Mentoring: 

A Guide for Drug Abuse Researchers

Tips for Mentors 

and Mentees

U.S. Department of Health and Human Services 

National Institutes of Heatlh
Mentoring: 

A Guide for Drug Abuse Researchers

Tips for Mentors 

and Mentees
ii Mentoring: A Guide for Drug Abuse Researchers—Tips for Mentors and Mentees

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

The National Institute on Drug Abuse (NIDA) would like to acknowledge 

the following individuals for their contributions to this guide: Linda 

Cottler, Ph.D., M.P.H., Department of Psychiatry, Washington University 

School of Medicine; Patrick Flynn, Ph.D., Institute of Behavioral 

Research, Texas Christian University; Peter Friedmann, M.D., M.P.H., 

Division of General Internal Medicine, Rhode Island Hospital; and Tracy 

Harachi, Ph.D., Social Development Research Group, University 

of Washington.

Guidance and technical editing were provided by Kathy Etz, Ph.D., 

and Jeff Schulden, M.D., of the National Institute on Drug Abuse.

All materials in this volume are in the public domain and 

may be used or reproduced without permission from NIDA 

or the authors. Citation of the source is appreciated.

NIH Publication No. 09-5770 

Printed November 2009 
National Institute on Drug Abuse iii

Preface ............................................ v

Chapter 1. Placing Mentoring 

in Context ........................................1

Background for Mentors ................1

Demographic Trends Related to 

Research Trainees ...........................1

The Need for Multidisciplinary 

Training .........................................2

Other Trends..................................2

Current Needs for Biomedical 

and Behavioral Scientists................4

Health Disparities Research 

Training .........................................5

Conclusion.....................................5

Chapter 2. Focus on Mentees.........7

Training With NIDA .....................7

A Successful Research Training 

Fellowship: The Perspective 

of Mentees .....................................8

Results From a Survey of 

NIDA Trainees.............................10

Staging Development Plans..........11

Chapter 3. Focus on Mentors: 

Roles and Responsibilities.............15

What Is a Mentor?........................15

Mentor as Teacher and 

Role Model ..................................16

Mentor as Agent...........................16

Mentor as Networker ...................17

Mentor as Counselor....................18

Mentor as Mentee........................18

What is Good Mentoring?............18

The Four Phases of Mentoring......20

Additional Mentoring 

Considerations .............................20

Chapter 4. Challenges of Training ..23

Multidisciplinary Training............23

Networking Within and Across 

Disciplines ...................................23

Mentoring Mosaic........................23

Recruitment of 

Underrepresented Scholars ...........24

Mentoring in the Responsible 

Conduct of Research ....................28

Mentoring at a Distance...............29

Other Resources...........................29

Chapter 5. Additional 

Considerations...............................31

Multiple Mentors.........................31

How Can the Mentee Facilitate 

the Mentoring of the Mentor?......32

The Role of Institutions to Foster 

Quality Mentoring .......................33

Conclusion...................................34

Directory of Useful Web Sites ........35

Cited References ...........................36

Additional References....................38

CONTENTS
“NIDA offers a strategic set of funding mechanisms to support 

the development of research scientists through various stages 

of their careers. These awards are designed to ensure that 

scientists of the very highest caliber will be available in adequate 

numbers and in the appropriate research areas and fields to 

meet the Nation’s drug abuse and addiction needs.” 

—Nora D. Volkow, M.D., NIDA Director
Quality mentoring, good planning, and hard work, along 

with a favorable environment, are some of the elements that 

combine to create a successful career. This guide focuses on the 

importance of quality mentorship and offers suggestions for 

creating a successful mentor–mentee relationship. The chapters 

that follow include information that places mentoring in the 

broader context of research training, data from surveys with 

mentees, guidance on good mentoring practices, discussion 

of some challenges to mentoring, and a listing of mentoring resources that can be accessed via the Internet. “How To” 

boxes can be found throughout the guide, which provide 

quick access to ideas and checklists for mentors and mentees. 

This guide is intended to enhance the career development of 

research scientists who wish to study drug abuse, by providing 

insights for both mentors and mentees. The guide is designed to 

inform scientists from all of the multiple disciplines that study 

drug abuse. It focuses on mentoring approaches that are based 

on practices and recommendations from experienced senior 

scientists in drug abuse research and also is informed by input 

from junior researchers. The guide was developed over several 

years with the help of both mentors and mentees. Work began 

at a workshop of the College on Problems of Drug Dependence 

(CPDD) in 2003, continued at a career development seminar 

of CPDD in 2005, and culminated at the National Institute 

on Drug Abuse (NIDA) Research Training Institute in 2006. 

The guide includes information and resources intended for 

both mentors and mentees. It is hoped that providing information within a single guide to mentors and mentees 

about their roles will help each to better understand the 

expected role of the other. We hope that the guide will serve 

as a springboard for discussions between mentors and mentees throughout their careers. Terms such as mentee, trainee, 

student, fellow, and postdoctoral researcher (postdoc) are used 

throughout the guide to describe the individuals receiving 

guidance as they embark on careers as independent scientists.

National Institute on Drug Abuse v

PREFACE
vi Mentoring: A Guide for Drug Abuse Researchers—Tips for Mentors and Mentees

PLACING MENTORING IN CONTEXT

The demographics of students and mentees are changing 

continually. As the demographic characteristics of mentees 

shift, so must the the training of mentors.
National Institute on Drug Abuse 1

Background for Mentors

As senior investigators, mentors 

influence the culture of the institutions in which they work and the 

culture of their field as a whole. In 

order to foster a climate that best 

supports training of new investigators, mentors must be aware of issues 

and trends in their field 

of research. They need to 

be aware of the challenges 

and issues associated 

with recruiting junior 

investigators, developing 

family-friendly policies, 

meeting demands for 

multidisciplinary science, and understanding changes in funding 

opportunities for new 

investigators. This chapter 

presents information 

on some of these topics. Awareness 

of these background factors can 

help mentors create a climate that 

fosters the most optimal training 

experience for junior investigators.

Demographic Trends Related to 

Research Trainees

The demographics of students and 

mentees are changing continually. 

Data from the National Postsecondary Student Aid Study (NPSAS), 

published in 2007 (http://nces.ed.gov/

pubs2007/minoritytrends/index.asp), 

indicate that 11 percent of the U.S. 

population were enrolled in graduate programs, while in 2004 it had 

increased to 25 percent. Much of 

this increase was attributed to enrollments after 1990. Graduate enrollment by Hispanic students increased 

by 377 percent during these years; 

enrollment by Asian/Pacific Islander 

students increased by 373 percent; 

Black student enrollment 

increased by 181 percent; American Indian/

Alaska Native student 

enrollment increased by 

162 percent; and enrollment by White students 

increased by 27 percent. 

More females than males 

were enrolled in graduate programs in 2004. 

The time span between 

receipt of an undergraduate degree and receipt 

of a doctoral degree increased from 

8.7 years in 1980 to 10 years in 

2003. The NPSAS data also indicate that the average age of graduate 

students in 2004 was 33, and 23 

percent were older than 40 years. 

As the demographic characteristics 

of mentees shift, so must the training role of mentors. Shifts in the 

age of mentees suggest that mentors 

must create challenging learning 

environments to meet the various 

learning styles of adult students and 

to build upon the mentees’ prior 

research and work-related experiChapter 1

PLACING MENTORING IN CONTEXT
2 Mentoring: A Guide for Drug Abuse Researchers—Tips for Mentors and Mentees

PLACING MENTORING IN CONTEXT

ences. As the racial and ethnic 

composition of trainees is becoming more diverse, mentors must 

ensure that they are responding to 

the unique experiences of minority 

students as they work with them 

toward achieving independence. 

Specific to drug abuse 

research, it has been estimated that a substantial 

number of drug abuse 

researchers will retire in 

the next decade. A conference was held in May 

2006, titled “Reflections 

on 40 Years of Substance 

Abuse Research,” at 

which it was estimated 

that approximately onethird of investigators will 

retire in the near future, 

and that this percentage 

may be an underestimate for physician investigators. Thus, it is more 

critical than ever to recruit more 

scientists to the area of drug abuse 

research and to mentor them well.

The Need for Multidisciplinary 

Training 

Drug abuse research, as well as other 

health science research, is becoming 

increasingly complex and multidisciplinary in nature. Approaches from 

single disciplines have done much 

to advance the science, but technological, methodological, and other 

advances have established the need 

for increasingly multidisciplinary 

approaches to address more complex 

questions. Multidisciplinary training 

is more essential than ever for the 

development of junior investigators. In response to this, mentors 

must be willing to adopt a new 

mentoring strategy that 

involves working with 

those outside of their 

field and appreciating 

other scientific cultures. 

They must also encourage 

their mentees to adopt a 

multidisciplinary perspective when appropriate and 

support them in developing a multidisciplinary 

team of mentors. This is 

especially important as 

increasing numbers of 

funding opportunities are developed 

to support interdisciplinary science. 

Multidisciplinary training will require a team approach to mentoring, 

which combines a structured, core 

didactic component and an apprenticeship-style training component.

Other Trends

A recent survey of 1,300 postdocs 

at the National Institutes of Health 

(NIH) indicates that more familyfriendly policies are needed at 

U.S. research institutions. Family 

responsibilities appear to influence 

Approaches from single disciplines have done much to advance drug abuse research, 

but technological, methodological, and other advances have established the need for 

increasingly multidisciplinary approaches to address more complex questions.
PLACING MENTORING IN CONTEXT

National Institute on Drug Abuse 3

the career goals of men and women 

differently: women who are married 

with children are less likely to report 

wanting to be a principal investigator (PI), when compared with men, 

women who are single, and women 

who are married without children. 

Approximately 57 percent of married, childless, female postdocs 

reported that having a child would 

influence their career, compared 

with 29 percent of married, childless 

male postdocs. The survey suggests 

that some female mentees might 

require part-time positions. The 

report also suggests the importance 

of providing affordable child care 

for researchers. The importance of 

child care is further suggested by the 

fact that 40 percent of professionals 

with Ph.D.’s in the life sciences are 

women, and yet, only 29 percent 

of tenure track positions are held 

by women (Bhattacharjee, 2007).

Applying for funding for junior 

scientists has become increasingly 

competitive. Even as NIH funds 

doubled in recent years, the percentage of grants going to new investigators has remained at 6 percent of 

the total funded R01s. Interestingly, 

while the number of funded T32s 

(institutional training grants) and 

K01s (mentored scientist awards) 

has increased over the past 4 years, 

the number of individual postdoctoral grants (F32s) has decreased. 

Furthermore, the average age of the 

recipient of a first award increased 

by approximately 5 years during 

the period from 1980 to 2006. 

Currently, on average, Ph.D. investigators are 42 years of age at the 

time of their first R01 award, and 

M.D. investigators are 44 years old. 

Mentors should be aware of these 

trends and be prepared to find ways 

to support their mentees while they 

are working toward independence. 

Mentors and mentees can evaluate 

trends in postgraduate training and 

fellowships by visiting the Web site 

of the NIH Office of Extramural 

Research (http://grants.nih.gov). This 

site shows 

both current and 

long-term 

trends in 

awards 

made by 

NIH to 

universities, 

hospitals, 

and other 

research 

institutions (see 

http://report.nih.gov/award/trends/

findorg.cfm). The Web site reports 

awards by average cost, mechanism, 

principal investigator, organization, 

geographic area, and characteristics 

of the principal investigator. ConPLACING MENTORING IN CONTEXT
4 Mentoring: A Guide for Drug Abuse Researchers—Tips for Mentors and Mentees

PLACING MENTORING IN CONTEXT

ducting a search on this site can 

identify a range of available training 

opportunities. A unique feature of 

this Web site for mentees is the link 

to various reports, PowerPoint presentations, and executive summaries. 

Current Needs for Biomedical and 

Behavioral Scientists

In 2000, the National Academy of 

Sciences (NAS) undertook the task 

of identifying changing needs in 

the biomedical and behavioral 

sciences. The Committee on 

National Needs for Biomedical and 

Behavioral Scientists was formed 

at the National Research Council, 

and from the Institute of Medicine 

issued the report Addressing the 

Nation’s Changing Needs for Biomedical and Behavioral Scientists 

(2000). The report helped to define 

current needs and made recommendations for future directions. 

Specifically, the report stated that—

» Research training and overall 

Ph.D. production in the behavioral and social sciences should 

not be increased. However, several 

areas that would benefit from an 

increase in research training were 

singled out, such as health services 

research, outcomes research, 

nursing, dentistry, epidemiology, and biostatistics. 

» There should be an increase 

in interdisciplinary research 

training programs to enable 

investigators to respond to 

future research initiatives.

» Because of the successful career 

outcomes of National Research 

Service Award (NRSA) recipients, 

NRSA training grants and fellowships should be emphasized over 

graduate research assistantships.

» Despite the persistence of health 

disparities among underrepresented minority populations, 

low numbers of Black, Hispanic, 

and Native American trainees 

are in the research workforce. 

Thus, there is a need for both 

more minority scientists and a 

greater focus on racial and ethnic 

disparities in health problems.

Fellows on NRSA grants, compared with their colleagues without NRSA support, 

were more likely to be appointed as faculty and more likely to apply for and receive 

independent NIH support.
National Institute on Drug Abuse 5

PLACING MENTORING IN CONTEXT

The NIH response to the NAS 

report (http://grants.nih.gov/training/

nas_report/NIHResponse.htm) is 

consistent with several of the 

NAS report’s recommendations, 

including—

» Universities should give all 

students adequate training and 

career development opportunities, faculty should frequently 

monitor progress, and there 

should be adequate channels for 

the resolution of grievances.

» The emphasis on multidisciplinary 

training should be expanded. 

Health Disparities 

Research Training 

NIH also has maintained that training programs should expose participants to issues associated with health 

disparities, according to the NIH 

Strategic Research Plan and Budget 

to Reduce and Ultimately Eliminate Health Disparities, Fiscal Years 

2002–2006 (www.ncmhd.nih.gov/

our_programs/strategic/volumes.asp).

In response to the NIH initiative 

to reduce and ultimately eliminate 

health disparities, NIDA includes 

as part of its strategic plan a goal to 

advance the understanding of the 

development and progression of 

diseases and disabilities, such as 

drug abuse, addiction, and their 

consequences, which contribute 

to health disparities in minority 

populations. The NIDA Strategic 

Plan on Reducing Health Disparities

can be viewed at www.drugabuse.gov/

StrategicPlan/HealthStratPlan.html.

Conclusion

Awareness of the context of 

research training within institutions 

and in the broader field can help 

mentors provide the best training experience, address the needs 

of the mentees, and influence the 

culture of training. This will ensure 

that training experiences continue 

to improve over time and that they 

are suited to the needs of mentees.

Although medically underserved minority populations are rapidly increasing, 

the number of research personnel who seek to address the health problems 

of these populations is not growing commensurately. NIDA’s Strategic Plan 

on Reducing Health Disparities includes a focus on underserved minority 

populations as well as training in health disparities research.
NIDA has made a strong commitment to supporting and training 

future scientists and has a number of programs and initiatives 

that support both predoctoral and postdoctoral scientists 

interested in drug abuse research.
National Institute on Drug Abuse 7

Chapter 2

FOCUS ON MENTEES

This chapter focuses on 

the needs of mentees. 

Information is presented 

on training opportunities 

at NIDA, and drawing 

from multiple surveys, 

information also is 

presented on successful 

training strategies from 

the mentees’ perspective. Because drug abuse 

is often stigmatized, 

investigators who study 

addiction and the public health 

consequences of addiction report 

that the field often is similarly 

stigmatized at academic institutions. 

The drug abuse research community sometimes faces unique challenges in recruiting and retaining a 

qualified pool of scientists. NIDA 

supports a number of programs 

to help address the training needs 

of substance abuse researchers. 

Training With NIDA 

» NIDA has made a strong commitment to supporting and 

training future scientists.

» NIDA has a number of programs 

and initiatives that support both 

predoctoral and postdoctoral 

scientists interested in drug abuse 

research. NIDA trainees are invited to attend grant preparation 

workshops, poster sessions, and/or 

special sessions at conferences and 

workshops (e.g., CPDD, 

American Psychological 

Association, Society for 

Prevention Research, Society for Research on Child 

Development, Society for 

Neuroscience). Current 

information on these can 

be obtained from NIDA 

program officials or, for 

some activities, from 

NIDA’s training Web 

site (www.drugabuse.gov/

researchtraining/traininghome.html).

» NIDA supports individual Ruth 

L. Kirschstein NRSAs for predoctoral students (F31), postdoctoral fellows (F32), and M.D./

Ph.D. candidates (F30), as well 

as funding for over 50 training sites for predoctoral and 

postdoctoral trainees across the 

country (T32). NIDA also funds 

a variety of mentored career 

development awards (e.g., K01, 

K08, K12, K23, K25, and K99). 

Additional information about 

these and other programs can be 

found at NIDA’s research training Web site: www.drugabuse.gov/

researchtraining/traininghome.html.

To guide applicants, NIDA has developed a research training brochure 

that carefully describes each training 

program and includes the type of 

training provided, career level of 

training, and application submission 
8 Mentoring: A Guide for Drug Abuse Researchers—Tips for Mentors and Mentees

 FOCUS ON MENTEES

dates. The brochure is available on 

NIDA’s research training Web site 

(www.nida.nih.gov/pdf/Research

Training/ResearchTrainingBroch.pdf).

Additional information about 

training opportunities can be 

found on the following Web sites:

» Roadmap Initiatives: 

www.nihroadmap.nih.gov

» Enhancing the Postdoctoral 

Experience for Scientists and 

Engineers: www.nap.edu/openbook.php?isbn=0309069963.

» Research Training (K Kiosk): 

www.grants.nih.gov/training/ 

careerdevelopmentawards.htm

A Successful Research Training 

Fellowship: The Perspective of 

Mentees

Several recent surveys have provided 

data on mentees’ perspectives about 

successful 

training. In 

2004, Science Careers 

(the career 

component 

of the journal

Science) invited 10,000 

members of 

the American Association for the 

Advancement of Science (AAAS) to 

complete an online survey of their 

training experiences. Results from 

the 932 respondents are described 

below and indicate several key priorities for effective scientific training. 

In addition to the key themes and 

priorities from this survey, comments 

from mentees are included below. 

» Mentoring

• “A successful mentorship 

fosters independence, provides 

a strong foundation in the 

area of study, and promotes a 

continuing relationship with 

the mentor.” —AAAS Mentee

» A sense of direction and vision

• “The vision should not be so 

constraining that it deprives 

the postdoc of any flexibility.” —AAAS Mentor

» Ability to obtain funding

» Encouragement/institutional 

commitment 

• “It is important that the 

institution set up an office 

for career development, 

training, or postdoctoral 

training.” —AAAS Mentor

» Networking

In 2003, the scientific research 

society Sigma Xi launched its survey 

of postdoctoral fellows to compare 

experiences at different institutions 

in the United States. Out of nearly 

1,500 administrators from 174 

Loan Repayment Programs

U.S. DEPARTMENT OF HEALTH AND HUMAN SERVICES

National Institutes of Health

National Institute 

 on Drug Abuse

Update

Research 

 Training
National Institute on Drug Abuse 9

FOCUS ON MENTEES

institutions that were invited to participate, 46 institutions responded, 

including 18 of 20 top-tier employers, as well as NIH. Through e-mail, 

22,000 postdocs were notified of 

the survey, and 34 percent participated. (See http://postdoc.sigmaxi.org

for demographics of the sample.) 

Highlights of the survey results 

(Davis, 2005) include— 

» 75 percent of the institutions had an administrative office for training.

» 70 percent of trainees reported 

being satisfied overall with their 

current experience. However, 

trainees report dissatisfaction from

• Low wages and lack of benefits; low salary compared to 

same-aged non-postdoctoral 

Ph.D.’s and individuals 

without doctoral degrees. 

• Mismatch between 

expectations and outcomes. 

• Few available faculty positions: The annual growth rate 

in the number of postdocs is 

2.8 percent; the rate of growth 

in the number of faculty 

positions is 0.8 percent. 

» 24 percent of trainees did not consider their advisor to be a mentor. 

» No training was reported in the 

following areas by substantial 

proportions of respondents: 

• Research ethics: 31 percent 

• Proposal writing: 37 percent 

• Teaching skills: 64 percent 

• Negotiating skills: 67 percent 

• Group/Lab management: 

50 percent 

» Subscribe to the NIH Roadmap 

e-mail list

» Subscribe to NIDA Notes

» Download the ORWH-Supported Career Development and Mentoring Programs list from the Office on Women’s 

Health at http://womeninscience.nih.

gov/pdf/ORWHCareerDevelopment.pdf.

» Download Making the Right Moves: A 

Practical Guide to Scientific Management for Postdocs and New Faculty from 

the Howard Hughes Medical Institute 

at http://www.hhmi.org/resources/

labmanagement/moves.html.

» Visit the NIDA Networking Project Web 

site at http://nnp.drugabuse.gov. 

Additional Suggestions for Mentors and Mentees
10 Mentoring: A Guide for Drug Abuse Researchers—Tips for Mentors and Mentees

In addition, a number of key 

training program dimensions were 

assessed in relation to overall level 

of satisfaction. Postdocs reporting 

the highest amount of structured 

oversight and formal training were 

more likely to be satisfied, to give 

mentors high ratings, to have low 

numbers of conflicts, and to publish 

more papers than postdocs with the 

least oversight and training. Research 

plans were also assessed in relation to 

mentoring expectations: 20 percent 

of postdocs who had no research 

plan with their mentor reported that 

their mentor was not meeting their 

expectations, compared with 5 percent of postdocs who had such plans.

Results From a Survey of 

NIDA Trainees 

At NIDA’s Spring 2006 Research 

Training Institute, trainees participated in a survey conducted by Dr. 

Linda Cottler to help determine how 

to select the best mentor and to be 

the best mentee. Factors that were 

reported as important to consider 

» Check the Web for opportunities. Search under “fellowship,” 

“postdoc,” “research associate,” or “faculty appointment.”

» Subscribe to listservs (such as those 

of CPDD, American Public Health 

Association, APA, etc.) where ads 

are placed looking for people like 

you, or get creative and advertise 

your availability for a position. 

» Network at conferences with 

trainees, young investigators, and 

established investigators. Bring 

business cards and hand them out.

» Follow up your conversations with 

e-mails and telephone calls. 

» Offer to visit the institution in which 

you are interested and to give a talk.

» Search NIH RePORTER (http://projectreporter.nih.gov/reporter.cfm) the 

NIH database of funded grants, for 

training grants and/or mentors in the 

scientific and geographic areas you 

most want to work in. Contact the PI, 

as well as co-investigators, who can 

be found by calling the PI’s assistant. 

» Ask your advisor for new ideas.

» Search NIDA’s Web site for information on training sites (http://www.

drugabuse.gov/ResearchTraining/

TrainingSites.html) and ask the 

training directors for advice. 

» Consult with the National Postdoctoral Association for tips (even 

if you are not a postdoc). 

» Post your CV on Science

Careers at http://aaas.

sciencecareers.org/JobSeekerx. 

» Visit the NIDA Networking Project Web 

site at http://nnp.drugabuse.gov. 

NIDA Research Trainees: How Can You Find Opportunities?

 FOCUS ON MENTEES
National Institute on Drug Abuse 11

when choosing a mentor included 

the mentor’s gender, current training 

setting, and position. The trainees 

were also asked to name one aspect 

of their current mentoring situation 

that they would want to change 

and one aspect of their current 

mentor–mentee relationship that 

they would not want to change. 

Finally, they were asked to comment 

on the role of good mentoring, good 

planning, and serendipity in their 

relationships thus far. Many of their 

responses are used throughout this 

guide, as they represent important 

issues for mentors to consider. 

The survey of approximately 60 

participants (68 percent female; 90 

percent from academic settings; 65 

percent either predoctoral candidates 

or postdoctoral fellows; 35 percent 

mentored scientist awardees) found 

similar factors to those reported in 

the previous surveys described: 

» Many respondents reported they 

were completely satisfied with 

their current mentor (64 percent 

of women and 54 percent of men). 

» A high percentage (79 percent of 

women; 85 percent of men) of 

mentees was completely satisfied with their mentor regarding authorship on papers. 

» Mentees were less satisfied with 

the feedback they received and 

with the help they received in 

making decisions about their 

career paths (completely satisfied: 

61 percent of women and of men). 

» Less than half of the respondents (46 percent of women 

and of men) reported being 

completely satisfied with their 

mentor in terms of prioritizing time with the mentee. 

» Slightly more than half (54 

percent of women and of 

men) reported that they were 

completely satisfied with their 

mentor’s networking strategies, specifically, introducing 

them to other colleagues. 

» Less than two-thirds were 

completely satisfied that their 

åmentor had mentored them in 

the responsible conduct of science 

(62 percent of women and of men)

Based on these findings, a 

number of suggestions are 

offered in the following section to 

help identify mentoring opportunities that match a mentee’s 

research aspirations and to foster 

high-quality research mentoring and training experiences.

Staging Development Plans 

Career development should be 

planned as a series of steps so that 

each new experience builds on the 

previous experience in a manner 

that promotes growth. This is also 

FOCUS ON MENTEES
12 Mentoring: A Guide for Drug Abuse Researchers—Tips for Mentors and Mentees

» Study a potential 

mentor’s CV, looking for:

• Current and past grants 

(Are they funded? What 

type of funding?)

• Consulting agreements (With whom do 

they consult? Is their 

expertise sought?) 

• Editorial responsibilities 

(Will there be opportunities for mentees to 

review manuscripts? 

Are they keeping up 

with the literature? Is 

their opinion requested 

by leaders in the field?) 

• Collaborators (With 

whom do they work? 

Can mentees participate? Is the collaboration interdisciplinary? 

Do they publish with 

the collaborators?) 

• Board responsibilities 

(Is he/she a good 

citizen? Is the mentor 

connected to others in 

the field? Can mentees 

help with any responsibilities? Does the mentor know a lot of people 

in the field who can be 

introduced to mentees?)

• Memberships (Is 

the mentor involved 

in the field?)

• Published manuscripts 

(Does the mentor 

publish? With whom? 

With mentees? Is he/

she keeping up with developments in the field?) 

• Publication venues 

(Where does the mentor publish? Are they 

reputable journals? 

Have the papers been 

influential to the field?) 

• Leadership opportunities (Is the mentor 

involved in strategic 

planning in their local 

institution? Is their 

opinion requested? 

Do they serve on 

influential committees?)

» Interview the mentor’s 

other trainees and ask 

pertinent questions about 

attention to mentees, 

respect for mentees, 

and credit to mentees. 

• Does the mentor have 

national recognition? International recognition? 

• Does the mentor give 

timely feedback to 

students/mentees? 

• Is the mentor senior 

enough to share 

data, limelight, 

and ownership? 

• Has the mentor 

given adequate credit 

where it is due? 

• Does the mentor 

reserve time for 

a regular meeting 

(weekly, monthly)? 

• How does the mentor 

act at meetings? Is bad 

behavior allowed in 

the lab? At meetings? 

• Are strategies for 

career development discussed? 

• What was the mentor’s career path? 

What worked and 

what didn’t? Who 

were his/her mentors, and what did he/

she learn from each? 

• How does the 

mentor balance 

work and family?

• What is the publication 

record of their mentees?

• What is the grant application and success 

rate of their mentees?

• Are former mentees finding good 

placements?

» Follow your instincts.

Recommendations for Choosing a Mentor

 FOCUS ON MENTEES
National Institute on Drug Abuse 13

referred to as staging development. 

A sense of direction or vision was 

rated as the second most important factor related to success by 

mentees in the AAAS survey. How 

appropriate career development 

plans are staged is an evaluation 

component for mentored scientist awards and other training 

mechanisms. Mentees should— 

» Take adequate time to plan 

their research proposals, grant 

applications, analyses, and collaborations. The aims should 

be clear, concise, and focused.

» Schedule relevant coursework 

around training commitments. 

» Establish a writing circle in which 

coworkers and trainees in your 

cohort can edit each other’s papers 

and give detailed feedback. 

» Submit abstracts for conferences 

along with applications for 

travel awards and scholarships. 

» Turn presentations into 

publishable papers within 3 

months of the conference. 

» Make career development 

a major priority. 

» Don’t be an “ivory tower” investigator—be involved. Get your hands 

dirty and feet wet by experimenting 

with all the steps necessary 

to run a successful project.

» Interview respondents, 

enter data, and offer to help 

supervise personnel. 

» Identify when you should begin 

establishing your own funding 

source and submit grant applications consistent with this plan.

FOCUS ON MENTEES

» Did you achieve your 

goals? If yes, what 

strategies contributed to your success? 

If not, why not? 

» How much time did you 

devote to formal commitments like research 

seminars, career 

development seminars, 

teaching, job searches, 

networking, writing 

grants, writing papers, 

and doing research? 

» What collaborations 

have you established? 

» Have you participated 

in any local or national 

organizations? Local 

Institutional Review 

Boards? Task forces? 

» In what areas do you 

need more specialized training? 

» Did you turn your oral 

presentations and 

posters into papers to 

submit for publication? 

» Did you enjoy what you 

were doing? Did you 

enjoy working with your 

mentor? In his/her lab?

» How many people did 

your mentor introduce 

you to at the last conference? Did you follow 

up with any of them?

» Are you gaining grant 

writing skills and 

applying to funding 

opportunities when 

appropriate to do so?

Mentee Yearly Self-Assessment Checklist
Roles of a Mentor

» Teacher and Role Model

» Agent

» Networker

» Counselor

» ... and Mentee
National Institute on Drug Abuse 15

Chapter 3

FOCUS ON MENTORS: 

ROLES AND RESPONSIBILITIES 

What Is a Mentor? 

The purpose of this chapter is to 

remind mentors about the roles 

they play while grooming future 

scientists. Although formal mentor 

training is highly desirable, not all scientists 

have the opportunity 

or resources available to 

participate in such programs. This chapter is 

designed to help clarify 

roles and responsibilities 

and to suggest activities 

that will lead to successful 

attainment of career goals 

that meet the expectations of the trainee.

As discussed previously, mentoring was listed as the most critical 

factor in the career success of a 

trainee. Mentors have many vital 

roles and responsibilities: they are 

teachers and role models, agents, 

networkers, counselors, and last 

but not least, life-long learners and mentees themselves. 

One useful resource for mentoring, The Mentor’s Guide (Zachary, 

2000), describes mentoring as a— 

» “Powerful growth experience for 

both the mentor and the mentee” 

» “Process of engagement” 

» “Reflective practice that takes 

preparation and dedication” 

In addition, this guide suggests 

exercises for mentors and mentees to 

stimulate better mentoring practices. Many roles and responsibilities 

associated with mentors have been 

identified in the literature 

(Armstrong et al., 2002; 

Ehrich et al., 2004; 

Jacobi, 1991; Johnson, 

2002; Mertz, 2004; NIH, 

n.d./2004; Raabe and 

Beehr, 2003; Selwa, 2003; 

Tobin, 2004). Many 

have made a distinction between formal and 

informal mentoring, 

where the former refers 

to planned and managed 

activities with targeted and structured mentoring, and the latter to 

nonsystematic counsel (Armstrong et 

al., 2002). Both can facilitate career 

development, but formal mentoring 

has been found to be more likely to 

foster staged development, in which 

one experience builds on the previous experiences in a series of steps.

The following mentor roles are 

drawn from the multiple sources 

listed above and indicate the many 

roles a mentor can play—specific 

activities associated with each role 

are listed below. Not all mentors 

will play all of these roles. In addition, mentees may have multiple 

mentors and each mentor may play 

different roles for the mentee.
16 Mentoring: A Guide for Drug Abuse Researchers—Tips for Mentors and Mentees

Mentor as Teacher and 

Role Model 

» Shows the mentee how to 

assess journal articles critically, 

write technical manuscripts, and 

critique and revise manuscripts. 

» Demonstrates how to manage time and how to train 

and supervise personnel. 

» Teaches the science and trains 

the scientist to be one of the 

next leaders in the field. 

» Teaches how to conceptualize a 

study; design a study; and collect, analyze, and interpret data. 

» Provides regular career development opportunities, such as 

journal clubs and other forums to 

facilitate the exchange of ideas. 

» Reviews research analyses with 

the mentee. 

» Schedules routine, structured 

meetings for advising mentees and giving direction about 

their work and future careers. 

» Helps the mentee improve 

teaching skills.

» Shows the mentee how to plan for 

and ensure research productivity.

» Helps the mentee plan 

his/her career.

» Assists the mentee in writing 

grant applications. 

» Encourages strategic thinking.

» Gives timely feedback on 

the mentee’s work. 

• “I value prompt, detailed 

feedback and suggestions. 

I’d like more pre-manuscript 

guidance.” —NIDA Mentee

» Sets a good example by being a 

quality citizen in both the academic and community arenas. 

» Sets an example of good 

behavior in lab meetings; 

puts a stop to bad behavior. 

• “The PI sets the tone in the 

lab.” —NIDA Mentee 

» Participates in ongoing training 

in mentoring. (See “Directory of 

Useful Web Sites” on page 35 for 

information on available training.)

• “I wish mentoring training was 

required.” —NIDA Mentee 

Mentor as Agent

» Supports the mentee in research 

arenas and provides recommendations for high-profile committees, 

journal reviews, and grant reviews.

» Removes obstacles whenever 

possible. 

» Allows the mentee to try 

new endeavors. 

» Boosts the mentee’s selfconfidence by being an advocate 

and providing encouragement. 

Mentors have many vital roles and responsibilities: they are teachers 

and role models, agents, networkers, counselors, and last but not least, 

life-long learners and mentees themselves. 
National Institute on Drug Abuse 17

FOCUS ON MENTORS: ROLES AND RESPONSIBILITIES

» Knows when it is time for 

the mentee to advance. 

» Offers tips on balancing 

professional and personal life. 

» Does not show favoritism. 

• “I feel my research and its importance are overlooked sometimes because I work in a diverse 

laboratory with a number of 

projects and others always get 

the attention.” —NIDA Mentee 

» Facilitates the job hunt by recommending mentees to colleagues.

» Sets expectations for mentee. 

» Gives formal performance 

appraisals. 

» Encourages the mentee to 

ask questions at meetings. 

» Expedites resources by using 

knowledge of systems and bureaucracies in obtaining support. 

» Encourages the mentee to present 

papers and posters as first author. 

» Allows the mentee access to data. 

» Gives authorship, including 

first authorship, to the mentee on papers as appropriate.

Mentor as Networker 

» Provides opportunities for 

the mentee to shadow him/

her in the lab, at local meetings, and at conferences.

• “I used to stay right beside my 

mentor; she would introduce 

me to everyone she knew. That 

allowed me to also meet her 

colleagues’ mentees, the people 

who would be my cohort. 

Now, we are all friends and 

colleagues.” —NIDA Mentee

» Includes the mentee in discussions 

and meetings with appropriate 

administrators to facilitate future 

access. Involves the mentee in research tasks that matter and avoids 

delegating only undesirable jobs. 

» Introduces the mentee to visiting professors and arranges 

lunches or meetings with them. 

» Accelerates access to colleagues 

and networks to nurture and 

develop the next generation. 

Recognizes that exposing mentees 

to the professional world and 

increasing their visibility helps 

them become more recognized. 

• “My mentor is genuinely interested in my academic and professional development and seeks 

out opportunities to network 

with people who will help my 

career advance.” —NIDA Mentee

» Introduces the mentee to colleagues at conferences and 

meetings; allows the mentee to 

sit nearby so that others associate him/her with the mentor. 
18 Mentoring: A Guide for Drug Abuse Researchers—Tips for Mentors and Mentees

» With permission of the editor, 

allows the mentee to review 

journal manuscripts—not as a 

draft reviewer, but as the primary 

reviewer—and makes sure he/

she receives credit for the review. 

» Establishes connections with 

other trainees in the institution and other cohorts. 

» Facilitates the job hunt by recommending mentees to colleagues 

and writing strong and detailed 

letters of recommendation.

Mentor as Counselor

» Acts as a sounding board 

for the mentee. 

• “I value my mentor’s support, responsiveness, and 

respect.” —NIDA Mentee

» Shares experiences when relevant. 

» Just helps the mentee; does not 

try to do it all for him/her. 

• “I would like to not have my 

mentor micromanage my 

writing—he writes it without me knowing why he 

changed it.” —NIDA Mentee 

» Listens and gives advice when 

asked, or when necessary for 

the good of the mentee. 

• “I think mentoring is a lot 

like parenting—a good mentor knows the current level 

of the mentee and 

provides the right level of 

support.” —NIDA Mentee 

» Protects the student from committing major professional mistakes. 

» Protects the mentee in situations 

where his/her best interests are not 

represented. Protection should first 

come in the form of preventing 

potential pitfalls. Some students 

may require assistance in protecting their time commitments so 

that they are not overburdened or 

prioritizing the wrong activities. 

Mentor as Mentee

» Becomes a lifelong learner. 

» Doesn’t let go of his/her own 

mentors. Meets regularly with 

his/her former mentors.

» Learns from his/her mentees.

» Attends formal programs sponsored by NIH or other organizations whenever possible to 

enhance mentoring strategies. 

What Is Good Mentoring? 

Each of the roles described above 

is just one component in a process 

that promotes career development. 

Overall, the process is based on an 

apprenticeship model, in which 

the student/trainee works closely 

with the teacher to learn the science and art of his/her chosen 

career. The goal is for the mentee 

 FOCUS ON MENTORS: ROLES AND RESPONSIBILITIES
National Institute on Drug Abuse 19

to eventually become an independent scientist and future leader 

and mentor in his/her profession. 

In practice, mentors carry out their 

functions on a daily basis through 

formal and casual mechanisms. Seminars, workshops, scheduled meetings, and other didactic forums are 

typical, formal mechanisms through 

which development takes place. 

Hands-on activities such as writing 

manuscripts and journal reviews 

under the tutelage and supervision 

of one’s mentor, or with other 

senior-level scientists in a team 

approach, are also important parts 

of mentoring. Investment in each 

mentee will vary—for example, 

editing documents by a mentor can 

run the spectrum from rewriting to 

only offering general suggestions. 

Both quantity and quality of 

efforts may vary depending on the 

level of the mentee’s experience.

Flexibility in the mentor matching 

and selection process is a key 

ingredient in the development of a 

successful mentoring relationship. 

This flexibility allows mentors and 

their mentees to begin work together, yet provides the freedom to 

find another match if they discover 

divergent views, personalities, or 

styles. Successful relationships 

can be mentee-directed (i.e., 

when a student gravitates toward 

a particular professor and then a 

mentor–mentee relationship develops) or program-directed (i.e., the 

result of a structured mentoring 

program that suggests a mentor for 

a mentee). A key factor for a successful relationship is the creation 

of a supportive dynamic where the 

mentee feels support but knows that 

a high level of performance is necessary for the relationship to continue. 

This process includes an obligation to establish and communicate 

clear and realistic expectations. 

The Daloz (1986) model is a validated paradigm for effective mentoring (Bower et al., 1998). According 

to this model, effective mentoring 

is both supportive and challenging 

(Bower et al., 1998, 1999). Mentors 

express their support by respecting and trusting their mentees and 

remaining optimistic and hopeful 

in the face of difficulties. This is 

particularly important early in an investigator’s career when career prospects are uncertain. A mentor who 

is neither supportive nor challenging 

can create a barricade to growth, and 

the mentee may enter an academic 

“stasis.” A mentor who is supportive 

but not challenging will confirm the 

status quo for the mentee rather than 

inspire advancement. A mentor who 

is challenging but not supportive 

will cause the mentee to retreat and 

withdraw. Growth and vision only 

occur with a mentor who is a combination of both (Bower et al., 1999). 

FOCUS ON MENTORS: ROLES AND RESPONSIBILITIES
20 Mentoring: A Guide for Drug Abuse Researchers—Tips for Mentors and Mentees

The Four Phases of Mentoring

Zachary’s The Mentor’s Guide (2000) 

provides exercises to facilitate effective learning relationships. The 

exercises are suggested for both 

mentors and mentees, and they 

cover four phases of a mentoring 

relationship: preparation, negotiating, enabling, and closing. Others 

have labeled these phases differently, such as initiation, cultivation, 

separation, and redefinition (Barnett, 

1995); or initiation, protégé, breakup,

and lasting friendship (Kram, 1983, 

1985; Hunt and Michael, 1983). 

In the preparation phase, mentors are asked to review a number 

of skills, from communication to 

management of conflict, and rate 

their comfort level with each. One 

exercise asks mentors to prioritize 

which of their skills needs to be 

improved. Strategies for that initial conversation with the mentee 

are given in The Mentor’s Guide.

In the negotiating phase, mentors 

need to be mindful of the issues 

discussed in the Sigma Xi survey, 

including the importance of declaring their expectations. Goal setting is 

imperative. Mentoring contracts are 

required at the outset and renewed 

each year between the mentor and 

mentee to remind each that regularly 

scheduled meetings are required 

and to encourage mentees to attend 

monthly meetings with other trainees 

as well as others, such as a training 

director, if required. In this phase, the 

mentor also is reminded that mentor–

mentee discussions are confidential. 

During the enabling phase, mentors perform the difficult mentoring 

work. A learning environment is built 

on mutual trust and respect. In this 

phase, the mentor gives feedback 

and helps solve ethical dilemmas. 

Boundaries may be crossed, jealousies may arise, and other stressful issues may occur. Suggestions 

are given on how best to support 

the mentee during this phase. 

The final phase, the closure phase, 

can be an emotional period: some 

mentors and mentees have a hard 

time letting go. The most successful closures occur among mentors 

who are secure and who have prepared for and negotiated the closure. Whatever the duration of the 

mentor–mentee relationship, the 

mentor should anticipate the successful transition of mentorship. 

Additional Mentoring 

Considerations

» Will an in-person interview with 

a candidate be required? Who 

will conduct the interview? Is a 

talk by the mentee required? 

» Are trainees allowed to 

choose their own mentor? 

Their own research topic? 

Four Phases of Mentoring

1. Preparation 2. Negotiating 

3. Enabling 4. Closing
National Institute on Drug Abuse 21

» Is a cohort of trainees 

enrolled together? 

» What key achievements are 

expected from mentees:

• How many publications are 

expected to be submitted 

already? To be submitted 

in the first year?

• What specialized training 

do they need to have before 

joining the lab? 

• How much money will be 

provided to them for expenses 

and for travel to conferences? 

• Are they expected to write 

grant applications and/or to 

apply for their own funding?

» Is there an ombudsman who 

can help settle disputes? 

» What resources are available to 

train mentees on writing grants 

and papers? Will the mentor 

perform this training? 

» Are trainees requested to work 

(e.g., interviewing, fidelity 

checks) each week on a specific 

funded grant? If so, who will 

supervise them on those tasks? 

» What hours are they expected 

to work? Are prolonged 

absences acceptable? 

» Will mentees be located 

near other trainees, or near 

the project or mentor? 

» Are there specific opportunities for female and minority 

trainees to take advantage of at 

your institution, such as formal networks or associations?

» If distance is involved, how will 

this be handled? (See page 29, 

“Mentoring at a Distance.”)

» The field of drug 

abuse and addiction research needs 

more investigators.

» Mentoring can 

extend your contributions to science.

» You can keep your 

skills up to date as 

your mentee teaches 

you new techniques.

» You can strengthen 

your contacts by 

meeting colleagues 

of your mentee.

» Working with someone is more enjoyable 

than working alone.

» You gain a sense of 

personal satisfaction and pride.

» Your mentee’s 

success becomes 

your success.

» You build potential 

collaborative relationships for the future.

Why Become a Mentor?

FOCUS ON MENTORS: ROLES AND RESPONSIBILITIES
Multidisciplinary training is more essential than ever, and having 

a mentor whose skills and outlook are complementary is 

recommended. Mentors should be prepared to support training in 

additional disciplines, to help find and recruit other mentors if 

appropriate, and to assist mentees in developing a plan to work 

with others outside the mentors’ own fields.
Chapter 4

CHALLENGES OF TRAINING 

National Institute on Drug Abuse 23

Multidisciplinary Training

As indicated in the first chapter, science is becoming increasingly multidisciplinary. Thus, mentees may 

need to receive training in different 

fields of science to accomplish their 

goals. Multidisciplinary training is 

more essential than ever, and having 

a mentor whose skills and outlook 

are complementary is recommended. 

Mentors should consider whether to 

encourage their mentees 

to receive training in 

additional disciplines 

depending on the individual situation. Additionally, mentors should 

be prepared to support 

this training, to help 

find and recruit other 

mentors if appropriate, 

and to assist mentees 

in developing a plan to 

work with others outside 

the mentors’ own fields.

Networking Within and Across 

Disciplines

Many scientists are focused on collaborators in their own division, 

department, or field. However, 

networking across divisions, departments, and institutions is an important way to identify potential collaborators who might be willing to 

share data and other resources (Saha 

et al., 1999). It is also a way to adopt 

a more multidisciplinary perspective. 

Building a professional network is 

crucial to successful academic careers 

(Bland and Ruffin, 1990; Bower et 

al., 1999). A mentor should help 

mentees build their own network of 

contacts and potential collaborators. 

Most researchers are willing to talk 

about their work and exchange ideas 

with junior colleagues or fellows. For 

junior faculty or fellows who are new 

to an institution, several recommendations for networking 

techniques are provided 

on the next page. Many 

organizations also have 

formal one-on-one 

mentoring programs 

and networking events 

at their meetings. 

Mentoring Mosaic

A mentoring mosaic is 

typically constructed 

such that a mentee 

works with mentors in 

separate but complementary ways. 

Members of the mentoring mosaic 

may work with the mentee in different roles, such as a “research mentor” and a “career mentor,” or they 

may mentor on different aspects of 

a research project. There are many 

reasons to develop a mentoring 

mosaic: for example, the available 

mentors may not meet all mentee 

needs, or either a mentee desires 

or the science demands a more 
24 Mentoring: A Guide for Drug Abuse Researchers—Tips for Mentors and Mentees

CHALLENGES OF TRAINING

multidisciplinary experience. It is 

common to find a senior methodological mentor, but one who lacks 

content knowledge in a chosen field 

(or vice versa). A primary mentor can help develop this mosaic. 

The mentoring mosaic can include 

multiple senior level mentors or 

a combination of senior mentors 

and peer mentors. Peer mentors are 

colleagues at the mentee level or 

slightly above who provide advice 

and counsel (Chin et al., 1998). 

Types of peer mentors include basic 

peer mentors, facilitator mentors, 

and peer mentor project managers. 

A basic peer mentor is a self-identified 

junior faculty member with shared 

interest; a facilitator mentor is a 

faculty member with expressed 

interest and skill in mentoring; and 

a peer mentor project manager is a 

member of the peer group identified as lead author or manager of 

an academic project. Data indicate 

that semistructured, facilitated 

group mentoring improved writing, 

satisfaction with accomplishments, 

and skills needed for success. 

Recruitment of 

Underrepresented Scholars

The drug abuse research community 

has traditionally placed a high priority on recruiting minority trainees 

from diverse and uderrepresented 

backgrounds, including racial and 

ethnic minorities. This priority has 

been a part of all facets of the research 

» Begin with senior colleagues who 

have a long tenure at the institution. Ask them for names of colleagues who share your interests.

» Invite a potential colleague for coffee or lunch, share your interests, 

and learn his/hers. Explore fruitful areas for collaboration. Ask for 

other names of colleagues who 

might have a substantive or methodological interest related to yours. 

» For epidemiologists and health 

services researchers: In addition to 

the usual medicine and public health 

departments, it is common to find 

like-minded people working in departments of anthropology, medicine, 

sociology, economics, psychology, 

political science, and public policy. 

» Look beyond your institution. Find out 

who the experts are in your area of 

interest and contact them. Take advantage of national meetings to set up 

lunch or coffee with these individuals. 

» Productive fellows rarely work 

alone. Find ways to broaden your 

circle. Your fellowship program 

director should provide you with 

names of people to contact.

Networking Techniques
National Institute on Drug Abuse 25

CHALLENGES OF TRAINING

mentoring process and is consistent 

with NIH’s commitment to increasing the pool of investigators from 

underrepresented minority groups in 

biomedical and behavioral research. 

Since 1989, NIH has mandated that 

all training grant proposals include 

specific plans to recruit and retain 

underrepresented minorities. In addition, NIH now requires that training directors document recruitment 

efforts and minority retention data 

in all progress reports, and that they 

provide information on both successful and unsuccessful recruitment 

strategies. The success of efforts to 

recruit and retain minority trainees 

is also a factor in the assessment of 

the quality of the trainee pool and is 

reflected in the priority score of the 

application. If minority recruitment 

plans are judged to be unacceptable, 

funding can be delayed or withheld. 

Even with these guidelines in place, 

creative efforts are needed for success. 

Science recently reported that NIH is 

increasing its minority employment 

efforts after missing its recruitment 

target (Mervis, 2006). NIH is considering a proposal to double its recruitment of minority candidates seeking 

doctoral degrees in the biomedical 

and behavioral sciences over the 

course of 8 years. Other programs to 

recruit more minorities have not done 

well: less than 15 percent of undergraduates in the Minority Access to 

Research Careers U*STAR program 

progressed to Ph.D. studies. Additionally, nearly 40 percent of those 

funded for the Minority Opportunities in Research (MORE) Program 

go on to faculty positions rather than 

to junior investigator positions. 

NIDA has 

a number 

of programs 

to support 

and further 

mentor 

underrepresented 

scholars, 

including 

the Summer 

Research 

with NIDA 

Program; the Diversity Supplement 

Program; the Diversity-promoting 

Institutions Drug Abuse Research 

Program (DIDARP) at http://grants.

nih.gov/grants/guide/pa-files/PAR-09-

011.html; and the Recruitment and 

Training Program offered by NIDA’s 

intramural program. In some cases, 

these programs will support minority 

students very early in the development of their science skills (high 

school) as well as those at the Ph.D. 

or M.D. level. The Diversity Supplement Program supports individuals 

underrepresented in science to work 

on currently funded grants through 

the diversity supplement program. 

The DIDARP provides funding to 

institutions to increase the capac-
26 Mentoring: A Guide for Drug Abuse Researchers—Tips for Mentors and Mentees

ity of identified scholars to conduct 

drug abuse research, fosters the 

research career development of 

racial/ethnic minority and other 

faculty and staff who are underrepresented in drug abuse research, and 

enhances the research infrastructure 

of diversity-promoting institutions. 

Additional information on these 

programs can be found at www.

drugabuse.gov/Infofacts/minority.html.

In addition to NIH’s efforts to foster 

improved mentorship and training 

for underrepresented researchers, a 

number of other organizations have 

created programs to identify new 

opportunities to recruit minority 

students for careers in research:

» The National Name Exchange 

Program and the Western Name 

Exchange Program are consortia 

comprising 29 universities that 

annually collect and exchange 

names of talented, underrepresented, racial and ethnic minority 

students who are in their junior 

or senior year of undergraduate 

education. The purpose of the 

name exchanges is to ensure that 

participating universities are aware 

of and recruit talented and qualified minorities from universities 

across the country. Each consortium site also conducts other 

activities consistent with national 

efforts to increase the enrollment 

of traditionally underrepresented 

peoples in graduate education. 

A good example of collaboration 

in this arena is the University of 

Washington’s Graduate Opportunities and Minority Achievement 

Program (GO-MAP), which has 

maintained and facilitated access 

to the databases for both of these 

name exchange programs since 

the mid-1980s and continues 

to do so. (Visit www.grad.washington.edu/nameexch/national.)

» The TRIO Ronald E. McNair 

Postbaccalaureate Achievement 

Program encourages low-income, 

first-generation college students 

and students underrepresented in 

graduate education to consider 

careers in college teaching as well 

as to prepare 

for doctoral study. 

Funded by 

the U.S. 

Department 

of Education, the 

McNair 

program 

provides 

research 

opportunities, faculty mentors, support for 

publishing and presenting research 

findings, teaching assistantships, 

and assistance with applications 

to graduate schools. Each spring, 

the names, addresses, majors, 

CHALLENGES OF TRAINING
National Institute on Drug Abuse 27

and areas of interest for graduate 

study of seniors who will graduate in December and May are 

collected from McNair directors 

nationwide. This information is 

compiled into a database that is 

distributed to all graduate school 

deans in the country for use in 

recruitment. (Visit www.ed.gov/

programs/triomcnair/index.html.)

Other activities for mentors that can 

increase the diversity of mentees: 

» Consider the quality and diversity 

of the undergraduate population 

as a potential recruitment pool. 

Invite students to an open house. 

» Use regional and national databases 

to identify top students who are 

underrepresented in drug research 

disciplines. Gather lists of potential 

mentees who participated in programs such as the McNair Scholars and the Western and National 

Name Exchange Programs. Obtain 

lists of potential students interested in relevant programmatic 

areas and follow up with targeted 

letters, e-mails, and phone calls. 

» Draw on a variety of recruiting 

mechanisms, including Web sites, 

targeted mailings, telephone calls, 

posters, advertisements, and receptions at professional conferences.

» Create a Web site that highlights 

both mentoring opportunities for 

trainees and student accomplishments (e.g., publications, awards), 

as well as provides stories and 

testimonials about recent experiences. Show the diversity of mentors and mentees on the Web site. 

» Advertise programs to targeted 

populations in colleges and 

universities that serve a large 

population of minority and underrepresented students to increase 

the minority applicant pool. 

» Notify undergraduate departments in relevant disciplines, 

particularly targeting schools 

with large minority populations. 

Utilize the Western and National 

Name Exchange Programs (GOMAP coordinates the national 

database) and send direct mailings to historically Black colleges 

and universities, Hispanic-serving 

institutions, and tribal colleges.

» Advertise in multicultural journals. 

» Ask your own trainees to help 

in recruiting.

» Lead by example: efforts are 

aided by having a diverse 

faculty and training cohort.

Mentees from underrepresented 

groups need to feel that they are 

valued members of the research 

team and not isolated from other 

research fellows or trainees in their 

programs. To help build trust, 

mentees should be encouraged 

to build mentoring relationships 

CHALLENGES OF TRAINING
28 Mentoring: A Guide for Drug Abuse Researchers—Tips for Mentors and Mentees

with other underrepresented investigators at other institutions or 

departments. Mentors should— 

» Encourage mentees to meet others 

with similar backgrounds.

» Encourage collaboration 

among other mentees.

» Suggest a group of mentees agree to support each 

other as peer mentors. 

» Suggest internships, awards, 

seminars, or other programs for 

underrepresented minorities.

» Be supportive of associations 

for minority trainees and 

encourage membership. 

» Help build mentee confidence.

» Be accessible. 

Mentoring in the Responsible 

Conduct of Research 

Since July 1990, NIH has required 

that all training grants and mentored 

scientists’ (relevant Ks) proposals include plans for instruction in 

the responsible conduct of research 

(RCR). According to the funding 

announcements, applications must 

include a description of instruction in scientific integrity. Areas 

that must be covered include— 

» conflict of interest; 

» responsible authorship; 

» policies for handling misconduct; 

» data management; 

» data sharing; and

» policies regarding the use of 

human and animal subjects. 

Plans must address the topics, as 

well as the format of the instruction, participation of faculty, a 

list of required attendees, and the 

frequency of the program. 

Because NIH encourages collaborating institutions—regardless of their 

source of support—to provide 

instruction in RCR to all graduate 

students, postdocs, and research staff, 

mentors must make RCR training a priority. Ideas for mentoring 

include arranging for the mentee to 

observe or serve on a local human 

subjects committee, institutional 

review board, or institutional animal 

care and use committee; to actively 

participate in discussions on the 

ethical conduct of science; and to 

become involved with institutional 

RCR activities either on the World 

Wide Web (see http://grants.nih.gov/

training/responsibleconduct.htm for 

more information) or in person.

It is recommended that this training be ongoing. Ongoing training 

combined with a substantial plan is 

the standard expectation of the NIH 

review committee that reviews these 

applications for NIDA. Training for 

CHALLENGES OF TRAINING
National Institute on Drug Abuse 29

the Health Insurance Portability and 

Accountability Act of 1996 and previous ethics courses in graduate school 

are not ongoing and are therefore not 

applicable. The Office of Research 

Integrity Newsletter (http://ori.hhs.

gov) includes information about RCR 

training, misconduct case reports, 

articles, new regulations, conferences 

that specifically address RCR, and 

other important and timely news. 

Articles from this quarterly newsletter 

can be discussed with mentees as well. 

Mentoring at a Distance 

Sometimes a mentee has no choice 

but to go outside of his/her institution or geographical area to find an 

appropriate mentor (Bennis, 1994). 

If the mentor–mentee relationship is long-distance, the following 

recommendations are provided for 

improving the mentoring experience:

» Meet your mentor at national 

meetings for regular in-person 

meetings. 

» If describing this mentoring 

in a proposal, write and highlight a persuasive argument to 

convince reviewers that it can 

work. Ask your mentor to address this issue specifically in 

the letter of support that is 

sent with the grant proposal.

» Discuss distance issues with 

members of NIDA’s Training 

Committee so that they understand 

the importance of your requested 

mentor. (See www.nida.nih.gov/

ResearchTraining/Contacts.html.) 

» E-mail your mentor at least 

once per week.

» Plan to visit the mentor for faceto-face meetings and determine 

how frequent these meetings 

must be. If describing the plan for 

meetings in an application, justify 

the frequency of these meetings. 

Meet other trainees at the mentor’s 

lab. Communicate with the other 

trainees often as well, as they will 

become your cohort. When you 

are at national meetings, spend 

time with that cohort of mentees. 

» Invite your mentor to your university to give talks and to spend 

a few days there for mentoring. 

» Keep up with journal club readings at your mentor’s institution.

» Use Web-based and other 

technology to stay in touch with 

your mentor on a regular basis.

Other Resources

Additional Web-based resources:

» www1.od.nih.gov/oir/

sourcebook/ethic-conduct/

guidelines-mentors.htm

» www.training.nih.gov/documents/ 

postdoc_handbook.pdf.

CHALLENGES OF TRAINING
The ideal mentoring relationship is a “win-win” partnership. 

But the mentoring process requires significant time and 

attention from both parties. If care is not taken, the process 

could lose its potential for success.
Chapter 5

ADDITIONAL CONSIDERATIONS

National Institute on Drug Abuse 31

Mutual respect, trust, understanding, 

and empathy characterize an effective mentoring relationship (Rabatin 

et al., 2004). Good mentors share 

hard-earned lessons and technical 

expertise. They listen well but also 

know when to direct their mentee 

in more fruitful directions. They 

make an effort to know, accept, and 

respect the goals and 

interests of a mentee. 

They accept as a goal 

that the mentee’s success is an integral part 

of their own success. 

The ideal mentoring 

relationship is a “winwin” partnership. But 

the mentoring process 

requires significant time 

and attention from both 

parties. If care is not 

taken, the process could 

lose its potential for success. As 

a result, preventive and corrective actions should be considered 

to ensure positive outcomes from 

the research training experience.

Not all mentors or mentoring 

relationships are ideal. Mentoring 

relationships are like others: some 

fail (Markis and Goldstein, 2006). If 

a mentee or a mentor believes that a 

mentor–mentee relationship is not 

going well, he/she should initiate 

a conversation with the other to 

discuss ways to improve the relationship. If this does not work to 

improve the situation, he/she should 

seek outside counsel, such as from an 

ombudsman, to develop a solution. 

Multiple Mentors

It is rare to find a single mentor 

who knows everything a mentee 

might need to learn in order to 

succeed. Sometimes, the mentee 

should seek a mentoring team. Mentees may 

benefit from multiple 

perspectives on theory, 

methodology, content, 

and career development. Multiple mentors 

might also be necessary 

to learn multiple career 

skills. Appropriate 

members of the team 

could include local or 

distance mentors with 

complementary content, theoretical, or methodological 

expertise. The mentee’s division chief 

or department chair can be useful 

to help protect the mentee from 

burdensome clinical and administrative distractions and to provide 

counsel regarding career development and promotion within the 

mentee’s field (Gill et al., 2004).

Multiple mentors may guide a mentee through his/her career; however, 

if one is applying for an individual 

NRSA application, the identification of one highly competent senior 

mentor often is preferable. One 
32 Mentoring: A Guide for Drug Abuse Researchers—Tips for Mentors and Mentees

 ADDITIONAL CONSIDERATIONS

mentor must be in charge if there are 

multiple mentors, and this should 

be clear in the proposal. One reason 

for seeking a secondary mentor for 

an individual NRSA application is 

to bolster a junior primary mentor. 

A mentee may need a secondary 

senior mentor if he/she has a junior 

mentor who is lacking in publications, research grant funding, and/

or experience training at his/her level 

(e.g., predoctoral or postdoctoral). 

Those applying for mentored 

scientist (K) awards are more 

likely to list multiple mentors. 

Questions about mentors should 

be directed to program officials.

How Can the Mentee Facilitate 

the Mentoring of the Mentor? 

The effective mentee accepts responsibility for his/her own academic career 

planning (Bower et al., 1999). Early 

on, the mentee should meet with the 

mentor to plan three essential aspects 

of the career plan: 

(1) management of one’s career; 

(2) identification of the values, 

norms, and expectations of the 

division, department, university, 

and field; and (3) development of a 

productive network of colleagues and 

collaborators (Bland et al., 1990). 

Career management and planning 

are individualized tasks that are a 

function of one’s core values, aspirations, talents, and interests. The 

mentee must let his/her mentor know 

of his/her individualized goals and 

plans. Often, a department contains 

individuals who have numerous 

career paths, and a good mentor 

should help a mentee define his/her 

own path rather than impose one. 

Frequently, 

it is assumed 

that everyone knows 

the values, 

norms, and 

expectations 

within a 

department, 

lab, or field, 

when, in 

fact, many 

mentees are unaware. Professional 

socialization is an important role 

for the mentor that is sometimes 

overlooked. A good mentee should 

gently cue the mentor or mentoring team to explain the rules and 

expectations of the department or 

academic affiliate, and of the field as 

a whole. As already discussed, some 

mentor–mentee relationships develop 

a written mentoring contract that formalizes these expectations. Whether 

such a contract will be necessary or 

helpful will depend on the culture 

of the individuals and institutions 

involved. Mentoring relationships 

have been known to fail despite a 

contract, and others have thrived with 

only verbal understandings. In any 
National Institute on Drug Abuse 33

ADDITIONAL CONSIDERATIONS

case, it is best to start with modest, 

realistic expectations and allow them 

to grow with trust and experience. 

The Role of Institutions to Foster 

Quality Mentoring 

According to the AAAS survey, 

institutional commitment was 

mentioned by 78 percent of the 

mentees as a factor that correlated 

with career success. Mentors who 

work to make their environments 

better—not only for themselves but 

also for their mentees—are invaluable. Many institutions have set up 

competitive supplemental travel 

funds to help trainees attend scientific meetings. Successful mentoring 

programs at institutions also host 

annual conferences for postdocs and 

trainees to showcase their work to 

other trainees, faculty, and staff. 

NIH does much to foster training 

opportunities and mentoring. For 

example, NIDA actively supports 

travel awards, poster sessions, and 

fellow-led symposia for research 

fellows and trainees at professional 

conferences. The Institute’s goal is 

to promote professional networking 

between fellows and trainees from 

different programs and research 

institutions. By emphasizing the 

importance of mentoring, NIDA 

hopes to facilitate high-quality 

mentoring between senior scientists and their research fellows.

The National Science Foundation 

(NSF) and NIH also emphasize 

the importance of mentoring. 

NSF requires researchers to include 

a mentoring plan in every grant 

application. NIH states that PIs 

can count time they spend mentoring 

as grant-related, provided the 

training is related to the research 

(see http://grants1.nih.gov/training/

q&a.htm#mentor).

» Formulate plans for 

resolving the situation. 

» Attempt to resolve 

and improve the situation with the mentor. 

» Know your rights: you 

don’t have to stay 

with the mentor. 

» Don’t rely solely on 

your friends or significant other for advice. 

» Consider getting outside 

counsel: see a career 

counselor, ombudsman, or associate dean 

or vice chancellor at 

your institution.

» Put your dissatisfaction in writing and talk 

to the PI of the training 

program, the division 

head, or your department 

chair, as appropriate.

If Your Mentor Stops Mentoring

What happens when your mentor stops advising? What happens when the mentor-mentee 

relationship deteriorates? 
34 Mentoring: A Guide for Drug Abuse Researchers—Tips for Mentors and Mentees

Conclusion

Mentoring junior scientists is one of 

the most important responsibilities 

of senior scientists. Mentors, as well 

as the institutions for which they 

work, must continually evaluate 

their training and mentoring programs to ensure the success of their 

research programs and the success 

of the next generation of scientists. 

Striving to improve mentoring 

ensures that the next generation of 

scientists will be well trained and 

positioned to continue advances 

in science and in public health. 

 ADDITIONAL CONSIDERATIONS

» Establish a fixed training 

period for mentors, with 

goals, milestones, and 

standard yardsticks. 

» Ask mentors to develop mechanisms for 

formal completion or 

extension of the training 

period, and promotion 

to faculty or research 

associate appointments. 

» Continue to offer research 

training institutes for 

faculty and mentees; 

invite speakers to share 

their valued practices 

with the audience.

» Support the training 

of trainers. 

» Establish an award for 

best mentor of the year or 

for distinguished mentors.

» Promote NRSA and other 

fellowship programs. 

» Support minority and 

disparity training.

» Establish an annual 

review of progress for 

each trainee; provide 

feedback to individuals.

» Offer courses and workshops on how to perform 

the important tasks of 

research, such as grant 

writing, lab management, 

project management, 

and data presentation. 

» Sponsor diversity 

workshops such as the 

Women in Science and 

Engineering Leadership Institute (WISELI).

» Provide the coursework 

for ongoing RCR training.

» Educate trainees about 

research employment. 

» Make sure trainees know 

about the process for 

reporting grievances 

(e.g., ombudsman). 

» Establish a local trainee 

society—include mentored scientist (K) awardees or early career faculty 

as well. 

» Track grants submitted, 

papers published, major 

events, and contributions of each mentee. 

» Ask mentees to give a 

performance appraisal 

of their mentor. 

» Encourage mentors 

from different fields; 

post names of faculty 

interested in mentoring, 

along with their areas 

of interest, on a central 

research Web site. 

» Educate mentoring faculty 

on research and grant 

productivity and markers 

of mentee success.

» Monitor faculty for mentoring abuse—use this as 

an evaluation criterion. 

» Hold frequent workshops 

that teach mentoring 

skills.

» Reward mentors for good 

teaching and mentoring.

What Can Institutions Do To Promote Mentoring and Track Success?
Directory of Useful Web Sites

National Institute on Drug Abuse 35

» Scientific Directors Policy 

Updates for Mentors and 

Trainees—May 1, 2002 

http://www1.od.nih.gov/oir/

sourcebook/ethic-conduct/

sdpolicy-mentoring.htm

» Guidelines for Mentors at the 

National Institutes of Health 

http://www1.od.nih.gov/oir/

sourcebook/ethic-conduct/

guidelines-mentors.htm

» Guidelines for Annual 

Review of Trainees 

http://www1.od.nih.gov/oir/

sourcebook/ethic-conduct/

guidelines-evaluation.htm

» Guidelines for Trainees at the 

National Institutes of Health 

http://www1.od.nih.gov/oir/

sourcebook/ethic-conduct/

guidelines-trainees.htm

» “A Guide to the Handling of 

Scientific Misconduct Allegations 

in the Intramural Research 

Program at the NIH” 

http://www1.od.nih.gov/oir/ 

sourcebook/ResEthicsCases/ 

sm-booklet.htm

» NIH Handbook for Postdoctoral 

Fellows (Office of Education, 

Office of the Director, NIH) 

http://www.training.nih.gov/ 

handbook 

» “Quick Guide for Grant 

Applications” 

http://deainfo.nci.nih.gov/

extra/extdocs/gntapp.htm

» “Advisor, Teacher, Role Model, 

Friend: On Being a Mentor to Students in Science and Engineering,” 

National Academy of Sciences 

http://www.nap.edu/openbook. 

php?record_id=5789

» NIDA Predoctoral Research 

Training FAQs 

http://www.nida.nih.gov/ 

ResearchTraining/Predocfaqs.html

» NIDA Postdoctoral Research 

Training FAQs 

http://www.nida.nih.gov/ 

ResearchTraining/Postdocfaqs.html 

» NIDA Networking Project 

http://nnp.drugabuse.gov

» NIDA’s Opportunities 

for Special Populations 

http://www.drugabuse.gov/

Infofacts/minority.html 

Directory of Useful Web Sites
36 Mentoring: A Guide for Drug Abuse Researchers—Tips for Mentors and Mentees

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NIH Publication Number 09-5770 

Printed November 2009