, but by preventing inward

leakage of cold air, it adds greatly to one’s comfort and

to the ease of heating a house.

Most of the houses in

this country depend, for

their protection against

heat losses, upon the pre- vention of air leakage,

upon surface resistance,

air spaces, and such insulating value as the struc- tural materials may possess. The insulating value

of the walls of such houses

is comparable with that

of a 1-inch thickness of

any of the good insulating materials. In other

words, the insulating value

of a wall would be doubled, or the heat loss through the wall cut in half, by including in the

Avail a 1-inch thickness of

a good insulating material. The total amount of heat

required to keep the house Avarm Avould not be cut m

half by this means, since the loss through windows and

doors would not be affected. Comparison of insulating values.

All materials which are ordinarily used in buildingAvall construction have some heat-insulating value, but

in some cases this A^alue is so small as to be insignifi- cant. The heat-insulating value of a layer of material

depends on two things: (1) The character of the material, and (2) the thickness of the layer. The ability

of a material to transfer heat, or its conductivity, is inversely proportional to its insulating value. In other

words, the materials of loAvest conductivity are the best

insulators. However, Avhen purchasing insulation, one

is interested not only in the conductivity of the material but in its thickness. If you want to measure the

insulating value of a material, divide the conductivity

by its thickness and you get what is called “conductance.” This is the measure of insulating value.

The better insulator has the lower conductance.

Consider the following example of two materials

A and B.

With substantial advances in the cost of fuel,

the average home owner may well consider the

advantages of heat insulation. Not only has it been found economical to insulate the house, but

one obtains more home comfort both in winter

and summer.

There are numerous insulating materials on

the market which may be used, each in its particular way. The fuel saving will depend on the

kind of material used, its thickness, and the manner of installation.

The roof should ordinarily require first con- sideration for insulation, for without insulation

much heat is lost through the roof in winter,

and in summer the sun’s radiation will warm

up the upper floors excessively.
329

A B

Conductivity 0. 30 0.40 Thickness inch.. Vi 1 0.30 0. 40 Conductance _ “0 60 — n 40 h i

On the basis of conductivity it appears that A is a

better insulator than B. Taking account of the difference in thickness, however, we find that actually B

has more insulating value than A. No matter what the

salesman has to say about conductivity, he is not

telling the whole story until he states how thick a material he is selling or what its conductance is. Comparison of the insulating value of sheets or boards of

insulating material is properly made on the basis of

their heat conductance, as in the example above, without regard to their surface resistances. But because

of the factor of surface resistance, the user will be the

gainer if he can use the board in such a way as to introduce an additional air space. The question of how much insulation a house should

have will depend on its location and the cost of fuel. Where the winters are severe, and the cost of fuel is high, it is economical to add more insulation than in

warm climates where one naturally needs but little insulation. Some parts of the house may need more

insulation than others. For example, if the north- { ern exposure is subject to severe, cold winds, it will

be wise to add an extra layer of insulation to that wall.

In ordinary construction, it is safe to say that more

heat flows through the roof during winter than through

any single wall. In the summer more heat enters the

house through the roof than through the walls. It is therefore advisable and highly economical to add extra

insulation underneath the roof.

Estimate of savings.

As estimate of the probable saving in fuel resulting

from insulating or weather-stripping an ordinary

dwelling house is given in the following table, which

is taken from Bureau of Standards Circular No. 376. The first part of the table gives the fuel saving ex- pressed in percentage of fuel which would have been

required for a similar house without insulation or weather-stripping. In the second part of the table

the savings are expressed in percentage of fuel re- quired for a house without insulation but with

weather-stripped windows. In calculating these

values, an average insulating material is assumed,

but no commercial fibrous or cellular insulating material departs far enough from this average value to make a significant difference in the approximate fig- ures in the table. Whenever insulation is involved,

it is assumed that the insulation is applied to both

walls and roof, and that the insulation is not substituted for some other member which is present in the

uninsulated construction.

Approximate fuel savings in dwellings.

The savings are expressed in percentage of fuel

which would have been required for similar houses

without insulation or weather-stripping.

Savings

(per cent) No insulation, weather-stripped 15 to 20 Same, with double (storm) windows 25 to 30 %-inch insulation, not weather-stripped- 20 to 30 %-inch insulation, weather-stripped about 40 %-inch insulation, with double windows about 50

1-inch insulation, not weather-stripped 30 to 40

1-inch insulation, weather-stripped about 50

1-inch insulation, with double windows about 60 Savings expressed in percentage of fuel which

would have been required for similar houses without

insulation, but with weather stripping.

Savings

(per cent) With double windows, no insulation 10-15 %-inch insulation only 25-35 %-inch insulation, with double windows 40-45

1-inch insulation only 35-45

1-inch insulation with double windows 50-55 Air space filled with loose material.

Insulation value is gained by filling an air space

with loose material. Many loose materials are being

sold for this purpose, and such materials can sometimes be installed in finished houses. Several things

have to be guarded against. Material should not be

added which will constitute a fire hazard or serve as a nest for rodents or vermin. One should make sure that the material will not settle, for otherwise, after

a year or so, the spaces will be partially empty. In

buildings of frame construction it is absolutely neces- sary to prevent moisture penetrating walls filled with

loose material, since the retention of the moisture by

the material and the lack of ventilation within the

wall would promote rotting of timbers, and inci- dentally kill the insulating value.

According to a chart given in Bureau of Standards

Circular No. 376, the following all have approximately

the same insulating value

:

1. A l-inch thickness of loose or quilted fibrous materials.

2. A 1%-inch thickness of fibrous insulating boards.

3. A 2-inch thickness of compressed composition board.

4. A 3-inch thickness of softwood.

5. A 5-inch thickness of hardwood.

6. A 10 to 20 inch thickness of masonry. Within each class there are no great differences in insulating value between insulators made of various

materials. The materials offered may differ greatly

in other characteristics, such as strength, durability,

cost, finish, etc., which the purchaser is fairly well

prepared to judge for himself, but, as regards insulating value, Avhich is more difficult to judge, one may be

guided by the statement above.

STANDARD METHOD FOR DETERMINING

VAPOR PRESSURE OF GASOLINE

The technical committee on fuel oils of the American

Petroleum Institute has agreed to recommend to the

society for adojDtion as a tentative standard the Reid

method for the determination of the vapor pressure

of natural gasoline and a new method of test for the

dilution of crank-case oil. The Reid method also has

been adopted by the Interstate Commerce Commission

as the official method to be used in determining the

classification of gasolines for purposes of transportation.
330

ESTABLISHING STANDARDS FOR MASONRY OPENINGS

Bureau of Standards Cooperates with Construction Industry in Developing Plan for Standard Masonry

Opening Sizes

By P. H. H. Dunn, National Bureau of Standards

Standardization is progressing. Not only is its application becoming more universal but it is growing

within itself. There is a new and broader conception

of the true meaning of the term. We might call this

comparatively recent conception “ creative coordination.” It is the coordination of standards for related

materials so that each has a very direct relation to the

other, and the creation of such standards where none now exist. In the past standards have been developed either on the basis of production and sales or from a technical study of the material with a view to arriving at the ideally perfect product. In a great many cases both methods have proven eminently satisfactory.

Considering the first of these from the point of view

of the manufacturer, the selection of the size or style

which enjoys the greatest demand as standard has a

direct value which takes the form of dollars and cents added to his net profits. The distributor profits

through smaller inventory and greater turnover, while

the ultimate consumer usually gets a better article and

sometimes at a better price. This method of arriving

at standards is substantially that used by the division

of simplified practice of the National Bureau of Standards in cooperating with American industry, and has

resulted in savings estimated by the industries con- cerned at hundreds of millions of dollars. Standardization simplifies purchasing.

Standardization based on technical or scientific re- search has saved countless other millions of dollars. It has simplified purchasing and improved the

quality of products. It assumes the ultimate user of standard material that he is getting an article which comes up to a standard based on careful study

of the properties and characteristics of the materials

going into the article, as well as the use of which it is to be put.

However, this new area in standardization looks a

step further. It has in mind the use of the finished

product, as well as the standards for other materials

used with the product in question. There is to-day

underway in the construction industries a project

which has for its aim the creative coordination of

standards for masonry materials, as well as those materials used in masonry openings.

Early in 1929 several manufacturers of building

materials discussed with representatives of the National Bureau of Standards the possibilities of arriving at a standard list of masonry opening sizes based on definite increments in height and width. It was

felt by these manufacturers that the development of

standard sizes of windows would never be of maximum

benefit until the standards for related materials going

in and around openings could be coordinated. Subsequent to these discussions a representative of the Bureau of Standards talked with a number of architects

and other interested parties and found a decided trend

of thought in favor of standard openings. Should a standard list of opening sizes be promulgated, such fix- tures as awnings, shades, etc., could also be standardized with the knowledge that they would fit standard

openings.

The first difficulty, however, lay in the fact that

there were no existing standards for many masonry

materials, and that where standards had been adopted

they did not in all cases have regard for related materials. It seemed that the coordination of existing

standards on a common unit of dimension would do

much to eliminate waste in masonry construction and

make possible the development of standards which do

not now exist. Held preliminary conference.

Accordingly, on June 12, 1929, a preliminary con- ference of industries interested in masonry construction and masonry openings was held at the Bureau

of Standards. After considerable discussion a resolution was passed authorizing the chairman of the meeting to appoint a committee composed of one representative of each of the various interested industries to go into the entire matter and to make a recommendation. This committee was appointed, and held its first meeting on October 8, 1929. The members presented

the points of view of their several industries and decided that if the coordination which they hoped for was to be achieved there would have to be developed some unit of dimension which could be applied to all masonry materials, the size of each product going into

a wall to be an even multiple or divisor of this unit.

The conferees further felt that the brick was the key

unit in a wall, and that as such was the logical starting

point for the considerations. The use of a unit of measure or module equal to the length of a brick plus

a joint was considered as logical.

Taking the present brick size of 8 inches and the

average mortar joint of one-half inch, this produced a module of 8y2 inches, or halving this, inches.

The architects’ representative pointed out that if a standard was promulgated and the architect was ex- pected to use it, that it would be very desirable to have

the dimension an even inch. As an illustration of

what was meant, he showed how by using an Scinch length of brick with a %-inch joint, a unit of

9 inches could be achieved. A 2%-inch thickness,

with a y2 -inch joint, would produce a 3-inch vertical

module which could be very handily used, while a 4- inch width of brick and a %-inch joint gave dy2 inches or one-half of the 9-inch horizontal dimension.

In other words, he proposed as a brick which appeared

to meet the requirements one 8y2 by 4 by 2y2

. In

designing both walls and openings the architect could

then lay off his vertical dimension in increments of 3

inches and his horizontal in increments of 9. Should

he desire to go in between any 9-inch dimension, the
331

4^2 might be used. It was pointed out that the 4%

inch is a much more familiar dimension to the architect than 4!4-

Were this 9-inch modular dimension used with a thinner joint, the brick would be slightly larger, as

in the case of a pressed or enameled brick, the brick

then being 8% and the joint one-fourth, always stick- ing to the 9-inch unit of dimension There appears

to be a tendency at the present time toward a slightly

larger brick and the size suggested by the architect

might well come into use within the next few years

whether adopted as a standard at the present time

or not. With this thought in mind, it was suggested that

the entire proposition of a possible increase in brick

size and coordination of standards for masonry materials be presented to the various brick associations at their conventions. Representatives of the committee on masonry opening sizes attended the annual meeting

of the American Face Brick Association in New Orleans on December 10. Two sets of plans drawn up.

Prior to that time, however, two sets of plans for

a section of masonry wall were drawn up, the first plan being based on the use of the 9-inch module, with

the new brick size and the y2

- inch mortar joint, while

the second used the present brick size. Figuring the

price of face brick at $30 a thousand delivered on the

job, these two plans were submitted to contractors in

five different sections of the country, with the request

that they furnish as accurate an estimate as possible

as to the comparative costs of laying the face brick

work on each of the walls. The average estimate for

plan No. 1, using the proposed size, was $78.39. The

average estimate for plan No. 2, using the present size, was $95.16, or a difference of $16.77. This indicated

that there was an actual saving of nearly $17 in the

laying of 1,200 face brick, and that even though a somewhat larger brick might cost as much as 50 per

cent more than the present size, there would be a considerable saving due to reduced labor cost in connection with the construction of the wall backing, etc., as well as with the use of standard windows, trim, etc.,

which would be possible should a standard list of

opening sizes be adopted.

Attention is further directed to the range in esti- mates on each of the two plans. Plan No. 1 ranged

from $63.51 to $98.62, while plan No. 2 ranged from

$75.76 to $125.93, although these estimates were based on identical specific data. The information supplied

the contractors was more complete than any contractor would receive in actual practice, every brick to be

clipped being marked and all joints which it was neces- sary to thicken being so indicated. It would seem as though it might be concluded that contractors figure

brick work loosely and that they include in their esti- mates a relatively large amount for cutting and fit- ting, regardless of whether or not there would be any.

Subsequent to the presentation of this information

to the American Face Brick Association, a similar re- port was made for the Common Brick Manufacturers

Association, the Filled Lime Brick Association, and

the American Ceramic Society. All these groups have

appointed committees to go into the matter and it is expected that they will report the latter part of May

with their recommendation to the committee on

masoni'y opening sizes. Opportunity for elimination of waste.

This entire effort on the part of manufacturers of

building materials is based on a realization that there

lies in the field of construction an opportunity for the

elimination of waste. The introduction of substitute

and competitive materials in many of the building

lines have made it necessary for the manufacturers of

material affected to scour their field of operations for means of eliminating avoidable wastes and thus cuttingdown their costs. During this coming year construction expects to receive more attention than it has ever had in the past. Federal, State, and municipal governments, as well as private corporations, are pushing

their building activities as a means of stabilizing the

economic situation in the country. It is the logical

time for branches of this industry to undertake such

projects as this, and it is believed that the example set by manufacturers of masonry materials, as well as windows and trim, will be followed by other elements

of the construction industry.

STANDARDS FOR COMPRESSED-AIR

MACHINERY

The fourth edition of Trade Standards, a publication

of the Compressed Air Society, has been announced.

This pamphlet embodies the result of extended study

and research on the part of the executives and engi- neers associated with the companies that are members

of the Compressed Air Society. It embraces the ac- cepted nomenclature and terminology relating to air

compressors and their operation, with appropriate defi- nitions; a history of the development of speeds of air

compressors ; an explanation of capacities and pressures; a description of the low-pressure nozzle test recommended by the society ; instructions for the in- stallation and care of air compressors, suitably illus- trated, and recommendations for their lubrication;

illustrations of the standard A. S. M. E. air receivers

and a list of standard sizes of air receivers; pneumatic

tool standards ; numerous tables that will be of assist- ance in the treatment of various compressor problems;

111305—30 2

and a partial list of applications of compressed air. Copies of the pamphlet may be secured through the

office of the secretary, the Compressed Air Society,

90 West Street, New York, N. Y.

STANDARD WEIGHT MALLEABLE-IRON

UNIONS

The printed pamphlet entitled “ Standard Weight

Malleable Iron or Steel Screwed Unions,” Commercial

Standard CS7-29, has been released. It covers dimensions, tensile strength, leakage tests, galvanizing, and

marking of standard weight brass-seated unions for use with standard-weight pipe.

The commercial standard was effective for new production on November 1, 1929, and for clearance of existing stocks on May 1, 1930. Copies of the pamphlet

may be obtained from the Superintendent of Documents, Government Printing Office, Washington,

D. C., for 5 cents per copy.
332

NONGOVERNMENTAL SUPPORT FOR CANADIAN STANDARDIZATION

Electrical Code Most Important Publication Issued by the Canadian Engineering Association

By B. Sttjabt McKenzie, M. E. I. C., Secretary

The Canadian Engineering Standards Association

is the national standardizing body for the Dominion

of Canada. It was incorporated in 1919 at the suggestion of the British Engineering Standards Association and the British Board of Trade, negotiations

having been started in 1917. The organization of the

Canadian Engineering Standards Association follows

very closely that adopted by the British Engineering

Standards Association in that the work is carried on

under the direction of a main committee composed of

representatives of technical, educational, and industrial bodies. Under this main committee there are

sectional committees, to each of which is assigned one branch of engineering. The actual work is carried on by voluntary working committees, who prepare the

reports on the particular projects which are up for

consideration. When these reports have been completed they are submitted for approval to the appropriate sectional committee and thereafter to the main

committee for final approval and authority to publish.

All committee members give their services without

remuneration, the detailed work being handled by

a paid secretary and staff at Ottawa.

Financial support.

The Canadian Engineering Standards Association

is not a department of the Dominion Government,

although it does receive financial support indirectly

from that source. Its specifications are not mandatory in themselves. When the association commenced

operations practically all the working funds were supplied by direct grant from the Department of Trade

and Commerce, a certain amount having been received

from technical organizations and leading business

firms. In 1925 this Government grant was discontinued, and at the suggestion of the National Research

Council arrangements were made to continue the work

by constituting the main committee of the association,

the Associate Committee on Engineering Standards

of the Research Council. Financial support was

guaranteed by the research council on the condition

that a reasonable amount be also obtained direct from

industry. Since 1927 the association has been operating on this basis, a campaign for financial support

having been inaugurated early in that year. The busi- ness firms who have subscribed to the budget have been

listed as sustaining members without any fixed fee for

membership. In the fall of 1929, however, it was decided to put sustaining memberships on a more per- manent basis and a financial committee, composed of

five leading business executives, was appointed to di- rect operations. The fee for sustaining membership

has now been set at a fixed sum per annum.

Publications issued.

The work is carried on, as above stated, by committees on which representatives are appointed by both

manufacturers and users, and, where necessary, technical advisers are included. The Canadian Engineering

Standards Association is in a peculiarly favorable

position to obtain satisfactory results, in that it deals

directly with the business firms or organizations and

not through sponsor bodies. For this reason the contact with business interests is unusually intimate, it being possible to establish the most cordial relations

and, in many cases, save much valuable time in the

completion of the various projects. That industry

appreciates this relation is clearly shown by the gener- ous financial support which has been forthcoming and

the favorable reception accorded the specifications

which the association has thus far issued. These specifications have been widely adopted, and, in most cases, are officially approved for use in the different Government departments. In some cases firms have

placed a standing order for all publications as they

are issued. Many of the leading technical and public

libraries in the United States have asked for complete

sets of the Canadian Engineering Standards Association specifications for their files. Since its incorporation in 1919 the association has

issued 28 specifications. These cover steel railway,

ughway and movable bridges, steel buildings, Portland

cement, concrete and reinforced concrete, reinforcing

materials for concrete, wire rope, wire strand, stove

bolts, machine screws, incandescent lamps, distribution

transformers, watt-hour meters, cedar and reinforced

concrete poles, control cable, electrical code, galvanized

wire, railway fencing, check analysis of steel, forging

steel, commercial bar steel, steel castings, etc., and a report on gasoline and lubricating oils. Canadian Electrical Code.

Perhaps the most important publication thus far

issued by the association has been the Canadian Electrical Code, the first edition of which was published

in September, 1927, and the second in January, 1930. This code possesses features which are somewhat

unique, the most important being the combination of

rules providing for protection from both fire and elec- trical shock. It follows very much on the lines of

the National Electrical Code and the National Electrical Safety Code, but much material has been taken

from the rules of the Hydro-Electric Power Commission of Ontario and various Provinces and municipalities throughout Canada. The code has been pre- pared by an all Canada committee, which includes

representatives of the different power commissions,

power companies, manufacturers of electrical apparatus, city and provincial inspection departments, fire underwriters’ associations, labor organizations, and

technical men. Working committees have been established in eight Provinces and these are under the di- rection of the Code Committee which considers the

code as a whole. This differs from the system used in

the preparation of the National Electrical Code

whereby a committee is assigned to each article of the

code. The Canadian Electrical Code has now been

officially adopted by six out of the nine Provinces,

and is being administered under special provincial

acts.
333

Yearbook and quarterly bulletin.

The association uses every effort to keep its members, and the industrial firms with whom it is associated, well informed on the work which it is doing,

and to that end publishes a yearbook and quarterly

bulletin, the first issues of which appeared in 1927.

The yearbook constitutes an annual report on the

year’s operations, showing the status of the various

projects under consideration, list of cooperating

bodies, description of standards issued during the

year, financial statements and lists of sustaining

members. It also covers the history, organization, and

working methods of the association. The bulletin serves the purpose of a progress report, covering each

quarter. This includes meetings of working committees, announcements of new publications, Canadian

code news, general items dealing with standardization,

lists of specifications received, and acknowledgment of

any publicity in the press. It has been found that this

bulletin fulfills a most useful purpose as is evinced by

the steadily growing mailing list. Work is being done at present on specifications for

cast iron, pipe, power transformers, transformer and

switch oil, and wood piling. A start was made in

1929 on a new type of publication under the general

title of Established Lists of Dimensional Standards.

The first list covered machine screws and effected a reduction in variety from 43 to 21. The list provides for 11 sizes and, with one exception, a twothread series throughout, giving a range which should

fill every practical requirement. Similar lists cover- ing cap and set screws, stud bolts, carriage and machine bolts, plough bolts, etc., are now being prepared.

They will be issued in pamphlet form for insertion in

a binder specially prepared for the purpose.

Wide field of service.

The Canadian Engineering Standards Association

has now been in existence a little over 10 years, 3 or 4

years of which were taken up in initiating the work

or were unproductive owing to lack of funds, so that

the work is comparatively in its infancy. In the light

of the present situation there is every reason to believe that the association is now firmly established and

in a position to be of practical service to the industries

of Canada. The field is opening up in a most en- couraging way, and the industries have plainly indicated their indorsement by taking out sustaining memberships and providing a great part of the funds

necessary for prosecuting the work.

MOP STICKS

June Conference of Industry to Consider Proposed

Commercial Standard

At a meeting in Cleveland, Ohio, April 3, the leading manufacturers of mop sticks requested the assist- ance and cooperation of the National Bureau of Standards in establishing a commercial standard specification for their product.

Tentative specifications were formulated for the

three most popular styles covering both the handle and

the metal fixtures constituting a mop stick. Among

the points covered are the width of the bale or portion

in which the mop is inserted, size and quality of the

various metal parts, and the finish that is to be applied to the metal parts and the handles.

A general conference for the complete discussion of

this proposed standard was tentatively fixed for early

June.

FULL DISK BUFFING WHEELS

Recommendation Has Been Adopted by Industry

Sufficient acceptances have been received for the

simplification of full disk buffing wheels to warrant the

promulgation of the simplified-practice recommendation 115-30, the industry’s standing committee has advised the division of simplified practice. The recom- mendation was approved at a general conference of

manufacturers and users held on October 7, 1929, and

became effective January 2, 1930. The action of the conference resulted in a reduction

from 17 diameters to 11, and from 2 plies to 1. It is expected that this constructive simplification program

will result in savings to all concerned, by reducing

wasteful cutting of the sheeting out of which buffs are

made. The standing committee was authorized by the

industry to give consideration to question of kinds of

cloth and sewing, and also to such other items as arbor

holes and pieced buffs, with a view to working out

standards for all types of buffing and polishing wheels

that is, wheels of cloth, leather, and felt. The savings and advantages which have already ac- crued through the simplification of grinding wheels,

and the savings which are expected to result from the

buffing wheel simplification program, have prompted

the industry to request the cooperation of the division

of simplified practice in developing a simplification

program for abrasive grain sizes.

BUILDERS’ TEMPLATE HARDWARE

Pamphlet on Commercial Standard Now Available

The printed pamphlet entitled “ Builders’ Template

Hardware,” Commercial Standard CS9-29, has been

released. It covers all necessary dimensions and toler- ances to provide complete interchangeability of template lock fronts and strikes, as well as the leading

varieties of template butts, such as full mortise, half

surface, full surface, and half mortise. It also in- cludes standard template identification symbols and

minimum clearances on butt hinges designed for painting. It will materially assist the hollow metal door

manufacturers and building contractors in obtaining

earlier delivery, complete interchangeability, and will

facilitate replacement of these items regardless of source of manufacture.

The commercial standard was effective for new production September 18, 1929. Copies of the pamphlet

may be obtained from the Superintendent of Documents, Government Printing Office, Washington, D.

C., at 10 cents per copy.
334

STANDARDIZED SPECIFICATIONS AID VETERANS’ BUREAU

Economy Promoted by the Standardization of 7,000 Medical and Hospital Supply Items

By Brig. Gen. Frank T. Hines, Director United States Veterans’ Bureau

Up until the advent of the World War the Government services had given comparatively little atten- tion to the important industrial practice of standardization of equipment as a means both of economy

and facilitation of production. The Quartermaster’s

Department of the Army promptly resorted to the

standardization of the various types of motor trans- portation necessary for the proper equipment and

functions of the Army and maintained this standard

for several years subsequent to the war. However,

the practice generally prevalent throughout the Government in making purchases of equipment or general

supplies was merely to ascertain what large commercial concerns or groups of concerns were using, and

then, in so far as the law would permit, adopt similar

articles for their own use. Federal Specifications Board.

Subsequent to the appointment of Herbert Hoover

as Secretar}’ of Commerce on March 5, 1921, the principles of standardization and simplified practice were

given special attention by his department and the

Federal Specifications Board was created on October

10, 1921. The duties of this board were to compile and

adopt standardized specifications for material and

services and to bring the Government specifications

into harmony with the best commercial practice whereever conditions permitted, bearing in mind the broadening of the field of supply.

It is believed that the mandatory power with which

this board is clothed is in itself of inestimable value

to the Government in carrying out, in so far as it is permitted to do so by law, the process of standardization. It eliminates individual opinions and desires

which in any organization must be subservient to the

needs of the organization.

Medical and hospital supplies standardized.

In October, 1924, the supply division of the Veterans’ Bureau standardized on some 7,000 items of medical and hospital supplies and at the same time, in order

to simplify the problem of distribution, authorized

the field stations to requisition such items of these supplies as they needed from the supply depots direct. The result of this procedure was the elimination of

thousands of requisitions a year which had formerly

been sent to central office direct and thence to the supply depots for filling. This action also resulted in a considerable reduction in central office personnel and

brought the service of supply to field stations up to a point of efficiency where to-day practically no complaints are being received.

In addition to the foregoing, the standardization of

these items created a condition where supplies became

interchangeable between stations; in other words, if a shortage of supplies existed at one station it could,

in an emergency, be met by a transfer of similar supplies from another station and in the event of the clos- ing of a station these standardized supplies could be

distributed to other stations within the same area for

their use.

This work of standardization is continually progressing. In the operation of 50 hospitals it is neces- sary to furnish a large number of items of proprietary

drugs, etc., which are not commonly used, but in doing

this a study is made of the use of these items and when

it is found that their use is more or less continuous, the

item is standardized and added to the standard list. Vice versa, when it is found that a standardized item

has become obsolete and is no longer in common demand or use it is dropped from the list and in this manner the standard list is maintained current at all times.

Standardized specifications beneficial.

The principal benefit which is derived from the use

of the standardized specifications prepared by the Federal Specifications Board in carrying out the function

of procuring supplies is that it establishes a uniform

standard which puts prospective bidders on notice as

to the exact kind, character, and quality of goods the

Government desires, and strict adherence to these

standards eliminates to a certain extent the bidder who

does not possess manufacturing facilities or is not a recognized distributor of an established manufacturing

concern, thereby insuring to the Government the closest possible adherence to the specifications with the result that the Government gets 100 cents worth of goods for

every dollar spent therefor.

The best evidence of the soundness and reliability of

these specifications is found in the fact that wherever

it has been necessary to reject material or supplies furnished by any contractor due to their not being in compliance with the specifications, subsequent tests by the

National Bureau of Standards of the goods delivered,

in comparison with the samples submitted, has in every

case resulted in a substantiation of the reasons for re- jection and confirmation of such action. Bidders and

contractors are coming to realize this more and more as time goes on with a result that a slow but continuous

improvement in purchasing operations is gradually

taking place.

DIAMOND CORE DRILL FITTINGS

Standard, Now in Printed Form, Effective as of January 1, 1930

The printed pamphlet with the above title and

designation as Commercial Standard CS17-30 has been

released. This standard covers measurements and

tolerances of diamond core drill fittings in order that

this material may be interchangeable as to size and

threaded connections as produced by the various manufacturers. It covers four regular sizes of casings,

casing bits, casing couplings, core barrel bits, drill rods,

and rod couplings.

The commercial standard was effective for new production on January 1, 1930, and the time limit for

clearance of existing stocks was set at July 1, 1930. Copies of this pamphlet are available at the office of

the Superintendent of Documents, Government Printing Office, Washington, D. C., for 10 cents per copy.
335

BRICK STANDARDS REDUCE PRODUCTION COST

Through Standardization Competitors are Put on an Equal Basis

J. F. McNeil, National Bureau of Standards

Brick is one of the oldest of building materials.

Excavation of the ruins of ancient Chaldean and

Egyptian cities has unearthed crumbled brick structures, together with inscriptions dating back more

than 6,000 years. In America, the manufacture of

brick commenced about the year 1650. The development of this industry was very slow, however, because

the producers were dependent, almost entirely, upon

hand labor and upon the location of clay deposits.

Mechanical equipment for the manufacture of brick

and other clay products made its appearance in England about the middle of the nineteenth century. A

short time later, it was introduced into the United

States, where the increase in production of brick

thereafter was commensurate with the expansion of

building and construction operations. In the year

1922, when a simplified practice recommendation was

initiated in this field, the Bureau of Census reported

a production of more than 5,800,000,000 common brick,

and more than 1,400,000,000 face brick. Large production, such as is shown in this instance, is generally

accompanied by diversification in sizes and types.

Such variation starts with the birth of an industry

and oftentimes continues to increase over a long period

of years. Survey shows many varieties.

A survey of production, in the rough and smooth

face brick and common brick industry, conducted in

1922, showed 39 sizes of rough face brick, ranging in

length from 7% to 8% inches, in thickness from 2y8 to 2% inches, and in width from 37V to 41/2 inches. In

the manufacture of smooth face brick there Avere found to be 36 variations in size. Forty-four sizes of

common brick were also in existence at that time.

The established recommendation reduced the variety

of rough and smooth face brick from 75 sizes and

types to 2; and of common brick from 44 to 1 . A

check, following the development of the recommendation, has revealed the fact that 93 per cent of the face

brick and 85 per cent of the common brick is made in accordance with the simplified schedule.

After the recommendation had been in effect for

several years the Bureau of Standards made a sur- vey to evaluate the benefits derived by the acceptors

through its operation. Letters were sent to all signed

acceptors requesting that they give the bureau a statement of their experience with this simplification

program. Excerpts from these replies, which follow, are indicative of the fact that much benefit is being

derived from the application of this recommendation.

The outstanding benefits cited are smaller inventories,

lower production cost, necessity for less yard space, quicker turnover, and a more satisfactory condition

regarding competition.

Excerpts of replies.

“ Previous to this change,” replied a manufacturer

whose plant is located in Ohio, “ our brick were one- eighth inch oversize over all, and their weight averaged

5 pounds. Now the weight averaged by the Interstate

Shipping Bureau is 4.6 pounds, which means a saving

in freight. Also more tonnage can be shipped per car. The savings in a standard-size common brick are as follows : Less clay, shorter time in drying, easier for

the men to handle, kilns formerly holding 400,000

bricks will now average 460,000, less hours in burningbrick which means less fuel.” Another manufacturer said: “We believe that our

experience justifies us in saying that we have enjoyed

a saving to ourselves or to the trade of 10 per cent.” “We find that it works to advantage in smaller in- ventories and in convenience of supplying brick for

alterations and additions to buildings. As this practice is continued, it will result in more saving and con- venience,” wrote the manager of a large eastern brickyard.

“Simplified practice in the brick industry,” said an- other executive, “has produced its objective. It gets

its deserved praise when mentioned among brickmakers. In our own business, it has enabled us to concentrate on one style of product which has lowered our

production cost, saved yard space, lowered inventory,

and given us more time to continually improve our

product.”

“ In our particular case,” replied a Virginia brickmaker, “ it has increased our cost as we are making a brick that was not up to the size recommended, but we

are pleased to advise you that in changing to the

standard size we find it is very satisfactory, since the

majority of our competitors in this particular district are now manufacturing this standard size brick, and

this naturally puts competition on an even basis and

contractors know exactly what to expect in a brick so far as size is concerned.”

Sales manager pleased.

“From our past experience,” said the sales manager of a large manufactory, “ we find that for our

business it is to be a great advantage to standardize on the manufacture of one size of face brick, as this

enables us to handle our markets more efficient^, and at the same time architects and contractors readily familiarize themselves with the size of the product manufactured by us. In addition to the benefits received

from the handling of our markets, it enables us to do

a large volume of business on a smaller inventory,

which permits quicker turnovers of our stock and re- duces the necessary capital that otherwise would be

tied up in special machinery for manufacturing different size products.”

“ We think we are perfectly conservative in saying

that the adoption of uniform-size face brick effects an annual saving of at least $15,000 to $20,000,

which, of course, would have to be passed on to the consumer with no gain from an architectural standpoint,” wrote the president of a large brick manufacturing plant.

A member of a firm of consulting engineers, located

in the northwest, said: “We think that it is a fine movement, and one which is sure to bring great results

in years to come. You can count on our hearty

cooperation.”
336

CURRENT ACTIVITIES OF THE AMERICAN STANDARDS ASSOCIATION

Standards for Twist Drills, Bed Blankets, Ball Bearings, and Bursting Tests on Fittings

The technical committee on the standardization of

twist-drill sizes, of the general A. S. A. committee on

small-tools and machine-tool elements, has revised the

proposed American standard for drill sizes and

lengths, and these proposals are now being circulated

for review and criticism.

The circulation of previous drafts elicited a number

of suggestions, many of which are incorporated in the

present draft. The sizes of drills covered in the draft

are from 0.014 to 0.6875 (f£) inches. The present

total of 150 sizes is reduced to 107. In studying the

present sizes listed in manufacturers’ catalogues, the

committee found, in a number of instances, two drills of different nominal diameters which produced, within

close tolerances, the same size hold.

The drill sizes now submitted are arranged as to give progressive increases in diameter and require the

use of but 15 additional sizes. The committee has also prepared a table indicating the necessary top-drill

sizes required to produce the several specified N. S. T. C. full-thread percentages. A sheet conqDaring in detail

the proposed and present sizes is included with the proposed American standard for ease in comparison with

the present practices of industry.

Specifications for Blankets.

Evidence that the standardization of blankets has

aroused in the textile trade the desire for labeling

which will give definite information as to quality, has

been found in a survey made by the New York Daily

News Record, a textile trade paper. The News Record

questioned a large number of retailers and wholesalers

concerning the A. S. A. project for the establishment

of standard specifications for blankets.

Typical of the trade comment was that of the department manager of a prominent Youngstown, Ohio,

firm, who said : “ I think the standard-size list would

be suitable to almost every retailer. I have also had in

mind for several months whether or not it would be

possible to have the manufacturers put on their labels exactly how much wool there is in their blankets, as there are a lot of blankets on the market which are part wool, whether they contain 5, 10, 15, or 25 per

cent. It seems to be a hard proposition to convince

your customer just what percentage of wool is in the

blankets. We know our customers have bought a cer- tain blanket the same as we carry in stock, but purchased at another store, and represented to them as being a 15 to 25 per cent wool blanket.

“ Therefore, we would like to make the suggestion as above, if the blankets could be labeled, telling the general public just exactly how much wool is in the

blanket, it seems to me it would eliminate a lot of

dissatisfaction among the consumers.”

Bursting tests on fittings.

A third progress report on the cast-iron pipe in- vestigation being conducted at the engineering experiment station at the University of Illinois, has been

published and is available for review through the

American Standards Association. The investigation

is being carried on as part of the work of the A. S. A.

technical committee on specifications for cast-iron pipe

and special castings.

The A. S. M. E. fittings were tested with flanged

joints, and no difficulty Avas encountered except in the

case of the elbows. The first 12-inch elbow was tested

without any attempt to hold the blind flanges except

by the bolts in the flanges. The elbow failed at a low pressure (540 pounds per square inch) by pulling

off one of the flanges. In testing the other two elbows an attempt was made to reduce the bending stresses by applying heavy thrusts against the center of the

blind flanges. However, the failures, in each case, was by pulling off the flanges, although higher bursting strengths were developed (1,025 and 920 pounds

per square inch).

It is evident that the weakness of the A. S. M. E. flanged elbow is in the junction of the flange and the

body of the fitting. In the second series another

group of 12-inch flanged elboAvs were tested in which

a fillet had been added back of the flange. These

elbows Avere tested without applying a thrust against

the center of the blind flanges and the failure occurred

by bursting along the inside of curve at pressures of

1,055, 1,010, and 960 pounds per square inch (speci- mens 82, 83, and 84). It is shown, therefore, that the

addition of a very small amount of metal is sur- prisingly effective in increasing the strength of this

fitting.

Use of Victaulic joints.

At the meeting in January a question was raised

concerning the effect on the strength of the fitting of

using Victaulic joints instead of bells or flanges. In

order to answer the question, three 12 by 12 inch

A. S. M. E. 125-pound flanged crosses were prepared

for Victaulic joints by turning off the flanges (speci- mens 34, 35, and 36). These Avere burst at pressures

of 360, 485, and 495 pounds per square inch. The first specimen was no doubt defective and should be thrown

out, making the average bursting strength 490 pounds

per square inch, as compared with an average bursting

strength of 647 pounds per square inch for the same

type of fitting Avith flanges (specimens 1, 2, and 3). It is evident, therefore, that the flange does add materially to the strength of the fitting, and it may be

expected that bells would haAre the same effect to a

lesser degree.

The short body fittings are shoAvn to be a little stronger than the corresponding A. W. W. A. fittings.

The A. W. W. A. fitting has long radius curves at all angles introducing flat areas which cause bending

stresses to be added to the tensile stresses. The A. W.

W. A. 12 by 12 inch curves in particular have large

flat sizes which were bloAvn apart nearly an inch before

failure occurred.

Lateral the weakest 125-pound fitting.

The lateral was the weakest of the 12-inch A. S. M.

E. 125-pound fittings. This is no doubt due to the

relatively small area of metal at the crotch to resist the water pressure on the large tributary area. This

fitting is a particularly difficult one to strengthen.
337

Ribs carried across the crotch would undoubtedly help.

It may be possible that a thickening of the walls

opposite the crotch would be effective and easier to

cast, although more metal would be required.

Without intending to do so, information concerning

the strength of blind flanges was secured, due to the

failure of three blind flanges during the tests at pres- sures of 450, 490, and 500 pounds per square inch.

The practice of putting the ribs on the outside of

blind flanges is a mistake because the ribs are not

effective in carrying tensile stress. The practice of

dishing blind flanges outward is also wrong because

this introduces tensile stresses. To be effective the

ribs and the dish should be turned to the inside.

Standards for ball bearings.

The proposed American standard for annular ball bearings of the single row type, light, medium, and

heavy series, and the proposed American recom- mended practice for ball and roller bearings of the

wide type have been submitted for the approval of the

American Standards Association.

The standards were approved by the A. S. A. technical committee on ball bearings and by the sponsors

of the committee, the American Society of Mechanical

Engineers and the Society of Automotive Engineers.

In the preparation of the standard the committee co- operated with foreign standardizing bodies in an ef- fort to achieve as great as possible a degree of international unity. To this end international conferences were held in Zurich, Switzerland, in 1923 and in New

York in 1926. As a result of these conferences differ- ences between foreign and American practices were

practically eliminated. The work of this committee

began in 1919 and was based on the existing ball bearing standards of the Society of Automotive Engineers.

COMPUTING CHART FOR HELIX ANGLES OF

SCREW THREADS

Covers Diameters from 0.05 to 10 Inches and 1 to 100 threads Per Inch

A chart issued by the National Bureau of Standards

during the past month shows graphically the relationships among diameters, leads, and helix angles of screw threads or other helical surfaces. This chart

should prove of great value to mechanical engineers,

since it furnishes a means for readily determining the

helix angle at the major, pitch, or minor diameters for

any of the standard pitches of the American National

coarse, fine, hose coupling, pipe, and Acme threads as given in the 1928 Report of the National Screw Thread

Commission. Usually, however, it is the helix angle

corresponding to the pitch diameter which it is desirable to know.

Diameters and leads.

The range of the chart includes diameters from 0.05

to 10 inches and 1 to 100 threads per inch. Diameters

are represented by a vertical logarithmic scale, designated on each side of the chart, and leads (or pitches

of single-thread screws) on a horizontal logarithmic

scale along the top. For convenient use of the chart,

vertical lines are drawn corresponding to the threads

per inch of the various standard systems, and these are designated along the bottom of the chart. The abscissa for a nonstandard pitch can be readily determined by interpolation on the lead scale and trans- ferred to the diameter ordinate by means of a pair of

dividers. The diagonal lines of the chart represent

helix angles as designated.

Example. —To determine the helix angle at the pitch

line of a y2 "-20, 60° screw thread : The basic pitch

diameter is 0.4675 inch. Reading opposite 0.468 on

the diameter scale on the vertical line corresponding

to 20 turns per inch, the diagonal line immediately

below is 2° 0' and interpolation gives the helix angle

as 1° 57'. There may be occasions, as in designing power

transmission or conveying screws, when the helix angle

would first be selected and a suitable corresponding

combination of diameter and lead or pitch determined.

Interesting comparisons of various standard screw- thread systems can also be made by plotting them on

the chart.

Copies of this chart, known as Miscellaneous Publication No. 109 of the Bureau of Standards, may be

obtained from the Superintendent of Documents, J&ov- ernment Printing Office, Washington, D. C., at 5 cents per copy.

TEXTILE SAFETY CODE

United States Bureau of Labor Statistics Publishes Safety

Code for the Textile Industries Among the industrial safety codes prepared under

the procedure of the American Standards Association

is the Textile Safety Code, which was completed last

3

Tear and is now available as Bulletin No. 509 of the

United States Bureau of Labor Statistics. The sponsor for this code was the National Safety Council,

which organized a representative sectional committee

headed by President Charles H. Eames, of the Lowell

Textile Institute, as chairman.

It included representatives of the textile manufacturers and workers, State industrial authorities, in- surance underwriters, and technical experts. The National Bureau of Standards was represented by C. W.

Schoffstall, who was at that time the chief of its textile section.

This code gives detailed requirements for the safe- guarding of pickers, cards, spinning mules, slashers,

looms, kiers, calendars, cutters, slitters, extractors,

ironers, and folding, sewing, and washing machines.

Precautions are given for the handling of chemicals,

for the removal of dust, for the handling of tanks and

vats, and other operations used in the handling of

textile materials. This code will serve as a guide to factory managers and textile engineers in planning

equipment, as well as for State and insurance inspectors in judging whether existing installations are properly safeguarded.
338

VALUE OF STANDARDS TO THE WAR DEPARTMENT

In Preparing Its Specifications Department Follows Commercial Practices Wherever Possible

By Maj. Henry L. Bice, Ordnance Department

Our people fervently hope they will never again be

forced to decide any dispute by force of arms, but if war does come to us, we naturally desire to carry it through successfully. Victory in warfare has from

time immemorial depended upon three elements—leadership, man power, and supply power, and with the

constantly growing complexity of the supplies re- quired by fighting forces and the enormous increase in

the amounts consumed, the essential element of supply

power, the efficient procurement, accumulation, and

distribution of munitions of war, has obtained an importance so vital to success that no underlying factor

may safely be neglected.

The standardization movement in the United States,

with its great influence on quantity production, is such

a factor, the importance of which is so well realized

in the War Department that hundreds of officers and

civilian employees are

constantly engaged in studying and perfecting

standardization within the

department itself, and in

cooperating with the re- lated agencies of industry.

Necessarily, a considerable portion of this work

is concerned with special

and technical items peculiar to war, and as there is no large munition industry in the United States,

the War Department

must necessarily look to the personnel of its own

special training and to its own arsenals, proving

grounds, and laboratories for those special elements of

research and development with which the commercial

world has little familiarity.

Department welcomes ideas.

Within this localized and clearly defined field of

work, however, all ideas are gladly welcomed and

from whatever sources received, whether civilian or

official, from enlisted men or officers, through military

attaches from foreign sources, from special boards or from the enjoined yearly survey of military equipment, they are at once submitted to the careful consideration of a technical group especially organized

and particularly qualified to render an opinion as to their possible feasibility and merit; and in these varied ideas, constantly flowing in, together with the

research work carried on in the branches charged

with the supply of the Army, are found the necessary

progressive impulse toward the gradual improvement

of the basic military equipment.

With a favorable opinion that any suggestion is feasible, a development project is formulated, sent to the laboratory, followed carefully by the technical

group concerned through all of its stages of development, and, if successful, finally emerges as a new

standard of equipment. The goal to be reached, and

already in sight, is an existing standard for every

important item of military supply, a standard finally reflected in a carefully written specification, back of

which is a fully developed plan for the procurement

in quantity of the item.

In the course of this development every effort is made to commercialize the manufacture as fully as

possible. The views of industry are constantly solicited in this respect and responsible business leaders,

with no thought of personal inconvenience or expense,

have patriotically responded and contributed the

benefit of their valuable experience.

War Department standard.

A War Department standard is exactly what the

name implies, a fully perfected item with drawings

and specifications ready

for use; the most desirable known type of the

item and the type which

it is hoped to produce in

sufficient quantity in event

of Avar. In addition to the standard, less desirable but entirely useful

variations of the standard

type, are kept upon the

books of standards, as substitute standards, also available for manufacture

in case of any deficit in the manufacture of the

standard. Thus certain

field pieces which Avere successfully used in the World

War and which are still efficient in action are carried

as substitute standards for manufacture, although

there is an improved standard on which it is deemed more desirable to concentrate. An item may, therefore, be said to progress downAvarcl from standard to substitute standard, as re- search and development result in improA^ement and

finally may pass to limited standard under which

classification stocks may be retained for use until ex- hausted, but with neAv manufacture no longer contemplated. So much for special and technical military

articles. Forecasting use of items.

The War Department must, however, also forecast

the use of vast quantities of strictly commercial items

to the improvement and standardization of which

American industry is contributing a magnificent ef- fort and, recognizing that as an agency of the people cooperation in this work is not only natural and

proper, but that in event of Avar the benefits to the

War Department and to the people at large will be

far reaching in their effects, the Secretary of War

has instructed the department to definitely ally itself with this general standardization movement and con-

“ The War Department is a staunch backer of

the standardization movement, which has been

enthusiastically participated in by many governmental and civil agencies since the World

War,” said Maj. Beverly C. Dunn, United

States Army, in his article, Status of Industrial Mobilization Plans, which appeared in the

March-April issue of The Military Engineer.

He also stated that rapid progress has been

made in specification writing and commercial

standards have been followed wherever possible.
339

tribute the services of its personnel whenever and

wherever such services may be desired.

In the furtherance of this movement, the National

Government has itself set up certain general agencies

in which the War Department endeavors to do its share and the work of the Federal Specifications

Board in formulating standards for general governmental procurement, of the division of simplified practice of the National Bureau of Standards in assisting

industry to carry through programs for the elimination of waste in manufacture, distribution, and con- sumption, similar to those which were begun so suc- cessfully under the conservation division of the War

Industries Board during the World War, and of the

Bureau of Standards in its constant assistance to in- dustry in technical problems are too well known to need description.

In the business world the War Department is asso- ciated in the standardization work of many of the

larger engineering and trade associations, and is particularly represented in the coordination of their work

by direct membership on the standards council of the

American Standards Association, assisting through

the sectional committee procedure of this association

in many of its standardization projects. In special

fields of work, it is represented on the United States Screw Threads Commission, and on many other special

national and international boards and committees is affording the public the benefit of the technical knowledge at its command.

Standardization pays dividends. The War Department believes in this movement, practices its precepts

and teaches them in its schools and expects to continue

and extend its own efforts and its cooperation with

national and civilian effort in ever}? way possible.

TYPES OF DIE SETS REDUCED

Standardization of Die Sets Has Reduced Types and

Improved Material

Standardization of die sets for stamping, piercing,

cupping, or other forming operations, is a relatively new practice, states a news item in the magazine, American Machinist, in discussing typical standard die sets, but one that has not been lost sight of by farsighted,

analytical manufacturers. The result has been a re- duction in the types of sets available and the development of new types of sets only where conditions

warrant.

Another advance has been the change in the materials from which die sets are made. Originally cast from gray iron, sets are now cast from semisteel

mixtures, one manufacturer going so far as to add

chromium and nickel. This mixture, though more

expensive, is much stronger, reduces blowholes and

shrinkage dangers, and, consequently, makes up for the

slight increase in first cost of the die sets by givingmuch longer service.

Forgings are now being recommended for die sets, being claimed to have more uniform structure and

greater strength. In addition, delays encountered in

obtaining special die-set castings are eliminated by

the purchase of standard forged sets. Special die

sets may be forged in any thickness. The die sets are held to extreme limits of accuracy, variations on the

pins being held to 0.0001 inch, in squareness 0.005

inch in 6 inches and in parallelism 0.002 inch in 12

inches.

ACCOUNTANTS SUPPORT SIMPLIFIED

PRACTICE

Requests for Information Received from All Over the World

As a result of sending informational data to the

members of the accountant profession, the division of

simplified practice received more than 2,000 inquiries

for supplemental material. In addition to those from

the United States, inquiries were received from 21

foreign countries. This display of interest shows that

the accountants are keenly aware of the benefits of

simplified practice and its close relation to their work.

The support of consumers is essential to the ulti- mate success of simplified practice programs. For

this reason, it is interesting to note that between October 1, 1929, and January 1, 1930, consumers have

requested more than 5,000 copies of various simplified

practice recommendations, and as a result 1,500 new

consumer acceptances have been received.

The spread of interest in simplified practice in

foreign countries is illustrated by a steady flow of in- quiries from abroad. These average about 15 a month

and come from all parts of the world. Foi'eign in- quiries recently received came from Ireland, Cuba,

Italy, South America, Australia, Porto Rico, Africa,

India. France. Siam, Holland, England, and Scotland.

VALUE OF SPECIFICATIONS FOR PAVING

MATERIALS AND MACHINERY

Standardization of Specifications Should Prove Valuable in Reducing Waste and Decreasing Production Costs Dudley T. Corning, chief of bureau of highways,

Philadelphia, Pa., and chairman of a subcommittee of

the city officials’ division, American Road Builders’

Association, said

:

We are living in a period of standardization and simplification. In every branch of industry commissions and committees

are working on the standardizing of products and practices to reduce wastes and decrease production costs. Standardization and simplification of paving specifications should be of great benefit to the manufacturers and producers

of paving materials and machinery. Why should producers of crushed stone or gravel have to make a dozen gradings when

one or two would serve the paving industry, or why should

the asphalt industry have to produce so many different materials to be used for the same purpose?

Cities do not, as a rule, adopt any so-called model specifica- tions as standard. The specifications of most cities are built up

as a result of the paving practice of that city, modified by ideas gathered from the many “ so-called ” standard specifications

which come in the daily mail of every city engineer. This is liable to lead to even greater confusion. Standard specifications can be written only after studying

the requirements of many cities and the products of many

manufacturers. Specifications to be standard must be uni- versally asseptable.

It is probably true that specifications for the materials of construction are being made gradually to conform to some

model which is universally recognized as a standard throughout

the country.

1 ’
340

PRAGUE CONFERENCE ON STANDARDIZATION IN BUILDING INDUSTRY

More Intensive Standardization Urged in Building Industry; Program to Include Tools, Porcelain,

and Timber

A national standardization conference, convened by

the Czechoslovak National Committee for Scientific

Management was recently held at the headquarters of

the Czechoslovak Engineers Society at Prague.

The conference examined the present situation as regards standardization in various branches of industry and recommended that the program should be

extended to include tools and machine tools, porcelain,

and timber for saAving. A recommendation was also passed in favor of more intensive standardization in

the building industry.

The Commercial High School requested that uniform principles of accountancy should be worked out

for typical industrial undertakings, these principles

to cover cost accounting, sales, and purchases, etc. The necessity of centralizing all standardization

Avork in the Czechoslovak Standardization Association was unanimously recognized, and it was recommended

from various quarters that corporations which had

hitherto studied standardization work outside the

Czechoslovak association should conclude an agree- ment Avith the latter Avith a vieAV to closer cooperation,

in order that there may be no unnecessary division of

forces. The conference recommends that all State authorities, autonomous bodies, and corporations should prescribe and demand in their tenders and contracts that

all goods and supplies must accord Avith the Czechoslovak standards, and that they should follow the ex- ample of the Ministry of National Defense and con- form to the practice already adopted in the electro- technical industry, Avhere standardized goods are used

exclusively.

The conference urged Czechoslovak Departments of

State and autonomous offices which have not yet introduced standardized Czechoslovak paper sizes to do so wherever possible and Avithout delay, and thus assist in obtaining the maximum possible use of these standards. The conference Avas convinced that substantial

economies will result therefrom.

Further resolutions demanded that the Czechoslovak

Standardization Association should receive effective

financial support from the State and that intensive

propaganda should be conducted in trade journals as well as in the daily press.

TESTING EQUIPMENT FOR AUTOTRUCK

SCALES

New Publication of National Bureau of Standards Describes

Equipment Recommended for State Weights and Measures

Officials Fifteen thousand pounds of test Aveights are carried on a special truck by a New York State weights and

measures official for the testing of autotruck scales. This and similar outfits in use in other parts of the

country are illustrated and described in a recent publication of the National Bureau of Standards entitled

“ Testing Equipment for Large-Capacity Scales.”

The bureau urges the various States, counties, and

cities not having special equipment of this character

to take immediate steps to secure it, in order that

“ greater service may be rendered to the oAvners of

commercial scales and greater protection afforded to those who buy commodities over them.” It is pointed

out that the inspector Avho tests a modern 15 or 20 ton

autotruck scale with only a light load of 1,000 or 2,000

pounds of test weights knows nothing about the accu- racy of that scale in the most important part of its weighing range, which is above the weight of the

empty truck and where the weights of commodity are actually determined.

There is a popular conception that a scale which

will Aveigh a small load correctly will weigh any load

within its capacity range with equal accuracy. This

belief is entirely erroneous. A scale is, after all, nothing but a machine; it may have been improperly designed, made, or installed, or it may get out of condition through use, abuse, accident, or intent on the

part of the owner or user. The superficial appearance

of a good scale may not differ from that of a poor

scale; initial and continued accuracy may only be

demonstrated by adequate and regular tests. The

recommendation for an adequate test-weigh load for use by the inspector is 10,000 pounds.

Copies of this publication (Miscellaneous No. 104

of the Bureau of Standards) may be obtained from the

Superintendent of Documents, Government Printing

Office, Washington, D. C., at 10 cents each.

PAINT INDUSTRY MAY SIMPLIFY CONTAINERS

Industry on Record Recommending the Elimination of Onehalf Gallon Can

The question of simplification in the paint and var- nish industry Avas revived at the February meeting

of the National Association of Paint Distributors, held

in New York. A resolution was passed by that or- ganization recommending the elimination of the one- half gallon can as an unnecessary container in the

paint and varnish line. In 1924 similar action Avas contemplated by the in- dustry when it was preparing a program for passage,

through the procedure of the division of simplified

practice. That effort resulted in the adoption of a

“ limitation of variety ” recommendation for shades

and tints and no sizes less than gallons in barn, roof,

and shingle paint. The National Bureau of Standards has been requested by the National Association

of Paint Distributors to cooperate with them in this

renewed endeavor, in the event the manufacturers ac- cept their resolutions.
341

STANDARD CONTAINER LAW

Act of 1916 Standardizing Various Types of Baskets in Daily Trade Simplified Shipment and Aided Basket

Makers to Produce Standard Containers for Products

By H. A. Spilman, United States Department of Agriculture

The marketing of fruits and vegetables depends

largely on two factors—quality and quantity. To a great extent shippers now guarantee the quality of the

fruits and vegetables they ship by packing them in

accordance with United States grades. The quantity,

so far as fruits and vegetables packed in baskets or

barrels are concerned, is taken care of by three Federal laws. These are the barrel law and the standard

container acts of 1916 and 1928. The standard container act of 1916 standardized Climax baskets, berry

boxes, and till baskets; and the 1928 law, hampers,

round-stave baskets, and splint baskets.

Many benefits accrue to various groups from the en- forcement of the container or basket laws. The manufacturer is aided and his hand strengthened in at least three ways : The elimination of many sizes enables

him to concentrate on a small number of sizes and

thus lowers his manufacturing cost. The standard

container act of 1916 reduced the number of sizes of

Climax baskets by 93 per cent, of till baskets 84 per

cent, and of berry boxes 82 per cent. It is obvious that

such reductions cut costs or keep them from advancing.

It is possible for him to make up stock ahead, knowing that there will be a market for standard sizes. When a great number of sizes were in use the manufacturer had no way of knowing which one his cus- tomers would order, and consequently did not dare

to make up a large stock. This meant putting on two

shifts when crops were moving in order to keep up

with the demand.

Standards make for wider market.

A third gain to the manufacturer comes through the

wider market which standardization opens to his

products. When packages varied according to local ideas he was forced to confine his sales efforts to the

local market or to engage in the manufacture of so many different sizes as to be in danger of carrying

over heavy inventories. To-day he knows that his

product is standard in any section of the country and

that his markets are limited only by manufacturing

costs and freight rates. Growers and shippers are served in several ways by

standardization of containers. They profit by the

lower cost of production of the baskets they must buy.

As the number purchased runs to at least 700,000,000

each year, it will be seen that any saving in cost constitutes an important item for the country as a whole.

Unfair competition through the use of short sizes is eliminated by standardization. The grower who packs

in full bushels or other standard baskets knows that no

other grower or section can come in and break the

price by using short packages. Market quotations

have a more definite meaning when they are based on

containers of known capacity and there is assurance

that short containers will not appear on the market.

Shipping simplified.

The loading of cars and trucks is facilitated when

containers of the same capacity and of the same approximate dimensions are used. Those employed in loading such containers tend to become more expert at

it. Since containers are standard throughout the country, the shipper or grower has a much larger supply of

baskets from which to make his purchases, as a greater

number of manufacturers are competing for his business. This assures him an adequate supply at a fair

price.

The provisions of the standard container act of

1928 nullify and make inoperative all weight-perbushel laws passed by the various States so far as commodities packed in hampers, round-stave baskets, and

splint baskets are concerned. For most parts the

weights per bushel established by the States were unfair to growers, since they sought to compel the delivery of a greater weight of a given commodity than

could be placed in a closed basket. The bushel is a unit of volume and it is impossible to define it accurately in terms of weight.

Railroads benefit.

The railroads which carry the fruits and vegetables

of the United States to market can make a threefold

use of standardization. The standardization of containers makes possible the working out of sound and

practicable loading methods for the different sizes and types and the incorporation in tariffs of regulations embodying such methods. The reduction in the

number of sizes makes it possible for the railroads to devise and embody in their tariff regulations specifications as to the construction of baskets with some hope

of being able to enforce them. As a result of the use of better baskets and of better loading, there should be

a reduction in the number of claims for damage to

fruits and vegetables.

Those engaged in handling fruits and vegetables in

wholesale markets also find good results from standardization. It places all receivers on the same basis as to size of containers. In other words, any one

wholesaler knows that every other dealer in his market who has commodities in baskets has them in standard baskets and can not undersell him with a short

container. Market quotations mean more when based on standard containers. It is axiomatic in the trade

that goods are more easily sold when packed in containers with which the retail trade is familiar. The

retail trade quickly becomes familiar with standard

sizes, and hence a dealer does not hesitate to buy

through fear that he may be able to get a little larger

container from some other firm.

Benefits to retailer.

The retailer profits because he knows the exact

quantity of any commodity he is getting. He knows

that he can buy from any dealer with the assurance

that he is getting the same sized container from him

that he could from anyone else. Experience in handling goods in standard containers enables him to figure his retail price more readily.
342

The principal advantages secured by the consumer

through standardization is the assurance that he will

not get short measure when he buys by the basket.

To the city consumer who makes many purchases by

small quantity and by weight this does not appear to mean so much. However, anything which tends to cut down waste or expense in the marketing process helps

the consumer to some extent, and if the retailer has

greater assurance as to the quantity he is purchasing

he is enabled to figure his costs a little more closely.

To the consumer who makes purchases from roadside stands, a practice which is growing rapidly, the

standardization of baskets is a great protection. In

many cases his purchase is delivered to him in the

basket. Even when it is delivered to him in a paper

sack the unit of sale is generally a basket of some

standard size.

With the exception of the consumers, the groups

mentioned in the foregoing long since recognized the

advantage of having a simplified set of containers.

They realize they have profited through standardization and are ready to cooperate in the enforcement of

standard container laws. The consumer generally is unaware when such legislation is enacted and hardly

realizes that any change has taken place, even though

he has been protected by the elimination of a fraudulent package.

Probably this is true of the consumer’s attitude

toward any law affecting weights and measures, whether it relates to standard containers, correct

scales, or accurate gasoline pumps. This attitude is natural and simply emphasizes the need of vigilance on the part of the servants hired by the people to protect them.

INTERCHANGEABLE GROUND GLASS JOINTS

Commercial Standard Widely Accepted by Industry to Be

'Effective August 1, 1930 The commercial standard for interchangeable

ground glass joints has been approved promptly and

with many indications of whole-hearted approval by

all interests of the industry and the ratification of the

project was accordingly announced on April 1. This standard provides for interchangeability of

ground glass joints as used in physical and chemical

laboratories thus eliminating the necessity of tedious

hand grinding in an effort to secure a tight joint.

Further economies are possible with the use of interchangeable joints in that breakage of complicated ap- paratus requires only replacement of the broken part.

The convenience and economy in the use of interchangeable ground glass joints was evidenced by the

large demand for them from users. Accordingly, sev- eral manufacturers began to produce interchangeable

ground glass joints, but unfortunately they developed

individual standards of size and taper and consequently the product of one manufacturer was not interchangeable with that of another.

The manufacturers, together with the larger dis- tributors of laboratory apparatus, saw the advantages

of complete interchangeability and requested the as- sistance of the National Bureau of Standards in establishing a commercial standard for the guidance of all interested in interchangeable glass joints whether as producers, distributors, or users. Preliminary standards were formulated by a committee of manufacturers, and these in turn were recom- mended for presentation to the industry at a general

conference of all interests held at the Bureau of Standards, December 17, 1929. The commercial standard had the immediate support of practically all the manufacturers, many of the

larger distributors, and large numbers of users as repI'esented by college and commercial laboratories. It provides a definite basis of operations for the manufacturer and the greater usefulness of standardized

interchangeable joints effected through complete interchangeability will increase the demand. By this action the distributor’s problem is simplified since there

is little chance of confusion and misunderstanding

with a single well understood standard of size and

taper and the consumer is benefitted as previously

mentioned and by all of the other features of standardization without forsaking service or utility.

The commercial standard becomes effective on August 1, 1930, after which time joints made in accordance

therewith will bear the following symbol f indicating

standard taper and will also be marked with the di- ameter size and a designating name or trade-mark of

the manufacturer or distributor.

CANADIAN ELECTRICAL CODE

The 1930 Edition of Code in Line With American National

Electrical Code

The 1930 edition of part 1 of the Canadian Electrical

Code has been issued by the Canadian Engineering

Standards Association at Ottawa. This part of the

Canadian code agrees rather closely with the National

Electrical Code as published by the National Board of

Fire Underwriters in the United States, but is some- what briefer owing to the omission of some of the

rules. The Canadian Electrical Code also contains some

safety rules which are in conformance with rules in the National Electrical Safety Code. It contains some

material not found in the other codes, such as a section on maintenance and operation, instruction for resuscitation from electrical shock, a table for lead-covered

communication cables, and a cross reference list showing changes from the previous edition.

A local code committee was organized in each one

of the Canadian Provinces. All of these committees

have contributed to the revision, which was in the

hands of a committee of the Canadian EngineeringStandards Association. The previous edition of the

code was officially adopted by the Provinces of Nova

Scotia, Quebec, Ontario, Saskatchewan, and British

Columbia. It has been adopted by municipalities in other Provinces and has legal recognition in Alberta.

It is anticipated that it will become generally used

throughout Canada.
343

CENSUS TO GATHER DATA ON CONSTRUCTION INDUSTRY

Information Secured is Expected to Form Basis for Promoting Greater Efficiency and Standardization

Within the Industry; Comprehensive Inquiry First One of Type Made by the Federal Government

By Dr. Alanson D. Morehouse, United States Bureau of the Census

The first census of the construction industry ever undertaken by the United States Government is now

under way as a part of the 1930 decennial census.

It is being taken at the urgent request of the con- tracting group of that industry, as, for many years, leaders in the industry have realized the necessity of

obtaining more complete and accurate statistics of

their business in order to promote efficiency and

standardization in the conduct of the construction

industry.

While in the past they have been largely forced to use estimates and general assumptions, it is now ex- pected that essential facts will be available for this

purpose as a result of the census. It will be particularly pertinent information at this time when President Hoover is emphasizing the importance of public

works construction as well as private construction, as “ the balance wheel of American industry,” in secur- ing and maintaining general prosperity throughout

the Nation. The figures obtained will also furnish

the basis for further statistical research of even a more intensive nature. First census of this nature.

Construction statistics have previously been gathered by various private agencies to serve certain particular purposes, but a comprehensive census, such as that now contemplated, is, of course, not feasible for

such private agencies to undertake.

As a result of the present census, information will

be available concerning the approximate number and

kind of general contractors, subcontractors, and operative builders throughout the United States and the

total value of work performed by them in the various

States and cities during the year 1929. General contractors will classify themselves as building, higlnvay,

grading, waterworks, dredging, railroad, and the other

contractors. Similarly subcontractors will indicate

whether they are engaged in carpentering, concreting,

heating and piping work, electrical work, masonry,

plastering, sheet-metal work, marble and tiling work,

or other trade.

Questions regarding the number of skilled and unskilled workmen on the pay rolls, and the total annual

pay roll, will have a direct bearing on the matter of

employment in this great industry which ranks second

among all industi'ies in the United States. It will also

indicate the seasonal character of construction work of

various kinds. The trend toward rental rather than

the ownership of construction equipment in the en- deavor for greater efficiency and lower unit costs will

also be disclosed, as well as the various items of ex- pense, such as rent, liability insurance, bond premiums,

and all other overhead expenses. This “cost of in- dustry ” will be of value to each individual concern engaged in any particular type of construction, en- abling them to compare their overhead expenses with

the average overhead of concerns in their line, thus in- forming them as to whether or not they are in line

with their fellow contractors and spurring them on to greater efficiency in their methods.

Scope of data requested.

In general, the inquiries on the report blanks are designed to obtain information of the number of sal- aried employees and total salaries paid; the number

of skilled and unskilled workmen employed on specific

dates or nearest normal working day during each

month of the year; total wages paid them during the

year; the working days per week; time lost due to

strikes, lockouts, and accidents; equipment investment

and cost of rented equipment; rents, interest, bond

premiums, compensation and liability insurance paid;

the types and values of general contract and subcontract work performed; the total value of the year’s

operation by type of work, by class of construction,

and also by class of ownership ; the value of construction in the city in which the firm’s office and each

branch office is located ; also in the State excluding

such city, and in other States; and finally the value of

the various materials used and building equipment in- stalled on the various construction projects. Manufacturers and lumber and material dealers will be able

to gain much valuable information from the last-mentioned item, showing them the location and size of

their prospective markets for all their various lines. No attempt, of course, will be made to ascertain in any

way an estimate of the contractor’s profits.

Data required by Congress.

Replies to the inquiries are required by act of Congress. All information furnished by the individual contractor will be held in strict confidence. It will not be

used as a basis for taxation, but only for statistical purposes. Only employees of the Bureau of the Census, sworn to secrecy, will be permitted to examine the

reports, and the information when analyzed and made

available will not disclose, exactly or approximately,

any of the figures in any individual report.

A committee representing contractors’ associations

and the Advisory Committee on Distribution composed

of nationally known business men appointed by the

Secretary of Commerce, and various persons informed on construction matters, have materially assisted the

Bureau of the Census in the preparation of the report

blanks and are otherwise helping in the prosecution of

the work. While some of the questions asked may seem burdensome or superfluous, each of them has been care- fully considered by the contractors’ committee and all others concerned in preparing them, and they were

considered necessary to obtain a true picture of the

activities and tendencies of the construction industry.

The benefit of this census comes primarily and chiefly

to the contractors themselves, who should keep in mind that the results of (his first effort toward obtaining a comprehensive understanding of their great in- dustry will depend upon their cooperation and upon

the completeness and promptness with which they fill out the reports.
344

CURRENT ACTIVITIES OF AMERICAN MARINE STANDARDS COMMITTEE

Outlines of Proposed Standards for Port Facilities Approved; Executive Board has Approved Several

Standards for Promulgation

Outlines of proposed standards have been approved

by the technical committee on port facilities, subject

to a number of suggested modifications. Preliminary

drafts, in which the suggestions have been carried

out, have been prepared for submittal to those members of the American Marine Standards Committee

concerned in dock construction and equipment in con- nection with ship operation, also to the corporate

members of the American Association of Port Authorities. This is the first group of proposed standards

for port facilities to be submitted for definite action

as a result of the recent organization of the technical

committee on port facilities in collaboration with The

American Association of

Port Authorities.

New standards promulgated.

At its recent meeting,

the executive board of the

American Marine Standards Committee approved

several standards for promulgation, subject to in- corporation in final drafts

of suggestions received in

connection with the membership vote, as far as such can be correlated. These

standards are as follows:

Specification for 21/2 -inch unlined linen fire hose.

This is a revision of a prior marine standard specification promulgated in 1926 and embodies the present

requirements of the Underwriters’ Laboratories.

The revision is in line Avith the committee’s announced

policy to review its standards from time to time, and

to revise them if and when deemed advisable, in order

to keep abreast of industrial progress and requirements of service.

Specifications for uniform outfits for merchant marine officers. This defines items to constitute the

standard outfit, and rank and corps insignia, and contains specifications for garment materials and manufacture, and standard buttons. The general style of

the uniforms is similar to those worn by officers of

the United States Navy, with, however, different in- signia and buttons. The project was undertaken with

the thought that general adoption of standard uniforms would enhance the prestige of the merchant

marine officers on shipboard and ashore, promote national esprit de corps, and conduce to material econ- omy for manufacturers and users. Distinguishing

insignia of different lines or services is to be worn on

the cap only.

Specifications for materials for insulation of piping

and machinery subject to temperatures over 550° F.,

comprising molded insulation coverings, calcined diatomaceous earth, and diatomaceous earth insulating

brick and mortar.

Fair-water caps for propeller hubs on ships fitted Avith a contrapropeller or an Oertz rudder. This is

complementary to a standard promulgated in 1927 for

the conventional type of fair-water cap for built-up

propellers with recessed blades used in ordinary

installation.

Condenser tube ferrules and tube sheets.

In view of conflicting criticisms relative to the marine standard promulgated in 1926, it has been decided to resubmit the standard to the subject and

technical committees concerned for review and recom- mendations as to advisability of revising it. Projects in development.

A recent report issued by the secretary of the American Marine Standards Committee shows, among

others, the f o 1 1 o av i n g

projects in course of development : Fittings for

oil-tight hatches, standard sockets for hatch

beams, supply and ex- haust cowls and fittings

for natural ventilation^

air ports, cleats for ships,

steel for ship construction, flanged pipe fittings

and pipe flanges for three zones of pressures up to 400 pounds, structural steel cargo masts for docks, and

platform cargo slings.

Publications available.

Printed publications containing standards promulgated by the American Marine Standards Committee

are available to prospecth^e users, also to institutions

teaching naval architecture and marine engineering.

A list of the publications is obtainable from the secretar}^ of the committee. The publications can be purchased at nominal prices from the Superintendent of

Documents, Government Printing Office, Washington,.

D. C.

INDUSTRY REVIEWS PAVING-BRICK

SIMPLIFICATION

The 1929 survey of shipments of vitrified paving'

brick showed an increase of 3.2 per cent in adherence

over the year 1928. It was reported that 87.8 per cent of the actual shipments of paving brick were in ac- cordance with the six recognized varieties and sizes as recommended by the permanent committee. At the

April 1, 1930, meeting of the committee, careful consideration was given to the survey material, to determine whether further eliminations or additions should

be made. No changes in the present set-up were justi- fied by the volume figures, and simplified practice

recommendation No. 1 Avas reaffirmed for the period

of another year.

Some time ago it was proposed that manufacturers ' of materials, fittings, or appliances,

whose product is in accordance with American

marine standards, state this fact in their advertisements. The secretary of American Marine Standards Committee states that encour- aging replies, indorsing the suggestion, have

been received from various sources.
345

STUDIES OF TEXTILES ARE CONDUCTED TO INCREASE USEFULNESS AND

WEARING QUALITY

Weaver’s Art Ancient; Varieties of Textile Products Presents Problems for Technician; Substitute for

Parachute Silk Sought; Heat-Retaining Property of Fabric Useful Characteristic of Clothing and

Bedding

By Henry D. Hubbard, National Bureau of Standards

To spin yarn and weave cloth is an ancient art. Power looms have made it a giant machine industry.

It is easy to visualize a loom ; not so easy is it to pic- ture the infinite detail of processing which makes the

weaver’s art. The National Bureau of Standards,

with its experimental textile cotton and knitting mills,

is equipped to produce many kinds of woven fabrics,

and is engaged in researches in which desired characteristics are being designed into types of fabric of

great diversity and utility. Research is transforming

the textile industry.

Parachute function depends upon fabric qualities.

How quickly a parachute opens when the draw

string is pulled depends upon two fabric qualities

slip quality and resiliency. The first step is to measure these. The bureau is developing methods

and devices for measuring these characteristics and

for measuring the permeability of the fabric to air. The development of these devices will give basic data

pointing the way to improved parachute fabrics. In- jury was found in such fabrics which was traced to the

abrasion and burning when the fabric rubs on the

View in National Bureau of Standards experimental cotton mill The bureau has several of these complete manufacturing plants, where actual mill operations can be duplicated, under carefully controlled

conditions. Weaving is so old that we see it in the nest building

of birds, while spinning is the art of spider and silk worm. Man now spins his own fibers in attempts to duplicate nature’s finest fiber—silk. Meanwhile we

are learning how to build any desired quality or characteristics into fabric. This is done by measuring the

characteristic, then building the measures into the

yarn spin and weave. The bureau deliberately built a cotton fabric as a substitute for linen for use as air- plane wing cloth when the world’s linen supply was

cut off. Each of the endless varieties of textile products

presents problems for the technician, the solution of

which enhances their utility, creates new uses, promotes comfort and well-being of the user.

shroud lines. This was minimized by suitably oiling

the lines. In the search for a good substitute for parachute

silk, it was found that cotton yarn treated with cellu- lose ester dope, combined with mercerization, produced a yarn with many equivalent properties of silk. Some 26 fabrics were examined for suitability. It was

found that parachute silk of American make could be

made equal to or superior to imported cloth. To

insure the high quality desired, the bureau drafted

technical specifications.

Studied different fabrics.

For balloon gas cells and airship cloth it is important in reducing weight to produce a surface requiring

minimum rubber covering. In the bureau’s experi-
h 346

mental cotton mill some 44 different fabrics have been woven under constant tension and made up with 90 by

90 threads per inch and different types of weave. They have all been tested for breaking strength,

stretch, tear, weight, thread count, crimp, and yarn

size as a basis for selecting the most efficient cloth. A balloon envelope must be gas tight. Gas tightness

is a primary merit for construction of balloons, dirigibles and kite balloons in which hydrogen is used.

Test methods were developed by the bureau to measure

this essential quality. They are judge and jury of

permeability.

In a rubber-coated balloon fabric the hydrogen and

the air pass through the rubber film in opposite directions, each dissolving in the rubber in the process. The effects of temperature, pressure, humidity, and

time were carefully measured as a basis for improving

the performance of balloon fabric.

Heat-retaining property of fabric.

The heat-retaining property of fabric is a most use- ful characteristic of clothing and bedding. For

blankets it is a chief merit. To buy a blanket is to buy heat-retaining power. The measurement of the

rate of heat transfer through blankets then becomes

the criterion for judging their primary utility.

Such apparatus and the technical method for measuring the heat-insulating quality of blankets were developed in the textiles laboratory of the National Bureau of Standards. Heat insulation varies with the

number and size of the enmeshed air cavities and the

ease with which air passes between them. This may

be controlled in the manufacture if suitable measured

data are available. The research developed the importance of weave structure in retarding the escape of

heat through a fabric.

The outcome of the research was to stimulate the

production of blankets with enhanced heat-retaining

quality. The conservation of this quality in laundering was also given consideration and “ renapping,” if effectively done, retains this quality. Renapping is now a laundry operation.

MEASUREMENT OF X RADIATION

Thimble Chamber Inadequate for Physical Standardization

of X-Ray Dosage, National Bureau of Standards Finds

Fleretofore the use of the “ thimble ” ionization

chamber (fingerhutkammer) has been the only method

employed for the comparison between primary standards of different laboratories, according to a paper of

the National Bureau of Standards dealing with the

precise calibration of the portable X-ray dosage meter

against the standard ionization chamber.

While the thimble chamber is adequate for the purposes of medical dosage measurement, it is questionable

whether such a chamber will meet the exacting requirements of interlaboratory comparisons. The precise

calibration of two thimble chambers is discussed in

this paper. Five principal factors determine the ac- curacy of such a calibration, and it is shown that the

errors are, in general, all in the same direction. It is shown that the X-ray beam must have a uniform sec- tion sufficient to cover the thimble chamber and yet

When the cotton fabric was the framework of auto- mobile-tire construction it became important to devise

test methods of the desirable traits of such fabric in

order to measure strength and serviceability. It was

found that air moisture might contribute as much as

8 per cent to the weight of the tire, and when used to increase the strength might be as high as 10 per cent. The standard test methods devised by the bureau

avoided or settled disputes and permitted more ac- curate comparison of quality, so that gradual improvement might be effected with each neAV lot studied.

Cord tires studied.

When cord tires were first produced the bureau was

asked to cooperate in studying the relative efficiency

of fabric and cord tires. It was the bureau’s demonstration of the high efficiency of the cord tires that is credited with the rapid and practically complete transition to the cords, at a saving estimated by the industry as equal to $40,000,000 a year to the users of

automobile tires. A device is now built at the bureau to simulate the

effect of walking wear of carpets and rugs. A horizontal stress and a vertical pressure (150 pounds) are provided so that a slippage caused by the rotation of

a disk produces wearing stresses comparable to that

caused by the movement of the shoes in walking. The

measure of wear with this instrument is the thickness

of the carpet.

With this device both the wearing forces and the

resulting wear can be accurately measured and directly

correlated. This is typical of the simulated service

measurements which are characteristic of laboratory

research.

A study is in progress based upon the results with

the object of determining the relation between the carjiet structure and the resulting wear. From the result of this research carpet and rug makers may design

their fabrics to minimize wear and prolong the service

of these useful and ornamental floor coverings.

not be so diaphragmea that off-focus radiation may

impair the readings of the standard chamber.

The chamber must be carefully aligned in the beam

experimentally and not merely centered on the basis

of its geometrical shape, since the distribution of

measured ionization is found to vary considerably over the length of the chamber. In the investigation

of the standard ionization chamber the special conditions affecting the applicability of the inverse square

law were described. The same general conditions were found to hold true for the thimble chamber, indicating

the necessity of making a careful analysis of the diaphragm system before proceeding with the calibration

of a thimble chamber.

The “ wall effect ” of two thimble chambers was

studied, and the very strong dependence upon quality

of radiation indicated that any intercalibration by means of such a chamber will be valid only under

identical conditions of voltage, filtration, and wave

form of generator. The work on the whole indicates

that the thimble chamber is entirely inadequate for

physical standardization of X-ray dosage.
347

RATIONALIZATION IN GERMANY

New Book Shows that Rationalization in Germany Arose Out of Economic Postwar Conditions and Stresses

the Importance of International Cooperation

At the end of last year a book appeared which is of

the utmost importance to students of rationalization.

The Reichskuratorium fur Wirtschaftlichkeit in Berlin, which has been in existence for eight years and a

half, has combined the historical origin and present

position of the rationalization movement and ra- tionalization methods in Germany, in a comprehensive handbook of nationalization compiled by Dr.

Fritz Reuter. In Germany, as in many other countries, rationalization arose out of the economic scarcity caused by

the war. The need for it, however, did not end with

the war, and the postwar period, in which money was

at first plentiful under inflation and then scarce when

stabilization followed, gave German rationalization a particular character of its own. Walter Rathenau’s early recognition of the fact that

the war would swallow up raw materials in hitherto

undreamed of quantities and, therefore, call for the

husbanding of available supplies, had two conse- quences : It acted as a spur to technical invention in

its search for new methods of economic production or

for substitute materials, and it led the German in- dustrialists to group themselves together in war-time

associations. This is perhaps the reason why team

work and technical rationalization have played so large a part in the rationalization movement in Germany.

The fact that Germany for many years had only one big customer, namely, the State, was the cause of

a strong movement toward standardization, which

began with the creation of the standardization commission in the spring of 1917, at first for the machine

industry only. Thanks, however, to its inherent

soundness, the idea of standardization soon spread to

all other branches of industry.

But German science had more to offer to industry

than technology alone and, as the war absorbed more

and more men, industry applied for aid to other

spheres of knowledge. In particular, it learned from

the psychologists how to select and employ its human

material. As in the United States and Great Britain,

so too in Germany, the beginnings of industrial psj^-

chotechnology date back to the requirements of wartime industry.

It was the conclusion of peace which decided that,

of these two lines of development, the technical should

at first outstrip the human element. Industry, and

especially machinery, had to be converted to peacetime production, and at first money was available in

sufficient quantity, though steadily depreciating.

Thus technical rationalization was both necessary and

possible. On the other hand, human material was

suddenly forthcoming in larger supplies than ever, since not only did the demobilized army swell the

ranks of industry, but the two sexes competed for

employment.

Nevertheless, the collapse of the currency and sta- bilization soon showed how short of capital Germany

had really become, and thus it was that the German

rationalization movement began to be dominated by

the idea of “ efficiency.” The handbook contains continual references to this motive. “The great advantage of flow work,” we find, “ consists in the saving of

capital. This saving is due on the one hand to the

fact that, owing to the abolition of periods of idleness,

there are fewer articles in process of manufacture.

On the other hand, the shortening of the processes

allows capital to be more quickly turned, provided

there are satisfactory sales facilities.” “ Provided there are satisfactory sales facilities,”

that is the important qualification which determines

the value of all technical rationalization. Hence, the

term “ efficiency ” employed in the title of the German

central organization ; this expression is taken not from

science but from political economy. Hence, too, the

establishment of a German organization to study busi- ness cjHes, the resort to marketing analysis, the study

of sales questions and the possibilities of rationalization in commerce. On page 773, we find the following passage

:

The problems of the distribution of commodities are becoming more and more prominent in the German rationalization movement. * * * Trade is characterized—especially in its own particular sphere of sales—by the complete overshadowing of the human factor. In the main, however, it is man as a producer which

gives the book its special stamp. As an example we may take the exceedingly instructive section on

“Rationalization as a means of vocational training,”

in which we read as follows

:

Though there is much talk to-day of rationalization, the ref- erence is nearly always to purely technical rationalization. The rationalization of the human factor as an important ele- ment in the process of manufacture has hardly begun. Ger- many’s wealth consists of her labor resources. Vocational se- lection is the means by which these resources can be still better, because more rationally, employed, and by which they can be made more productive than they have been in the past. The nature of the gradual growth of the rationalization movement in Germam^ appears as much from

the history and description of its spheres of work as from the results which the book quotes as having been

already obtained. In addition to its central organizations, there are also numerous departments at work

in various special branches of labor, and noteworthy

successes have already been recorded. The rapid development of a special branch of rationalization can

in nearly every case be explained by the particular cir- cumstances of the case; simplification and standardization were inspired by the need for avoiding waste;

economy in heating, by the scarcity of fuel in the post- war period; time studies, terms of delivery, and test- ing of materials are the result of transformations and

uncertainties during the war and the period of transition. But even if the development of rationalization

in the different branches appears unequal, and if some

seem to have received less consideration than others,

that is not because the Reichskuratorium shut its eyes

to certain problems, but because it had to deal with

the most urgent first. This is clear from a passage
348

concerning the part played by vocational selection in

social policy.

The difficulty of the problem with which we are here faced

consists in the fact that the rationalization of all industry and

the technical rationalization of the individual concern, are two

different ideas which do not always coincide. There can be

little doubt that the harder problem to solve is that of rational- ization as a whole. Here is a problem still unsolved, but is not the

posing of a problem the first step toward its solution?

The international reader of this book will add one important fact among many others, to his knowledge.

He will learn, if he has not already done so, the importance of international cooperation. Not only does

the Reichskuratorium deal in a special chapter with

rationalization in foreign countries, from which it has

received many suggestions, but more important, this

comprehensive survey of the rationalization work of

a nation shows us that while all countries are con- fronted with similar economic problems, they can be

of great assistance to one another as regards the

methods of dealing with these problems. (Bulletin

of the International Management Institute.)

QUALITIES OF RUBBER STUDIED TO INCREASE UTILITY OF PRODUCTS

Methods of Reclaiming and Regenerating Material are Developed by National Bureau of Standards

By P. L. Wormeley, National Bureau of Standards

One of the subjects being investigated by the rubber

section of the National Bureau of Standards is the

regeneration of old vulcanized rubber, which differs

from reclaiming in that while the latter aims chiefly to recover the rubber from old rubber products, in

regeneration an attempt is made to restore the old

vulcanized rubber as far as possible to the condition

of new unvulcanized rubber.

To achieve this end several things must be accomplished. It is first of all necessary to remove the sul- phur which has combined with the rubber during

vulcanization.

Overcome effects of aging.

It is also necessary to overcome the effects of

aging, which consist partly of oxidation of the rubber,

but also include other changes which are not yet

fully understood, and, finally, it is necessary to devulcanize the rubber ; that is, to reverse those changes

in the physical characteristics of rubber which were

brought about by the process of vulcanization. This

last step may or may not be bound up with that of

desulphurization.

To solve these problems it is desirable first of all to know just what constitutes vulcanization; that is, to understand just what physical and chemical changes

are involved in the process of vulcanization. Back of

this is the need of a better knowledge of the chemical

constitution and physical structure of rubber, both raw and vulcanized. Very little real knowledge is available on any of these questions at the present time.

Removal of sulphur.

Work has been done on the removal of sulphur from

vulcanized rubber. In the course of this investigation

it was found desirable to have a method of determining the amount of sulphur in rubber which would be

both rapid and reasonably accurate. Such a method

has been developed.

Another important result of this research is the dis- covery that all vulcanized rubber is continually undergoing a slow chemical decomposition involving the

splitting off of the elements of sulphur and hydrogen

(in the form of hydrogen sulphide) from the rubbersulphur compound. This decomposition is, thereforeanother factor in the “ aging ” of vulcanized rubber,

and it also presents a new problem in the regeneration

of rubber, since it makes necessary the replacement

of the hydrogen lost from the rubber in the course of

this deterioration.

Insulation for submarine cables.

At the request of the Signal Corps of the Army, the

electrical division of the Bureau of Standards undertook several years ago a study to determine the suit- ability of rubber as an insulating material for submarine cables. Gutta-percha, which is commonly used

in deep-sea cables, is available in limited supply, and

that under foreign control. The bureau, as a result of its researches, reported

that rubber insulation could be made which was fully

equal to gutta-percha in electrical properties.

In the course of this work it was found that little was accurately known about the electrical properties

of rubber. Few measurements had been made on some

electrical properties; in case of other properties there was no dearth of measurements, but these measure- ments did not agree among themselves. Each sample

of rubber seemed to follow a law of its own. The cause of the variability was found to reside not in the rubber itself but in small amounts of other

substances which the plants produced along with rubber, such as salts, proteins, resins, and sugars. When

these substances were removed the differences between

rubbers from various sources vanished. Purified rubber is constant in electrical properties, whether it was

derived from the guayule shrub in a Mexican desert or from a vine in tropical Africa or from a Hevea

tree on the Amazon or in the Far East. Effects of temperature and pressure.

Measurement of the electrical properties were made

on samples of the purified rubber vulcanized with in- creasing proportions of sulphur so as to form an un- broken series of materials from soft to hard rubber.

The manner in which temperature affects the properties of these substances was studied all the way from — 80° C., at which temperature even the soft rubber

became brittle as glass, up to 150° C., when some

samples began to decompose.

With increasing temperature the dielectric constant and power factor of rubber increase to a maximum

and then decrease. The temperature at which this

maximum occurs increases with the percentage of sul-
349

phur combined with the rubber. Resistivity, in general, decreases with increasing temperature.

Measurements were made at several frequencies, and

the range is now being extended to include radio-fre-

-quencies. The properties of rubber at high frequencies are generally quite different from those at low

frequencies.

The effect of pressure on rubber is important, both

for theoretical reasons and for practical use by the

submarine-cable engineer. An increase in pressure

has an effect in the same direction as a decrease in

temperature.

Electrical tests are being made under pressures up

to 10,000 pounds per square inch, duplicating in the

laboratory the conditions at ocean bottom.

Research directed by committees.

The bureau takes an active part in committee work

of the American Marine Standards Committee, the

American Standards Association, the American Chemical Society, and the American Society for Testing

Materials. A very close contact is maintained with

the Rubber Association of America in promoting

standards of quality and performance.

The American Chemical Society maintains a re- search fellowship at the bureau to investigate those

problems which are of the greatest importance in the

standardization of test procedure. Studies have been

made of the effect of humidity and temperature, during the preparation and testing of samples, upon the

tensile properties and resistance to abrasion of rubber

compounds. Other studies have been started which

are of vital importance to the industry. The program

is being carried out under the direction of a committee.

The greatly increased consumption of rubber in re- cent years has been accompanied by rapid advances in the art of manufacturing rubber products. Efforts

toward standardization are playing an important part

in the development of the rapidly expanding industry.

The brief references made to standardization work

and researches that have received attention at the Bureau of Standards are illustrations of important problems now confronting the rubber industry.

STANDARDS YEARBOOK FOR 1930

New Issue Reports the Activities in Standardization Throughout the World During 1929

The Standards Yearbook for 1930, which was re- leased last month, is more than a summary of interesting news. It covers broadly the developments in

standardization all over the world during 1929. In

science standards are the basis of countless kinds of

measurement. New methods of measurement may begin in the laboratory. They graduate into industry.

A measuring device at first a novelty of the laboratory may later control the process of a giant industry—the pyrometer, for example, or the photo-electric

cell.Industry has become a vast complex of measure- ments controlling the design, making, and use of its products. Broadly, standardization is the measured

control of industrial evolution. Hence, it reaches out

to touch every field of human activity. It includes

simplification and “ rationalization ” as parts of a sys- tem designed to place the measurements of science in

the controlling positions of industry.

The current yearbook begins with an article on the

Government’s interest in advancing standardization

and simplification, a discussion prepared by the

former assistant director in charge of the commercial

standardization group of the National Bureau of

Standards.

Organizes International Standards Association.

The yearbook points out that to promote uniformity of national standards, wherever this is feasible

and desirable, and to exchange information on standardization work in the different countries, an Inter- national Standards Association has been organized.

This is supported by the national standardizing

bodies of the following 18 countries: Austria, Belgium, Czechoslovakia, Denmark, Finland, France,

Germany, Holland, Hungary, Italy, Japan, Norway,

Poland, Rumania, Russia, Sweden, Switzerland, and

the United States. Thus, what is being done in the

interests of national standardization in the United

States by the American Standards Association is about to be undertaken on a world-wide basis and

should result in great benefits to all the countries concerned. In this connection it is interesting to note

that 21 nations now have national standardizing

bodies, though they do not all support the international association at the present time.

The yearbook records gratifying progress in the re- cletermination of the electrical units on a fundamental basis, thus tying them in with the mechanical and

thermal units, since all refer back to standards of

length, mass, and time. This work is being directed

by the International Bureau on Weights and Measures, the research work itself being divided among

the various national laboratories according to their

facilities. The publication of a revision of Rowland’s pre- liminary table of solar-spectrum wave lengths is of

fundamental importance in astronomy and physics.

This paper was issued by the Carnegie Institution, of

Washington, during the year and is based upon a rec- ommendation of the International Astronomical

Union. Part of the work was performed by the

spectroscopy section of the National Bureau of

Standards.

Institute of geography and history.

An important event in connection with international

standardization was the organization meeting, held in Mexico City, September 16 to 22, of the Pan American

Institute of Geography and History. This institute is designed to further the interests of geography throughout the Western Hemisphere, this science being con- sidered to include geodesy. Already there is an arc of

continuous triangulation from northwestern Canada,

across the United States, to the southern border of

Mexico. It is hoped in the near future to extend this
350

arc southward into Central and South America. Undoubtedly the institute will have this in mind as one

of the projects to advocate and push forward.

In his letter of transmittal to the Secretary of Commerce, Dr. George K. Burgess, Director of the Bureau

of Standards, points out that while, as in earlier issues

of the yearbook, special attention has been paid to the

organization and procedure of the national standardizing agencies in the United States and abroad, the

present volume likewise contains outlines of the activities and accomplishments of State, county, and municipal agencies, as well as those of technical societies and

trade associations, “ with special emphasis on their

accomplishments during the year 1929, their program

for future work, and the methods employed by each

organization to encourage or facilitate the use of its standards and specifications.”

Developments in calendar simplification.

Included among the special features of the 1930

yearbook are certain developments in the attempt to simplify the calendar (contributed by C. F. Marvin,

Chief of the United States Weather Bureau), and a bibliography of recent publications on standardization, furnished through the courtesy of W. A. Slade,

chief of the division of bibliography of the Library of

Congress.

Copies of this publication (Miscellaneous Publication No. 106 of the Bureau of Standards) may be

obtained from the Superintendent of Documents, Government Printing Office, Washington, D. C., at 75

cents each.

STANDARDIZATION AND RESEARCH WORK AND WORKERS AT THE NATIONAL

BUREAU OF STANDARDS

Results Enter into Nation-Wide Practice in Industry; Successful Enterprises at the Bureau Promote

General Welfare of the American People

By George K. Burgess, Director National Bureau of Standards

“A city of science set on a hill,” is a phrase applied

to the National Bureau of Standards. Its score of

laboratories is the workshop in which are solved some

of the most interesting problems for science and in- dustry.

A remarkable aspect of the work is the great number of specialists. Here are dye researchers who specialize in the study of sensitization of photographic

plates. The work ranges from how to build a house

to such remote themes as measuring the temperature on the polar ice cap of the planet Mars.

Here is another who studies quartz disks and their

properties, especially those useful in the control of

radio-frequency. Here is another who studies the behavior of air streams around objects which must en- counter the air with speed, precision, or efficiency.

Here is another group who specialize in determining

the properties of steam. One expert devotes his time

to determining the heat-insulating properties of materials. A laboratory is built for the study of the

atoms, another for the study of the rays characteristic

of the atoms. To tell the full story would give a romance and

epic of achievement scarcely excelled by similar organizations. At the basis of scientific industry are the

units and standards of measurements. Bureau

workers develop new kinds of measurement. A group

of laboratory workers test radium which is sold in the

United States according to the strength certified at the Bureau of Standards. A crew of engineers carry

the Bureau of Standards’ test car from State to State

in a nation-wide errand of standardization for the

railroad-track scales and the master scales, upon the

readings of which $6,000,000,000 of freight rates in

America are collected. This work assures fair dealing and mutual confidence between shipper and carrier. Steadily improved accuracy noted in large scales

is evidence of the effectiveness of this work.

In the bureau at Washington precise weighings are made by experts whose task it may be to add another

decimal place to the testing of weights which must

govern the weighings of science, industry, and trade.

Here we see balances that must be read from adjoining rooms. Again, the balance must be made in the

dark for some scientific purpose where accuracy must

be assured to one part in a billion, in weighing crystals

in quest of a possible flaw in Einstein’s theory of

relativity. Another may have to weigh an electro- deposit of silver with unprecedented accuracy as a

basis for fixing the unit of electrical current, for the

silver deposit is a measure of the electrical current which deposits it. In other laboratories workers measure the standards of light and heat and certify their corrections as a basis for shop standards in American factories.

Accuracy in the countless measurements of industry

has its birthplace and continued service in such groups

of conscientious, skilled young scientists. Here is an

expert ruling linear scales using wave lengths of light

directly without any material standard, and doing it so perfectly that there is no measurable error. A

skilled glassworker may grind flat quartz disks of 11 inches in diameter without any error in the flatness as great as 1/5,000,000 inch. Few can realize the great

skill and science exhibited in this achievement. The

world does not know its value nor the effort it re- quires. Expert men of science, however, do know how

fundamental such accurate standards are in the new

industries in which precise measurement is a supreme

factor. In a low, 2-story building are radio workers. One

group of these ingenious jmung men is developing

radiobeacons to make safe the airways. Others are developing with unprecedented accuracy the quartz

crystal control of radio-frequency—the heart and soul

of successful broadcasting and reception. A former
351

chief of this radio laboratory invented the direction

finder, which is the basis of to-day’s radio fog signals

and radiobeacons which make navigation on sea and

air safe. The service which this staff has put in radio

and aviation can not be measured in dollars. A special staff of young women is checking the

thermometers used to detect fever, doing their part

to add to the dependable resources used in diagnosis

of the sick. Here is another group whose task is to make sure that the measuring apparatus used by the

chemist is accurate and suitable. They equip laboratories in chemistry and medicine with perfect tools

for the measurements which safeguard the invalid or make sure measurements of the science upon which

recoveries must depend.

In the optics laboratory a group of experts is working to make sure the scientific foundations for measuring color so that a color description may not be a mere matter of chance opinion, but may be specified

and obtained reproclucibly in the thousands of commercial products where color is a factor of utility.

Sealed samples of import sugars reach another lab- oratory. Here the experts control the accuracy with

which sugar cargoes are analyzed in assessing the

duty, since our Government desires payment only on

the pure sugar content, and accurate analyses are assured by this work.

In a near-by room are being grown new kinds of

crystals and the conditions are studied for crystal

growth. In the next building metals are studied.

The foundrymen are testing out different kinds of

molding sand and perfecting processes of casting metals. Here is a complete steel mill with electric fur- naces in which the workers can produce any metal or any alloy for research. Here are the rolls, drawbars,

and h}Mraulic hammers which give shape and texture

to metal parts. On the next floor the staff is using the

microscope to photograph the polished metal surfaces

and study the minute crystals, the size and form of

which fix the quality of the metals. Some of these are engaged in finding why car rails fail, how a transverse

fissure may wreck a train.

In some interesting shops highly trained and

skilled laboratory artisans are at work-—glassworkers, glassblowers, instrument makers, photographers,

foundrymen, and woodworkers. Many new scientific instruments are made for the first time in these shops

from designs which the mechanician helps to perfect

during the course of the work.

Air navigation owes much to bureau Avorkers on

aeronautical instruments. Some 40 instruments essential to perfect flying have been improved or redesigned by these experts. To them in part is to be

credited the recent rise of instrument 4> flying ”—air

navigation based upon the readings of instruments

rather than by observation. Such reliance is essential

for flying at night in fogs. These Avorkers also standardize the altitude records Avhich the airplane instruments bring back from high flights. For a polar ex- pedition it was desired to have a photographic sextant. Within the brief time alloAved the technician

assigned to the task produced a successful instrument

Avhich replaced direct observation of the sun’s

position.

A special group of experts has the interesting task

of producing high-speed wind streams to study the

behavior of such air streams passing models of skyscrapers, stacks, factory buildings, and the like, and to study the behavior of parts of airplanes or models of

aircraft in the wind stratum. Such careful observations and measurements are making aviation of to- morroAV. They compare the results on models of

stacks with those on full-size tracks.

In a far corner of the bureau grounds a group of

young men are at work helping to make the automobile practice of to-morrow. Four members of this

group gave their lives in an important experiment

which proved that low-volatility liquid fuel could be

used in automobile motors. Almost every phase of

the modern operation is studied by the workers in this laboratory.

The industrial laboratory houses a small army of

research workers. Here scientific men manufacture

yarn, cloth, paper, rubber, glass, clay products, and

the like under controlled conditions. NeAV processes

are discoAnrecl. New materials are tried out and the

American people profit by the discoveries. Small

groups are scattered throughout the country—in the

heart of the cement field a group is engaged in testing

the cement for Government use. In Columbus, Ohio,

there is a clay-products laboratory manned with a technical staff busily at Avork on ceramics research. In

other places electrical bureau workers in the field are studying the disastrous effects of stray currents underground in destroying piping and other metal structures. In the bureau offices experts are at work on codes of

safety and practice. Successful Avork of this type has

been done on codes for electricity, lightning, aeronautics, protection of the heads and eyes, interlocking

systems, and others. These codes are in a sense a con- tinuous nation-wide, life-saving service. They assure not merely the safety but in most cases adequacy of the

service.

The staff of the superintendent of plant is an inter-

• esting group. Their task is to assure continuity and

adequacy in a unique and complex set of piped and

wired services—gas, compressed air, vacuum, highpressure steam, exhaust steam, freezing brine, and a great variety of voltages and electrical currents. To

keep these circulating through a scientific village of 20

or more buildings scattered on a site of 48 acres is a 24-hour-a-clay service by dependable, experienced men. The complex equipment for such services is indispensable in research. For its success much credit is due the

staff in charge of the mechanical plant.

A small group at work on the control of sound and

elimination of noise has devised means to make the in- terior of an airplane cabin relatively as quiet as a Pullman car. These experts have given public buildings good acoustical properties Avhere thej' had seemed

hopeless. A similar group is engaged in testing types

of structural columns used in bridges and in the design

and building of giant skyscrapers. The great Hudson

River bridges and the Camden will be the safer for

the tests made at the bureau laboratories. The designers and builders of these bridges were happy to recede

the reports of the bureau’s experts as an assurance of

adequate strength and stability.

In one of the neAvest lines American industry is A

7 ol- untarily simplifying the sizes and varieties of commercial products, saving hundreds of millions of dol-
352

lars to the Nation. Standards of size and quality are

also being agreed upon by American industry. One

writer has characterized the work of the bureau stalf in this headline “To do the Impossible is Their Job.”

Another headlined a descriptive magazine article, “ House of a Thousand Wonders.” Its workers are engaged on research problems on the frontiers of

scientific advance. As they reach fruition the results are published by the Government and the 1,600 publications which have been issued are a monument to the

industry of the entire staff, a monument which is more

than a shaft of stone. It is rather a spirit of accuracy

which in an induring way pervades mechanical in- dustry. The spirit of discovery through industrial

research has been stimulated profoundly during the

life of the bureau. While practically no industrial re- search laboratories existed when the bureau was established in 1901, to-day there are hundreds. The Avork

of the bureau staff has also been a stimulus to the

establishment of similar institutions in other lands.

Bureau discoveries receive nation-wide adoption.

Only a few types of work can be mentioned, and

these examples are mere samples of other enterprises

in which the workers of the Bureau of Standards are doing their part in perfecting materials, devices, and

processes which are the making of the material civili- zation of to-morrow. In fact, all through the bureau

laboratories are men whose labors will become nationwide practice in the industries and sciences of the

future.

I can only mention the vast amount of correspondence, personal visits to the great industries, meetings

of national societies, conferences held here and abroad.

Through all of these are diffused the results of the

bureau’s researches and testing. Through these in a great measure discoveries enter the factory and be- come permanent productive factors. The work of some of the staff is so technical that

the general public never understands. Its appeal is to the industrial technician through whom its results become factors of industry.

Graduates of the bureau have become heads of in- dustrial-research laboratories. One is chief of a great

silk-research laboratory; another is the head of a textile conditioning laboratory; another is just occupying

a new laboratory building erected for research in oil; another heads up a large municipal testing laboratory

;

another has perfected a system of television. To-day

is an era of science and the bureau aims to do its full part to bring new science to American industry. Its greatest contribution is to furnish methods of meas- urements and the measured controls which make in- dustry most effective. In fact, its early development

of methods of precise measurement in such great

variety was the occasion for the bureau’s active part

in the industrial applications of such measurements.

The men who have made all this possible many of

them sacrificed wealth and position to carry on the

work of the institution. Those of us who know the

Bureau of Standards best from within believe that

the workers here organized and at work stand high

among the builders of to-morrow.

The rise of scientific work in the Government during this century has been phenomenal. The Bureau

of Standards has shared this development. Nearly

1,000 workers in some 60 specialized groups in administrative duties, scientific research, and testing are

actively engaged in the discovery of new materials, new processes, or new devices, perfecting them or the

data concerning them through laboratory research.

However notable the equipment, it is the men and

.women of its staff who are responsible for the aston- ishing list of successful enterprises which flow from

the Bureau of Standards’ laboratories to promote the

general welfare of the American people.

In concluding this somewhat sketchy account of the

bureau workers and their work in the research laboratories of the Bureau of Standards, I may quote the

appreciation of laboratories by Pasteur, a master mind

in the field of scientific research.

Take an interest, I beg you, in those sacred structures which we designate by the expressive term “ laboratories.”

Insist that they multiply and that we adorn them. They are

the temples of the future, of wealth, and well-being. It is there that humanity grows, becomes strong, and becomes

better. It there learns to read in the works of nature, the works of progress and of universal harmony ; though her works are too often those of barbarism, unreason, and destruction.

1930 HANDBOOK OF AUTOMOTIVE

BATTERIES

The Society of Automotive Engineers (Inc.), 29

West Thirty-ninth Street, New York, N. Y., has just

issued to its members and others the 1930 revised issue

of the S. A. E. Handbook. This handbook is the offi- cial publication of the society containing the S. A. E.

standards and recommended practices for the auto- motive and allied industries.

The original standards of the society were first published in 1911 and have been revised from time to time

as the automotive industry developed. New standards

and recommended practices have also been added to meet the needs of the industry for them. It is difficult to determine the actual value in dollars and cents that

these standards have been to the automotive industries

without devoting a very considerable amount of time

and effort to securing such information, but according

to a statement from S. A. E. headquarters a reliable

estimate indicates that without these standards the

automotive industries would have had to spend something more than $8,000,000 a year more than they do

for the same production without the benefit of

standards.

FEDERAL SPECIFICATION FOR STORAGE

BATTERIES

A proposed Federal specification for storage batteries has been circulated among the Federal Government departments and others interested, for criticism

and comment. This tentative specification covers stor- age batteries of the lead-acid type for starting, lighting, and ignition service on passenger automobiles,

motor trucks, and motor coaches. All materials used

in the construction of batteries to be purchased under

the proposed specification conform, in general, to standards of the best commercial practice. Any cor- respondence in reference thereto should refer to proposed Federal specification W-B-131.
353

FACILITIES FOR TESTING STRUCTURAL MATERIALS

Testing Machines, Strain Gages, and Proving Rings for Engineering Tests

By H. L. Whittemoke, National Bureau of Standards

Those enthusiastic about the possibilities of welding

have been making careful studies of this modern

method of fabricating metal structural members. The

engineering mechanic’s section of the National Bureau

of Standards is cooperating with the committee on

structural steel welding of the American Bureau of

Welding by making tests of a large number of welded

To determine the strength of brick a transverse test, the brick being loaded as a beam, is often used. Heretofore, when brick was purchased on specification, it has been necessary to take samples of the brick to a testing laboratory and await the report before accepting shipment. A portable apparatus, light in weight

and easy to use, has been developed during the past

Wire rope (after test) submitted by the Panama Canal, 314 inches in diameter

joints. Materials testing laboratories in different

parts of the country are also making tests. When designing structural members to be fabricated

by welding the results of tests on similar specimens

should be available. Welding, whenever it can be

used, is desirable because the noise of riveting the field connections is eliminated.

Testing machines.

The bureau is equipped with a large group of testing

machines for tensile and compressive tests of a wide

variety of materials—structural metals and parts, wire

l'ope, brick, concrete. With the resulting data engineers can design structures with minimum material

consistent with safety.

Portable machine for testing brick.

One of the oldest materials used in construction is brick, which has many advantages for some buildings.

five 3^ears in our laboratory. This portable brick

tester can easily be carried to the job and the strength

of the brick quickly determined.

Strain gages.

Without the strain gages to measure stresses in concrete and steel structures there would be no way of

checking the computed stresses at different places in these structures. A useful instrument for this purjDose is the Whittemore strain gage which has been developed in our laboratory. Experience has shown that

readings obtained with this instrument are more consistent than those obtained with other strain gages

which are held in the hands of the observer and applied in succession to different gage lines. This strain gage has no levers, sliding, or rotating

4 parts in the frame; therefore it is not affected by dust

or corrosion in the frame. The frame consists of two

parallel side bars connected near their ends by ful-
354 crum plates which prevent motion of one bar relative

to the other except longitudinally.

These strain gages were used on the experimental

arch dam at Stevenson Creek, Calif., constructed for

the Committee on Arch Dam Investigation of the

Engineering Foundation. They were also used to re- ord stresses in the steel framework erected to safe- guard the dome of the new National Museum in Washington.

Calibration.

If one buys steel and specifies a certain strength it is essential that the testing machine used in determining

the strength give accurate values. The only possible

way to obtain commercial accuracy in testing machines

is to solve the problem of calibration, which we are carefully investigating.

Calibration of testinrf machines

Dead-weight machine with proving ring under compressive load. Although large cast-iron weights are used in the

railway test car of the Bureau of Standards, it is not

practicable to provide dead weights sufficient to cali- brate machines of large capacity. A clead-weight machine of 100,000 pounds capacity has been built and in- stalled. Elastic devices can be loaded up to the capacity of the machine and then used anywhere to calibrate

testing machines. An elastic instrument known as the

proving ring has been developed here in the bureau.

These rings, made of heat-treated alloy steel, range in capacity from 10,000 to 100,000 pounds. They are used

to calibrate testing machines after the proving ring

has been calibrated in the dead-weight machine.

CONFERENCE CONSIDERS SCREW THREAD

CHANGES

Changes Proposed by the National Screw Thread Commission

Would Make for Greater Uniformity of Standards

At a meeting of the National Screw Thread Commission held on April 9, at the National Bureau of

Standards, several items of importance were discussed.

In considering dimensions and tolerances for cut thread tajDer taps and nut taps, it was provisionally

voted to make certain changes in the 1928 report of the

commission, to bring it into complete agreement with

the report of the sectional committee on small tools and machine-tool elements. The matter of fine-thread

series in sizes above iy2 inches was discussed with a view to bringing the report of the commission and the

Society of Automotive Engineers Handbook into complete agreement.

Until definite recommendations have been made by

the sectional committee, no action will be taken by the

commission in regard to revisions of the 1928 National

Screw Thread Commission report as suggested to subcommittee No. 1 of the sectional committee on standardization and simplification of screw threads.

Delegates to the World Engineering Congress held

at Tokyo, Japan, gave interesting reports of the meeting. They were particularly impressed with the rapid

progress being made, and with the extent to which

engineering and industrial research is being supported

by the Japanese Government.

AUSTRALIAN STANDARDS ASSOCIATION

CONFERENCE

Melbourne Conference Reviews Association Activities; Proposed Standard Government Contracts Drafted

During the recent conference of the simplified practice division of the Standards Association of Australia,

held in Melbourne, the activities of the association were

reviewed, according to information received from the

American Trade Commission at Melbourne.

It was reported that the wire netting industry has

been surveyed for the purpose of reducing the varieties. It was also reported that a committee appointed

by the Victorian Government has drawn up a set of

general conditions of contracts covering supply and

delivery of purchases for Government departments,

which conditions are being submitted to the various

Governments, with the hope that five or six general

conditions will take the place of the many now

operating.

It is proposed, following a survey of cast-iron road

gully gratings in use, to hold a conference to reduce

the 38 sizes in use to a national standard of 3. The Pipes and Plumbing Committee of the standards association has now reached agreements as to standard designs for high-pressure water fittings and

brass plumbing and sewerage fittings, eliminating 25

per cent of the fittings now scheduled.
SCIENTIFIC, TECHNICAL, AND COMMERCIAL

PERIODICAL PUBLICATIONS ISSUED BY THE

national BUREAU of standards

BUREAU OF STANDARDS

JOURNAL OF RESEARCH

The new Journal describes the bureau’s re- search results in science and technology. The

union of science and its applications in one

journal shortens the lag between discovery

and application.

All engaged in industry and commerce should

have available for current use and permanent

reference, the Bureau of Standards Journal of

Research.

Early in its firSt year the Journal developed a

liSt of paid subscribers double the anticipated

maximum.

This Journal is full of interest to executives

and technicians controlling industries and

commercial enterprises. It enables them better to promote efficiency by determining the

scientific measured controls ofprocess through

experimental and theoretical research.

TECHNICAL NEWS BULLETIN

The Bureau of Standardsyperiodical with a WAR RECORD! Started during the dark

days of 1917 to keep the Army and Navy and

other branches of the Government informed

of progress in scientific war research at the

bureau. Upon urgent request this publication was continued and expanded to serve the

Government, science, and industry.

The TECHNICAL NEWS BULLETIN will

keep you informed of current progress in the

scientific and technical work of the bureau’s

laboratories, and gives each month a liSt of

the publications of the bureau. A complete

cross index is published with the December

issue.

You can not afford to be without the TECHNICAL NEWS BULLETIN. Every article is short and to the point. The busiest executive can afford the time to read it. Issued monthly Price, $2.75 per year Subscription price . 25 cents per year

COMMERCIAL STANDARDS

MONTHLY

STANDARDS YEARBOOK

FOR 1930

This new governmental periodical is a review

of progress in commercial simplification and

Standardization. It is the only journal of its kind. It covers the national movement ini- tiated by President Hoover for the reduction

of needless sizes and varieties of products and

the promotion of voluntary commercial

standardization by industry.

The Secretary of Commerce in the firSt issue

of this new journal said: “Certain Standards,

such as those used for weights and measures,

* * * have been fixed by legislative enactment. Mandatory Standards of this character, however, are few in number when compared with the large and steadily growing

volume of Standards developed by industry

and commerce and voluntarily maintained.

* * * The activities of the Commercial

Standardization Group of the Bureau of

Standards are concerned with Standards

adopted by voluntary agreement.”

Subscription price, $1 per year

The new Standards Yearbook for 1930 is the

fourth annual issue ofa publication devoted to the great and growing held of Standardization

in its broad aspects. It gives a summary of

progress.

Standardization is a world-wide movement.

It covers all industries. It is part of the application of scientific methods to industry. Its achievements are of interest and concern to business men and manufacturers as well as to engineers. To the technician it is full of

example of methods and results of suggeSlive

and Stimulating value. To business men it discloses trends which deeply concern their

interest.

NOW READY Price, 75c. ORDER AT ONCE

“Standardization is becoming an aspect of all well- ordered activity rather than an incidental

activity supplemental to others.”

To obtain regularly the above-described publications send your order, with remittance, addressed: Superintendent

of Documents, Government Printing Office, Washington, D. C. Foreign prices (countries other than the United

States, Canada, Mexico, Newfoundland, Cuba, and Republic of Panama) are: Journal, $3.75; Bulletin, $0.40;

Monthly, $1.25; Yearbook, $0.90
“ * * * t j^jg department * * * is devoted solely to aiding and fostering the development of higher standards of living and comfort of our people * * * its ideals are clear: That by cooperation and not by compulsion it should seek to assist in maintaining and giving the impulse of progress to commerce and industry in a nation whose successful economic life underlies advancement in every other field.” —President Hoover, at the laying o] the corner stone oj the new building

of the U. S. Department of Commerce, June 10, 1929

THE UNITED STATES DEPARTMENT OF COMMERCE

B. P. LAMONT, Secretary of Commerce

AERONAUTICS BRANCH, Clarence M. Young, Assistant Secretary of Commerce for Aeronautics. Establishment of civil airways and maintenance of aids to air navigation; inspection and registration of aircraft and licensing

of pilots; enforcement of air traffic rules; investigation of acci- dents; encouragement of municipal air ports; fostering of air commerce; scientific research in aeronautics; and dissemination of information relating to commercial aeronautics. (Some

of these functions are performed by special divisions of the Lighthouse Service, the Bureau of Standards, and the Coast and Geodetic Survey.)

BUREAU OF THE CENSUS, William M. Steuakt, Director. Taking censuses of population, mines and quarries, water

transportation, and religious bodies every 10 years; censuses of agriculture and electrical public utilities every 5 years; and a

census of manufactures every 2 years Compilation of statistics of wealth, public debt and taxation, including financial statistics of local governments, every 10 years; annual compilation of financial statistics of State and municipal governments

Compilation of statistics of marriage, divorce, births, deaths,

and penal and other institutions annually, and of death rates in

cities and automobile accidents weekly.

Compilation quarterly or monthly of statistics on cotton, wool, leather, and other industries; annually of forest products;

and publication monthly of Survey of Current Business. BUREAU OF FOREIGN AND DOMESTIC COMMERCE,

William L. Cooper, Director. The collection of timely information concerning world market

conditions and openings for American products in foreign countries, through commercial attaches, trade commissioners, and

consular officers, and its distribution through weekly Commerce

Reports, bulletins, confidential circulars, the news and trade

press, and district and cooperative offices in 65 cities. The

maintenance of commodity, technical, and regional divisions to afford special service to American exporters and manufacturers. The compilation and distribution of lists of possible buyers

and agents for American products in all parts of the world and

publication of weekly lists of specific sales opportunities abroad. The publicity of statistics on imports and exports. The study of the processes of domestic trade and commerce. BUREAU OF STANDARDS, George K. Burgess, Director,

Custody, development, and construction of standards of measurement, quality, performance, or practice; comparison of standards used by scientific or other institutions; determination

of physical constants and properties of materials; researches and tests on materials and processes; and publication of scientific and technical bulletins reporting results of researches and

fundamental technical data. Collection and dissemination of information concerning

building codes and the planning and construction of houses. Establishment of simplified commercial practices through

cooperation with business organizations in order to reduce the wastes resulting from excessive variety in commodities.

BUREAU OF MINES, Scott Turner, Director. Technical investigations in the mining, preparation, and

utilization of minerals, including the study of mine hazards and

safety methods and of improved methods in the production

and use of minerals. Testing of Government fuels and management of the Govern- ment Fuel Yard at Washington.

Research on helium and operation of plants producing it.

BUREAU OF MINES—Continued.

Studies in the economics and marketing of minerals and col- lection of statistics on mineral resources and mine accidents. The dissemination of results of technical and economic

researches in bulletins, technical papers, mineral resources series, miners’ circulars, and miscellaneous publications.

BUREAU OF FISHERIES, Henry O’Malley, Commissioner

The propagation and distribution of food fish and shellfish,

in order to prevent the depletion of the fisheries; investigations

to promote conservation of fishery resources; the development

of commercial fisheries and agriculture; study of fishery methods, improvements in merchandising, and collection of fishery

statistics; administration of Alaska fisheries and fur seals; and

the protection of sponges off the coast of Florida. BUREAU OF LIGHTHOUSES, George R. Putnam, Commissioner Maintenance of lighthouses and other aids to water navigation. Establishment and maintenance of aids to navigation

along civil airways. Publication of Light Lists, Buoy Lists, and

Notices to Mariners.

COAST AND GEODETIC SURVEY, R. S. Patton, Director. Survey of the coasts of the United States and publication of charts for the navigation of the adjacent waters, including

Alaska, the Philippine Islands, Hawaii, Porto Rico, the Virgin

Islands, and the Canal Zone; interior control surveys; magnetic surveys; tide and current observations; and seismological

investigations. Publication of results through charts, coast pilots, tide tables, current tables, and special publications.

BUREAU OF NAVIGATION, Arthur J. Tyrer, Commissioner.

Superintendence of commercial marine and merchant seamen.

Supervision of registering, enrolling, licensing, numbering,

etc., of vessels under the United States flag, and the annual

publication of a list of such vessels. Enforcement of the navigation and steamboat inspection laws,

including imposition of fees, fines, tonnage taxes, etc. STEAMBOAT INSPECTION SERVICE, Dickerson N. Hoover, Supervising Inspector General. The inspection of merchant vessels, including boilers, hulls, and life-saving equipment, licensing of officers of vessels, certi- fication of able seamen and lifeboat men, and the investigation

of violations of steamboat inspection lawr s. UNITED STATES PATENT OFFICE, Thomas E. Robertson,

Commissioner.

The granting of patents and the registration of trade-marks,

prints, and labels after technical examination and judicial

proceedings.

Maintenance of library with public search room, containing

copies of foreign and United States patents and trade-marks. Recording bills of sale, assignments, etc., relating to patents

and trade-marks. Furnishing copies of records pertaining to patents. Publication of the weekly Official Gazette, showing the patents and trade-marks issued. RADIO DIVISION, W. D. Terrell, Chief. Inspection of radio stations on ships; inspection of radio

stations on shore, including broadcasting stations; licensing radio operators; assigning station call letters; enforcing the terms of the International Radiotelegraphic Convention; and

examining and settling international radio accounts.

U. S. GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE: 10*0