March 2006 

NASA/TM-2006-214284 

Electron Beam Freeform Fabrication (EBF3) for 

Cost Effective Near-Net Shape Manufacturing 

Karen M. Taminger and Robert A. Hafley 

Langley Research Center, Hampton, Virginia 

https://ntrs.nasa.gov/search.jsp?R=20060009152 2018-05-17T09:03:33+00:00Z
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March 2006 

NASA/TM-2006-214284 

Electron Beam Freeform Fabrication (EBF3) for 

Cost Effective Near-Net Shape Manufacturing 

Karen M. Taminger and Robert A. Hafley 

Langley Research Center, Hampton, Virginia 
Available from: 

NASA Center for AeroSpace Information (CASI) National Technical Information Service (NTIS) 

7121 Standard Drive 5285 Port Royal Road 

Hanover, MD 21076-1320 Springfield, VA 22161-2171 

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National Aeronautics and Space Administration. 
ABSTRACT 

Manufacturing of structural metal parts directly from computer aided design (CAD) data has been 

investigated by numerous researchers over the past decade. Researchers at NASA Langley Research 

Center are developing a new solid freeform fabrication process, electron beam freeform fabrication 

(EBF3

), as a rapid metal deposition process that works efficiently with a variety of weldable alloys. EBF3

deposits of 2219 aluminium and Ti-6Al-4V have exhibited a range of grain morphologies depending upon 

the deposition parameters. These materials have exhibited excellent tensile properties comparable to 

typical handbook data for wrought plate product after post-processing heat treatments. The EBF3

 process 

is capable of bulk metal deposition at deposition rates in excess of 2500 cm3

/hr (150 in3/hr) or finer detail 

at lower deposition rates, depending upon the desired application. This process offers the potential for 

rapidly adding structural details to simpler cast or forged structures rather than the conventional 

approach of machining large volumes of chips to produce a monolithic metallic structure. Selective 

addition of metal onto simpler blanks of material can have a significant effect on lead time reduction and 

lower material and machining costs. 

1.0 INTRODUCTION 

Solid freeform fabrication (SFF) encompasses a class of processes that can be used to design and 

construct parts using a layer-additive approach. SFF processes are an outgrowth of rapid prototyping 

processes such as stereolithography for plastics and welding repair techniques employing laser, electron 

beam, or arc welding for repairing metal seal knife edges, turbine blade tips, or tooling dies. Current 

development efforts are expanding these repair techniques and applying principles from computer-aided 

design (CAD) and manufacturing as well as from rapid prototyping for wider applications. These 

development efforts are resulting in the production of a new class of SFF layer-additive processes to build 

structural metallic parts directly from CAD data rather than the traditional material removal approach. 

1.1 Advantages of Solid Freeform Fabrication 

SFF offers numerous advantages. At the core of these are reduced production and material costs, reduced 

development and lead times, and improved performance. However, not all of the current SFF processes 

are equally suited to provide all of these advantages. Factors such as efficiency, deposition rates, material 

compatibility, and process quality must be considered to assess the feasibility of inserting such processes 

successfully into a production environment. 

Direct cost savings can be realized through repair and salvage of parts, reduced machining time, and 

reduced waste. SFF can be used to repair broken or out-of-tolerance parts at a fraction of the cost of 

remanufacturing. This can be particularly significant when there is a large investment, either in capital 

expenditures, high value materials, or large amounts of time already invested in a part. SFF processes can 

be used to build an entire structure, or to add detailed features to a simplified casting or forging. 

However, the replacement technology must be cost-competitive. Thus, issues such as high deposition 

rates, process efficiencies, process quality, and material compatibility are paramount to insertion of a new 

technology into a competitive metals forming market. Implementing these processes can thereby reduce 

the material wasted during machining operations, reduce lead time and raw material costs by reducing 

billet sizes, and enable production of a generic, simplified part by conventional methods with addition of 

specific details at a later time. Besides the raw material cost savings, there is an ease in handling smaller 

billets of raw feedstock and the by-products or scrap produced from a less-extensively machined part. 
 2

In addition to lead time reduction, SFF can also enable reduction in design cycle time. SFF permits direct 

production of prototype parts from a CAD file. Production of prototypes enables rapid product 

development, testing and insertion of improved designs into the existing production environment. This 

also allows flexibility in design for either unique part production or simplified part design in which 

detailed locations for items such as flanges, bosses, nozzles, or other features can be changed and 

modified late in the design cycle. Thus, SFF can provide better opportunity for optimization of designs by 

allowing more time for determining details. 

SFF also offers the potential for improved performance through control of microstructures and 

compositions at a much finer scale than parts machined from thick products. Typical thick sections have 

high degrees of microstructural inhomogeneity, leading to anisotropic mechanical properties. This is a 

direct result of differences in cooling rates and an inability to impart work evenly through a thick section. 

Working with smaller billets in conjunction with layer-additive processes can result in more optimal 

microstructural features, potentially improving the mechanical properties of the resultant part as 

compared to a similar part machined from a thick section billet. Finally, compositional gradients offer 

improved performance and reduced cost by allowing grading from an inexpensive material for the bulk of 

the product to an expensive material at the surface for enhanced wear resistance, corrosion resistance, 

etc.[1] 

1.2 Solid Freeform Fabrication Processes 

Rapid prototyping is an emerging field which encompasses numerous different techniques and resulting 

product forms. Of specific interest are processes that are capable of producing fully dense metallic and 

hybrid parts in which the resulting parts may be used for loaded structure. Binderless processes are 

attractive because they eliminate contaminants and minimize secondary processing. Layer additive 

techniques offer the potential for graded microstructures and compositions, and production of near-net 

shapes with minimal secondary processing required. 

Over the past several years, a number of SFF processes have been developed to directly produce 

structural metallic parts. Several processes such as Selective Laser Sintering (SLS) and Electron Beam 

Melting (EBM) operate in a powder bed, tracing the part in a layer of powder with a high energy beam 

and repeating for subsequent layers.[2, 3] Other emerging SFF processes that focus on low heat inputs 

include Precision Metal Deposition (PMD), laser deposition with flat wire,[4] and ultrasonic 

consolidation (UC) of layered metal foils to form 3-D parts using ultrasonic welding, a solid state 

process.[5] Direct laser deposition processes, including Direct Metal Deposition (DMD), Laser Additive 

Manufacturing (LAM) and Laser Engineered Net Shaping (LENSTM), feed powder directly into a molten 

pool created by a laser.[2, 6] Electron beam freeform fabrication (EBF3

) is similar to direct laser 

deposition but employs a focused electron beam and wire feedstock.[7, 8, 9] Several arc-welding 

processes, using either wire or powder feedstock or both, have also entered the arena, including Plasma 

Transferred Arc Solid Free Form Fabrication (PTA SFFF) and Shaped Metal Deposition (SMD) which 

uses either Metal Inert Gas (MIG) or Tungsten Inert Gas (TIG) welding techniques in a layer-additive 

fashion.[10] Many of these processes are complementary and selection of the appropriate process is 

dependent upon the resources available, component to be produced, and the desired applications.[11] 

1.3 Electron Beam Solid Freeform Fabrication 

Researchers at NASA Langley Research Center have developed the electron beam freeform fabrication 

(EBF3

) process to produce unitized structures from high reflectance aerospace alloys such as aluminium 

and titanium. Near-term applications of the EBF3

 process are most likely to be implemented for cost 

reduction and lead time reduction thru addition of details onto simplified preforms (casting or forging). 

This is particularly attractive for components with protruding details that would require a significantly 
 3

large volume of material to be machined away from an oversized forging. Future far-term applications 

promise improved structural efficiency through reduced weight and improved performance by exploiting 

the layer-additive nature of the EBF3

 process to fabricate tailored unitized structures with functionally 

graded microstructures and compositions. 

Figure 1 shows a schematic of the primary components in an EBF3

 system. The EBF3 process introduces 

metal wire feedstock into a molten pool that is created and sustained using a focused electron beam in a 

high vacuum environment (1x10-4 torr or lower). The EBF3

 process is nearly 100% efficient in feedstock 

consumption and approaches 95% efficiency in power usage. The electron beam couples effectively with 

any electrically conductive material, including highly reflective alloys such as aluminium and copper. A 

variety of weldable alloys can be processed using EBF3

, and further development is planned to determine 

if non-weldable alloys can also be deposited. The EBF3

 process is capable of bulk metal deposition at 

deposition rates in excess of 2500 cm3

/hr (150 in3/hr) as well as finer detailed deposition at lower 

deposition rates with the same piece of equipment, limited only by the positioning precision and wire feed 

capabilities. The diameter of the wire feedstock is the controlling factor determining the smallest detail 

attainable using this process: fine diameter wires may be used for adding fine details, and larger diameter 

wires can be used to increase deposition rate for bulk deposition. EBF3

 offers viable solutions to issues of 

deposition rate, process efficiency, and material compatibility for insertion into the production 

environment. 

NASA Langley Research Center has two EBF3

 systems, shown in Figures 2 and 3. The ground-based 

system (Figure 2) is a commercially-available electron beam welder that has been adapted for performing 

EBF3

 process development. This system includes a 42 kW, 60-kV accelerating voltage electron beam 

gun, a vacuum system, a positioning system, and dual wire feeders capable of independent, simultaneous 

operation. The two wire feeders may be loaded with either a fine and a coarse wire diameter for different 

feature definition, or two different alloys to produce components with compositional gradients. 

Positioning is programmable through six axes of motion (X, Z and tilt on the moving electron beam gun, 

and Y, tilt and rotate on the positioning table). This electron beam system requires a vacuum on the order 

of 5x10-5 torr and is housed in a vacuum chamber measuring 2.5 m by 2 m by 2.7 m (100 in. by 78 in. by 

108 in.). 

The second EBF3

 system (Figure 3) is portable and comprises a small vacuum chamber, fixed low power 

electron beam gun, four axis motion control system on the table (X, Y, Z and rotation), single wire feeder, 

and data acquisition and control system.[12] This second EBF3

 system is housed within a 1 m (38 in.) 

Electron beam 

Substrate 

Wire feed 

Electron beam gun 

Deposit 

x 

z 

y 

Vacuum chamber 

Positioning system

Figure 1. Schematic of electron beam freeform fabrication (EBF3) system components. 
 4

cubed vacuum chamber with the ability to fabrication a component 30 cm by 30 cm by 15 cm (12 in. by 

12 in. by 6 in.) in size. This system is designed for portability so that it can be used in a variety of 

different locations. It has been successfully demonstrated in flight on an aircraft as well as on the ground 

in our laboratory. This system is well-suited for fabrication of smaller parts with intricate details due to 

the finer wire diameters that can be fed as well as higher precision on the positioning system. 

2.0 EXPERIMENTAL PROCEDURES 

To date, the EBF3 process has been demonstrated on aluminum, titanium, and nickel-based alloys of 

interest for aerospace structural applications; ferrous-based alloys are also planned. This report will 

summarize results obtained on 2219 aluminum and Ti-6-4 titanium alloys. More detailed results can be 

found in other publications.[8, 13, 14] Aluminum alloy 2219 (nominally Al-6 wt% Cu) is a common 

aerospace alloy with excellent weldability and good strength and toughness over a wide range of 

temperatures. Ti-6-4 ELI (nominally Ti-6 wt% Al-4 wt% V, extra low interstitial) is a common titaniumbased aerospace structural alloy used in higher stress and high temperature applications. Both alloys are 

readily available in wire form and proved to be well suited for EBF3

 processing. 

Linear deposits similar to the one shown in Figure 4 were fabricated 25 cm (10 in.) long and one pass 

wide, with multiple layers to build up to approximately 2.5 cm (1 in.) in height for metallurgical analysis 

and tensile specimens. The width of the deposits varied from roughly 0.5 to 1 cm (0.2 to 0.4 inches), 

depending upon the processing conditions. The translation direction was selected so that the wire always 

fed into the leading edge of the molten pool. After each pass the substrate was rotated 180° to maintain 

the same relationship between the wire, the beam, and the translation vector. 

Figure 2. Ground-based EBF3 system 

at NASA Langley Research Center. 

Figure 3. Portable EBF3 system at 

NASA Langley Research Center. 

Figure 4. Coordinate system related to a typical EBF3 deposit. 
 5

A coordinate system related to directions and orientations of the deposit is shown in Figure 4. The 

longitudinal direction (L) is defined to be parallel to the long axis of travel, the long transverse direction 

(T) is normal to the surface of the substrate, and the short transverse direction (S) is across the width of 

the deposited layer. This coordinate system was used to identify the orientation of tensile and 

metallographic specimens with respect to the fabrication directions. The tensile specimens were 

machined in the LT plane and tested in the L direction, and the metallographic specimens were sectioned 

perpendicular to the longitudinal travel direction and mounted and polished in the ST plane. 

Standard metallographic techniques were employed for microstructural determination. Deposits were 

sectioned, mounted and polished, then acid etched to highlight grain morphology. Metallographic 

specimens were examined and photographed using optical microscopy. Tensile properties at room 

temperature were determined using standard 10 cm (4 in.) subsize dogbone specimens per ASTM E8.[15] 

The specimen thickness was slightly less than the deposit width, allowing for the surfaces to be machined 

flat and parallel to remove surface irregularities from the EBF3

 process. 

3.0 DISCUSSION OF RESULTS 

The EBF3 process has numerous parameters that control the resulting microstructures and shape of the 

deposit.[8, 13] Three of the most significant of these parameters which are easily controlled are the 

translation speed, wire feed rate, and beam power. These three parameters were systematically varied and 

microstructural evaluation was conducted on the resulting 2219 and Ti-6-4 deposits to understand the 

effect of processing on the build quality and grain morphology. Over the range of parameters tested for 

the 2219 Al, resultant microstructures varied from a fine-grain equiaxed grain structure to a solidification 

microstructure with larger grain sizes and dendritic growth. Representative microstructures for high and 

moderate heat input (as influenced by the combination of translation speed, wire feed rate, and beam 

power) are shown in Figure 5 for as-deposited 2219 Al in the ST plane of the deposit. The light colored 

bands are dendrites that formed in the interpass region where portions of a previous layer are remelted 

during deposition of a subsequent layer. Although dendrites can be seen contained within the grains, 

pervasive dendritic formation is minimal in the interpass regions of the deposit produced with the 

moderate heat input conditions. 

Figure 5. Typical microstructures of 2219 Al deposit: a) shows dendrite growth in a deposit with high heat 

input and higher deposition layer height; b) shows less dendrite growth and formation of equiaxed grain 

structure in the bulk deposit with more moderate heat input and a smaller deposition layer height.[8] 

a) High heat input b) Moderate heat input 

 0.1 mm
 6

Experiments performed on Ti-6Al-4V resulted in the formation of large columnar grains growing 

epitaxially from the substrate, as shown in Figure 6a. At higher magnification, as shown in Figure 6b, 

alpha-beta laths typical of the microstructures of alpha+beta titanium alloys can be seen. Through 

rigorous process control, it has been demonstrated that the size of these columnar grains can be controlled 

by limiting the heat input during the deposition process. 

Figure 7 shows the ultimate tensile strength, 0.2% offset yield strength, and total elongation to failure for 

EBF3

 2219 Al deposits as compared to typical handbook data for sheet and plate products.[16] The data 

for the as-deposited 2219 Al were averaged over duplicate tests for seven combinations of beam powers, 

translation speeds, and wire feed rates. Despite the wide range of processing conditions, the majority of 

the as-deposited 2219 Al data fell in a tight band, as shown by the range bars in Figure 7. The properties 

of as-deposited 2219 Al fell between those for 2219 Al sheet and plate in the annealed (O temper) and 

solutionized and naturally aged (T4 temper) tempers. This is as expected considering the thermal history 

that the layer additive processes experience. The 2219 Al deposits in the T62 temper also had very little 

scatter and were equivalent to typical T62 handbook properties for sheet and plate product.[16] As with 

the 2219 Al, the Ti-6-4 exhibits tensile properties comparable to those of annealed wrought product,[17] 

as shown in Figure 8. 

Figure 6. Microstructures of EBF3 Ti-6-4 deposits: (a) low magnification shows 

columnar grain structure in LS plane, and (b) high magnification shows alpha-beta 

lath structure in ST plane. 

(a) (b) 

5 mm 2.5 μm 

0

100

200

300

400

500

Yield Ultimate Elongation

Strength, MPa

O typical

As-deposited

T4 typical

Deposit+T62

T62 typical

0

10

20

Elongation, 

%

Figure 7. Tensile properties at room temperature of EBF3 deposited 2219 Al as compared to 

typical handbook values [16] for 2219 Al sheet and plate. 
 7

For both the 2219 Al and the Ti-6-4, it has been demonstrated that controlling the heat input through 

careful selection of the translation speed, wire feed rate, and beam power can influence the microstructure 

that is developed in the deposited material.[8, 13] Finer grained, equiaxed microstructures are obtained at 

the lower heat input conditions, which typically correspond to narrower deposits and lower deposition 

rates. Larger grains, including epitaxial growth from the baseplate in the Ti-6-4 and pervasive dendritic 

microstructures within the 2219 Al grains and in the interpass regions, develop during builds in which the 

heat inputs tend to be higher to achieve higher deposition rates. This demonstrates that there is a trade off 

between high deposition rates and fine-grained microstructures. However, examination of the tensile 

strengths of the EBF3

 deposited materials shows that, for 2219 Al and Ti-6-4, the tensile properties are 

not statistically affected by the variations within the microstructures obtained during higher versus lower 

heat input processing conditions. Furthermore, after post-deposition heat treatments, the tensile 

properties exhibit an even tighter range in the data than observed in the as-deposited condition. Thus, the 

range in microstructures documented for 2219 Al and Ti-6-4 appears to be small enough that it does not 

have a significant impact on the bulk tensile properties of the EBF3

 deposited materials. Additional work 

is required to examine other mechanical properties such as fatigue, fracture, and crack propagation to 

fully characterize any potential impact of the microstructural differences. 

4.0 CONCLUDING REMARKS 

EBF3 is a new layer additive process with high potential for use in numerous structural metallic 

applications. EBF3

 offers the potential for cost and lead time reductions in production of parts and 

performance improvements through optimized alloy chemistries and microstructures. Microstructures and 

mechanical properties obtained in aluminium and titanium alloys have demonstrated the potential for 

achieving a wide microstructural range with properties comparable to those of wrought product forms. 

EBF3

 offers viable solutions to issues of deposition rate, process efficiency, and material compatibility for 

insertion into the production environment. Although further process development and understanding is 

required, no barriers are evident to prevent the maturation of EBF3

 into a competitive commercial 

process. 

There is a trade off between high deposition rates and fine-grained microstructures for materials deposited 

using the EBF3

 process. The tensile properties for EBF3 deposited 2219 Al and Ti-6-4 were very 

consistent over a wide range of processing conditions, indicating that the tensile properties are not 

statistically affected by the variations within the microstructures obtained during higher versus lower heat 

input processing conditions. Thus, the range in microstructures documented for 2219 Al and Ti-6-4 

Figure 8. Tensile properties at room temperature of EBF3 deposited Ti-6-4 ELI as 

compared to AMS 4999 Ti-6Al-4V minimum specification (standard grade Ti-6-4).[17]

0

200

400

600

800

1000

Yield Ultimate Elongation

Strength, MPa

EBF3, Ti-6-4 ELI

AMS4999, std grade Elongation, 

%

0

5

10

15
 8

appears to be small enough that it does not have a significant impact on the bulk tensile properties of the 

EBF3

 deposited materials. Additional work is required to examine other mechanical properties such as 

fatigue, fracture, and crack propagation to fully characterize any potential impact of the microstructural 

differences. 

5.0 REFERENCES 

[1] Taminger, K.M.B. and Hafley, R.A., “Electron Beam Freeform Fabrication: A Rapid Metal 

Deposition Process,” Proceedings of the 3rd Annual Automotive Composites Conference, (2003). 

[2] Sears, J.W., “Direct Laser Powder Deposition – State of the Art,” Powder Materials: Current 

Research and Industrial Practices, Proceedings of the 1999 Fall TMS Meeting, Ed. By F.D.S. 

Marquis, 213-226, (1999). 

[3] “Electron Beams: Useful for More than Just Microscopes,” European Tool and Mouldmaking, 

March/April 2002, http://www.tool-moldmaking.com/magazine/magdetail.php?company=2355&x= 

11&y=15, accessed 3 July 2003. 

[4] Rabinovich, J., “Net Shape Manufacturing With Metal Alloys,” Advanced Materials & Processes, 

161:1, 47 & 86, (2003). 

[5] White, D.R., “Ultrasonic Consolidation of Aluminium Tooling,” Advanced Materials & Processes, 

161:1, 64-65, (2003). 

[6] Atwood, C., et al., “Laser Engineered Net Shaping (LENSTM): A Tool for Direct Fabrication of 

Metal Parts,” Proceedings of International Congress on Applications of Lasers and Electro-Optics 

(ICALEO), (1998). 

[7] Dave, V.R., Matz. J.E., and Eagar, T.W., “Electron Beam Solid Freeform Fabrication of Metal 

Parts,” Proceedings of 6th SFF Symposium, 64-71, (1995). 

[8] Taminger, K.M.B. and Hafley, R.A., “Characterization of 2219 Aluminium Produced by Electron 

Beam Freeform Fabrication,” Proceedings of 13th SFF Symposium, 482-489, (2002). 

[9] Brice, C.A., et al., “Rapid Prototyping and Freeform Fabrication via Electron Beam Welding 

Deposition,” Proceeding of Welding Conference, (2002). 

[10] “SMD builds fully dense, near-net-shape structures,” Manufacturingtalk, July 2004, 

http://www.manufacturingtalk.com/news/rll/rll100.html, accessed 6 March 2006.

[11] Jacobs, P.F., “A Brief History of Rapid Prototyping & Manufacturing: The Growth Years,” 

2002 International Conference on Metal Powder Deposition for Rapid Manufacturing, 5-8 

(2002).

[12] Watson, J.K., Taminger, K.M.B., Hafley, R.A., and Petersen, D.D., “Development of a Prototype 

Electron Beam Freeform Fabrication System,” Proceedings of 13th SFF Symposium, 458-465, 

(2002). 
 9

[13] Wallace, T.A., Bey, K.S., Taminger, K.M.B., and Hafley, R.A., “A Design of Experiments 

Approach Defining the Relationships Between Processing and Microstructure for Ti-6Al-4V,” 

Proceedings of 15th SFF Symposium, (2004). 

[14] Taminger, K.M.B., Hafley, R.A., Fahringer, D.T., and Martin, R.E., “Effect of Surface Treatments 

on Electron Beam Freeform Fabricated Aluminium Structures,” Proceedings of 15th SFF 

Symposium, (2004). 

[15] Annual Book of ATSM Standards, E8-96 (1996), vol. 3.01, pp. 55-76. 

[16] Mayer, L.W., Alcoa Green Letter: Alcoa Aluminium Alloy 2219, Aluminium Company of America, 

New Kensington, PA, (1967). 

[17] McLellan, M.T., Ti-6Al-4V, Code 3707, Aerospace Structural Metals Handbook, (2002), vol. 4, pp. 

1-67. 
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Electron Beam Freeform Fabrication (EBF3) for Cost Effective Near-Net

Shape Manufacturing

5a. CONTRACT NUMBER

 6. AUTHOR(S)

Taminger, Karen M.; and Hafley, Robert A.

 7. PERFORMING ORGANIZATION NAME(S) AND ADDRESS(ES)

NASA Langley Research Center

Hampton, VA 23681-2199

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National Aeronautics and Space Administration

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14. ABSTRACT

Manufacturing of structural metal parts directly from computer aided design (CAD) data has been investigated by numerous researchers over the past decade.

Researchers at NASA Langley Research Center are developing a new solid freeform fabrication process, electron beam freeform fabrication (EBF3), as a

rapid metal deposition process that works efficiently with a variety of weldable alloys. EBF3 deposits of 2219 aluminium and Ti-6Al-4V have exhibited a

range of grain morphologies depending upon the deposition parameters. These materials have exhibited excellent tensile properties comparable to typical

handbook data for wrought plate product after post-processing heat treatments. The EBF3 process is capable of bulk metal deposition at deposition rates in

excess of 2500 cm3/hr (150 in3/hr) or finer detail at lower deposition rates, depending upon the desired application. This process offers the potential for

rapidly adding structural details to simpler cast or forged structures rather than the conventional approach of machining large volumes of chips to produce a

monolithic metallic structure. Selective addition of metal onto simpler blanks of material can have a significant effect on lead time reduction and lower

material and machining costs.

15. SUBJECT TERMS

Aluminum; Electron beam; Fabrication; Freeform; Manufacturing; Titanium

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