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NOAA Coral Reef Conservation Program Goals 

& Objectives 2010-2015

Goals &

Objectives

Goals &

Objectives

Coral Reef Conservation Program Coral Reef Conservation Program

2010 - 2015
2

Goals &

Objectives 2010 - 2015

Coral Reef Conservation Program

Front cover photo credits:

Main image: George Cathcart, © 2007

Left inset: Dave Burdick

Middle inset: Guam Forestry and Soil Resources Division

Right inset: Dave Burdick
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NOAA Coral Reef Conservation Program Goals & Objectives 2010-2015

Table of Contents

Goals Outline 

Introduction 

Climate Change Impacts Strategic Goals and Objectives 

Fishing Impacts Strategic Goals and Objectives 

Impacts from Land-Based Sources of Pollution Strategic Goals and Objectives 

Definitions 

References 

57

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21

27

33

37

Photo Credits: Far left: Dave Burdick; Left: Susie Holst /NOAA NMFS PIFSC CRED; Middle: Dwayne Meadows; Right: Dave Burdick; Far right: Dave BurdickOpposite page: Left: Susie Holst; Middle: Susie Holst/NOAA NMFS PIFSC CRED; Right: Bill Millhouser

NOAA Coral Reef Conservation Program. 2009. NOAA Coral Reef Conservation Program Goals & Objectives 2010-2015. 

Silver Spring, MD: NOAA.

The NOAA Coral Reef Conservation Program would like to thank the CRCP threat-based and international working 

groups, as well as those who provided input during the public comment period, for their contributions. The 

commitment, time, and effort brought to this process is greatly appreciated. These goals and objectives will play an 

integral part in helping chart the future course of the CRCP.

Special thanks to Zhe Liu for graphic design and Lauren Chhay for photo support.
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An underwater panorama of coral (Acropora spp.) in 

Chuuk Lagoon, Federated States of Micronesia.

Photo Credit: Dave Burdick 
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NOAA Coral Reef Conservation Program Goals 

& Objectives 2010-2015

CLIMATE CHANGE IMPACTS

• Increase coral reef resilience to climate change and ocean acidification through effective 

management strategies.

• Identify, understand, and communicate risks and vulnerability of U.S. coral reef ecosystems, 

ecosystem services, and dependent human communities to climate change and ocean 

acidification.

• Enhance strategic management of coral reef ecosystems through improved and applied 

understanding, forecasts, and projections of climate change and ocean acidification impacts.

• Support management efforts to increase survivorship of coral reef species and enhance reef 

resilience by evaluating and implementing promising intervention strategies that directly reduce 

climate change and ocean acidification impacts.

FISHING IMPACTS

• Increase the abundance and average size of key coral reef fishery species to protect trophic 

structure and biodiversity and improve coral reef ecosystem condition.

• Support effective implementation and management of marine protected areas (MPAs) and 

ecological networks of MPAs that protect key coral reef ecosystem components and functions.

• Increase stakeholder engagement and capacity to improve local compliance with and 

enforcement of fisheries management regulations that further coral reef ecosystem 

conservation.

• Utilize locally relevant education and communication strategies to increase public and policy 

maker understanding of fishing impacts in coral reef ecosystems and support for effective 

management options.

IMPACTS FROM LAND-BASED SOURCES OF POLLUTION

• Reduce pollutant loading from watersheds to priority coral reef ecosystems. 

• Promote in-water management activities to restore priority coral reef ecosystems that have been 

adversely impacted by accumulated sediments, nutrients, and algae. 

• Build and sustain management capacity at the local level through local, state, regional, and 

federal coordination of financial, institutional, and human resources to reduce and prevent the 

impacts of land-based sources of pollution on coral reef ecosystems. 

Goals Outline

Photo Credits: Far left: Susie Holst; Left: Stephane Charrette/NOAA NMFS PIFSC CRED; Right: Dwayne Meadows; Far right: George Cathcart © 2007
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This colony of a star coral species 

provides the main structure of this 

portion of reef in the Florida Keys.

Photo credit: George Cathcart © 2007
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NOAA Coral Reef Conservation Program Goals 

& Objectives 2010-2015

Introduction

Coral Reef Ecosystems, Valuable Yet 

Threatened

Healthy coral reefs are among the most 

biologically diverse and economically valuable 

ecosystems on earth, providing hundreds of 

billions of dollars in food, jobs, recreational 

opportunities, coastal protection, and other 

important services. For example, Hawai`i’s coral 

reefs, when combining recreational, amenity, 

fishery, and biodiversity values, were estimated to 

have direct economic benefits of $360 million/

year (Cesar et al, 2002). Yet they are threatened by 

an increasing array of impacts – primarily from 

global climate change, unsustainable fishing, and 

pollution. According to the Status of Coral Reefs 

of the World: 2008 (Wilkinson, 2008), 19 percent 

of the world’s reefs are effectively lost, 15 percent 

are seriously threatened with loss in the next 

10-20 years, and 20 percent are under threat of 

loss in the next 20-40 years. The decline and loss 

of coral reef ecosystems have significant social, 

cultural, economic, and ecological impacts on 

people and communities in the United States 

and around the world. However, with effective 

leadership and management, healthy, resilient reef 

ecosystems can continue to provide these valuable 

services to current and future generations.

NOAA Coral Reef Conservation 

Program 

NOAA’s Coral Reef Conservation Program 

(CRCP) was established in 2000 to help fulfill 

NOAA’s responsibilities under the Coral Reef 

Conservation Act (CRCA) and Presidential 

Executive Order 13089 on Coral Reef Protection. 

The mission of the CRCP is to protect, conserve, 

and restore coral reef resources by maintaining 

healthy ecosystem function. The primary 

objective of the CRCP is to address strategic 

coral reef management needs in a targeted, 

cost-effective and efficient manner. To make the 

most of limited resources and to have the largest 

impact to reverse general declines in coral reef 

health, the CRCP is narrowing the focus of its 

U.S. domestic program and shifting allocation of 

CRCP resources to taking on-the-ground and inthe-water action. The CRCP is also expanding its 

international presence by becoming more actively 

involved in coral conservation efforts primarily 

in the Pacific, the Coral Triangle region, and the 

Caribbean (summarized in a separate document 

titled NOAA Coral Reef Conservation Program 

International Strategy 2010-2015). To narrow its 

range of activities, the CRCP will emphasize 

efforts to understand and address the top three 

recognized global threats to coral reef ecosystems: 

climate change impacts, fishing impacts, and 

impacts from land-based sources of pollution. 

Photo Credits: Far left: Dave Burdick; Left: Dwayne Meadows; Middle: Blue Ventures Conservation; Right: Dave Burdick; Far right: Dave Burdick
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These threats are compounded by the increase in 

global population and demographic shifts toward 

coastal regions. This contributes to increased 

local pressure on coastal ecosystems with greater 

demands for food, recreation, tourism, and other 

resource needs, and increased global pressure 

on energy consumption and greenhouse gas 

emissions. The CRCP recognizes that a balance 

must be struck between resource conservation 

and consideration of human welfare. 

Addressing the Three Priority Threats 

The CRCP, in partnership with the coral reef 

management community, will address strategic 

management needs and place increased emphasis 

on place-based management. The CRCP has 

engaged a community of experts to help 

identify the twenty-year strategic goals and 

five-year objectives the CRCP will work towards 

to effectively address each of the top three 

threats to coral reef ecosystems, both domestic 

and international. The CRCP is committed to 

continually refining its performance and efficiency 

measures to improve program effectiveness and 

better evaluate overall CRCP performance. 

This document provides the NOAA CRCP 

strategic guidance on the program priorities 

for FY 2010-2015 and commits the CRCP 

Climate change impacts threaten coral reef ecosystems through increased 

mass coral bleaching and disease, sea level rise, and storm activity. Additionally, 

increasing atmospheric carbon dioxide has already begun to reduce calcification 

rates in reef-building and reef-associated organisms by altering sea water 

chemistry through decreases in pH (ocean acidification). In the long term, failure 

to address the impacts of rising temperatures and ocean acidification could make 

many other management efforts futile.

Fishing impacts in coral reef areas, when ecologically unsustainable, can lead to 

the depletion of key functional groups of reef species in many locations, with 

cascading impacts on coral reef habitats and associated species and ecosystems.

Impacts from land-based sources of pollution (e.g. agriculture, coastal 

development, road construction, and oil and chemical spills) on coral reef 

ecosystems include increased sedimentation, eutrophication, toxins, and 

pathogen introduction. These pollutants and related synergistic effects can cause 

disease and mortality in sensitive species, disrupt critical ecological functions, 

cause trophic structure and dynamics changes, and impede growth, reproduction, 

and larval settlement.

Photo Credits: Far left: George Cathcart © 2007; Left: Susie Holst; Right: Dave Burdick; Far right partial: George Cathcart © 2007
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NOAA Coral Reef Conservation Program Goals 

& Objectives 2010-2015

to work with other agencies and partners to 

facilitate implementation of these Goals and 

Objectives. These Goals and Objectives are not 

intended to commit other agencies or partners 

to implementing the identified actions; however, 

the CRCP cannot hope to accomplish its goals 

without partners.

Ecosystem-based Management: 

Integrating Across Threats in Specific 

Geographies

While the Goals and Objectives are organized 

into three distinct threats, the management of 

these and other threats cannot be separated 

when working in actual geographies. The 

implementation of the Goals and Objectives 

will be integrated into an ecosystem-based 

management approach in the jurisdictions. Within 

each threat, the Goals and Objectives identify 

a common need to select and work in priority 

coral reef areas to ensure a holistic and integrated 

management approach to support healthy, resilient 

coral reef ecosystems. The priority areas, selected 

by each jurisdiction, might differ slightly due 

to the ultimate conservation strategy and goal. 

However the prioritization process will consider 

jurisdiction needs and priorities, will take other 

geographic-specific threats into account, and will 

allow for the integration of local and indigenous 

ecological knowledge, while also building upon the 

current foundation of science and management 

in each location. Many coral reef jurisdictions 

have already identified priority areas in need of 

increased management action and these locally 

identified areas will be integrated into the full 

scheme of priority areas the CRCP considers. 

The CRCP recognizes that effective management 

should not take a one-size-fits-all approach, but be 

based on the needs of the varying ecosystems and 

communities. The CRCP, therefore, is working 

in partnership with the coral reef managers in 

each jurisdiction to develop specific management 

priorities. These management priority documents 

will be a critical part of CRCP decision-making.

For example: the placement of a marine managed area can effectively address the 

impacts of fishing and/or conserve an area potentially resilient to climate change, 

coupled with efforts to address land-based sources of pollution from adjacent and 

associated watersheds. 

For example: actions to abate impacts of fishing and land-based sources of 

pollution can make coral reefs more resilient to climate change; more resilient 

coral reefs support intact fish resources that maintain ecosystem function and 

provide food resources for humans; and resilient coral reefs are more able to snap 

back to health after land-based pollutants are reduced. 

Photo Credits: Far left partial: George Cathcart © 2007; Left: George Cathcart © 2007; Right: Christy Loper; Far right: Susie Holst 
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A Multidisciplinary Integrated 

Approach

Implementation of the Goals and Objectives 

calls for a multidisciplinary approach to coral 

reef conservation. The CRCP will continue to 

monitor and research coral reef ecosystems 

because increased understanding is necessary 

for improved management. Understanding the 

biological and physical aspects of these complex 

ecosystems is critical for successful management; 

however, it is not the complete picture. People 

and communities rely on these resources so it is 

often the social, economic, or political aspects of 

coral reef management that drive decisions. Thus 

the CRCP will seek to engage and actively involve 

communities in coral reef management.

The CRCP 

will increase 

its activities 

related to 

social science, 

education and 

outreach, and 

community 

engagement. 

To ensure 

the biophysical science and socioeconomic 

information are being adequately considered, 

governance structures and processes must be 

well-functioning. Governments must work 

across agencies, public processes must be open 

and transparent, and sufficient capacity, both 

human and technical, must exist to achieve strong 

management. This multidisciplinary approach to 

conservation means the CRCP’s work will include 

on-the-ground management actions, biophysical 

monitoring, applied research, modeling, 

socioeconomic research, community engagement, 

enforcement, education, outreach, and capacity 

building. 

Building Local Capacity & Partnerships

Lack of capacity currently constrains local coral 

reef conservation success and must be addressed 

to enable management strategies to increase coral 

reef resilience. This lack of capacity includes 

staffing, facilities, funding, and technical expertise 

as well as legislative authority and enforcement. 

While new management actions are identified in 

the following Goals and Objectives, existing tools 

such as watershed and coastal planning, water 

quality protection and marine zoning must be 

strengthened and applied more effectively. The 

CRCP recognizes that federal-local partnerships 

must be strengthened, particularly in the 

areas of communication, collaboration, and 

implementation of joint management actions. 

Federal support is needed to help finance local 

efforts, but also to ensure that sound scientific 

research and monitoring are maintained, and that 

results are understood and used by managers and 

decision-makers to inform policies and decisions 

for conservation of coral reef ecosystems. 

Promoting an Effective Governance 

Framework

Coral reef ecosystems frequently span broad 

ranges of geographical and organizational 

jurisdictions thus, coordination across federal, 

state, and local governments and with nongovernmental organizations is essential for 

designing and implementing effective management 

and conservation solutions. However, the 

existing legislative, regulatory, and institutional 

frameworks are often insufficient or fragmented 

and lack the coordination needed to effectively 

or coherently address the myriad issues facing 

coral reef ecosystems. For example, authority 

for coral reef ecosystem components (e.g. fish) 

and physical parameters (e.g. water quality) lie 

with a range of local, state, and federal entities, 

and these issues/ecosystem components are 

often considered independently of one another. 

In some cases, current frameworks discourage 

agencies from acting to include key threats such as 

climate change. The CRCP aims to work with our 

many partners to design, support, and implement 

effective regional and jurisdictional management 

schemes that consider coral reef ecosystems 

holistically and provide a foundation for better 

governance 

of our 

coral reef 

resources 

(ecological, 

social, and 

economic). 

Photo Credits: Top left: Christy Loper; Top right: Dave Burdick; Bottom left: Dave Burdick; Bottom right; Dave Burdick; Bottom far right partial: Dave Burdick
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NOAA Coral Reef Conservation Program Goals & Objectives 2010-2015

Enhancing Community Engagement 

and Understanding: Communication, 

Education, and Outreach

The CRCP recognizes the value of an informed 

and engaged public, empowered to act in 

partnership for coral reef conservation. The 

CRCP will expand our efforts to reach key target 

audiences and utilize new and innovative tools to 

increase awareness and stewardship of coral reef 

resources. The CRCP work in communication, 

outreach and education will expand upon current 

CRCP activities and will be an integral part of 

achieving the Goals and Objectives. 

Supporting Baseline Observations and 

Monitoring

Each of the three threat-based strategies identify 

monitoring as a foundational need to ensure that 

the activities the CRCP conducts and funds are 

responsive to changes in both the ecosystems and 

in the needs of the communities dependent upon 

these ecosystems. For successful conservation 

of coral reef ecosystems, management must 

be responsive to changes in environmental, 

economic, and social conditions. The CRCP 

supports integrated, consistent, and comparable 

monitoring efforts across jurisdictions. This 

includes developing agreed upon metrics that 

enhance holistic assessment of coral reef 

ecosystem condition, coordinated across threats.

The CRCP supports monitoring efforts to: • Document the status of reef species of 

ecological and economic importance;

• Track and assess changes in reef 

communities in response to environmental 

stressors or human activities; and

• Evaluate the effectiveness of specific 

management strategies and identify actions 

for future adaptive responses.

The CRCP is engaged in a variety of data-rich 

efforts and will ensure that data acquisition, 

transmission, metadata, preservation, and 

dissemination are consistent throughout the 

CRCP, and that data collected will be integrated 

and interpreted to meet coral reef managers’ 

information needs.

NOAA CRCP Process and 

Implementation

The development of the CRCP Goals and 

Objectives is one step in a multi-step process. 

This document does not constitute a standalone implementation plan. Using the Goals and 

Objectives as the keystone, the 

CRCP is engaged in concurrent 

efforts to assess jurisdictional 

governance and capacity gaps, 

improve performance measures, 

and develop an education, 

outreach, and communication 

strategy. This information will 

further inform what specific 

work needs to be done to 

accomplish the Goals and 

Objectives. 

Implementation of the Goals and Objectives is an 

iterative process. While the Goals and Objectives 

are presented in a logical order, they must be 

addressed simultaneously given the immediacy of 

the need for action to prevent further degradation 

to coral reef ecosystems. Improving the 

knowledge base through science and monitoring 

current management actions are necessary, but 

the need for more information should not delay 

current actions. New information will feed back 

into the process to refine the actions that are taken 

and the objectives will be revisited by the CRCP 

over time to ensure the CRCP is continuing in the 

right direction.

Conclusion

The news about coral reef ecosystems is alarming. 

Rapid warming, accelerating pollution, and 

destructive fishing are decimating coral reefs 

faster than they can adapt for survival. Damaged 

and degraded coral reefs fail to provide the 

sustenance and coastal protection upon which 

humans depend. The situation calls for renewed 

urgency and priorities based on lessons learned 

with successful coral reef conservation efforts 

supporting and maintaining the overall economic 

benefits from coral reef ecosystems. NOAA’s 

CRCP hopes that these Goals and Objectives 

will provide a rallying point and lay out a path to 

outcomes that conserve coral reef ecosystems for 

the future. 

Photo Credits: Top right: Dave Burdick; Bottom left partial: Dave Burdick
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Mass bleaching events, like the 2006 event depicted 

here in the Keppel Islands, Great Barrier Reef, 

Australia, are a major threat to the health of coral reef 

ecosystems in the U.S. and around the world.

Photo credit: © Commonwealth of Australia
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NOAA Coral Reef Conservation Program Goals 

& Objectives 2010-2015

Climate Change Impacts 

Strategic Goals and 

Objectives 

Climate change and ocean acidification have 

been identified by many groups as the most 

important threat to coral reefs on a global basis. 

In 2007, the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate 

Change (IPCC) noted that the evidence is now 

“unequivocal” that the earth’s atmosphere and 

oceans are warming and concluded that these 

changes are primarily due to anthropogenic 

greenhouse gases, especially the accelerating 

increase in emissions of carbon dioxide (CO2). 

While reducing CO2 and other greenhouse gas 

emissions is vital to stabilize the climate in the 

long term, excess CO2 already in the atmosphere 

has changed and will continue to change global 

climate throughout the next century. Global ocean 

temperature has risen by 0.74°C/1.3°F since 

the late 19th century causing more frequent and 

severe bleaching of corals around the world. At 

the current increasing rate of greenhouse gas 

emissions, a temperature rise of up to 4.0°C/7.2°F 

this century is a distinct possibility. These changes 

have already had deleterious impacts on coral reef 

ecosystems and will continue to affect coral reef 

ecosystems globally over the coming century.

At the same time, the ocean absorbs 

approximately one-third of the additional CO2

generated every year by human activities, making 

the ocean more acidic (Caldeira and Wickett 

2003, Sabine et al. 2004). The resulting change 

to ocean chemistry has important consequences 

for corals and other marine life, especially other 

important reef calcifiers. Warming seas and ocean 

acidification are already affecting reefs by causing 

mass coral bleaching events and slowing the 

growth of coral skeletons (Hoegh-Guldberg et al. 

2007; De’ath et al. 2009). Bleaching and infectious 

disease outbreaks are likely to be more frequent 

and severe as temperatures rise, increasing coral 

mortality. Climate changes will have other impacts 

on marine systems such as sea level rise; altered 

frequency, intensity, and distribution of tropical 

storms; altered ocean circulation with its effects 

on larval connectivity and productivity; and 

others. All of these impacts will combine, often 

synergistically, to eliminate important ecosystem 

function and reduce global biodiversity. 

Photo Credits: Far left: Dave Burdick; Left: Susie Holst; Middle: NOAA NESDIS CRW; Right: Dave Burdick; Far right: Dave Burdick
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We can improve the future of coral reefs, but 

doing so requires action now to reduce the 

lethal combination of climate change, ocean 

acidification, ecologically unsustainable fishing, 

and the damaging impacts from land-based 

sources of pollution (Marshall and Schuttenberg 

2006). Immediate policy and management 

actions are required if tropical ecosystems are 

to withstand the impacts of climate change and 

ocean acidification. Three sets of actions are 

needed to protect coral reef ecosystems from the 

effects of climate change and ocean acidification. 

• Reduce greenhouse gases. This requires 

reducing emissions and reducing 

accumulated greenhouse gases to avoid 

dangerous, irreversible climate change 

effects. While regulating emissions falls 

outside of NOAA’s mandate, NOAA has 

a clear role to monitor climate change and 

ocean acidification, project their impacts on 

ecological and human systems, and develop 

ways to address these impacts that support 

local, national, and international policy. 

Unfortunately, we can expect at least another 

1°C/1.8°F temperature rise within this 

century from the greenhouse gases already 

released. Therefore it is essential that we 

not only reduce emissions, but take urgent 

actions to reduce the impact of elevated 

greenhouse gases on coral reef ecosystems. 

• Increase the resilience of coral reef 

ecosystems to climate change by reducing 

local stressors including land-based 

sources of pollution and ecologically 

unsustainable fishing. We need to identify 

and address those local stressors that will 

particularly reduce the ability of reefs to 

withstand future climate change and ocean 

acidification.

• Reduce the local impacts of climate 

change and ocean acidification on coral 

reefs to help corals and coral reefs increase 

their ability to survive as these global 

stressors increase. 

These latter two sets of actions fall within 

NOAA’s responsibilities and will help keep coral 

reef ecosystems intact until greenhouse gas levels 

are stabilized and reduced to sustainable levels. 

NOAA and its partners must redouble efforts 

to reduce local stressors, while monitoring and 

evaluating their effectiveness at ameliorating the 

impact of global-scale stressors. In many cases, 

however, it will not be enough to reduce nonclimate stressors, so we will need to take direct 

action to reduce the stress that climate change and 

ocean acidification have on reefs at local levels. 

To address the problems of anthropogenic climate 

change and ocean acidification four goals have 

been identified to help coral reefs cope with 

climate change. These are:

• Increase coral reef resilience to climate 

change and ocean acidification through 

effective management strategies;

• Identify, understand, and communicate 

risks and vulnerability of U.S. coral reef 

ecosystems, ecosystem services, and 

dependent human communities to climate 

change and ocean 

acidification;

• Enhance strategic 

management of coral 

reef ecosystems 

through improved and 

applied understanding, 

forecasts, and 

projections of climate 

change and ocean 

acidification impacts; 

and

• Support management efforts to increase 

survivorship of coral reef species and 

enhance reef resilience by evaluating and 

implementing promising intervention 

strategies that directly reduce climate 

change and ocean acidification impacts.

These goals are presented in a logical sequence 

but must be addressed simultaneously. Various 

parts of NOAA and its many partners have 

made important strides toward monitoring, 

understanding, and predicting climate change, 

ocean acidification, and impacts of both on coral 

reef ecosystems. The CRCP will capitalize on 

existing efforts and build strong partnerships to 

reduce the impacts of climate change and ocean 

acidification on all coral reefs, including those in 

remote locations.

Photo Credits: Left: Dave Burdick; Right: Dave Burdick
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NOAA Coral Reef Conservation Program Goals & Objectives 2010-2015

Climate Change 

Impacts Goal 1

Increase coral reef resilience to climate 

change and ocean acidification through 

effective management strategies.

The decline and loss of most coral reefs during 

recent decades is due to a combination of the 

global pressures of climate change and ocean 

acidification coupled with regional and local 

stressors – including cumulative impacts from 

ecologically unsustainable fishing, land-based 

sources of pollution, and habitat destruction 

associated with coastal development. These local 

stressors act in concert to reduce the resilience of 

coral reef ecosystems. While mitigating the rate of 

climate change will largely depend on redirecting 

national and international policies on greenhouse 

gas emissions, the ability for coral reefs to survive 

climate change requires enhancing resilience 

through local management actions. This approach 

to resilience underpins effective ecosystem-based 

management (Levin and Lubchenco 2008). We 

need to enhance local management to enable the 

Photo Credits: Left: Andy Bruckner/NOAA NMFS; Right: Andy Bruckner/NOAA NMFS

survival of coral reef ecosystems. 

Managers need greater support and new tools 

to protect coral reefs against climate change 

impacts while they continue to reduce nonclimate stressors. New management actions to 

increase coral reef resilience to climate change 

must be identified and tested, while existing tools 

(e.g., watershed/coastal planning, water quality 

protection, marine zoning) must be improved and 

applied more effectively to enhance resilience to 

climate change. However, a lack of local capacity 

constrains local coral reef management success 

and this must be addressed to enable timely 

implementation of management strategies to 

increase coral reef resilience. Therefore, effectively 

communicating the clear link between coral reef 

conservation and human welfare is required to 

secure stakeholder and legislative support for 

strengthened and innovative management actions 

needed to save coral reefs.

This goal is organized around a comprehensive 

approach towards maximizing the resilience 

of coral reefs in U.S. jurisdictions. The 

objectives under this goal will support coral 

reef management success to build management 

capacity and strengthen governance and public 

support for immediate action to effectively 

reduce stressors known to weaken reef resilience; 

implement and evaluate existing and emerging 

tools to forecast climate change impacts and 

protect reefs by conferring resilience to impacts; 

develop place-based crisis response plans; 

eliminate or overcome regulatory barriers that 

currently inhibit action; and enable continual 

integration of scientific advances into applied 

management strategies. While ecosystem resilience 

reaches far beyond the issue of climate change, 

managing non-climate stressors is an important 

‘no regrets’ approach to increase the resilience 

of coral reef ecosystems to the threats of 

climate change and ocean acidification. Such 

activities often involve the most direct action 

local managers and politicians can take and, as 

such, stand the best chance of success. Finally, it 

is important for resource managers to have the 

information they need to support local, national, 

and global efforts to reduce greenhouse gases.

Bleached coral Recovered coral
16

2

Objective C1.1: Provide training opportunities 

to coral reef managers to increase their 

understanding of the impacts of climate change, 

the predicted range and uncertainty of changes that 

will occur, and management strategies that address 

the impacts of climate change. 

Objective C1.2: Develop and implement 

effective local communication plans that provide 

relevant and up-to-date information on climate 

change and ocean acidification to stakeholders. 

Objective C1.3: Develop and implement 

climate related crisis response plans in all U.S. 

coral reef jurisdictions to provide a framework 

for early warning, communication, monitoring, 

research, and management response to protect 

coral reef ecosystems from acute events such 

as coral bleaching, infectious disease outbreaks, 

tropical storm impacts, and major 

rainfall events. 

Objective C1.4: Working with 

jurisdictions, assess how to improve 

regulatory and management 

frameworks to facilitate adaptation 

to climate change and ocean 

acidification. 

Objective C1.5: In 

collaboration with reef managers, develop, test, 

and apply the best available science to provide 

new and innovative tools to help managers 

prepare and respond to climate change and ocean 

acidification related impacts. 

Climate Change 

Impacts Goal 

Identify, understand, and communicate 

risks and vulnerability of U.S. coral 

reef ecosystems, ecosystem services, 

and dependent human communities to 

climate change and ocean acidification. 

Monitoring the stressors and responses of reefs 

to global climate change and ocean acidification 

are essential to assess and document the 

vulnerability of coral reef ecosystems. This 

requires characterization of changes in the 

physical and chemical state of the environment 

and the responses of coral reefs to these changes 

from organismal to ecosystem scales. Knowledge 

of ecosystem vulnerability can then be used to 

understand the vulnerability of dependent human 

systems and to assess the risks inherent in various 

potential emissions targets. While other parts of 

NOAA and the Federal Government will monitor 

climate change at large spatial scales, monitoring 

impacts to coral reef ecosystems likely will fall on 

the CRCP to implement.

Objectives within this goal focus on clearly 

understanding and describing the changes 

occurring in the physical and chemical 

environment, responses of coral reef ecosystems 

in the face of these changes, and the effects on 

and responses of human communities dependent 

on reef resources. These activities provide the 

baseline knowledge and monitoring to validate 

predictive assessments of climate change impacts 

and evaluate management strategies in support 

of the other climate change goals. They also 

generate the documentation necessary to support 

management action to reduce impacts of climate 

change and ocean acidification and develop new 

management frameworks to apply in areas that 

are particularly resilient or vulnerable to these 

changes. Finally, they provide clear assessments 

of changes and impacts and identify thresholds 

needed to predict future impacts. 

Objective C2.1: Characterize physical and 

chemical changes in coral reef environments by 

enhancing question-based monitoring to fill gaps 

in our current observations. This both establishes a 

baseline to assess climate change impacts on coral 

reef ecosystems and reveals changes through time. 

Objective C2.2: Characterize the responses 

of coral reef ecosystems and their related 

components to climate change and ocean 

acidification to separate impacts from climate 

change and ocean acidification from impacts 

of other environmental threats and to test the 

effectiveness of management actions.

Photo Credit: NOAA NESDIS CRW 
17

NOAA Coral Reef Conservation Program Goals & Objectives 2010-2015

3 Objective C2.3: Characterize socioeconomic 

effects of climate change impacts on coral reef 

ecosystems to identify vulnerable reef-dependent 

human communities and understand the impacts 

to these communities. 

Objective C2.4: Promote conservation of 

coral reef ecosystems through identification 

of areas that are potentially resilient to climate 

change and vulnerable areas where actions are 

likely to increase resilience. Encourage and 

promote management actions necessary to avoid 

or minimize impacts and spread the risk due to 

climate change and ocean acidification. 

Objective C2.5: Provide and communicate 

regular national comprehensive risk assessments 

regarding the threat of climate change and ocean 

acidification to coral reefs and dependent human 

communities 

through 

relevant, 

existing reports 

such as local, 

national, and 

global reef 

status reports 

and IPCC 

assessments. 

Climate Change 

Impacts Goal 

Enhance strategic management of coral 

reef ecosystems through improved 

and applied understanding, forecasts, 

and projections of climate change and 

ocean acidification impacts.

Information from the climate modeling 

community continues to improve and is 

increasingly applicable to questions at finer scales. 

For this information to be helpful to managers 

and decision-makers concerned with coral reef 

ecosystems, these forecasts must be provided 

in ways that are applicable and at levels of local 

relevance. Despite the current knowledge of 

climate change impacts to coral reef ecosystems, 

the coral reef management community has not 

effectively integrated or applied these forecasts 

or used them to provide information needed for 

decision-making. This will require a concerted 

effort to couple climate scenarios issued at fine 

spatial scales with ecosystem responses, and 

preferably with coral reef ecosystem models. 

Activities within this goal will improve the way 

Photo Credits: Left: Dave Burdick; Right: Dave Burdick; Chart: NOAA NESDIS CRW
18

that state-of-the-art climate modeling forecasts 

and projections are prepared and delivered so 

that they provide information needed for coral 

reef ecosystem management decisions and 

assessments of future risk. This will require 

enhanced collaboration between coral reef 

managers and scientists and the climate modeling 

community to model future stresses and the 

response of coral reef ecosystems and dependent 

human communities. Such integration will also 

require a greater understanding and modeling 

of the response of coral reef organisms, 

ecosystems, and dependent communities than 

currently exists. Once available, enhanced, highresolution climate information will be translated 

into useable products from which coral reef 

managers and policymakers can plan and make 

strategic decisions. By anticipating stresses on 

coral reef ecosystems, managers can make proactive and sound management decisions to 

minimize negative impacts on both reefs and 

human communities. Finally, this will provide clear 

guidance for 

policy makers 

to determine 

risks and costs 

involved in 

various future 

emissions 

targets and 

will hopefully 

encourage reduction of atmospheric greenhouse 

gases. 

Objective C3.1: Collaborate with 

climate modeling groups to assess and advise 

development of physical and chemical models at 

spatial and temporal scales appropriate to inform 

management decisions. 

Objective C3.2: Through process studies 

and modeling, develop integrated impact models 

of changes in coral reef ecosystems in response 

to the physical and chemical processes associated 

with climate change and ocean acidification, and 

the interactions of these processes with local 

stressors. 

Objective C3.3: Forecast and project climate 

change and ocean acidification related impacts 

on reef-dependent social and economic systems. 

Coupling of physical, chemical, ecosystem, and 

socioeconomic models will be required to project 

future impacts.

Objective C3.4: Translate climate forecasts 

and projections into products that are relevant 

and useable for improved coral reef ecosystem 

management and decision-making. 

Photo Credits: Chart: NOAA NESDIS CRW; Bottom far left: Emma Hickerson; Bottom left: Dave Burdick; Bottom right partial: Dave Burdick
19

NOAA Coral Reef Conservation Program Goals & Objectives 2010-2015

Climate Change 

Impacts Goal 4

Support management efforts to 

increase survivorship of coral reef 

species and enhance reef resilience 

by evaluating and implementing 

promising intervention strategies that 

directly reduce climate change and 

ocean acidification impacts. 

Currently, reef managers have little direct control 

over global-scale stressors (primarily rising 

temperatures and CO

2 levels) threatening coral 

reef ecosystems. Additionally, we will have to 

face the global climate change that will result 

from the elevated greenhouse gas levels already 

in the atmosphere. As a consequence, coral reef 

ecosystems will suffer significant climate change 

and ocean acidification impacts even if reefs 

are well managed in all other respects and the 

international community acts quickly to reduce 

greenhouse gas emissions. As climate change 

and ocean acidification impacts continue, there 

will be an increase in the value of remaining reef 

populations and species, and an increasing need 

to maximize resilience at key locations. Although 

necessarily limited in their scope, intervention 

actions are merited in certain cases, such as 

on reefs that contain particularly valuable or 

threatened species or populations, or that have 

a high relative abundance of large reproductive 

colonies.

This goal supports direct efforts (including 

geoengineering and assisted adaptation or 

migration) to maximize survivorship and 

resilience on reefs affected by climate change 

and ocean acidification. This goal begins by 

testing and evaluating proposed intervention 

approaches – moving ideas from the lab to the 

field – and helps establish potential thresholds at 

which intervention may be merited. Through an 

interactive process, tools will be developed that 

allow resource managers to identify intervention 

measures that may be practical for their sites. 

Approaches that make sense in one locale may 

be inappropriate in another, and different reefs 

will vary in their vulnerability to global change 

stressors. Finally, it supports implementation, 

monitoring, and evaluation of these intervention 

measures at sites selected as particularly resilient 

or with potential to become more resilient 

through intervention.

Objective C4.1: Facilitate the identification, 

development, and testing of intervention 

measures to reduce stress from 

climate change and ocean 

acidification on coral reef 

ecosystems in field settings. 

Objective C4.2: Work 

with managers to provide 

objective tools to evaluate the 

effectiveness, applicability, and 

feasibility, as well as the potential 

negative impacts, of intervention 

measures (i.e. develop an intervention toolkit). 

Objective C4.3: Support implementation and 

monitoring of promising intervention measures 

to reduce the impact of climate change and 

ocean acidification on coral reef ecosystems and 

evaluate the success of intervention measures (e.g. 

shading, pumping in cool water, local reduction of 

acidification, etc.). 

Photo Credits: Top right: NOAA NCCOS CCMA Biogeography Team; Bottom left partial: Dave Burdick
20

A school of yellowspot emperors (Gnathodentex 

aurolineatus) at Gun Beach in the Tumon Bay 

Marine Preserve, Guam.

Photo credit: Dave Burdick
21

NOAA Coral Reef Conservation Program Goals 

& Objectives 2010-2015

Fishing Impacts 

Strategic Goals 

and Objectives

Coral reefs and associated habitats provide 

important commercial, recreational and 

subsistence fishery resources in the United States. 

Fishing plays a central social and cultural role in 

many island communities and can represent a 

critical source of protein. But coral reef fisheries, 

though often relatively small in scale, may have 

disproportionately large impacts on the ecosystem 

if conducted unsustainably. Rapid human 

population growth, demand for fishery resources, 

use of more efficient fishery technologies, and 

inadequate management and enforcement have led 

to the depletion of key reef species and habitat 

damage in many locations. Specific impacts of 

fishing on reefs generally include one or more of 

the following: 1) direct overexploitation of fish, 

invertebrates, and algae for food and the aquarium 

trade; 2) removal of a species or group of species 

impacting multiple trophic levels; 3) by-catch and 

mortality of non-target species; and 4) physical 

impacts to reef environments associated with 

fishing techniques, fishing gear, and anchoring of 

fishing vessels (Waddell 2005). Such threats are 

exacerbated when coupled with other coral reef 

stressors such as climate change and land-based 

sources of pollution. 

Assessments such as the region-wide efforts in the 

U.S. Pacific have demonstrated declines in reef 

fish abundance and correlations between reduced 

fish biomass and proximity to human population 

centers (Schroeder et al., in press). In addition, 

socioeconomic studies have documented fishers’ 

perceptions that fish are less abundant and coral 

reef health has declined (e.g. Griffith et al., 2007). 

Work in U.S. coral reef jurisdictions has shown; 

however, that appropriate management actions 

can reverse these trends. For instance, ‘no-take’ 

areas in the Florida Keys (Bartholomew et al., 

2007) and marine preserves in Guam (Taylor, in 

press) have resulted in increased numbers and 

size of economically and ecologically important 

reef fish. Management actions focused on key 

coral reef species, such as the Fish Replenishment 

Areas in West Hawai`i, have also demonstrated 

success in protecting reproductive stock and 

maintaining the fishery for important aquarium 

trade species (Williams et al., 2009). 

Minimizing negative fishing impacts throughout 

coral reef ecosystems is critical to revitalizing 

and protecting coral reef resources for current 

and future generations. Given the many entities 

with jurisdiction or expertise over U.S. coral reef 

Photo Credits: Far left: Dave Burdick; Left: Dave Burdick; Right: Dave Burdick; Far Right: Greg Moretti
22

1

resources, cooperation among partners is essential. 

The CRCP aims to support collaboration among 

federal, state, territory, commonwealth, and local 

governments; academic institutions; and nongovernment organizations to achieve the goals 

and objectives outlined below. These goals and 

objectives include:

• Increase the abundance and average size 

of key coral reef fishery species to protect 

trophic structure and biodiversity and 

improve coral reef ecosystem condition;

• Support effective implementation and 

management of marine protected areas 

(MPAs) and ecological networks of MPAs 

that protect key coral reef ecosystem 

components and functions;

• Increase stakeholder engagement and 

capacity to improve local compliance with 

and enforcement of fisheries management 

regulations that further coral reef 

ecosystem conservation; and

• Utilize locally relevant education and 

communication strategies to increase 

public and policy maker understanding of 

fishing impacts in coral reef ecosystems 

and support for effective management 

options.

Fishing Impacts 

Goal 

Increase the abundance and average 

size of key1 coral reef fishery species 

to protect trophic structure and 

biodiversity and improve coral reef 

ecosystem condition.

Excessive fishing may reduce fish size and 

abundance and change species composition 

throughout coral reef ecosystems. This can 

be severe enough to compromise the natural 

ecological balance of the system (Bellwood 

et al. 2004). Studies suggest that when key 

functional reef species, such as herbivorous 

fishes, are overfished, associated phase-shifts 

from high-diversity coral-dominated systems to 

low-productivity algal-dominated communities 

can occur (Hughes 1994). Shifts in community 

structure may cause reefs to be less resilient to 

other hazardous events including coral bleaching 

and disease (Westmacott et al. 2000). Management, 

research and monitoring of fishing impacts is 

challenging due to the diversity of coral reef 

ecosystem species, the variety of methods used to 

extract them, and the paucity of basic information 

on fishing effort and ecology. Thus the intent of 

Goal 1 is to focus sound science and ecosystembased management on key species or functional 

groups. 

In addition, Goal 1 seeks to balance the desire 

for short-term fishery yield with the need for 

long-term fishery sustainability and coral reef 

persistence. Reducing impacts from fishing can 

enhance coral reef integrity, stability and aesthetics 

by increasing the abundance and average size 

of targeted species, restoring biodiversity, and 

maintaining coral reef ecosystem function. When 

fishing impacts are sufficiently reduced, coral 

reef ecosystems have the capacity to deliver 

ecological services while ensuring long-term reef 

productivity and persistence.

NOAA traditionally undertakes fisheries 

management under the Magnuson-Stevens Fishery 

Conservation and Management Act (MSFCMA). 

The following goals and objectives are consistent 

with MSFCMA and are not meant to supersede it 

nor any state and territorial fisheries management 

requirements. The intent of these goals and 

objectives are to improve and conserve coral reefs 

as intact, fully functioning ecosystems.

1 Key coral reef species (or functional groups) should be identified by each jurisdiction or managed area, and are defined as 

the composite of species essential to effective ecosystem-based function. Key species/groups may be those most affected by 

extractive activities, those that serve as indicator or keystone species, or other criteria.

Photo Credits: Top right partial: Eileen Alicea; Bottom left: Emre Turak
23

NOAA Coral Reef Conservation Program Goals & Objectives 2010-2015

2

Objective F1.1: Support the creation or 

improvement of coral reef fisheries management 

plans that address ecological, social, and economic 

considerations. 

Objective F1.2: Prioritize key coral reef 

associated species or functional groups (e.g. 

herbivores, apex predators, etc.) on which to focus 

management, research and monitoring activities 

for each jurisdiction or managed area. 

Objective F1.3: Obtain essential life history 

and ecological information on key species or 

functional groups to support management actions. 

Objective F1.4: Obtain necessary information 

on fishing effort in U.S. coral reef ecosystems 

by measuring fishing intensity, fishing mortality, 

frequency, area coverage, community dependence, 

etc. to inform management activities.

Objective F1.5: Predict appropriate levels of 

extraction for key species or groups by developing 

and utilizing valid, precise, place-based and 

realistic ecosystem dynamics models. 

Objective F1.6: Conduct applied biological, 

social, and economic research and monitoring 

to evaluate effectiveness of coral reef ecosystem 

management actions on key species or groups. 

Fishing Impacts 

Goal 

Support effective implementation 

and management of marine protected 

areas (MPAs) and ecological networks 

of MPAs that protect key coral reef 

ecosystem components and functions.

Marine protected areas (MPAs) are valuable 

marine management tools for protecting and 

fostering the recovery of populations, habitats 

and ecosystems that have been depleted or 

degraded by excessive exploitation. A large 

body of scientific research supports the role 

of marine reserves (‘fully-protected’ or ‘notake’ MPAs) in increasing the abundance, size 

and productivity of exploited marine fish, and 

increasing the biodiversity of fish communities 

within the protected areas - the so-called ‘reserve 

effect’ (Halpern 2003). Because of the importance 

of dispersal in the marine environment, well 

designed ecological networks of MPAs are needed 

to effectively protect biodiversity, habitats and 

ecosystem functions. 

Concerns over economic and social impacts 

have sometimes led to selective, rather than 

complete, closure to extractive activities. 

Although ecosystem benefits from partial closures 

may accrue, theory and practice suggest that 

‘no-take’ marine reserves are more effective 

for the protection and recovery of coral reef 

ecosystems affected by fishing. In order to 

maximize effectiveness it is also critical to utilize 

appropriate land and watershed-use provisions 

(see Land-Based Sources of Pollution section) 

and implement MPAs within the context of other 

coral reef fisheries management tools. 

As with any management action, societal support 

and compliance are key elements to ensuring 

MPA effectiveness. In implementing MPAs and 

MPA networks, ecological and societal outcomes 

must be weighed, and the local management 

context must be considered. The CRCP remains 

committed to strengthening the effectiveness 

of existing MPAs, as well as supporting the 

establishment of new MPAs, reserves, and 

networks where determined to be locally 

appropriate.

Photo Credits: Top left partial: Eileen Alicea; Bottom right: Wolcott Henry
24

3 Objective F2.1: Identify, characterize and 

rank priority areas for protection within each 

jurisdiction, including (but not limited to):

• spawning sites, nursery habitats, or other 

areas critical to particular life-history 

stages

• biodiversity hotspots

• areas with greatest resilience or potential 

for restoring resilience

• areas facing the greatest threats

Objective F2.2: Synthesize research on the 

performance of MPAs that protect key coral reef 

ecosystem components and functions.

Objective F2.3: Using outputs of 

Objective 2.1 and 2.2, appropriate models, and 

socioeconomic considerations, identify MPAs 

that require increased protections or improved 

management, and areas to be considered for 

siting of new MPAs that protect key coral reef 

ecosystem components and functions.

Objective F2.4: Work with relevant agencies, 

offices, and communities to create, implement, 

and improve the management of MPAs that 

protect key coral reef ecosystem components and 

functions.

Objective F2.5: Conduct biological and 

socioeconomic research and monitoring to 

assess the performance of MPAs with respect 

to protection and restoration of key coral reef 

ecosystem components and functions.

Fishing Impacts 

Goal 

Increase stakeholder engagement and 

capacity to improve local compliance 

with and enforcement of fisheries 

management regulations that further 

coral reef ecosystem conservation.

The success of management actions targeted 

at reducing the impacts of fishing on coral reef 

ecosystems will be largely dependent on voluntary 

compliance with, or necessary enforcement of, 

regulations, managed areas, or best management 

practices. Increasing community involvement 

in planning, implementation, and enforcement 

activities will increase local capacity, collaboration, 

and communication, 

all of which are 

essential to protect 

key species/functional 

groups and ensure that 

fisheries regulations 

and marine protected 

areas are effective. 

Improved stakeholder 

participation can 

also provide local 

and traditional knowledge critical to tailoring 

management activities to specific geographic 

areas. Additionally, compliance may be improved 

by identifying locally appropriate economic 

alternatives to unsustainable fishing. Monitoring 

the outcomes of programs designed to increase 

community participation, compliance, and 

enforcement will provide important information 

for adaptive management of coral reef 

ecosystems.

Objective F3.1: Increase participation 

of stakeholder or citizen groups in fisheries 

management planning, decision-making, and 

monitoring activities that improve conservation of 

coral reef ecosystems. 

Photo Credits: Top right partial: FoProBiM/NOAA NMFS SEFSC; Bottom left: Dave Burdick/Marine Photobank; Bottom right: Efra Figueroa 
25

NOAA Coral Reef Conservation Program Goals 

& Objectives 2010-2015

4

Objective F3.2: Strengthen local agency and 

community capacity for effective and consistent 

enforcement of regulations or behaviors 

that reduce impacts of fishing on coral reef 

ecosystems. 

Objective F3.3: Work with 

partners to identify economic 

alternatives that reduce 

effects of non-traditional 

extractive livelihoods on coral 

reef ecosystems and provide 

options for communities 

impacted by coral reef 

fisheries management actions.

Objective F3.4: Conduct biological and 

socioeconomic research and monitoring necessary 

to assess the effectiveness of compliance and 

enforcement activities, understand community 

concerns, flag roadblocks to implementation, and 

incorporate into management efforts.

Fishing Impacts 

Goal 

Utilize locally relevant education and 

communication strategies to increase 

public and policy maker understanding 

of fishing impacts in coral reef 

ecosystems and support for effective 

management options.

Effective education and outreach mechanisms 

are critical to communicating basic coral reef 

ecosystem information and the nuances inherent 

in research, monitoring and management of these 

complex ecosystems. Coral reef species are highly 

inter-dependent and face a variety of threats that 

may cause both individual and synergistic effects. 

Thus, management actions may not demonstrate 

an immediate cause/effect impact on the 

ecosystem. Effective implementation of long-term 

policies that will reduce the impacts of fishing 

on coral reef ecosystems requires improved 

communication of the goals, values, and benefits 

of management activities leading to broader 

public support and understanding of their impacts 

and timelines. The scope of this goal is activities 

relevant for each jurisdiction or local manager. 

Objective F4.1: Develop curricula 

incorporating locally relevant lessons plans about 

coral reef ecosystems and fisheries management 

that meet current state and national standards.

Objective F4.2: Develop and implement 

effective strategies and tools to improve 

communication between scientists, managers 

and policy makers on best management practices 

to protect key coral reef ecosystem species and 

functional groups. 

Objective F4.3: Develop targeted, locallyrelevant outreach and communication strategies to 

increase community understanding and support 

for regulations to protect key coral reef ecosystem 

species/functional groups and expanded use of 

marine protected areas. 

Objective F4.4: Obtain socioeconomic and 

human dimension data to inform jurisdictionspecific education and communication strategies 

and initiatives and monitor program outcomes.

Photo Credits: Top left partial: FoProBiM/NOAA NMFS SEFSC; Top middle: Lisamarie Carrubba/NOAA NMFS SERO; Top right: George Cathcart © 2007 
26

Sedimentation along the southwestern coast 

of Guam near Anae Island. 

Photo Credit: Dave Burdick
27

NOAA Coral Reef Conservation Program Goals 

& Objectives 2010-2015

Impacts from

Land-Based Sources of 

Pollution Strategic 

Goals And Objectives

It is now well accepted that many major coral 

reef ecosystem stressors originate from landbased sources, most notably, toxicants, sediments, 

and nutrients. Within the United States and 

its jurisdictions, there are numerous locations 

where coral reef ecosystems are highly impacted 

by watershed alteration, run-off, and coastal 

development (Bellwood et al., 2004; Pandolfi et 

al., 2003; Richmond et al., 2007). The importance 

of identifying the extent of and reducing these 

effects has now become crucial, as land-based 

pollution and coastal development put 22% and 

30%, respectively, of coral reefs on Earth at risk 

(Bryant et al., 1998). The April 2004 Report of 

the U.S. Commission on Ocean Policy highlighted 

the need for “an ecosystem and watershed-based 

management” approach to ocean pollution, 

and identified both “the astounding decline of 

coral reef ecosystems” and “an urgent need to 

address the identified, major factors causing coral 

declines” (Commission on Ocean Policy, 2004). 

The suite of problems facing coral reef 

ecosystems from land-based sources of pollution 

is broad and includes sediment, nutrients, and 

other pollutants from a variety of land-based 

activities that are transported in surface waters, 

runoff, groundwater seepage, and atmospheric 

deposition into coastal waters. There is 

compelling evidence that the sources have 

increased globally as a result of human-induced 

changes to watersheds (Wilkinson, 2008). On 

the U.S. islands in the Pacific and Caribbean, 

significant changes in the drainage basins due to 

agriculture, deforestation, feral grazing, fires, road 

building and other construction, and urbanization 

have in turn altered the character and volume of 

land-based pollution released to adjacent coral 

reef ecosystems (ISRS, 2004). Many of these 

issues are further exacerbated due to specific 

characteristics exhibited in tropical island areas, all 

of which create unique management challenges 

when addressing land-based sources of pollution 

issues. A few examples include: high levels of 

rainfall; extreme weather events (hurricanes/

typhoons); highly erodible soils; limestone 

hydrologic features, (Pacific atolls); and in some 

high islands, (American Samoa, Hawai`i), steep 

slopes abutting the coastal zone. 

Sedimentation, including higher levels of 

suspended sediment in overlying waters, 

is commonly acknowledged to be one of 

the primary causes of coral reef ecosystem 

Photo Credits: Far left: Dave Burdick; Left: Dave Burdick; Middle Dave Burdick; Right: Christy Loper; Far right: Dwayne Meadows
28

1

degradation (e.g., Rogers, 1990; Field et al., 2008). 

The combination of suspended, re-suspended, 

and deposited sediment act to limit coral growth, 

feeding patterns, photosynthesis, recruitment, and 

survivorship, as shown by numerous studies in a 

variety of settings (Fabricius, 2005). Other impacts 

of sediment include directly smothering and 

abrading coral. Although some corals can flourish 

in turbid water, such reefs are typically less diverse 

and are more restricted in depth ranges than those 

in clear water (Fabricius, 2005). To underscore 

this point, the U.S. Commission on Ocean Policy 

reported that “pollution and run-off from coastal 

areas also deprive reefs of life-sustaining light and 

oxygen” and many Local Action Strategy (LAS) 

groups of the U.S. Coral Reef Task Force have 

identified land-based pollution to reefs as a major 

area of concern. 

In addition to sediment, land-based sources 

of pollution to coral reef ecosystems 

include pesticides, petroleum hydrocarbons, 

pharmaceuticals, heavy metals, pathogens, and 

excess nutrients. These pollutants can cause or 

exacerbate the deleterious effects of watershed 

transport of pollutant constituents onto coral 

reefs (Richmond, 1993). Excess nutrients, 

including dissolved nitrogen and phosphorus from 

sewage, wastewater, and fertilizers, promote the 

growth of algae that compete with juvenile and 

adult corals for space on benthic reef surfaces 

and can affect success of coral settlement 

(Sammarco, 1996) and in extreme cases can result 

in eutrophication of reef waters. In addition, landbased inputs may both directly contribute landderived pathogens and/or exacerbate the effect of 

in situ pathogens on coral reef ecosystems. 

Finally, the local impacts of land-based sources 

of pollution work in synergy with global and 

regional threats such as climate change, land use 

practices, and freshwater inputs, magnifying the 

effect of both types of stressors. In particular, 

the potential for increased frequency and intensity 

of storm events associated with climate change 

could exacerbate run-off of sediment and other 

pollutants (UNFCC, 2002). 

The three primary goals of the CRCP’s plan to 

address land-based sources of pollution include: 

• Reduce pollutant loading from watersheds 

to priority coral reef ecosystems; 

• Promote in-water management activities 

to restore priority coral reef ecosystems 

that have been adversely impacted by 

accumulated sediments, nutrients, and 

algae; and 

• Build and sustain management capacity at 

the local level through local, state, regional, 

and federal coordination of financial, 

institutional, and human resources to 

reduce and prevent the impacts of landbased sources of pollution on coral reef 

ecosystems. 

Partnership with other entities that have 

jurisdiction over, or have a particular expertise 

related to, land-based sources of pollution is 

essential to most effectively address this threat. 

The NOAA CRCP is committed to work in 

strong partnership to strategically build upon and 

enhance on-going activities and to identify new 

opportunities to make demonstrable progress 

in decreasing the sources of and impacts from 

land-based sources of pollution on coral reef 

ecosystems. What follows are the guiding goals 

and objectives to establish this new strategic 

direction.

Impacts from 

Land-Based Sources 

of Pollution Goal

Reduce pollutant loading from 

watersheds to priority coral reef 

ecosystems. 

Recognizing the profound link between watershed 

land use activities and the quality of the nearshore marine ecosystems, reducing or eliminating 

pollutant loads to coral reef ecosystems from 

land-based sources is paramount. Because 

sediment deposition and algal cover often degrade 

coral reefs, reducing sediment and nutrient loading 

from urban/agricultural runoff and wastewater 

discharges should be a primary focus of watershed 

management activities. Debris, pathogens, and 

Photo Credit: Partial: Dave Burdick 
29

NOAA Coral Reef Conservation Program Goals & Objectives 2010-2015

toxicants, including petroleum hydrocarbons, 

pesticides, heavy metals, and pharmaceuticals 

derived from the land are also pollutants of 

concern. 

The health of many U.S. coral reef ecosystems 

ultimately depends on effective management 

of land-based activities in adjacent coastal and 

upland regions. Watershed assessment, planning, 

and restoration efforts to address land-based 

sources of pollution should be conducted locally 

from ridge to reef, preferably in watersheds 

draining to high quality and/or restorable coral 

reef ecosystems. Comprehensive watershed 

management includes the application of land use 

planning; land conservation; vegetated buffer 

protection; environmentally sensitive development 

techniques; storm-water management 

(construction 

and postconstruction); 

wastewater and 

drinking water 

management; 

and stewardship 

activities. To 

effectively address 

the impacts 

of land-based 

sources of pollution on coral reef ecosystems it 

is essential that, as watershed management plans 

are developed, updated, and implemented, specific 

coral reef ecosystem protection measures are 

incorporated. Implementing best management 

practices and regulatory controls on the landscape 

are critical to reducing pollutant loads and 

improving coral reef ecosystem health. 

An important component of watershed 

management, and hence, our efforts to protect 

coral reef ecosystems from land-based sources 

of pollution, is the conservation of the habitats 

that serve to limit rates of erosion and quantities 

of transported sediment and other pollutants to 

adjacent coral reef ecosystems. To support and 

enhance this buffering capability, preserving the 

natural state of forests, stream valleys, riparian 

zones, deltas, wetlands, and mangroves is a key to 

maintaining hydrologic functions including stream 

flow and ground water recharge. It is therefore 

essential to maintain or restore coastal and upland 

ecosystems as a first line of defense to limiting 

land-based pollution inputs and impacts to nearshore and coral reef ecosystems.

Supporting our watershed restoration and 

protection efforts with strategic research, 

implementing research applications that have 

direct management implications, and conducting 

the necessary performance monitoring are 

critical components to improving effectiveness in 

reducing pollutant loads, measuring progress, and 

incorporating adaptive management regimes. 

The objectives outlined in this goal are founded 

on identifying and working in select coral reef 

ecosystems that exhibit the greatest potential for 

recovery upon implementing conservation and 

management strategies. Identification of these 

coral reef ecosystems will take into account 

watershed activities, pollutant loads, the potential 

for reducing pollutant loads and land-based 

sources of pollution, and the vulnerability of the 

receiving marine ecosystem. Efforts will then 

focus on working in partnership to implement 

watershed management plan activities, which 

include the potential need to conserve and/or 

restore coastal and upland habitats; conducting 

strategic and applied research, and monitoring for 

adaptive management. Managers, communities, 

and decision-makers need to support a broader 

and more comprehensive approach to watershed 

management that includes consideration of coral 

reef ecosystems. Successful implementation of 

this goal is inextricably linked with the activities 

outlined in Goal 3.

Objective L1.1: Identify and prioritize those 

coral reef ecosystems and associated watersheds, 

within each jurisdiction, that will benefit the most 

from implementing management conservation 

strategies to reduce land-based sources of 

pollution.

Photo Credits: Left partial: Dave Burdick; Middle: John Jocson; Right: Dave Burdick
30

2

Objective L1.2: Identify and prioritize coastal 

and upland areas for preservation, protection, and 

restoration based on the coral reef ecosystems and 

associated watershed areas identified in Objective 1.1. 

Objective L1.3: Implement watershed 

management plans and relevant Local Action 

Strategies (LAS) 

within priority coral 

reef ecosystems and 

associated watersheds 

to improve water 

quality and enhance 

coral reef ecosystem 

resilience. Where 

needed, develop (or 

update) watershed 

management plans 

that incorporate coral reef protection measures. 

Objective L1.4: Promote an integrated effort 

to fill strategic science gaps that directly inform 

management decisions related to planning and 

implementation activities in priority coral reef 

ecosystems and associated watersheds. 

Objective L1.5: Determine the efficacy 

of management activities through coordinated 

baseline and performance monitoring to assess 

progress and adapt management actions as 

needed.

Impacts from 

Land-Based Sources 

of Pollution Goal 

Promote in-water management 

activities to restore priority coral reef 

ecosystems that have been adversely 

impacted by accumulated sediments, 

nutrients, and algae.

Coral reefs persist through the dual processes 

of reproduction and recruitment, which are 

dependent on water and substratum quality. 

Accumulated sediments directly from the 

adjacent land prevent coral recovery through 

re-suspension and interference with fertilization, 

larval development and settlement in corals. 

Sedimentation and nutrient enrichment can 

result in shifts from coral dominated to algal 

dominated systems. In-water management actions 

such as removal of accumulated sediments and 

overgrowth of macroalgae can promote coral 

population replenishment and coral reef health. 

In some cases these in-water management 

actions may be needed in lieu of or in addition 

to reducing pollutant loads from watersheds. In 

addition to direct, in-water management activities, 

technologies such as remote sensing can provide 

important data to support management action.

Prior to any direct, in-water management activities, 

the reef system should be evaluated and a 

determination made whether reef restoration is 

warranted or if controlling land-based sources 

of pollution inputs is sufficient for reef recovery. 

Examples of possible in-water management 

action include altering coastal structures to 

improve flushing and sediment transport, 

dredging to remove accumulated sediment 

from the reef system, and physical removal 

of harmful macroalgae. Developing marine 

protected areas, stock enhancement programs, 

or fishery management actions that support the 

natural maintenance and ecological integrity of 

the ecosystem may also support recovery of 

reefs degraded by pollution. Management actions 

undertaken will be specific to the particular 

physical and biological characteristics of the 

selected coral reef ecosystem. Ultimately, this goal 

is intended to enhance habitat quality.

This goal, which supports in-water recovery and 

restoration efforts to remove and mitigate the 

impacts of accumulated sediments, contaminants, 

and nutrients in coral reef ecosystems, is intended 

to complement the land-based watershed project 

implementation activities as outlined in Goal 1. 

Objective L2.1: Identify and prioritize coral 

reef ecosystems from those prioritized under 

Objective 1.1 where in-water management 

activities are needed to promote reef recovery. 

Objective L2.2: Develop, test, and 

Photo Credits: Top left: Steve Spring/Marine Photobank; Bottom right partial: Dave Burdick
31

NOAA Coral Reef Conservation Program Goals & Objectives 2010-2015

3

apply existing or new management tools and 

technologies that demonstrate the ability to 

support and promote coral reef protection 

and recovery, including approaches to remove 

accumulated pollutants and/or macroalgae to 

restore healthy environmental and ecosystem 

conditions.

Impacts from 

Land-Based Sources 

of Pollution Goal 

Build and sustain management capacity 

at the local level through local, state, 

regional, and federal coordination of 

financial, institutional, and human 

resources to reduce and prevent the 

impacts from land-based sources of 

pollution on coral reef ecosystems.

Land-based sources of pollution cross multiple 

jurisdictional boundaries with the authority 

and responsibility to address them falling to a 

multitude of governmental and jurisdictional 

levels. In addition, in many U.S. coral jurisdictions 

there are varying degrees of community level 

organization and stakeholder involvement that 

need to be considered when working to address 

land-based sources of 

pollution. It is therefore 

necessary to build a 

framework that facilitates 

enhanced coordination and 

promotes consistent and 

strengthened application 

and enforcement of laws 

and authorities intended to 

address land-based sources 

of pollution. 

To be effective, there are several other enabling 

factors that need to be considered and addressed. 

Primarily, in many communities it is necessary 

to first build the local, regional and federal 

capacity, including both staff numbers and level 

of expertise to effectively implement and enforce 

new or existing mechanisms to reduce landbased sources of pollution. Second, land-based 

pollution control measures can be expensive 

to implement and maintain. Therefore, it is 

essential that new sources of funding and new 

mechanisms to cost-share are 

identified and institutionalized. 

Finally, information needs 

to be made available for 

managers, communities, and 

political leaders, to empower 

informed decision-making that 

appropriately considers potential 

pollutant impacts to coral reef 

ecosystems. 

Objective L3.1: Ensure that coral reef 

jurisdictions have adequate resources and capacity 

to develop and implement management plans, 

assess water quality and coral reef ecosystem 

condition, enforce regulations, and evaluate 

performance.

Objective L3.2: Build partnerships among 

local, state, federal, and non-governmental entities 

to identify, leverage, and apply financial and other 

resources to facilitate improved coastal and upland 

watershed management to protect coral reef 

ecosystems from impacts of land-based sources 

of pollution.

Objective L3.3: Support or help develop 

intergovernmental mechanisms (appropriately 

designed for each jurisdiction) to promote 

effective local management actions and decisions. 

Objective L3.4: Ensure that the necessary 

and consistent regulatory and programmatic 

framework exists and is enforced to implement 

watershed management strategies necessary to 

protect coral ecosystems.

Objective L3.5: Increase public and political 

awareness and understanding of the ecological 

and socioeconomic impacts of land-based 

pollution on coral reef resources to promote 

better stewardship and informed decisions 

regarding activities in watersheds that may 

adversely impact coral reef ecosystems.

Photo Credits: Top right: Kathy Chaston; Bottom far left partial: Dave Burdick; Bottom left: U.S. Environmental Protection Agency
32

This pair of pink anemonefish (Amphiprion 

perideraion) stand out against the tentacles of a 

bleached anemone at Shark Island, Chuuk Lagoon, 

Federated States of Micronesia.

Photo Credit: Dave Burdick
33

NOAA Coral Reef Conservation Program Goals 

& Objectives 2010-2015

Adaptation: Adjustment in human and natural systems in response to actual or expected 

environmental changes (from IPCC not to be confused with evolutionary adaptation). 

Climate Change: Any change in the ocean-atmosphere climate system over time, whether due to 

natural variability or human activity.

Climate Forecasts: The result of an attempt to produce an estimate of the actual trend or 

variability of climate in the future (e.g., at seasonal, inter-annual or long-term time scales).

Climate Projections: In contrast to climate forecast, the calculated response of the oceanatmospheric climate system to scenarios of emissions or concentration of greenhouse gases and 

aerosols, or of radiative forcing, often based on simulations by climate models.

Coral: Species of the phylum Cnidaria, including ― (a) all species of the orders Antipatharia (black 

corals), Scleractinia (stony corals), Gorgonacea (horny corals), Stolonifera (organpipe corals and 

others), Alcyonacea (soft corals), and Helioporacea (blue coral), of the class Anthozoa; and (b) all 

species of the families Milleporidea (fire corals) and Stylasteridae (stylasterid hydrocorals) of the 

class Hydrozoa.

Coral Reef: Limestone structures composed in whole or in part of living zooxanthellate stony corals 

(Class Anthozoa, Order Scleractinia), their skeletal remains, or both, and including other coral, 

associated sessile invertebrates and plants, and any adjacent or associated seagrasses.

Coral Reef Ecosystem: The system of coral reefs and geographically associated species and 

habitats, including but not limited to mangroves and seagrass habitats, their living marine resources, 

the people, the environment, and the processes that control its dynamics.

Definitions

Photo Credits: Far left: Dave Burdick; Left: Dave Burdick; Right: Dwayne Meadows: Far right: Dave Burdick
34

Ecological Network: A set of MPAs that are connected through 

ecological processes and that share complementary purposes and synergistic 

protections.

Ecosystem Services: The benefits people obtain from ecosystems. These 

include provisioning services such as food; regulating services such as 

flood control and shoreline protection; cultural services such as spiritual, 

recreational, and cultural benefits; and supporting services such as nutrient 

cycling that maintain the conditions for life on Earth. The concept 

‘ecosystem goods and services’ is synonymous with ecosystem services 

(adapted from: Millennium Ecosystem Assessment, 2005).

Indicators: An observable, measurable response to change in a specific environmental parameter. 

Intervention Measure: An activity or set of activities designed to directly reduce the impact of 

stressors on coral reef health, usually over small spatial scales (tens of m2 to hectares).

Key Coral Reef Species (or Functional Groups): Defined as the composite of species 

essential to effective ecosystem-based function. Key species/groups may be those most affected by 

extractive activities, those that serve as indicator or keystone species, or other criteria.

Marine Protected Area: Any area of the marine environment that has been reserved by federal, 

state, territorial, tribal, or local laws or regulations to provide lasting protection for part or all of the 

natural and cultural resources therein.

Marine Reserve: A type of MPA within which 

extractive uses are prohibited (often referred to as a ‘notake’ area or ‘fully-protected’ MPA).

Ocean Acidification: A measurable reduction in 

ocean pH caused by increased concentrations of CO2 in 

seawater. One result is a reduction in the availability of 

carbonate ions that marine organisms use to build shells 

and skeletal structures.

Pollutant: dredged spoil, solid waste, incinerator residue, filter backwash, sewage sludge, munitions, 

chemical wastes, biological materials, radioactive materials, heat, wrecked or discarded equipment, 

rock, sand, cellar dirt, and industrial, municipal, and agricultural waste discharged into water (CWA 

Sec. 502(6).

Recharge: The movement of water from the land surface, past the zone where it can be taken up by 

plants, to an underlying aquifer. Also refers to the rate at which new water reaches the aquifer.

Resilience: The capacity of a system to absorb stresses and continue functioning (Levin and 

Lubchenco 2008).

Photo Credits: Top right: George Cathcart © 2007; Top far right partial: Angelica Ramirez; Bottom far left: NOAA NCCOS CCMA Biogeography Team; Bottom left: Dave Burdick
35

NOAA Coral Reef Conservation Program Goals 

& Objectives 2010-2015

Risk Assessment: Frequent assessment that integrates 

the potential impacts posed by climate change to coral 

reef ecosystems and their dependent human communities, 

the probability of those impacts increasing in the future, 

and the vulnerability of those communities (coupled with 

regional and local stressors like pollution, ecologically 

unsustainable fishing, and habitat destruction) to determine 

reef areas and populations most at risk.

Threshold: The level of magnitude of a system process 

at which sudden or rapid change occurs.

Toxicant: An agent or material capable of producing an adverse response (effect) in a biological 

system, seriously injuring structure or function or producing death (Rand, Petrocelli, 1985).

Vulnerability: The degree to which a system is susceptible to, and unable to cope with, adverse 

impacts of stressors. Vulnerability is a function of the character, magnitude, variability, and rate of 

climate change to which a system is exposed, its sensitivity, and its adaptive capacity.

Watershed: hydrologic unit of land contributing surface runoff and subsurface drainage to a 

particular water body. 

Watershed Management Plan: comprehensive strategy to guide implementation of activities 

necessary to protect, restore, or maintain water resources.

Photo Credits: Top left partial: Angelica Ramirez; Top right: George Cathcart © 2007; Bottom left: Dwayne Meadows; Bottom right: Angelica Ramirez
36

Coral reef ecosystems provide homes for 

numerous organisms, like this shrimp living 

within the polyps of a species of Goniopora coral.

Photo credit: Dave Burdick
37

NOAA Coral Reef Conservation Program Goals 

& Objectives 2010-2015

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Photo Credits: Far left: George Cathcart © 2007; Left: Dave Burdick; Right: Dave Burdick; Far right: Dwayne Meadows
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Photo Credits: Top left partial: Dwayne Meadows; Bottom right: Dwayne Meadows; Bottom far right: Dwayne MeadowsBack cover: Far left: Dave Burdick; Left: Dwayne Meadows; Right: Dave Burdick; Far right: NOAA NCCOS CCMA Biogeography Team
40

U.S. Department of Commerce, 

National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration,

NOAA Coral Reef Conservation Program,

1305 East-West Highway, Silver Spring, MD 20910

phone: 301-713-3155 | fax: 301-713-4389 | coralreef@noaa.gov 

www.coralreef.noaa.gov