The Soil Chronosequence 

Along the Cowlitz River, 

Washington

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Chapter F

The Soil Chronosequence 

Along the Cowlitz River, 

Washington

By DAVID P. DETHIER

U.S. GEOLOGICAL SURVEY BULLETIN 1590

SOIL CHRONOSEQUENCES IN THE WESTERN UNITED STATES
DEPARTMENT OF THE INTERIOR 

DONALD PAUL MODEL, Secretary

U.S. GEOLOGICAL SURVEY 

Dallas L. Peck, Director

Any use of trade names and trademarks 

in this publication is for descriptive 

purposes only and does not constitute 

endorsement by the U.S. Geological Survey

UNITED STATES GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE, WASHINGTON : 1988

For sale by the

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Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data

Dethier, David P. (David Putnam), 1950-

The soil chronosequence along the Cowlitz River,

Washington.

(Soil chronosequences in the Western United States)

(U.S. Geological Survey Bulletin 1590-F)

Bibliography

Supt. of Docs. No.: I 19.3:1590-F

1. Paleopedology Washington Cowlitz River valley. 2.

Geology, Stratigraphic Quaternary. I. Title. II. Series.

III. Series: U.S. Geological Survey Bulletin 1590-F.

QE75.B9 No. 1590-F 557.3 s 87-600443

[QE473] [551.7'9'0979782]
FOREWORD

This series of reports, "Soil Chronosequences in the Western United States," 

attempts to integrate studies of different earth-science disciplines, including pedology, 

geomorphology, stratigraphy, and Quaternary geology in general. Each discipline 

provides information important to the others. From geomorphic relations we can 

determine the relative ages of deposits and soils; from stratigraphy we can place age 

constraints on the soils. Field investigations and mineralogic and sedimentologic studies 

provide information on the nature and types of deposits in which soils form. As a result 

of our work, we have estimated rates of soil formation, inferred processes of soil 

formation from trends in soil development with increasing age, and obtained information 

on the types of weathering that occur in various areas. In return, soil development and 

soil genesis have provided data on the age of landforms, the timing and duration of 

sedimentation, and, in some cases, the history of climatic fluctuations.

Between 1978 and 1983, a coordinated and systematic study was conducted on soil 

development in different types of geologic deposits in the Western United States. The 

goals of this project, led by the late D.E. Marchand and subsequently by M.N. Machette, 

were to learn whether rates of chemical, physical, and mineralogic transformations could 

be determined from soil Chronosequences; how these rates vary in different mineralogic 

and climatic environments; and how accurately soils can be used for such problems as 

estimating the ages of deposits, periods of landscape stability, and timing of fault 

movements. This series of reports presents data from several soil Chronosequences of 

that project.

More than 100 analyses on more than 1,000 samples were performed on soils 

collected in the Western United States. Some results have appeared in various books, 

journals, and maps (for example, Harden and Marchand, 1977, 1980; Burke and Birkeland, 

1979; Dethier and Bethel, 1981; Marchand and Allwardt, 1981; Meixner and Singer, 1981; 

Busacca, 1982; Harden, 1982a,b; Harden and Taylor, 1983; Machette, 1983; Machette and 

Steven, 1983; Busacca and others, 1984; Machette and others, 1984; Reheis, 1984). In the 

reports in this series, the basic field information, geologic background, and analytical 

data are presented for each chronosequence, as well as some results additional to the 

previous publications.

One of the most significant aspects of these chronosequence studies is that in every 

study area, many soil parameters change systematically over time, or with the age of 

deposits. As Deming (1943) emphasized, it is this recurrence of correlation in such 

different conditions that is most significant to geologic and pedologic studies. In 

relatively moist areas, such as coastal and central California, such soil properties as 

percent clay or reddening of soil colors change most systematically over time. In more 

arid regions, such as in the Bighorn basin of Wyoming, calcium carbonate and gypsum 

contents best reflect relative ages of the deposits. A few parameters for example, 

elemental composition of sands or clays appear to be comparable between areas so 

diverse in climatic setting.

Numeric age control has enabled us to estimate rates of soil development. In some 

places, we have been able to compare rates between different areas. For example, in 

central California, rates of clay accumulation were found to be most rapid during the 

initial stages of soil development; the rates declined with increasing age. The straightest 

lines for regression were on a log-log scale. In coastal California, rates of clay 

accumulation appeared to be much higher than in central California. This difference in 

rates could be due to parent material (the coastal soils that we studied formed on 

reworked shale and sandstone, whereas central California soils were developed in granitic 

alluvium), and (or) the differences in rates could be due to eolian additions of clay. In 

the Bighorn basin of Wyoming, rates of clay accumulation, as well as most other soil 

properties, increased linearly over time, with no apparent decrease in initial rates.

The data we present here suggest many opportunities for further interpretation. 

For example, we may learn how climate, vegetation, and mineralogy affect the rates of 

clay formation or organic-matter accumulation. In some study areas, we present data 

for rare-earth elements, which could be used to examine how each element reacts in 

different weathering environments. These examples are only a fraction of the possible 

future studies that could be conducted on the data presented here.

J.W. Harden 

Editor

III

CONTENTS

Foreword in

Abstract Fl

Introduction 2

Geography, climate, and vegetation 2

Geologic setting and soil parent materials 3

Quaternary geology of the Cowlitz River valley 4

Age control for glacial fluvial units 5

Late Holocene alluvium 8

Latest Pleistocene(?) outwash and outwash deposits of the Evans Creek 

Drift 8

Outwash deposits of the Hayden Creek Drift 10

Outwash deposits of the Wingate Hill Drift 10

Logan Hill Formation 11 

Sampling methods and soil descriptions 12 

Data reduction 12 

Discussion of the soil chronosequence 13

Parent material 13

Field properties 13

Mineralogic changes in the sand and clay fraction 15

Time-related changes in soil chemical properties 16

Estimation of soil age from soil chemical parameters 19

Comparison to other soil chronosequences 22 

Conclusions 23 

References cited 24 

Supplementary tables 27

FIGURES

1. Index map of Cowlitz River area F2

2. Plot of average monthly temperature and cumulative annual 

precipitation 3

3. Map of Quaternary and bedrock geology along Cowlitz River 6

4. Profiles of Pleistocene terraces along Cowlitz River 8 

5-14. Plots of:

5. Soil age versus depth to unweathered material 14

6. Soil properties versus time 15

7. Soil-development index versus age 16

8. Ferromagnesian and opaque-mineral contents versus time 17

9. Etching ratio for hornblende and orthopyroxene+clinopyroxene 

versus time 18

10. Major-oxide contents versus normalized Zr contents 19

11. SiOo, Al 2 O.j, and Fe 2 O3 contents versus time 19

12. K 2 O, Na 2 O, and CaO contents versus time 19

13. l- M m clay, Fed, and Ald contents versus soil age 20

14. Deposit ages versus CaO and Fe^ contents as estimated 

from Cowlitz soil chemistry 21
TABLES

1. Nomenclature of Quaternary deposits in the Cowlitz River area, 

Washington F4

2. Inferred age of Quaternary terrace deposits near Toledo, 

Washington 9

3. Selected field parameters in soils of different age 11

4. Comparison of predicted soil ages for Cowlitz deposits to the age 

range predicted from soil chemistry, in thousands of years 22

5. Accumulation rate for dithionite-extractable Fe and clay for 

Cowlitz and other soil sequences, Western United States 23

SUPPLEMENTARY TABLES

1. Site location data for soils of the Cowlitz chronosequence 

and field descriptions F29

2. Physical properties 34

3. Extractive chemical analyses 36

4. Clay mineralogy 38

5. Total chemical analyses of the fine (<47 /*m) fraction 

by X-ray fluorescence 40

6. Total chemical analyses of the less-than-2-mm fraction by X-ray 

fluorescence 42

7. Total chemical analyses of the fine (<47 ^m) fraction 

by instrumental neutron activation 44

VI
SOIL CHRONOSEQUENCES IN THE WESTERN UNITED STATES

The Soil Chronosequence Along the 

Cowlitz River, Washington

By David P. Dethier

Abstract

Soils on terraces along the Cowlitz River, 

southwestern Washington, form a Chronosequence 

developed under cool, moist conditions during most of 

Quaternary time. Soils range from thin, young (A/C) 

soil profiles on late Holocene surfaces to weathering 

profiles more than 10 m thick on the early or middle 

Pleistocene Logan Hill Formation. Glacial outwash 

deposits underlie four principal terraces and are 

correlated with glaciations of the Cowlitz River valley 

by ice that flowed westward from the Cascade 

Range. Deposits include late Wisconsin Evans Creek 

Drift, pre-Wisconsin(?) Hayden Creek Drift, middle(?) 

or late Pleistocene Wingate Hill Drift, and the early or 

middle Pleistocene Logan Hill Formation. Soils 

developed in volcanic sand and gravel derived from 

volcanic rocks show systematic changes over time in 

such properties as depth to unweathered material, clay 

content of the B horizon, rubification (color hue and 

chroma), clay films, and pH. Losses of such oxides as 

CaO and Na^O, and gains of dithionite-extractable Fe 

and 1- nm clay content, show progressive, time-related 

changes. The loss of CaO can be used to estimate the 

ages of the terrace deposits. The mass of dithioniteextractable Fe and pedogenic clay in Cowlitz soils 

suggests that weathering rates in southwestern 

Washington are higher than those reported for 

chronosequences in California.

INTRODUCTION

Loess-mantled gravel terraces along the Cowlitz 

River, southwestern Washington, record early to late 

Quaternary glacial events. Terrace profiles are graded 

to moraines which formed at the terminus of large 

valley glaciers that advanced westward along the 

Cowlitz valley from source areas on Mount Rainier, 

Mount Adams, and adjoining alpine areas. During at 

least two glacial events, the Cowlitz glacier

terminated more than 100 km southwest of Mount 

Rainier, making it one of the largest valley glaciers in 

the conterminous United States. Terraces along the 

Cowlitz River range from well-preserved late 

Holocene surfaces near the present channel to 

dissected surfaces of the deeply weathered Logan Hill 

Formation (Snavely and others, 1958). Despite 

abundant tephra and organic matter in many glacial 

and interglacial deposits, the chronology of pre-late 

Wisconsin glaciation in western Washington is not well 

dated, but some ages can be estimated.

Terrace deposits along the Cowlitz River are 

composed of sandy gravel overlain by a layer of silt or 

very fine sand. Thicknesses of both layers are 

variable. Fine material may be as thick as 5 m, and 

the gravel is commonly several meters to tens of 

meters thick. The unstratified, well-sorted nature of 

the fine material suggests that these surface deposits 

are primarily eolian. Field and laboratory studies 

demonstrate that pumiceous material is also present in 

most of the capping deposits, but no discrete layers of 

tephra were observed. Gravel is mixed into the loess 

blanket where the loess is less than about 1 m thick, 

but the contact between the two units is generally 

sharp. Most soils are developed through the silt and 

into the gravel. Field evidence thus suggests that the 

eolian material accumulated soon after deposition of 

the glaciofluvial gravel. Most of the terraces can be 

traced upstream into moraines. The upper contact of 

the gravel deposits is likely isochronous with maximum 

stands of the Cowlitz glacier, or with lengthy 

stillstands during its retreat. Loess deposition 

probably ceased within a few tens to hundreds of years 

after retreat of the Cowlitz ice, allowing the growth 

of vegetation and initiation of soil development.

Outwash terraces and their mantling loess along 

the Cowlitz River provide perhaps the best opportunity 

in the Pacific Northwest to study soil sequences 

developed in andesitic parent material in a humid 

climate. The soils form a Chronosequence because 

parent material, vegetation, average climate, and

Soil Chronosequence Along the Cowlitz River, Washington Fl
other variables are similar among the sites and have 

remained relatively constant over an extended period 

of the Quaternary. Properties that display predictable 

patterns over time can be used to characterize and 

correlate soils developed on Quaternary surfaces and 

to estimate their ages. For example, soil chronology 

of the Cowlitz area could be applied where there are 

similar parent materials, climatic settings, and 

vegetation in the Northwestern United States, British 

Columbia, Alaska, and at higher elevations in the 

Western United States. Comparison of Cowlitz soils to 

soil chronosequences on similar parent materials at 

drier sites in much of the Western United States 

permits evaluation of climate as a variable.

In this report I first discuss the geology, 

estimated ages, and Quaternary history of terrace 

deposits along the Cowlitz River. I then present field

observations and selected laboratory analyses of soils 

from these deposits as a basis for discussion of soil 

development over time in the Cowlitz area.

GEOGRAPHY, CLIMATE, AND VEGETATION

The Cowlitz River heads at the Cowlitz Glacier 

on Mount Rainier and, with its major tributaries, 

drains a large area (3,870 km 2 at Toledo) of the 

Cascade Range between Mount Rainier and Mount 

Adams in southwestern Washington (fig. 1). The 

Cowlitz River flows west from the mountainous 

terrain for about 130 km and turns south near Toledo 

to flow to the Columbia River. Terraces that flank 

the Cowlitz along much of its course are best 

preserved in a 35-km reach between Toledo and

123

Figure 1. Index map of Cowlitz River area, Washington. Stipple pattern represents major water bodies, 

including Puget Sound.

F2 Soil Chronosequences in the Western United States
Mayfield. In this area, nearly flat to moderately 

dissected terraces are separated by steep terrace 

risers. Terrace morphology is interrupted locally by 

till and bedrock ridges and is bounded on the south and 

east by rolling hills developed in Tertiary bedrock. A 

low drainage divide separates the Cowlitz terraces 

from Quaternary outwash deposits to the north, along 

the west-flowing Newaukum River.

The present climate of most of Lewis County is 

maritime, marked by cool, wet winters, and warm, 

drier summers. Glacierized areas near the crest of the 

Cascade Range are considerably colder and receive 

about 80 percent more precipitation than the terraced 

areas east of Toledo (fig. 2). Annual precipitation on 

the present Cowlitz Glacier is probably about 2,400 

mm, whereas values in the 30 km east of Toledo range 

from 1,250 to 1,500 mm (U.S. Weather Bureau, 1965). 

Mean annual temperature near Toledo (elevation 36 m) 

averages about 11 °C, and the frost-free season is 

about 165 days, whereas an upland weather station at 

Stampede Pass (elevation 1200 m) northeast of Mount 

Rainier has an average value near 4 °C. Average 

monthly values for these stations (fig. 2) are moderate, 

and typical of maritime climates.

Existing glaciers on Mount Rainier have an 

equilibrium-line altitude (ELA) of about 2,100 m 

(Burbank, 1979). Crandell and Miller (1974) and Porter 

(1977) used glacial-geologic evidence to suggest that 

the ELA was about 1,000 m lower during the maximum 

extent of late Pleistocene ice. Palynologic evidence 

(Barnosky, 1981; Heusser, 1977) indicates that changes 

in temperature beyond the glaciation limit in western 

Washington were about 6 °C during the most recent 

glacial-interglacial cycle.

Palynologic data and radiocarbon ages from two 

locations in southwestern Washington provide some 

information about middle and late Wisconsin climate in 

the study area (Barnosky, 1981, 1984; Heusser and 

Heusser, 1980). Climate 30,000 years ago (at 30 ka) 

was similar to that of the present, but sharply cooler 

periods marked by tundra vegetation occurred between 

about 25 and 18.5 ka, and at about 14 ka. Since about 

12 ka, climate has warmed considerably, although brief 

cooler periods may have occurred in latest Pleistocene 

and early Holocene time. Holocene climate was 

warmest shortly before about 7 ka, and was slightly 

cooler and wetter after about 4 ka, a time of 

neoglaciation in much of the Western United States 

(Waitt and others, 1982; Barnosky, 1984). The age and 

stratigraphic position of pollen spectra from 

interglacial deposits near Puyallup reported by 

Easterbrook and others (1967) is now uncertain. 

However, the fossil pollen assemblages are similar to 

those described from the late Wisconsin glacialinterglacial cycle and from parts of other nearby 

interglacial deposits (Heusser and Heusser, 1981).

When European settlers first arrived in the upper 

Cowlitz River area in about 1840, terraces from 

Toledo to Mossyrock supported areas of prairie 

vegetation, and old-growth coniferous forests covered 

parts of the terraces and adjacent uplands (Soil 

Conservation Service, 1987). Forested areas have been 

logged once or twice except for small patches near the 

highest ridges and along the Cascade crest south of 

Mount Rainier. Second-growth stands of Douglas fir 

(Pseudotsuga menzeseii), fir (Abies sp.), hemlock

40

CO

CO 36 

_l

O 32

COuj 28

DC

O uj 24 24

2 20

or" 16

5 12

DC

UJ Q

D_ O

^

UJ j

UJ

O 0

DC

uj 4

EXPLANATION

Puyallup 

Stampede Pass

Paradise ^J 

Longmire,

MAMJJASOND 

MONTH

240

220

200

180

160

140

120

100

80

60

40

20

0

Figure 2. Average monthly temperature (open 

symbols) and cumulative annual precipitation (solid 

symbols) for lowland (Puyallup) and upland (Stampede 

Pass) stations in western Washington. Cumulative 

annual precipitation values for three other stations are 

also plotted. Data from Crandell and Miller (1974).

(Tsuga heterophylla), and red cedar (Thuja pjicata) are 

commonly mixed with alder (Alnus rubra), maple (Acer 

macrophyllum) and willow (Salix sp.), particularly in 

poorly drained areas. Remnant stands of old growth 

indicate that hemlock, Douglas fir, and true fir were 

the major forest components before logging began. 

Hemlock dominance for about the past 4,000 years is 

also suggested by the data of Barnosky (1981, 1984). 

Franklin and Dyrness (1973) gave a detailed account of 

modern vegetation in southwestern Washington.

Topography in the study area is level to gently 

rolling on terrace surfaces and moderate to steep on 

terrace risers and where drainages have cut through 

glacial deposits into Tertiary bedrock. Terracesurface slopes are generally less than 2 °. In areas 

away from major tributary streams, local relief ranges 

from 4 m to 15 m and increases with terrace age. 

Elevations of the major terraces range from about 40 

to more than 500 m, but most of the area between 

Toledo and Mossyrock lies between 100 and 200 m.

GEOLOGIC SETTING AND SOIL PARENT 

MATERIALS

Quaternary deposits along the Cowlitz River are 

composed primarily of andesite debris derived, in part, 

from Tertiary volcanic rocks of the Cascade Range. 

The range consists of middle to late Quaternary 

volcanoes constructed on a platform of Eocene to 

Pliocene(?) volcanic rocks and arkosic sandstone and 

siltstone. Quaternary volcanic rocks in the Cowlitz 

basin are chiefly andesitic flows and breccias with

Soil Chronosequence Along the Cowlitz River, Washington F3
subordinate dacite units (Fiske and others, 1963; 

Hammond, 1980). Tertiary volcanic rocks east of 

Mossyrock include flows, interlayered volcaniclastic 

units, and limited exposures of Miocene granodiorite. 

Pyroxene-bearing andesite and basalt are the most 

common rock types; some basalt contains sparse 

phenocrysts of olivine. Terrestrial sedimentary rocks 

and intermediate volcanic rocks are found west of 

Mossyrock; coal-bearing units are common in the 

continental sedimentary rocks (Snavely and others, 

1958; Roberts, 1958). Roberts (1958) and Snavely and 

others (1958) noted a fine-grained fluvial and 

lacustrine unit (Wilkes Formation) overlying Eocene 

volcanic rocks and directly underlying the Quaternary 

sequence. The Wilkes Formation is of Miocene age and 

contains dacitic lahars and alluvium that resemble 

Quaternary volcaniclastic rocks of the Cascades. 

These easily eroded fluvial deposits, and the middle 

Tertiary sandstones, doubtless contributed to terrace 

material in its principal exposure area west of 

Mossyrock. Gravel in the terrace-form ing deposits, 

however, is mainly andesite and basalt (Bethel, 1982).

In Quaternary time, the eastern part of the study 

area received substantial quantities of tephra erupted 

from Cascade volcanoes. Upper Pleistocene and 

Holocene tephra is locally more than 1 m thick east of 

Mossyrock; older Mount St. Helens deposits are 

apparently thinner (Mullineaux and others, 1975; 

Barnosky, 1981, 1984). Crandell and Miller (1974) 

reported a radiocarbon age of greater than 38 ka (W950) for a local deposit of pyroclastic material 

overlying till on the slopes of Mount Rainier. 

Pumiceous material is also a common component in 

lahars preserved in lower(?) and middle Pleistocene 

sections at a variety of locations in western 

Washington (Crandell and others, 1958).

Most of the tephra and the pumiceous material in 

lahars is dacitic in composition, but pyroxene andesite 

and altered volcanic rock are also common. Lahars 

probably flowed down the slopes of Mount Rainier and 

into the Cowlitz River repeatedly during the 

Quaternary. The tephra and lahars contributed 

Quaternary volcanic debris to the Cowlitz River 

drainage, adding material to outwash and loess 

deposits by direct deposition or by fluvial and eolian 

redeposition.

QUATERNARY GEOLOGY OF THE COWLITZ RIVER 

VALLEY

Snavely and others (1958) and Roberts (1958) 

noted several ages of glacial deposits derived from 

Mount Rainier and recognized deep weathering of 

materials in some terrace areas along the Cowlitz 

River valley. Weigle and Foxworthy (1962) recognized 

glacial outwash from four different periods in the area 

west of Mossyrock. Crandell and Miller (1974) 

subsequently mapped glacial deposits along the 

Cowlitz River and used weathering criteria to group 

some of Weigle and Foxworthy's (1962) terrace 

deposits into single units. Crandell and Miller 

recognized four principal ages of deposits from 

Pleistocene alpine glaciers in major drainages of the 

Mount Rainier region: Wingate Hill Drift, Hayden 

Creek Drift, Evans Creek Drift, and McNeeley Drift 

(table 1). They suggested that the Logan Hill 

Formation is likely a glacial outwash deposit of early 

to middle Pleistocene age. Dethier and Bethel (1981) 

mapped terraces developed on outwash west of 

Mossyrock at a scale of 1:62,500 and subdivided

Table 1. Nomenclature of Quaternary deposits in the Cowlitz River area, Washington

Southern Puget lowland Western Cascade Range'' This report

Vashon Drift 

Olympia-age

interglacial sediment 

High Eraser terrace 

McCleary drift^

Puyallup Formation

Stuck Drift

Alderton Formation 

Orting Drift

Garda Drift 

McNeeley Drift

Evans Creek Drift

Hayden Creek Drift

Wingate Hill Drift

Logan Hill Formation

Late Holocene alluvium 

Latest PleistoceneC?) outwash 

Evans Creek Drift:

late outwash

early outwash

Pre-Evans Creek(?) outwash 

Hayden Creek Drift: 

late outwash

middle outwash 

early outwash 

till, undivided 

Wingate Hill Drift and 

outwash

Logan Hill Formation

^Crandell and others (1958).

^Crandell (1969); Crandell and Miller (1974).

^Carson (1970); Colman and Pierce (1984).

Informal name proposed by Colman and Pierce (1984) for deposits previously mapped as 

Salmon Springs Drift by Carson (1970). The Salmon Springs Drift is now known to be about 

800 ka at its type locality (Easterbrook and others, 1981) and is thus much older than 

these deposits.

F4 Soil Chronosequences in the Western United States
Crandell and Miller's (1974) units on the basis of 

topographic position and terrace gradients.

Most major terraces along the Cowlitz River can 

be traced to moraines or probable ice-marginal 

positions of Cowlitz River glaciers (Crandell and 

Miller, 1974). Cowlitz River gravel terraces west of 

Mossyrock are 10 km to more than 20 km wide (fig. 

3). Extensive surfaces probably formed as a result of 

aggradation during glacial advances and lengthy 

stillstands, followed by downcutting after 

deglaciation. In most cases terraces can be recognized 

by lateral continuity, elevation, or stratigraphic 

relations beneath the terrace. However, certain 

surfaces of Hayden Creek age and terrace remnants 

that lie between the major Hayden Creek and Evans 

Creek surfaces cannot be grouped with a specific 

terrace on the basis of their topographic position or 

stratigraphy. Areally restricted terraces such as these 

are problematic. They may record major glacial 

cycles poorly or represent (1) minor stillstands, (2) 

readvances during overall glacial retreat, (3) lateral 

erosion into older outwash material during 

downcutting, or (4) base-level changes resulting from 

other causes such as tectonism.

Although Crandell and Miller (1974) noted sparse 

outcrops of deeply weathered till in the Cowlitz 

drainage and Snavely and others (1958) reported till 

within the Logan Hill Formation, Logan Hill gravel 

deposits cannot be traced with confidence to specific 

till outcrops. However, gravel beneath the Wingate 

Hill surface can be traced east to surface outcrops of 

deeply weathered Wingate Hill till, and the oldest of 

the Hayden Creek terraces heads in an area of subdued 

morainal topography about 4 km upvalley from the 

Wingate Hill margin. The youngest Hayden Creek 

terrace apparently heads northeast of Mossyrock. 

Evans Creek terraces can be traced to terminal 

moraines located near Handle, 25 km upvalley from 

the eastern border of the area shown in figure 3.

Gradients of Quaternary terraces (fig. 4) 

generally converge downstream (Dethier and Bethel, 

1981). Terraces have an average gradient of about 3 

m/km, but steepen dramatically near moraines and 

ice-marginal positions inferred from till-outwash 

contacts. Near Toledo, Logan Hill and Wingate Hill 

terraces are found at about 90 m and 50 m, 

respectively, above the Evans Creek surface. Because 

these older surfaces display local relief of at least 10 

m in some locations, the Logan Hill and possibly the 

Wingate Hill terraces are probably composite 

surfaces. The Hayden Creek and younger terraces 

display considerably less relief, and individual surfaces 

can be easily distinguished.

Age Control for Glacial Fluvial Units

The Cowlitz soils developed in the following 

time-stratigraphic units, listed from young to old: (1) 

late Holocene alluvium; (2) latest Pleistocene(?) 

outwash; (3) late and early outwash deposits of the 

Evans Creek Drift; (4) outwash deposits of pre-Evans 

Creek(?) age; (5) late, middle, and early outwash 

deposits of the Hayden Creek Drift; (6) outwash of the 

Wingate Hill Drift; and (7) outwash(?) of the Logan Hill 

Formation. Absolute age assignments are uncertain

for units older than Evans Creek outwash, but 

development of weathering rinds in these deposits 

(Colman and Pierce, 1981) and sparse C and K/Ar 

ages in southwestern Washington help constrain deposit 

ages (table 2).

The stratigraphy and dating of glacial deposits in 

western Washington are in flux (Colman and Pierce, 

1984; Easterbrook and others, 1985), but a number of 

recently published observations and dates discussed 

below have helped clarify regional glacial-interglacial 

stratigraphy. Quaternary glacial deposits in western 

Washington were produced both from the Puget lobe of 

the Cordilleran ice sheet and from large valley 

glaciers that flowed from the Cascade Range (Waitt 

and Thorson, 1983). Puget Lobe and Cascade Range 

deposits have a limited area of overlap, hampering 

regional correlation in southwestern Washington. 

Because continental and alpine advances were coeval 

during at least the three most recent glaciations 

(Colman and Pierce, 1984), it is possible that ages for 

parts of the Cowlitz sequence can be estimated from 

dating of the continental deposits.

The penultimate continental drift in 

southwestern Washington (high Fraser terrace of 

Carson, 1970) has weathering rinds that suggest early 

Wisconsin deposition correlative with oxygen-isotope 

stage 4. Amino-acid analysis of shell in the 

penultimate continental drift from northwestern 

Washington (Possession Drift) suggests that this 

deposit is older than 60 ka and possibly older than 80 

ka (Easterbrook and others, 1982). Shell has aminoacid ratios that suggest that the Double Bluff Drift, 

which lies beneath Possession Drift, is older than 100 

ka and probably older than 200 ka (Easterbrook and 

Rutter, 1982). The informal McCleary drift deposit 

(Colman and Pierce, 1984) of southwestern Washington 

lies beneath the high Fraser terrace, underlies 

interglacial estuarine deposits, and probably correlates 

with oxygen-isotope stage 6. An age of 150 ka or 

greater is also indicated by weathering rinds, soil 

color, and soil thickness of this drift in an area 

southeast of Olympia, Washington (Lea, 1983).

Dating and correlation of drift units older than 

McCleary deposits is hampered by the absence of 

surface exposures of older drifts and the limited 

number of stratigraphic exposures. Continental drift 

originally thought to represent the penultimate 

glaciation (Crandell and others, 1958) is interbedded 

with magnetically reversed sediment and tephra dated 

(by the fission-track method) at about 800 ka 

(Easterbrook and others, 1981). The oldest drift unit 

at Mount Rainier lies within a sequence of normally 

polarized sediment and beneath an andesite flow dated 

at about 300 ka (Crandell and Miller, 1974). Porter 

and Clayton (1982) mapped two tills interlayered with 

lavas, which gave minimum ages of 0.7 Ma and 1.7 Ma 

for glaciations in the headwater area of the Cowlitz 

River along the Cascade crest. However, the extent 

of ice during these glaciations is not known, and the 

drift units have not been mapped away from the 

Cascades. Ages listed in table 2 reflect uncertainties 

in isotopic ages and correlation, particularly for the 

pre-Wisconsin terraces. However, ages are 

sufficiently well constrained to assess the relative and, 

in some cases, absolute rate of development of soil 

properties.

Soil Chronosequence Along the Cowlitz River, Washington F5
122° 50' 45'

46° 

30'

46" 

25'

Figure 3. Quaternary and bedrock geology along Cowlitz River in central Lewis County, Wash, (modified 

from Dethier and Bethel, 1981). Base from U.S. Geological Survey, 1:62,500, Castle Rock, Toutle, 1953; 

Centralia, Onalaska, 1954. Contour interval 40 and 80 ft. See figure 1 for location.

F6 Soil Chronosequences in the Western United States
122°30'

hlo

hrno

heo

ht

Landslide deposits (Holocene and 

Pleistocene) Locations modified from 

Roberts (1958)

Outwash deposits (latest Pleistocene?)

Evans Creek Drift (latest Pleistocene)

 Divided into:

Late outwash 

Early outwash

Outwash deposits of pre-Evans Creek(?) 

age (late Pleistocene)

Hayden Creek Drift (late Pleistocene)

 Divided into:

Late outwash 

Middle outwash 

Early outwash 

Till

000

Wingate Hill Drift (late or middle? 

Pleistocene) Divided into:

Outwash 

Till

Logan Hill Formation (middle or early 

Pleistocene)

Bedrock (Tertiary) Contacts modified 

from Roberts (1958), Weigle and 

Foxworthy (1962), and Crandell and 

Miller (1974)

Contact

Moraine of Hayden Creek age

 Location modified from Crandell

and Miller (1974)

Inferred maximum extent of Wingate 

Hill glacier Location modified 

from Crandell and Miller (1974)

Soil-sampling site Identified by number 

(2-12)

Soil Chronosequence Along the Cowlitz River, Washington F7
Late Holocene Alluvium

Late Holocene sand and gravel lie beneath the 

lowest terrace, which forms the modern flood plain 2 

to 5 m above the active channel of the Cowlitz 

River. The oldest trees on the surface are less than 

250 years old, and much of the terrace is inundated 

during large floods. Oxidation of these deposits is 

shallow, a few tens of centimeters at most. Although 

the gravelly sand of flood-plain channel deposits is not 

covered with windblown silt, overlying fine sand makes 

the lowest terrace texturally similar to the older 

surfaces. The thickness of the alluvial deposits is 

probably several meters to several tens of meters.

Latest Pleistocene(?) Outwash and Outwash Deposits 

of the Evans Creek Drift

At least three mappable surfaces east of Toledo 

record deposition of outwash from the Cowlitz glacier 

when it terminated near or east of Randle (fig. 1). The 

lowest and youngest of these surfaces (latest 

Pleistocene? outwash) rises some 15 m above the 

modern flood plain, overlies gravelly deposits at least 

3 m thick, and is capped with less than 0.3 m of fine 

sand and silt. Oxidation in these deposits extends to 

an average depth of 0.5 m. The surface is preserved as 

isolated remnants in two areas (fig. 3). Two higher 

groups of outwash terraces, the late Evans Creek and

300

250

C/3

cr

UJ 200

t 150

100

50

- 1000

- 900

AWingate Hill 

moraine

A Hayden Creek

moraine

wo / hlo 

heo

28 24 20 16 

DOWNSTREAM

12 12 16 20 24 28 32

UPSTREAM

100

DISTANCE, IN KILOMETERS

Figure 4. Pleistocene terraces along Cowlitz River upstream from Toledo, Wash. Geologic units correspond to 

those in figure 3. Profiles are shown as dashed lines where correlation is uncertain. Soil-sampling sites 

described in text are indicated by numbered triangles (see fig. 3 for location). Modified from Dethier and Bethel 

(1981).

F8 Soil Chronosequences in the Western United States
early Evans Creek terraces, rise 5 to 15 m above the 

latest Pleistocene(?) terrace, which is an inset cut into 

the younger of these surfaces. The higher early Evans 

Creek terrace forms a nearly continuous surface that 

is laterally extensive only near the east end of 

Mayfield Lake. Both of the Evans Creek outwash 

deposits are at least 5 m thick, capped with 0.5 to 2.0 

m of loess, and oxidized to a depth of about 1 m. The 

loess cap is thicker on the late Evans Creek surface at 

most exposures.

Outwash from the Evans Creek and the latest 

Pleistocene(?) advances did not reach Davis Lake (fig. 

1), but cool climatic episodes are recorded in the 

palynology of dated cores from the lake and from bogs 

in unglaciated areas of southwestern Washington 

(Barnosky, 1984). The two older Evans Creek units

were likely deposited during cold intervals from 25 to 

20 ka and at about 14 ka, respectively. The Davis 

Lake cores record a relatively minor episode of tephra 

deposition at about 21 ka, and 30 cm of sandy tephra 

lies directly below a site dated by ^C at about 13.5 ka 

(Barnosky, 1981). These tephras probably originated 

from eruptions at Mount St. Helens and form a 

substantial component of the loess associated with the 

Evans Creek terraces, particularly the younger one. 

Although palynologic evidence does not suggest a 

distinct cool period betwen 13 ka and 10 ka, the depth 

of oxidation of the latest Pleistocene(?) terrace 

deposits suggests that they could be as old as 12 ka to 

10 ka. Barnosky (1981, 1984) showed that the 

Holocene climate in southwestern Washington was 

relatively warm until neoglaciation began some time

Table 2. Inferred age of Quaternary terrace deposits near Toledo, Washington

Terrace deposits Inferred Basis for age assignment and possible correlation with drift of 

age (ka) the Puget lowland (PL) or Cascade Range (CR)

Late Holocene

alluvium (a) 

Latest Pleistocene(?)

outwash (o)

<0.25 Tree rings.

8.0-12.0 May correlate with Crandell's (1969) McNeeley Drift (CR) or Beget's 

(1983) early Holocene deposits in the Cascade Range (CR). 

Barnosky (1981, 1984) presented no evidence for cool climate 

in this period.

13.0-14.0 Cool latest Wisconsin interval in dated cores from southwestern 

Washington (Barnosky, 1981, 1984). Maximum advance of 

continental ice (PL) occurred about 14.5 ka (Waitt and Thorson, 

1983). 

22.0-24.0 Age assigned by Barnosky (1984) to Evans Creek (CR) Drift from

Cowlitz and nearby valleys.

40-70 Bracketed by Evans Creek Drift (CR) and minimum age for early Hayden 

Creek Drift. May correlate with Carson's (1970) high Eraser (PL) 

terrace, inferred to be 60 to 70 m.y. old (Colman and Pierce, 

1981, 1984).

>60 Older than ^C date of 60 ka for the late Hayden Creek Drift near 

130-170(?) Mount St. Helens (CR; Dethier and Bethel, 1981). May correlate 

with Possession Drift (PL) dated by amino-acid techniques at 60 

to 80 ka (Easterbrook and others, 1982). Weathering-rind data 

(Colman and Pierce, 1984) from Hayden Creek Drift suggest an age 

of about 150 ka and correlation with the McCleary drift (PL; 

informal name) of Colman and Pierce (1984).

>60 Truncates early Hayden Creek outwash and is truncated by late Hayden 

150-280(?) Creek outwash. Elevation and contact relations suggest that 

middle Hayden Creek outwash terrace deposits are more closely 

related to early Hayden Creek outwash deposits.

>60 Colman and Pierce (1981) and Colman (written commun., 1983) inferred 

150-320(?) an age of 150 ka or older from weathering-rind data. May

correlate with Double Bluff Drift (PL) of northwestern Washington 

dated by amino--acid techniques as older than 100 ka and probably 

older than 200 ka (Easterbrook and Rutter, 1982). 

300(?)- Colman and Pierce (1981) estimated an age of 300 to 600 ka from

600(?) 600 ka from weathering-rind data. May correlate with the oldest 

till exposed on Mount Rainier, which overlies an andesite flow of 

normal polarity dated at about 300 ka (Crandell and Miller, 

1974).

630(?) - May correlate with Salmon Springs Drift (PL) dated at 840 ka at its 

1,700(?) type locality (Easterbrook and others, 1981). May correlate with 

0.7 and 1.7 Ma tills dated by K/Ar at Tumac Mountain (CR) in 

the Cowlitz River headwaters (Porter and Clayton, 1982). Minimum 

age suggested by rate of saprolite formation (Woodward-Clyde 

Consultants, 1978)

^Symbols refer to figure 3.

Late Evans Creek 

outwash (elo)

Early Evans Creek 

outwash (eeo)

Pre-Evans Creek(?) 

outwash (peo)

Late Hayden Creek 

outwash (hlo)

Middle Hayden Creek 

outwash (hmo)

Early Hayden Creek 

outwash (heo)

Wingate Hill outwash 

(wo)

Logan Hill Formation

Soil Chronosequence Along the Cowlitz River, Washington F9
after about 5 ka. Because glacial advances in the late 

Holocene were limited to minor expansions (Crandell, 

1969), neoglacial terrace elevations should be close to 

the modern flood plain rather than near the Evans 

Creek surfaces. I thus conclude that the latest 

Pleistocene(?) surface represents a stillstand or 

readvance during retreat of Evans Creek glaciers, 

erosional lowering of the late Evans Creek terrace 

between about 14 ka and 10 ka, or early Holocene 

glaciation (Beget, 1983). The volume of outwash 

preserved from the Evans Creek advance is relatively 

small and could be buried easily or eroded during a 

subsequent major glaciation. Earlier glaciations of 

similar size may not be preserved in the terrace record 

along the Cowlitz River, or such glaciations could be 

represented by remnants of intermediate-elevation 

terraces found at several locations upstream from 

Toledo.

Outwash Deposits of the Hayden Creek Drift

Hayden Creek outwash underlies three distinct 

terraces that compose the most extensive glacial 

deposits along the Cowlitz River. If terrace remnants 

between the Hayden Creek and Evans Creek groups 

(pre-Evans Creek? outwash) are of early Wisconsin age 

(table 2), then the Hayden Creek terraces are likely 

pre-Wisconsin in age.

Dethier and Bethel (1981) mapped two broad 

terraces of Hayden Creek age (early and late) and 

several small terrace remnants (middle Hayden Creek 

outwash) between the two in the vicinity of Salkum 

and downstream near the Cowlitz Prairie. Surfaces 

designated pre-Evans Creek(?) age (fig. 3) exposed 

near Toledo lie topographically between the late 

Hayden Creek and the Evans Creek surfaces and 

overlie 0.5 to 1.0 m of loess and from 3 m to more 

than 5 m of gravel. Oxidation of these deposits 

generally extends 1 to 1.5 m below the surface. The 

deposits probably resulted from an early or middle 

Wisconsin glaciation or from reworking of younger 

Hayden Creek deposits during downcutting. 

Weathering-rind data and unpublished field 

observations (S.M. Colman, written commun., 1983) 

suggest that these terraces may represent outwash 

from an early Wisconsin advance in an upstream area 

subsequently overridden by the Evans Creek advance.

The three principal Hayden Creek terraces grade 

to different areas of the broad Hayden Creek morainal 

belt (see Erdmann and Bateman, 1951). The map 

pattern of the late Hayden Creek terrace suggests that 

the glacial Cowlitz River flowed close to its modern 

course, whereas the early and middle Hayden Creek 

terraces were probably fed by meltwater flowing 

through gaps in the hills east and northeast of 

Salkum. The late Hayden Creek outwash deposits are 

generally 5 to 10 m thick whereas the early deposits 

consist of 10 to 15 m (35 m near Salkum) of gravel; 

deposits beneath the middle terrace are at least 16 m 

thick near Salkum. Caps of weathered silt 1 to 3 m 

thick cover each of the gravel deposits. Oxidation 

depths are about 1.5, 2.0, and 3.0 m in late, middle, 

and early Hayden Creek outwash, respectively. The 

early terrace surface is slightly more dissected than 

the middle and the late Hayden Creek surfaces.

F10 Soil Chronosequences in the Western United States

Topographic position, weathering-rind thickness, 

and depth of oxidation indicate that the Hayden Creek 

deposits are of similar age to pre-Wisconsin drift in 

the southern Puget lowland (Colman and Pierce, 

1984). Isotopic ages at best give minimum ages for 

Hayden Creek deposits. Radiocarbon ages and 

climatic interpretations from Davis Lake (fig. 1), 

which lies in a depression last occupied by ice during 

the time when Hayden Creek Drift was deposited, span 

the period from about 26 ka to the present (Barnosky, 

1983, 1984). The Hayden Creek deposits are thus older 

than 26 ka in the Cowlitz basin. Crandell and Miller 

(1974) dated organic matter from units overlying 

Hayden Creek till in the vicinity of Mount Rainier, but 

both C ages were infinite and thus older than about 

40 ka. Glaciers of Hayden Creek age also advanced 

west along the Lewis River drainage south of Mount 

St. Helens (D.R. Crandell, written commun., 1980). A 

log collected from outwash deposits of the penultimate 

glaciation (probably equivalent to late Hayden Creek 

time) some 70 km south of Mossyrock gave a 

radiocarbon age of greater than 60 ka (Dethier and 

Bethel, 1981). In the same area, weathered till of the 

penultimate glaciation underlies the 38-ka Mount St. 

Helens tephra of Mullineaux and others (1975). The 

buried Hayden Creek till is oxidized to a greater depth 

than surface deposits of Evans Creek age, which 

suggests that deposits of the penultimate glaciation 

are older than about 60 ka, and perhaps considerably 

older in the Mount St. Helens area. However, the late 

Quaternary history of glaciation in the Cascades near 

Mount St. Helens has not been described in detail (M. 

Mundorff, unpublished data), and correlation with the 

Cowlitz sequence is uncertain.

If the late Hayden Creek terrace is preWisconsin, its age is probably about 150 ka (table 3). 

The depth of weathering in the early Hayden Creek 

terrace suggests it is considerably older, perhaps 300 

to 250 ka (table 2). The middle Hayden Creek surface 

probably represents a recessional stand during ice 

retreat from the early Hayden Creek glacial maximum 

or a pause in trenching of the older deposits following 

deglaciation. However, it is possible that the middle 

surface represents a separate glaciation of 

intermediate age.

Outwash Deposits of the Wingate Hill Drift

Wingate Hill outwash is exposed beneath a broad 

terrace that extends westward from outcrops of deeply 

weathered till near Salkum (fig. 3). Local relief on the 

surface is as much as 10 m, and stream dissection is 

more extensive than on the early Hayden Creek 

terrace. Weathered silt deposits 1 to 3 m thick overlie 

gravel thicker than 30 m near Salkum and of unknown 

thickness elsewhere. Oxidation commonly extends to a 

depth of 5 to 10 m, and stones in the upper 2 m of the 

deposits are completely weathered to clay in many 

exposures.

Weathered Wingate Hill Drift overlies deeply 

weathered Logan Hill(?) till at several localities in the 

vicinity of Salkum (Crandell and Miller, 1974) and 

underlies Hayden Creek Drift in the hills between 

Salkum and Silver Creek. The depth and degree of 

oxidation in surface deposits of Wingate Hill Drift are
comparable to that in the underlying Logan Hill 

Formation where the two are superposed (Crandell and 

Miller, 1974). This suggests that the Logan Hill 

Formation near Salkum weathered subaerially for as 

many years as the age of the Wingate Hill Drift. 

Oxidation of Hayden Creek till exposed at the surface 

west of Silver Creek is similar to that in underlying 

Wingate Hill till (Crandell and Miller, 1984), suggesting 

that the Wingate Hill till weathered for 150,000 to 

300,000 years before burial by the Hayden Creek 

glacier (assuming the Hayden Creek is of preWisconsin age). However, at measured section 5 of 

Crandell and Miller (1974, p. 25), Wingate Hill(?) Drift 

is more deeply weathered than overlying Hayden Creek 

deposits.

Colman and Pierce (1981) demonstrated that 

weathering-rind thickness in the western United States 

can be approximated as a function of the square root 

of time. Because weathering rinds on Wingate Hill 

clasts are about twice as thick as those formed on 

Hayden Creek cobbles, the ages of these deposits 

likely differ by a factor of more than two (Colman and 

Pierce, 1981, 1984). Wingate Hill rinds are about half 

as thick as Logan Hill rinds, although many Logan Hill 

clasts are completely altered, making the comparison 

tenuous. On the basis of these observations, I suggest 

that the Wingate Hill Drift is less than half as old as 

the Logan Hill Formation. Unfortunately, absolute 

ages are not available for either unit. Because most of 

the Hayden Creek Drift is probably at least 140,000 

years old, Wingate Hill Drift is probably at least 

300,000 years old, and perhaps as old as 300,000 to 

600,000 years (Colman and Pierce, 1981, 1984).

Logan Hill Formation

The deeply weathered gravel of the Logan Hill 

Formation underlies an extensive, rolling surface best 

developed near Marys Corner (fig. 3). Weathered silt 

and clay 2 to 4 m thick overlies more than 40 m of 

gravel east of Marys Corner, but deposits south of the 

Cowlitz River (Roberts, 1958) are thinner. At many 

exposures, oxidation extends to depths of more than 10 

m, and the original texture of the upper 2 to 3 m of 

the Logan Hill is commonly obscured by weathering. 

Below that depth the Logan Hill is saprolite which 

appears to be gravel, but all the "clasts" can be cut 

and smeared with a trenching tool.

Along the Cowlitz River south of Silver Creek, 

gravel of the Logan Hill Formation unconformably 

overlies the Miocene Wilkes Formation (fig. 3). Deeply 

weathered Wingate Hill Drift overlies deposits of the 

Logan Hill Formation in the hills northeast and 

northwest of Silver Creek and at other locations 

(Crandell and Miller, 1974). The Logan Hill Formation 

includes diamictons, and exposures of deeply 

weathered till have been mapped east of the Logan 

Hill surface (Crandell and Miller, 1974), but the unit 

may not be of glacial origin. Sedimentary structures 

are similar to those in the younger outwash sequences 

and suggest a braided stream environment, but a 

tectonic origin for the gravel is also possible. Snavely 

and others (1958) and Crandell and Miller (1974) 

tentatively assigned the Logan Hill to the early 

Pleistocene on the basis of topographic position and 

deep weathering. Rates of saprolite formation 

(Washington Public Power Supply System, 1974;

Table 3. Selected field parameters in soils of different age (see supplementary table 1)

Designation

Late Holocene

Latest Pleistocene( ?)

Late Evans Creek

Early Evans Creek

(site 1)

Early Evans Creek

(site 2)

Pre-Evans Creek(?)

Late Hayden Creek

Middle Hayden Creek

Early Hayden Creek

Wingate Hill

Logan Hill

Approximate 

age (ka)

0.25

10.0-12.0

14,0

24.0

24.0

40-70

65-170

130-280

240-340

300-600

630-1,600

Depth to 

unweathered 

material (m)

0.25

2.0

0.7

0.9

(l.O) 2

1.3

1.45

2.50

(1.8) 2

3.80

>3.00

(3.0) 2

>3.00

(5.0) 2

>2.40

(7.0) 2

Maximum hue 

in B horizon

10YR3/3

moist

10YR6/5

dry

10YR4/4 1

moist

7.5YR5/6

moist

5YR4/6

moist

5YR4/5

moist

10YR7/5

dry

5YR4/4

moist

2.5YR4/6

moist

5YR5/8

moist

2.5YR3/8

moist

Finest texture 

in B horizon

sandy loam

sandy loam

loam

loam

loam

silty loam

silty clay

loam

silty clay

loam

silty loam

silty clay

silty clay

Maximum in profile, where B horizon 

"Values in parentheses from Crandell

LS not present, 

and Miller (1974).

Soil Chronosequence Along the Cowlitz River, Washington Fll
Woodward-Clyde, 1978) suggest that the Logan Hill is 

older than about 630 ka and that it may be as much as 

1 to 1.5 Ma. The oldest drift on the Cascade crest at 

the head of the Cowlitz River (G.A. Clayton, written 

commun., 1983) is at least 1.7 Ma, but it cannot be 

directly related to the Logan Hill Formation. If the 

Logan Hill is about twice as old as Wingate Hill 

outwash, as suggested by weathering thickness where 

the deposits are superposed, the Logan Hill is at least 

600 ka and perhaps as old as 1,700 ka.

SAMPLING METHODS AND SOIL DESCRIPTIONS

Field description and collection procedures were 

designed to obtain a comprehensive sample from the 

soil typical of each terrace. Soils were sampled at 11 

locations on 10 different geomorphic surfaces between 

Toledo and Salkum during August and September 

1978. Locations of sampling sites are shown on figure 

3. Supplementary table 1 summarizes descriptions of 

the sample locations and sampling methods used at 

each site. Sampling sites on level, undisturbed areas 

on terraces were chosen after completion of geologic 

mapping, examination of soil maps (Soil Conservation 

Service, 1987), and studies of natural soil exposures.

Terrace deposits younger than the early Evans 

Creek surfaces were generally sampled by excavating 

back into roadcuts or the edges of gravel pits. After 

careful examination for disturbance of the surface soil 

in these areas, we cut exposed faces back 50 to 120 

cm, then described and sampled the soils. Older 

terraces were sampled in backhoe trenches as deep as 

about 3 m. Two sites (CW 4 and 5) were excavated on 

the early Evans Creek surface to test the variability of 

soil properties at different locations on the same age 

surface. One backhoe site, CW 1 (not shown), was 

abandoned because it appeared to be partly disturbed 

and a shallow water table made soil sampling 

dangerous. The soil at CW 12 (early Hayden Creek 

outwash) appeared to have an overthickened A horizon 

and a more weakly developed Bj. when compared to 

nearby exposures in the same deposit. However, soils 

exposed in the backhoe pits generally resembled the 

upper parts of weathering profiles examined in nearby 

roadcuts and cutbanks. Complete samples were not 

collected from the three oldest terraces because soil 

profiles extended deeper than 3 m (the maximum depth 

for backhoe sampling), and natural exposures were 

disturbed or otherwise unsuitable for sampling.

Soil horizons and subhorizons exposed in backhoe 

pits and fresh natural exposures were carefully 

described and boundaries marked with pegs before 

excavation of 2-kg channel samples within about 100 

cm of the peg line. Profile thickness and boundaries 

between horizons and subhorizons were relatively 

uniform in the area sampled (see supplemental table 1) 

and, except for the sites noted above, comparable to 

nearby natural exposures. Soil samples are 

representative of the sample site, and are considered 

typical of a terrace. Assessment of the range and 

variability of soil properties on a geomorphic surface 

was beyond the scope of this study, and poses 

formidable sampling problems (Birkeland, 1984). 

However, data presented in Singer and Janitsky (1986) 

suggest that soil chemistry from carefully chosen sites

F12 Soil Chronosequences in the Western United States

is reproducible, and that soils separated on the basis of 

field properties and geologic relations can be 

distinguished using a variety of chemical properties at 

a highly significant level of probability.

Soils developed on late Holocene alluvium are 

classified as mesic Fluventic Haploxerolls and belong 

to the Puyallup series, whereas the soil on the latest 

Pleistocene(?) surface is included in the Olequa soil 

series and classified as a mesic Ultic Haploxeralf (Soil 

Conservation Service, 1987). Soils on the Evans Creek 

surfaces belong to the Winston soil series and are 

classified as mesic Andic Xerocrepts. The soils found 

on the Logan Hill, Wingate Hill and Hayden Creek 

terraces are mapped as the Salkum soil series and 

described as mesic Xeric Haplohumults by the Soil 

Conservation Service (1987).

Extractive analyses, total X-ray fluorescence 

(<2-mm and fine fraction), and instrumental neutron 

activation (fine fraction) analyses were performed on 

soil samples to aid interpretation of changes in soil 

chemical properties with time. Results of these 

analyses, soil field descriptions, and soil mineralogic 

data are listed in the supplementary tables. Analyses 

listed in supplementary tables 2, 3, and 4 were 

performed at the University of Washington's Forest 

Soils Laboratory. Additional physical, mineralogic, 

and chemical data were presented by Bethel (1982). 

The data analysis presented below focuses on physical, 

mineralogic, and chemical changes in soils with time. 

This focus and procedures for data reduction limited 

use of the analyses in the supplementary tables. 

Inspection of the X-ray fluorescence data, for 

instance, suggested that similar time-related trends 

were present in the fine and <2-mm analyses. The 

latter values are used below to aid comparison with 

literature analyses, many of which are reported for 

the <2-mm fraction. Although chemical trends are 

apparent in some of the neutron-activation results 

(supplementary table 7), many elements repeat 

patterns of the X-ray fluorescence data, and some 

show little change with soil age. Time-related changes 

in soil chemistry presented below are thus calculated 

mainly from data in supplementary tables 1, 2, 3, 4, 

and 6.

DATA REDUCTION

Analysis of time-related trends in Cowlitz soil 

chemistry required several preliminary steps to reduce 

the data to a common base. Data reduction consisted 

of correction for missing analyses, normalization 

procedures using zirconium (Zr) concentrations, and 

correction of chemical mass values to unit soil 

thickness. Chemical data listed in the supplementary 

tables are incomplete because not all sampled 

subhorizons were analyzed for each soil and because 

the deepest horizons of the older soils were not 

sampled. Where multiple divisions of a horizon (Bll, 

B12, B13, for instance) were sampled, in some cases 

only the one or two best developed, thickest 

subhorizons were submitted for analysis. In 

calculations I assumed that unanalyzed subhorizons 

had the same chemical compositions and bulk density 

as adjacent, analyzed samples of the same horizon. If 

two samples from the horizon had been analyzed, I
assumed that missing subhorizons had the bulk density 

and chemical composition of the more weakly 

developed subhorizon. In most cases, chemical data 

from multiple subhorizons were consistent within 5 to 

10 percent, but densities varied by as much as 15 

percent within some horizons. Such variations are only 

slightly larger than uncertainty in the analytical 

techniques (Singer and Janitsky, 1986). Interpolation 

of values for unanalyzed subhorizons may slightly 

overestimate the contribution of that horizon to 

profile gains or losses, but the unanalyzed layers were 

generally thin. Thus errors introduced by correction 

for missing data probably have a minimal effect on the 

substantial calculated changes in soil chemistry.

Chemical analyses from all profiles were 

normalized to constant Zr values, assuming that total 

Zr in soil profiles did not change with time (Birkeland, 

1984; Harden, 1987). Soil parent material was assumed 

to have a Zr concentration of 177 ppm and a bulk 

density of 1.3 g cm~<i (supplementary tables 2 and 6), 

giving a Zr mass of 0.23 mg cm"'3 of soil. Soils 

developed on deposits older than late Holocene 

alluvium contained the lowest Zr concentrations in 

least altered horizons (C, CQX, or 83), whereas the 

highest concentrations occurred in the most leached 

zones (A horizons) or in the B horizon. Variations in 

profile Zr concentrations probably result from 

pedogenic processes and slight variations in parent 

material. Concentrations of Zr generally increase 

with increasing soil age and reach a peak value of over 

280 ppm in the Logan Hill Formation. Relatively low 

Zr concentrations and low bulk density give the soil on 

early Hayden Creek outwash (supplementary table 6) 

an anomalously low mass of Zr, and the soil on the 

middle Hayden Creek outwash contains "excess" Zr. 

However, the general pattern of increase is well 

defined. Other oxides such as TiO?, FeoOj, and AloOj 

were also relatively immobile in Cowlitz soil profiles 

(see below). I chose to use Zr because of good 

analytical precision (±10 percent) and because it is the 

least mobile of the elements noted in acidic soils 

(Birkeland, 1984). The normalization procedure 

minimizes the effects of apparent changes in oxide 

concentration that result from leaching and variations 

in parent material, but obscures some information 

about pedogenic processes.

The average oxide concentration (in grams per 

centimeter) in the soil profile provides a basis for 

analyzing time-related changes in Cowlitz soil 

chemistry for profiles containing n horizons:

k

{** -~ ^V^ (~* (\~ /*"P\ e* rtm

' n=l '

where Cj = horizon concentration of oxide i (percent), 

T = thickness of horizon (cm), 

e = horizon bulk density (g cm"3 ), 

k = all horizons in profile, and 

T = total profile thickness (cm).

I chose oxide mass/profile thickness, rather than oxide 

mass, as the basis for comparison of different soils 

because it was difficult to estimate total mass values 

for older soils, where soil pits did not reach unaltered

C material. Observation of nearby natural exposures 

showed that oxidation extended at least 2 m below the 

base of trenches on the early Hayden Creek, Wingate 

Hill, and Logan Hill surfaces. Use of oxide 

mass/depth, calculated from horizons actually 

sampled, provides a basis for comparison of all the 

Cowlitz soils, but assumes that the horizons sampled 

are representative of the entire weathering profile, a 

reasonable approximation for older profiles. In those 

soils, calculated chemical values are dominated by 

thick, strongly altered B and C (BC) horizons that 

resemble unsampled parts of the soil.

DISCUSSION OF THE SOIL CHRONOSEQUENCE 

Parent Material

Soils of the Cowlitz River chronosequence are 

developed from remarkably similar sediment with 

respect to both depositional environment and 

mineralogy. Mineralogic studies of the soil samples 

suggest that they are derived almost exclusively from 

volcanic rock: late Tertiary andesite and basalt, and 

Quaternary andesite and dacite (Bethel, 1982). 

Addition of substantial amounts of tephra to the 

Cowlitz basin can be documented from at least Hayden 

Creek time to the present, and tephra deposition 

probably occurred periodically throughout Quaternary 

time. Resistant clasts of andesite and basalt dominate 

the gravel fraction of all the terrace units, whereas 

loess caps on the gravel contain tephra as well as 

volcanic silt and fine sand. Superimposed loess 

mantles have been recognized at only a few places in 

the Cowlitz River area, but it is likely that some 

windblown material was added to all existing terrace 

surfaces during each glaciation. No systematic 

variation in the thickness or texture of eolian layers 

can be demonstrated in the Cowlitz River area. 

However, periodic additions of dacitic tephra and 

windblown material probably influenced soil formation 

on all terrace surfaces. For long time intervals, the 

influx of tephra can be viewed as constant, except for 

the fine-grained layer on Evans Creek surfaces, which 

is particularly rich in glassy, dacitic debris (Bethel, 

1982).

Field Properties

The age control for Cowlitz River terraces 

provides a framework for studying changes in soil 

development with time. In addition, if other factors 

such as climate and vegetation were similar for the 

different terraces, rates of soil development can be 

inferred from soil-age plots (Harden, 1982a; Harden 

and Taylor, 1983). These rates, however, are subject 

to uncertainties in the age estimates.

Soils on the Cowlitz terraces display striking 

variations in thickness and degree of development. 

The depth to unweathered material in the soil profile 

(fig. 5) increases quite regularly with time, except for 

the anomalously thick and oxidized zone on the middle 

Hayden Creek surface. Other simple field 

measurements such as the strongest hue and finest

Soil Chronosequence Along the Cowlitz River, Washington F13
texture in the B horizon show a general trend with 

increasing age: hues become redder and the amount of 

clay increases (fig. 5, table 3).

The degree of soil development in the Cowlitz 

sequence can be quantified using a number of field 

properties (Harden, 1982a). Field properties that 

change most systematically with age are the best 

indices for the degree of soil development, and these 

properties include pH lowering, clay films, rubification 

(development of hue and chroma), total texture 

(texture and wet consistence), and the index that 

combines soil properties (fig. 6). Field properties that 

were not good indices of soil development include soil 

structure, melanization (darkening of the topsoil), and 

moist consistence.

Field properties can be plotted against linear, 

log, or ranked (young to old) time to compare rates at 

which these properties develop. Most field properties 

develop rapidly at the young end of the time scale. 

This suggests that rates of soil development are 

initially rapid and appear to decline after a few 

hundred thousand years (fig. 7B). When properties are 

plotted against log time, the curves appear to be 

straight, suggesting that over long periods of time, 

soils develop at decreasing exponential rates (fig. 7C). 

The ages of the Cowlitz soils and deposits are not well 

defined, therefore observations of curve shape are 

subject to considerable uncertainty.

Given the uncertainty of age estimates, the best 

way to test the significance of soil development 

increasing over time is by using rank regression. For 

this method, the soil property is ranked from lowest to

highest for all soils of the chronosequence; similarly, 

the ages of the soils are ranked from low (young) to 

high (old). The ranked soil property is then plotted 

against ranked age (for example, the oldest soil in 

figure 7C has the tenth highest index of soil 

development, thus the x,y coordinates are 10, 11). 

Linear regression is then applied to the ranked data, 

and the regression coefficient (Spearman's rho 

coefficient) is then a test for significance. The 

Spearman's rho coefficients greater than about 0.55 

are significant at the 90 percent confidence level. 

Coefficients for field data are as follows: total 

texture (0.71); rubification (0.77); clay films (0.83); 

structure (0.58); moist consistence (0.52); melanization 

(0.36); pH lowering (0.89) and index (0.90). The index 

was calculated from total texture, rubification, clay 

films, and moist consistence, because these were 

properties used by Harden and Taylor (1983). If pH 

lowering were substituted for moist consistence, the 

regression coefficient would improve.

The systematic increase of texture, clay films, 

rubification, and pH lowering are probably the result 

of various soil-forming processes. Total texture and 

clay films reflect the formation and orientation of 

clays; the mineralogy section below demonstrates that 

kaolinite is probably the predominant pedogenic clay 

forming in these soils. This is consistent with the 

decreasing pH of these heavily leached soils. 

Increasing rubification with time represents increasing 

color hue and chroma; iron oxides are forming in the 

soils (see below), although the data do not indicate how 

rapidly oxidation states of the iron change with time.

10 ~l I I I I I I I 

EXPLANATION

X This study

i This study, minimum estimate 

X

 Oxidation depths from 

Crandell and Miller (1974)

i i i i i i i M i i i i i i i i i i i i i i i i i i

DC 

LLJ

Q 

LU 

CC CO 

CC 

LU

tD 1

o

n_ 

LLJ Q

0.1 I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I

Hi i ^

I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I

10'

AGE, IN YEARS

Figure 5. Relation between soil-profile age and depth to unweathered material, Cowlitz River soils, 

Washington. Age estimates and uncertainty (error bars) from table 2.

F14 Soil Chronosequences in the Western United States
Mineralogic Changes in the Sand and Clay Fraction

Bethel (1982) documented systematic and nonsystematic changes with time in heavy minerals (sand 

fraction) and in clay (<lMm) mineralogy from the 

deepest horizon (C, CQX, or B.J) of nine soils presented 

in this study. With the exception of the opaque 

fraction, the percentage of heavy minerals decreases 

with time, concurrent with increases in the degree of 

inosilicate etching. Changes in clay mineralogy with 

time are less dramatic, but they suggest that clay in 

deposits older than about 25 ka is in equilibrium with 

the weathering environment, whereas fine clay in 

younger deposits reflects both inherited mineralogy 

and weathering effects (Bethel, 1982). However, 

several problems confound this analysis. Sand-size 

grains are present in the matrix of the outwash 

deposits, but with increasing time such grains are also 

derived from the weathering of clasts, providing a 

source of fresher material. Weathered grains and clay 

from older deposits and the Wilkes Formation probably 

contributed to the sand and fine fraction of younger 

outwash deposits as well. Because the C horizons of 

younger soils are not appreciably altered, analysis of 

mineral alteration in C horizons might have provided 

better comparisons, but our data are insufficient.

The change in so-called heavy grain content 

(ferromagnesian silicates, opaque minerals, and 

aggregates of heavy minerals) of Cowlitz deposits 

gives clear general trends over time (fig. 8) and

scatter probably related to periodic additions of 

fallout tephra (Bethel, 1982). Ferromagnesian silicates 

(pyroxene, amphibole, and olivine) decreased from 

about 50 percent of the heavy grains in Holocene 

deposits to less than about 15 percent in pre-Wisconsin 

deposits. No ferromagnesian minerals were present in 

the Logan Hill deposits, which contained 60 percent 

opaques such as magnetite and ilmenite. These 

minerals formed less than 20 percent of the late 

Pleistocene heavy-mineral fraction. Olivine composed 

5 to 45 percent of the total ferromagnesian fraction in 

Evans Creek and younger deposits, which Bethel (1982) 

attributed to eruption of olivine-bearing tephra at 

Mount St. Helens or Mount Rainier. However, the 

persistence of small amounts of olivine 2 m below the 

present land surface in Wingate Hill deposits is 

surprising, given the instability of this mineral in 

laboratory (Grandstaff, 1986) and field (Birkeland, 

1984) settings.

The abundance of ferromagnesian and opaque 

minerals can be used as a general guide to the age of 

Cowlitz River deposits, but the degree of mineral 

etching should be a more reliable age indicator 

because it is less dependent on slight variations in the 

composition of parent material. The degree of 

hornblende weathering, or etching (fig. 9) increases 

with age, and the etching of pyroxenes (orthopyroxene 

and clinopyroxene) shows a similar trend (Bethel, 

1982). Because hornblende grains were absent in 

several samples, and relative abundance of the two

150

p 100

O

QC

50

150

O

LJJ 

O

I

Q.

10 2 10 3 10 4 10 5 

AGE, IN YEARS

10 10 7

50

10 3 10 4 10 5 

AGE, IN YEARS

10' 10 7

LLJ 

DC

X

LU

150

100

O 50

B

10 2 10 3 10 4 10 5 

AGE, IN YEARS

200

OD 150

^

^ 100

_J

0 50

0

D

10 10' 10 10 3 10 4 10 5 

AGE, IN YEARS

10 7

Figure 6. Profile properties versus log time for rubification (A), total texture (B), pH lowering (C), and clay 

films (D). Calculated after Harden (1982a).

Soil Chronosequence Along the Cowlitz River, Washington F15
pyroxenes varied, there is some uncertainty in ageetching relations. Nonsystematic changes in mineral 

abundance suggest that periodic additions of 

ferromagnesian minerals in tephra complicate a simple 

model of mineral etching in the Cowlitz area.

Kaolinite (or metahalloysite) dominates the l-^m 

fraction of most samples from the Cowlitz sequence, 

but a chloritized 2:1 mineral (vermiculite?) and 

smectite are important components of some soils 

(supplementary table 4). Soils younger than about 25 

ka have abundances of kaolinite (K)> smectite (S)> 

vermiculite (V)>illite (I)=chlorite (C), whereas the 

three oldest soils showed K>V»S=C=I. Smectite is 

uncommon in deposits older than Evans Creek outwash, 

whereas vermiculite(?) is most abundant in deposits of 

Hayden Creek age and older, probably as sesquioxides

LLJ 

^ 

D_ 

O X

-I LLJ 

LLJ Q

^^ 

Q 

I

_J

O 

OD

LLJ

D_ 

O X

-I LLJ 

LLJ Q

LLJ 

Q

O 

O3

Q

LLJ

^ O

LLJ 

Q

180

120

60

300 600 900 1200 

AGE, IN THOUSANDS OF YEARS

1500

120

80

40

10 2 10 3 10 4 10 5 10 6 10 7 

AGE, IN YEARS

12

0

1.0 3.5 

YOUNGEST

6.0

RANKED AGE

11.0 13,5 

OLDEST

Figure 7. Soil-development index versus age (A), log 

age (B), and ranked age (C). Soil development index 

(Harden, 1982a) calculated from four properties: total 

texture, rubification, clay films, and moist 

consistence.

filled the interlayer position. In X-ray analyses, the 7 

angstrom basal reflection increased in height and 

decreased in width with increasing age, suggesting 

progressive crystallization of kaolinite and (or) an 

increase in the size and crystallinity of metahalloysite 

(Bethel, 1982). These trends suggest that a kaolin 

phase is stable and smectite is unstable in Cowlitz soil 

environments. More detailed work is required to 

assess the significance of the 2:1 interlayer clay, but 

the increase in extractable Fe and Al (Fed and Ald , 

respectively) in older soil horizons likely correlates 

with the abundance of these oxyhydroxides in 

interlayer positions. Holocene and late Wisconsin soils 

contain kaolinite, 2:1 interlayer clay, and minor illite 

and smectite in all horizons, whereas the early Hayden 

Creek, Wingate Hill, and Logan Hill soils contain the 

same mineral suite, but smectite is less abundant. 

Because kaolinite is abundant in the parent material 

for each soil, the decrease in smectite and increase in 

the 2:1 interlayer clay may be the most significant 

trends in clay mineralogy with time.

Time-Related Changes in Soil Chemical Properties

Changes in the bulk chemical composition of 

Cowlitz soils reflect progressive losses of alkaline 

earth metals, SiO2, and AlnO3 , and relative 

accumulation of TiO2 , Fe 2 O.j, and Zr with time. The 

degree of chemical change can be analyzed from 

relative elemental mobility (Harden and others, 1986), 

from mass-balance calculations corrected using a 

stable element such as Zr (Harden and Taylor, 1983, 

Birkeland, 1984, Harden, 1987), or using a variety of 

techniques reviewed by Birkeland (1984). 

Supplemental tables 3, 5, and 6 list extractive and 

oxide analyses for the<47-Mm and<2-mm fractions of 

the Cowlitz soils; supplemental table 7 lists selected 

trace-metal analyses for the <47-^m fraction that 

were not corrected for the mass of gravel in samples. 

Relative elemental mobility has been used widely to 

compare environments of chemical weathering 

(Birkeland, 1984). I calculated a simple index of 

elemental mobility (<2-mm fraction) for the Cowlitz 

soil sequence by comparing the Zr-normalized ratio of 

oxide mass (in soil CW6) to oxide mass soil for each 

oxide. Calculations showed the following ranking of 

mobilities:

Ca, Na, Mg>K>Si>Al>Fe, Ti, Zr 

mobile immobile

Elements that had similar ratios of mobility (within a 

factor of 2) are separated by commas. For instance, 

Ca and Na had ratios of 56 and 30, respectively, 

whereas the K ratio was about 5.5 and Si about 1.7. 

Iron and titanium were relatively immobile. Harden 

(1987) and Harden and others (1986) reported similar 

overall mobility patterns from a complex analysis of 

elemental mobility throughout chronosequence 

development. Elemental mobility in the <47-Mm 

fraction of Cowlitz soils is similar to values listed 

above for the<2-mm fraction, except Si is nearly as 

immobile as Al.

F16 Soil Chronosequences in the Western United States
Because Zr is immobile in weathering profiles 

and Cowlitz parent material is nearly constant, 

depletion of less stable components should produce 

increases in the apparent Zr concentration with time. 

Loss (or gain) of elements relative to Zr is thus a 

measure of mobility. Mobility trends can be evaluated 

using dimensionless values for the oxides of interest. 

Figure 10 shows such a plot for the oxides TiO2 , 

A1 2^3> Fe 2^3» and SiO 2 versus Zr, where all values 

are made dimensionless by normalizing them against 

soil CW6, the parent material. The plot scatters about 

the line x=y for TiO« and Fe 2 Oo, but SiO2 losses, are 

highly significant (p<0.01) and Al losses are significant 

(p<0.10). General trends in figure 10 show that TiO« 

and Fe 2 Oj are conserved as the Zr ratio (or soil age) 

increases and that SiO2 and A1 2O3 are somewhat 

mobile. Scatter in each of the oxide trends (for 

instance, in soils CW4, CW5, and CW12) probably 

results from slight differences in the mineralogy or 

texture of parent material.

The relative mobility of soil oxides with time 

reflects the chemical composition of parent material 

and acidic weathering solutions typical of humid 

regions. Titanium and Zr oxides are nearly insoluble in 

mildly acidic soil waters (Birkeland, 1984). Losses of 

SiO2 and Al 2 O.j relative to Zr during soil formation 

were probably enhanced by the abundance of easily 

weathered glassy material and the mobility of silica 

and aluminum complexes at soil pH values below 5.5. 

The stability of iron in weathering profiles results 

from the immobility of oxidized Fe in well-drained 

material. Formation and accumulation of extractable

iron (Fed) (supplementary table 3) corresponds to the 

oxidation of Fe in ferromagnesian minerals during 

weathering, and strong sorption of iron oxyhydroxides 

at low soil pH (McFadden and Hendricks, 1985). The 

immobility of Zr, Ti, and Fe over time suggests that 

any of these elements could be used in studies of 

humid weathering.

Changes in normalized oxide content can be 

calculated for each soil relative to parent material, or 

plotted as functions of time. Depletion of a soil oxide 

in 1 million years of weathering, for instance, can be 

calculated from its concentration in a million-year-old 

soil and in soil CW6, where CW6 is assumed to have 

approximately the same composition as the parent 

material. The Logan Hill soil, of roughly 1 m.y. age, 

contains about 80 percent, 58 percent, 17.7 percent, 

3.3 percent, and 1.8 percent, respectively, of the 

Al 2O.j, SiO2 , K 2 O, Na 2 O, and CaO originally present 

in the parent material. Elemental losses of most 

constituents are correlated with log time in the 

Cowlitz soils. Soil depletion of SiO2 (fig. 11) is a 

significant (p<0.01) linear function of log time, but the 

data could also be fit by two different line segments 

with a break near 140 ka. Losses of Al^O-j and Fe 2 Oo 

are not significant functions of time at the 95-percent 

confidence level, but at least some unexplained 

variance results from an apparent change in slope that 

corresponds with middle Hayden Creek time. Alkaline 

earths are lost more rapidly than losses of SiO2 , 

AloOg, and Fe 2 O3 , and individual patterns of K, Na, 

and Ca depletion with time are different (fig. 12). Soil 

potassium concentrations, for instance, can be plotted

IUU

_J 

DC

LLJ

Z

LLJ hID Z

f~i 1 1 1

<o

D_ QC

Q_

o -^

< ~ 1 °

2 H

< LLJ cotLLJ Z 

Z 0

o o

0

DC

DC

LU

LL

_ I I I I 1 I I I I 1 1 ! 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 ! 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1

I X

- /\ y >,

-

0

<

~

- EXPLANATION

r :

*

i -

> $

X

X X

 I

-

X Ferromagnesian silicates X

 Opaque minerals j

I | Error bar 1

X

1 Maximum value

1

i i i i i i i i i i i i i i i i i i i i i i i i i i i i i i i i i i i i

10' 10' 10 4 

AGE, IN YEARS

10' 10*

Figure 8. Percent ferromagnesian and opaque minerals in heavy (>2.89 g cm) mineral fraction of sand versus 

time in C, CQX, and 83 horizons of Cowlitz soils (modified from Bethel, 1982). Error bars for older Evans Creek 

soil show the range of samples from three sites; Logan Hill Formation ferromagnesian value is upper limit.

Soil Chronosequence Along the Cowlitz River, Washington F17
against log time as two linear segments with a break 

between about 60 and 150 ka (log-log or log-linear), or 

as a linear function of log time. Sodium depletion can 

be explained as a linear function of log time, but could 

also be fit by two linear segments with a break 

between 60 ka and 150 ka. Calcium losses are a linear 

and highly significant function of log time.

The apparent change in weathering rate of some 

soil components near 130 ka may be related to parent 

material or to climate change. Heavy-mineral 

composition and abundance suggest that the pre-Evans 

Creek(?) and the late Hayden Creek deposits contained 

similar mixtures of minerals (Bethel, 1982). The preEvans Creek(?) and younger soils are mainly developed 

in loess caps, whereas parent material for Hayden 

Creek and older deposits includes both loess and the 

underlying gravel. The break in slope displayed by the 

K and Na loss rates, and suggested by the SiC^, Al 2O.j, 

and Fe 2 O3 data, indicates more rapid oxide depletion 

in soils developed before about 130 ka. The relative 

abundance of clay minerals, particularly kaolinite and 

vermiculite (supplementary table 4), also shifted at 

about this time. Soil weathering may have occurred at

different rates in the two textures of parent material, 

or the data may suggest an unrecognized influx of 

loess at about 130 ka. Greater effective moisture 

could also have produced more rapid leaching rates and 

mineral alteration for soils older than about 130 ka. 

This inference cannot be checked, however, as welldocumented reconstructions of climate are available 

only for the late Pleistocene of the Pacific Northwest. 

Accumulation of pedogenic clay, Fed, and Al^ 

with time produces soil changes apparent in both field 

and laboratory properties. Soil rubification and 

textural changes (fig. 6) are correlated with soil age 

and are directly related to the laboratory 

measurements of Fed and Hmi clay. Clay-rich, 

strongly oxidized soils developed in pre-Wisconsin 

deposits contain 2 to 4 times more l-j*m clay and Fe^ 

than the late Wisconsin soils, and B-horizons on the 

Wingate Hill and Logan Hill surfaces contain 45 to 60 

percent clay. Log-soil age accounts for 94 and 80 

percent of the variance in log Fe^ and clay content, 

respectively, in the Cowlitz soils (ng. 13). After Fe is 

released from ferromagnesian minerals during 

weathering, it should accumulate as Fe oxyhydroxides,

100

10

o 

<

DC

O

z

ot 

LU

0.1

EXPLANATION

X Hornblende

 Clinopyroxene + 

orthopyroxene

i i i i i i i i i i i i i i i i ' l l i i i i l

104 

AGE, IN YEARS

10£ 10fc

Figure 9. Etching ratio for hornblende and clinopyroxene + orthopyroxene from Cowlitz soils. Ratio is percent 

of unetched and slightly etched grains divided by percent of grains with, moderate or greater etching.

F18 Soil Chronosequences in the Western United States
which are included in Fe analyses. If such newly 

formed Fe-compounds are not converted to crystalline 

species such as hematite, the ratio Fe^/Fe^z should 

increase with time. The ratio Fed/Fe2Uo is about 0.1 

in the youngest Cowlitz soils and about 0.35 in the 

three oldest soils, but changes with time are not 

linear, which suggests some incorporation of Fe^ into 

mineral lattices. Extractable Al varies considerably 

with soil age, but the correlation is significant at the 

95-percent confidence level. Slight depletion of total 

soil Al (fig. 11) with time and the variance in 

Al^ shows that some Al freed by mineral and glass 

weathering is leached from the soil. Some fraction of 

the mobile Al is incorporated in fine-grained clays 

such as halloysite. Latest Pleistocene(?) and late 

Evans Creek soils contain considerably more clay and

DC 

O

2.2 

2.0 

1.8 

1.6 

1.4 

1.2 

1.0 - 

0.8 -

0.6

EXPLANATION

+ Ti02

 A12O, 

X Fe2O3

 SiO2

0.6 0.8 1.0 1.2 1.4 1.6 1.8 2.0 2.2 

NORMALIZED SOIL Zr CONCENTRATION

Figure 10. Concentrations of TiOo, A^O-j, Fe2Oo, and 

SiC>2 in Cowlitz soils normalized to parent material 

(late Holocene alluvium, CW6), versus Zr normalized 

to same material.

O ai 

H L] 0.60

1-

^ ° 0.40

B«

y S 0.20 °i

02 

0

1

i i i i

_ A

. EXPLANATION A A A A

A SiO, A A 

 AI.O, A

 Fe.0,

1 l l*l

Q2 103 104 105 106

AGE. IN YEARS

-

-

-

10

almost as much Fed and ALj as the older Evans Creek 

soils. This pattern is probably related to the addition 

and rapid weathering of substantial quantities of finegrained siliceous tephra in the Cowlitz Basin between 

about 14 ka and 10 ka (Barnosky, 1984; Bethel, 1982).

Estimation of Soil Age from Soil Chemical Parameters

Field measurements, several soil indices 

calculated from field measurements (figs. 6, 7), and 

some bulk and extractive-chemical parameters permit 

relative age separation of many Cowlitz soils. Soil 

indices demonstrate that there is a considerable age 

difference between late Hayden Creek and Logan Hill 

soils, supporting the geologic age estimates. Age 

estimates for the Wisconsin age deposits are also 

consistent with most soil data. Calculated soil indices 

and chemical data, however, do not clearly separate 

pre-Evans Creek(?) outwash and late Hayden Creek 

out wash. Several soil indices, including profile pH 

lowering and the ranked soil development index, are

DC

CO uj

< UJ

oc 2

op

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co CC N^ LU

D_

CO cc-

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o 1h-

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£°

-5 LU

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co£

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 LU

0°

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O LU 

D_

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0.010

0.005

0

0.03

0.02

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0

0.05

0.04

0.03

0.02

0.01

n

i i i

A

-

 *

* .

9

 \ 1 1 h^ 

m B

-

9 9

 

 , 

 ^ _

-

00 *

0 0

 

i * i 

10 10 10 10 10 10'

AGE, IN YEARS

Figure 11. Concentration of SiO2 , 

versus time for 11 Cowlitz soils.

and Figure 12. Concentration of K,O (A), Na 2 O (B), and 

CaO (C) versus time for 11 Cowfitz soils.

Soil Chronosequence Along the Cowlitz River, Washington F19
strongly correlated with log age, but losses of Ca and 

Na from weathering profiles and accumulation of Fe^ 

are most highly correlated (highest r values) with soil 

age.

Strong correlations between estimated deposit 

age, soil field measurements, and chemical parameters 

suggest that physical and chemical data from the 

Cowlitz soils could be used to predict soil age and thus 

deposit age. The 95-percent confidence limits on 

calculated least-squares regression lines provide an 

instructive test of the value of soil-chemical 

parameters in estimating deposit age. Two related 

measures of reliability can be calculated for the 

regression line: the 95-percent confidence interval for 

the regression ordinate, and the 95-percent prediction 

interval for individual observations. For relations of 

deposit age and soil chemistry, the former interval 

corresponds to how closely mean deposit age can be 

predicted from a soil-chemical parameter. The latter 

measures how closely an individual value for deposit 

age is predicted by a chemical measurement such as 

Fed. The 95-percent confidence band is narrower for 

prediction of mean deposit age. As I illustrate below, 

prediction reliability is hampered by the limited

number of observations (11) that define the regression 

line. However, the range of ages estimated from 

certain soil-chemical properties is in reasonable 

agreement with the geologic age estimates used to 

calibrate the regression relationships.

Soil chemistry cannot provide independent age 

estimates for Cowlitz outwash deposits, but figures 

14A and 14B illustrate the precision of ages calculated 

using the strongest correlations from the Cowlitz 

data. Depletion of soil Ca and gain of Fed, normalized 

by Zr values and expressed as g cm" , are the two 

closest predictors of deposit age for the Cowlitz 

sequence. Calcium levels in the soil account for 

almost 97 percent of the variance in log age (fig. 14A), 

whereas about 94 percent of the variance in log age is 

explained by Fed (fig. 14B). Predictions about mean 

deposit age from Ca values give the most precise age 

estimates. In table 4, I compare the age estimated 

from geologic relations (table 2) to age ranges 

calculated from soil chemistry. Despite the high r 

values, predicted age ranges are quite wide because of 

the limited number of soils. Calcium values, however, 

show significant age separation between (1) latest 

Pleistocene(?) and late Evans Creek deposits; (2) Evans

1.0

DC 

LLJ hLLJ 

5 

h- -z.

LLJ 

O

DC 

LLJ 

Q_

CO

DC

O

. O 

h- 

<

a:

LLJ

~z. O 

O 

O

0.1

0.01

0.001

I I I I I I \ I I I I I

i i i i i i i i i i i i i

104 

AGE, I

10' 106

YEARS 

,2_f .2_r Figure 1,3. Log concentration plot of 1- M m clay (r z=0.94), Fed (r z=0.94) and Ald (r z=0.45) versus log soil age, 

where r is the proportion of the total sum of squares explained by the regression line, Fed is dithioniteextractable iron, and Ald is dithionite-extractable aluminum.

F20 Soil Chronosequences in the Western United States
10'

10C

co tr

LLJ

LU

CD

CO

O

Q_

10

10C

x 95-percent confidence

limits, individual

observations

N 95-percent

\\\ \s confidence

A \ \ limits, mean

\ \\ \ x soil a9e 

\

10'

co 

cc

LU

LLJ

O

CO

O

D_ 

LLI

10

0 0.01 0.02 0.03 0.04 0.05 0.06

CaO CONCENTRATION, IN GRAMS PER 

CENTIMETER

i i i i i i

B

95-percent confidence^

limits, individual

observations

001 0.010

Fed CONCENTRATION, IN GRAMS 

PER CENTIMETER

0.10

Figure 14. Deposit ages estimated from analysis of Cowlitz soil chemistry. A, CaO versus age. The 95-percent 

confidence limits for individual observations and for mean soil age are shown as dashed lines. B, Fe^ 

concentration versus age. The 95-percent confidence limits for individual observations are shown as dashed 

lines.

Soil Chronosequence Along the Cowlitz River, Washington F21
Creek and pre-Evans Creek(?) deposits; (3) late and 

middle Hayden Creek deposits; and (4) Hayden Creek 

and Wingate Hill deposits. Deposit ages predicted 

from the Ca or Fe^ content of early Evans Creek soils 

could be distinguished from ages predicted by latest 

Pleistocene(?) and late Evans Creek soils only by 

averaging values for the two early Evans Creek soils. 

The pre-Evans Creek(?) deposits cannot be 

distinguished from the late Hayden Creek deposit by 

these calculations. Age predictions from Ca values do 

not clearly separate Wingate Hill deposits from the 

Logan Hill Formation, but there are significant (90- 

percent confidence level) differences in Fed and other 

soil parameters (figs. 5, 6, 12A) for soils on these 

deposits.

Table 4 and figure 12B suggest age equivalence 

of pre-Evans Creek(?) and late Hayden Creek soils, as 

well as a significant discontinuity between these soils 

and those developed on middle and early Hayden Creek 

surfaces. Potassium depletion (fig. 12A), plots of 

SiO2 , Al 2 O.j, and FeoO3 with log time (fig. 11), soil 

physical properties (fig. 6), and development indices 

(fig. 7), however, show strong discontinuities at about 

100 ka and suggest that pre-Evans Creek(?) and late 

Hayden Creek soils are of different age. The pattern 

of fine clay accumulation also displays distinct breaks 

between the pre-Evans Creek(?) and late Hayden 

Creek soils. Geologic evidence suggests that the preEvans Creek(?) deposit is of early Wisconsin age and 

that the late Hayden Creek surface is pre-Wisconsin 

(table 2) in age. Most physical and chemical properties 

of soils on these surfaces reflect a time break between 

the two deposits. There is some possibility, however, 

that the late Hayden Creek soils are about 65 ka old, 

some 85 ka younger than estimates in table 2; in that 

case, the age of the Wingate Hill deposits could be 50 

to 100 ka less than the 500 ka suggested by 

weathering-rind data. Radiometric dating and 

paleomagnetic studies of the Wingate Hill and Logan 

Hill deposits would help refine trends in physical and 

chemical development for older soils in the Cowlitz 

sequence.

Comparison to Other Soil Chronosequences

Chemical weathering rates in southwestern 

Washington should reflect the influence of two primary 

soil-forming factors: easily weathered andesite 

materials and a cool, moist climate. Lithology and 

moisture regime in the soil sequence along the Cowlitz 

River might be expected to promote more rapid 

weathering than in most Chronosequences in the 

Western United States (Harden and Taylor, 1983; 

Harden, 1982a; Busacca, 1982; Harden, 1987; Harden 

and others, 1986). However, at least some physical 

and chemical soil properties are broadly comparable in 

their development to those reported from other 

areas. Soil profile characteristics such as the 

thickness of the argillic B horizon, structure, and 

depth of oxidation are similar to those of the Merced 

(California) and Susquehanna River Valley 

(Pennsylvania) Chronosequences (Harden and Taylor, 

1983). Soil rubification (Harden, 1982a) is stronger at 

sites in central and southern California (Harden, 

1982a; McFadden and Hendricks, 1985; Harden, 1987) 

than in southwestern Washington. Cowlitz soils 

formed in a cooler climate and are more extensively 

leached than soils of the California Chronosequences 

noted above but not more than those of the 

Pennsylvania sequence. The generally cool 

temperatures and absence of an extended dry period 

during the summer probably slow development of soil 

structure and rubification (Birkeland, 1984). In 

addition, the outwash gravel beneath Cowlitz silt caps 

is coarse, and the textural contrast and clast size may 

influence soil development and thus calculated soil 

indices.

The etching of heavy minerals is apparently 

slower in Cowlitz soils than it is in the Merced soils 

described by Harden (1987), and clay mineralogy does 

not show the strong time-related trends that Harden 

reported. In the Cowlitz area, heavy-mineral etching 

and clay mineralogy were probably influenced by 

weathered heavy minerals and clays inherited from the 

underlying Wilkes Formation and fresh heavy minerals

Table 4. Comparison of predicted soil ages for Cowlitz deposits to the 

age range predicted from soil chemistry, in thousands of years

Predicted from 

geologic relations

Predicted from soil chemistry

Ca Ca' Fe,

0.25

11

14

24

24

60

150

225

500

1,200

0.1-0.5

8.4-15.7

14.0-24.6

9.9-18.2

27.3-46.0

83.7-148

83.7-148

154-283

438-953

594-1,370

0.1-0.7

4.7-28.0

7.6-45.0

5.5-33.2

14.5-86.5

45.0-300

45.0-300

85-515

255-1,640

350-2,360

0.0-2.5

2.5-51.0

5.0-84.0

2.5-43.0

7.9-129

11.5-190

11.5-190

54-920

160-3,100

400-8,600

95-percent confidence interval for mean soil age. 

95-percent confidence interval for individual soil age.

F22 Soil Chronosequences in the Western United States
contributed by periodic volcanic eruptions. Despite 

these variations in parent material, it is somewhat 

surprising that heavy minerals in Cowlitz soils are not 

more deeply etched.

Clay and Fe^ accumulation are significant timerelated parameters common to most soil 

chronosequences in humid regions (Birkeland, 1984). I 

calculated the soil-profile masses of 1-nm clay and Fe^ 

formed in 500,000 years by multiplying soil 

concentrations (fig. 13) by the sampled thickness (300 

cm) of the Wingate Hill profile minus the mass of 

these constituents in 300 cm of parent material (soil 

CW6). The Cowlitz values reported in table 5 are 

minimum estimates because Wingate Hill weathering 

profiles extend deeper than 3 m (table 3); the red 

color and fine texture of a Wingate Hill soil exposed 4 

m below the surface in roadcuts north of Salkum 

suggest that estimates in table 5 could be low by as 

much as 15 percent. Accumulation rates for Fed in 

the Cowlitz sequence are higher than the other rates 

listed in table 5. Abundant moisture, low soil pH, and 

high levels of Fe2 C>3 in parent material probably 

contribute to the rapid accumulation of Fe^.

The rapid accumulation rate (table 5) and high 

percentage of clay in Cowlitz subsurface horizons 

likely reflect pedogenic generation of fine material at 

rates substantially faster than those at warmer, drier 

sites. The deeply weathered Wingate Hill deposits and 

remarkable gravel saprolite of the Logan Hill 

Formation contain 35 to 55 percent fine clay, much of 

which likely formed in place. Clasts that are 90 

percent clay preserve their original morphology 

perfectly and show no evidence of cracking or other 

mechanical disruption, demonstrating that the clay 

formed in place. Some of the clay in the upper 

horizons of the Logan Hill and Wingate Hill soils 

doubtless originated as eolian debris. However, the 

rate of eolian transport to Cowlitz soils is probably 

lower than eolian contributions measured or calculated 

for California chronosequences (for instance, in 

Ventura; Harden and others, 1986), where climate is 

drier and vegetative cover is lower.

CONCLUSIONS

Soils developed on terrace surfaces along the 

Cowlitz River range from a youthful A/C profile in the 

modern flood plain to clay-rich, deeply oxidized 

profiles on the early or middle Pleistocene Logan Hill 

Formation. Terraces formed on outwash gravel capped 

with windblown material derived from nearby channels 

and Cascade stratovolcanoes. The gravel is composed 

of Tertiary and Quaternary andesitic and basaltic lava, 

breccia, tuff, and minor amounts of late Quaternary 

dacitic tephra. Four principal terrace groups, each 

including one or more surfaces, were recognized in the 

field by topographic position and elevation. They are 

late Wisconsin Evans Creek Drift, pre-Wisconsin 

Hayden Creek Drift, middle Pleistocene Wingate Hill 

Drift, and the early or middle Pleistocene Logan Hill 

Formation.

Soil profiles on the terrace surfaces show 

systematic changes with time. The depth to 

unweathered parent material, texture, soil 

rubification, pH lowering, clay films, and soildevelopment indices (Harden and Taylor, 1983) change 

systematically with estimated age in the sampled soil 

profiles and at other nearby exposures. Heavy-mineral 

content in deeper soil horizons decreases as the degree 

of mineral etching increases, and the percentage of 

well-ordered kaolinite increases with time. The 

strongest time-related trends are the loss of CaO and 

Na«O, and the gain of Fe^ and 1-pm clay. Soil 

depletion of CaO, for instance, could be used to 

predict deposit ages. However, there are anomalies in 

soil development. The latest Pleistocene(?) soil is as 

well developed as early Evans Creek soils, and the 

early Hayden Creek soil has an overthickened A 

horizon, lacks a strong textural B horizon, and is not as 

well developed as the soil from nearby exposures on 

the same surface. The chemistry of the pre-Evans 

Creek soil and the late Hayden Creek soil are similar, 

and a number of chemical trends show changes in slope 

between about 60 and 150 ka. Because rock type and 

climate fluctuations are similar for all surfaces,

Table 5. Accumulation rate for dithionite-extractable Fe and clay for Cowlitz and other 

soil sequences, Western United States

Accumulation in 500,

Locality

Cowlitz 

2 Merced 

3 Transverse Ranges

Ventura

Annual 

precipitation 

(mm)

1,375 

300 

400-780 

360

Parent 

material

Andesitic outwash 

Granitic 2.8-3.5 

Lithic, arkosic alluvium 

Sedimentary alluvium

Fe d

11.1 

50-65 

8.7 

3.6

000 yr (g/cm2 )

Clay

201

74 

90

This report, Wingate Hill soil (CW2). 

2 Harden (1987). 

3 McFadden and Hendricks (1985, p. 192, 198).

Values interpolated to 500 ka from late Pleistocene rates calculated by Harden and 

others (1986).

Soil Chronosequence Along the Cowlitz River, Washington F23
differences in texture in the glaciofluvial material, 

thickness variations in the loess mantle, or 

postdepositional modification of the terrace surface 

most likely account for the anomalies in profile 

development. Overall trends indicate that soils 

developed on Cowlitz River terraces formed 

systematically in andesitic parent materials under 

cool, moist conditions during most of Quaternary time.

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Soil Chronosequence Along the Cowlitz River, Washington F25

SUPPLEMENTARY TABLES
KEY J

SOIL STRUCTURE 

Grade

m, massive

sg, single grained

1. weak

2. moderate

3. strong

Size

vf, very fine (v thin)

f, fine (thin)

m, medium

c, coarse (thick)

vc, very coarse

(v thick)

Type

gr, granular

pi, platey

pr, prismatic

cpr, columnar

abk, angular blocky

shk, subangular blocky

If two structures-listed as primary and secondary

SOIL TEXTURE

co, coarse

f, fine

vf, very fine

gr - granular

vgr - very granular

S, sand

LS, loamy sand

SL, sandy loam

L, loam

SiL, silt loam

Si, silt

SCL, sandy-clay loam

CL, clay loam

SiCL, silty-clay loam

SC, sandy clay

C, clay

SiC, silty clay

SOIL CONSISTENCE 

Dry

lo, loose

so, soft

sh, siightly hard

h, hard

vh, very hard

eh, extremely hard

Moist

lo, loose

vfr, very friable

fr, friable

fi, firm

vf, very firm

efi, extremely firm

Wet

so, nonsticky

ss, slightly sticky

s, sticky

vs, very sticky

po, nonplastic

ps, slightly plastic

p, plastic

vp, very plastic

HORIZON BOUNDARIES 

Distinctness Topography

va, very abrupt 

a, abrupt 

c, clear 

g, gradual 

d, diffuse

s, smooth

w, wavy

i, irregular

b, broken

ROOTS AND PORES 

Size

vf, very fine 

f, fine 

m, medium 

co, coarse

Abundance

1 few

2 common

3 many

Pore Shape

tub, tubular 

ir, irregular 

v, vesicular

CLAY FILMS 

Frequency

vf, very few

1. few

2. common

3. ma ny

4. continuous

Thickness Morphology

n, thin pf, ped face coatings

mk, moderately br, bridging grains

thick po, pore linings

k, thick (w, occurs as waves or lamellae)

co, coats on clasts

For more detailed information, see Soil Survey Staff 1951 and 1975.

F28 Soil Chronosequences in the Western United States
Supplementary table 1, part 1. Site location data for soils of the Cowlitz chronosequence

Site Geologic 

unit

Elevation Modern 

(ft) vegetation

Parent Location

texture Mt. Diablo Base Meridian

CW6 late Holocene 130 

alluvium

CW8 latest Pleistocene(?) 170 

outwash

CW3 late Evans 350 

Creek outwash

CW4 early Evans 310 

Creek outwash

CW5 early Evans Creek 360 

outwash (#2)

CW7 pre-Evans Creek 320 

outwash (?)

CW9 late Hayden Creek 280 

outwash

CW10 middle Hayden 540 

Creek outwash

CW12 early Hayden 480 

Creek outwash

CW2 Wingate Hill 520 

outwash

CW11 Logan Hill 590 

Formation

mixed forest

Doug. Fir, grasses 

and mixed forest

mixed forest

mixed forest

alders, Doug. 

Fir

fir, hemlock 

alder

Doug. Fi r and 

mixed forest

mixed forest

Doug Fi r and 

mixed forest

Doug. Fi r and 

mixed forest

Doug. Fi r and 

mixed forest

SL SW/4, SW/4, Sec 3, TUN, R1E

SL SW/4, SW/4, Sec 32, T12N, R1E

SL NW/4, SW/4, Sec 23, T12N, R1E

SL SW/4, NE/4, Sec 23, T12N, R1E

SL NW/4, NE/4, Sec 23, T12N, RlE

SL SW/4, NE/4, Sec 29, T12N, RlE

SL SW/4, SW/4, Sec 11, TUN, R1W

SL NE/4, NE/4, Sec 13, T12N, RlE

SL SW/4, SW/4, Sec 13, T12N, RlE

SL SE/4, SE/4, Sec 17, T12N, RlE

SL center, NE/4, Sec 10, T12N, R1W

Soil Chronosequence Along the Cowlitz River, Washington F29
w

0

I

O 

o Supplementary table 1, part 2. Field descriptions

g [Analyst: J.W. Harden, U.S. Geological Survey; and others!

M

Mil

?

^ No. Sample

-* - -

93

a

0

X l cw6

8, 2

C/i

1 3

4 CW8

5

6

7

8

9

10

11

12 CW3

13

14

15

Consistence

Horizon

All

A12

2Cn

Allp

A12p

A+B

2B21t

2B22t

3B3

4Clox

5C2ox

All

A12

2Clox

3C2

Basal

depth

(cm)

10

25

50

18

31

50

70

94

127

140

200

23

48

66

100

Lower Moist Dry

boundary color color

c,w 10YR3/2 10YR5/2

c,w 10YR3/3 10YR6/2

10YR4/2 10YR6/2

c,w -- 10YR5/2

c.w 10YR5/2

g,w 10YR6/3

g,w -- 10YR6/4

c,s-w 10YR6/5

c,s-w -- 10YR7/4

g.w 10YR7/2

7.5YR4/4

10YR6/3

c,s 10YR2/2

g,w 10YR3/2

d,w 10YR4/4 10YR6/4

10YR4/4 10YR7/3

Texture

late

SL

SL

LS

latest

L

L

L

SL/L

SL

L

SL

LS

late

L

L

L

LS

Structure Dry

Holocene al luvium

2 m gr

m,

1 m gr

m-sg

Moist

, .25

vfr

vfr

vfr

Pleistocene(?) outwash,

2 m gr

2 m-c gr

m,

1-2 m sbk

m,

2 m sbk

m,

2 m shk

m,

2 m shk

__

--

fr

fr

fr

fi

fi

fi

fi

lo

Evans Creek outwash, 14

3 m-c gr

2 c gr

m, m shk

m, m abk

__

--

--

--

Wet

ka

so,po

so,po

so.po

11 ka

ss.ps

ss.ps

ss,ps

ss.ps

ss.ps

S,P

so.po

so.po

ka

so.po

so,po

so,po

so,po

Roots

3f

2f,m

2co,

1m, If

3f ,

vfm

2m, 2f

--

1m

Ico

Ico

--

--

3m, 3f,

3co

3m

l-2m

1m

Pores

2mtub,

Iftub

--

Imtub

?ftub

2f,

Imtub

3f,

Imtub

2-3f

tub

2f ,

l-2mtuh

Imtub

--

3mtub

3mtub

If,

Imtub

l-2m,

l-2ftub
early Evans Creek outwash, 24 ka

16

17

18

19

20

21

22

23

24

CW4 AB

2Clox

3C2n

CW5 AB

2Clox

3Cox

4C3

15

72

90

200

14

60

92

130

200

10YR2/2

7.5YR4/6

7.5YR4/4

__

c,w 10YR2/2

c,w 5YR4/6

g,w 7.5YR4/4

a,w 7.5YR4/4

7.5-10YR

3/3

7.5YR4/3

10-7. SYR

5/6

10YR5/6

2.5Y6/2

10YR3/3

7.5YR5/6

10YR5/6

10YR5/6

--

SL

SL

ext

cob SL

gr

SLL

SL

gr L

v gr

SL

gr s

3 f cr

1-2 m sbk

sg

sg

3 c gr

2 c qr,

1 m shk

m,

c abk

m,

c abk

sg

vf r

-_

vf r

 lo

__ --

__

._

vf r

__

pre-Evans Creek outwash(?), 60

K 25 ^

G 26 n

§ 27

« 28 1(o

G 29

n 30

j> 31

32

^

sroo

P. 

N 33

jjj

5' 34

-* 35

< 36

37

f 38 O

39

w

M 40

CW7 Al

Bll

B12

B21t

B22t

2B31

2B32

3C

CW9 All

A12

Bl

B21t

B22t

2B31

3B32

3Clox

26

38

56

70

101

111

145

2505

17

26

38

75

92

196

250

7.5YR3/2

7.5YR

3-4/4

7.5YR4/4

7.5YR4/4

5YR4/5

__

10YR5/7

2.5YR4/7

10YR3/2

c,w

c,w

c,w

g,w

a,s

g,w

d,w

10YR6/4

10YR6/4

10YR6/4

7.5YR6/4

7.5YR6/4

10YR5/4

10YR5/6

10YR6/4

10YR6/4

10YR5/3

10YR6/2

10YR6/3

10YR7/3

10YR7/4

10YR7/5

10YR7/4

10YR7/3

gr SiL

gr SiL

gr Si/L

gr L

gr L

gr L

vgr LS

vgr

LS/S

late

gr SiL

gr SiL

gr SiL

gr SiCL

gr SiCL

vgr C

vgr

SCL

vgr SL

2 f gr

2 f gr

m, 2 c abk

2 f-c sbk m

1 m sbk

m,

1 m abk

m-sg

Hayden Creek

3 m gr

2 c gr

2 f sbk

2 m-c sbk

2-3 vc abk

2-3 vc sbk mmm

 fr

-- fr

 fr

 fi

-- fi

__

 fi

-- fr

outwash, 150

vfr

 fr-fi

 fi

 fi

vfi

~ fi

 fi

- fi

so,po 3f,3m

so,po 2f,2m

so,po 3m, 3f

so,po

so,po 3co,3m,

3f

so,po 3co,3m,

3f

so.po 3m

so,po 2m

-_

ka(?)

ss,ps 3co,2m,

2vf

SS.ps 2co,2m,

2vf

ss,ps Ivfm,

vf co

s,p 2m,lco

s,ps 2m,lco

s,ps 0

ss, 0

ps-po

so,po If, 1m

ka(?)

ss,ps 2m,lco,

If

ss.ps 2m,2co,

If

ss,ps lm,lco

s,p 2co

vs, lco,lm

P-PV 

sv,pv Ivf

s,p

s,p

__

Ivf, If,

Imtuh

Iftub

--

3mt,ub

2mtub,

2m int

2-3f

tub

2ftub

--

__

--

--

1m, 2f

tub

3ftub

2m,lco

2ftub

--

__

--

Iftub

If,

Imtub

3f,

Icotub

Imtub

2mtub

--
F32 Soil Chronosequen

re

ft

M

a"

fif

1

a

a

a

&

2,

CA

ST

S

Supplementary table 1, part 2. Field descriptions Continued

No. Sample

41 CW1

42

43

44

45

46

47 CW10

48

49

50

51

52

53 CW12

54

Horizon

A

Bll

B12

B21

buried?

B22

buried?

2C

buried

A

Bll

B12

B2t

2B3t

3Cox

All

A12

Basal

depth

(cm)

20

50

65

88

135

150

10

30

54

100

260

380

32

53

Lower Moist

boundary color

c,i 10YR3/2

c,w 7.5YR4/4

d,s 7.5YR4/4

g,w 5Y 7/1

5-7. SYR 5/6

7.5YR 5/4

a,i 5Y 7/1

5YR4/4

5YR4/6

5YR5/6

2.5YR 4.6

c,w 7.5YR3/2

g,w 7.5YR3/4

5YR4/4

5YR4/4

d,w

--

g,w 7.5YR3/2

c,w 7.5YR4/2

Dry

color

--

--

--

--

10YR5/3

7.5YR5/4

7.5YR5/4

10YR6/4

10YR6/4

10YR8/4

10YR4/3

10YR5/3

Texture

late

SiL

SiL

SiL

Sil

SiCL

S

middl P

SiL

SiCL

SiCL

C

ext

grSL

SCL

early

SiCL

SiCL

Structure

Hayden Creek

2 m gr

m

m, m ahk

1 m sbk

2 m pr

--

Hayden Creek

3 f qr

2 f-m sbk

2 c sbk

2 c-vc sbk

m

m

Hayden Creek

1 c sbk,

c gr

1 c abk,

1 c gr

Consistence

Dry Moist Wet

outwash, ISO Ka(?)

so -- ss,ps

so ss,ps

ss,ps

s,p

_-

_-

outwash, 225 Ka(?)

fr ss,po

fr s,ps

fi s,p

f i s , p

fi s,pv

vs,pv

outwash, 300 Ka(?)

fi s,p

fi s,p

Roots Pores

3co,2m,lf 2mtub

3co,lm vftuh

3co,lm 2ftub

co,m,vf 2-3ftuh

3ftub

3f,2m cotub

3c,2m 2co,

2f 2ftub

2f,2m

tub

1m 2f,2m

2kbr

2ftub

3nco

2-3f

1m, Ic lm,lco

tub

1m, Ic Ic
t- t_ c o

-.c j; CL o

-V -1£ -ii -i^ -i^

E E E E E

o

CL

O

00

<-'

LO 

1C

c

_c

1 

cv

E" 

cv

4- O 

CO CN)

O 

CL

C

0"

1

O

cn

E

CO

o

CO

LO

Of.

o

cv

CO 

Of

c

o

o 

cv

^

cv

3 

o

o

o

CL

O

00

0

LO 

CO

O

"§ "e

c

CL o"

0

c

~E

C l_

CM £.

_c

CO CO > 4J

1 1 M- E

CV CV CV <-H

o

cv

00

CL 

VI

c

.c:

1

n-

' '

o

cc 

o

cv «tss

E 

cv

O.

>

-

-V

_C

E

cv

o

CO

LO

>-

LO

o

CL

o t/1

0

LO

1

o c

CL CL

o o

VI <Si

c_> cj

cv 

. 1

LO 1

O tIE "E ~t

CO CO CO O

_c

4J

cv

1

CL

VI

>

1

1

_c

E

""

E

o

t_ 

cr

CO

>-

LO

_c

4J 

r 1 1

:

CL

00 1

1 1 1 1

1 1 

1 1

E E

cj t_ 

CJ cn

CO OO CO

LO co r~-

Of Of. Of

>- >- >-

o o c

oococooocooo^i-^i-co

ss £ ssssss

LOLOLOLOLOLOLOLOLOLOLO

00

cn

LO 

CO

CO

CO

cn

CO 

CO

4-1

cv

cc

cv

CO

3 

o

CTi

cv 

cv

CD

cv

CO

CO

3^

"C 1

LO O 

 d- O 

CV OO

CO

CV CO

CC CD

cv cv

«f LO 

CO CO

o c

0. CL

1/1 VI

 1 1

<_' O

co co

I 1

1 1

t- o

-C CL

c c

c co cv

-C

4?

1 CV

0 CJ

cv cv E' E"

cv cv

CL CL

t_ !-

1 1 1 1

£_ -C

CT VI

E <tco cv

_l

0 0

co co

CO

\ LO

LO dOf. [^ '^

>- 1 LO

a o of

LO

cv

^- CO dco ^ -^

cc ^i- co

o >~ >~

r 1 LO LO

f. A

0 CJ

cv c

4-1

<C CO

3

o

CO P^ 

CO CO

c

CL

VI

o

CO

1

<- o

-C CL

CO O~

E

cv .c

CO 

0

cvE*

cv

CL

 V

00

1 1

o

E

cv

^

LO

 ^Jr^ ^^

1 LO

0 Of

*z}-

^^

^J-

>_

LO

^

3

cn

, 1

cv

cc

OO

c

CL

£

 1 o

CO

1

1

 > CL I- «

x; <-

NX r~

E -M d- cv

0

"~^

cv

11

CL

*

1 

1

00

o

cv

o

^~^

LO

Of.

o

CO

^^

^J-

>_

LO

r~~

f.

o

cr

cv

cv

cc

£

o c

CL CL

£ X

_J

 I- _ 1

1 1 1 1

" L. > t_

c £ o x;

CJ ^x (J sx

^ E ^ E

cv

cv cv

1 1

1 1

CL CL

* r

1 1 1 1

VI 00

o o

E cv E cv

o o

£_ <-

cn cn

LO CO

^^ ^^

CO LO

Of Of

>_ >_

c o

CC CO CO CO

^ ^ ^-~ ^-~ ^^ CO

LO ^J- CO CO ^^

>- >->->- Of

LO LP LO LO >-

r-^ r^ cv cv < H

3 3

o cn

CO O

O LO

ro >=Jcv cv

CC CO

CV CO

s ^

c

C00

c:

1

'

o

o

i _e

\s _v

E E

1

1

1

CL

1 1

E

o

t_

cn

CC

00 ~~.

^^ r^

LO >-

Of LO

LO CV

>- ^-^

LO LO

1

1

O

cv

CO

cc

CO

cv

Soil Chronosequence Along the Cowlitz River, Washington F33
Supplementary table 2. Physical properties

[Analysts: J.P. Bethel under F.C. Ugolini, University of Washington, Seattle]

Percentage of <2-mm fraction

No. Sample Horizon

Basal

depth

(cm)

Total vco co m fi+vfi

>2 mm sand sand sand sand sand Silt

<2-M

clay

<1-M

clay

Bulk

density

(g/cmj )

late Holocene alluvium, 0.25 ka

1

2

3

CW6

CW6

CW6

All

A12

Cn

10

25

47.9 0.48 0.96 0.96 35.50

51.1 0.00 0.00 0.51 50.59

81.2

45.6

46.0

18.4

6.5

2.9

0.4

5.4

0.8

0.0

__

1.16

--

latest Pleistocene(?) outwash, 11 ka

4

5

6

7

8

9

10

11

CW8

CW8

CW8

CW8

CW8

CW8

CW8

CW8

Allp

A12p

A+B

B21t

R22t

2B3

3Clox

3C2ox

18

31

50

70

94

127

140

39.1 0.00 0.39 2.54 36.36

48.0 0.00 0.48 2.88 45.12

52.5 0.00 1.05 7.88 44.10

66.1 0.00 1.98 11.90 52.22

33.4 0.00 0.33 3.01 29.72

71.7 0.72 6.45 22.23 42.30

35.0 5.25 12.60 11.20 6.30

40.4

33.3

32.2

18.3

47.2

20.3

12.5

20.6

18.8

15.3

15.5

19.4

8.0

2.5

14.5

20.0

14.0

12.8

16.8

5.5

3.0

1.23

1.23

1.32

1.32

1.33

1.32

1.37

1.41

late Evans Creek outwash, 14 ka

12

13

14

15

CW3

CW3

CW3

CW3

All

A12

Clox

C2

23

48

66

35.4

23.1 0.00 1.15 3.00 18.95

36.9 0.00 1.84 5.17 29.89

83.6 32.60 36.78 9.20 5.01

43.3

33.7

41.8

16.4

21.3

23.1

21.2

0.0

16.1

21.1

19.2

0.0

1.19

1.27

early Evans Creek outwash, 24 ka

16

17

18

19

20

21

22

23

24

CW4

CW4

CW4

CW4

CW5

CW5

CW5

CW5

CW5

A

B

2Clox

2C2n

A

B

2Clox

3C2ox

4C3

15

72

90

14

60

92

130

56.3 5.63 7.32 15.76 28.15

56.1 7.29 8.98 10.10 29.17

62.0 3.72 8.68 11.78 37.20

35.8 0.00 0.72 2.51 32.58

48.3 2.90 5.80 6.28 33.33

47.2 4.26 6.62 6.15 30.75

53.8 5.38 8.07 6.46 33.36

87.3

38.3

33.4

34.2

53.1

42.7

36.6

41.2

12.5

5.4

10.5

3.8

11.0

9.0

16.1

5.0

0.2

3.8

8.5

2.5

9.0

9.3

11.7

3.8

1.3

0.98

1.04

0.78

0.99

1.07

pre-Evans Creek outwash(?), 60 ka(?)

25

26

27

28

29

30

31

CW7

CW7

CW7

CW7

CW7

CW7

CW7

Al

Bll

B12

B21/B22

B31

2B32

2C

26

38

56

101

111

145

--

31.8 1.27 3.82 5.09 21.94

31.3 5.01 7.82 7.51 10.95

31.4 2.20 5.65 6.28 17.27

48.3 5.31 9.18 8.21 25.60

47.7 2.86 7.63 7.63 29.58

86.1 37.02 33.58 7.75 7.75

86.7 22.51 10.75 12.14 11.27

44.5

45.2

43.3

33.6

33.6

10.2

9.8

23.9

23.5

25.4

18.1

18.8

3.8

3.4

20.7

19.5

24.0

15.8

18.8

3.8

2.9

1.19

1.40

1.14

1.61

1.79

F34 Soil Chronosequences in the Western United States
Supplementary table 2. Physical properties Continued

33

34

35

36

37

38

39

40

CW9

CW9

CW9

CW9

CW9

CW9

CW9

CW9

All

A12

Bl

B21t

B22t

2B31

2B32

2Clox

5

17

26

38

75

92

196

--

late Hayden

19.6

17.5

19.9

18.6

15.4

19.9

53.8

61.2

Creek

0.59

0.18

0.20

0.19

0.15

0.80

4.84

20.20

middle Hayden Creek

47

48

49

50

51

52

53

54

55

56

57

58

59

CW10

CW10

CW10

CW10

CW10

CW10

CW12

CW12

CW12

CW12

CW12

CW12

CW12

A

Bll

B12

B2t

B3t

Cox

All

A12

Bl

2B2b?

2B31b?

3B32b?

3Clb?

10

30

54

100

260

380

32

53

66

137

250

270

--

19.2

20.4

19.0

16.0

63.1

52.6

early Hayden

11.4

12.9

11.9

15.5

11.9

36.2

73.1

0.38

0.41

0.38

0.16

21.45

12.62

Creek

0.13

0.48

0.31

0.24

3.26

19.74

outwash, 150 ka(?)

1.18

0.88

1.00

0.93

0.77

1.59

11.30

15.91

2.16 15.48

1.75 14.70

1.99 16.51

1.86 15.44

1.54 12.93

2.59 14.92

11.84 25.82

6.12 18.36

56.6

58.3

54.7

49.4

47.1

35.9

27.8

24.7

23.8

24.1

25.4

32.0

37.4

44.2

19.2

14.0

19.3

18.4

20.6

29.8

34.1

39.4

15.4

13.5

1.23

_

1.44

__

outwash, 225 ka(?)

1.73

2.04

2.09

0.64

18.93

17.36

2.69 14.40

3.47 14.48

3.23 13.30

2.08 13.12

6.94 15.77

6.84 15.26

53.8

49.5

48.2

29.7

24.1

19.2

27.0

32.0

32.8

54.3

12.5

28.2

23.3

29.3

27.4

49.3

11.5

27.2

1.20

1.42

1.48

1.68

outwash, 300 ka(?)

0.52

1.07

0.77

0.83

7.24

29.97

Wingate Hill outwash,

60

61

62

63

64

65

66

67

68

69

70

71

72

CW2

CW2

CW2

CW2

CW2

CW2

CW11

CW11

CW11

CW11

CW11

CW11

CW11

A

A3

B21t

2B22t

2B23t

2B3

A

Bit

R21t

B22t

2B23t

2B24t

2B3t

20

35

66

94

245

300

12

40

64

94

106

150

240

14.1

6.7

10.6

7.1

13.6

18.9

Logan Hill

14.7

10.0

11.1

12.9

16.0

18.0

20.5

0.28

0.54

0.53

0.36

0.82

2.84

0.70

0.94

1.38

0.71

1.63

5.67

Formation, 1

4.12

0.30

0.22

0.13

0.48

0.90

0.41

2.65

1.00

0.78

0.90

2.88

3.24

1.23

0.90 11.22

1.31 9.05

1.24 13.02

1.19 9.64

5.43 20.63

9.50 13.89

500 ka(?)

1.13 11.99

0.80 4.36

1.27 7.31

0.85 5.18

1.63 9.52

3.97 6.43

,200 ka(?)

1.91 6.03

1.20 7.40

1.55 8.55

1.81 10.06

3.36 9.28

3.06 10.80

2.05 16.98

52.3

52.3

46.7

35.8

43.3

37.1

20.4

54.4

52.4

54.8

31.6

29.4

36.2

50.3

48.3

37.7

31.6

26.0

28.2

35.3

36.2

34.9

41.3

48.8

44.8

26.7

6.5

31.5

40.9

34.5

61.3

57.0

44.9

35.0

41.7

51.3

55.5

58.0

53.8

44.2

32.0

35.3

37.0

50.0

37.5

16.9

7.0

26.4

38.0

31.8

61.3

55.0

44.0

30.5

39.8

52.0

55.3

56.5

55.0

43.5

1.30

1.31

1.19

1.30

1.18

1.22

1.37

1.01

1.50

1.54

1.46

1.47

1.32

__

--

«

~~

Note: CW1 has been described but not analyzed

Soil Chronosequence Along the Cowlitz River, Washington F35
Supplementary table 3. Extractive chemical analyses

[CEC, cation exchange capacity. Analysts: J.P. Bethel under F.C. Ugolini, University of Wash

Basal Percentage of <2-mm ______________meg/IQOg soil_______________ 

NO. Sample Horizon Hepth Total Organic Exchange Exchange Exchange Exchange Exchange CEC pH 

(cm) N C Na K Ca Mg H l:!H2n 1:

1

2

3

4

5

6

7

8

9

10

11

12

13

14

15

16

17

18

19

20

21

22

23

24

25

26

27

28

29

CW6

CW6

CW6

CW8

CW8

cwa

CW8

CW8

CW8

CW8

CW8

CW3

CW3

CW3

CW3

CW4

CW4

CW4

CW4

CW5

CW5

CW5

CW5

CW5

CW7

CW7

CW7

CW7

CW7

All

A12

Cn

Allp

A12p

A+B

B21t

B22t

2B3

3Clox

3C2ox

All

A12

Clox

C2

A

B

2Clox

2C2n

A

B

2Clox

3C2ox

4C3

Al

Bll

812

B21/B22

B31

10

25

18

31

50

70

94

127

140

--

23

48

66

--

15

72

90

14

60

92

130

--

26

38

56

101

111

0.15

0.08

--

0.17

0.07

--

--

--

0.31

0.17

0.06

0.38

0.10

--

0.32

0.13

--

0.12

0.05

0.04

--

--

3.13

1.28

--

3.59

1.07

--

--

--

5.08

2.41

0.80

--

5.58

1.64

--

6.04

1.78

--

--

2.14

0.44

0.53

--

late Holocene alluvium, 0.25

0.52 7.52 2.19

0.48 7.86 1.66

0.44 5.06 1.02

latest Pleistocene(?) outwash,

1.07 11.49 2.84

__

0.99 8.49 2.54

0.80 9.17 3.57

0.71 8.44 3.48

0.65 10.22

0.41 8.22 3.91

0.24 6.31 2.79

late Evans Creek outwash, 14

1.09 8.08 1.74

1.0 7.60 1.52

1.08 7.14 2.18

0.19 6.21 1.56

early Evans Creek outwash, 24

0.41 8.24 1.87

0.16 1.38 0.30

0.14 1.16 0.39

0.47

0.61 14.32 3.42

0.04 1.46 0.37

0.03 1.64 0.13

0.07 4.97 1.44

pre-Evans Creek outwash(?), 60

0.44 6.12 1.64

0.28

0.34 5.82 2.78

0.50 6.66 3.52

0.30 7.29 3.65

ka

9.8

6.8

3.4

11 ka

21.2

13.6

10.8

10.2

11.0

7.6

7.2

ka

24.6

18.0

12.4

4.0

ka

24.6

18.0

19.1

10.2

29.0

20.2

18.0

7.8

ka(?)

15.0

12.8

10.6

12.2

11.8

25.8

17.1

16.6

37.1

27.3

19.6

24.2

23.3

20.1

15.2

39.5

33.5

28.0

14.2

43.9

18.8

19.4

30.3

34.3

25.7

22.5

12.6

25.9

22.7

25.0

25.0

24.9

5.70

5.90

5.90

5.80

5.90

5.80

5.50

5.60

5.60

5.70

5.30

5.30

5.50

6.00

5.70

6.10

5.80

5.50

6.10

6.14

6.20

6.20

6.00

5.60

5.50

5.70

5.70

4

4

4

4

4

4

4

4

4

4

4

4

4

4

4

5

5

3

5

5

5

4

4

4

4

4

4
30

31

33

34

35

36

37

38

39

40

47

48

49

50

51

52

53

54

55

56

57

58

59

CW7

CW7

CW9

CW9

CW9

CW9

CW9

CW9

CW9

CW9

CW10

CW10

CW10

CW10

CW10

CM 10

CW12

CW12

CW12

CW12

CW12

CW12

CW12

2B32

2C

All

A12

81

B21t

B22t

2B31

2B32

2Clox

A

Bll

B12

B2t

B3t

Cox

All

A12

Bl

2B2b?

2R31b?

3B32b?

3Clb?

145

5

17

26

38

75

92

196

~~

10

30

54

100

260

380

32

53

66

137

250

270

0.24

0.12

0.10

~~

0.17

0.08

0.05

--

0.11

0.15

0.19

--

"-

6.04

2.01

1.55

--

~~

3.09

1.07

0.57

--

2.90

1.72

1.07

0.57

0.31

0.26

late Hayden

0.53

0.45

0.43

0.43

0.62

0.60

0.35

0.35

middle Hayden

0.16

0.22

0.14

0.28

0.35

early Hayden

0.78

0.53

0.60

0.64

0.76

0.42

0.46

4.90 1.83 9.4

5.62 1.76 10.2

Creek outwash, 150 ka(?)

7.56 1.38 29.2

5.02 1.03 20.0

5.10 0.82 18.6

5.20 0.93 15.4

5.62 2.27 13.6

6.02 2.84 16.6

9.37 3.13 14.0

9.32 2.90 9.8

Creek outwash, 225 ka(?)

5.0 0.89 21.9

1.29 0.65 19.4

18.0

4.40 2.54 18.4

7.36 3.34 17.7

9.01 4.41 11.0

Creek outwash, 300 ka(?)

6.26 1.79 23.8

4.13 1.35 20.2

4.10 1.46 20.8

5.65 1.89 19.4

4.95 1.61 21.9

6.22 2.30 20.0

7.50 2.64 15.6

17.1

12.9

40.1

24.9

25.8

24.9

21.3

27.3

26.0

20.7

 .

17.3

19.8

23.5

25.0

26.2

20.9

27.0

25.9

30.4

28.4

30.6

26.0

6.00

6.10

5.50

5.80

5.60

5.20

5.40

5.60

5.82

5.21

5.42

5.71

6.21

5.48

5.20

5.30

5.20

5.48

5.70

5.60

5.90

Wingate Hill outwash, 500 ka(?)

60

61

62

63

64

65

66

67

68

69

70

71

72

CW2

CW2

CW2

CW2

CW2

CW2

CW11

CW11

CW11

CW11

CW11

CW11

CW11

A

A3

B21t

2B22t

2B23t

2B3

A

Bit

B21t

B22t

2B23t

2B24t

2B3t

20

35

66

94

245

300

12

40

64

94

106

150

240

0.19

0.10

0.05

0.21

0.09

__

__

*""

3.55

1.30

--

1.07

__

"

0.49

0.26

0.25

0.55

0.20

0.12

Logan Hill

0.53

0.29

0.22

0.08

0.10

0.12

0.10

10.38 1.33 16.8

7.14 0.46 13.4

6.96 0.39 12.0

5.73 2.76 12.0

3.96 2.68 12.9

5.26 3.54 12.1

Formation, 1,200 ka(?)

5.28 0.88 19.8

2.65 0.39 15.4

1.01 0.46 16.1

0.77 0.63 18.0

0.88 0.78 16.8

1.49 0.91 16.4

2.26 1.75 11.8

29.5

21.2

17.2

22.2

24.4

25.4

24.4

20.9

16.6

19.1

20.2

18.4

14.9

5.80

5.60

5.80

5.80

5.00

5.40

5.40

5.40

5.00

5.10

5.10

5.10

5.20
Supplementary table 4. Clay mineralogy

(Analysts: J.P. Bethel under F.C. Ugolini, University of Washington, Seattle)

Basal

No. Sample Horizon depth Kaolinite Chlorite Vermiculite Illite Smectite

(cm)

late Holocene alluvium, 0.25 ka

1

2

3

CW6

CW6

CW6

All

A12

Cn

10

25 ++ ++ +

++ +

__

+++

+++

latest Pleistocene(?) outwash, 11 ka

4

5

6

7

8

9

10

11

CW8

CW8

CW8

CW8

CW8

CW8

CW8

CW8

Allp

A12p

A+B

B21t

B22t

2B3

3Clox

3C2ox

18 +-H- ++

31 +++ -- ++

50 +++ +++ +

70

94 +++ +

127

140

+-H- + +

++

++

--

++

++

late Evans Creek outwash, 14 ka

12

13

14

15

CW3

CW3

CW3

CW3

All

A12

Clox

C2

23

48 ++ + -H-+ +

66 ++ ++

-H- +

..

++

++

+

early Evans Creek outwash, 24 ka

16

17

18

19

20

21

22

23

24

CW4

CW4

CW4

CW4

CW5

CW5

CW5

CW5

CW5

A

B

2Clox

2C2n

A

B

2Clox

3C2ox

4C3

15 + +

72 ++

90

+++ ++

14 + ++

60 +

92

130

+++

._

--

--

++

__

--

--

pre-Evans Creek outwash(?), 60 ka(?)

25

26

27

28

29

30

31

CW7

CW7

CW7

CW7

CW7

CW7

CW7

Al

Bll

B12

B21/B22

B31

2B32

2C

24 +++ ++ +

38

56

101 +-H- ++ +

HI

145

+++ -- +

+

--

--

--

--

--

--

F38 Soil Chronosequences in the Western United States
Supplementary table 4. Clay mineralogy Continued

late Hayden Creek outwash, 150 ka(?)

33

34

35

36

37

38

39

40

CW9

CW9

CW9

CW9

CW9

CW9

CW9

CW9

All

A12

Bl

B21t

B22t

2B31

2B32

2Clox

5 +++ + +++ +

17 +++ +++ + +

26 +++ +++ +

38 +++ +++ +

75 +-H- +++ +

92 +++ +++ +

196 +-H- + -H- ++

+++ - ++

middle Hayden Creek outwash, 225 ka(?)

47

48

49

50

51

52

CW10

CW10

CW10

CW10

CW10

CW10

A

Bll

Bl

B2t

B3t

Cox

10 +++ +++ +

30

54

100 +++ ++

260

380 +++ ++ ++ +

early Hayden Creek outwash, 300 ka(?)

53

54

55

56

57

58

59

CU12

CW12

CU12

CW12

CW12

CW12

CW12

All

A12

Bl

2B2b?

2B31b?

3B32b?

3Clb?

32

53 +++ +++ +

66

137 +++ ++ +

250

270 +++ ++

+ -H- + +

Wingate Hill outwash, 500 ka(?)

60

61

62

63

64

65

CW2

CW2

CW2

CW2

CW2

CW2

A

A3

B21t

2B22t

2B23t

2B3

20 +++ ++

35

66

94

245 +++ ++ + +

300 +++ ++ +

Logan Hill Formation, 1,200 ka(?)

66

67

68

69

70

71

72

CW11

CU11

CW11

CW11

CW11

CW11

CW11

A

Bit

B21t

B22t

2B23t

2B24t

2B3t

12 +++ + -H40 +++ + ++

64 +++ ++

94 +++ -- ++

106 +++ -- ++

150 +++ ++

240 +++ ++

~~ +,trace constituent; ++,minor constituent; +++,major constituent; --,not detected

Soil Chronosequence Along the Cowlitz River, Washington F39
Supplementary table 5. Total chemical analyses of the fine (<47 Mm) fraction by X-ray fluorescence

[Zr in parts per million; all others in weight percent. Analysts: J. Baker, J. Budahn, R. Knight, 

J.Taggart, and J.S. Wahlberg]

Basal

No. Sample Horizon depth Si02 A1 2 0 3 Fe 20 3 MgO CaO Na 2 0 K2 0 Ti02 P20 5 MnO 

(cm)

Zr

late Holocene alluvium, 0.25 ka

4

5

6

7

8

9

10

11

12

13

14

15

16

17

18

19

20

21

22

23

24

25

26

27

28

29

30

31

CW8 

CW8 

CW8 

CW8 

CW8 

CW8 

CW8 

CW8

CW3 

CW3 

CW3 

CU3

CW6 All 10 53.0 16.2 7.13 2.4 4.52 2.7 1.13 1.13 0.3 0.12 194

CW6 A12 25

CW6 Cn 54.8 16.8 7.92 2.7 4.78 3.0 1.15 1.28 0.3 0.12 226

latest Pleistocenef?) outwash, 11 ka

Allp 18 50.2 17.7 7.34 1.6 2.38 2.3 1.01 1.23 0.53 0.17 196

A12p 31

A+B 50

B21t 70 49.7 21.7 9.11 1.7 1.74 1.7 0.91 1.38 0.1 0.10 212

B22t 94

2B3 127

3Clox 140 49.9 21.2 9.08 1.7 2.11 1.6 0.73 1.30 0.1 0.10 215

3C2ox

late Evans Creek outwash, 14 ka

All 23 44.8 17.8 7.80 1.7 2.05 1.9 0.93 1.19 0.5 0.18 202

A12 48

Clox 66 50.4 20.2 8.81 2.0 1.84 2.1 1.05 1.38 0.2 0.12 221

C2

early Evans Creek outwash, 24 ka

A 15 38.5 16.2 7.03 1.6 2.52 1.6 0.70 1.06 1.2 0.24 179 

B 72 43.5 20.5 8.34 1.8 2.17 1.8 0.74 1.26 0.94 0.20 230 

2Clox 90 41.8 20.9 8.61 2.0 1.88 1.5 0.71 1.39 0.4 0.11 248 

2C2n

A 14 39.0 15.9 7.13 1.2 2.12 1.7 0.70 1.14 0.5 0.21 187 

B 60 45.7 19.3 8.64 1.4 1.89 2.0 0.76 1.39 0.3 0.14 228 

2Clox 92 44.3 21.1 9.01 1.4 1.56 1.7 0.72 1.42 0.3 0.07 222 

3C2ox 130 

4C3

pre-Evans Creek outwash(?), 60 ka(?)

Al 26 54.5 17.6 8.33 1.3 1.41 2.1 1.07 1.54 0.3 0.20 239

BH 38

B12 56

B21/B22 101 47.7 22.1 9.94 1.5 1.18 1.3 0.75 1.55 0.2 0.09 212

B31 111

2B32 145

2C -- 42.4 23.5 10.7 2.5 2.26 1.1 0.41 1.86 0.4 0.12 246

CU4 

CW4 

CW4 

CW4

CW5 

CW5 

CW5 

CW5 

CW5

CW7 

CW7 

CW7 

CW7 

CU7 

CW7 

CW7

F40 Soil Chronosequences in the Western United States
Supplementary table 5. Total chemical analyses of the fine (<47 urn) fraction by X-ray fluorescenceContinued

	late Hayden Creek outwash, 150 ka(?)

33 CW9 All 5

34 CW9 A12 17 60.6 15.8 6.08 1.4 1.58 2.0 1.49 1.21 0.4 0.18 247

35 CW9 Bl 26

36 CW9 82 It 38 59.5 16.9 6.63 1.4 1.38 1.9 1.45 1.19 0.2 0.1 235

37 CW9 R22t 75

38 CW9 2B31 92

39 CW9 2B32 196

40 CW9 2Clox -- 44.9 27.6 7.74 1.3 0.88 0.8 0.59 0.97 0.2 0.15 145

	middle Hayden Creek outwash, 2?5 ka(?)

47 CW10 A 10 56.4 16.2 7.14 1.1 1.24 1.8 1.08 1.48 0.2 0.18 251

48 CW10 Bll 30

49 CW10 B12 54

50 CW10 B2t 100 54.9 20.1 7.64 1.3 0.74 1.2 0.89 1.31 0.1 0.08 233

51 CW10 B3t 260

52 CW10 Cox 380 44.3 28.2 7.80 1.3 0.75 0.9 0.53 1.05 0.2 0.11 147

	early Hayden Creek outwash, 300 ka(?)

53 CW12 All 32

54 CU12 A12 53 55.9 17.7 7.25 1.3 1.13 1.8 1.09 1.38 0.3 0.09 243

55 CU12 Bl 66

56 CU12 2B2b? 137 51.0 21.7 7.88 1.3 0.84 1.2 0.82 1.24 0.3 0.10 248

57 CW12 2B31b? 250

58 CU12 3B32b? 270

59 CW12 3Clb? 39.7 29.1 6.75 1.5 0.89 0.7 0.43 1.00 0.52 0.12 233

	Wingate Hill outwash, 500 ka(?)

60 CW2 A 20

61 CU2 A3 35 56.3 19.1 7.66 0.85 0.61 0.8 0.68 1.46 0.2 0.1 284

62 CW2 B21t 66

63 CW2 2B22t 94

64 CW2 2B23t 245 58.5 17.7 7.08 0.96 0.87 1.0 0.84 1.46 0.2 0.1 275

65 CW2 2B3 300

	Logan Hill Formation, 1,200 ka(?)

66 CW11 A 12 62.8 13.7 5.68 0.75 0.78 0.7 0.73 1.60 0.2 0.17 352

67 CW11 Rlt 40

68 CW11 B21t 64

69 CW11 B22t 94

70 CW11 2B23t 106 54.8 21.0 8.73 0.4 0.08 0.2 0.38 1.47 0.1 0.04 243

71 CW11 2B24t 150

72 CW11 2B3t 240

Soil Chronosequence Along the Cowlitz River, Washington F41
Supplementary table 6. Total chemical analyses of the less-than-2-mm fraction by X-ray 

fluorescence

[Zr in parts per million; all others in weight percent. Analysts: D. Rurgi and R. Johnson]

No.

1 

2 

3

4 

5 

6 

7 

8 

9 

10 

11

12

13 

14 

15

16 

17 

18 

19

20 

21 

22 

23 

24

Sampl e

CW6 

CW6 

CW6

CW8 

CW8 

CW8 

CW8 

CW8 

CW8 

CW8 

CW8

CW3 

CW3 

CW3 

CW3

CW4 

CW4 

CW4 

CU4

CW5 

CW5 

CW5 

CW5 

CW5

Hori zon

All 

A12 

Cn

41 Ip 

A12p 

A+B 

B21t 

R22t 

2B3 

3Clox 

3C2ox

All 

A12 

Clox 

C2

A 

R 

2Clox 

2C2n

A 

R 

2Clox 

3C2ox 

4C3

Basal 

depth 

(cm)

10 

25

18 

31 

50 

70 

94 

127 

140

23 

48 

66

15 

72 

90

14 

60 

92 

130

Si0 2

54

58

51

54

56

48

53

43 

48 

48

43 

47 

49

.9

.2

.4

.3

.9

.1

.7

.4 

.1 

.0

.7 

.8 

.7

A1 20 3 Fe 20 3

late

16.2

17.1

latest

16.9

18.9

17.7

late

17.2

18.9

early

15.7 

17.9 

17.9

16.7 

19.0 

18.9

Holocene

6.32

6.75

MgO CaO

al 1 uvi urn,

2.37 4.

2.73 5.

0.25

73

21

Pleistocene!?) outwash,

7.16

8.63

7.66

1.72 2.

1.98 2.

2.05 3.

Evans Creek outwash

7.34

8.16

1.85 2.

2.01 2.

86

42

43

, 14

41

23

Evans Creek outwash, 24

7.96 

9.15 

9.68

7.90 

8.94 

9.62

pre-Evans Creek

25 

26 

27 

28 

29 

30 

31

CW7 

CW7 

CW7 

CW7 

CW7 

CW7 

CW7

Al 

Bll 

R12 

B21/B22 

B31 

2B32 

2C

26 

38 

56 

101 

111 

145

55

50

52

.1

.5

.1

16.3

19.2

16.2

8.30

9.83

10.1

3.08 2. 

3.65 2. 

4.08 2.

1.98 2. 

2.17 2. 

2.79 2.

outwash(?) ,

2.01 1.

3.08 1.

6.50 2.

89 

73 

47

54 

21 

20

, 60

66

49

78

Na 20 K20

ka

2.94 1.20

3.22 1.27

11 ka

2.30 O.P8

2.18 1.01

2.66 0.98

ka

2.11 0.98

2.23 1.11

ka

1.99 0.84 

2.20 0.91 

2.04 0.93

1.94 0.81 

2.06 0.87 

2.11 O.P3

ka(?)

1.99 1.06

1.58 0.87

2.07 0.85

Ti0 2 P 20 5 MnO Zr

0.96 0.22 0.10 174

1.05 0.19 0.10 177

1.17 0.48 0.17 171

1.32 0.1 0.12 1P3

1.17 0.11 0.10 176

1.10 0.38 0.18 177

1.21 0.17 0.14 199

1.15 0.80 0.21 173 

1.31 0.55 0.17 202 

1.38 0.23 0.13 187

1.18 0.42 0.21 173 

1.32 0.28 0.14 198 

1.41 0.19 0.1 208

1.42 0.28 0.24 223

1.41 0.16 0.12 211

1.35 0.22 0.16 196

F42 Soil Chronosequences in the Western United States
Supplementary table 6. Total chemical analyses of the less-than-2-mm fraction by X-ray 

fluorescence Continued

33

34 

35

36 

37 5Q

39

40

47 

48

49

50 

51

52

53

54

56 

57

C;Q

59

60 

61

CO

63

64

66

67

68

69 

70

71

72

CW9

CW9 

CW9

CW9 

CW9

CW9

CW9

CW10 

CW10

CW10

CW10 

rwi n

CW10

CW12

CW12

CW12

CW2

Pl |O

CU2

CW11

CW11

All

A12

Rl

82 It

DOO4.

9RT1

9B1O

2Clox

A

D11

Dl O

B2t

DT*

Cox

A12

Rl

2B2b?

ODO 1 k o

QD O OK 9

3Clb?

A3

DO! j.

2B23t

OB Q

A 

m v

2B23t

2824t

5

17o /-

38 

75

92

196

10 

30

54

100 

ocn

380

32

53 

66

137 

250

270

20

35 

66

94

245 

300

12 

40

64

94

106 

150

late Hayden

59.5 15.5 6

59.0 16.9 6

51.1 22.0 8

middle Hayden

55.2 15.8 7

53.2 20.4 8

49.1 22.4 8

early Hayden

55.1 17.3 7

50.2 21.7 8

51.0 19.3 8

Wingate Hi

60.5 16.0 6

51.5 21.6 8

Logan Hill

60.2 13.8 6

52.7 21.5 10

Creek outwash, 150 ka(?)

.22 1.38 1.86 1.90 1.39 1.15 0.45 0.26

.71 1.46 1.68 1.78 1.35 1.16 0.20 0.14

.29 1.64 1.34 1.38 0.93 1.18 0.15 0.15

Creek outwash, 225 ka(?)

.47 1.26 1.58 1.78 1.0 1.43 0.22 0.23

.20 1.33 0.93 1.03 0.81 1.26 0.10 0.12

.41 1.82 1.23 1.34 0.91 1.27 0.20 0.16

Creek outwash, 300 ka(?)

.53 1.38 1.40 1.59 1.03 1.33 0.31 0.11

.05 1.34 0.94 0.96 0.77 1.22 0.26 0.12

.56 2.62 1.88 1.86 1.07 1.42 0.29 0.14

ill outwash, 500 ka(?)

.69 1.08 1.39 1.30 0.87 1.54 0.18 0.13

.81 0.74 0.31 0.17 0.47 1.42 0.15 0.12

Formation, 1,200 ka(?)

.52 0.79 0.88 0.62 0.67 1.64 0.24 0.22

.2 0.43 0.09 0.15 0.35 1.46 0.14 0.06

228

233

184

240

219

197

238

201

209

288

251

306

283

Soil Chronosequence Along the Cowlitz River, Washington F43
Supplementary table 7, part 1. Total chemical analyses of the fine (<47 //m) fraction by instru

[K and Fe values in weight percent; all others in part per million. Analysts: .). Budahn 

P

o

sr

s

I 

3 

I

9

No.

1 

2

3

4 

5

6

7

9

10 

11

12 

13

14 

15

16 

17 

18 

19

20 

21 

22

24

25

oc

27

28

90

Sample

CW6

\sY1U

CW6

CW8

CW8

CW8

(-UQ

CW3

CW3 

ru-3

CW4 

CW4 

CW4 

CW4

CW5 

CW5 

CW5

CW7

CW7 

run

Horizon

All

Cn

Allp

A12p

B21t

DOO*.

9R^

3Clox

All

Clox 

r?

A 

B 

2Clox

A 

B 

2Clox

Al

nil

B12

B21/B22

RTI

Basal 

depth 

(cm)

10 

25

18 

31

50

70 

94

127

140

23 

48

66

15 

72 

90

14 

60 

92 

130

26

"5Q

56

101 

1 11

Ba

329.

308.

423.

330.

305.

461.

392.

428. 

303. 

242.

464. 

336. 

296.

486.

379.

Ce

37.9

44.0

34.8

59.3

63.2

49.8

55.7

64.1 

69.8 

76.7

53.7 

65.8 

70.2

41.5

76.7

Co Cr Cs Dy Eu Fe Gd

late Holocene alluvium, 0.25 ka

18.2 61.1 2.04 4.01 1.27 4.87 

19.2 70.8 2.06 4.19 1.41 5.26 4.65

latest Pleistocene(?) outwash, 11 ka

19.6 72.5 2.26 3.26 0.995 5.25 2.56

20.0 80.6 2.05 7.50 2.06 6.44 fi.7

19.9 79.9 1.99 6.85 1.88 6.64 6.86

late Evans Creek outwash, 14 ka

21.8 77.6 2.49 4.94 1.31 5.96 4.74

22.4 76.5 2.73 6.45 1.55 6.40 6.00

early Evans Creek outwash, 24 ka

22.1 136. 1.61 4.82 1.47 5.63 4.49 

22.5 136. 1.77 6.28 1.89 5.85 6.87 

21.1 153. 1.63 6.53 1.94 5.99 6.69

21.2 135. 1.80 4.23 1.34 5.43 4.37 

24.7 160. 1.83 5.80 1.82 6.19 6.34 

23.9 168. 1.80 5.96 1.80 6.33 fi.76

pre-Evans Creek outwash(?), 60 ka(?)

20.0 125. 2.09 3.90 1.03 5.40 2.95

22.3 146. 1.84 6.72 1.80 6.78 

Hf 

4.61 

5.47 

4.78 

5.39 

5.47 

5.16 

5.50 

4.61 

5.30 

5.49 

4.52 

5.22 

5.30 

5.60 

5.47 
o§aIaI?

CDiSNI

tt UE

ftf

*3

rffc

cn

31

33

34 

35

36 

37

39

40

47

A Q

49

50 

51

52

54 

55

56 

57

CO

59

60

61 

62

63

64

65

66

67

69 

70

71

72

CW7

CW9

CW9 

rwQ

CW9 

CW9

rwQ

TWQ

CW9

CW10

CW10

CW10 

rwi n

CW10

CW12

CW12

CW12

CW2

CW2

CW11

\s n i i

\sW L 1

\s n 1 1

CW11

L* n i i

O VI 1 1

2C

AT 1

A12

D1

B21t

P.99+-

9D "3 1

2Clox

A m 

i

Q1 9

B2t

DO*-

Cox

A12

R1

2B2b?

90*3 1 K 7

on O OU9

3Clb?

B21t

2B23t

LO J

A

n It

ViCCA,

2B23t

2B24t

LO JL

5

17

38

75

92

196

10 

30

64

100

o / r\

380

32

53 

66

137 

250

270

20

35 

66 

94

245

300

12

40

64

94 

106

150

240

363.

637.

592.

303.

506.

375.

418.

416.

547.

686.

411.

456.

402.

184.

94.4

47.6

52.4

101.

46.2

53.5

87.2

48.5

55.0

103.

71.7

62.1

49.2

44.2

20.4 172. 0.987 8.16

late Hayden Creek outwash,

13.7 66.2 3.40 3.62

14.1 70.5 3.83 4.00

17.6 37.0 2.26 5.37

middle Hayden Creek outwash,

18.5 83.9 2.43 

18.0 64.4 2.82 4.07

16.8 41.2 0.951 

early Hayden Creek outwash,

16.0 85.4 2.90 

16.9 72.2 2.69 

21.0 45.5 1.06 5.09

Wingate Hill outwash, 50f

23.2 95.7 4.08 4.10

19.1 94.2 4.42 4.02

Logan Hill Formation, l,2f

11.0 85.7 3.50 3.30

15.1 77.2 3.27 3.70

2.55 7.71 8.57

150 ka(?)

0.924 4.08

1.05 4.71 3.67

1.40 4.87 6.05

225 ka(?)

0.861 4.50 2.96

1.05 4.84 4.10

1.29 5.15 4.60

300 ka(?)

1.47 4.61 5.27

1.25 5.09 4.6

1.27 4.14 4.83

) ka(?)

1.13 6.03 4.6

1.09 5.61 4.53

)0 ka(?)

0.716 3.58 3.43

0.788 5.76 3.38

6.16 

6.07 

6.37 

3.32 

5.73 

5.46 

3.41 

5.49 

5.24 

2.74 

7.88 

7.46 

7.84 

7.15 
Supplementary table 7, part 2. Total chemical analyses of the fine (<47 nm) fraction by instrum

[Na value in weight percent; all others in part per million. Analysts: J. Budahn a

*

a

d

00

No.

1

2

3

Sample

CW6

CW6

CW6

Hori zon

All

A12

Cn

Basal

depth

(cm)

10

25

Na

2.00

--

2.06

Nd

18.3

--

19.7

Rb Sh Sc Sm

late Holocene alluvium, 0

32.9 0.556 17.9 4.54

-_

29.9 0.484 19.1 4.20

Sr

.25 ka

314.

--

320.

latest Plei stocene(? ) outwash, 11

4

5

6

7

8

9

10

11

12

13

14

15

16

17

18

19

20

21

22

23

24

25

26

27

28

29

CW8

CW8

CW8

CW8

CW8

CW8

CW8

CW8

CW3

CW3

CW3

CW3

CW4

CW4

CW4

CW4

CW5

CW5

CW5

CW5

CW5

CW7

CW7

CW7

CW7

CW7

Allp

A12p

A+B

B21t

B22t

2B3

3Clox

3C2ox

All

A12

Clox

C2

A

B

2Clox

2C2n

A

B

2Clox

3C2ox

4C3

Al

Bll

B12

B21/B22

831

18

31

50

70

94

127

140

--

23

48

66

--

15

72

90

--

14

60

92

130

--

26

38

56

101

111

1.74

--

--

1.25

1.24

--

1.53

1.60

--

1.37

1.42

1.20

--

1.37

1.48

1.29

__

--

1.59

--

1.02

--

15.9

--

--

35.3

--

32.6

--

23.3

25.3

--

29.8

38.0

33.0

--

26.6

33.9

31.5

__

--

22.0

--

32.3

--

35.3 0.416 15.9 3.14

__

__

33.6 0.45 28.2 7.89

28.3 0.426 30.0 7.53

__

late Evans Creek outwash,

36.1 0.564 20.4 4.64

__

33. 0.399 25.4 5.76

--

early Evans Creek outwash

25.6 0.453 20.2 5.70

10. 0.272 23.7 7.60

22.3 0.320 26.1 7.61

--

31.8 0.335 16.8 5.03

29.2 0.313 23.8 7.02

28.4 0.38'2 27.6 6.87

__

__

pre-Evans Creek outwashf?),

38.1 0.488 16.1 3.76

__

__

29.8 0.379 30.5 7.08

__

291.

--

--

279.

--

300.

--

14 ka

211.

262.

--

, 24 ka

242.

210.

193.

--

218.

195.

171.

--

--

60 ka(

170.

--

..

179.

--

Ta

0.747

--

0.804

ka

0.909

--

--

0.979

0.979

--

0.926

0.969

--

0.854

0.891

0.970

--

0.879

0.964

0.931

__

--

?)

0.978

--

__

0.962

--

Th

0.676

--

0.772

0.532

--

--

1.09

1.10

--

0.763

1.01

--

0.799

1.04

1.05

0.716

0.959

1.01

--

--

0.592

--

__

0.948

--

Th

4.0

--

4.3

3.7

--

--

4.6

--

--

4.9

--

4.1

4.4

--

4.6

5.2

5.1

--

4.2

5.

5.0

-_

--

4.

--

__

4.

--
pofoo81!

30

31

33

34

35

36

37

38

39

40

47

48

49

50

51

52

53

54

55

56

57

58

59

CW7

CW7

CW9

CW9

CW9

CW9

CW9

CW9

CW9

CW9

CW10

CW10

CW10

CW10

CW10

CW10

CW12

CW12

CW12

CW12

CW12

CW12

CW12

2B32

2C

All

A12

Bl

B21t

B22t

2B31

2B32

2Clox A

Bll

B12

B2t

B3t

Cox

All

A12

Bl

2B2b?

2B31b?

3B32b?

3Clb?

145

--5

17

26

38

75

92

196

--

10

30

64

100

260

380

32

53

66

137

250

270

0.699

..

1.49

1.41

--

0.583

1.39

--

0.877

-_

0.602

__

1.25

--

0.814

--

__

0.499

46.1

20.5

__

19.6

--

28.8

19.0

--

22.1

--

23.5

__

29.6

__

24.8

--

__

21.7

14. 0.510

late Hayden

61.8 0.569

__

64.8 0.691

__

__

32.3 0.65

middle Hayden

44.5 0.599

-_

44.0 0.546

__

22.5 0.443

early Hayden

47.4 0.57

__

32.4 0.765

__

-_

17.2 0.23

__

35.4 9.78

Creek outwash,

12.3 3.80

__

15.4 4.19

__

-_

22.1 6.27

Creek outwash,

13.9 3.82

__

_-

16.8 4.68

-_

24.5 5.63

Creek outwash,

__

18.1 6.12

19.1 5.31

__

__

23.8 5.40

__

403. 1.16

150 ka(?)

193. 1.08

__

163. 1.13

--

__

__

220. 0.663

225 ka(?)

149. 1.16

__

__

127. 1.13

__

280. 0.740

300 ka(?)

__

190. 1.03

-_

180. 1.01

__

__

290. 0.648

__

1.18

0.568

__

0.639

-_

__

__

0.850

0.496

-_

0.640

0.726

__

0.840

-_

0.681

--

__

0.763

__

6

6

__

7

__

3

5

--

5

--

3

__

5

--

5

--

..

3.

cT Wingate Hill outwash, 500 ka(?) ?OieN"

< 

C/J §

Jv

60

61

62

63

64

65

66

67

68

69

70

71

72

CW2

CW2

CW2

CW2

CW2

CW2

CW11

CW11

CW11

CW11

CW11

CW11

CW11

A

A3

B21t

2B22t

2B23t

2B3 A

Bit

B21t

B22t

2B23t

2B24t

2B3t

20

35

66

94

245

300

12

40

64

94

106

150

240

__

__

0.563

--

0.828

0.560

--

__

0.140

--

--

__

__

24.6

--

24.7

--

20.3

--

__

20.9

--

__

__

39.0 0.769

._

49.4 0.611

__

Logan Hill

41.5 0.801

__

__

28.3 0.951

__

--

__

__

19.5 4.58

__

18.7 4.40

__

__

__

100. 1.35

__

100. 1.39

__

__

__

0.647

--

0.618

--

__

-_

8

--

8.

-~

Formation, 1,200 ka(?)

12.4 3.85

__

__

16.3 3.82

__

--

100. 1.41

__

._

1.30

--

--

0.526

--

--

0.550

--

--

7

--

--

8

--

--
GPO 585-045/78051


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includes maps of Mars and the Moon.

Coal Investigations Maps are geologic maps on topographic or 

planimetric bases at various scales showing bedrock or surficial geology, stratigraphy, and structural relations in certain coal-resource areas.

Oil and Gas Investigations Charts show stratigraphic information 

for certain oil and gas fields and other areas having petroleum potential.

Miscellaneous Field Studies Maps are multicolor or black-andwhite maps on topographic or planimetric bases on quadrangle or irregular areas at various scales. Pre-1971 maps show bedrock geology 

in relation to specific mining or mineral-deposit problems; post-1971 

maps are primarily black-and-white maps on various subjects such as 

environmental studies or wilderness mineral investigations.

Hydrologic Investigations Atlases are multicolored or black-andwhite maps on topographic or planimetric bases presenting a wide range 

of geohydro logic data of both regular and irregular areas; principal scale 

is 1:24,000 and regional studies are at 1:250,000 scale or smaller.

Catalogs

Permanent catalogs, as well as some others, giving comprehensive listings of U.S. Geological Survey publications are available under 

the conditions indicated below from the U.S. Geological Survey, Books 

and Open-File Reports Section, Federal Center, Box 25425, Denver, 

CO 80225. (See latest Price and Availability List)

"Publications of the Geological Survey, 1879-1961" may be purchased by mail and over the counter in paperback book form and as a 

set of microfiche.

"Publications of the Geological Survey, 1962-1970" may be purchased by mail and over the counter in paperback book form and as a 

set of microfiche.

"Publications of the U.S. Geological Survey, 1971- 1981" may be 

purchased by mail and over the counter in paperback book form (two 

volumes, publications listing and index) and as a set of microfiche.

Supplements for 1982,1983,1984,1985,1986, and for subsequent 

years since the last permanent catalog may be purchased by mail and 

over the counter in paperback book form.

State catalogs, "List of U.S. Geological Survey Geologic and 

Water-Supply Reports and Maps For (State)," may be purchased by mail 

and over the counter in paperback booklet form only.

"Price and Availability List of U.S. Geological Survey Publications," issued annually, is available free of charge in paperback booklet form only.

Selected copies of a monthly catalog "New Publications of the U.S. 

Geological Survey" available free of charge by mail or may be obtained 

over the counter in paperback booklet form only. Those wishing a free 

subscription to the monthly catalog "New Publications of the U.S. 

Geological Survey" should write to the U.S. Geological Survey, 582 

National Center, Reston, VA 22092.

Note.-Prices of Government publications listed in older catalogs, 

announcements, and publications may be incorrect Therefore, the 

prices charged may differ from the prices in catalogs, announcements, 

and publications.