FLORIDA GEOLOGICAL SURVEY

903 W. TENNESSEE STREET

TALLAHASSEE, FLORIDA 32304-7700

Walter Schmidt, State Geologist and Chief 

ADMINISTRATIVE AND GEOLOGICAL DATA MANAGEMENT SECTION

Jacqueline M. Lloyd, Assistant State Geologist

Karen Achille, Administrative Secretary

Carol Armstrong, Librarian

Wanda Bissonnette, Administrative Assistant

Paulette Bond, Research Geologist

Kenji Butler, Research Assistant 

Jessie Hawkins, Custodian

Michael Miller, Research Assistant

Chris Poarch, Systems Programmer

Jeremy Poarch, IT Assistant

Paula Polson, CAD Analyst

Andrew Rudin, GIS Analyst 

Frank Rupert, Research Geologist

Christie Seale, Secretary Specialist

Carolyn Stringer, Management Analyst

Susan Trombley, Secretary Specialist

GEOLOGICAL INVESTIGATIONS SECTION

Thomas M. Scott, Assistant State Geologist 

Jon Arthur, Hydrogeology Program Supervisor

David Arthur, Research Assistant

Kristin Bailey, Research Assistant

Alan Baker, Hydrogeologist

Kristy Baker, Research Assistant

Jim Balsillie, Coastal Geologist

Craig Berninger, Driller

Lee Booth, Driller’s Assistant

Jonathan Bryan, Research Associate

Ken Campbell, Drilling Supervisor

James Cichon, Hydrogeologist

Bridget Coane, Research Assistant

Rick Copeland, Hydrogeologist

Brian Cross, Research Assistant

Adel Dabous, Research Associate

Roberto Davila, Research Assistant

Kevin DeFosset, Research Assistant

Rodney DeHan, Senior Research Scientist

Erin Dorn, Research Assistant 

Will Evans, Senior Research Associate

Cindy Fischler, Research Assistant

Rick Green, Stratigrapher

Tom Greenhalgh, Hydrogeologist

Jacob Halfhill, Research Assistant

Eric Harrington, Engineering Technician

Ron Hoenstine, Coastal Research Program Supervisor

Robby Jones, Research Assistant

Clint Kromhout, Research Assistant

Robert Kurtz, Research Assistant

Michelle Lachance, Research Assistant 

Jim Ladner, Coastal Geologist

James McClean, Research Associate

Harley Means, Research Geologist

Ryan Means, Research Assistant

Rebecca Meegan, Research Assistant

Elizabeth Moulton, Research Assistant

David Paul, Research Associate

Dan Phelps, Coastal Geologist

Steve Spencer, Economic Mineralogist

Wade Stringer, Marine Mechanic

Alan Willet, Research Assistant

Alex Wood, Hydrogeologist

OIL AND GAS SECTION

David Curry, Environmental Administrator

Paul Attwood, Asst. District Coordinator

Robert Caughey, District Coordinator

Brett Cimbora, Research Assistant

Ed Garrett, Geologist

Al Keaton, Engineer

John Leccese, District Coordinator

Tracy Phelps, Secretary

David Taylor, Engineer

Joel Webb, Research Assistant

Cover: Fern Hammock Spring, Marion County (photo by Tom Scott).
STATE OF FLORIDA

DEPARTMENT OF ENVIRONMENTAL PROTECTION

Colleen M. Castille, Secretary

DIVISION OF RESOURCE ASSESSMENT AND MANAGEMENT

Edwin J. Conklin, Director

FLORIDA GEOLOGICAL SURVEY

Walter Schmidt, State Geologist and Chief

Bulletin No. 66

SPRINGS OF FLORIDA

By

Thomas M. Scott (PG #99), Guy H. Means,

Rebecca P. Meegan, Ryan C. Means, 

Sam B. Upchurch, R. E. Copeland, 

James Jones, Tina Roberts, Alan Willet

Version 1.1

Revised October 12, 2004

Published for the

FLORIDA GEOLOGICAL SURVEY

Tallahassee, Florida

2004
ii

Printed for the

Florida Geological Survey

Tallahassee

2004

ISSN 0271-7832
PREFACE

FLORIDA GEOLOGICAL SURVEY

Tallahassee, Florida

2004

The Florida Geological Survey (FGS), Division of Resource Assessment and

Management, Department of Environmental Protection, is publishing as its Bulletin No. 66,

Springs of Florida. In 2001, the Florida Legislature passed the Florida Springs Initiative to

further the State's ability to conserve and protect our valuable freshwater spring resources.

As part of this larger program the FGS began a three year project to update and complete

the state's inventory of these resources. The original report by the FGS on Florida's springs

was published in 1947, as Bulletin No. 31. This was revised in 1977. In recent decades,

much has been learned about additional spring resources unreported in earlier compilations. In addition, a great deal of water chemistry information has been gathered to enable

long-term trend analysis and interpretative dynamics of our subsurface aquifer flow

regimes. Further data is being compiled to better define various springsheds to aid policy

makers as they try to address land-use decisions to foster sustainable fresh water resources.

The information contained in this report, provides data for scientists, planners, environmental managers, and the citizens of Florida.

Walter Schmidt, Ph.D, PG

State Geologist and Chief

Florida Geological Survey

iii
iv
TABLE OF CONTENTS

Page

Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .1

Acknowledgements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .3

Definitions and Terms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .5

Florida Springs Task Force . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .5

Task Force Members and Advisors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .7

Classification of Springs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .8

Archaeological and Paleontological Significance of Springs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .11

Hydrogeology of Florida Springs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .13

Springsheds . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .19

Spring Water . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .23

Natural Factors Affecting Water Quality . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .23

Indicators of Water Quality Problems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .24

Offshore Springs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .26

Water Quality . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .27

Methodology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .27

Field Parameters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .28

Water Samples . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .29

Additional Data . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .29

Discharge Measurements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .29

Characteristics of Spring Water . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .31

Descriptions of Analytes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .31

Physical Field Parameters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .31

Dissolved Oxygen . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .31

pH . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .31

Specific Conductance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .32

Water Temperature . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .32

Discharge . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .32

Other Field Data . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .33

Secchi Depth . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .33

Laboratory Analytes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .33

Alkalinity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .33

Biochemical Oxygen Demand . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .33

Chloride (Cl) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .33

Color . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .33

Nitrate + Nitrite (NO3 + NO2) as N . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .33

Organic Carbon . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .34

Orthophosphate (PO4) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .34

Potassium (K) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .34

Radium 226 and 228 (Ra226 and Ra228) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .34

Sodium (Na) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .34

Sulfate (SO4) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .34

Total Ammonia (NH3 + NH4) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .34

Total Dissolved Solids . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .34

Total Kjeldahl Nitrogen . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .35

v
Total Nitrogen . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .35

Total Suspended Solids . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .35

Turbidity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .35

Trace Metals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .35

Biological Analytes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .36

Descriptions of Individual Springs and Results of Analyses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .37

Alachua County . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .38

Hornsby Spring . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .39

Poe Spring . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .41

Santa Fe River Rise . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .44

Treehouse Spring . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .46

Bay County . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .48

Gainer Springs Group . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .49

Gainer Spring No. 1C . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .49

Gainer Spring No. 2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .50

Gainer Spring No. 3 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .51

Bradford County . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .53

Calhoun County . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .54

Citrus County . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .55

Chassahowitzka Springs Group . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .56

Chassahowitzka Main Spring . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .57

Chassahowitzka No. 1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .57

Citrus Blue Spring . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .59

Homosassa Springs Group . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .61

Homosassa Springs Nos. 1, 2 and 3 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .61

Kings Bay Springs Group . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .64

Hunter Spring . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .65

Tarpon Hole Spring . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .65

Clay County . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .67

Green Cove Springs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .68

Columbia County . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .71

Columbia Spring . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .72

Ichetucknee Springs Group . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .74

Ichetucknee Head Spring . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .75

Blue Hole . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .75

Cedar Head Spring . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .75

Roaring Spring . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .77

Santa Fe Spring . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .78

Dixie County . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .80

Copper Spring . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .81

Guaranto Spring . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .84

Steinhatchee River Rise . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .86

Duval County . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .88

Franklin County . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .89

Gadsden County . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .90

Gilchrist County . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .91

Devil's Ear Spring . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .92

Gilchrist Blue Spring . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .95

Ginnie Spring . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .97

vi
Hart Springs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .99

Otter Spring . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .102

Rock Bluff Springs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .104

Siphon Creek Rise . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .107

Sun Springs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .109

Hamilton County . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .112

Alapaha River Rise . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .113

Holton Creek Rise . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .115

Rossetter Spring . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .117

Hernando County . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .119

Gator Spring . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .120

Little Spring . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .122

Magnolia Spring . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .125

Salt Spring . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .128

Weeki Wachee Spring . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .131

Hillsborough County . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .133

Buckhorn Main Spring . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .134

Lithia Spring Major . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .137

Sulphur Spring . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .140

Holmes County . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .143

Holmes Blue Spring . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .144

Ponce de Leon Spring . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .146

Jackson County . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .149

Baltzell Spring . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .150

Blue Hole Spring . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .152

Hays Spring . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .154

Jackson Blue Spring . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .156

Shangri-La Springs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .159

Spring Lake Springs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .161

Black Spring . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .161

Double Spring . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .163

Gadsen Spring . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .165

Mill Pond Spring . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .167

Springboard Spring . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .169

Jefferson County . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .171

Wacissa Springs Group . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .172

Spring No. 2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .172

Big Spring (Big Blue Spring) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .174

Lafayette County . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .175

Allen Mill Pond Springs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .176

Lafayette Blue Spring . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .178

Mearson Spring . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .180

Owens Spring . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .182

Ruth Spring . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .184

Troy Spring . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .186

Turtle Spring . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .188

Lake County . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .190

Alexander Spring . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .191

Apopka Spring . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .194

vii
Bugg Spring . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .196

Leon County . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .199

Horn Spring . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .200

Natural Bridge Spring . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .202

Rhodes Springs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .205

Rhodes Springs No. 1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .205

Rhodes Springs No. 2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .206

Rhodes Springs No. 4 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .206

St. Marks River Rise . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .209

Levy County . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .211

Fanning Springs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .212

Levy Blue Spring . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .214

Manatee Spring . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .216

Madison County . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .218

Madison Blue Spring . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .219

Suwanacoochee Spring . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .221

Manatee County . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .223

Marion County . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .224

Fern Hammock Springs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .225

Juniper Springs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .227

Orange Spring . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .230

Rainbow Springs Group . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .232

Rainbow No. 1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .233

Rainbow No. 4 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .235

Rainbow No. 6 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .235

Bubbling Spring . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .235

Salt Springs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .237

Silver Glen Springs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .240

Silver Springs Group . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .243

Main Spring . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .244

Reception Hall . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .244

Blue Grotto . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .244

Orange County . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .247

Rock Springs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .248

Wekiwa Spring . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .251

Pasco County . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .254

Crystal Springs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .255

Pinellas County . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .258

Putnam County . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .259

Beecher Spring . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .260

Welaka Spring . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .262

Sarasota County . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .264

Warm Mineral Spring . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .265

Seminole County . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .268

Sanlando Springs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .269

Starbuck Spring . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .272

Sumter County . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .274

Fenney Spring . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .275

Gum Spring Main . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .277

viii
Suwannee County . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .279

Branford Spring . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .280

Ellaville Spring . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .282

Falmouth Spring . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .284

Ichetucknee Head Spring . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .286

Little River Spring . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .286

Running Springs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .288

Suwannee Spring . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .290

Telford Spring . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .293

Taylor County . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .295

Nutall Rise . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .296

Waldo Spring . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .298

Union County . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .301

Volusia County . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .302

DeLeon Spring . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .303

Volusia Blue Spring . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .306

Wakulla County . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .308

Cray's Rise . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .309

Newport Spring . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .311

Sheppard Spring . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .313

Spring Creek Springs Group . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .315

Spring Creek No. 1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .317

Spring Creek No. 2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .317

Wakulla Spring . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .318

Walton County . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .321

Morrison Spring . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .322

Washington County . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .324

Beckton Spring . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .325

Brunson Landing Spring . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .327

Cypress Spring . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .329

Washington Blue Spring Choctawhatchee . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .332

Washington Blue Springs Econfina . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .335

Williford Spring . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .338

Springs Information Resources on the Web . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .341

References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .343

Appendix A - Glossary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .349

Appendix B - Florida Springs Locations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .359

Appendix B 1 - Springs visited by FGS springs teams . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .359

Appendix B 2 - Location of additional known or reported

springs in Florida not visited by FGS spring teams . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .371

Appendix C - Descriptions of additional springs visited by FGS spring teams . . . . . . . . .379

Figures

1. Old Florida spring photos and momentos . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .2

2. Florida Springs Task Force at Salt Springs in 2003 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .6

3. Location of Florida's springs. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .10

4. Native American artifacts from Florida Springs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .12

ix
5. Generalized geologic map of Florida . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .16

6. Karst areas related to first magnitude springs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .17

7. Example of the Florida Aquifer Vulnerability Assessment (FAVA) . . . . . . . . . . . . . .18

8. Median nitrate concentrations in 13 selected first magnitude springs in Florida . . .19

9. Idealized springshed delineation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .21

10. Potentiometric map of springshed . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .22

11. Offshore springs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .26

12. Known offshore springs in the Florida Big Bend Region . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .27

13. The FGS Spring Sampling Team, 2001 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .28

14. SCUBA diver in Silver Springs (photo by G. Maddox) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .37

15. Springs visited by FGS in Alachua County . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .38

16. Hornsby Spring (photo by T. Scott) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .39

17. Poe Spring (photo by R. Means) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .41

18. Santa Fe River Rise (photo by T. Scott) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .44

19. Treehouse Spring (photo by J. Stevenson) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .46

20. Springs visited by FGS in Bay County . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .48

21. Gainer Springs Group Vent 1C (photo by T. Scott) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .49

22. Gainer Springs Group Vent 2 (photo by T. Scott) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .50

23. Gainer Springs Group Fracture (photo by H. Means) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .51

24. Springs visited by FGS in Bradford County . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .53

25. Springs visited by FGS in Calhoun County . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .54

26. Springs visited by FGS in Citrus County . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .55

27. Chassahowitzka Main Spring (photo by R. Means) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .56

28. Chassahowitzka No. 1 (photo by R. Meegan) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .56

29. Citrus Blue Spring (photo by R. Means) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .59

30. Homosassa Springs Group (photo by H. Means) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .61

31. Kings Bay Springs Group, Hunter Spring (photo by R. Meegan) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .64

32. Kings Bay Springs Group, Tarpon Hole Spring (photo by R. Means) . . . . . . . . . . . . .64

33. Springs visited by FGS in Clay County . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .67

34. Green Cove Springs (photo by T. Scott) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .68

35. Springs visited by FGS in Columbia County . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .71

36. Columbia Spring (photo by D. Hornsby) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .72

37. Ichetucknee Springs Group, Ichetucknee Head Spring (photo by T. Scott) . . . . . . . .74

38. Ichetucknee Springs Group, Blue Hole Spring (photo by T. Scott) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .74

39. Santa Fe Spring (photo by T. Scott) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .78

40. Springs visited by FGS in Dixie County . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .80

41. Copper Spring No. 2 (photo by R. Means) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .81

42. Guaranto Spring (photo by R. Means) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .84

43. Steinhatchee River Rise (photo by R. Means) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .86

44. Springs visited by FGS in Duval County . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .88

45. Springs visited by FGS in Franklin County . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .89

46. Springs visited by FGS in Gadsden County . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .90

47. Springs visited by FGS in Gilchrist County . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .91

48. Devil's Ear Spring (photo by H. Means) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .92

49. Gilchrist Blue Spring (photo by R. Means) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .95

50. Ginnie Spring (photo by H. Means) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .97

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51. Hart Springs (photo by T. Scott) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .99

52. Otter Spring (photo by H. Means) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .102

53. Rock Bluff Springs (photo by H. Means) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .104

54. Siphon Creek Rise (photo by T. Scott) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .107

55. Sun Springs (photo by H. Means) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .109

56. Springs visited by FGS in Hamilton County . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .112

57. Alapaha River Rise (photo by T. Scott) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .113

58. Holton Creek Rise (photo by T. Scott) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .115

59. Rossetter Spring (photo by H. Means) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .117

60. Springs visited by FGS in Hernando County . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .119

61. Gator Spring (photo by R. Means) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .120

62. Little Spring (photo by R. Means) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .122

63. Magnolia Spring (photo by R. Means) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .125

64. Hernando Salt Springs (photo by R. Means) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .128

65. Weeki Wachee Spring (photo by R. Means) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .131

66. Springs visited by FGS in Hillsborough County . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .133

67. Buckhorn Main Spring (photo by R. Means) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .134

68. Lithia Spring Major (photo by R. Means) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .137

69. Sulphur Spring circa 1930 (anonymous) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .140

70. Sulphur Spring (photo by R. Means) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .140

71. Springs visited by FGS in Holmes County . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .143

72. Holmes Blue Spring (photo by R. Meegan) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .144

73. Ponce de Leon Springs (photo by R. Means) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .146

74. Springs visited by FGS in Jackson County . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .149

75. Baltzell Spring (photo by R. Means) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .150

76. Blue Hole (photo by R. Means) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .152

77. Hays Spring (photo by R. Means) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .154

78. Jackson Blue Spring (photo by T. Scott) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .156

79. Jackson Blue Spring aerial photo (photo by T. Scott) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .156

80. Shangri-La Springs (photo by R. Means) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .159

81. Black Spring (photo by R. Means) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .161

82. Double Spring (photo by R. Means) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .163

83. Gadsen Spring (photo by R. Means) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .165

84. Mill Pond Spring (photo by R. Means) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .167

85. Springboard Spring (photo by R. Means) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .169

86. Springs visited by FGS in Jefferson County . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .171

87. Wacissa Springs Group, Big Spring (Big Blue Spring) (photo by R. Means) . . . . . .172

88. Springs visited by FGS in Lafayette County . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .175

89. Allen Mill Pond Springs (photo by R. Means) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .176

90. Lafayette Blue Spring (photo by T. Scott) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .178

91. Mearson Spring (photo by D. Hornsby) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .180

92. Owens Spring (photo by R. Means) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .182

93. Ruth Spring (photo by R. Means) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .184

94. Troy Spring (photo by T. Scott) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .186

95. Turtle Spring (photo by R. Means) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .188

96. Springs visited by FGS in Lake County . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .190

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97. Alexander Spring (photo by T. Scott) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .191

98. Alexander Spring aerial photo (photo by H. Means) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .192

99. Apopka Spring (photo by R. Means) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .194

100. Bugg Spring (photo by T. Scott) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .196

101. Springs visited by FGS in Leon County . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .199

102. Horn Spring (photo by H. Means) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .200

103. Natural Bridge Spring (photo by R. Means) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .202

104. Rhodes Spring No. 4 (photo by H. Means) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .205

105. St. Marks River Rise (photo by H. Means) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .209

106. Springs visited by FGS in Levy County . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .211

107. Fanning Springs (photo by T. Scott) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .212

108. Levy Blue Spring (photo by T. Scott) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .214

109. Manatee Spring (photo by T. Scott) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .216

110. Springs visited by FGS in Madison County . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .218

111. Madison Blue Spring (photo by T. Scott) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .219

112. Suwanacoochee Spring (photo by R. Means) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .221

113. Srings visited by FGS in Manatee County . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .223

114. Springs visited by FGS in Marion County . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .224

115. Fern Hammock Springs (photo by T. Scott) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .225

116. Juniper Springs (photo by H. Means) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .227

117. Orange Spring (photo by R. Means) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .230

118. Rainbow Springs Group aerial photo (photo by H. Means) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .232

119. Rainbow Springs Group head spring (photo by T. Scott) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .232

120. Rainbow Springs Group rocks underwater (photo by T. Scott) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .233

121. Salt Springs (photo by T. Scott) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .237

122. Silver Glen Springs circa 1930 (anonymous) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .240

123. Silver Glen Springs (photo by T. Scott) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .240

124. Silver Springs Group, Main Spring aerial photo (photo by H. Means) . . . . . . . . . . .243

125. Silver Springs Group, Main Spring (photo by Steve Specht) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .243

126. Springs visited by FGS in Orange County . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .247

127. Rock Springs (photo by T. Scott) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .248

128. Wekiwa Spring (photo by T. Scott) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .251

129. Springs visited by FGS in Pasco County . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .254

130. Crystal Spring (photo by H. Means) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .255

131. Springs visited by FGS in Pinellas County . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .258

132. Springs visited by FGS in Putnam County . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .259

133. Beecher Spring (photo by R. Means) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .260

134. Welaka Spring (photo by H. Means) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .262

135. Springs visited by FGS in Sarasota County . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .264

136. Warm Mineral Spring (photo by R. Means) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .265

137. Springs visited by FGS in Seminole County . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .268

138. Sanlando Springs (photo by R. Means) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .269

139. Starbuck Spring (photo by R. Means) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .272

140. Springs visited by FGS in Sumter County . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .274

141. Fenney Spring (photo by R. Means) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .275

142. Gum Springs Main (photo by R. Means) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .277

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143. Springs visited by FGS in Suwannee County . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .279

144. Branford Spring (photo by T. Scott) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .280

145. Ellaville Spring (photo by T. Scott) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .282

146. Falmouth Spring (photo by T. Scott) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .284

147. Little River Spring (photo by R. Means) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .286

148. East Running Springs (photo by R. Means) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .288

149. Suwannee Springs (photo by R. Means) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .290

150. Telford Spring (photo by R. Means) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .293

151. Springs visited by FGS in Taylor County . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .295

152. Nutall Rise (photo by R. Means) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .296

153. Waldo Spring (photo by R. Means) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .298

154. Springs visited by FGS in Union County . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .301

155. Springs visited by FGS in Volusia County . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .302

156. DeLeon Spring (photo by T. Scott) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .303

157. Volusia Blue Spring (photo by T. Scott) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .306

158. Springs visited by FGS in Wakulla County . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .308

159. Cray's Rise (photo by R. Means) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .309

160. Newport Spring (photo by T. Scott) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .311

161. Sheppard Spring (photo by R. Means) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .313

162. Spring Creek Springs Group (photo by J. Stevenson) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .315

163. Wakulla Spring (photo by T. Scott) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .318

164. Spring visited by FGS in Walton County . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .321

165. Morrison Spring (photo by R. Means) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .322

166. Springs visited by FGS in Washington County . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .324

167. Beckton Spring (photo by H. Means) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .325

168. Brunson Landing Spring (photo by R. Means) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .327

169. Cypress Spring (photo by T. Scott) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .329

170. Washington Blue Spring Choctawhatchee (photo by R. Means) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .332

171. Washington Blue Spring Econfina (photo by R. Means) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .335

172. Williford Spring (photo by R. Means) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .338

Tables

1. Florida's spring classification system (from Copeland, 2003) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .11

2. List of analytes sampled at first magnitude springs and measured by the FDEP

laboratory for the Springs Initiative during Fall 2001, Winter 2002,

and Spring 2002 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .30

3. Units of measurement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .32

4. Hornsby Spring water quality analyses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .40

5. Hornsby Spring bacteriological analyses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .40

6. Poe Spring water quality analyses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .42

7. Poe Spring bacteriological analyses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .43

8. Santa Fe River Rise water quality analyses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .45

9. Santa Fe River Rise bacteriological analyses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .45

10. Treehouse Spring water quality analyses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .47

11. Treehouse Spring bacteriological analyses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .47

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12. Gainer Springs Group water quality analyses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .52

13. Gainer Springs Group bacteriological analyses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .52

14. Chasahowitzka Springs Group bacteriological analyses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .57

15. Chassahowitzka Springs Group water quality analyses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .58

16. Citrus Blue Spring water quality analyses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .60

17. Citrus Blue Spring bacteriological analyses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .60

18. Homosassa Springs Group water quality analyses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .62

19. Homosassa Springs Group bacteriological analyses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .63

20. Kings Bay Springs Group water quality analyses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .66

21. Kings Bay Springs Group bacteriological analyses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .66

22. Green Cove Spring water quality analyses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .69

23. Green Cove Spring bacteriological analyses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .70

24. Columbia Spring water quality analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .73

25. Columbia Spring bacteriological analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .73

26. Ichetucknee Springs Group water quality analyses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .76

27. Ichetucknee Springs Group bacteriological analyses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .77

28. Santa Fe Spring water quality analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .79

29. Santa Fe Spring bacteriological analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .79

30. Copper Spring water quality analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .82

31. Copper Spring bacteriological analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .82

32. Guaranto Spring water quality analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .85

33. Guaranto Spring bacteriological analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .85

34. Steinhatchee River Rise water quality analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .87

35. Steinhatchee River Rise bacteriological analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .87

36. Devil's Ear Spring water quality analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .93

37. Devil's Ear Spring bacteriological analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .93

38. Gilchrist Blue Spring water quality analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .96

39. Gilchrist Blue Spring bacteriological analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .96

40. Ginnie Spring water quality analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .98

41. Ginnie Spring bacteriological analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .98

42. Hart Spring water quality analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .100

43. Hart Spring bacteriological analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .101

44. Otter Spring water quality analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .103

45. Otter Spring bacteriological analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .103

46. Rock Bluff Springs water quality analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .105

47. Rock Bluff Springs bacteriological analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .106

48. Siphon Creek Rise water quality analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .108

49. Siphon Creek Rise bacteriological analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .108

50. Sun Springs water quality analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .110

51. Sun Springs bacteriological analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .110

52. Alapaha River Rise water quality analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .114

53. Alapaha River Rise bacteriological analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .114

54. Holton Creek Rise water quality analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .116

55. Holton Creek Rise bacteriological analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .116

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56. Rossetter Spring water quality analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .118

57. Rossetter Spring bacteriological analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .118

58. Gator Spring water quality analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .121

59. Gator Spring bacteriological analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .121

60. Little Spring water quality analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .123

61. Little Spring bacteriological analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .124

62. Magnolia Spring water quality analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .126

63. Magnolia Spring bacteriological analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .127

64. Hernando Salt Spring water quality analyses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .129

65. Hernando Salt Spring bacteriological analyses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .130

66. Weeki Wachee Spring water quality analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .132

67. Weeki Wachee Spring bacteriological analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .132

68. Buckhorn Main Spring water quality analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .135

69. Buckhorn Main Spring bacteriological analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .136

70. Lithia Spring Major water quality analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .138

71. Lithia Spring Major bacteriological analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .139

72. Sulphur Spring bacteriological analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .141

73. Sulphur Spring water quality analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .142

74. Holmes Blue Spring water quality analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .145

75. Holmes Blue Spring bacteriological analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .145

76. Ponce de Leon Springs water quality analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .147

77. Ponce de Leon Springs bacteriological analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .148

78. Baltzell Spring water quality analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .151

79. Baltzell Spring bacteriological analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .151

80. Blue Hole Spring water quality analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .153

81. Blue Hole Spring bacteriological analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .153

82. Hays Spring water quality analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .155

83. Hays Spring bacteriological analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .155

84. Jackson Blue Spring water quality analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .157

85. Jackson Blue Spring bacteriological analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .158

86. Shangri-La Spring water quality analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .160

87. Shangri-La Spring bacteriological analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .160

88. Spring Lake Springs, Black Spring water quality analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .162

89. Spring Lake Springs, Black Spring bacteriological analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .163

90. Spring Lake Springs, Double Spring water quality analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .164

91. Spring Lake Springs, Double Spring bacteriological analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .164

92. Spring Lake Springs, Gadsen Spring water quality analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .166

93. Spring Lake Springs, Gadsen Spring bacteriological analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .166

94. Spring Lake Springs, Mill Pond Spring water quality analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .168

95. Spring Lake Springs, Mill Pond Spring bacteriological analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .168

96. Spring Lake Springs, Springboard Spring water quality analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . .170

97. Spring Lake Springs, Springboard Spring bacteriological analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . .170

98. Wacissa Springs Group water quality analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .173

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99. Wacissa Springs Group bacteriological analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .174

100. Allen Mill Pond Springs water quality analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .177

101. Allen Mill Pond Springs bacteriological analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .177

102. Lafayette Blue Spring water quality analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .179

103. Lafayette Blue Spring bacteriological analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .179

104. Mearson Spring water quality analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .181

105. Mearson Spring bacteriological analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .181

106. Owens Spring water quality analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .183

107. Owens Spring bacteriological analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .183

108. Ruth Spring water quality analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .185

109. Ruth Spring bacteriological analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .185

110. Troy Spring water quality analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .187

111. Troy Spring bacteriological analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .187

112. Turtle Spring water quality analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .189

113. Turtle Spring bacteriological analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .189

114. Alexander Spring water quality analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .193

115. Alexander Spring bacteriological analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .193

116. Apopka Spring water quality analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .195

117. Apopka Spring bacteriological analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .195

118. Bugg Spring water quality analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .197

119. Bugg Spring bacteriological analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .198

120. Horn Spring water quality analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .201

121. Horn Spring bacteriological analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .201

122. Natural Bridge Spring water quality analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .203

123. Natural Bridge Spring bacteriological analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .204

124. Rhodes Springs water quality analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .207

125. Rhodes Springs bacteriological analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .208

126. St. Marks River Rise water quality analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .210

127. St. Marks River Rise bacteriological analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .210

128. Fanning Springs water quality analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .213

129. Fanning Springs bacteriological analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .213

130. Levy Blue Spring water quality analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .215

131. Levy Blue Spring bacteriological analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .215

132. Manatee Spring water quality analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .217

133. Manatee Spring bacteriological analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .217

134. Madison Blue Spring water quality analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .220

135. Madison Blue Spring bacteriological analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .220

136. Suwanacoochee Spring water quality analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .222

137. Suwanacoochee Spring bacteriological analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .222

138. Fern Hammock Springs water quality analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .226

139. Fern Hammock Springs bacteriological analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .226

140. Juniper Springs water quality analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .228

141. Juniper Springs bacteriological analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .228

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142. Orange Spring water quality analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .231

143. Orange Spring bacteriological analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .231

144. Rainbow Springs Group water quality analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .234

145. Rainbow Springs Group bacteriological analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .235

146. Salt Springs water quality analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .238

147. Salt Springs bacteriological analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .239

148. Silver Glen Springs bacteriological analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .241

149. Silver Glen Springs water quality analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .242

150. Silver Springs Group bacteriological analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .245

151. Silver Springs Group water quality analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .246

152. Rock Springs water quality analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .249

153. Rock Springs bacteriological analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .250

154. Wekiwa Spring water quality analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .252

155. Wekiwa Spring bacteriological analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .253

156. Crystal Springs water quality analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .256

157. Crystal Springs bacteriological analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .257

158. Beecher Spring water quality analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .261

159. Beecher Spring bacteriological analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .261

160. Welaka Spring water quality analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .263

161. Welaka Spring bacteriological analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .263

162. Warm Mineral Spring water quality analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .266

163. Warm Mineral Spring bacteriological analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .267

164. Sanlando Spring water quality analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .270

165. Sanlando Spring bacteriological analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .271

166. Starbuck Spring water quality analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .273

167. Starbuck Spring bacteriological analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .273

168. Fenney Spring water quality analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .276

169. Fenney Spring bacteriological analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .276

170. Gum Springs Main water quality analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .278

171. Gum Springs Main bacteriological analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .278

172. Branford Spring water quality analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .281

173. Branford Spring bacteriological analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .281

174. Ellaville Spring water quality analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .283

175. Ellaville Spring bacteriological analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .283

176. Falmouth Spring water quality analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .285

177. Falmouth Spring bacteriological analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .285

178. Little River Spring water quality analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .287

179. Little River Spring bacteriological analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .287

180. Running Springs bacteriological analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .289

181. Running Springs water quality analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .289

182. Suwannee Springs water quality analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .291

183. Suwannee Springs bacteriological analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .292

184. Telford Spring water quality analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .294

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185. Telford Spring bacteriological analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .294

186. Nutall Rise water quality analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .297

187. Nutall Rise bacteriological analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .297

188. Waldo Spring water quality analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .299

189. Waldo Spring bacteriological analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .300

190. DeLeon Spring water quality analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .304

191. DeLeon Spring bacteriological analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .305

192. Volusia Blue Spring water quality analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .307

193. Volusia Blue Spring bacteriological analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .307

194. Cray's Rise water quality analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .310

195. Cray's Rise bacteriological analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .310

196. Newport Spring water quality analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .312

197. Newport Spring bacteriological analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .312

198. Sheppard Spring water quality analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .314

199. Sheppard Spring bacteriological analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .314

200. Spring Creek Springs Group water quality analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .316

201. Spring Creek Springs Group bacteriological analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .317

202. Wakulla Spring water quality analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .319

203. Wakulla Spring bacteriological analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .320

204. Morrison Spring water quality analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .323

205. Morrison Spring bacteriological analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .323

206. Beckton Spring water quality analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .326

207. Beckton Spring bacteriological analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .326

208. Brunson Landing Spring water quality analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .328

209. Brunson Landing Spring bacteriological analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .328

210. Cypress Spring water quality analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .330

211. Cypress Spring bacteriological analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .331

212. Washington Blue Spring Choctawhatchee water quality analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . .333

213. Washington Blue Spring Choctawhatchee bacteriological analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . .334

214. Washington Blue Spring Econfina water quality analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .336

215. Washington Blue Spring Econfina bacteriological analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .337

216. Williford Spring water quality analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .339

217. Williford Spring bacteriological analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .340

xviii
SPRINGS OF FLORIDA

by 

Thomas M. Scott (PG #99), Guy H. Means,

Rebecca P. Meegan, Ryan C. Means, 

Sam B. Upchurch, R. E. Copeland, 

James Jones, Tina Roberts, Alan Willet

INTRODUCTION

The bank was dense with magnolia and loblolly bay, sweet gum and gray-barked ash. He

went down to the spring in the cool darkness of their shadows. A sharp pleasure came over

him. This was a secret and a lovely place. - Marjory Kinnan Rawlings, The Yearling, 1938

Mysterious, magical, even "awesome" - springs elicit an emotional response from nearly everyone who peers into their crystalline depths. The clear, azure waters of Florida's

springs have long been a focus of daily life during the humid, hot months of the year. Many

Floridians have a lifetime of memories surrounding our springs. Florida's often warm,

humid weather rendered the state's springs a welcome relief from the effects of the climate.

Many children, on a hot summer day, begged their parents to take them to those cool, clear

inviting pools so that, after hours in the water, the air's warmth actually felt good! The draw

of the mysterious, pristine water issuing from caves and sand boils was unmistakable. Visit

any spring during the muggy months and you will find people of all ages partaking of

Nature's soothing remedy - spring water! Marjory Stoneman Douglas, the grandame of

Florida environmentalists, stated that "Springs are bowls of liquid light." Writer and

author Al Burt observed that "Springs add a melody to the land."

Springs and spring runs have been a focal point of life from prehistoric times to the present. Undoubtedly, the ancient flow of cool, fresh water attracted animals now long absent

from Florida's landscape. Many a diver has recovered fossil remains from the state's spring

runs and wondered what the forest must have looked like when mastodons and giant sloths

roamed the spring-run lowlands.

Human artifacts, found in widespread areas of the state, attest to the importance of

springs to Florida's earliest inhabitants. The explorers of Florida, from Ponce de Leon to

John and William Bartram and others, often mentioned the subterranean discharges of

fresh water that were scattered across central and northern Florida. As colonists and settlers began to inhabit Florida, springs continued to be the focus of human activity, becoming sites of missions, towns and steamboat landings. Spring runs provided power for gristmills. Baptisms were held in the clear, cool waters and the springs often served as water

supplies for local residents. Today, even bottled water producers are interested in utilizing

these waters. Some springs have been valued for their purported therapeutic effects, and

people flocked to them to soak in the medicinal waters (Figure 1).

Recreational opportunities provided by the state's springs are numerous. Swimming,

snorkeling, diving and canoeing are among the most common activities centering around

Florida's springs. The springs and spring runs are magnets for wildlife and, subsequently,

BULLETIN NO. 66

1
FLORIDA GEOLOGICAL SURVEY

2

Figure 1. Old Florida spring photos and momentos. Clockwise from top left, interior of bath house at White

Springs, Hamilton County, 1920s; exterior of bath house at White Springs; Silver Springs, Marion County, auto decal, 1950s;

Warm Mineral Springs, Sarasota County, brochure, 1950s; Sulphur Spring, Hillsborough County, early 1900s; boating at Troy

Spring, Lafayette County, 1960s; cars at Silver Springs, 1930s; Panacea Mineral Springs Motel, Wakulla County 1930s.
draw many individuals and groups to view these animals in their natural surroundings. The

economic impact of the springs has been well documented (Bonn and Bell, 2003).

Ichetucknee, Wakulla, Homosassa and Volusia Blue Springs alone generated more than $65

million in 2002.

Spring water is a natural discharge that comes primarily from the Floridan aquifer system, the state's primary aquifer. The springs provide a "window" into the aquifer, allowing

for a measure of the health of the aquifer. Chemical and biological constituents that enter

the aquifer through recharge processes may affect the water quality, flora and fauna of

springs and spring runs. As water quality in the aquifer has declined, the flora and fauna

associated with the springs and cave systems have been negatively affected. The change in

water quality is a direct result of Florida's increased population and changed land-use patterns. The state's population has increased from approximately two million in 1940 to more

than 17 million in 2004 and is projected to exceed 24 million by 2030. These changes and the

subsequent degradation of our springs have led to the efforts to protect and restore Florida's

treasured springs.

In 1947, the Florida Geological Survey (FGS) published the first Springs of Florida bulletin which documented the major and important springs in the state (Ferguson et al., 1947).

This publication was revised in 1977, with many previously undocumented springs and

many new water-quality analyses being added (Rosenau et al., 1977). The Florida

Geological Survey's report on first magnitude springs (Scott et al., 2002) was the initial step

in once again updating and revising the Springs of Florida bulletin. The new bulletin

includes the spring descriptions and water-quality analyses from Scott et al. (2002). Nearly

300 springs were described in 1977. As of 2004, more than 700 springs have been recognized

in the state and more are reported each year. To date, 33 first magnitude springs (with a

flow greater than 100 cubic feet per second or approximately 64.6 million gallons of water

per day) have been recognized in Florida, more than any other state or country (Rosenau et

al., 1977). Our springs are a unique and invaluable natural resource. A comprehensive

understanding of the spring systems will provide the basis for their protection and wise use.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

The authors wish to acknowledge a number of individuals and thank them for their

assistance in creating this volume. Gary Maddox, Laura Morse, Gail Sloane, Margaret

Murray, Tom Biernacki, Cindy Cosper, Andy Roach, Paul Hansard, and Jay Silvanima from

the Florida Department of Environmental Protection (FDEP), Division of Water Resource

Management, Bureau of Watershed Management guided the spring water analyses effort.

Without their knowledge and experience, the sampling, analyses and data quality and delivery could not have been accomplished within the requisite timeframe.

We would also like to acknowledge the efforts of numerous people from various water

management districts and state parks who were so helpful in either collecting or helping to

collect data for this project. In particular, the authors wish to thank David Hornsby from

the Suwannee River Water Management District for contributing his time and expertise.

We also thank Angela Chelette, Tom Pratt, Tony Countryman and Nick Wooten from the

Northwest Florida Water Management District; Eric DeHaven, David DeWitt, Joe Haber,

BULLETIN NO. 66

3
and Chris Tomlinson from the Southwest Florida Water Management District; David Toth,

Jim Peterson and Bill Osburn from the St. John's River Water Management District; Will

Ebaugh from the U.S. Forest Service; Richard Harris from Blue Springs State Park; Sandy

Cook from Wakulla Spring State Park; Larry Arrant from Suwannee River State Park; Sally

Lieb from Manatee Spring State Park; Alvin and Edith Hamlin, Lafayette Blue Spring;

Steve Davenport from Fanning Springs State Park; Mike Jacobs from Weeki Wachee

Springs; Steve Specht, Bob Gallager and Mike Young from Silver Springs; Guy Marwick

from the Silver River Museum; Robert LaMont from the Silver Springs State Park; Mark

Ludlow and Bill Maphis from Florida Caverns State Park; Boyd Blihovde and Rick "Bubba"

Owen from Wekiwa Springs State Park; the staff at Silver Glen Springs, Alexander Spring,

Juniper Spring and Fern Hammock Springs in the Ocala National Forest; Mark Wray of

Ginnie Springs Resort; Celeste and Hoch Shitama (Running Springs); the Branham family

(Bugg Spring); Amos Philman (Hart Spring); Ed Olman (Warm Mineral Spring); Jeffrey and

Trudy Williams (Manatee Mineral Spring); Harold Vickers (Cypress and Beckton Springs);

Jeffrey DiMaggio from Waccasassa Bay State Preserve; the land owners at Crystal Springs

and Meg Andronaco, who provided access to Crystal Springs. Joe Follman and Richard

Buchanan's Springs Fever website was a great help to us, and we appreciate their willingness to help. There are many other anonymous individuals whose efforts benefited this project.

Several individuals gave a significant amount of their personal time to lead FGS staff

into remote areas. William Shirling spent several days guiding us along Holmes Creek and

showing us the multitude of springs in that region. William Barton also spent time with FGS

springs teams, leading us to the Spring Lake area. To both of these individuals we are

greatly indebted. Joe Follman, author of Springs Fever, graciously provided his editorial

expertise.

Many thanks go to staff members of the Florida Geological Survey. Frank Rupert

organized the text, figures, tables and photographs into the digital format for publication.

John Marquez, Alan Baker, Andrew Rudin and Jim Cichon, provided cartographic expertise. Walt Schmidt, Jon Arthur, Rodney DeHan, Rick Green, Tom Greenalgh, Jackie Lloyd,

Frank Rupert and Steve Spencer reviewed the text and data, offering many suggestions and

corrections. Kenji Butler and James McClean spent time in the field with the springs teams.

Many FDEP employees assisted with this project. They are: Division of Resource

Assessment and Management, Bureau of Laboratories - Sampling Training: Russel

Frydenborg, Tom Frick. Bureau of Laboratories - Chemistry and Biology Analyses: Yuh-Hsu

Pan, Kate Brackett, Maria Gonzalez, Amzad Shaik, Harrison Walker, Chris Armour, Tom

Ebrahimizadeh, Chris Morgan, Colin Wright, Matt Curran, Dave Avrett, Rick Kimsey,

Latasha Fisher, Elena Koldacheva, Keith Tucker, Elliot Healy, Dawn Dolbee, Blanca Fach,

Ping Hua, Anna Blalock, Patsy Vichaikul, Akbar Cooper, Richard Johnson, Paula Peters,

Gary Dearman, Virginia Leavell, Ceceile Wight, Travis Tola, Dale Simmons, Latasha

Fisher, Rob Buda, Melva Campos, Karla Whiddon, and Daisys Tamayo. Bureau of

Watershed Management, Watershed Monitoring and Data Management Section: Tracy

Wade, Thomas Seal. Division of Waste Management: Bill Martin, David Meyers. We appreciate the efforts of all these individuals.

We would also like to thank individuals from the United States Geological Survey:

Stuart Tomlinson, Donna Schiffer, David Dale, Yvonne Stoker, Jack Regar, Hal Davis,

FLORIDA GEOLOGICAL SURVEY

4
Brian Katz and Trudy Phelps.

FGS would also like to thank the current and past members of the Florida Springs Task

Force. In particular we would like to thank Mike Bascom, new Chair of the Springs Task

Force and Coordinator of the Florida Springs Initiative for his continued support.

Finally, the Florida Geological Survey Springs Team Members wish to thank Jim

Stevenson for his tireless dedication to Florida's springs. Jim retired from the FDEP and

the Florida Springs Task Force as Chair during the course of this study. Jim's long career

with the Department ended much like it began, with a passion for protecting Florida's natural resources for future generations of Floridians to enjoy. Governor Jeb Bush and the former FDEP Secretary, David Struhs recognized Jim's achievements and honored him by

naming the highest award given to FDEP employees the Jim Stevenson Resource Manager

of the Year Award. Without Jim, our springs would not have a voice. Thank you, Jim!

DEFINITIONS AND TERMS

Many terms relating to hydrogeology and springs may be unfamiliar. Copeland (2003)

compiled a glossary of springs terms which is included in Appendix A. 

FLORIDA SPRINGS TASK FORCE

In 1999, David Struhs, Secretary of the Florida Department of Environmental

Protection (FDEP), directed Jim Stevenson of FDEP to form a multi-agency Florida Springs

Task Force (the first Springs Task Force - TF I) to recommend strategies to protect and

restore Florida's springs. The Task Force, consisting of 16 Floridians who represented one

federal and three state agencies, four water management districts, a state university, a

regional planning council, the business community, and private citizens, met monthly from

September 1999 to September 2000. These scientists, planners, and other citizens

exchanged information on the many factors that impact the viability of Florida's springs and

the ecosystems that the springs support. They listened to guest speakers with expertise in

topics relating to springs health. They discussed the conflicting environmental, social, and

economic interests that exist in all of Florida's spring basins. During the months that the

Task Force met, members developed recommendations for the preservation and restoration

of Florida's rich treasury of springs. The implementation of the recommendations will help

ensure that Florida's "bowls of liquid light" will sparkle for the grandchildren of the children

who play in Florida's springs today.

The Task Force produced a report for the Secretary entitled Florida's Springs,

Strategies for Protection and Restoration (Florida Springs Task Force, 2000). Armed with

this report, Governor Jeb Bush requested funding from the 2001 Florida Legislature to

begin the Florida Springs Initiative. Funding in the amount of $2.5 million was approved

to support projects for springs restoration, research and protection. The Florida Springs

Initiative is funded through the Florida Department of Environmental Protection where

projects in research and monitoring, public education and outreach, and landowner assistance are coordinated. The Governor's Springs Initiative is based on the 2000 Florida

Springs Task Force report.

In February 2000, the Springs Task Force sponsored the Florida Springs Conference,

BULLETIN NO. 66

5
Natural Gems - Troubled Waters, attended by over 300 people, including scientists, business

owners, representatives of environmental groups and residents from all over Florida. The

meeting was such a success that it was held again in February 2003, drawing even more

attendees. Future conferences are planned for every other year, the next one being in 2005.

The makeup of the Task Force has changed since its original members published the Task

Force Report. Less emphasis was placed on having members from the Florida Department

of Environmental Protection. As such, the second Springs Task Force (TF II) was created

and meeting frequency was reduced to quarterly. The meetings were held at different

spring locations around the state and served as a forum for exchanging information on ongoing projects and discussing future goals for the Florida Springs Initiative. In June 2003, Jim

Stevenson retired from FDEP and the Task Force. Mike Bascom succeeded Jim Stevenson

as the Springs Initiative Coordinator and Chairman of the Task Force. Mike implemented

several changes to the Task Force membership and created the current Task Force III (TF

III)(Figure 2).

Ms. Colleen Castille succeeded David Struhs as the Secretary of FDEP in March 2004.

Ms. Castille continues the support of the Florida Springs Initiative by the department.

FLORIDA GEOLOGICAL SURVEY

6

Figure 2.- Florida Springs Task Force at Salt Springs in 2003

(photo by T. Scott).
Task Force Members and Advisors

Task Force Chairman - Jim Stevenson, Division of State Lands, FDEP. TF I,II - current

citizen member TF III

Mike Bascom, Division of State Lands, FDEP, TF III

Technical Writer and Editor - Frances M. Hartnett,

Technical and Creative Writing Services

Task Force Members

Dianne McCommons Beck, FDEP, TF I

Jeff Bielling, Florida Department of Community Affairs, TF I, II, III

Greg Bitter, Withlacoochee Regional Planning Council, TF I

Bruce Day, Withlacoochee Regional Planning Council, TF I

Hal Davis, U.S. Geological Survey, TF I, II, III

Russel Frydenborg, Division of Resource Assessment and Management, FDEP, TF I,

current advisor

Jon Martin, University of Florida, TF I, II, III

Gregg Jones, Southwest Florida Water Management District, TF I, II

Jack Leppert, Citizen, TF I

Gary Maddox, Division of Water Resource Management, FDEP, TF I, current advisor

Pam McVety, Division of Recreation and Parks, FDEP, TF I, II, and currently a citizen

advisor

Dana Bryan, Division of Recreation and Parks, FDEP, TF III

Doug Munch, St. Johns River Water Management District, TF I, II, III

Tom Pratt, Northwest Florida Water Management District, TF I, II, III

Tom Scott, Florida Geological Survey, FDEP, TF I, current advisor

Wes Skiles, Karst Environmental Services, TF I, II III

Gary Maidhof, Citrus County, TF II, III

Brian McCord, Danone Waters of North America, TF II

Meg Andronaco, Zephyrhills, TF III

Kirk Webster, Suwannee River Water Management District, TF I, II, III

Kent Smith, Florida Fish and Wildlife Conservation Commission, TF II, III

Sam Upchurch, SDII Global Corporation, TF II, III

Kim Davis, Blue Spring Park, Inc., TF II

Don Bennink, North Florida Holsteins, Inc., TF II

Doug Shaw, The Nature Conservancy, TF II, III

Chuck Edwards, poultry farmer, TF III

Technical Advisors

Florida Department of Environmental Protection

Karl Kurka, Office of Water Policy

Kathleen Toolan, Office of General Counsel

Joe Hand, Division of Water Resource Management

Jennifer Jackson, Division of Water Resource Management

Jim McNeal, Division of Water Resource Management

Harley Means, Florida Geological Survey

Florida Department of Community Affairs

Richard Deadman

BULLETIN NO. 66

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Florida Department of Health

Tim Mayer

Florida Fish and Wildlife Conservation Commission

Kent Smith

Karst Environmental Services

Tom Morris

St. Johns River Water Management District

David Miracle

Bill Osburn

Suwannee River Water Management District

David Hornsby

US Fish and Wildlife Service

Jim Valade

CLASSIFICATION OF SPRINGS

There are two general types of springs in Florida, seeps (water-table springs) and karst

springs (artesian springs). Rainwater, percolating downward through permeable sediments, may encounter a much less permeable or impermeable formation, forcing the water

to move laterally. Eventually the water may reach the surface in a lower-lying area and

form a seep (for example the steephead seeps along the eastern side of the Apalachicola

River). Karst springs form when groundwater discharges to the surface through a karst

opening. Seeps may form in karst areas when water flow from the aquifer is more diffuse.

The vast majority of Florida's more than 700 identified springs and all of the first magnitude springs are karst springs.

Springs are most often classified based upon the average discharge of water. Individual

springs exhibit variable discharge depending upon rainfall, recharge and groundwater withdrawals within their recharge areas. One discharge measurement is enough to place a

spring into one of the eight magnitude categories. However, springs have dynamic flows. A

spring categorized as being a first-magnitude spring at one moment in time may not continue to remain in the same category. This can result in a spring being classified as a first

magnitude spring at one point in time and a second magnitude at another. A spring assigned

a magnitude when it was first described continued with that magnitude designation even

though the discharge may have changed considerably through time. The Florida Geological

Survey has suggested that the historical median of flow measurements be utilized in classifying spring magnitude. Therefore, the magnitude of the spring is to be based on the median value of all discharge measurements for the period of record and a historical category is

defined in the Florida Springs Classification System (Copeland, 2003).

The location of a discharge measurement is critical for defining the magnitude of a

spring. Whenever possible, a discharge measurement should be restricted to a vent or seep;

however, this is often impractical or logistically impossible. For example, the only place to

take a measurement may be in a spring run downstream where multiple springs have discharged into the run. For this reason, whenever a discharge measurement or water sample

is taken, the springs (vents or seeps) included in the measurement need to be reported. The

exact location of the discharge measurement (using a Global Positioning System with

approved locational specifications) and a standardized locational reference point for each

measurement is encouraged (Copeland, 2003). 

FLORIDA GEOLOGICAL SURVEY

8
The flow-based classification listed below is adapted from Meinzer (1927):

Magnitude Average Flow (Discharge)

1 100 cfs or more (64.6 mgd or more) cfs = cubic feet per second

2 10 to 100 cfs (6.46 to 64.6 mgd) mgd = million gallons per day

3 1 to 10 cfs (0.646 to 6.46 mgd) gpm = gallons per minute

4 100 gpm to 1 cfs (448 gpm) pint/min = pints per minute

5 10 to 100 gpm

6 1 to 10 gpm

7 1 pint to 1 gpm

8 Less than 1 pint/min

Current Florida Geological Survey springs tabulations list 720 springs including 33 first

magnitude, 191 second magnitude and 151 third magnitude springs (Figure 3). The list

includes individual springs, spring groups, karst windows and river rises (Appendix B).

Wilson and Skiles (1989) believe this listing has created some confusion due to the grouping

of hydrogeologically unrelated springs into groups and the inclusion of river rises and karst

windows. Often, individual springs comprising a group do not have the same water source

region or spring recharge basin (springshed) and are not hydrogeologically related. The

individual spring vents within a group may not discharge enough water to be classed as first

magnitude. Wilson and Skiles (1989) recommended grouping only hydrogeologically related springs into spring groups. However, for the purposes of this report, spring groups are

used in the report as presented by Rosenau et al. (1977) and by the Florida Springs Task

Force (2000).

River rises are the resurgence of river water that descended underground through a

sinkhole some distance away. Wilson and Skiles (1989) state that the resurging water may

contain a significant portion of aquifer water but is primarily river water and therefore

should not be classified as a spring. Due to the inclusion of a significant addition of groundwater, river rises have continued to be considered as springs for this report.

Karst windows form when the roof of a cave collapses exposing an underground stream

for a short distance. Four karst windows are included in this report.

Future springshed (spring recharge basin) delineations will identify the hydrogeological

relationships between springs, facilitating changes in the springs list. The identification of

these hydrogeological relationships will be carried out considering the recommendations put

forth by Wilson and Skiles (1989) and by hydrogeologists representing government agencies,

the private sector and academia.

The Florida spring classification system (Copeland, 2003) (Table 1) is based on an

assumption that karst activities have influenced almost all springs in Florida. Thus the system is based on geomorphology. Because of the simplicity of the system, the use of spring

descriptors is encouraged. 

Under this system, all springs in Florida can be classified into one of four categories,

based on the spring's point of discharge. Is the point of discharge a vent or is it a seep and

BULLETIN NO. 66

9
is the point of discharge located onshore or offshore? Since all springs are either vents or

seeps, the classification can be simplified into the following:

Vent Seep

Onshore Onshore

Offshore Offshore

Spring throat opening size is an extremely important characteristic of Florida springs.

A spring vent is defined as an opening that concentrates ground-water discharge to the

Earth's surface, including the bottom of the ocean. The opening is significantly larger than

that of the average pore space of the surrounding aquifer matrix. As an example, a vent

occasionally is considered to be a cave, and ground-water flow from the vent is typically turbulent. On the other hand, a spring seep is composed of one or more small openings in which

water discharges diffusely (or "oozes") from the ground-water environment. The diffuse discharge originates from the intergranular pore spaces in the aquifer matrix. Flow is typically laminar.

FLORIDA GEOLOGICAL SURVEY

10

Figure 3. Location of Florida's springs.
Using this scheme, individual springs type can be accurately classified by defining the

type of spring and the magnitude.

Historically, there have been inconsistencies in the naming of springs. We have

attempted to make names more precise in this volume. For example, a spring site that physically has one vent is no longer referred to as springs - Wakulla Springs becomes Wakulla

Spring. Also, if a river rise or a karst window was called a spring, the term river rise or

karst window now replaces "spring" in the name.

There are many "Blue Springs" in Florida. FDEP scientists have adopted the convention of referring to these springs with the county name placed before the name "Blue

Spring." Thus, Blue Spring in Jackson County becomes Jackson Blue Spring.

ARCHAEOLOGICAL AND PALEONTOLOGICAL

SIGNIFICANCE OF SPRINGS

Archaeological research has shown that Florida's springs have been important to

human inhabitants for thousands of years. Prehistoric peoples exploited the concentration

of resources found in and around springs. Fresh water, chert, clay, fish and game animals

were all available in and near springs.

Florida's first people, called paleoindians, left behind evidence of their culture in the

form of chert, bone and ivory tools that date to more than 12,000 years before present

(Figure 4) (Dunbar et al., 1988). These people coexisted with large, now extinct, megafaunal animals including mastodon, mammoth, ground sloth, giant beaver and giant armadillo. During the latest Pleistocene Epoch, 10,000 to 12,000 years ago, sea level was approximately 115 to 148 ft (35 to 45 m) below present levels (Balsillie and Donoghue, in preparation, 2004). Deep springs and sinkholes may have been some of the only sources of fresh

water in parts of ancient Florida. Investigations at Wakulla Spring, Hornsby Springs,

BULLETIN NO. 66

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Table 1. Florida's Spring Classification System.

(from Copeland, 2003)

Onshore Offshore

Vent Onshore Vent Offshore Vent

Examples: Examples:

Karst spring Offshore karst spring

Resurgence (River Rise) Unnamed offshore vent

Estavelle (intermittent 

resurgence or exsurgence) Offshore estavelle vent

Subaqueous riverine vent

Subaqueous lacustrine vent

Sand boil

Seep Onshore Seep Offshore Seep

Examples: Examples:

Subaerial riverine seep Unnamed offshore seep

Subaqueous lacustrine seep Offshore estavelle seep

SPRING
Ichetucknee Springs, Silver Springs and the Wacissa River - to name a few - have shown

that paleoindians lived around springs and utilized the resources of these areas (Tesar and

Jones, 2004; Neill, 1958; Balsillie et al., in press).

Silver Springs has long drawn curious visitors to its shores (Schmidt, 2001). Before

glass-bottom boat tours and water slides invaded this magnificent spring, prehistoric people

had discovered its beauty and abundant resources. Evidence of their occupation lies buried

in sediments in and around the spring. W. T. Neill (1958) discovered the tools of ancient

people in sand that was being excavated near the spring for use in the park. An excavation

of the site produced a stratified column with paleoindian artifacts at the base and evidence

of younger cultures on top. This is one of many such excavations that have taken place

around the state at different springs and documents the long history of human occupation

at springs.

Divers and spring visitors have reported finding chert tools and fossils in and around

Florida's numerous springs and spring runs for many years. In 1927, the Simpson family

began to investigate the bottom of the Ichetucknee River (Simpson, 1935). The Simpsons

recovered thousands of stone and bone artifacts along with numerous remains of extinct

Pleistocene animals. In the 1950s the sport of SCUBA diving made the aquatic world accessible. With this new technology, legendary diver Ben Waller began to survey the bottom of

many of central Florida's spring-fed rivers (Waller, 1983). He recognized quickly that these

springs and spring runs contained a long prehistoric record of human occupation spanning

some 12,000 years. After Ben's pioneering work, many others have followed and continue

to do so today.

More evidence of prehistoric human utilization of springs comes from Warm Mineral

FLORIDA GEOLOGICAL SURVEY

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Figure 4. Native American artifacts from Florida springs

(from the Coastal Plains Institute collection -photo by H. Means).
Springs, located in Sarasota County. Archaeologists recovered human remains from a ledge

located 43 ft (13 m) below the current water level that contained preserved brain material.

The remains were radiocarbon dated and produced an age of 10,000 +/- 200 years before

present (Royal and Clark, 1960). Other archaeological material and fossils were recovered

from this site, which has proven to be one of the most important archaeological sites in the

southeastern United States.

Florida's abundance of springs does not stop at its present shoreline. Florida has an

undocumented number of offshore springs that provided resources to prehistoric people and

wildlife when sea level was lower. Evidence for occupation of offshore sites has been discovered by researchers from the Florida State University Department of Anthropology. Dr.

Michael Faught and his students have conducted offshore surveys at and near some offshore

springs and have recovered an abundance of chert tools (Faught, in prep.). Although offshore springs may be discharging brackish to saline water today, they almost certainly discharged fresh water during times of lowered sea levels when prehistoric human occupation

occurred at these sites. Further investigation of Florida's offshore springs is needed to

assess the role that these springs play in the hydrogeology and archaeology of the state.

As the Pleistocene Epoch came to a close in Florida, many environmental changes were

taking place. The large megafaunal animals that once had roamed the Florida landscape

were becoming extinct. Global weather patterns changed, and sea level began to rise. As

these drastic changes occurred, Florida's human inhabitants had to adapt. As water tables

rose, springs became more abundant and people continued to exploit the resources in and

around the springs. Prehistoric peoples living around springs built large shell middens and

mounds as they disposed of the inedible portions of their food items and other waste.

Numerous examples of these mounds exist throughout the state with some of the best examples being located along spring runs that drain into the St. John's River, the King's Bay

Spring Group near Crystal River and the spring-fed Wacissa River system. Abundant supplies of fresh water, aquatic food sources, chert and clay sources made Florida's springs

highly desirable habitation sites.

Sediments in and around Florida's springs are time capsules that contain valuable

information about our environmental and cultural past. Prehistoric Floridians valued our

state's spring resources and now modern Floridians are the stewards of a tradition that has

lasted for more than 12,000 years. As our state's population continues to grow, more and

more people will be putting demands on our natural resources. It is our modern society's

responsibility to see that Florida's springs are preserved in their natural beauty and ecological health for future generations.

HYDROGEOLOGY OF FLORIDA SPRINGS

Florida enjoys a humid, subtropical climate throughout much of the state (Henry, 1998).

Rainfall, in the region of the major springs, ranges from 50 inches (127 cm) to 60 inches (152

cm) per year. As a result of this climate and the geologic framework of the state, Florida has

an abundance of fresh groundwater. Scott and Schmidt (2000) and Scott (2001) estimated

that more than 2.2 quadrillion gallons of fresh water are contained within the Floridan

aquifer system (FAS) in Florida. Only a very small percentage of the fresh water is available

as a renewable resource for human consumption.

BULLETIN NO. 66

13
The Florida peninsula is the exposed portion of the broad Florida Platform. The Florida

Platform, as measured between the 200 meter below sea level contour (more than 600 ft), is

more than 300 miles (483 km) wide. It extends more than 150 miles (240 km) westward

under the Gulf of Mexico offshore from Crystal River, and more than 70 miles (113 km)

under the Atlantic Ocean from Fernandina Beach. The present day Florida peninsula is less

than one half of the total platform.

The Florida Platform is composed of a thick sequence of variably permeable carbonate

sediments, limestone and dolostone, lying on older igneous, metamorphic and sedimentary

rocks. The Cenozoic carbonate sediments may exceed 4,000 ft (1,220 m) thick. A sequence

of sand, silt and clay with variable amounts of limestone and shell overlie the carbonate

sequence (see Scott [1992 a, b] for discussion of the Cenozoic sediment sequence and the geologic structure of the platform). In portions of the west-central and north-central peninsula and in the central panhandle, the carbonate rocks, predominantly limestone, occur at or

very near the surface. Away from these areas, the overlying sand, silt and clay sequence

becomes thicker. As the sediments compacted and were subjected to other geologic forces,

fractures formed. These fractures allowed water to move more freely through the sediments

and provided the template for the development of Florida's many cave systems. 

There are three major aquifer systems in Florida, The Floridan, the Intermediate and

the Surficial Aquifer Systems, all of which are very complex (Southeastern Geological

Society, 1986; Scott, 1992a). The Floridan aquifer system (FAS) occurs within a thick

sequence of permeable carbonate sediments (see Miller [1986] and Berndt et al. [1998] for

discussion of the FAS). In some areas, it is overlain by the intermediate aquifer system and

confining unit (IAS) which consists of carbonates, sand, silt and clay. The surficial aquifer

system (SAS) overlies the IAS, or the FAS where the IAS is absent, and is composed of sand,

shell and some carbonate. The vast majority of Florida's springs result from discharge from

the FAS. 

Natural recharge to the FAS by rainwater, made slightly acidic by carbon dioxide from

the atmosphere and organic acids in the soil, dissolved portions of the limestone and

enlarged naturally occurring fractures. The dissolution enhanced the permeability of the

sediments and formed cavities and caverns. Sinkholes formed by the collapse of overlying

sediments into the cavities. Occasionally, the collapse of the roof of a cave creates an opening to the land surface. See Lane (1986) for a description of sinkhole types common in

Florida.

Karst springs occur both onshore and offshore in Florida. Currently, little is known

about the offshore springs with the exception of the Spring Creek Group - the largest spring

group in Florida averaging more than one billion gallons of water discharged per day (maximum flow estimated at more than two billion gallons of water per day [Rosenau et al.,

1977]) (Lane, 2001). In order to better understand the water resources of the state, a water

budget needs to include a comprehensive assessment of the total amount of recharge and

discharge occurring to and from the aquifer. To aid in this characterization, the FGS has initiated a program to investigate the occurrence, discharge and water quality of the offshore

springs.

Florida's springs occur primarily in the northern two-thirds of the peninsula and the

FLORIDA GEOLOGICAL SURVEY

14
central panhandle where carbonate rocks are at or near the land surface (Figure 5). All of

these springs produce water from the upper FAS (Berndt et al., 1998) which consists of sediments that range in age from Late Eocene (approximately 38 - 36 million years old [my]) to

mid-Oligocene (approximately 33 my). Miocene to Pleistocene sediments (24 my to 10,000

years) often are exposed in the springs.

The geomorphology (physiography) of the state, coupled with the geologic framework,

controls the distribution of springs. The springs occur in areas where karst features (for

example, sinkholes and caves) are common, the potentiometric surface of the FAS is high

enough and the surface elevations are low enough to allow groundwater to flow at the surface. These areas are designated karst plains, karst hills and karst hills and valleys on

Figure 6. The state's springs occur primarily within the Ocala Karst District and the

Dougherty Karst Plain District (Scott, in preparation, 2004). Other springs, including

Alexander, Silver Glen and Volusia Blue, occur in the Central Lakes District (Scott, in

preparation, 2004). Springs generally occur in lowlands near rivers and streams. There are

a number of springs known to flow from vents beneath rivers and many more are thought

to exist. Hornsby and Ceryak (1998) identified many newly recognized springs that occur in

the channels of the Suwannee and Santa Fe Rivers. Springs that have yet to be described

have been found beneath the Apalachicola River between Gadsden and Jackson Counties

(H. Means, personal communication, 2004).

Recharge to the FAS occurs over approximately 55% of the state (Berndt et al., 1998).

Recharge rates vary from less than one inch (2.54 cm) per year to more than ten inches (25.4

cm) per year. Recharge water entering the upper FAS that eventually discharges from a

spring has a variable residence time. Katz et al. (2001) and Katz (2004) found that water

flowing from larger springs had an average ground-water residence time of more than 20

years and may reflect the mixing of older and younger waters.

Discharge, water quality and temperature of springs remain reasonably stable over

extended periods of time (Berndt et al., 1998). However, because discharge rates are driven by the rate of recharge, climatic fluctuations often have a major effect on spring flow.

During 1998 - 2002, Florida suffered a major drought with a rainfall deficit totaling

more than 50 inches (127 cm). The resulting reduction in recharge from the drought and

normal withdrawals caused a lowering of the potentiometric surface in the FAS. Many first

magnitude springs experienced a significant flow reduction. Some springs, such as Hornsby

Spring, ceased flowing completely. The flow data given for each first order magnitude spring

(see individual spring descriptions) reflect the drought-influenced flows. Some springs may

reverse flow in response to river water levels. Higher river levels may cause a reversal of

flow that introduces river water into the aquifer. Once river levels drop, the spring flow

resumes, pumping dark, tannic water until the river water is forced from the aquifer. The

appearance of the springs also changed during the drought as river and lake levels declined

reducing the size of the spring water body and exposing more sediments along the banks.

Factors affecting quality and quantity of spring water include the distribution of karst

features within a springshed, thickness of confining units, soil characteristics, topography,

potentiometric surfaces, as well as others. The Florida Geological Survey is currently

developing a Geographic Information System (GIS) model to estimate the relative vulneraBULLETIN NO. 66

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FLORIDA GEOLOGICAL SURVEY

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Figure 5. Generalized geologic map of Florida (modified from Scott et al., 2001).
BULLETIN NO. 66

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Figure 6. Karst areas related to first magnitude springs

(modified from Scott, in preparation).
FLORIDA GEOLOGICAL SURVEY

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bility of Florida's aquifer systems: the Florida Aquifer Vulnerability Assessment (FAVA).

FAVA uses a statistical method, called Weights of Evidence, to quantify relationships

between spatial layers with measured contaminant occurrences. This yields a data-driven

predictive model or relative probability map of the aquifer being assessed. The model utilizes many of the following spatial layers: depth to water table, thickness of confining units,

soil drainage and spatial distribution of karst features. FAVA will replace a formerly used

model and will more accurately define areas that are highly vulnerable to ground-water contamination. FAVA will be a powerful tool for identifying highly vulnerable areas within

springsheds and is designed to assist land managers and urban planners in making

informed decisions about land use and ground-water resource conservation (Figure 7).

Figure 7. Example of the Florida Aquifer Vulnerability Assessment (FAVA).
Springsheds

There has been increased emphasis in the last few years on the drainage basins that

supply water to Florida's springs as a result of awareness of increasing trends in contaminants, such as nitrate (Figure 8). The amount of water and the nature and concentrations

of chemical constituents that discharge from a spring are functions of the geology, hydrology, and land uses within the ground- and surface-water drainage basins that collect water

for discharge from the spring.

Ground-water basins are traditionally identified through either (1) construction of a

flow net and identifying divergent flow lines that delineate the hydraulic divides of the

spring drainage system, (2) particle tracking within a computer-generated ground-water

flow model, or (3) dye or chemical tracing to identify sources that contribute to the spring

discharge. All of these methods have uncertainties. For example, delineation of a basin

boundary from a flow net or potentiometric surface map is limited to the accuracy and resolution of the map and the flow lines which are subject to change with variations in rainfall,

land use, and ground-water withdrawals. The accuracy of the computer model and our

understanding of the aquifer system limit the accuracy of particle-tracking procedures.

Dyes and other chemicals can be used to identify sources within a basin, but the chemicals

may not be detected if they are (1) too diluted in the aquifer, (2) removed from the water

BULLETIN NO. 66

19

Figure 8. Median nitrate concentrations in 13 selected

first magnitude springs in Florida. 
(movement is retarded) by chemical interactions with aquifer materials, (3) transported to

an un-monitored conduit system, or (4) travel times may be so slow that monitoring may not

be feasible.

A spring recharge basin, or springshed, consists of "those areas within ground- and surface-water basins that contribute to the discharge of the spring" (DeHan, 2002; Copeland,

2003). The spring recharge basin consists of all areas where water can be shown to contribute to the ground-water flow system that discharges from the spring of interest. Because

karst systems frequently include sinking streams that transmit surface water directly to the

aquifer, the recharge basin may include surface-water drainage basins that bring water into

the spring drainage from outside of the ground-water basin. This concept is important

because contaminated surface water may be introduced to the springshed from sources well

outside of the ground-water basin by streams that originate outside the basin.

The scenario shown in Figure 9 illustrates some possible contribution areas within a

spring recharge basin. Two components of the springshed are shown: the ground-water

basin and a surface-water basin. A portion of the ground-water basin is located within a

karst plain where recharge is rapid through features such as sinkholes. Another portion

extends under a highlands area where fine-grained sediments overlying the aquifer retard

recharge and cause surface runoff and stream development. Because of the area of aquifer

confinement, the active recharge portion of the ground-water basin is limited to unconfined

portions of the basin. The surface-water basin may or may not extend outside the groundwater basin. The stream that originates on the highlands discharges onto the karst plain

where it recharges the aquifer through a swallet. The hypothetical springshed (Figure 9)

suggests that a springshed may be subdivided into at least three recharge-potential categories. The semi-confined area of the ground-water basin has low recharge potential and,

therefore, low risk of ground-water contamination. The areas nearest the spring, where flow

lines converge and transport times from recharge points (i.e., sinkholes) are short, and areas

associated with swallets that receive surface water are highly vulnerable to ground-water

contamination. Finally, the portions of the karst plain within the ground-water basin that

are distant from the spring have an intermediate risk of contributing contamination to the

spring discharge because of possible long travel times of water to the spring and a high probability of dilution or retardation of constituents. The stream is a special problem because

storm water and permitted discharges upstream can cause contamination issues down gradient of the swallet. Similarly, water sources that originate outside of the springshed can

cause potential contamination. For example, a sewage treatment plant that collects water

from outside of the basin and disposes of the treated wastewater by land application can constitute a source that effectively extends the springshed to those portions of the wastewater

collection system outside of the springshed.

The Suwannee River Water Management District has developed high-resolution monitoring programs for a number of first-magnitude spring systems, including the Ichetucknee

Spring Group (Upchurch et al., 2001). High-resolution monitoring for water levels and

water quality involves placement of a large number of monitoring wells within the spring

basin. The number and spacing of the wells is determined by statistical methods (Upchurch,

et al., 2001; Upchurch and Champion, 2003). As a result of the numerous monitoring wells,

contour maps with higher resolution than normal (i.e., 1-foot contour intervals as opposed

to 5-foot intervals) can be prepared.

FLORIDA GEOLOGICAL SURVEY

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BULLETIN NO. 66

21

Figure 9. Idealized springshed delineation.
Figure 10 is an example that incorporates many of the features of the hypothetical

springshed with a high-resolution potentiometric surface map used as a basis for delineation

of the ground-water basin. This map, prepared for data collected in September 2003, shows

the ground-water basin as defined by the potentiometric surface map of the upper FAS.

Maps prepared for other time periods suggest that the basin boundaries change slightly over

time. The zone where the isopotential lines are close together is the transition from the

unconfined karst plain (Ocala Karst District) to the highlands where the FAS is confined.

Up gradient from this transition zone, aquifer vulnerability is low; down gradient it is high.

Aquifer vulnerability is particularly high in the transition zone where streams coming off

the highlands discharge into swallets in the karst plain. The hatchered portion represents

the drainage basins of the more important of those streams. Lake City is located on this

transition zone and runoff from portions of the city as well as from a wastewater land application area enters the shaded area.

FLORIDA GEOLOGICAL SURVEY

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Figure 10. Potentiometric map of a springshed.
Delineation of ground- and surface-water portions of springsheds, identification of

major swallets that receive storm water, and identification of land uses that may lead to contributions of nutrients or other constituents into the ground-water system are important

steps in protecting Florida springs. High-resolution monitoring is an important aspect of

this effort where the margins of the ground-water basin may include significant contamination sources or ground-water withdrawals. In addition, it allows for recognition of vulnerable recharge areas and potential jurisdictional issues.

Spring Water

Natural Factors Affecting Water Quality

In order to fully understand the water quality of Florida's springs, a rudimentary understanding of the origin and chemistry of Florida's groundwater is needed. Most people are

aware that Florida is surrounded on three sides by salt water. Many are unaware however, that salt water also underlies the entire state. The reason for this is that the Florida

Platform consists of carbonate rocks that were deposited in a shallow ocean. At the time of

deposition of the rocks under the ocean, salt water existed in their intergranular pore

spaces. Gradually over geologic time, sea level was lowered relative to its position when the

carbonate sediments were deposited. Through compaction and downwarping of sediments

on both sides of the Platform, a series of complex fracture patterns developed. The patterns

are often reflected at land surface and have actually influenced the pathways of many of

Florida's streams. 

As sea level lowered, the central portion of the Florida Platform was exposed to the

atmosphere. Over time, rainfall percolated downward and eventually replaced the upper

portion of salt water in the carbonates with a fresh water "lens." Today, the "lens" is generally deepest in the central portion of the state and becomes narrower toward Florida's

coastline. The lens is over 2,000 feet thick at its maximum (Klein, 1975). It should be

understood that the base of the lens is transitional rather than a sharp boundary.

Groundwater in the deeper portion of the lens, and along our coasts, is mixed and has relatively high concentrations of saline indicators such as sodium (Na), chloride (Cl), and sulfate

(SO4). 

Water discharging from Florida's springs has its ultimate source from rainfall. Much of

the rainfall reaching land surface flows overland to surface-water bodies, evaporates or is

transpired by plants. However, a portion of the rainfall percolates downward through the

sediments where it recharges our aquifers. During its travel downward from land surface

to the water table, and while water resides within Florida's aquifer systems, many factors

affect the water chemistry. 

Residence time is the length of time that water is in contact with a particular portion of

an aquifer system (Upchurch, 1992). A long residence time may allow sufficient time for

chemical reactions between the water and the aquifer rock. As such, water chemistry

reflects the composition of the aquifer rock. Typical residence times range from several days

to thousands of years depending on the nature of the flow system (Hanshaw et al., 1965).

A second factor affecting ground-water chemistry is its flow path, which is the length

and depth of the path that the groundwater follows as it flows through an aquifer

BULLETIN NO. 66

23
(Upchurch, 1992). In general, shallow, short flow paths, which are characteristic of the SAS,

result in low residence times for chemical reactions. Consequently, the total dissolved solid

(TDS) content is less than in longer flow-path systems. If the flow path is long (on the order

of tens of kilometers), such as commonly occurs in the FAS, reactions between rock and

water become more probable and the TDS content of the water increases as a result of continued rock-water chemical reactions. Because of its residence time and flow path, spring

water quality is typically reflective of the interactions of the major rock types of the source

aquifer and water within it. 

A third factor that is of particular interest is intergranular porosity (pores through

which water passes between the individual rock matrix grains). Even though Florida's karst

features suggest the existence of large, secondary cavernous pores spaces, most of the pores

tend to be small (Upchurch, 1992). Fortunately, whenever the pore throats are very small,

they act as filters for microbes, small organic substances, and clay minerals. In general, this

results in very clean groundwater that is extremely desirable for both drinking water and

recreational purposes. Unfortunately, some contaminants originating from our land use

activities are not always removed and contaminate groundwater. 

Indicators of Water Quality Problems

Spring water, when it is in the aquifer, is considered to be groundwater. However, once

spring water exits from the spring vent onto the earth's surface, it is considered to be surface water. Because of this change, the question arises whether scientists and regulators

should apply ground-water or surface-water quality standards to the water. Contaminant

criteria thresholds may exist for an analyte while the water is considered groundwater, but

not for surface water; or vice versa. Nitrate (NO3 + NO2 as N) is a good example. Based on

drinking water criteria, nitrate has a groundwater threshold value of 10 mg/l (FDEP, 1994).

However, no nitrate criteria exist for surface water. The FDEP Division of Water Resource

Management is currently developing criteria for spring water. Until legal criteria are established, it should be understood that any reference to threshold values in the following text

simply infers potential water-quality problems.

One of the more disturbing aspects about Florida's spring water quality has been the

documented steady increase of nitrate over the past several decades (Jones et al., 1996;

Champion and DeWitt, 2000; Means et al., 2003). Figure 8 displays the nitrate increase in

13 selected first-magnitude springs (Alexander, Chassahowitzka Main, Fanning,

Ichetucknee Main, Jackson Blue, Madison Blue, Manatee, Rainbow Group composite, Silver

Main, Silver Glen, Volusia Blue, Wakulla, and Wacissa #2 Springs) between the 1970s and

the early 2000s. 

Of the 125 spring vents sampled in 2001-2002, none had nitrate concentrations exceeding the 10 mg/l threshold for drinking water. The natural background nitrate concentrations in groundwater in Florida are less than 0.05 mg/l (Maddox et al., 1992). Of the spring

vents sampled, 52 had nitrate concentrations exceeding 0.50 mg/l (42%) and 30 (24%) had

concentrations greater than 1.00 mg/l. Thus, over 40% of the sampled springs have at least

a ten-fold increase in nitrate concentrations above background and approximately one quarter of them have at least a 20-fold increase. The effect of the increased concentrations of

nitrate in surface water is not fully understood. Increasing nitrate concentrations may

adversely affect the aquatic ecosystem in springs and spring runs. Further research is still

FLORIDA GEOLOGICAL SURVEY

24
needed and is currently being sponsored by the Springs Initiative.

The FDEP is aware of the nitrate issues and has worked with other governmental agencies to develop a series of steps to reduce nitrate concentrations in our groundwater and

springs in the middle Suwannee River Basin where many of Florida's springs are located

(Copeland et al., 2000). The FDEP Bureau of Watershed Management and the Florida

Department of Community Affairs are active in coordinating the development of springs

protection measures. In addition, in September 2003, Governor Bush and the Florida

Cabinet voted unanimously to strengthen protection for Florida's freshwater springs.

Improvements to the Florida Springs Rule, currently being proposed by FDEP, are designed

to increase protection for water quality, flow and habitats. 

Another spring-water quality concern is the influence of saline water. Sixteen of the

sampled springs are "salty." Of these 16 springs, 13 had concentrations of chloride (a saline

indicator) exceeding the 250 mg/l threshold for drinking water. Springs with this type of

water tend to be located along Florida's coast and along the St. Johns River. The ultimate

source of the saline indicators is from naturally occurring saline water within the FAS

(Klein, 1975). The saline water may cause water-quality changes in spring water as the

result of natural circumstances such as drought and upwelling within the FAS. The changes

may also be attributed to ground-water withdrawal.

Bacteria, such as enterococci and fecal coliform, represent a third concern regarding

spring water quality. It is generally believed that these bacteria originate in fecal matter

from warm blooded animals (Center for Disease Control, 2004). Fecal coliform concentrations in 23 springs (18%) exceed the drinking water threshold (FDEP, 1994) of four colonies

per 100 ml. However, because it has been determined that these bacteria can complete their

normal life-cycle outside of warm-blooded animals, especially in a warm environment as in

parts of Florida (Fjuioka and Byappanahalli, 2004), the concentrations of fecal coliform may

not necessarily represent a direct link to warm-blooded animal pathogens. Further research

is needed before definitive conclusions can be made regarding the source of the fecal bacteria. 

FDEP encourages the development of best management practices (BMPs). BMPs are land

use strategies designed to reduce pollution to our environment. In an effort to reduce nitrate

concentrations in spring water FDEP cooperates with over 20 government and private

organizations to develop and implement BMPs for the middle Suwannee River Basin where

many of Florida's springs are located. It is believed that the net result of the BMPs will

ultimately result in a reduction of nitrate concentration in spring water in the region. 

The Florida Springs Initiative addresses the nitrate and microbiological issues by providing funds for the monitoring of nitrate in springs and by sponsoring research on the

microbiology of caves and spring water. The FDEP also works very closely with the water

management districts in monitoring salt-water intrusion and in the establishment of minimum flows for our streams and minimum levels for our aquifers. Florida law (Chapter 373,

Florida Statutes) requires Florida's water management districts to establish minimum flows

and levels (MFLs) for water courses, water bodies, and aquifers. The goal of the minimum

flows and levels program is "to establish minimum flows and levels in accordance with

Chapter 373.042, Florida Statutes, to protect Florida's water resources from significant

harm caused by water withdrawals or diversions." Minimum flows and levels are designed

to assure adequate quantities of water for our streams and springs. This statute also proBULLETIN NO. 66

25
vides authority to reserve water from permit allocation to protect fish and wildlife (Chapter

373.223(4) Florida Statutes). These water reservations provide the highest level of protection allowed by law and will aid in protecting historical spring flows.

Offshore Springs

Offshore or submarine springs are known to exist off Florida's Atlantic and Gulf of

Mexico coastlines. These springs are most common in the offshore portion of the Florida

Platform from Tampa north and west to the Ochlocknee River south-southwest of

Tallahassee. Offshore springs have also been identified off the northern and southwestern

parts of the peninsula and the western panhandle (Rosenau et al., 1977) (Figure 11). Waterquality data from some of these springs indicate that, at best, the water is brackish.

Anecdotally, there are reports of "fresh water" flowing from offshore springs.

FLORIDA GEOLOGICAL SURVEY

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Figure 11. Offshore springs (from Rosenau et al., 1977).
The area offshore from Tampa to the Ochlocknee River has carbonate rocks of the FAS

exposed on the sea bottom or slightly buried. At lower sea levels, particularly during the

Pleistocene, this area was exposed and dissolution created numerous karst features. Many

of these sinkholes are known to fisherman and divers (Figure 12). Some offshore karst features are springs but how many of the karst features discharge water is not known.

However, to fully understand the water budget of the FAS, the determination of the flows is

necessary. The FGS, along with SRWMD and SWFWMD, are investigating offshore springs

to determine flow characteristics and water quality. Results of these investigations will be

published in the near future.

WATER QUALITY

Methodology

One hundred eleven springs, two submarine springs, eight river rises, and four karst

windows were sampled from September 2001 through August 2003 (Figure 13). Tidally

influenced springs were sampled at low tide to minimize the influence of salt water on the

water-quality samples. Standard FDEP sampling protocols were followed for each sampling

event (Watershed Monitoring Data Management Section, Florida Department of

Environmental Protection, 1991). Any mention of brand names does not imply an endorsement by the Florida Geological Survey or the Florida Department of Environmental

Protection.

BULLETIN NO. 66

27

Figure 12. Known offshore springs in the Florida Big Bend Region.
Field Parameters

Temperature, dissolved oxygen, specific conductance, and pH were measured using

either a Hydrolab Quanta or a YSI data sonde (model no. 6920) and data logger (model no.

6100). Instruments were calibrated at the beginning of each sampling day. A check was performed at the end of each day to ensure calibration remained accurate throughout the sampling events. If the end of the day check failed, field data were qualified for all vents sampled that day. For quality assurance purposes, field reference standards were analyzed and

equipment blanks were submitted every five to ten samples throughout the sampling period. 

To begin each sampling

event, two or three stainless steel

weights were attached to polyethylene tubing (3/8" O.D. x 0.062"

wall) which was then lowered

into the spring vent opening,

ensuring the intake line was not

influenced by surrounding surface water. Masterflex tubing

was attached to the opposite end,

run through a Master Flex E/S

portable peristaltic pump (model

no. 07571-00), and the discharge

line was fed directly into a closed

system flow chamber. The datasonde was inserted into the flow

chamber and water was pumped

through with a constant flow rate

between 0.25 and 1

gallon/minute. No purge was

required because springs are considered already purged. The field

parameter values were recorded

after the field meter displayed a

stable reading (approximately 10

min.). The tubing was adequately flushed with spring water during the gathering of field parameters. The flow chamber was

removed and sampling was conducted directly from the masterflex tubing discharge line.

Two exceptions to this sampling method occurred at Wakulla Spring and Homosassa

Springs. Both springs have pre-set pipes running down into the cave systems where the

spring vents are located. In the case of Homosassa Springs, tubes from the three vents converge at an outlet box with three valves inside, one for each vent. Sampling was conducted

from these valves. At Wakulla Spring, the pipe runs to a pump on shore from which sampling is conducted. The Northwest Florida Water Management District (NWFWMD)

(Wakulla Spring) and Southwest Florida Water Management District (SWFWMD)

FLORIDA GEOLOGICAL SURVEY

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Figure 13. The FGS Spring Sampling Team, 2001.
(Homosassa Springs) designed and operated the sampling systems. Each tube was purged

for 10 minutes, as there are gallons of water remaining in tubes from the last sampling

effort. FDEP standard operating procedures were followed for water quality sampling

Water Samples 

Seven to ten bottles and three Whirl-pack bags were filled with water from spring vents

and analyzed by the FDEP Bureau of Laboratories following Environmental Protection

Agency or Standard methods. All containers, with the exception of the Whirl-pak bags, were

pre-rinsed with sample water prior to filling. Four to seven bottles and three Whirl-pak

bags were filled with unfiltered water samples. A GWV high capacity in-line filter (0.45 um)

was attached to the microflex tubing and the remaining three bottles were filled with filtered water samples. The number of bottles filled and the types of analytes sampled varied

between the first magnitude springs sampling effort and the second and third magnitude

spring sampling effort. The analytes sampled for each event are shown in Table 2.

Whirl-pak bags were placed on ice immediately after filling. Bottles for filtered and unfiltered nutrients were preserved with sulfuric acid followed by acidification of bottles for filtered and unfiltered metals using nitric acid. Narrow range pH litmus paper was used to

confirm acidity of pH = 2. All water samples were placed on ice and delivered to the FDEP

Bureau of Laboratories within 24 hours. New tubing and filters were used at each sample

site.

Additional Data 

General descriptions of each spring vent were made and included the aquatic, wetland,

and upland (where applicable) surroundings. Water depth was measured using a hand held

Speedtech sonar depth gauge. Distances were measured with a Bushnell Yardage Pro 500

range finder. Secchi depth (visibility depth) was obtained using a secchi disk. A Trimble

XR Pro GPS system with a TDC1 data logger was used to record latitudinal and longitudinal coordinates. Field parameters, weather conditions, sampling times, water and secchi

depth, and micro-land use information were also input into the GPS unit. Micro-land uses

within 300 ft of spring vents were identified and sketched.

Discharge Measurement

Every effort was made to collaborate with various agencies to obtain the most recent

discharge rate for each spring. Discharge rates of the remaining springs were measured by

the FGS using either the Price-AA meter or the Marsh McBirney Flo-Mate. The source of

each discharge measurement is denoted in the spring descriptions with a superscript. The

legend is as follows:

(1) Rosenau et al. 1977

(2) Florida Geological Survey

(3) Northwest Florida Water Management District

(4) Suwannee River Water Management District

(5) Southwest Florida Water Management District

(6) St. Johns River Water Management District

(7) U.S. Geological Survey

BULLETIN NO. 66

29
The FGS employed the discharge measurement methodology of Buchanan and Somers

(1969) and the DEP SOP for discharge measurement was also followed (FDEP, 2002). It

should be noted that the FGS Springs Teams visited, sampled and measured discharge during the last phase of a major drought and early in the return to normal rainfall.

FLORIDA GEOLOGICAL SURVEY

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INDICATOR SAMPLE TYPE

Alkalinity Total

Alkalinity (First magnitude only) Total; Filtered

Ammonia Total

Ammonia (First magnitude only) Total; Filtered

Biological Oxygen Demand Total

Chloride Total

Chloride (First magnitude only) Total; Filtered

Color Total

E. coli (First magnitude only) Total

Enterococci Total

Fecal Coliform Total

Fluoride Total

Fluoride (First magnitude only) Total; Filtered

Metals = Arsenic, Boron, Calcium, Cadmium, Chromium, Cobalt, Copper, Iron, 

Lead, Magnesium, Manganese, Nickel, Potassium, Selenium, Sodium, 

Strontium, Tin, Zinc (First magnitude only) Total

Metals = Aluminum, Arsenic, Boron, Cadmium, Calcium, Cobalt, Chromium, 

Copper, Iron, Lead, Magnesium, Manganese, Nickel, Potassium, Radium 226, 

Radium 228, Selenium, Sodium, Strontium, Tin, Zinc (Second and third only) Total

Metals = Arsenic, Aluminum, Cadmium, Calcium, Chromium, Copper, Iron, 

Lead, Magnesium, Manganese, Nickel, Potassium, Selenium, Sodium, Zinc 

(First magnitude only) Filtered

Metals = Arsenic, Calcium, Cadmium, Chromium, Copper, Iron, Manganese, 

Magnesium, Nickle, Lead, Potassium, Sodium, Selenium, Zinc (Second and third 

magnitude only) Filtered

Nitrite-Nitrate Total

Nitrite-Nitrate (First magnitude only) Total; Filtered

Orthophosphate Filtered

Orthophosphate (First magnitude only) Total

Specific Conductance Total

Sulfate Filtered

Sulfate (First magnitude only) Total; Filtered

Total Dissolved Solids Filtered

Total Dissolved Solids (First magnitude only) Total

Total Kjeldahl Nitrogen Total; Filtered

Total Organic Carbon Total

Total Phosphorus Total; Filtered

Phosphorus (First magnitude only) Total

Total Suspended Solids Total

Turbidity Total

Table 2. Laboratory analytes and sample tests. Analyses performed by FDEP.
Characteristics of Spring Water

Spring water discharges provide a means of determining the quality of water in the

aquifer as well as the degree of human impact in the springshed. Upchurch (1992) states

that a number of factors influence ground-water chemistry. These include the precipitation

chemistry, surface conditions at the site of recharge, soil type in the recharge area, mineralogy and composition of the aquifer system, nature of aquifer system porosity and structure, flow path in the aquifer, residence time of the water in the aquifer, mixing of other

waters in the aquifer system, and aquifer microbiology. Refer to Upchurch (1992) for a

detailed discussion of the factors affecting the chemistry of groundwater.

Descriptions of Analytes

Water quality of springs was determined by collecting and analyzing water samples

(Figure 13). A series of field measurements were taken on site during sample collection.

When combined, field and analytical data give a snapshot of water quality at that point in

time. Comparing similar data, taken over time, can yield information about how water quality changes over time and what may be causing these changes. Analyte descriptions are

summarized in Champion and Starks (2001), Hornsby and Ceryak (1998), Jones et al.

(1998), Maddox et al. (1992), and Smith (1992). Table 3 gives the units of measure for each

analyte. 

Physical Field Parameters

Field measurements were collected prior to water sampling. They include dissolved

oxygen, pH, specific conductance, water temperature and discharge. Other observations and

data recorded in the field include local geology, weather conditions and adjacent land use

practices.

Dissolved Oxygen - Oxygen readily dissolves in water. The source of oxygen can be atmospheric or biological. Typically, springs that discharge water from a deep aquifer source have

a low dissolved oxygen content. On the other hand, relative to springs, the dissolved oxygen

content in river rise water is high. This is due to a greater exposure to the atmosphere and

an increase in biological activity.

pH - pH measures the acidity or alkalinity of water. It is defined as the negative log of the

activity of the hydrogen ion in a solution. Values range between 0 and 14. A low pH (below

7) represents acidic conditions, and a high pH (above 7) represents alkaline conditions. A

pH of 7 indicates the water is near neutral conditions.

As raindrops form they incorporate dissolved carbon dioxide, forming weak carbonic

acid. The resulting rain has a low pH. In Florida, as rainwater passes through soil layers it

incorporates organic acids and the acidity increases.

When acidic water enters a limestone aquifer, the acids react with calcium carbonate in

the limestone and dissolution occurs. Generally, most spring water falls within a pH range

of 7 to 8. During heavy rain events, spring water can drop in pH as tannic acids from nearby surface waters are flushed into the spring system. It should be noted that sampled river

rises tend to have a lower pH than the clear-water spring systems, due to the surface-water

component of the river rise water.

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Specific Conductance - Specific conductance is a measure of the ability of a substance, in

this case spring water, to conduct electricity. The conductance is a function of the amount

and type of ions in the water. The variability of the specific conductance of spring water can

be quite high when the spring is discharging saline water or when the spring is discharging

into the marine environment.

Water Temperature - Geologic material is characteristically a good insulator. Rocks and

sediments tend to buffer changes in the temperature of spring water. Thus, spring water

temperature does not vary much and tends to reflect the average annual air temperature in

the vicinity of the spring. In Florida, this temperature can range from 68°F to 75°F (20° C

to 24° C), plus or minus several tenths of a degree. Temperature plays a role in chemical and

biological activity within the aquifer and can help in determining residence time of the

water in the aquifer.

Discharge - Discharge, or spring flow, is controlled by the potentiometric levels in the FAS.

FLORIDA GEOLOGICAL SURVEY

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Analyte Abbreviation Unit of 

Measure Analyte Abbreviation Unit of 

Measure

Temperature - o

C Calcium Ca mg/L

Dissolved Oxygen DO mg/L Potassium K mg/L

pH - units Sodium Na mg/L

Specific Conductance Sp. Cond. μS/cm at 25 o

C Magnesium Mg mg/L

Biochemical Oxygen BOD mg/L Arsenic As μg/L

Barium Ba μg/L

Boron B μg/L

Color - Platinum 

Cobalt Units Cadmium Cd μg/L

Alkalinity as CaCO3 - mg/L Cobalt Co μg/L

Total Dissolved Solids TDS mg/L Chromium Cr μg/L

Total Suspended Solids TSS mg/L Copper Cu μg/L

Chloride Cl mg/L Iron Fe μg/L

Sulfate SO4 mg/L Manganese Mn μg/L

Fluoride F mg/L Nickel Ni μg/L

Total Organic Carbon TOC mg/L Lead Pb μg/L

Total Nitrogen NO3 + NO2 mg/L Selenium Se μg/L

Total Ammonia NH3 + NH4 mg/L Tin Sn μg/L

Total Kjeldahl Nitrogen TKN mg/L Strontium Sr μg/L

Total Phosphorus P mg/L Zinc Zn μg/L

Orthophosphate as P PO4 mg/L

Turbidity - JTU (Historical) 

NTU (Current)*

*JTU and NTU are approximately equivalent though not identical

Table 3. Units of measurement.
Discharge generally changes slowly in response to fluctuations in the water levels in the

aquifer. Discharge is measured in cubic feet per second or gallons per day.

Other Field Data - During sample collection, total water depth, sample depth, local geology, adjacent land use and current weather conditions are noted at each spring. This generalized information can be useful in helping to determine certain water quality-related issues

of the spring. The aquatic vegetation conditions were noted along with the occurrence of

algae. For specific information on the native and invasive aquatic vegetation, there is an

annual aquatic plant survey of public waters conducted by FDEP's Bureau of Invasive Plant

Management. For information on the survey, contact the Bureau at 850-245-2809.

Secchi Depth- A measure of the cloudiness or turbidity of surface water. This method utilizes a Secchi disk, a disk divided into black and white quarters, used to gauge water clarity by measuring the depth at which it is no longer visible from the surface.

Laboratory Analytes

Alkalinity - The alkalinity of spring water is affected primarily by the presence of bicarbonate, hydroxide and carbon dioxide. Highly alkaline waters are usually associated with

high pH, dissolved solids and hardness which, when combined, may be detrimental to the

aquatic environment. 

Biochemical Oxygen Demand - Biochemical oxygen demand (BOD) is a measure of the

quantity of molecular oxygen utilized in the decomposition of organic material, during a

specified incubation time, by microorganisms such as bacteria. When the BOD is high, the

depletion of oxygen can have a detrimental effect on aquatic organisms. BOD is measured

in mg/l. 

Chloride (Cl) - Chloride is the most abundant constituent in seawater. Springs that are

tidally influenced may have high chloride concentrations. Chloride is added to the atmosphere via marine aerosols from the ocean. In most Florida's springs, chloride is introduced

to the spring system via rainfall. Chloride is chemically conservative and reacts very little

with spring water.

Color - The color of spring water can be affected by factors such as the presence of metallic

ions, tannic acids, biological activity and industrial waste. Generally, spring water in

Florida is clear. Color measurements are made on filtered water samples so the true color

of the water is determined. Color is reported in either color units or Platinum Cobalt units

(Pt/Co).

Nitrate + Nitrite (NO3 + NO2) as N - Nitrate and nitrite are both found in spring water in

Florida. Nitrate contamination recently has become a problem in Florida's springs. Nitrate

found in spring water originates from fertilizers, septic tanks and animal waste that enter

the aquifer in the spring recharge area. Nitrate, being a nutrient, encourages algal and

aquatic plant growth in spring water, which may lead to eutrophication of the spring and

the associated water body. Nitrite, which is much less of a problem, can originate from

sewage and other organic waste products. 

BULLETIN NO. 66

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Organic Carbon - Natural and non-naturally occurring organic carbon are present in varying concentrations in spring water in Florida. The primary source of naturally occurring

organic carbon is humic substances (decaying plant material). Synthetic organic carbon represents a minor component. 

Orthophosphate (PO4) - Phosphate is an essential nutrient and occurs in spring water in

Florida. Unfortunately, an excess of phosphate can cause run-away plant growth and the

eutrophication of surface waters. The Hawthorn Group, a geological unit in Florida, is the

most important source of phosphate in spring water. Other sources include organic and

inorganic fertilizers, animal waste, human waste effluent and industrial waste. 

Potassium (K) - Potassium occurs in trace amounts in Florida's spring water and is derived

primarily from seawater. Therefore, it occurs in higher concentration along the coast. The

weathering of mica, feldspar and clay minerals can contribute potassium to spring water. In

addition, because potassium is an essential nutrient, it is a component of fertilizers.

Radium 226 & 228 (Ra226 & Ra228) - Radium is a naturally occurring radioactive element

that is produced when uranium and thorium minerals decay ("break down") in the environment. Radium itself decays into other elements, and eventually to lead (Pb), but exists in

the environment long enough to be of concern in groundwater. Radium is of similar size and

nature to phosphorus and often substitutes for it. Consumption of radium isotopes can lead

to the incorporation of radium into bone and other body systems. Radium is a known carcinogen. Uranium-bearing minerals, the natural source of radium, are found in all of

Florida's aquifer systems in varying, usually minor, amounts.

Sodium (Na) - In Florida, sodium occurring in spring water has several sources. Marine

aerosols, mixing of seawater with fresh water and the weathering of sodium-bearing minerals like feldspars and clays are the primary sources.

Sulfate (SO4) - Sulfate is commonly found in aquifer waters in Florida and has several

sources. The two most common sources are from seawater and the dissolution of gypsum

and anhydrite (naturally occurring rock types within Florida's aquifer systems). Sulfate is

often used as a soil amendment to acidify soils, and thus is associated with agricultural

activities. Finally, disposal and industrial waste activities release sulfate to groundwater.

Sulfate-rich spring water can potentially be toxic to plants. In higher concentrations it

affects the taste of drinking water.

Total Ammonia (NH3 + NH4) - Ammonia (NH3) occurs in groundwater primarily as the

ammonium ion (NH4) because of the prevalent pH and reduction-oxidation potential

(Upchurch, 1992). Microbial activity within the soil and aquifer can convert other nitrogenous products to ammonium. 

Total Dissolved Solids (TDS) - Total dissolved solids is a measure of the dissolved chemical constituents, primarily ions, in spring water. Concentrations in Florida's spring water

vary widely. Since most of Florida's spring water issues from carbonate aquifers, the total

dissolved solid concentrations are fairly high. Higher concentrations are found in springs

that are tidally influenced and springs that discharge into the marine environment.

FLORIDA GEOLOGICAL SURVEY

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Total Kjeldahl Nitrogen - This is a measure of the sum of the ammonia nitrogen and

organic nitrogen in the spring water sample. The ammonia nitrogen, mainly occurring as

ammonium (NH4), occurs in trace amounts in spring water (see ammonia [NH3] above).

Organic nitrogen originates from biological sources including sewage and other waste.

FDEP regulates nitrogen, in the form of nitrates and nitrites, in drinking water in Florida

(see previous descriptions above).

Total Nitrogen - The amount of nitrate, nitrite, ammonia, and organic nitrogen, when

summed, gives the total nitrogen content of spring water. 

Total Suspended Solids - This refers to the amount of solid material suspended in the

water column. As opposed to turbidity, total suspended solids does not take into account the

light scattering ability of the water. Total suspended solids are filtered out of the water

sample and are measured in mg/l.

Turbidity - Turbidity is a measure of the colloidal suspension of tiny particles and precipitates in spring water. High turbidity water impedes the penetration of light and can be

harmful to aquatic life. Most Florida springs discharge water low in turbidity. Turbidity is

measured in Nephlometric Turbidity Units (NTU's).

Trace Metals 

Trace metals analyzed for this report include: aluminum (Al), arsenic (As), boron (B),

calcium (Ca), cadmium (Cd), cobalt (Co), chromium (Cr), copper (Cu), fluoride (F), iron (Fe),

lead (Pb), magnesium (Mg), manganese (Mn), nickel (Ni), phosphorous (P), selenium (Se),

strontium (Sr), tin (Sn) and zinc (Zn). Trace metals, when present in spring water, are found

in very low concentrations and are measured in parts per billion (ppb), or micrograms per

liter (m/l). In Florida, calcium and magnesium occur in higher concentrations and are therefore measured in milligrams per liter.

The naturally low abundance of trace metals in Florida's groundwater can be attributed

to several factors including: low natural abundance in aquifer rocks, low solubility of metalbearing minerals, high adsorption potential of metal ions on clays and organic particulates

and precipitation in the form of sulfides and oxides (Upchurch, 1992). Many biochemical

processes require small amounts of some trace metals; however, higher concentrations can

be toxic. Industrialization and increased demand for products containing trace metals have

overwhelmed the natural biogeochemical cycle, and anthropogenic sources of trace metals

now far outweigh natural sources (Smith, 1992).

In Florida, lead, mercury and arsenic are among metal contaminants locally found in

groundwater that are most detrimental to human health. These contaminants, along with

other metals, can be distributed throughout the ecosystem within the atmosphere, water,

and geological materials (soils, sediments and rocks). Atmospheric pollutants, such as mercury, are often the primary source of waterborne metals. These pollutants are introduced

into the atmosphere by mining operations, smelting, manufacturing activities and the combustion of fossil fuels (Smith, 1992).

Historically, contamination of groundwater by lead was caused primarily by combustion

of fossil fuels containing lead additives. Lead additives were phased out of fuels in the U.S.

and Canada by 1990. Other sources of contamination still persist. Lead bioaccumulates in

BULLETIN NO. 66

35
aquatic organisms, affecting the higher trophic levels the most. In humans, lead causes

severe health problems including metabolic disorders, neurological and reproductive damage and hypertension. In Florida, the Primary Standard for lead in drinking water is 15

g/L.

When trace metals are released into the environment, they are characteristically not

biodegradable and tend to stay in the environment accumulating in foodwebs and impact

ecosystems. Trace metals such as arsenic, cadmium, mercury, and silver can have adverse

effects on aquatic and terrestrial environments at low concentrations. 

Biological Analytes

Spring water samples were analyzed for total coliform, fecal coliform, Escherichia coli

(E. coli), and Enterococci. These analytes are used to assess the sanitary quality of spring

water and to determine the potential for waterborne diseases (bacterial and viral). The primary source of these contaminants is fecal waste from warm-blooded animals. When spring

water samples were analyzed for total coliform, fecal coliform, Escherichia coli (E. coli), and

Enterococci bacteria. These analytes are used to assess the sanitary quality of spring water

and to determine the potential for waterborne diseases (bacterial and viral). The primary

source of these contaminants is fecal waste from warm-blooded animals. When detected in

numbers that exceed the maximum contaminant level (MCL), coliforms may indicate that

the spring has been contaminated by domestic sewage overflow or non-point sources of

human and animal waste. Measurements made on these biological analytes are reported in

colonies per 100 milliliters.

Total coliform bacteria are a group of closely related, mostly harmless bacteria that live

in the digestive tract of animals. The extent to which total coliforms are present in spring

water can indicate general water quality and the amount of fecal contamination. By further

examining fecal coliforms, E. coli and Enterococci, it is possible to estimate the amount of

human fecal contamination of the sample. Human contact with water that is contaminated

with fecal wastes can result in diseases of the digestive tract including gastroenteritis and

dysentery. Typhoid fever, hepatitis A, and cholera are also related to contact with fecally

contaminated water.

FLORIDA GEOLOGICAL SURVEY

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DESCRIPTIONS OF INDIVIDUAL SPRINGS AND RESULTS OF ANALYSES

The FGS Springs Teams created brief descriptions for each spring group, spring, river

rise and karst window visited during 2001-2003. Data for the descriptions were derived from

field visits to the springs by FGS Springs Teams, FGS Bulletin 31 Revised (Rosenau et al.,

1977) and the Florida Springs website http://www.tfn.net/springs/. More elaborate descriptions and links to maps are available on the websites listed in

Springs Information Resources on

the Web in this volume. The size,

shape and appearance of the

springs can vary in response to

rainfall and river and lake levels.

During the FGS effort to visit and

describe springs, the state was in

the last phase of a major drought.

As a result, springs often

appeared different than had been

previously described by Rosenau

et al. (1977), Hornsby and Ceryak

(1998) and others. Many springs

were visited and described but not

sampled for water quality. These

descriptions and the entire printed volume are provided on the

enclosed CD.

The mileage in the springs

location information was determined using ArcView version 3.2.

NOTE : The legend for the

discharge measurements is:

(1) Rosenau et al., 1977, Springs

of Florida: FGS Bulletin No. 31

(Revised)

(2) Florida Geological Survey

(3) Northwest Florida Water

Management District

(4) Suwannee River Water Management District

(5) Southwest Florida Water Management District

(6) St. Johns River Water Management District

(7) U.S. Geological Survey

Water Quality-Analyses were conducted by the Florida Geological Survey and the

Florida Department of Environmental Protection Bureau of Laboratories. Historical measurements were obtained from Bulletin No. 31, revised (Rosenau et al., 1977).

BULLETIN NO. 66

37

Figure 14. SCUBA diver in Silver Springs

(photo by G. Maddox).
ALACHUA COUNTY

FLORIDA GEOLOGICAL SURVEY

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Figure 15. Springs visited by FGS in Alachua County.
Hornsby Spring

Location - Lat. 29° 51’ 01.3" N., Long. 82° 35’ 35.5" W. (NE 1⁄4 NE 1⁄4 SE 1⁄4 sec. 27, T. 7

S., R. 17 E.). Hornsby Spring is located in Camp Kulaqua 1.5 miles (2.4 km) north of High

Springs. From the US 441/41 and CR 236 (Main Street) intersection in High Springs, drive

north on US 441/41 approximately 1.5 miles (2.4 km) to Camp Kulaqua which will be on the

east (right) side of the road. Turn east (right) at Camp Kulaqua sign and follow road approximately 1 mile (1.6 km) to campground entrance. The spring is located inside the campground about 300 ft (91.4 m) northwest of the camp entrance.

Description - Hornsby Spring has a circular spring pool measuring 155 ft (47.2 m) north to

south and 147 ft (44.8 m) east to west. Its depth at the vent is 34.5 ft (10.5 m). The water

is clear and slightly greenish blue. The spring has an underwater limestone ledge on the

north side under a floating walkway. Algae patches are growing on limestone substrate.

The spring run is approximately 0.9 miles (1.5 km) long, 15 ft (4.6 m) wide and up to 5 ft (1.5

m) deep. It flows generally westward into the Santa Fe River. During the first FGS visit, the

spring was not flowing. The FGS sampled the spring during a subsequent visit when a small

spring boil was visible near the wooden walkway. This spring is situated on the edge of the

lowland floodplain of the Santa Fe River. The floodplain is forested with cypress, gum, and

maple. High ground on the east side of the spring rises steeply to 6 ft (1.8 m) above water

level, then gently rises to approximately 15 ft (4.6 m) and is a rolling sand hills terrain. The

uplands are open and grassy. An underwater cave system has been mapped at Hornsby

Spring.

BULLETIN NO. 66

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Figure 16. Hornsby Spring (photo by T. Scott)
Utilization - Hornsby Spring is the central feature of the privately-owned Camp Kulaqua.

The spring is developed into a swimming and recreation area. There are numerous boardwalks over and around the spring. A slide leads into the spring pool on the north side. Full

facilities are located nearby.

Discharge- All discharge rates are measured in ft3

/s.

April 19, 1972 250(1)

April 25, 1975 76(1)

October 16, 2001 14.1(4)

October 2, 2002 0.0(2)

FLORIDA GEOLOGICAL SURVEY

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Table 4. Hornsby Spring water quality analyses.

Table 5. Hornsby Spring bacteriological analyses. 
Poe Spring

Location - Lat. 29° 49' 32.58" N., Long. 82° 38' 56.30" W. (SW 1⁄4 NW 1⁄4 NE 1⁄4 sec. 6, T. 8

S., R. 17 E.). Poe Spring is located within Poe Springs County Park, 3 miles (4.8 km) west

of High Springs. From the junction of US 441/41 and US 27 in High Springs, drive southwest on US 41/27 for 0.6 miles (1 km). Turn west (right) on SR 340 (Poe Springs Road) and

travel 2.9 miles (4.7 km), then turn north (right) into the park at the park sign. The spring

is down a foot path along the Santa Fe River. 

Description - Poe Spring is bordered by a man-made retaining wall. It forms a circular

pool 120 ft (36.6 m) in diameter. The vent is on the south side of the pool at the bottom of a

conical depression where there is exposed limestone. The depth measures 18.7 ft (5.7 m)

over the vent and a boil is present on the spring surface. The water is clear with a bluegreenish hue. The spring has an exposed sand bottom resulting from heavy use. Aquatic

vegetation and algae are sparse within the spring. A steep, underwater limestone ledge is

on the east side of the vent. The spring run is swift and short, flowing approximately 75 ft

(22.9 m) northwest into the Santa Fe River. The river in this vicinity is choked with exotic

aquatic vegetation, but none occurs within the spring or its run. Pavilions and picnic tables

are on the east side of the spring. A wooden boardwalk is on the south side of the pool. Land

around the spring is low-lying river flood plain. Dense mesic hardwood forest occurs to the

south and west of the spring.

Utilization - Poe Spring is in a county recreational area with full facilities.

BULLETIN NO. 66

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Figure 17. Poe Spring (photo by R. Means).
FLORIDA GEOLOGICAL SURVEY

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Dissolved Total

Field Measures

Temperature - - 22

DO ---

pH - 7.3 8.2

Sp. Cond. - - -

Lab Analytes

BOD ---- 0.36I

Turbidity ---- 0.05U

Color - 5 5 - 5U

Alkalinity - - 170 - 179

Sp. Cond. - 368 380 388.0 -

TDS 204 210 212 - 259

TSS - - - 4U

Cl 7 6.8 7 - 15

SO4 10 17 16 - 35

F - 0.1 0.2 - 0.17

Nutrients

TOC ---- 1.4I

NO3 + NO2 as N - - 0.27 - 0.20

NH3 + NH4 --- - 0.01U

TKN - - - 0.1I 0.075I

P - - - 0.11A 0.100

PO4 --- 0.110 -

NO3 - 0.5 0.27 - -

Metals

Ca 64 65 65 68.7 67.2

K 5.7 0.9 0.6 1 0.96

Na 5.7 4.4 4.7 9.3 9.1

Mg 4.7 6.4 5.3 7.8 7.6

Al - - - -50U

As - - - 3U 3U

B ---- 21I

Cd - - - 0.5U 0.5U

Co ---- 0.75U

Cr - - - 2U 2U

Cu - - - 3U 3U

Fe 50 70 - 25U 25U

Mn - - - 89.8 88.9

Ni - - - 2U 2U

Pb - - - 3U 5U

Ra-226 - - - -0.3

Ra-228 ---- 0.9U

Se - - - 4U 4U

Sn - - - -7U

Sr - - - 361.0

Zn - - - 15U 2U

A=Average value U,K=Compound not detected, value shown is the method detection limit

I=Value is less than practical quantitation limit J=Est value Q=Exceeding holding time limit

2002 Analytes

437

22.48

0.38

7.41

1924 1946 1972

Table 6. Poe Spring water quality analyses.
Discharge - All discharge rates are measured in ft3/s.

February 19, 1917 86.5 (1)

January 31, 1929 75.1 (1)

March 14, 1932 31.2 (1)

December 13, 1941 84.0 (1)

July 22, 1946 75.3 (1)

May 2, 1956 39.2 (1)

October 17, 1960 91.7 (1)

April 18, 1972 93.1 (1)

June 26, 1997 50.59 (4)

May 14, 2002 6.1(2)

BULLETIN NO. 66

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Analyte Value

Enterococci 1AKQ

Fecal Coliform 1AKQ

Bacteria Results (in #/100 mL) 

Table 7. Poe Spring bacteriological analyses.
Santa Fe River Rise

Location-Lat. 29° 52’ 26.0" N., Long. 82° 35’ 29.9" W. (SW1⁄4 SW1⁄4 SW1⁄4 sec. 14, T. 7 S.,

R. 17 E.). Santa Fe River Rise is located within O'Leno State Park/River Rise Preserve State

Park. From the junction of US 441/41 and US 27 in High Springs, head north on US 441/41

approximately 6 miles (9.7 km) to O'Leno State Park entrance on the east (right) side of the

road. Directions to the river rise via park roads can be obtained at the park entrance.

Description-Santa Fe River Rise is the re-emergence of the underground Santa Fe River.

The spring pool measures 175 ft (53.3 m) east to west and 165 ft (50.3 m) north to south.

There is a vertical limestone ledge on the northeast side of the pool. The depth just south of

the ledge measures 49 ft (14.9m). The water color is typically that of the Santa Fe River,

which may be tannic or clear depending mainly on rainfall. No boil was observed during the

October 2001 visit. The river flows southward from the vent and is approximately as wide

(east to west) as the spring pool. There is a narrow band of cypress growing around the pool

perimeter. There are patches of duckweed around the periphery of the pool, and no aquatic

vegetation could be seen through the tannic water. Several hundred yards of the Santa Fe

River below Santa Fe Rise is choked with water hyacinth, and boat access to the rise is nearly impossible. Land around the river rise quickly rises to approximately 8 ft (2.4 m) above

water level and levels off into a flat mesic hardwood hammock. 

Utilization- The Santa Fe River Rise is a pristine, state-owned natural area.

FLORIDA GEOLOGICAL SURVEY

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Figure 18. Santa Fe River Rise (photo by T. Scott).
Discharge - January 2, 2002: less than 75 ft3

/s (D. Hornsby, pers. comm.).

BULLETIN NO. 66

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Unfiltered Filtered Unfiltered Filtered

Field Measures Metals

Temperature Ca 35A 28.2

DO K 2.2A 1.9

pH Na 15.1A 12.8

Sp. Cond. Mg 8.3A 6.6

Lab Analytes Al - 630A

BOD 1.80 - As 3U 3U

Turbidity 1.90 - B 33I -

Color 250.00 - Cd 0.75U 0.75U

Alkalinity 43J 42.0 Co 0.75 -

Sp. Cond. 260.00 Cr 2U 2U

TDS 228.00 - Cu 2.5U 3.5I

TSS 4U - Fe 810A 570.0

Cl 31 32 Mn 43.7A 33.5

SO4 34 34 Ni 2U 2U

F 0.12 0.12 Pb 5U 4U

Nutrients Se 4U 4U

TOC 36 1U Sn 20U -

NO3 + NO2 as N 0.058J 0.059 Sr 388A -

NH3 + NH4 0.051J 0.06 Zn 6.7I 5U

TKN 1.2J 1.2A

P 0.23 0.22A

PO4 0.2 -

A=Average Value U,K=Compound not detected, value shown is the method detection limit

I=Value shown is less than the practical quantitation limit J=Estimated value

2002

22.50

3.50

6.67

259.0

2002 Analytes Analytes

Table 8. Santa Fe River Rise water quality analyses.

Analyte Value

Escherichia coli 8Q

Enterococci 12Q

Fecal Coliform 6Q

Total Coliform 60Q

Bacteria Results (in #/100 mL) 

Table 9. Santa Fe River Rise bacteriological analyses.
Treehouse Spring

Location-Lat. 29° 51’ 17.6" N., Long. 82° 36’ 0.4" W. (SW1⁄4 NE1⁄4 NW1⁄4 sec. 27, T. 7 S.,

R. 17 E.). Treehouse Spring is approximately 2 miles (3.2 km) north of High Springs on the

east bank of the Santa Fe River. The spring can be accessed by boat from a public boat ramp

downstream from the spring. From the junction of US 441/41 and CR 236 (Main Street) in

High Springs, drive north on US 441/41 approximately 1.2 miles (1.9 km). Turn west (left)

at public access boat sign just before the Santa Fe River. The spring is 0.6 miles (1 km)

upstream from the boat ramp on the southeast side of the river.

Description- Treehouse Spring is in a circular cove on the southeast side of the Santa Fe

River. The spring discharges westward into the adjacent river. Spring pool diameter measures 125 ft (38.1 m) north to south and 175 ft (53.3 m) east to west. Pool depth over the vent

is 31 ft (9.4 m). Water color was tannic, and there was no spring boil during October 2001.

Water hyacinth was the only non-native plant species observed in the spring pool. No other

vegetation could be seen through the dark water. Land adjacent to this spring is a forested

lowland flood plain. The nearest high ground is approximately 150 ft (46 m) to the east, and

it rises 10-12 ft (3-3.7 m) higher than the flood plain and is forested with mixed hardwoods

and pines. Treehouse Spring is also published as ALA112971 (Hornsby and Ceryak, 1998).

Utilization-the land surrounding this spring is privately owned and is pristine. There is a

small rope swing on the east side and the spring is a local swimming spot.

FLORIDA GEOLOGICAL SURVEY

46

Figure 19. Treehouse Spring (photo by J. Stevenson).
Discharge- All discharge rates are measured in ft3

/s.

May 26, 1998 405.96 (4)

October 30, 2001 39.9 (4)

BULLETIN NO. 66

47

Unfilt. Filter Unfilt. Filter

Field Measures Metals

Temperature 21.88 - Ca 31.9 32.8

DO 2.09 - K 1.9 1.8

pH 7.31 - Na 12 11.8

Sp. Cond. 279 - Mg 6.8 7

Lab Analytes As 3 U 3 U

BOD 0.2 UA - Al - 370

Turbidity 1.4 - B 28 I -

Color 250 - Cd 0.75 U 0.75 U

Alkalinity 57 56 Co 0.75 U -

Sp. Cond. 280 - Cr 2 U 2 U

TDS 225 - Cu 2.5 U 2.5 U

TSS 4 U - Fe 510 490

Cl 27 27 Mn 25.2 23.6

SO4 37 37 Ni 1.5 U 2 U

F 0.14 0.12 Pb 5 U 4 U

Nutrients Se 8.8 U 4 U

TOC 38 - Sn 20 U -

NO3 + NO2 0.091 0.091 J Sr 370 -

NH3 + NH4 0.034 0.028 A Zn 5 U 5 U

TKN 1.1 1.1

P 0.2 0.19

PO4 0.19 -

A=Average value U,K=Compound not detected, value shown is the method detection limit

I=Value is less than practical quantitation limit J=Estimated value Q= exceeded holding time limit

Analytes 2001 Analytes 2001

Table 10. Treehouse Spring water quality analyses.

Analyte Value

Escherichia coli 14Q

Enterococci 46Q

Fecal Coliform 20Q

Total Coliform 180Q

Bacteria Results (in #/100 mL) 

Table 11. Treehouse Spring bacteriological analyses.
BAY COUNTY

FLORIDA GEOLOGICAL SURVEY

48

Figure 20 - Springs visited by FGS in Bay County
Gainer Springs Group

Group Location - Lat. 30° 25’ N., Long. 85° 32’ W. (southern half of sec. 4, T. 1 S., R. 13

W.). Gainer Springs Group is located 0.4 miles (0.6 km) downstream from the SR 20 bridge

over Econfina Creek. It is best accessed by canoe, however, there is a gated dirt track on

Northwest Florida Water Management District (NWFWMD) land that leads to the springs

group on the east side of the creek. From the intersection of US 231 and SR 20 head west

on SR 20 approximately 7 miles (11.3 km) to Econfina Creek 

Group Description - At least five known springs associated with Gainer Springs Group are

along both sides of Econfina Creek. The uplands surrounding this group are high rolling

sand hills that are forested with sand pine and patches of longleaf pine-turkey oak community. High ground adjoining the west side of the creek near Spring No. 2 and Spring No. 3

rises to 27 ft (8.2 m) above the water surface and is densely forested with mixed hardwoods

and pines. The creek floodplain is forested with cypress and hardwoods. Land on the west

side of the Econfina Creek at Gainer Springs is privately owned. The east side of the creek

is owned and managed by the NWFWMD.

GAINER SPRING NO. 1C - Lat. 30° 25’ 39.6" N., Long. 85° 32 45.83" W. (SW1⁄4 NW1⁄4

SE1⁄4 sec. 4, T. 1 S., R. 13 W.). Gainer Spring Nos. 1A, 1B, and 1C form a 820 ft (249.9 m)

long spring run that enters Econfina Creek on the east side directly across from Spring No.

2. Spring No. 1C is the first spring encountered approximately 495 ft (150.9 m) upstream

from the creek, and its pool is adjacent to the run on the southeast side. Spring pool dimenBULLETIN NO. 66

49

Figure 21. Gainer Springs Group Vent 1C (photo by T. Scott).
sions are approximately 72

ft (21.9 m) east to west and

33 ft (10.1 m) north to

south. Water issues from a

vertical tunnel in the limestone. Shell and sand particles are suspended in the

spring flow. Pool depth is

20 ft (6.1 m) measured over

the vent. There is very little aquatic vegetation; however, algae patches in

spring pool are common.

The adjoining, swampy lowlands are heavily forested

with cypress and mixed

hardwoods. The nearest

uplands to the southeast

support a mixed hardwood

and pine forest. There is no

high ground adjacent to the

spring pool. These springs

are also known as

McCormick Springs.

GAINER SPRING NO. 2 -

Lat. 30° 25’ 38.61" N.,

Long. 85° 32’ 53.95" W.

(SW1⁄4 NE1⁄4 SW1⁄4 sec. 4, T.

1 S., R. 13 W.). This spring,

also known as Emerald

Spring, is located directly

across from the mouth of

Gainer Spring No. 1 run

along the west side of

Econfina Creek. Spring

water issues from the base

of the riverbank and forms

a pool along the edge of the creek. Pool diameter is approximately 60 ft (18.3 m) east to west

and 62 ft (18.9 m) north to south. Pool depth over the vent is 5 ft (1.5 m). Vent diameter is

approximately 5 ft (1.5 m). There is little or no aquatic vegetation, but patches of dark green

algae are present. The water is clear and light greenish blue. A concrete wall forms the

south side of the spring pool. Two parallel pipes that extract drinking water run from inside

the spring vent toward the top of the bluff and beyond. There are at least three other smaller vents issuing from the bank just above this spring. A 23 ft (7 m) high bluff meets the

Econfina Creek at Spring No. 2. A mixed hardwood and pine forest inhabits the bluff face

and high ground. 

FLORIDA GEOLOGICAL SURVEY

50

Figure 22. Gainer Springs Group Vent 2 (photo by T. Scott).
GAINER SPRING NO. 3 - Lat. 30° 25’

44.30" N., Long. 85° 32’ 53.9" W.

(NE1⁄4 NE1⁄4 SW1⁄4 sec. 4, T. 1 S., R. 13

W.). This spring is located along the

west side of Econfina Creek, and is

about 655 ft (199.6 m) upstream of

Spring No. 2. It is at the head of a 325

ft (99.1 m) long spring run. There are

at least three vent complexes in the

combined spring pool. The depression

is large and mostly shallow with a sand

bottom and limestone boulders. The

combined spring pool diameter is about

305 ft (93 m) east to west and 125 ft

(38.1 m) north to south. There is a

forested island in the center of the combined spring pool. Some emergent vegetation exists along the pool's shores,

but there is very little aquatic vegetation. Dark green algal mats are ubiquitous throughout the bottom of the

spring pool. The western vent issues

out of a limestone sidewall and has a

small boardwalk nearby. The north

vent, where water quality was sampled, is the largest and deepest. This

spring is about 15 ft (4.6 m) south of a

wooden wall presumably constructed

for shore erosion management. Clear,

light greenish blue water issues from the bottom of a 16 ft (4.9 m) diameter conical depression and produces a boil at the surface. The depression is 7.4 ft (2.3 m) deep over the vent.

Vent diameter is about 1.5 ft (0.5 m). On the eastern side of the combined spring pool, there

are at least three other vents. Uphill to the north, there are picnic tables under a pavilion

in a grassy opening. The rest of the uplands adjoining the spring pool to the west are forested with mixed hardwoods and pines. In the surrounding forested area, there are karst windows, dissolutionally-enlarged fractures and other karst features.

Utilization- The uplands around Gainer Spring No. 2 are privately owned. Econfina Creek

flows into Deerpoint Lake, which is a public water supply utilized by Panama City. Land

around the spring group is privately owned and is pristine and forested. Swimming and

canoeing occur frequently in all of Gainer Springs.

Discharge- Discharge reported here represents the total flow of the Gainer Springs complex. All discharge rates are measured in ft3

/s.

April 11, 1962 150(1)

September 11, 1962 174(1)

January 30, 1963 159(1)

October 14, 2002 128.2(3)

. January 5, 2004 192.8(3)

BULLETIN NO. 66

51

Figure 23. Gainer Springs Group fracture

(photo by H. Means).
FLORIDA GEOLOGICAL SURVEY

52

Analyte Vent No. 1 Vent No. 2 Vent No. 3

Escherichia coli 10Q 6Q 4Q

Enterococci 10Q 18Q 8Q

Fecal Coliform 14Q 18Q 12Q

Total Coliform 100Q 100 80Q

Bacteria Results (in #/100 mL) 

Table 13. Gainer Springs Group bacteriological analyses.

Unfilt. Filter Unfilt. Filter Unfilt. Filter

Field Measures

Temperature - 21.0 21.54 - 21.1 22.0 21.4 - 21.1 21.5 21.6 -

DO - 2.8 2.12 - - 2.5 2.27 - 3.0 2.18 -

pH 7.4 7.9 8.00 - 7.3 7.8 8.19 - 7.2 7.8 8.20 -

Sp. Cond. 115 127 142 - 82 108 113 - 115 125 121 -

Lab Analytes

BOD - - 0.2 U - - - 0.2 U - - - 0.2 U -

Turbidity - - 0.25 - - - 0.2 - - - 0.1 -

Color 2 5 5 U - 7 5 5 U - 2 10 5 U -

Alkalinity 57 55 66 67 38 48 52 52 A 53 54 56 56

Sp. Cond. - - 160 - - - 130 A - - - 130 -

TDS - - 79 - - - 60 - - - 61 -

TSS - - 4 U - - - 4 U - - - 4 U -

Cl 2.5 2.5 2.5 2.5 1.5 2.0 2.3 2.3 3.0 3.0 2.9 2.8

SO4 1.6 0.0 2.4 2.5 0.4 0.0 2.3 2.3 0.8 0.0 2.1 2

F 0.1 0.1 0.034 I 0.035 I 0.1 0.1 0.03 I 0.029 I 0.2 0.1 0.03 I 0.029 I

Nutrients

TOC - - 1.1 I - - 0.0 1.2 I - - - 1 U -

NO3 + NO2 - 0.10 0.17 0.16 - 0.19 0.21 0.21 - 0.09 0.19 0.18

NH3 + NH4 - - 0.038 0.01 U - - 0.035 0.01 U - - 0.01 U 0.01 U

TKN - - 0.06 U 0.06 U - - 0.06 U 0.06 U - - 0.06 U 0.06 U

P - - 0.014 0.014 - 0.02 0.013 A 0.013 - - 0.013 0.012

PO4 0.08 - 0.015 - 0.48 0.02 0.012 - 0.15 - 0.012 -

Metals

Ca 19 19 22.7 22.5 13 16 17.5 17.2 18 17 18.1 17.8

K 0.2 0.3 0.26 0.26 0.2 0.2 0.25 0.25 0.1 0.2 0.24 0.25

Na 2.0 1.8 1.64 1.44 1.7 1.4 1.45 1.34 1.9 1.8 1.68 1.61

Mg 2.8 2.9 2.7 2.8 1.8 2.4 2.4 2.4 3.2 2.8 2.9 2.9

As - - 3 U 3 U - 10 3 U 3 U - - 3 U 3 U

Al - - - 75 U - - - 75 U - - - 75 U

B - - 10 U - - - 10 U - - - 10 U -

Cd - - 0.75 U 0.5 U - 0 0.75 U 0.5 U - - 0.75 U 0.5 U

Co - - 0.75 U - - 0 0.75 U - - - 0.75 U -

Cr - - 0.7 U 0.5 U - 0 0.7 U 0.5 U - - 0.7 U 0.5 U

Cu - - 2 U 2 U - 0 2 U 2 U - - 2 U 2 U

Fe - - 25 U 20 U - 30 25 U 20 U - - 25 U 20 U

Mn - - 0.5 U 0.5 U - 0 0.5 U 0.5 U - - 0.5 U 0.5 U

Ni - - 1.5 U 1.5 U - - 1.5 U 1.5 U - - 1.5 U 1.5 U

Pb - - 5 U 3 U - 2 5 U 3 U - - 5 U 3 U

Se - - 3.5 U 3.5 U - - 3.5 U 3.5 U - - 3.5 U 3.5 U

Sn - - 9 U - - - 9 U - - - 9 U -

Sr - 80 76.1 - - 70 41.5 - - 50 42.4 -

Zn - - 4 U 3.5 U - 30 4 U 3.5 U - - 4 U 3.5 U

A=Average value U,K=Compound not detected, value shown is the method detection limit

I=Value is less than practical quantitation limit J=Estimated value Q=exceeding holding time limit

1962 1972 2001 1962 1972 2001 1962 1972 Analytes 2001

Vent #1 Vent #2 Vent #3

Table 12. Gainer Springs Group water quality analyses.
BRADFORD COUNTY

BULLETIN NO. 66

53

Figure 24. Springs visited by FGS in Bradford County.

Spring description provided on enclosed CD.
FLORIDA GEOLOGICAL SURVEY

54

Figure 25. Springs visited by FGS in Calhoun County.

Spring descriptions provided on enclosed CD.

CALHOUN COUNTY
CITRUS COUNTY

BULLETIN NO. 66

55

Figure 26. Springs visited by FGS in Citrus County.
Chassahowitzka Springs Group

FLORIDA GEOLOGICAL SURVEY

56

Figure 27. Chassahowitzka Main Spring (photo by R. Means).

Figure 28. Chassahowitzka No. 1 (photo by R. Meegan).
Group Location - Lat. 28° 42’ N., Long. 82° 34’ W. (Both spring vents are located in the

center of sec. 26, T. 20 S., R. 17 E.). The springs are 5.8 miles (9.3km) southwest of

Homosassa Springs on the Chassahowitzka River. From Homosassa Springs Wildlife State

Park, drive south on US 98/19 5.8 miles (9.3 km). Turn west (right) on CR 480 and drive

about 1.8 miles (2.9 km) to the public boat access area,

Group Description - Chassahowitzka Springs form the headwaters of the Chassahowitzka

River, which flows westerly to the Gulf of Mexico approximately 6 miles (9.7 km) through

low coastal hardwood hammock and marsh. Rosenau et al. (1977) report as many as five

springs flow into the upper part of the river and many more springs are known to exist in

the lower portion. The entire river is tidally influenced.

CHASSAHOWITZKA MAIN SPRING - Lat. 28° 42’ 55.87" N., Long. 82° 34’ 34.33" W.

(NE 1⁄4 NE 1⁄4 SW 1⁄4 sec. 26, T. 20 S., R. 17 E.). Chassahowitzka Main Spring is 360 ft ( 110

m) northeast of the boat ramp and is in the middle of the run. This spring is at the head of

a large pool that measures 147 ft (44.8 m) north to south and 135 ft (41.1 m) east to west.

The depth measured over the vent is 13.5 ft (4.1 m). The spring has a sand bottom. No limestone was exposed. Water is clear and greenish. The spring run from Chassahowitzka No.

1 Spring flows into the Chassahowitzka Main Spring pool from the east. There is a boat

ramp with facilities on the southwest side of the pool. Aquatic vegetation is common, including exotic aquatic vegetation and algae. A boil is visible at low tide. The spring is surrounded by lowland hardwood swamp forest with mixed hardwoods, cypress, and palm.

CHASSAHOWITZKA NO. 1 - Lat. 28° 42’ 58.24" N., Long. 82° 34’ 30.32" W. (NW 1⁄4 NW

1⁄4 SE 1⁄4 sec. 26, T. 20 S., R. 17 E.). Chassahowitzka # 1 is at the head of a spring run that

flows into the Chassahowitzka River from the north approx 250 ft upstream from

Chassahowitzka Main or 550 ft upstream from the boat ramp. This spring issues from a

small cavern in bedrock limestone. The spring pool measures 69 ft (21 m) north to south

and 81 ft (24.7 m) east to west. There are two closely spaced openings through which the

flow issues. The depth over the vents is 8.3 ft (2.5 m). The water is clear and light blue. A

small tannic stream flows into the northeast side of the spring pool. There is a thin layer of

algae covering most of the limestone bottom of the spring pool. The surrounding land is low

lying and heavily forested with hardwoods and palm. The spring run flows southwest

approximately 350 ft (106.7 m) into Chassahowitzka Main Spring pool. There are several

other spring vents along the spring run about half way to the Chassahowitzka Main Spring

pool.

Utilization - Chassahowitzka Springs and River are used for fishing, swimming, snorkeling, and pleasure boating. Manatees frequent the springs and river year round, but are

especially common in winter.

Discharge - Current discharge estimate is

provisional. All discharge rates are measured in ft3

/s.

Average 1930 - 1972 138.5(1)

(81 measurements)

Maximum (May 18, 1966) 197.0(1)

Minimum (July 8, 1964) 31.8(1)

October 15, 2001 53(2)

BULLETIN NO. 66

57

Analyte Main No. 1

Escherichia coli 1 KQ 1 KQ

Enterococci 1 KQ 1 KQ

Fecal Coliform 1 KQ 1 KQ

Total Coliform 1 KQ 20Q

Bacteria Results (in #/100ml)

Table 14. Chassahowitzka Springs Group

bacteriological analyses.
FLORIDA GEOLOGICAL SURVEY

58

----- 186 - I 8

 U U2 U

----- U U -

----- U1 U

----- U U U

 U U

Unfilt. Filter Unfilt. Filter

Field Measures

Temperature 23.9 26.0 24.5 23.5 22.2 22.9 - 23.2

DO - - 6.1 - 5.4 3.68 - 4.10

pH 7.5 8.2 7.6 8.2 - 7.65 - 7.71

Sp. Cond. 470 500 530 1370 564 2790 - 1080

Lab Analytes

BOD - 0.2 2.5 - - 0.2 U - 0.2 AU -

Turbidity - 3 2 - - 1.3 - 0.45 -

Color 8 10 10 10 10 5 U - 5 U -

Alkalinity - 140 140 140 130 150 152 150 152 A

Sp. Cond. - - - - - 2800 - 1100 A

TDS - - - - - 1470 - 562 -

TSS 4 - 4

Cl 53 70 79 320 110 680 680 220 200

SO4 13 13 16 56 21 110 110 39 40

F 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.2 0.2 0.13 J 0.11 0.12 J 0.11

Nutrients

TOC 1 -

NO3 + NO2 - - - 0.26 - 0.45 J 0.46 J 0.49 J 0.5 J

NH3+NH4 - - - - - 0.01 U 0.025 0.01 U 0.011 I

TKN - - - - - 0.12 I 0.12 I 0.086 I 0.1 I

P - - - - - 0.033 0.02 0.018 0.018

PO4 - - - - - 0.021 - 0.021

Metals

Ca 49 46 48 55 47 65.2 63.4 54.5 52.8

K 1.5 1.6 1.8 6.3 2.5 14.7 14.3 4.8 4.5

Na 29 36 40 180 60 393 411 131 121

Mg 13 11 13 29 13 54.5 54.2 23.5 22.3

As 3 U3 7 3

Ba U 75

B 6

Cd - - - - - 0.75 U 0.75 U 0.75 U 0.75 U

Co - - - - - 0.75 U - 0.75 U -

Cr 2 U2 2

Cu - - - - - 2.5 U 2.5 U 2.5 U 2.5 U

Fe - - - - - 92 I 38 I 35 U 35 U

Mn - - - - - 4.1 1.5 I 0.5 U 0.5 U

Ni - - - - - 1.5 U 1.5 U 1.5 U 1.5 U

Pb 5 4U 5 4

Se - - - - - 8.6 U 4 U 8.6 U 4 U

Sn - - - - - 20 U - 20 U -

Sr - 200 200 800 310 511 - 262 -

Zn - - - - - 5 U 5 U 5 U 5 U

Analytes 2001

A=Average Value U,K=Compound not detected, value shown is the method detection limit

I=Value shown is less than the practical quantitation limit J=Estimated value

No. 1

1946

Main

1970 1971 1972 1975 2001

------

 

-----

----- U

Table 15. Chassahowitzka Springs Group water quality analyses.
Citrus Blue Spring

Location - Lat. 28° 58' 09.60" N., Long. 82° 18' 52.34" W. (SW 1⁄4 NE 1⁄4 SW 1⁄4 sec. 33, T.

17 S., R. 20 E.). Citrus Blue Spring is located along the Withlacoochee River approximately 10 miles (16 km) southeast of Dunnellon. From the US 41 bridge over the Withlacoochee

River in Dunnellon travel south on US 41 approximately 1.3 miles (2.1 km) to the intersection with CR 39. Head east (left) on CR 39 and travel approximately 7.6 miles (12.2 km) to

the intersection with CR 200. Head northeast (left) and travel 0.1 mile (.2 km) to the bridge

over the Withlacoochee River at Stokes Ferry. A boat launch is on the southeast side of the

river. The spring can be accessed by boating 3 miles (4.8 km) upstream from the CR 200

bridge in Stoke's Ferry. The spring is situated on the south (right) side of the river.

Description - Citrus Blue Spring has a roughly circular pool that measures 120 ft (36.6 m)

in diameter. The east side of the spring pool is partly enclosed by a man-made, five foot high

dike. The spring depression is relatively shallow and uniform except at the vent in the center where depth measures 22 ft (6.7 m). A slight boil was observed over the vent during

October 2002. The color of the water is bluish-green, and the sand bottom has substantial

aquatic grass cover with sparse algae. Spring flow is directed northwestward through a 30

ft (9.1 m) wide man-made canal, eventually discharging into the Withlacoochee River

approximately 0.4 miles (0.6 km) downstream. The canal has a sand bottom with abundant

detritus as well as abundant aquatic vegetation. Before the dike was constructed, the

spring apparently discharged eastward approximately 150 ft (45.7 m) into the river. The

spring is within the forested Withlacoochee River floodplain. The spring reportedly has an

extensive cavern system that opens southward to a depth of at least 180 ft (54.9 m) below

the spring surface (Rosenau et al., 1977). 

BULLETIN NO. 66

59

Figure 29. Citrus Blue Spring (photo by R. Means).
Utilization - Citrus Blue Spring is surrounded by private property and is used locally for

swimming.

Discharge - All discharge rates are measured in ft3/s.

March 15, 1932 11.1(1)

March 7, 1961 17.7(1)

June 19, 1961 19.6(1)

May 25, 1972 15.1(1)

October 16, 2002 16.3(2)

FLORIDA GEOLOGICAL SURVEY

60

Dissolved Total Dissolved Total

Field Measures Metals

Temperature 23 Ca 58 62.8 61.4

DO - K 0.2 0.2A 0.17

pH 7.9 Na 2.5 3.27A 2.84

Sp. Cond. - Mg 2.1 2.7A 2.7

Lab Analytes Al - - 10U

BOD - - 0.2U As - 3U 3U

Turbidity - - 0.1 B - - 10U

Color - - 5U Cd - 0.5U 0.5U

Alkalinity 140 - 146 Co - 1U

Sp. Cond. 302 318.0 - Cr - 2U 2U

TDS 164 - 172 Cu - 2U 4U

TSS - - 4U Fe - 5.1I 7U

Cl 6 - 5.2 Mn - 0.25U 0.5U

SO4 6.8 - 13.0 Ni - 1U 2U

F 0.2 - 0.064I Pb - 5U 5U

Nutrients Ra-226 - - 0.5

TOC - - 1U Ra-228 - - 1.1U

NO3 + NO2 as N 0.04 - 0.51 Se - 5U 7U

NH3 + NH4 - - 0.01U Sn - - 26U

TKN - 0.09I 0.06U Sr 140 - 135

P - 0.032Q 0.033 Zn - 10.6 5.4I

PO4 - 0.04 -

NO3 0.18 - -

A=Average value U,K=Compound not detected, value shown is the method detection limit

I=Value is less than practical quantitation limit J=Est value Q=Exceeding holding time limit

2002 Analytes Analytes 2002 1975 1975

333

22.65

1.4

7.33

Analyte Value

Enterococci 1KQ

Fecal Coliform 1KQ

Bacteria Results (in #/100 mL) 

Table 16. Citrus Blue Spring water quality analyses.

Table 17. Citrus Blue Spring water bacteriological analyses.
Homosassa Springs Group

Group Location - Lat. 28° 47’ 56.65" N., Long. 82° 35’ 18.70" W. (NE 1⁄4 SW 1⁄4 NE 1⁄4

sec. 28, T. 19 S., R. 17 E.). The springs are located within the Homosassa Springs Wildlife

State Park and form the headwaters of the Homosassa River. Coming from the north on US

19/98 into Homosassa Springs, turn west (right) on CR 490A and travel 0.5 mile (0.8 km).

Turn south (left) on access road to Homosassa Springs Wildlife State Park and travel 0.3

mile (0.5 km) to park entrance. The spring pool, into which all three vents issue, is just

below the underwater viewing platform in the manatee rehabilitation area. 

Group Description - Homosassa Springs Group forms the head of the Homosassa River,

which flows west approximately 6 miles (9.7 km) to the Gulf of Mexico. Downstream from

the head springs about a mile, the spring-fed Halls River flows in from the north. The entire

river system is tidally influenced.

HOMOSASSA SPRINGS NOS. 1, 2, and 3 - All three vents issue into the same spring pool.

The pool measures 189 ft (57.6 m) north to south and 285 ft (86.9 m) east to west. The depth

for each of the vents is 67, 65, and 62 ft (20.4, 19.8, and 18.9 m) for spring nos. 1, 2, and 3,

respectively. The springs issue from a conical depression with limestone exposed along the

BULLETIN NO. 66

61

Figure 30. Homosassa Springs Group (photo by H. Means).
FLORIDA GEOLOGICAL SURVEY

62

Unfilt. Filter Unfilt. Filter Unfilt. Filter

Field Measures

Temperature 23.5 - 23.5 23.5 23.4 - 23.3 - 23.6 -

DO - - 4.3 - 3.97 - 3.86 - 4.09 -

pH 8.2 7.5 6.9 7.9 7.67 - 7.62 - 7.81 -

Sp. Cond. 2590 2900 2370 3740 5250 - 6330 1980 -

Lab Analytes

BOD - - 0.1 - 0.68 I - 0.86 I - 0.76 I -

Turbidity - - 1 - 1.3 - 0.5 - 0.25 -

Color 3 0 0 10 5 U - 5 U - 5 U -

Alkalinity 110 110 120 110 120 115 120 117 110 112

Sp. Cond. - - - - 5200 - 6200 - 2000 -

TDS - - - - 2830 - 3310 - 1020 -

TSS - - - - 4 U - 4 U - 4 U -

Cl 680 780 640 1100 1500 1500 1900 1900 520 510

SO4 95 111 84 150 220 220 260 260 74 72

F 0.3 0.2 2.0 0.14 0.12 0.14 0.13 0.1 0.093 I

Nutrients

TOC - - 0 - 1 U - 1 U - 1 U -

NO3 + NO2 - - 0.26 0.20 0.51 0.51 J 0.5 0.5 J 0.53 0.55 J

NH3 + NH4 - - - - 0.028 0.02 I 0.034 0.026 0.01 I 0.012 I

TKN - - - - 0.15 I 0.12 I 0.13 I 0.12 I 0.091 IQ 0.11 I

P - - 0.02 - 0.028 I 0.029 I 0.034 I 0.029 I 0.048 Q 0.026 I

PO4 - - 0.01 - 0.018 J - 0.021 J - 0.011 J -

Metals

Ca 54 55 48 65 69.2 70 75.8 77.3 47.6 46.3 A

K 18 12 20 28.8 29.8 35.5 35.5 9.84 0.45

Na - 420 340 600 815 814 972 986 267 3.7

Mg 56 57 48 86 100 103 123 124 39.1 37.5 A

As - - 0 - 3 U 3 U 3 U 3 U 3 U 3 U

B - - 60 - 344 - 422 - 125 -

Al - - - - - 75 U - 75 U - 75 U

Cd - - 0 - 0.75 U 0.75 U 0.75 U 0.75 U 0.75 U 0.75 U

Co - - 0 - 0.75 U - 0.75 U - 0.75 U -

Cr - - 0 - 2 U 2 U 2 U 2 U 2 U 2 U

Cu - - 0 - 2.5 U 2.5 U 2.5 U 2.5 U 2.5 U 2.5 U

Fe - - 10 - 300 89 I 190 52 I 370 35 U

Mn - - 0 - 21.4 13.5 5.8 4.9 19.9 0.5 U

Ni - - - - 1.5 U 1.5 U 1.5 U 1.5 U 1.5 U 1.5 U

Pb - - 0 - 5 U 4 U 5 U 4 U 5 U 4 U

Se 4 U4 U4 U4 U4 U4 U

Sn - - - - 10 U - 10 U - 10 U -

Sr - - 490 5000 858 - 1030 - 372 -

Zn - - 10 - 5 U 5 U 5 U 5 U 5 U 5 U

1966 1972 

(April)

A=Average value U,K=Compound not detected, value shown is the method detection limit

I=Value shown is less than the practical quantitation limit J=Estimated value

2001 2001 2001 1972 

(Oct.)

No. 1 No. 2 No. 3

Analytes 1956

- - - -

Table 18. Homosassa Springs Group water quality analyses.
sides and bottom of the spring pool. The pool is teeming with salt water and freshwater fishes. Water is clear and light blue. There is a large boil in center of pool. Surrounding land

is Gulf Coastal Lowlands with thick hardwood-palm forest cover. Approximately 1,000 ft

(304.8 m) downstream, a fence spans across the river to keep boats out of the spring pool.

There also is a barrier immediately outside the spring area which keeps the captive manatees in the spring pool. Manatees frequent the spring pool and river year round, but are

especially common in winter. The springs are tidally influenced year round, especially in

winter. 

Utilization - The main spring pool and adjacent lands are within Homosassa Springs

Wildlife State Park. The area is developed into an interpretive center for manatee and

Florida wildlife education. There is a floating observation deck in the spring pool with a submerged aquatic observation room. Injured and rehabilitating manatees are captive in the

spring pool for year round observation. Swimming is not allowed.

Discharge - All discharge rates are measured in ft3

/s.

Average 1931 - 1974 106(1) (90 measurements)

Maximum (August 18, 1966) 165(1)

Minimum (September 19, 1972) 80 (1)

October 16, 2001 87(2) (Estimate is provisional)

BULLETIN NO. 66

63

Analyte No. 1 No. 2 No. 3

Escherichia coli 1 KQ 1 KQ 1 KQ

Enterococci 1 KQ 1 KQ 1 KQ

Fecal Coliform 1 KQ 1 KQ 1 KQ

Total Coliform 1 KQ 1 KQ 1 KQ

Bacteria Results (in #/100ml)

Table 19. Homosassa Springs Group bacteriological analyses.
Kings Bay Springs Group

FLORIDA GEOLOGICAL SURVEY

64

Figure 31. Kings Bay Springs Group, Hunter Spring (photo by R. Meegan).

Figure 32. Kings Bay Springs Group, Tarpon Hole Spring (photo by R. Means).
Group Location - Lat. 28° 53 ’ N., Long. 82° 35’ W. (sections 20, 21 and 28, T. 18 S., R.

17 E.). The Kings Bay Springs Group is located in Kings Bay west of Crystal River. Coming

into Crystal River from the north on US 19/98, King's Bay can be accessed via numerous

boat landings north and south of the Bay. 

Group Description - There are about 30 known springs, including Tarpon Hole and Hunter

Spring, that either issue from the bottom of Kings Bay or flow into the bay from side creeks.

Their combined flow feeds Crystal River, which flows approximately 7 miles (11.3 km)

northwest to the Gulf of Mexico. Surrounding land is coastal lowlands with brackish marsh

and hardwood-palm hammock to the west and the City of Crystal River to the east. The

whole system is tidally influenced, and Kings Bay is brackish. Rosenau et al. (1977) referred

to these springs as the Crystal River Springs Group.

HUNTER SPRING - Lat. 28° 53’ 40.0” N, Long. 82° 35’ 33.0” W (NW 1⁄4 SW 1⁄4 SE 1⁄4 sec. 21,

T. 18 S, R. 17 E). This spring issues vertically from the bottom of a conical depression near

the head of a side creek channel feeding the eastside of Kings Bay. Another spring is at the

head of the channel. Hunter Spring pool is circular and measures 210 ft (64 m) in diameter.

Depth measured over the vent is 13 ft (4 m). The spring has a sand bottom with some limestone near the vent. The spring bottom is choked with dark green filamentous algae, and

some Hydrilla is present. Water is clear and bluish. There is a large boil in pool center.

Land on the north rises to approximately 4 ft (1.2 m) above water and is a county maintained recreational park. Land on all other sides of spring pool is extensively developed with

apartments and houses. A concrete sea wall entirely surrounds the pool except for outflow

and inflow. There is a square swimming dock floating in the center of the spring pool. This

spring was closed to swimming during summer 2001 due to high coliform bacteria levels

detected in the water (Eric Dehaven, SWFWMD, pers. comm.).

TARPON HOLE SPRING - Lat. 28° 52’ 54.64" N., Long. 82° 35’ 41.33" W. (NW 1⁄4 NW 1⁄4

SW 1⁄4 sec. 28, T. 18 S., R. 17 E.). This spring issues from a deep, conical depression in Kings

Bay on the south side of Banana Island. The spring pool measures approximately 450 ft

(137.2 m) north to south and 550 ft (167.6 m) east to west. The depth measured over the

vent is 58 ft (17.7m). Water is typically clear and bluish, but can be cloudy during high tide.

There is a large boil present in center of pool. Visibility was low when visited in October

2001. Algae cover limestone substrates. The vent is a large circular hole in limestone.

Nearby islands to the north are part of the Crystal River National Wildlife Refuge and have

marsh grasses and hardwood-palm hammock vegetation. Land to the east is privately

owned with many houses and a marina. This spring is a favorite scuba diving location and

manatee observation area.

Utilization - All of Kings Bay and most of its springs are used for swimming, manatee

observation, pleasure boating, and scuba diving. The west side of Kings Bay and some

islands are part of the Crystal River National Wildlife Refuge. The city of Crystal River

nearly adjoins the east side of Kings Bay.

Discharge - Kings Bay Group 1965-1977: 975 ft3

/s(7) average

BULLETIN NO. 66

65
FLORIDA GEOLOGICAL SURVEY

66

Unfilt. Filter Unfilt. Filter Unfilt. Filter Unfilt. Filter

Field Measures Metals

Temperature 22.9 - 23.0 - Ca 52.8 53.9 30.6 31 A

DO 2.09 - 5.09 - K 10.2 10.3 2.1 2 A

pH 7.72 - 8.02 - Na 289 290 54.9 52.9 A

Sp. Cond. 2130 - 541 - Mg 39.4 40 10.4 10.3 A

Lab Analytes As 3 U 3 U 3 U 3 U

BOD 0.2 U - 0.2 AU - Al - 75 U - 75 U

Turbidity 6.8 - 0.95 - B 128 - 33 I -

Color 5 U - 5 U - Cd 0.75 U 0.75 U 0.75 U 0.75 U

Alkalinity 124 123 87 87 Co 0.75 U - 0.75 U -

Sp. Cond. 2200 - 530 - Cr 2 U 2 U 2 U 2 U

TDS 960 - 263 Q - Cu 2.5 U 2.5 U 2.5 U 2.5 U

TSS 4 U - 4 U - Fe 130 I 35 U 35 U 35 U

Cl 540 550 96 94 Mn 13.4 7.2 0.5 U 0.5 U

SO4 78 81 20 20 Ni 2U 2U 2 U2 U

F 0.091 I 0.12 A 0.065 I 0.071 I Pb 5 U 4 U 5 U 4 U

Nutrients Se 4 U 4 U 4 U 4 U

TOC 1 U - 1 U - Sn 10 U - 10 U -

NO3 + NO2 0.17 0.18 J 0.4 0.39 J Sr 362 - 131 -

NH3 + NH4 0.01 U 0.014 I 0.01 U 0.01 U Zn U 5 U 5 U 5 5 U

TKN 0.084 I 0.12 I 0.06 U 0.06 U

P 0.042 0.033 I 0.023 0.024

PO4 0.029 - 0.028 -

Analytes

Tarpon Hole Hunter

Analytes

A=Average value U,K=Compound not detected, value shown is the method detection limit

I=Value shown is less than the practical quantitation limit J=Estimated value

Tarpon Hole Hunter

2001 2001 2001 2001

Table 20. Kings Bay Springs Group water quality analyses.

Analyte Tarpon Hole Hunter

Escherichia coli 1KQ 1KQ

Enterococci 1KQ 1KQ

Fecal Coliform 1KQ 1KQ

Total Coliform 1KQ 1KQ

Bacteria Results (in #/100ml)

Table 21. Kings Bay Springs Group bacteriological analyses.
CLAY COUNTY

BULLETIN NO. 66

67

Figure 33 - Springs visited by FGS in Clay County.
Green Cove Spring

Location - Lat. 29° 59' 36.24" N., Long. 81° 40' 40.48" W. (Land Grant 38, T. 6 S., R. 26

E.). Green Cove Spring is located within the town of Green Cove Springs. From the intersection of SR 16 and US 17 in Green Cove Springs, drive one block north on US 17. Turn

east (right) on Spring Street and drive one block to the city park. The spring is within a historic city park. 

Description - Green Cove Spring is entirely enclosed by a circular brick wall that measures

15 ft (4.6 m) in diameter. Spring depth is 28 ft (8.5 m). The spring vent consists of a deep

vertical cave whose walls are visible through clear, slightly greenish water. No vegetation

or algae are observed in the spring pool, and the spring water emits a sharp hydrogen sulfide odor. Spring water is channeled into a concrete swimming pool. A narrow spring run

exits the swimming pool, cascading over a 3 ft (0.9 m) tall wall, and travels approximately

450 ft (137.1 m) eastward into the St. Johns River. The 5 ft (1.5 m) wide spring run has a

sand bottom. There is a view of the nearly 2 mile (3.2 km) wide St. Johns River to the east.

To the west, high ground rises into downtown Green Cove Spring 10 ft (3.1 m) higher than

the spring surface. There are several piers and boat docks on the river near the spring

mouth. Picnic tables, walkways, benches, and shade trees abound in the park. The City

Hall and a bathhouse are on the north side of the swimming pool. The spring has an extensive cavern and cave system associated with it. Rosenau et al. (1977) report that a cavern

can be accessed through a 2 ft (0.6 m) wide orifice in the bottom of the spring. The cavern

extends northeastward toward the St. Johns River. 

FLORIDA GEOLOGICAL SURVEY

68

Figure 34. Green Cove Spring (photo by T. Scott).
BULLETIN NO. 66

69

Dissolved Total

Field Measures

Temperature - - 25.0

DO ---

pH - 7.3 8.0

Sp. Cond. - - -

Lab Analytes

BOD ---- 0.6AI

Turbidity ---- 0.05U

Color - 0 5 - 5U

Alkalinity - - 79 - 86A

Sp. Cond. - 289 290 270.0 -

TDS 170 171 199 - 165.0

TSS - - - -4U

Cl 5.7 6.1 6.0 - 6.4

SO4 49 51 55 - 55

F - 0.2 0.4 - 0.27

Nutrients

TOC - - - -1U

NO3 + NO2 as N --- - 0.004U

NH3 + NH4 --- - 0.038

TKN - - - 0.06U 0.076I

P - - - 0.015U 0.015U

PO4 --- 0.005I -

NO3 --- - -

Metals

Ca 28 28 28 27.9 28.6

K 1.8 1.2 1.3 1.4 1.4

Na 2.4 4.6 4.3 4.8 4.04

Mg 16 15 16 14.8 15

Al - - - -10U

As - - - 3U 3U

B ---- 11I

Cd - - - 0.5U 0.5U

Co ---- 1U

Cr - - - 2U 2U

Cu - - - 3.5U 4U

Fe 30 60 - 5U 7U

Mn - - - 0.25U 0.5U

Ni - - - 2U 2U

Pb - - - 5U 5U

Ra-226 - - - -0.5

Ra-228 ---- 0.9U

Se - - - 8U 8U

Sn - - - -11I

Sr ---- 1230

Zn - - - 2.5U 4U

A=Average value U,K=Compound not detected, value shown is the method detection limit

I=Value is less than practical quantitation limit J=Est value Q=Exceeding holding time limit

2003 Analytes

294

24.36

0.4

7.55

1924 1946 1972

Table 22. Green Cove Spring water quality analyses.
Utilization - Green Cove Spring is located within a city park and is a popular swimming

area. No swimming is allowed in the actual spring. Water from the spring directly supplies

the water for the swimming pool. In the 19th century, the spring was a popular health spa.

Discharge - All discharge rates are measured in ft3

/s

February 12, 1929 5.4(1)

April 18, 1946 4.42(1)

November 4, 1950 4.15(1)

June 18, 1954 2.68(1)

April 25, 1956 2.74(1)

October 19, 1960 3.52(1)

March 8, 1972 3.03(1)

January 8, 2003 2.79(2)

FLORIDA GEOLOGICAL SURVEY

70

Analyte Value

Enterococci 1KQ

Fecal Coliform 1KQ

Bacteria Results (in #/100 mL) 

Table 23. Green Cove Spring bacteriological analyses.
COLUMBIA COUNTY

BULLETIN NO. 66

71

Figure 35 - Springs visited by FGS in Columbia County.
Columbia Spring

Location - Lat. 29° 51’ 14.80” N., Long. 82° 36’ 43.03” W. (NW1⁄4 SE1⁄4 NE1⁄4 sec. 28, T.

7 S., R. 17 E.). Columbia Spring is located 2 miles (3.2 km) northwest of High Springs on

the Santa Fe River and can be accessed by small boat. From the junction of US 441/41 and

CR 236 in High Springs, drive north on US 441/41 approximately 1.2 miles (1.9 km). Turn

west (left) at public access boat sign just before the Santa Fe River. Spring is in a cove on

the northeast bank of the river, 900 ft (274.3 m) downstream from the boat ramp.

Description - Columbia Spring has an oval-shaped pool that measures 75 ft (23 m) north

to south and 150 ft (45.7 m) east to west. The depth at the vent is 25 ft (7.6 m). Water is

typically clear, but was tannic in October 2001. It has a 30 ft (9.1 m) wide spring run that

flows approximately 600 ft (182.9 m) westward to the Santa Fe River. There are native

aquatic grasses in the spring run and some algae are present on most substrates. The

spring run has a jagged limestone and sand bottom. There is a 1-2 ft (0.3 - 0.6 m) tall manmade line of rocks that stretches across the spring run about 90 ft (27.4 m) west of the vent.

The entire spring and spring run are within the lowland flood plain of the Santa Fe River.

The flood plain in this area is heavily forested with cypress and other swamp inhabiting

hardwoods. The nearest high ground is approximately 600 ft (182.9 m) east of the spring,

and it rises to nearly 10 ft (3 m) above the flood plain. It is generally forested with mixed

hardwoods and pines. A house sits on the high ground to the east of the spring.

Utilization - The land surrounding the spring is privately owned. The spring is a local

swimming hole with pristine surroundings.

FLORIDA GEOLOGICAL SURVEY

72

Figure 36. Columbia Spring (photo by D. Hornsby).
Discharge - November 1, 2001: 39.5 ft3

/s(4)

BULLETIN NO. 66

73

Unfilt. Filter Unfilt. Filter

Field Measures Metals

Temperature 22.39 - Ca 33.6 31.5

DO 2.29 - K 2 1.8

pH 7.19 - Na 12.7 12

Sp. Cond. 270 - Mg 7.1 6.6

Lab Analytes As 3 U 3 U

BOD 0.23 I - Al - 530

Turbidity 2.1 - B 29 I -

Color 250 - Cd 0.75 U 0.75 U

Alkalinity 54 54 Co 0.75 U -

Sp. Cond. 270 - Cr 2 U 2 U

TDS 217 - Cu 2.5 U 2.5 U

TSS 4 U - Fe 640 500

Cl 28 27 Mn 30.3 23.9

SO4 34 34 Ni 1.5 U 2 U

F 0.14 0.12 Pb 5 U 4 U

Nutrients Se 8.8 U 4 U

TOC 39 - Sn 20 U -

NO3 + NO2 0.089 0.088 J Sr 358 -

NH3 + NH4 0.062 0.038 Zn 5 I 5 U

TKN 1.3 1.1

P 0.3 0.21

PO4 0.19 -

A=Average value U,K=Compound not detected, value shown is the method detection limit

I=Value is less than practical quantitation limit J=Estimated value Q=exceeded holding time limit

Analytes 2001 Analytes 2001

Table 24. Columbia Spring water quality analysis.

Analyte Value

Escherichia coli 26Q

Enterococci 158Q

Fecal Coliform 38Q

Total Coliform 340Q

Bacteria Results (in #/100 mL) 

Table 25. Columbia Spring bacteriological analysis.
Ichetucknee Springs Group

FLORIDA GEOLOGICAL SURVEY

74

Figure 37. Ichetucknee Springs Group, Ichetucknee Head Spring (photo by T. Scott).

Figure 38. Ichetucknee Springs Group, Blue Hole Spring (photo by T. Scott).
Group Location - Lat. 29° 59’ N., Long. 82° 45’ W. (sections 12 and 13, T. 6 S., R. 15 E.

and section 7, T. 6 S., R. 16 E.). The Ichetucknee Springs Group is located within the

Ichetucknee Springs State Park which is approximately 10 miles (16.1 km) northeast of

Branford. From the bridge over the Suwannee River in Branford, drive east on US 27/129

for 7 miles (11.2 km). Turn north (left) onto CR 137 and continue for 1.3 miles (2.1 km).

Turn east (right) and go 4.2 miles (6.8 km) through the north park entrance to the parking

area.

Group Description - These springs comprise a group of nine named and many unnamed

springs along the upper 2.5 mile (4 km) stretch of the Ichetucknee River. The most northerly spring forms the head of the river and is named Ichetucknee Head Spring. From here,

the river flows about 1.5 miles (2.4 km) south, then 4 miles (6.4 km) southwest to discharge

into the normally darker tannic water of the Santa Fe River. Of the springs sampled for

water quality, all are located within Columbia County except for Ichetucknee Head Spring,

which is located just inside Suwannee County.

ICHETUCKNEE HEAD SPRING - Lat. 29° 59’ 03.10” N., Long. 82° 45’ 42.73” W. (SE 1⁄4

NE 1⁄4 NE 1⁄4 sec. 12, T. 6 S., R. 15 E.). This spring forms the head of the Ichetucknee River.

The spring pool measures 102 ft (31.1 m) east to west and 87 ft (26.5 m) north to south. The

depth measures 17 ft (5.2 m) over the vent. Water is clear and light blue and issues from a

fracture in the limestone forming a visible boil. A thin layer of algae carpets most of the bottom of the spring. The spring has sand and limestone bottom with little or no aquatic vegetation. North and east shorelines have thick emergent grass and shrubs, and the west

shore is near high ground sloping to approximately 15 ft (4.6 m) above water. All surrounding land is densely forested. Restroom facilities are about 200 ft (61 m) west. This

spring is easily accessed by a path and is a popular swimming hole.

BLUE HOLE - Lat. 29° 58’ 49.91” N., Long. 82° 45’ 30.44” W. (SW 1⁄4 SW 1⁄4 NW 1⁄4 sec.

17, T. 6 S., R. 15 E.). This spring is located in the spring run channel of Cedar Head Spring,

which is north of Blue Hole. The spring pool and outflow greatly widens the incoming spring

run, and the combined run flows south a short distance to the Ichetucknee River. The spring

pool measures 87 ft (26.5 m) east to west and 117 ft (35.6 m) north to south. The depth

measured over the vent is 37 ft (11.3 m). The water is clear and light blue, and a boil is visible on the pool surface. Water issues from a cavern in limestone. The pool has a sand and

limestone bottom with abundant aquatic grass and some algae. The land around the spring

is heavily forested with mixed hardwoods and palm. The spring run is fenced off approximately 100 ft (30.5 m) south of vent. This is a swimming spot with a wooden boardwalk for

spring access. A foot path leads to the spring from the north.

CEDAR HEAD SPRING - Lat. 29° 58’ 59.88” N., Long. 82° 45’ 31.32” W. (SW 1⁄4 NW 1⁄4

NW 1⁄4 sec. 7, T. 6 S., R. 15 E.). This is a small spring at the head of a stream that flows

south into Blue Hole Spring. The spring pool diameter is approximately 20 ft (6.1 m) east

to west. The depth measures 6 ft (1.8 m) over the vent. No boil was present on the pool surface during the October 2001 visit, although outflow stream was flowing. The bottom is covered with sand, logs and organic matter. Water is clear but does not appear blue due to dark

particulate layer on bottom. The vent is a small upwelling in the sand. A steep bank occurs

along the west side of the spring and rises to 8 ft (2.4 m) above water level. There is higher ground 150 ft (45.7 m) east of spring across a small lowland flood plain. Cypress, gum,

and maple forest occur in lowlands near water with mixed hardwood forest on higher

BULLETIN NO. 66

75
FLORIDA GEOLOGICAL SURVEY

76

Unfilt. Filter Unfilt. Filter Unfilt. Filter Unfilt. Filter

Field Measures

Temperature 22.2 21.0 21.95 - 21.9 - 21.9 - 21.8 -

DO - 4.5 3.52 - 2.01 - 2.98 - 0.63 -

pH 7.7 7.6 7.91 - 7.49 - 7.41 - 7.91 -

Sp. Cond. 329 290 319 - 287 - 299 - 312 -

Lab Analytes

BOD - 2.0 0.2 UJ - 0.2 UJ - 0.2 UJ - 0.2 UAJ -

Turbidity - 1 0.05 U - 0.1 - 0.05 U - 0.05 U -

Color 0 1 5 U - 5 U - 5 U - 5 U -

Alkalinity - 140 154 154 145 145 151 151 148 147

Sp. Cond. - - 320 - 290 - 300 - 310 -

TDS - - 183 - 171 - 168 - 172 -

TSS - 0 4 U - 4 U - 4 U - 4 U -

Cl 3.6 4.4 3.6 3.7 4.3 4.3 3.9 3.9 5.4 5.4 A

SO4 8.4 6.9 8.3 8.5 4.8 4.9 5.3 5.4 8.7 8.8 A

F 0.1 0.4 0.1 0.097 I 0.11 0.11 A 0.1 0.091 I 0.14 0.13

Nutrients

TOC - 0.0 1 U - 1 U - 1 U - 1 U -

NO3 + NO2 - 0.37 0.83 0.84 0.7 0.72 0.86 0.89 0.51 0.53

NH3 + NH4 - - 0.015 I 0.012 I 0.011 I 0.01 U 0.011 I 0.011 I 0.01 U 0.019 I

TKN - - 0.06 U 0.06 U 0.06 U 0.06 U 0.06 U 0.06 U 0.06 U 0.06 U

P - 0.05 0.023 0.022 J 0.048 0.048 J 0.033 0.034 J 0.059 0.05 JA

PO4 - 0.05 0.02 - 0.044 - 0.027 - 0.056 -

Metals

Ca 58 52 54.5 52.5 47.9 48.4 54 51.2 49.7 48.6

K 0.3 0.3 0.15 0.14 0.31 0.33 0.22 0.22 0.46 0.48

Na 3.1 3.4 2.12 2.02 2.67 2.45 2.37 2.26 3.65 3.53

Mg 6.6 6.0 5.8 5.8 4.7 4.8 5.3 5.2 6.3 6.4

As - 1 3 U3 U3 U3 U3 U3 U3 U3 U

Al - 75 U - 75 U - 75 U - 75 U

B - - 25 U - 25 U - 25 U - 25 U -

Cd - 0 0.75 U 0.75 U 0.75 U 0.75 U 0.75 U 0.75 U 0.75 U 0.75 U

Co - - 0.75 U - 0.75 U - 0.75 U - 0.75 U -

Cr - - U2 2 U2 U2 U2 U2 U2 U2 U

Cu - 3 2.5 U 2.5 U 2.5 U 2.5 U 2.5 U 2.5 U 4.4 I 2.5 U

Fe 30 340 35 U 20 U 35 U 20 U 35 U 20 U 35 U 20 U

Mn - 20 0.5 U 0.5 U 0.5 U 0.5 U 0.5 U 0.5 U 0.5 U 0.5 U

Ni - 0 1.5 U 1.5 U 1.5 U 1.5 U 1.5 U 1.5 U 1.5 U 1.5 U

Pb - 7 5 U4 U5 U4 U5 U4 U5 U4 U

Se - - U4 4 U4 U4 U4 U4 U4 U4 U

Sn - - 10 U - 10 U - 10 U - 10 U -

Sr - 170 156 - 76 - 105 - 107 -

Zn - 0 5 U5 U5 U5 U 5 U 5 U5 U5 U

1975

Main

2001

Blue Hole Cedar Head Mission

I=Value is less than practical quantitation limit J=Estimated value Q=exceeded holding time limit

2001 2001 2001

A=Average value U,K=Compound not detected, value shown is the method detection limit

Analytes 1946

Table 26. Ichetucknee Springs Group water quality analyses.
ground. Access is limited to an obscure foot path from the west. The spring is not used for

swimming because of its low water level and limited access.

ROARING SPRING - Lat. 29° 58’ 34.44” N., Long. 82° 45’ 28.44” W. (SE 1⁄4 NW 1⁄4 SW 1⁄4

sec. 7, T. 6 S., R. 15 E.). Roaring Spring is the largest spring in a complex of springs often

referred to as Mission Springs. Roaring Spring along with Singing Spring and other small

springs emanate from the base of high banks about 250 ft (76.2 m) east of the Ichetucknee

River. Roaring Spring discharges out of a cavern in a limestone ledge on the north side of

the island into the northwest flowing run. Its spring pool measures 10 ft (3 m) east to west

and 15 ft (4.6 m) north to south. The depth measured near the limestone ledge is 3 ft (0.9

m). The ledge rises steeply to approximately 12 ft (3.7 m) above the water level. Water is

clear and bluish. Algae coat the aquatic grasses in the spring run. There are two small

runs; one flows to the northwest and the other flows southwest. Both meet the river approximately 250 ft (76.2 m) from each other. At this point, the trickling northwest run becomes

a turbulent run with swaying aquatic grasses. The uplands east of the spring rise to nearly

20 ft (6.1 m) above the springs and are heavily forested with mixed hardwoods at lower elevations and pines on the hilltops. An historic Spanish mission once stood on the high ground

approximately 200 ft (61 m) east of the springs.

Utilization - The springs, river, and surrounding forested land are part of Ichetucknee

Springs State Park from the US 27 bridge northward. The park is a high quality natural

area that is partly developed and whose heavy public use is highly regulated in order to minimize damage to the environment. Camping, hiking, swimming, tubing, and canoeing are

some of the activities that are offered in the state park.

Discharge -All discharge rates are measured in ft3/s. Discharge is measured for the entire

group.

May 17, 1946 197.2 ft3

/s(1)

October 3, 2001 186 ft3/s(4)

BULLETIN NO. 66

77

Analyte Main Blue Hole Cedar Head Mission

Escherichia coli 1KQ 1KQ 2Q 1AKQ

Enterococci 1KQ 1KQ 42Q 1AKQ

Fecal Coliform 1KQ 1KQ 2Q 1AKQ

Total Coliform 1KQ 1KQ 20Q 1AKQ

Bacteria Results (in #/100 mL) 

Table 27. Ichetucknee Springs Group bacteriological analyses.
Santa Fe Spring (formerly COL61981)

Location-Lat. 29° 56’ 05.30” N., Long. 82° 31’ 49.51” W. (NW1⁄4 SE1⁄4 SE1⁄4 sec. 29, T. 6

S., R. 18 E.). Santa Fe Spring is located approximately 8 miles (12.9 km) northeast of High

Springs on the west bank of the Santa Fe River. From the intersection of US 441/41 and CR

236 in High Springs head north on US 441/41 approximately 6.2 miles (10 km) to the O'Leno

State Park sign on the east (right) side of US 441/41. Turn east (right) onto an access road,

which parallels US 441/41 and travel 0.3 miles (0.5 km) to a dirt road on the east (right) side

of the road, just past the O'Leno State Park entrance. Turn east (right) onto the dirt road

and travel approximately 3.3 miles (5.3 km) to a boat landing just upstream from the I-75

bridge. The road makes a series of 90 degree turns to the north and east before finally bearing southeast to the Santa Fe River. The spring is 2 miles (3.2 km) upstream from the I-75

bridge over the river. At this point, a narrow spring run comes in from the north. The

spring is approximately 90 ft (27.4 m) up the spring run at the head.

Description-This spring, formerly named COL61981 (Hornsby and Ceryak, 1998), is a

large circular depression with steep sides. Spring pool diameter measures 192 ft (58.5 m)

north to south and 215 ft (65.5 m) northeast to southwest. Spring depth is 83 ft (25.3 m).

The water color is typically clear and tinged greenish blue though it was tannic in October

2001. No boil was observed during the October 2001 visit. The spring run is approximately 90 ft (27.4 m) long and flows southeasterly into the Santa Fe River. Some algae are present on limestone substrate in the spring run. No other aquatic vegetation could be seen

through the dark water. Very little emergent vegetation is present. Cypress trees are common along the water line. The spring pool is surrounded by 15-20 ft (4.6- 6.1 m) high steep,

FLORIDA GEOLOGICAL SURVEY

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Figure 39. Santa Fe Spring (photo by T. Scott).
sandy banks. The uplands around the pool are generally forested with live oaks and pines.

Utilization-The uplands around this spring are privately owned. At least five cabins are

evenly distributed around the pool on the high banks.

Discharge-All discharge rates are measured in ft3

/s.

June 1, 1998 149.99(4)

November 1, 2001 47.9(4)

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Unfilt. Filter Unfilt. Filter

Field Measures Metals

Temperature Ca 39.3 38.2

DO K 1.3 1.3

pH Na 5.5 5.57 A

Sp. Cond. Mg 7.9 7.8

Lab Analytes B 25 U -

BOD 0.2 U - Al - 200 I

Turbidity 0.8 - As 3 U 3 U

Color 120 - Cd 0.75 U 0.75 U

Alkalinity 107 107 Co 0.75 U -

Sp. Cond. 270 - Cr 2 U 2 U

TDS 193 - Cu 2.5 U 2.5 U

TSS 4 U - Fe 250 210

Cl 10 9.9 Mn 41 39.8

SO4 18 18 Ni 1.5 U 2 U

F 0.2 0.17 Pb 5 U 4 U

Nutrients Se 4 U 4 U

TOC 22 - Sn 10 U -

NO3 + NO2 0.023 0.018 J Sr 276 -

NH3 + NH4 0.057 0.051 Zn 5 U 5 U

TKN 0.76 0.62

P 0.2 0.19

PO4 0.19 -

A=Average value U,K=Compound not detected, value shown is the method detection limit

I=Value is less than practical quantitation limit J=Estimated value Q= Exceeded holding time limit

Analytes 2001 Analytes 2001

22.69

0.78

7.40

271

Table 28. Santa Fe Spring water quality analysis.

Analyte Value

Escherichia coli 1KQ

Enterococci 1KQ

Fecal Coliform 2Q

Total Coliform 10Q

Bacteria Results (in #/100 mL) 

Table 29. Santa Fe Spring bacteriological analysis.
DIXIE COUNTY

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Figure 40 - Springs visited by FGS in Dixie County.
Copper Spring

Location - Lat. 29° 36’ 50.45” N., Long. 82° 58’ 25.89” W. (SE 1⁄4 SE 1⁄4 NW 1⁄4 sec. 13, T. 10

S., R. 13 E.). Copper Spring is located 1 mile (1.6 km) northeast of Old Town and flows into

the Suwannee River from the west. The spring is surrounded by private property. It can be

accessed by boat. From the intersection of US 19/27A/98 and CR 349 in Old Town, travel

north on CR 349 approximately 5.6 miles (9 km) to the intersection with Purvis Landing

Road. Turn east (right) onto Purvis Landing Road and travel approximately 2.1 miles (3.4

km) to the boat landing. The spring run is 3 miles (4.8 km) downstream from the Purvis

Landing Road boat ramp.

Description – Copper Spring consists of a group of 3 springs: Spring No. 1, Spring No. 2,

and Spring No. 3. Spring No. 2 was sampled. Copper Spring No. 2 has a roughly circular

spring pool measuring 126 ft (38.4 m) north to south and 84 ft (25.6 m) east to west. The

Spring No. 2 vent is 5.3 ft (1.6 m) deep and is located on the north side of the pool, discharging from a small cavern at the base of 12 ft (3.7 m) high banks. A prominent boil is

seen on the pool surface. The water is clear to slightly turbid with a bluish-green tint. There

is a sharp hydrogen sulfide odor near the vent, and a copper-colored, iron-rich deposit coats

plants and tree bases along the edge of the spring and run. The spring has a soft sand and

silt bottom. The spring run exits the southeast side of the pool and flows slowly southeastward about 500 ft (152.4 m) to the dark-colored Suwannee River. The two additional

springs, Spring No. 1 and Spring No 3, are located northeast of Spring No. 2. Spring No. 1

is a circular vent in a pool 28 ft (8.5 m) deep and 34 ft (10.4 m) in diameter located on the

BULLETIN NO. 66

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Figure 41. Copper Spring No. 2 (photo by R. Means).
FLORIDA GEOLOGICAL SURVEY

82

Dissolved Total Dissolved Total

Field Measures Metals

Temperature 21.5 Ca 7.4 76.8 78.5

DO 1 K 0.2 0.26J 0.24

pH 7.1 Na 3.5 3.4I 3.3I

Sp. Cond. 390 Mg 3.7 3.9 4.0

Lab Analytes Al - - 50U

BOD - - 0.2AU As - 17 15.0

Turbidity 20 - 29 B - - 10U

Color 0 - 80 Cd - 0.5U 0.5U

Alkalinity 200 - 201 Co - - 0.75U

Sp. Cond. 390 358A - Cr - 2U 2U

TDS 228 - 224 Cu - 3U 3U

TSS - - 6I Fe 1100 2590 2640

Cl 6.2 - 6.3 Mn - 51.4 53.4

SO4 3.5 - 3.7 Ni - 2U 2U

F 0.1 - 0.08I Pb - 3U 5U

Nutrients Ra-226 - - 1.0

TOC 5 - 1.8I Ra-228 - - 0.9U

NO3 + NO2 as N - - 0.004U Se - 4U 4U

NH3 + NH4 0.03 - 0.1 Sn - - 7U

TKN - 0.16I 0.17I Sr 200 - 160

P 0.03 0.039A 0.039A Zn 15U 4.4U

PO4 - 0.032 -

NO3 0 - -

A=Average value U,K=Compound not detected, value shown is the method detection limit

I=Value is less than practical quantitation limit J=Est value Q=Exceeding holding time limit

21.74

0.24

7.26

420

2002 2002 Analytes 1975 Analytes 1975

Table 30. Copper Spring water quality analysis.

Analyte Value

Enterococci 1KQ

Fecal Coliform 1KQ

Bacteria Results (in #/100 mL) 

Table 31. Copper Spring bacteriological analysis.
south side of two houses. Discharge is through a narrow run approximately 40 ft (12.2 m)

south to the run from Spring No. 3, which is in a low swampy area to the west. The combined flow is then eastward about 135 ft (41.2 m), discharging through two culverts into

Spring No. 2 pool, the main spring pool (Rosenau et al., 1977). Two houses on stilts are

located on the bank west of Copper Spring. An old concrete slab is directly on the banks just

west of Copper Spring (Spring No. 2). An area of abundant cypress knees is adjacent south

of Copper Spring. These springs are situated in the forested floodplain of the Suwannee

River. Copper Spring may also be locally known as Old Town Spring (Rosenau et al., 1977).

Utilization – Copper Spring is surrounded by private property and is undeveloped.

Discharge - All discharge rates are measured in ft3

/s

May 12, 1932 18.8(1)

November 18, 1960 31.9(1)

November 11, 1975 25.4(1)

September 22, 1997 20.73(1)

July 16, 2002 13.60(2)

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