a

ISSUED BY THE NATIONAL BUREAU OF STANDARDS OF THE

UNITED STATES DEPARTMENT OF COMMERCE, WASHINGTON, D.C., U. S. A.

Vol. 8, No. 3 SEPTEMBER, 1931

AIRPLANE VIEW OF NATIONAL BUREAU OF STANDARDS

Ip 2 4 1931

COMMERCIAL

STANDARDS

MONTHLY

A Review of Progress in

Commercial Standardization and Simplification

For 6ale by the Superintendent of Documents, Washington, D. C. Price $1.00 per Year
U. S. DEPARTMENT OF COMMERCE

R. P. LAMONT, Secretary

NATIONAL BUREAU OF STANDARDS

GEORGE K. BURGESS, Director

COMMERCIAL STANDARDS MONTHLY, S. F. Tillman, Editor

The Commercial Standardization Group

DIVISION OF SIMPLIFIED PRACTICE

Edwin W. Ely

The division of simplified practice cooperates with industrial and commercial groups to reduce waSte, usually through

eliminating unnecessary variety of product, method, or

practice. Its function is to bring together all parties interested in a project of this character, and to coordinate their

work in developing a simplified practice recommendation.

Such work includes surveys of current practice, formulation of a simplified practice program, and presentation of

that program for aCtion by a general conference representing

all interests. The division then transmits to all concerned

a full report of the general conference, with a requeSt for written acceptance of the adtion taken. When the volume

of acceptances is sufficient to indicate initial success, the

Department of Commerce indorses the program and publishes

the recommendation. The division thereafter cooperates

with a Standing committee appointed by the industry concerned, in conducting periodic surveys to determine the

degree of adherence, to maintain and extend support of the

recommendation, and to secure data for reaffirmation or

revision. Simplified practice may be applied to any com- modity or activity in which it will reduce

waSte. The division Stands ready to render

service in developing and making effective any application of simplified pradice which

will reduce waSte, Stabilize business, or extend commerce.

BUILDING AND HOUSING DIVISION

J. S. Taylor

The division of building and housing,

formed in 1921, cooperates with business,

technical, and professional groups in furtherng construction activities. It works to modernize building codes and to encourage improved Standards for the quality of building construction, and the practical application of the lateSt development in design and use of building materials.

It encourages home ownership through the development

of an enlarged, Steadier, more intelligent, and more discriminating demand for dwellings—the largeSt single class of

buildings which the construction industries provide.

The division also cooperates with other governmental

agencies and with many private business and professional

groups in efforts to distribute building activity more evenly

throughout the year and to secure less fluctuation from

year to year. The work on city planning and zoning has the broad

objective of making buildings more useful through proper

location with respeCt to other Structures, Stabilizing of land

values and property uses, well coordinated thoroughfare

sySlems, and well laid out public works.

STANDARDIZA TION

..IS.. A CONTINUING PROCESS

ITS AIM IS NOT FIXITY OR STAGNATION

. . BUT.

.

TO ADD SERVICEABILITY

AS OFTEN AS THE

POTENTIAL GAIN

MAKES IT WORTH WHILE

DIVISION OF SPECIFICATIONS

A. S. McAllister

The duties of the division of specifications are to promote

and facilitate the use and unification of specifications. In doing so it carries on activities involving cooperation with

technical societies; trade associations; Federal, State, and

municipal Government specifications making and using

agencies; producers, distributors, and consumers; and teSting

and research laboratories. It ascertains the Standardization

and specifications promoting activities of the associations and societies, and brings to their attention the work being

done by the commercial Standardization group. It brings the

Federal specifications and commercial Standards to the atten- tion of the maximum number of producers and users of commodities complying with these Standards and specifications.

It compiles and distributes liSts of sources of supply of materials guaranteed to comply with the Standards and specifi- cations. It shows both buyers and sellers the benefits fron

handling nationally specified, certified, and labeled commodities. The division prepares directories of governmental and

nongovernmental teSting laboratories and the Directory of

Specifications, and is working on an encyclopedia of specifications, the firSt two volumes of which

have been issued, namely, “Standards and

Specifications in the Wood-Using Industries”

and “Standards and Specifications for Nonmetallic Minerals and their Products.” It also

aids in preparing the Standards Yearbook.

DIVISION OF TRADE STANDARDS

I. J. Fairchild

The division of trade Standards, on requeSt,

assists industrial and commercial groups in the voluntary establishment of Standards

covering grades, quality, dimensional interchangeability, or other acceptance criteria as a national

basis for marketing manufactured commodities.

The detail criteria are selected or determined voluntarily

by interested buyers or sellers, without any Government

dictation or domination, and adjusted at a general confer- ence of producers, distributors, and users so as to represent

the composite views of all branches. The division functions

chiefly as a neutral agency to see that all interested elements

are given full opportunity to be heard and satisfied; to

solicit and record acceptances; and to publish and promulgate

the Standard when a satisfactory majority of acceptances is obtained and provided there is no aClive opposition.

Industries are encouraged to apply self-certifying labels to products meeting the commercial Standard requirements, as a means of protecting the consumer and the scrupulous seller from misrepresentation or unfair methods of marketing.

Provision is made for regular revision of the Standard

through the appointment of a Standing committee to consider periodically any necessity for revision of the Standard,

in order that it may be kept constantly compatible with

progress in the industry.

Address NATIONAL BUREAU OF STANDARDS, Washington, D. C., for further information
COMMERCIAL STANDARDS MONTHLY

A Review of Progress in

Commercial Standardization and Simplification

Volume 8 WASHINGTON, D. C., SEPTEMBER, 1931 Number 3

SUBJECT ANALYSES

AGRICULTURE

Page

National grades for farm products 93 Tobacco grading _ 89 ELECTRICITY (RADIO)

Excessive varieties still burden electrical industry 93 Radio standards 1 88 FOREIGN ITEMS

British association to change name (standardization

briefs) 96

British standard for indicator-cock connections 92

British standard for mohair velvet 92

British standard for wood saws (standardization briefs). 96

British standard steel flanges for pipes, valves and fittings

(standardization briefs) 96

Foreign interest 69

Internationa] Hydrographic Bureau 91 Norwegian Standards Federation (standardization briefs) . 96 Union of Socialist Soviet Republics 1931 standardization

program 67 MANAGEMENT

Centralized purchasing for Chicago 86

Increasing the purchasing power of the consumer 87

Standardization and its relation to scientific management 94 METALS

Alloy castings (standardization briefs) 96

British standard for wood saws (standardization briefs) . . 96

British standard steel flanges for pipes, valves, and

fittings (standardization briefs) 96 Hack saw blades reduced in variety 1 70

Wire cloth for paper making machines 86

MISCELLANEOUS

Coal selection~and classification 75

Federal specifications 95

MISCELLANEOUS—Continued Page

Inspection of weights and measures necessary 94 Purchasing by specification 78

Simplification for carbon brushes and brush shunts

revised so

Simplified practice aided through cooperative action by

industry 77

Test methods for liquefied gas (standardization briefs).. 96 The American Standards Association 73 The National Bureau of Standards and its cooperation

with industry 81 Variety of food service equipment simplified 72 PAPER, RUBBER, TEXTILE, AND WOOD

Paper fruit wraps (standardization briefs) 96

Quality standards for the consumer 66 Standard forms (standardization briefs) 96 The performance type of specifications 83 PUBLICATIONS

Clay tiles for floors and walls 90

Testing timepieces 95 QUALITY MARKS AND LABELS

Action of Federal Trade Commission relating to false branding and advertising 84

British standard for mohair velvet 92

Certification plan inaugurated by the underwriters’

laboratories 86

Certifying the insulation jobs 74

National grades for farm products 93 SAFETY

Artificial respiration 85

Illuminating engineers to discuss air safety 88 Rules adopted for safer travel by air (standardization

briefs) 96 Standard forecasts for air and marine navigation 84

Uniform traffic laws 71

AN INVITATION TO VISIT THE NATIONAL BUREAU OF STANDARDS

A cordial invitation is extended to all interested in scientific progress to visit the laboratories of

the National Bureau of Standards when in Washington. A personally conducted trip is organized at 2.15 p. m. daily except on holidays. Special trips for groups may be arranged at other times by writing

to the bureau in advance. The bureau’s illustrated Visitor’s Manual may be had for the asking. This

lists the work in progress and gives an airplane view of the ensemble and a brief statement of typical

discoveries and inventions which have been notable, basic contributions to radio, aviation, and other

modern arts and industries.

74792—31 1 65
QUALITY STANDARDS . FOR THE CONSUMER

(Reprinted from the July 25, 1931, issue of “Textile World”)

The confusion of thought which has characterized the discussion of setting up

quality standards on sheets and other textile products, for the guidance of- the con- sumer, is exemplified by the remarks of Dr. P. G. Agnew, Secretary of the American

Standards Association, before the American Home Economics Association.

*

Doctor Agnew is quoted as referring to the unwillingness of sheet manufacturers

to supply data on yarn count, strength, and weight, as a “challenge,” indicating a

belief on their, part that the consumer is not a factor in the agitation for sheet

standardization. So far as we know, that has not been the point at issue. Manufacturers have based their disagreement with the plan largely on the fact

that this technical information would be of no value to a consumer, but would

merely be confusing; that it would encourage faulty advertising programs exploiting

minor and unimportant variations in the specifications; and that, by confining

standards to these technical details and ignoring other less tangible but even more

important factors of quality, a manufacturer is placed in the position where, as Ernest N. Hood stated, he “could honestly place the same specifications on his

second quality , as on his first quality.”

The latter point is the significant one. The situation is analogous to the old proposal to identify the components of woolen goo.ds as “virgin wool” or “reworked

wool,” when it was well known that many grades of the latter were superior to some

grades of the former. A consumer wants facts—but he, or she, wants facts which

mean something. However, we do not believe textile manufacturers can dismiss

the subject on these grounds. The demand for consumer standards in all products

will grow—and rightly so. A group of more intelligent buyers is being developed.

This means, inevitably, protection not only for the purchaser, but for the honest

manufacturer and the honest retailer. Consequently, we recommend to mill men a different approach to the problem.

Instead of being merely on the defensive against unsound plans, they should be on

the offensive—and take the lead in development of standards which will really be

helpful to the consumer, and, consequently, to the ethical concerns in industry

and trade.

Certain branches of textile maufacture have made a start. Such activity should

become one of the major phases in the programs of all divisions. If the right atti- tude were employed, it would seem probable that cooperation would replace antagonism, in the relations between manufacturers’ associations and home economics

organizations.
SEPTEMBER, 1931 COMMERCIAL STANDARDS MONTHLY 67

UNION OF SOCIALIST SOVIET REPUBLICS 1931 STANDARDIZATION PROGRAM

Program Calls for Reduction of Costs and Accelerated Tempo in Construction for the Year

By V. Kisselev 1

The ratification of the Soviet’s 5-year plan of national economy and the work initiated toward the development of concrete measures of reconstruction in

separate branches have considerably broadened the

basis of planning of production and particularly its qualitative scope. By this we understand the coor- dination of measures undertaken toward standardizing, grouping, normalizing, and simplifying of particular kinds of production, building and productive

processes, and the exploitation of natural resources. The comprehensive study of these questions is not new

to the Union of Socialist Soviet Republics.

SCOPE

The All-Union Committee on Standardization of

STO (Council of Labor and Defense) was created

in its original form at the end of 1925. The entire

coordination of measures of organization from the

nationalization of industry, directed toward the building of large industries or combined districts, and the

working out of new, great projects along the lines

of the most recent American and western European

technical science came from these ideas. We already

have lines of manufactures much more grounded in

relation to the variety of product, and often more

thoroughly planned than in any other country. Nevertheless, the unification of all measures for standardization in the given period in a single plan of national

economy corresponding to all the other planned

changes and combining all private efforts corresponding to the concrete tasks, facing the union, is a new,

and to our regret, belated task. MUCH TO BE DONE

Due to the various efforts of standardization in our

early days and the absence of system, there is still a great deal to be done in this direction, not to mention the fields of industrial cooperation and the power

industries about which there has been as yet no serious

thought.

The first fundamental document of qualitative planning is the project of the prospective plan of standardization from the year 1929-30 to 1932-33, published

by the Committee on Standardization.

Its undoubted deficiencies were due to the newness

of very complicated matter and the absence at that

time of sufficiently clear directives in particular

branches of national economy and concrete measures

of rationalization which logically should precede

sound and uncontested lines of standardization. Besides, the project of the prospective plan could not assume significant proportions in fact, due to the

above-stated reason and also because of delays in

understanding between the various departments.

’The author is chief assistant of the Standards Committee Planning

Section, Union of Socialist Soviet Republics. His article appeared in the January, 1931. issue of Bulletin of Standardization published in Moscow. The English translation is presented for the information of readers of Commercial Standards Monthly.

PLAN FOR 1931

A conclusive working document is the plan of

standardization for 1931, which was worked out by

the All-Union Committee of Standardization, based on the resolution b}l STO of August 6, 1930. Control

figures for this plan were given in a decision of the

Committee on Standardization on November 10, 1930.

The character of these control figures for 1931 is given below in its basic indexes.

The general number of standards, including here

the comparatively small number of norms and groupings in the building industry and productive equipment, which will be worked on in 1931, reach almost

6,000. It is proposed to complete and put into practice 4,562 of these projects in the current operatingyear on the ratification of VKS (All-Union Committee on Standardization) or of a corresponding scientific-technical council; the remaining 1,351 will go

over to 1932, a considerable number already havingbeen subjected to extensive criticism.

STATUS

These standards may be classified as follows : Those

relating to industrial production, groupings of equipment, construction, horticulture and livestock breeding, and finally transport and its branches. The

general number of standards worked out in 1931,

relating to industrial production, is 3,031; on the rati- fication of VKS it was proposed to take 2,336 of these

proposed in 1931, examining 142 of them for effective

standards. The standards ratified and examined by

VKS thus gives a sufficiently dependable figure by

the end of 1931, exceeding 4,000 formulated standards.

The level reached by the standardization of industrial

production is as follows

:

Standards

To Oct.

1, 1931 In 1931 In all Percentage of total production

I II III I II III

Ratified and accepted by VKS...

Obligatory

2, 047

1, 511

2, 194 1,289 4,241 2,800 42.2

37.7

28.3

16.0 70.553.7

The percentages listed are undoubtedly conditional

since they summarize production by standards independently of the importance of the latter and the

completeness of the established characteristics of

particular groups of production. Nevertheless, in so

far as in the processes of standardization, first come

the more essential manufactures from the economic

point of view, and in a whole series of industries an

entire system of standards will be created this year,

defining from many sides production (quality,

extent, etc.), the percentages acquire the character

of an essential index for the dynamics of the processes

of standardization as well as in particular for the

comparative valuation of the success of standardiza-
68 COMMERCIAL STANDARDS MONTHLY SEPTEMBER, 1931

tion in definite branches of industry. It is interesting to note the rates of standardization in industrial

production in these definite branches, fluctuating

satisfactorily, as shown below, within important

limits. PROGRAM

A greater scope is set for the end of 1931 in coal

mining which will be 100 per cent standardized; the

leather industry follows with 95.2 per cent standardized; building materials with 91 per cent; glass and

porcelain with 88 per cent; canned goods with 85.5

jier cent ; textiles with 83.5 per cent ; ferrous and nonferrous metallurgy with 75.6 and 70 per cent, respectively ; chemical industry with 74.6 per cent, and wood

with 73 per cent; the electrotechnical industry re- mains weakly developed in standardization with 53.7 per cent; machine construction with 28.7 per cent, and

finally, packing materials with 26.9 per cent. With regard to machine construction it should not

be forgotten that the standardization of details and of

the fundamental parameters is completed by the

grouping of equipment for those branches of the con- suming industry, particularly textile, coal, and petroleum. The general number of the latter kind is fixed at 485 for 1931, which will undoubtedly be raised

somewhat by the standardization of machine construction ; standardization of power plants is emphatically

connected with this category.

EFFORT REQUIRED

Nevertheless, it is doubtful whether standardization

as regards machine construction and the metal industries is sufficient from the point of view of the effec- tive development of one of the leading branches of

industry; and therefore during the working out of

the plan, as well as during the entire year 1931, it will

be necessary to take various extraordinary measures. No less weak sectors on the standardization front

are industrial cooperation, beginning to standardize

for the first time, the polygraphic (engraving and

printing) industry which must urgently consider the

organization of its scientific research center, and the

power industry, whose leaders could not establish clear cut lines of development of electrification. It is clear from the above with what difficulty standardization may be concretely evaluated, since it is developed along all the industrial fronts. As concerns

the basic course of standardization, it is necessary

to state that the maximum attention is given in the

plan to the qualitative standards which is clearly re- garded by the Government as the problem of the day.

It is important to note that the qualitative standards

are not at all limited to subjects of wide consumption.

STANDARDS FOR PRODUCTION

At the same time a considerable number of standards, including those relating to quality, are concentrated on the solution of purely production problems

as well as the corresponding revision of the selected

fields, on the coordination of similar industries. An

effort is made also to stimulate the transition to methods of production, more in conformity with current

technical and organizational demands (as for instance,

specialization, cooperation of factories, autogenetic

welding, new building material, etc.), and with exist- ing conditions in the Union of Socialist Soviet

Republics.

The general number of original plans of standardization of production is calculated at about 650 (the con- ference which called for a thorough working out of the

plan had not ended at the time the control figures were

in the process of formulation) ; the result chiefly in

establishing different types of construction, and in

establishing obligatoi'y norms and standards of production details. The fundamental mass of data on production is to pass through two special institutes—the Institute of

Norms and Standards of the All-Union YSNH (Supreme Council of National Economy), and the People’s Commissariat of Agriculture of the Union of

Socialist Soviet Republics, which guarantee the maximum inner typing up of the work and a uniform and

competent approach to the solution of all special

problems.

STANDARDS IN AGRICULTURE AND TRANSPORTATION

The standardization in agriculture is developed in

two directions ; in horticulture—by the standardization of selected varieties and of ordinary seeds; in stock breeding—-by the standardization of stock and

the breeding of domestic animals, and must serve in

the very quick and successful solution of the grain,

meat, and milk problems. Four hundred and twenty

standards in all are intended for 1931 in horticulture

and 89 in stock-breeding ; 226 standards of horticulture

and 70 of stock breeding will be submitted to the YKS

for ratification. The introduction of standards into agriculture

proceeds, as is known, under specific conditions, since

it is bound up with a long series of measures in con- nection with the accumulation of seed and the rear- ing of breeding animals. In this sense the 72 per cent

of horticulture and 80 per cent of stock breeding to be standardized for 1931 are characterized only by

their potential importance and require for their re- alization long and persistent work by stock breeding

and seed cultivating stations and close cooperation

with the very large kolhoz and sovhoz centers. The control figures for standardization in transportation and its branches must be noted first of all as a decisive step from the inertness which characterized NKPS (People’s Commissariat of Transportation as well as Narkompochtel (People5s Commissariat of Post and Telegraph) until now with regard to rationalization in general and to standardization in

particular.

The control figures on standardization for the above

cited two departments are particularly interesting in- asmuch as the attempt is there undoubtedly made to unite standardization with the fundamental lines of

reconstruction and transportation and to guarantee

the maximum effectiveness of rationalized undertakings by a uniform and centralized solution of the re- spective problems.

The inclusion of the Commissariats of Health and

Education in the general system is comforting, al- though many of the control figures which they have

presented make us wish for more reflection and

breadth in the statements of the questions and though

they are undoubtedly still far from the plans which

must be fulfilled in 1931. The big problem of control figures for standardization is the lack of work in the Commissariat of Labor, which has not yet coordinated and united by
SEPTEMBER, 1931 COMMERCIAL STANDARDS MONTHLY 69

general direction, the work of standardization of its separate institutions and has not given it a systematic

and purposeful character.

The working out of control figures for standardization in the All-Union Committee on Standardization

showed the necessity for a series of important undertakings of an orginizational character, which must be

anticipated by the corresponding commissariats so that the plan of standardization for 1931 may be

successfully realized by the designated departments.

The distribution of standards worked out in 1931

according to commissariats, is listed below.

Commissariats or institutions Standards norms and

types

Chosen

for ratifi- cation

1. VSNH of the Union of Socialist Soviet Republics (Su3, 575

309

746 800

97

120

48

97

121

2, 604

247 53g

734

97

11648

97

86

5. Narkompochtel (Commissariat of Post and Telegraph)...

6. Narkompros of the RSFSR (Commissariatof Education).

7. Narkomzdrav of the RSFSR (Commissariat of Health)..

5,913 4,562

RECENT PROGRESS

The sharp increase in standardization during the

current year, as compared with the preceding one, which doubtless will be multiplied as the proposals of

the committee are fulfilled, requires a corresponding

reinforcement of the organs of standardization in the

commissariats and also the necessary attention to the

organization of this work, particularly from the managing side. The present condition of the organs of

standardization is not in any sense of the word satis- factory and is far from guaranteeing the fulfillment

of the plan. The machine construction and chemical

industries and the electric power centers scarcely offer the possibility of even applying the plans.

Therefore the successful accomplishment of the plan

requires that the commissariats vigorously increase the

bureaus for standardization in the trusts and organizations dependent on them, using properly qualified

specialists to shake the managements of the trusts from their indifferent attitude toward standardization

and to assign to them the requisite places for the planning of rationalization of the undertakings.

It is no less important to secure considerably greater

active assistance for standardization through the

scientific-research institutes by careful relation of their

plans to the standardization plans. The scientific- research institutes must have members engaged in

standardization work to map the correct direction

and formulation of the scientific work and research.

Finally, the attention of the working masses must

be directed to the standardization plans, that brigades

of firm champions of the standardization idea may be

rallied from their ranks. This is one of the most

important prerequisites for the successful fulfillment

of the plan during this year.

FOREIGN INTEREST

The following is a complete quotation from a recent

letter from an important manufacturer of sanitary

appliances in London, England, which illustrates the

foreign interest in, and approbation for commercial

standards

:

The control figures on standardization were an- nounced to the All-Union Committee on Standardization, November 10, 1930. After considering them the

committee decided to continue the work and proposed

to the departments that they accurately define by the

beginning of December, the plan of standardization

for 1931, laying down the following basic conditions:

(1) The necessity of speeding up the socialist reconstruction of the national economy of the Union of Socialist Soviet Republics by reequipment in accordance

with the most advanced technic; (2) the necessity of

definite reduction in cost and of accelerated tempo in

construction; (3) the necessity of a marked improvement in the quality of products ; (4) the necessity of

greater effort toward the reduction of losses and of

the cost of production.

The recounted slogans are universally known and

have been repeatedly given as fundamental directives

to the commissariats. These directives however, ac- quire great significance in the standardization plans

since the standards, properly directed, give an ex- haustive and final decision on various concrete questions in the desired direction and establish a solid

criterion for an estimation of the success of the plans.

COORDINATION

The exceptional importance of standardization

plans for the more effective execution of rationalized

undertakings naturally projected the question of

guaranteeing the maximum coordination of the

standardization of plans of various industries with

the concrete demands of life. With these aims the

All-Union Committee on Standardization considered

it necessary to submit the departmental standardization plans to mass criticism. Conferences of the workers were to consider the undertakings and also to form

brigades taking under their patronage the standardization apparatus which should assist the bureau of

standardization to take its proper place in the sys- tem of the organs of rationalization and to guarantee

them full contact with the factory.

Simultaneously VKS directed its attention to strengthening the work of the committees of the

federated republics on standardization, entrusting

them with the new duty of watching for the introduction *of standards and also for the execution of the

standardization plans. In addition, in order to strengthen the ties of the republics’ committees with

the Committee on STO (Council of Labor and Defense), VKS took measures to draw the representatives of the standardization committees of the federated republics into joint work on the plan and competition in the various sections.

Sweeping criticism from the workers and peasants

and close cooperation with the standardization organs

of the republics are the two basic methods of working out the standardization plan for 1931. After this

the plan will again be considered by the All-Union

Committee on Standardization and will be announced

to the Government in its revised form.

Please accept my cordial thanks for your letter of 16th July

with the accompanying two copies of the Recommended Commercial Standard for Colors for Sanitary Ware. These are

of the greatest possible interest to us. The state of business

generally throughout the world makes it necssary for manufacturers, whether at home or abroad, to use all possible means

to reduce the cost of production, and standardization in all its forms is one of the best things to make this effective.
70 COMMERCIAL STANDARDS MONTHLY SEPTEMBER, 1931

HACK-SAW BLADES REDUCED IN VARIETY

Industry Reports Excellent Benefits Derived from Simplification of Varieties of Hack-Saw Blades

By James F. McNeil, National Bureau of Standards

It is recorded that the earliest saws known to mankind were made from flint flakes with finely jagged

edges during the neolithic age. With the development of the art of working metals these flint implements were first displaced by saws made from bronze

or copper, and in more recent times the softer metals were superseded by iron, and finally by steel. During the past few years various special steels have been

developed for saw blades to provide for high workingspeeds, together with better wearing qualities.

In ancient times diversity in sizes and types of

tools was of no moment, because the maker or user was concerned solely with performance. Under pres- ent-day industrial methods, however, a large number

of industries have succeeded in curbing diversity by

establishing simplification programs on a national

scale. Among such programs is the simplified practice recommendation covering hacksaw blades.

In 1924 it was suggested to the division of simplified practice of the National Bureau of Standards

that much waste was prevalent in the manufacture

and distribution of hack-saw blades; hence, preliminary conferences of manufacturers were arranged,

through the cooperative services of the division, and

the suggested need for simplification was confirmed.

A survey of production and demand was conducted,

and a tentative list of sizes based on the findings of

the survey was submitted to representatives of the

industry at a general conference held on April 12, 1928. The simplified-practice recommendation which was subsequently adopted by the industry established

sizes for hard hand and power hack-saw blades. This

original program did not apply to what is known as high-speed blades, but was limited to standard tungsten and carbon blades. It was estimated that the

sinqilified list of sizes represented an elimination of

approximately 75 per cent of existing catalogued

sizes. The flexibility of the recommendation, which keeps

it abreast with current practice, is shown by the revisions it has undergone since it was first approved.

After a year’s experience in the operation of the rec- ommendation, a revision meeting was held by the

standing committee of the industry to consider modification of the existing schedule. Four sizes of power

hack-saw blades were eliminated and five new sizes were added. The successful operation of the tungsten

and carbon blade program prompted the committee

to include two tables of sizes for high-speed blades,

covering both hand and power blades. On April 30,

1931, the recommendation was again revised by the

addition of three sizes to the table of high-speed

blades.

In practice, the recommendation has been satisfactory. This is evidenced by the results shown in the

excerpts below, which are taken from letters to the

division of simplified practice from members of the

industry.

“ Handling charges, clerical work, reduction of in- vestment, reduction in selling expense are all results of simplified practice,” stated the vice president of one manufacturing concern. He further stated,

“ This reduction in investment and handling charges

is also well enjoyed b}? the distributor, with the consumer getting a good product at a good value.”

“ The recommendation has eliminated the necessity

of carrying 9"blades. We estimate that this has

saved us an inventory of about $2,000, which we would

have to carry at all times,” said a manufacturer of

steel products.

Another manufacturer of hack-saw blades, who has

requested that his name be withheld returned an unusually excellent statement of the benefits which were

accruing to him, in which he reported a reduction of

inventory over a period of three years of $49,480.

Continuing, he said: “Figuring interest on this

amount at 6 per cent shows a saving of $2,990 per

year. Obsolescence, formerly brought about through

our efforts to carry stocks of all sizes manufactured,

cost us $2,500 every year. A fair estimate in cleri- cal work saved through simplified practice is $1,000

yearly.

Simplified practice has also enabled us to standardize the

sizes of wood shocks used in shipping hack-saw blades. We

purchase fewer sizes in greater quantities, and thereby effect a saving in the unit price. It has also enabled us to make

longer runs on certain sizes and to eliminate resetting our

tools and readjusting of machines. This saving in dollars and

cents would be fairly estimated at $10,000 per year, under

normal conditions. The fact that we make longer runs on

certain sizes than before simplified practice was adopted, tends

to give us a more uniform hack-saw blade. Distributors of hack-saw blades are also receiving

“ dividends ” through applying this recommendation.

One distributor located in the State of Colorado wrote,

“ Simplified practice has enabled us to reduce our stock

of hack-saw blades about $1,000. This, of course, greatly increases our turnover.” Two other distributors report an inventory reduction of about 50 per cent, one of them stating that his

turnover has been increased from three to six times

a year. A northwestern dealer, according to his letter, has

increased his sales of blades from $3,450 to $3,600; he

now carries a stock valued at $720, as compared with

$1,260; has a turnover increase from 2% to 5; needs

one-third less storage space, and carries 40 per cent less insurance.

The users of hack-saw blades, that have written to the division, are generally of the opinion that simplification has reduced inventories and expedited deliveries. Lower operating costs, improved quality, and

uniformity of product on successive purchases are also

enjoyed by them.
SEPTEMBER, 1931 COMMERCIAL STANDARDS MONTHLY 71

UNIFORM TRAFFIC LAWS

National Conference on Street and Highway Safety Urges Cities and Towns to Adopt Uniform Ordinances

for Protection of Motorists and Pedestrians

By A. W. Koehler, Secretary, National Conference on Street and Highway Safety

With the sessions of the legislatures for the present

year nearly all closed, attention of those interested in

improvement of motor-traffic conditions is now being

directed particularly to the adoption of the Model

Municipal Traffic Ordinance and the Manual on Street

Traffic Signs, Signals, and Markings 1 as published

by the National Conference on Street and Highway

Safety, by cities and towns. The following suggestions as to practical measures for adoption are made

by the conference in response to numerous requests

from organizations and individuals in all sections of

the country interested in traffic matter. The Model Municipal Traffic Ordinance first be- came available in August, 1928. Along with the

uniform vehicle code and the reports of special con- ference committees dealing with various aspects of

the traffic situation, it was revised in certain respects

in 1930 by the third national conference on street and

highway safety. After careful review by the confer- ence in 1930 to ascertain whether it might be desirable to revise the ordinance it was found that in general little change was needed. The few changes which

were regarded as desirable were made in the light of

experience with the ordinance on the part of cities and

towns which had adopted it prior to May, 1930. These

changes were made in order that the ordinance as revised might meet present-day conditions more fully.

The ordinance has been adopted to date in whole or

in substantial part by numerous cities and towns both

large and small throughout the country.

The essential part of the model ordinance consists

of the sections dealing with matters strictly within

the province of municipal traffic regulations, such as authority of police, designation of crosswalks, safety

zones, traffic lanes, and prohibition of left turns, re- strictions on loading or unloading in certain places,

regulation of stopping and parking of busses and taxicabs, parking prohibitions and restrictions applying

to all traffic, designation of through and 1-way streets, limitations on turning around and backing. All of

the above need to be covered by ordinance or regulation in each municipality and are not generally suit- able to be dealt with by State law. The foregoing

sections are drawn up in such a manner as to be

adaptable to particular local conditions by the insertion of names of streets or other details according to conditions in the locality.

Cities and towns in States which have adopted act IV of the Uniform Vehicle Code as revised by the

1 “ Uniformity of Traffic Laws Urged,” by Col. A. B. Barber, director, National Conference on Street and Highway Safety, in Commercial

Standards Monthly, .fuiy, 1930, contained a detailed explanation of these ordinances and codes.

third national conference on street and highway safety

and the American Bar Association in 1930, will

find it very simple to adopt the remaining provisions

of the model ordinance herein referred to and not

already included in the State law. By so doing they

will more completely insure their securing the maximum benefits to be derived from the operation of

these modern and effective traffic measures. They

may also wish to repeat in their ordinances certain

State-law provisions for emphasis and educational

purposes.

An appendix to the model ordinance contains a number of State-law provisions suitable for this use. These provisions are either identical with the Uniform Vehicle Code or adapted therefrom to meet

urban conditions. It is also pointed out that in those

States where repetition of State-law provision in

municipal ordinances is necessary for purposes of

local enforcement or in the event State-law provisions

are inadequate, the provisions suggested in the appendix to the model ordinance or such portions as may be

desired should be included in the ordinance.

To the extent that the motor vehicle law of a State

has not been brought into full conformity with the

Uniform Vehicle Code, as revised in 1930, cities and

towns in the State will find it desirable to adopt suit- able provisions by ordinance pending their adoption

by State law.

In certain States still having State-law provisions,

not in harmony with the national standards, it will

be necessary to amend the State law bringing it into

conformity with the Uniform Vehicle Code as revised

in 1930 before cities and towns can put into effect the model ordinance in its entirety. Even in these

States, however, early adoption, by the cities and

towns, of all provisions of the ordinance consistent

with the State law would be a long step toward

uniformity.

The Manual on Street Traffic Signs, Signals, and

Markings provides the technical details as to shape,

size, color, location, etc., of devices essential to the

safe and orderly conduct of traffic in cities and towns.

Uniformity is obviously important as in the case of

traffic laws and regulations, which prescribe the con- duct of motorists and pedestrians with reference to the signs, signals, and markings. These standards,

which are already in effect in a large number of cities and towns, are designed for adoption by the traffic authorities without the need for legislation. They

are in accord with the provisions of the Uniform

Code and Model Ordinance and conform to the sys- tem of standard rural signs adopted by the American

Association of State Highway Officials. Taken together these standards provide the basis

for nation-wide uniformity in motor laws, ordinances,

and traffic-control devices.
72 COMMERCIAL, STANDARDS MONTHLY SEPTEMBER, 1931 VARIETY OF FOOD-SERVICE EQUIPMENT SIMPLIFIED

National Bureau of Standards Cooperates With Industry to Weed Out Excessive Varieties of Equipment

By W. E. Braithwaite, National Bureau of Standards

In discussing some of the more important basic

problems confronting the food-service-equipment in- dustry, it was recently pointed out by a leader in this

field that “waste in production and distribution, and

the lack of cooperation in connection with the effort to solve this problem, have not only retarded progress

but have resulted in reduced profits as well.” He

states further, “ the small quantity buying policy and

demands for unreasonable deliveries have had their

effect on inventories, as jobbers are expected to carry

a wide selection of items and quantities of merchandise that are beyond proportion to demand.”

It is well recognized that rapidity of turnover is usually the life of business. If the normal rate of

turnover is impeded or slowed up, business is either

crippled or dies. It very frequently happens that

leaks or impediments occur which are not readily

traceable, yet which seriously interferes with progress

and cut profits to the vanishing point. These hidden

handicaps are due in many cases to too much variety

in types, dimensions, patterns, sizes, styles, grades,

etc., which results in needlessly large investments, lost motion, and wasted material.

Simplification, as developed by industries with the

cooperation of the division of simplified practice of

the National Bureau of Standards, has proved to be one of the most successful means of revealing such

conditions. Sales analyses, based on actual demand,

immediately identify the slow-moving, the obsolete,

the freak or odd-size commodities which constitute some of the stumbling blocks in any line. Such

analyses and surveys are the diagnosis of business

conditions and trends and have helped tremendously

to eliminate waste as well as to correct unethical practices. Simplified practice and simplification are the names applied to the collective effort on the part of an industry to reduce waste in the production and

distribution of its products, through voluntary elimination of unnecessary varieties in sizes, dimensions,

capacities, types, etc. Such effort is now a widely

recognized and well-established association activitjr.

Through the cooperative efforts of the industries

concerned and the division of simplified practice of

the National Bureau of Standards, more than 120

simplified-practice recommendations have been promulgated and accepted by manufacturers, distributors, users, and others interested. A considerable

number of these recommendations are of direct in- terest to the manufacturers, jobbers, and users of

food-service equipment. For example, at a general

conference of representatives of the industry, held

under the cooperative auspices and procedure of the

National Bureau of Standards, in May, 1931, a simplification program was adopted reducing the variety

of hotel chinaware from 700 to 214 recognized stock

types and sizes. The promulgation of the hotel chinaware simplification program prompted the National Restaurant Association and other associations to avail themselves

of the services of the bureau in working out a similar

recommendation for cafeteria and restaurant china- ware. One simplified practice recommendation of interest,

which was acted upon at a general conference in

March, 1926, is that for tinware, galvanized, and

japanned ware. The recommendation, as subsequently

adopted by the industry, reduces the number of stock

items to certain definite sizes and varieties.

In October, 1929, a general conference of producers

and users of restaurant guest checks approved a recom- mendation which established a simplified list of sizes and varieties. The adoption of this recommendation

resulted in the reduction of grades of cardboard checks

from 4 to 3; widths from 12 to 5; lengths from 16

to 14; grades of paper checks from 7 to 4; widths

from 10 to 8, with no change in lengths.

In June, 1929, a conference of representative manufacturers, distributors, and users of refrigerators

drafted a simplified practice recommendation, which

the industry has since accepted, for capacities and

dimensions of ice compartments for two types of

domestic refrigerators, known as side icers and front

icers. The Food Service Equipment Association has re- cently recognized the importance of this work by or- ganizing a simplification and standardization committee to cooperate with various interested groups in

the common effort to eliminate waste through the development of simplified practice recommendations.

On April 21, 1931, a resolution was adopted at the

convention of the Food Service Equipment Association approving a recommendation of their simplification and standardization committee covering gages

and weights for sheet metal and pipe, also dimensions

for sinks, shelves, tables, table tops, counters, openings

for steam tables, and sizes of steam-table insets, etc. Some of the other items to be given further con- sideration by the committee include heavy-duty

ranges, baking ovens, refrigerators, coffee urns, dishwashing machines, pots, pans, etc. In addition to the Food Service Equipment Association, such organizations as the Food Service Equipment Clubs of the different cities, the American Hotel

Association, the American Hospital Association, the

Texas Hotel Association, the American Home Economics Association, the National Restaurant Association, the American Gas Association, Metalware

Institute, and other groups have indicated their willingness to cooperate. Also, a number of manufacturers of equipment used in the preparation and serv- ing of foods have indicated their active interest in

this program.

It has been said by an expert in restaurant management that “ the most successful restaurateurs have

certain characteristics, among which are a strong

sense of economy and a brain that seeks constantly to learn more and more.” In line with this thought, the

managers of restaurants, cafes, cafeterias, lunch

rooms, and dining rooms have discovered that much

time and money can be saved by buying standard
SEPTEMBER, 1931 COMMERCIAL STANDARDS MONTHLY 73

products. Of course, one of the most important steps

preliminary to standardization is simplified practice.

It offers a short cut to benefits for the manufacturer,

the distributor, or the consumer. With cooperation by

producer, distributor, and user, as 'well as technical

groups, to weed out excessive, obsolete, and unneces- sary varieties, types, patterns, and dimensional differences in food-service equipment, a long step for- ward has been taken.

The division of simplified practice of the National

Bureau of Standards has been requested by various

manufacturers and others interested to cooperate in

the development and promulgation of simplifiedpractice recommendations covering sizes and dimensions for such items as openings in steam tables, steamtable insets or vessels, baking ovens, trays, enamel

kitchen-table tops, sinks, lunch counters, linen napkins

and table cloths, banquet tables, baking ware, etc. An unusual opportunity has thereby been opened

up for the application of simplified practice in the

food-service equipment field and it is expected that

a number of simplified-practice recommendations will

be developed and promulgated under the procedure

of the National Bureau of Standards in cooperation

with the various groups concerned. Such a program

will in no way interfere with the use of patented or

distinctive individual designs and should make for

progress in this field.

THE AMERICAN STANDARDS ASSOCIATION

Scope of Current Standardization Projects Reviewed

The following current information concerning the

developments in standardization projects under the

auspices and procedures of the American Standards

Association has been furnished by that association

:

Radio. —A 44-page draft booklet containing standard definitions of terms used in radio; standard tests of broadcast radio receivers; standard vacuum tube

base and socket dimensions; and manufacturing

standards applying to broadcast receivers, has been

issued by the ASA sectional committee on radio. The

committee, sponsored bjr the American Institute of

Electrical Engineers and the Institute of Radio Engineers, was reorganized in September, 1929, and has

been actively at work since its reorganization, the

present draft standards being the result of its activity.

The definitions of terms used in radio which are in- cluded in the booklet cover the following nine headings; general, wave propagation, transmission, reception, antennas, direction finding, vacuum tubes, elec- troacoustic devices, circuit elements, devices, and in- struments. The purpose of the draft is to place various standards proposed therein before the members of the sec- tional committee for final letter ballot. After the

ballot has been completed, the standards will be submitted to the American Standards Association for approval.

National code for elevators, dumbwaiters, and escalators approved. —A new national safety code for ele- vators, dumbwaiters, and escalators, developed undeT

the technical direction of the American Society of

Mechanical Engineers, the American Institute of

Architects, and the National Bureau of Standards,

has just been approved by the American Standards Association. Approval of the revised code by the asso- ciation followed nearly four years of research on ele- vator safety devices at the National Bureau of Standards 1 and extensive investigation by a technical committee composed of 38 representatives of architectural,

engineering, governmental, and other organizations.

In the tests conducted during the research work, the

suspended elevators were fully loaded and released

1 Standard Elevator Regulations, by .T. A. Dickinson, Research Fel- low of the National Bureau of Standards, appeared in the October,

1930, issue of Commercial Standards Monthly.

74792—31 2

from their cables, allowing them to fall freely in the

shafts. Motion-picture apparatus fixed under the

elevators and clicking off pictures at the rate of 3,600

per minute, revealed the precise operation and trust- worthiness of the safety devices. Loaded elevators were also dropped onto the buffers at the bottom of

the shaft and especially designed apparatus measured

the forces involved during the fraction of a second

before the plunge was completely stopped. This re- search led to the redesign of almost all elevator buffers. For the first time the national elevator code permits

the operation of more than one elevator in a single

shaft, thus removing one of the obstacles to the

erection of skyscrapers—the excessive space required

for elevators. The code provides rigid safeguards to eliminate any possibility of collision between two ele- vators in the same shaft. The code also provides for

2-story cars which consists of two separate cages, one above the other, to serve two floors simultaneously

from the same shaft. These will not be “ 1-man cars,”

however, an operator for each of the two cages being

required by the code. Safety devices will prevent the

2-story car from moving until the safety gates of both

cages are closed. Further provision is made for a new type of express-local system in which the master express ele- vators will stop at only 3 or 4 express or plaza floors,

10, 15, or even more stops apart, at which points pas- sengers will transfer to local elevators starting from

the plaza floors rather than all from the first floor,

the present practice in skyscrapers.

The code insists upon fireproof elevator shaft in- closures and fire-proof housing for the elevator machinery so that elevator evacuation of a fire-swept

skyscraper will be possible.

Although the framers of the code found that pres- ent safety devices would permit safe elevator operation at any speed, it is believed that the limit of

speed will not go much beyond 1,200 feet per minute

because of the discomfort to passengers resulting from

rapid change in air pressures in ascent or descent.

Any speed above 700 feet per minute requires auto- matic operation with automatic floor leveling devices

because of the difficulty of stopping more rapidly

moving care at floor levels. It was also found that
74 COMMERCIAL STANDARDS MONTHLY SEPTEMBER, 1931

at speeds of more than 800 feet per minute an operator could not read floor numbers 4 feet high.

The code also includes provisions for the safe operation of freight and other types of elevators, the pas- senger-operated lifts, escalators, and dumb-waiters.

Amendments to American Standards Association

constitution.—Amendments to the constitution of the

American Standards Association, changing the number of members on the American Standards Association board of directors from 9 to 15, providing for the

election of an executive committee of the board of

directors to which the board may delegate its authority

ad interim, and outlining more fully the procedure to be followed in submitting amendments to the constitution, have been ratified by the member bodies of

the association. The increase in the number of members on the board of directors will give a larger

number of member bodies opportunity to become more

closely associated with the direction of the American

Standards Association.

CERTIFYING THE INSULATION JOBS

Asbestos Bureau Established Along the “Certification Plan ” of National Bureau of Standards

To promote the interest of the industry in selling,

erecting, and installing insulating material for buildings and other structures, the Asbestos Bureau (Inc.)

has been organized under the auspices of the asbestos

firms (contractors) of the Pacific Northwest. The

bureau maintains offices in Seattle, Wash., Tacoma,

Wash., and Portland, Oreg.

The program of the Asbestos Bureau (Inc.) is based largely on the certification plan developed by

the National Bureau of Standards, according to its announcement, in which it points out that “ the abuses

resulting from excessive competition have become so great that good insulation is frequently sacrificed to the detriment of the job.” One of the bureau’s objec-

( tives is to promote the industry’s growth through co- ordination of effort in rendering more extensive and

efficient service to the public ; to reform its abuses

;

to procure uniformity in its customs and usages and

to collect and disseminate information relating

thereto.

The need for such cooperative service is pressing,

the announcement further points out, adding that

“ initial cost savings are made at the expense of either

the quality or the quantity of insulation. In theory

these savings are passed on to the owner, but whether

they are or not, it is an expensive process for him.

He has to pay for the omitted or reduced insulation

not once but every year, again and again in increased

fuel bills, reduced capacity and increased maintenance

and labor costs. This condition is admittedly bad for

the owner, the architect, the engineer, the reliable

plumber and fitter, and the reliable asbestos firms. It can be corrected onty through collective cooperation.

Certified insulation jobs offer the solution to this

problem. Through them the owner, the architect,

engineer, and contractor can be assured of getting what

is specified, and of maximum return per dollar spent.”

Changes in the by-laws to put into effect the enlargement of the board of directors also become effective

with the ratification of the constitution amendments.

In addition to the above changes in the constitution

and by-laws, revisions to the American Standards

Association procedure, in the nature of refinements

intended to facilitate the administration of the procedure, have just been approved by letter ballot of

the standards council.

Electrical standards committee, 2—Approval of the new electrical standards committee, which supersedes

the present electrical advisory committee of the American Standards Association, was completed on July 18,

1931, with final approval by the 11 organizations which

will compose the committee. The new committee will serve as a central agency in the furthering of the

standardization work of the electrical industry under

American Standards Association procedure.

2 See Electrical Industry Organizes for Standardization Work in the

July, 1931, issue of Commercial Standards Monthly.

When an asbestos firm accepts an order to install a

“ certified insulation job,” the bureau is immediately

advised and the job is registered. During installation

the bureau has full access to the work and carries out

the inspection necessary to protect the owner’s interests. Upon completion of the job, the contractor makes

application to the bureau for the Asbestos Bureau

surety bond covering this work. He certifies that the

work is completed in strict accord with the owner’s

specifications and addendas thereto, which must be

listed. Performance is assured through a continuing

bond to the bureau guaranteeing his “ C-I ” jobs. The

job being satisfactorily completed, the bureau obtains

from a national suret}r company the required bond in

favor of the owner. This bond is delivered to the contractor who turns it over to the owner or his representative, and then receives his final payment. The

cost of this doubly underwritten surety is all borne by

the bureau. As a further protection the bureau recom- mends that copies of any intended “ C-I ” specifications be submitted to the bureau to be checked before

issuing the call for bids.

Added to the specifications is the following paragraph : The foregoing asbestos insulation specification shall consti- tute a “ certified insulation job ” guaranteed by the Asbestos Bureau (Inc.). The Standard Asbestos Bureau code dated March 16, 1931, shall be a part of this specification, but in case of any conflict the specifications shall have precedents.

Before final payment on this work is made the contractor must deliver to the owner or his representative an Asbestos Bureau surety bond in the full amount of the insulation contract, but not exceeding $5,000, guaranteeing during the life of the bond to replace any and all insulation not installed

in strict accordance with these specifications, together with

any addendas or changes authorized in writing by the owner

or his representative.

The announcement of the Asbestos Bureau (Inc.),

in explaining benefits to be had from “ certified insulation jobs,” points out that the asbestos firms are recompensed through the increased volume of work

and through having their costs of doing business re- duced. The consumer benefits through lower ulti- mate costs, and thus benefits more than anyone else because he gets more for his money on certified work.
SEPTEMBER, 1931 COMMERCIAL STANDARDS MONTHLY 75

COAL SELECTION AND CLASSIFICATION

Standards for Classifying Coal Have Proven Their Worth to Consumers—Cheapest Coal Sometimes Proves

Most Costly

By Hap.old J. Rose, The Hoppers Research Corporation

Coal is a complex and variable material which is commercially jiroduced in this country from about

7,000 mines, located in more than 30 States. The coals

produced from these different mines vary so greatly

in chemical composition and physical behavior under

different conditions of use, that, so far as most producers and consumers are concerned, coal is perhaps

the least understood of all our important raw materials. Most coal-consuming industries are, and always have

been, handicapped by andnadequate knowledge of the

potential value, to them, of the many different coals

that are available for purchase. Fortunately, this

situation is improving rapidly, and the purpose of this

article is to describe some of the changes which are now in progress. In the year 1931 we have come a long way from

the old days when only two kinds of coal were recognized, namely “ hard ” and “ soft,” and when impurities were considered to be an act of God, so why

worry about them? This simplicity has gone forever. Fuel chemists and combustion engineers have

proved their worth to the mining companies, and some

of the principal coal producers now have large, wellequipped laboratories and make hundreds or even thousands of chemical and physical determinations

each month on the coal which they ship to the con- sumers. They rightly consider their coal to be a manufactured product, since it is mined and prepared

under strict technical supervision and is kept up to rigid standards by constant laboratory control.

Some years ago, when proximate analysis and heating value determinations first began to be made as a regular thing, it was hoped that coal could be suc- cessfully purchased on the basis of these simple tests alone. However, early experiences were often disappointing, and few purchasers are willing to buy coal

solely on analysis specifications. While the proximate

analysis and B. t. u. figures are extremely valuable

when property used, it has been found that coals of

similar analysis may behave quite differently under

certain conditions of use. During the past 10 or 15 years it has been the particular ambition of coal-research men and technologists to explain these puzzling differences in behavior.

An enormous mass of data bearing on this subject is now available. In fact, the present problem is to digest and systematize this mass of technical information, to separate the good data from the worthless,

to verify doubtful conclusions, to fill in the gaps

which still exist in our knowledge, and most important of all to make the new information available for

the benefit of the producers and users of coal. This ambitious program of making the best technical information available to the consumer lias now

been under way for three years. I refer to the com- i mittees of national scope which are working on the I classification of coal. A brief history of the organi- I

zation and work of these committees is necessary at this point.

During the first International Conference on Bituminous Coal, which was held at Pittsburgh, Pa.,

in 1926, an informal meeting was held to decide

whether or not the time was ripe to organize a national committee which would systematically study

the whole problem of coal classification. It was decided that this should be done. A sectional committee on coal classification was soon set up under the sponsorship of the American Society for Testing Materials. This committee is organized according to the

rules of the American Standards Association which

provide that the membership shall be authoritatively

and adequately representative of the various interests

concerned.

It is impossible to describe in a short paper the

work already accomplished by these committees, but

the following resume will give an idea of their aims

and accomplishments.

The technical committee on scientific classification was instructed to prepare, if possible, a satisfactory

classification based primarily on chemical, physical,

and geological consideration. “ Scientific classifica- tion ” does not mean merely a classification for sci- entists, but rather a classification based on facts, and

arrived at by scientific methods. It is to be as simple,

fundamental, and permanent in character as possible

and based upon the systematic arrangement and study

of facts. Such a classification is not expected to reflect

all of the present usages and matters of business ex- pediency, some of which are doubtless transient in

character. The work of this committee was found to be so extensive that three subcommittees have been

formed.

The subcommittee which is studying the nature and

location of types of American coals has recommended

that for scientific classification purposes, coals be first divided according to progressive changes which they

have undergone in their transformation from peat to anthracite. It has been suggested and tentatively approved that the coal series be first divided according to rank, into four very broad groups, each of

which would then be subdivided into the necessary

number of classes. For example, the broad group of

anthracite rank might be subdivided into classes such

as semianthracite, anthracite, and those eoals which

have been still more highly modified by pressure and

heat. Unfortunately for the purpose of classifica- tion, nature has not provided any breaks in the coal

series. The division lines between different groups

and classes of coal must of necessity be more or less arbitrary, and some overlapping of properties can not

be avoided. It is fully recognized that in such an important matter, decisions should be made on the basis

of established facts, and this subcommittee is co- operating with many agencies on problems such as the following:
76 COMMERCIAL STANDARDS MONTHLY SEPTEMBER, 1931

1. What are the best criteria for separating the

different groups. The division of bituminous coal

from coal of next lower (subbituminous) rank is especially puzzling, since heating value, slacking characteristics, coking properties, and moisture content as well as chemical analysis have all been proposed for

separating these two groups.

2. How many distinct classes of bituminous coal

need to be recognized ? There is decided lack of

agreement in the trade as to just what is included by

terms such as “ low-volatile,” “ medium-volatile,” and

“ high-volatile ” coal.

3. We do not yet have sufficient information on

the rank, practical slacking characteristics, etc., of some of our important coal deposits.

Extensive field-work and laboratory investigations

are now under way, which it is hoped will yield the answer to most of such questions. The members of

this subcommittee have presented various papers on

the subject recently, in the nature of suggestions and

progress reports. The effects of differences in the

original plant constituents which make up coal are not being overlooked. Such differences are considered

to explain the character of canned, bog-head, splint

coals, etc. The subcommittee on composition, physical properties, and methods of analysis has also been very active.

A report has been printed describing all changes in

coal analysis methods since 1899, which affect the significance of published analyses. The same paper tabulates the normal variations which may be expected

when two different laboratories test the same coal

sample. Much experimental work has been done and

reports prepared on the various methods of calculating or preparing pure coal substance, as recommended

by various investigators.

The slacking characteristics of certain coals greatly

affect their commercial value. By slacking is meant

the tendency of many low-rank coals to break up

rapidly or crumble when exposed to the weather,

especially with alternate wetting and drying. A laboratory test method has been developed by the Bureau

of Mines of the United States Department of Commerce, and has been applied to a large number of coals

of all ranks with very promising results. The same

bureau is investigating the agglutinating properties of

coal, coal softening temperatures, and other physical

characteristics which affect the behavior of coal in

various uses. The gas and coke making properties of

American coals are also being investigated by the

Bureau of Mines under a cooperative agreement with

the American Gas Association. This latter association

is at present investigating the characteristics of coals

used for the manufacture of water gas. These are merely examples of the great variety of research which

is daily adding to our stock of accurate information

concerning coal and its behavior in practical use. The subcommittee on present and proposed scientific classification has studied and reported on the many

classifications which have been proposed. The situation is exceedingly involved owing to the large number of existing classifications, the many bases suggested for dividing coals into classes, and the fact

that almost every investigator has recommended a

different moisture or purity basis, which means that

all analysis data used has to be recalculated for each

system. A long mathematical and graphic study has

made it possible to bring order out of this chaos. A

new form of graph, the multibasis coal chart, has been

devised by the writer to permit the simultaneous comparison and study of proximate analysis, heating

value, ultimate analysis and physical properties of

coal, on any moisture and purity basis. With this new

form of graph, the coal classification committees are

in a position to study the most involved relationships

in a comprehensive and uniform manner. The technical committee on the use classification of

coal is charged with developing a classification (if

possible and desirable), based principally on the uses

of coal and commercial practices. This is to be cor- related as closely as found desirable with the system

devised by the scientific committee. Individual members, or groujis of members, have published reports

dealing with the requirements of coal for such purposes as gas manufacture, railroad fuel, and stationary

steam generation, while reports on the requirements

of coal for other purposes are in the course of

preparation.

The technical committee on marketing practice collects information on the character and distribution

of commercial coal shipments for the benefit of the

scientific and use committees. The phases of marketing practice with which this committee is concerned

relate only to data for classification purposes.

Through the cooperation of the American Institute

of Mining and Metallurgical Engineers, it has been

possible to publish a large number of papers relat- ing to coal classification. These papers are not as yet official committee reports, but represent the

results of investigations or views of the individual

authors. They are presented for the information of

the public, and for the purpose of securing constructive criticism.

The whole project of coal classification is of great

magnitude, and of the highest importance. Uniform

classification should be a great aid to a better understanding between seller and buyer, and should result

in directing each class of coal into the use for which

it is most valuable.

The United States and Canada together possess two-thirds of the worlds’ known coal supply. It is indeed fortunate that coal classification work on lines

similar to that described above, is in progress in

Canada. It is sponsored by the National Research

Council of Canada, the Alberta Research Council and

the Dominion Department of Mines. By the interchange of representatives and reports, the committees

in the two countries are kept informed of each other’s

progress, in order to further the purpose of working

out systems of classification applicable to coals of the

North American continent.

So much for coal classification. The solution of

these problems will do much to improve marketing

practices, and to eliminate conditions which have too often resulted in “ the blind leading the blind ” in the

sale and purchase of coal. Improved methods of

evaluation will enable purchasers to reduce costly “ cut-and-try ” experimentation to a minimum.

How is the purchaser to take advantage of the

latest and best technical information relating to coal?

There are two ways of doing this, both of which are

in successful use. The first method is for the coal consumer to maintain an expert technical staff which

makes extensive full-scale tests of competitive coals,
SEPTEMBER. 1931 COMMERCIAL STANDARDS MONTHLY 77

and conducts thorough laboratory investigations of

the scores or hundreds of varieties which are available.

Of course, only the largest buyers can afford to fol- low this practice. If extensively followed, it would

lead to enormous duplication and waste of effort, and

needless expense.

The other method is for the coal producer to collect comprehensive and reliable data on the chemical

analysis, physical properties, and behavior in use of

each of the various products which he offers for sale,

and to make this information available to prospective

customers through well-qualified combustion engineers,

who also act as service men when the coal is put into

use. Any purchaser, large or small, can take advantage of this service by dealing with mining or distributing companies who are progressive enough to offer

it. Naturally, the quality of the technical service that

is offered varies, but many would be astonished to learn what has been accomplished during the last five years by some of the leading coal producers in learning the facts about their coal. From analyses and

tests made in their own and consulting laboratories,

and by systematic observations of their coal under conditions of actual use, they have learned how to prepare

coal that is best suited for a particular condition, and

they will furnish experts to help the individual get

the most economical results. Many consumers have

already found that the ingenious new ideas and dis- coveries in fuel technology can be put to profitable

use.Perhaps some purchasing agents still believe that

the coal which costs least per ton is always the cheapest

coal to use. However, cheap coal often proves very

dear in the end. At a certain plant where a particular

coal had been used for one year with very good results, a contract was given (without the knowledge of the

technical department), for another coal “close by,

close to, and approximately the same,” which could be

bought for 15 cents less per ton. Before they could get

rid of this latter coal it has caused operating difficul- ties and inferior products resulting in a net loss of more than four million dollars.

SIMPLIFIED PRACTICE AIDED THROUGH

COOPERATIVE ACTION BY INDUSTRY

The American Institute of Architects and the Associated General Contractors of America have arranged

with the National Bureau of Standards to supply each

of their members with pertinent material on simplified practice recommendations.

The American Institute of Architects has been active in supporting the simplification movement since

the Government first sponsored simplified practice in

1921. Each member architect is being supplied with

a complete list of simplified practice recommendations, and is being informed of the opportunities to obtain complimentary sheet form copies of any of

the recommendations listed. This service, established

for consumers or users of commodities simplified, has

proven very popular and effective. The Associated General Contractors of America

has been active in supporting simplification, and has

officially'

- recorded the acceptance of 24 of the simplified practice recommendations. In a recent letter to

The by-product coke and gas plants, which next to the railroads are the largest industrial users of coal,

found long ago that it paid them well to buy on

quality first, and price second. As a result of careful

investigations, they are becoming more exacting in

their requirements each year. There have been many

instances where combined coke-oven and blast-fur- nace plants have found that they could make cheaper

iron by paying 50 cents to $1 more per ton for their coal. This situation is by no means limited to the coal

carbonizing industry. A slight change in the character of coal used at boiler plants which are forced

to run at full capacity or over capacity, may cause a profound effect on the balance sheet of the entire

plant. The type of coal to be used in a new boiler

plant, determines to an important degree the size and

investment in plant, the kind of equipment and operating costs. There are no lack of concrete examples

to prove that price per ton is not always the most

important factor in buying coal. This does not mean that the highest-priced coal is necessarily the

best to buy. Combustion engineers and competent

salesmen often recommend a size and grade of coal

which costs less per ton and at the same time gives

better results than coal previously used. The important thing is for buyers and sellers to go into the matter of quality and performance of coal as thoroughly

as they consider its price per ton. One of the recent and outstanding achievements in

the coal industry is the maintenance of high and uniform quality, in shipments, month after month. This

has been made possible by many conditions, such as

better mining methods, improved labor conditions,

closer inspection, and the increased use of coal-cleaning equipment. Last year, about forty million tons

of coal were cleaned by wet and dry processes, and

this figure is increasing rapidly. In such plants the

purity and size of coal is subject to particularly

close control. It should not be necessary to enlarge

upon the value of uniformity in coal or any other

material. Uniform raw materials permit standardized and economical operation.

the National Bureau of Standards, E. J. Harding,

managing director of the Associated General Contractors of America, pointed out that acceptance and

adherence to these recommendations would go far

toward the elimination of much waste in production,

and would result in a saving to the consuming public.

Time is an essential factor in all construction enterprises. In order to keep his costs down, the contractor must be able to count on quick deliveries from

spot stocks of building materials. Simplified lines

enable the building material dealer to render such

service without increasing his inventories. The benefits of simplification may be measured in direct savings, not only to the contractor and the dealer, but

to everyone else concerned in a construction enterprise, including the final owner. The cooperative assistance outlined above has al- ready been extended to the National Association of

Purchasing Agents, the American Railway Association, the National Electric Light Association, the

American Gas Association, the American Electric

Railway Association, and the American Water Works

Association.
78 COMMERCIAL STANDARDS MONTHLY SEPTEMBER, 1031 PURCHASING BY SPECIFICATION

Since Interpretation is a Broad and Variable Factor, Purchase Specifications Must Be Clearly Defined to Avoid Confusion

By G. M. Richardson 1

A specification is a word photograph of the material you wish to purchase. Like a photograph, it must be in focus. It must be clear—not only in general, but each detail must be made to stand apart from

the rest. In short, it must be understandable and must

clearly convey your meaning.

One must bear in mind that interpretation is a broad and variable factor in the use of specifications.

One person’s interpretation may be entirely different

from the way others might interpret. Local conditions, local terms, local trade practices, and local requirements may cause a meaning different from what was intended, and a meaning which might not be

desirable.

The effect a specification is intended to produce on

a manufacturer, or a supplier, or a contractor, is to make clear to him just what is wanted. It is desired

to convey to him that the material specified is suit- able for the purpose intended, assuming, of course, that the specification has been so designed as to per- mit only suitable material.

If the specification is one which will be used fre- quently it will have the effect of making the material

easily available—obtainable on short notice, because

the supplier knows what is wanted and will generally

have a supply available. It will have a decided effect on price, for the supplier knows exactly how the purchaser wants the material made and knows he wants

it made that way every time items are purchased;

consequently he can adjust his prices to suit those

conditions.

If the specification is clear in all its details it is a good one; it is fair to all bidders. But if it is not

clear in every detail it is decidedly unfair, for in his

interpretation, each bidder may form a different pic- ture of what is wanted. The differences may vary

just enough to cause him to overbid, by which he may

lose the order; or, to underbid, which will be disas- trous to him and which may cause him to cheapen the

material just enough to prevent him from losing

money. This the purchaser may never detect and

trouble is apt to develop in the use of the material

later on. There are several types or kinds of specifications

in general use. One of them is a design or dimensional specification, another is a performance specification, and yet another which accompanies a drawing or set of drawings, is a material specification. I believe that it is impractical and a dangerous procedure for the average user to prepare design specifications covering standard articles of commerce; such

as rubber hose, hack-saw blades, auto tires, window

glass, fire brick, brooms and brushes, bed springs, and

paint. It is much better, generally, to let the design

alone and make purchases of this sort on a performance basis. One merely has to tell their supplier

1 Purchasing engineer for the Southern California Edison Co. (Ltd.), Los Angeles, Calif.

for instance, that there is desired an air hose for a

certain purpose, and that it must successfully withstand pressures of a certain number of pounds, that

the air will contain oil, is of a certain maximum temperature, and will be used on board ship or in a coal

mine. This procedure will not hamper initiative on

the part of the manufacturer but will, on the other

hand, encourage development and assure the purchaser

of sharing in those developments, whereas if the purchaser designs the material himself he can not hope

to benefit by the experience of others. A performance specification will generally result

in considerable economy; for example, the readers of

this magazine have probably read what Timothy J. Keleher and Frank M. McGeary of the United States

Navy have said about buying supplies on a utility

basis. For instance, among 13 samples of hack-saw

blades for hand frames, they found that the number

of cuts per blade varied from 8.33 to 22.33, and that

the number of strokes per cut varied between 4,602

and 8,523. They found that the best set of samples

gave 167 per cent greater service than the poorest set, whereas the price of the best blade was onty 10 per cent greater than the price of the poorest. A similar condition existed in the hack-saw blades for machine use. They also found a like condition in valve-grinding

compounds. By measuring the work done by the

valve-grinding compounds of three suppliers, it was

found that the compound of one bidder cost 1.17 times

that of the other bidder, but, the cost of removing a pound of metal with the compound of the first bidder

cost apiiroximately 74 cents as compared with $1.47

for removing a pound of metal with the compound of

the other bidder.

They say further

:

One way to determine differences in service is to test samples of the articles under consideration in a manner which

simulates service conditions. For a person equipped with

knowledge based on experience, it is practicable to select the most important factors which enter into the service of articles, and in many cases it is possible without prohibitive expense to test these articles in a way that will insure reason- ably accurate results. Specifications as commonly understood must of necessity be statements of minimum acceptable requirements. When

competition becomes keen this tends toward the delivery under

contracts of material which will be no better than the very

lowest quality acceptable under the specifications. Materials

of the same kind, but of different manufacture, will always

vary as to quality ; hence if any way can be developed of de- termining these differences in quality, which means determining the differences in service to be expected, such development

is surely desirable. It would appear reasonable, therefore,

to work up specifications which would describe in detail the minimum acceptable requirements, and then to develop around

each specification the work factor basis which would give the maximum service for the minimum cost. At first thought this may appear to involve a highly scientific investigation, during which cross currents may develop

and lead in so many directions that no conclusive results will be possible. Further consideration, however, will show that

it is entirely feasible for a consumer to develop, for many

kinds of material, work factors based on actual service use

of the material.
SEPTEMBER, 1931 COMMERCIAL STANDARDS MONTHLY 79

The problem is to select the variable factors entering into the service of a given material under its normal condition

of use and to reduce these factors to a simple mathematical

formula in conjunction with an easily duplicated test, which

shall simulate—in a test laboratory, let us say—actual service

conditions. While it might be possible in time to evolve a scientifically correct work value for every brand of material, it is not

believed that this is necessary, or even desirable, since a

correction would have to be applied for each consumer and

for each use to overcome differences in operating conditions. As the one who pays the bill, each consumer should decide what grade of material he desires to purchase, develop a speci- fication as to minimum quality, in order to identify the material and established work factors of a number of brands

of the material, based on the kind of service expected. When

the material is to be used for different kinds of service, the work value should be based on the most important service from the operating standpoint.

To remain serviceable, specifications must always

be in a state of revision, as the state of the art of

production improves, as the quality of raw materials

available for a given product changes, ’and as new

limitations are imposed on the use of a product. They

should be revised at least once a year or oftener. The

balancing of all these complex, constantly changing

factors entails oftentimes a heavy burden of experimental research without which the numerical values

and tolerances (both chemical and physical) inherent

in all quantitative specifications can not, in general,

be fairly stated. When it becomes necessary to use a specification in

the purchase of materials it is best to use a standard

specification—one which is recognized and understood

by users and manufacturers generally and which fol- lows good principles of design. This means that the

standardized article will represent good engineering.

Its design will then be such as will stand the criticism

of technical men everywhere. Already there are many specifications which have been tried and tested

for long periods of time, such as those of the American Society for Testing Materials, of the United

States Navy, and other Government agencies. Again we must be careful and not let the means become the

end—let the tail wag the dog. Specifications are only

useful when they will bring the right material to the

job at a reasonable cost, and when written with that in

view will answer an admirable purpose; but when

written to be a monument unto themselves—something to look at in wonder and awe—specifications

will hinder rather than help the purchasing agent

and the company he serves. The preparation of a specification involves a most

careful survey in order that it cover all the requirements, and that it will not impose unreasonable demands upon the manufacturer. Thorough research is necessary before the specification should be adopted as a standard. Manufacturers should be conferred with

and other possible users consulted. Often home-made

specifications are found to cover articles which can

not be manufactured economically, which are not generally available. While a special article might be

suitable in a particular case, it would be preferable to use a standard article of a similar shape and size which

is stocked in the community, is quickly available, costs

less, and is equally as satisfactory.

Among the many benefits derived by the consumer

through the use of standard specifications, are the

following

:

1. He can secure truly competitive bids on the same

quality of material—a condition that is greatly to his

advantage.

2. The details of purchasing are simplified and

standardized, a matter of especial importance in large

organizations, such as the modern public utility.

3. Standard methods of test and inspection are of

particular value in establishing a routine procedure for

acceptance of material.

4. The greater uniformity and reliability of material purchased under standard specifications and the

fact' that its properties are more thorough understood,

make possible its more economic use. Of course standardization has corresponding advantages for the producer which are, naturally, indirectly

of advantage to the consumer. Among these may be

mentioned

:

1. He is not compelled to supply for essentially the same purpose materials ordered to a variety of specifications that may differ by just enough to require separate production under each specification, involving

many classifications in production, in stock files, and

the like, with no commensurate benefits to the user.

2. Under standardization with respect both to di- mensional and quality standards, the manufacturer

in times of general business depression when his

orders are low and buying is practically at a standstill, can continue to produce “ standard ” materials,

knowing that when business picks up there will be a market for it. In this way he can keep his plant

running and his organization intact, avoid excessive

labor turnover, prevent large increases of overhead

expense in relation to output, and can frequently take

advantage of favorable market conditions in purchasing raw materials, and in general maintain the effi- ciency of his operation. Such considerations as these are of great importance in that they substantially re- duce the waste in industry which is an economic burden upon the entire community.

3. The producer knows exactly what he is expected

to furnish and how the material will be tested and in- spected by the consumer, thus reducing to a minimum

the possibility of misunderstandings, which are both

vexatious and expensive.

There are many recognized specifications, or standards, as they are called, so that the selection of a good

specification when it is not practical for the purchaser to prepare one himself is comparatively easy. Such bodies as the United States Government, the

American Society for Testing Materials, and the

American Standards Association, which probably are the largest specification producing bodies in the world,

are always very willing to help. For many articles,

the best specification is the general reputation of the

manufacturer for honesty and diligence, and the purchaser’s experience with the actual service rendered

by the material or apparatus purchased from that

supplier.

Inspecting and testing deliveries when purchasing

materials according to specification, one should be

equipped to inspect and test the material received.

Good inspectors and testing laboratories are as essential in the purchase of supplies and equipment as are good specifications. In fact, one is of little value

without the other. A good inspector should have the
80 COMMERCIAL STANDARDS MONTHLY SEPTEMBER, 1931

qualities of a diplomat, together with the characteristics of a Sherlock Holmes. His training should be

thorough, and he should know his materials. He

must have self-assurance, and also the backing of his

superiors. His decisions must be final. He is a veritable traffic cop of quality production.

In the matter of inspection, I have in mind a com- pany that purchased cedar poles upon certain specifications which differed considerably from the standards used by most producers and consumers. A number of the producers had never been able to get any

of the business of this concern on account of higher

prices due to the fact that in order to meet the specifications, it was necessary to classify the poles rigidly.

The unsuccessful bidders often wondered how the suc- cessful ones got by at the prices quoted, but later found the answer to the riddle in the fact that while

the purchasing company had these rigid specifications,

it never tested or measured one pole received, and the

suppliers knowing this simply figured the price on woods run poles and shipped those. Such information travels fast, and undoubtedly suppliers in other

lines knew the habits of this corporation and paid

as much attention to meeting the specifications as did

the pole producers. In my opinion, that company

would have been better off without any specifications.

A certain tolerance, however, must be exercised in the matter of inspection. We should not lean over backward and expect the manufacturer, to produce an

article so perfect in every detail that it exceeds in this

respect the general run of factory output. To do so

invites higher prices and sharp practices with which

the inspector finds himself powerless to cope. Each specification used should describe or refer to a standard method of testing. Obviously no two

methods of tests will give the same results, and we

must get the whole picture from the test report. Tests and investigations unless completely and care- fully made, do not tell the whole story of the performance of the object under test, and are valueless. Tests and investigations of this sort can be likened to a case in court; the prisoner can be made to appear

guilty or innocent, depending upon the evidence

brought out by the lawyers for the prosecution or

defense.

The purchasing agent who knows his standards, his

specifications, also knows his materials and is again

benefited. He has a broaded knowledge of the commodities he buys and the fitness of the different varieties of materials purchased for specific purposes.

A certain large public utility has recently formed a material standards committee composed of members

selected by the management from the different departments of the company. The representative from the

purchasing department is secretary. The secretary

keeps and publishes the minutes of all meetings and

carries on all correspondence relative to the work of

the committee. The chairman is an engineer, and the

other members are representatives of the operating,

construction, and other departments. The object of

the committee is to establish official standards for the

purchase of materials and equipment. After a standard has been issued covering an article, the stores department may stock only this standardized article. No other agency of the company may authorize standards or standard specifications covering the same field as this committee, nor revise any of the existing standards.

The work of preparing the specification is carried on much the same as in other organizations, except

that before a standard specification, or standard, as

it is called, is adopted even tentatively, the various

manufacturers of the article covered are consulted and

other users of similar materials for similar purposes

are asked for comments and criticisms, keeping the

idea in mind that the standard or a similar one may

some day be generally adopted by all the users in

the district. This plan has not only met with the

entire approval from within the organization, but has

been enthusiastically accepted by the dealers and

manufacturers, and other users of similar materials

have signified their approval. It has provided one

point of contact between the user and the seller, that

being the purchasing department. It simplifies purchasing and reduces the items carried in the general

stores stock. It insures suitable articles and makes

them available almost 100 per cent. The important thing is that the specification should

actually fill the need ; no more, no less. To set requirements at a higher level than necessary will add to the

cost with no return on the added investment. A few

individuals may argue that the requirements should

be high in order to obtain better average quality in

production runs. However, definite maximum and

minimum limits should be set, for a good specification

is not built on averages., The specification becomes a part of the contract with the manufacturer or dealer,

and if properly written and properly inforced should

afford complete information and protection to all con- cerned, and insure suitable materials at a suitable

price.

SIMPLIFICATION FOR CARBON BRUSHES

AND BRUSH SHUNTS REVISED

Slight modifications in the simplification program

for carbon brushes and brush shunts have been rec- ommended by the standing committee in charge of the

recommendation. This committee met July 28 in

Cleveland, Ohio, and reaffirmed all items in the pres- ent program with the exception of brush dimensions.

In the opinion of the committee, a further simplification of dimensions could be agreed upon by all parties concerned, within the next few months. The

committee therefore voted to hold in abeyance the

publication of a revised recommendation until the

new list, showing a smaller number of brush dimensions, had been approved by manufacturers of brushes,

and of motors and generators. This revision will re- sult in largely reducing the number of stock items

catalogued by all manufacturers.

The committee further voted to include in the re- vised recommendation certain additional definitions,

together with a table showing the nomenclature re- cently adopted by the brush manufacturers to indi- cate the various standard types of shunt connections.

It is also expected that a further reduction can be

made in the number of shunt lengths. Some of the

manufacturers have already reduced the number of

lengths from six to three.
SEPTEMBER, 1931 COMMERCIAL STANDARDS MONTHLY 81

THE NATIONAL BUREAU OF STANDARDS AND ITS COOPERATION WITH

INDUSTRY

Governmental and Nongovernmental Organizations Cooperate with Bureau Unofficially, Semiofficially, and

Officially

By A. S. McAllister, National Bureau of Standards

Although it is well known that, in carrying on its activities, the National Bureau of Standards cooperates effectively with numerous organizations both governmental and nongovernmental, it is to be doubted

if many persons realize the magnitude of this cooperation, and the extent to which the success of the bureau’s enterprises can be attributed to it. The cooperation referred to might well be classified as unofficial, semiofficial, and official. The first two of

the classes will be touched upon briefly, major atten- tion being given to cooperation which may properly

be referred to as official. A certain amount of information concerning the unofficial and semiofficial contacts between the members

of the bureau’s staff and various organizations is con- tained in the bureau’s card file of membership of in- dividuals on committees of various kinds. Because of

the semiofficial nature of a large part of the committee appointments, the card file is never quite up to date or complete as of any date. Nevertheless, it furnishes a well-worth-while indication of the scope of

the activities carried on by members of the bureau’s

staff in cooperation with other organizations.

Six months ago a detailed analysis was made of

the information set forth in the card file. After eliminating all cards relating to membership on the bureau’s own committees there remained a total of 1,112

listings, which is in excess of an average of one listing

for each individual employee of the bureau. These

listings related to the membership of 155 individuals on the committees of 117 organizations, of which 16 were governmental and 101 nongovernmental.

The accompanying table gives a summary of the

listing of individuals on committees of seven of the more important organizations, and of those for the

other 110 organizations.

Records of bureau personnel on committees of various

associations

Name of organization Listings Individuals

Maximum

listing of any indi- vidual

American Standards Association . ... 181 63 22 Federal Specifications Board 120 61 8 American Society Testing Materials ... 304 55 24 National Fire Protective Association. 13 6 3 American Institute Electrical Engineers 45 19 7 National Research Council 74 26 22 American Society Mechanical Engineers 46 30 4 329

Total 1, 112 155 24

The above summary relates to the membership of the

personnel of the National Bureau of Standards on

committees of other organizations, and includes offi- cial, semiofficial, and unofficial appointments, but does

not include records of the appointments made by other

organizations of individuals to cooperate in activities

carried out under the auspices of the National Bureau

of Standards.

On a recently compiled list of the organizations now

cooperating officially with the National Bureau of

Standards, which have designated one or more repre- sentatives to serve on committees, board, etc., functioning under the auspices of the National Bureau of

Standards, there appears a total of 167 technical societies, trade associations, and consumer groups.

Meaning of “ trade association —When one at- tempts to distinguish between trade associations and

other organizations with which the National Bureau

of Standards is cooperating, he is confused no little by the fact that a very broad interpretation of the

term “ trade association ” has been given by the American Trade Association executives. Such an association

may be an organization of producers or distributors of

a commodity or service, and in its service to the public

may be engaged in “ the compilation and distribution

of information ; the establishment of trade standards

;

and the cooperative handling of problems common to the production or distribution of the commodity or

service ” with which it is concerned.

A fair idea of the real significance of the abovenoted interpretation can be gained from the fact that

the 1935 executive committee of the American Trade

Association Executives, consisted of representatives

of 12 organizations, not more than 6 of which are

associations of manufacturers.

That the National Bureau of Standards is vitally

interested in the activities of American trade asso- ciations is shown conclusively by its several periodicals, the Standards Yearbook, the Research Journal.

Technical News Bulletin, and Commercial Standards

Monthly, and by the plans utilized by it in cooperating effectively with these associations in both its research and commercial standardization work.

In the Standards Yearbook for 1930 there are given

outlines of the activities of 375 associations which

make standardization one of the important features

of their services to their members. A recent survey

showed that 107 associations have placed in operation

certain definite plans for facilitating the use of their

own or other standards and specifications by manufacturers, and the identification of goods made ac- cording to those standards.

Both the research and testing, and the commercial

standardization groups of the bureau look upon their

cooperation with trade associations as essential to their success. Research associate plan. —The bureau inaugurated

the research associate plan in order to enable such

organizations as trade associations to conduct specific researches on important problems affecting their

industry or specialty. In accordance with this plan,

the bureau supplements the facilities of organizations

concerning research and affords facilities for those
82 COMMERCIAL STANDARDS MONTHLY SEPTEMBER, 1931

who have none. When requested to do so, it makes

research possible for an organization by loaning

equipment, providing quarters, and affording facilities, data, and supervision, giving training and experience in research under bureau auspices, and cooperation to qualified workers—the research associates being selected for the purpose and financed by trade

associations or similar groups.

A recent survey showed that 68 research associates

at the National Bureau of Standards were maintained

by 31 organizations which would be classified as trade

associations by the American Trade Association Executives. Other organized groups, committees, and firms

maintain 30 additional research associates at the

bureau.

Elimination of waste program. —In carrying forward its elimination of waste program, the bureau

cooperates with many organizations desirous of eliminating excess sizes, varieties, grades, and qualities of

commodities of common consumption. Eighty trade

associations are sponsoring simplified-practice projects involving sizes and varieties, and 33 trade asso- ciations are sponsoring commercial standards in- volving grades and qualities. These facts are set forth in the accompanying table.

Trade associations and technical societies sponsoring stand- ardizing activities

Total

375

38

3133

480

17

10775

55

1 Making Standards Effective, by R. A. Martino, National Bureau of Standards, appeared in the January, 1931, issue of Commercial Standards Monthly.

Activities of trade association department. —That

the Chamber of Commerce of the United States of

America attaches great importance to trade associations is attested by the rapidly growing activities of

its trade-association department. Under date of June

30, 1930, the then manager of that department, Dr.

Hugh P. Baker, wrote the National Bureau of Standards as follows

We are very much interested in the matter of certification of product, particularly as it is developed through the trade

association. In contacts in the field with a number of asso- ciations during the past few months we have urged that con- sideration be given to developing means of certifying product and, of course, have emphasized in this connection the

necessity for standardization and development of means of checking or policing the certification. The work which you

are doing is of great value in furthering the idea of certifi- cation and because of our interest in the subject, we will ap- preciate your keeping us informed of developments.

More than eight years ago, Julius H. Barnes, the

then president of the Chamber of Commerce of the

United States, expressed the desire of the chamber to cooperate in establishing standards of quality. On

January 10, 1923, President Barnes stated:

Business is facilitated and the ground for commercial dis- putes between buyer and seller is narrowed down if sales are made on the basis of standard grades of merchandise,

perfectly familiar to both buyer and seller. This is a phase

of business of particular importance in international transactions where different trade practices and different conditions exist. In a good many foreign countries there has been

loss of good will for particular American dealers as well as some lingering prejudice to the good name of American busi- ness generally, which can be traced to the lack of understanding and agreement between buyer and seller as to the qualities entering into transactions, or to the absence of standards

of quality and performance. When such standards exist, backed by the moral force of a trade association or a trade group in the United States, the promotion of the sale of American merchandise of a given kind and the building of good will toward American trade abroad are made easier and

rest upon a sound foundation. In lines of merchandise where conditions warrant the adoption of representative trade associations of certain definite standards of quality or performance, the associations can hold

to account any member failing to make delivery up to the standards adopted and incorporated in sales contracts. Dis- putes arising in connection with such transactions readily lend themselves to settlement by the parties themselves or by

commercial arbitration. A good many association executives, and a good many manufacturers who at first have been skeptical of the possibility of

setting standards in their particular lines, have gone to Washington and sat in with the members of the Federal Specifications Board, and participated in the drafting of workable

specifications for all Government purchases in their lines. In the case of some commodities the Federal specifications thus adopted are actually becoming used in private trade. The National Bureau of Standards of the Department of Commerce has at all times shown a disposition to go as far as it can with the business men in working out technical specifications. There are laboratory and testing facilities here, pro- vided by the taxpayer, which may be available for this purpose. The director of the Bureau of Foreign and Domestic

Commerce, of the Department of Commerce, has expressed the willingness of the chiefs of the commodity divisions in that bureau to work with the associations in this matter of stand- ards of quality, particularly as they bear on foreign trade. Our department managers in the different departments of the

staff of the Chamber of Commerce of the United States are

desirous of cooperating with any organization undertaking or extending this class of work.

That the present manager of the trade association

department of the Chamber of Commerce of the

United States, Philip P. Gott, is working in harmony

with the ideas expressed by his predecessor, Doctor

Baker, and by former President Barnes is shown by

the interest manifested by him in collecting and ex- hibiting certificates and labels now being used by

many trade associations to indicate or guarantee compliance with their standards or specifications. These

certificates and labels, which were collected in cooperation with the National Bureau of Standards, were ex- hibited at the 1931 annual convention of the Chamber

of Commerce at Atlantic City, N. J., and are now being shown at the headquarters in Washington, D. C.

There has also been prepared a loan exhibit to be

sent from time to time to trade associations contemplating the use of certificates or labels. When he was Secretary of Commerce, President

Hoover listed among the successful services of the

trade associations in the public interest, scientific and

economic research, and the simplification and standardization of commodities, in which associations have

made a most valued contribution to our economic

progress. He said : Trade associations, like many other good things, may be

abused, but the investigations of the Department of Commerce

show that such abuses have become rare exceptions. Within

the last few years trade associations have rapidly developed

into legitimate and constructive fields of the utmost public

interest and have marked a fundamental step in the gradual

evolution of our whole economic life. * * * They are the safeguards of small business and thus prevent the extinction

of competition. They are the alternative to capital consolidation. * * * with wisdom and devotion these voluntary
SEPTEMBER, 1931 COMMERCIAL STANDARDS MONTHLY 83

forces can accomplish more for our country than any spread

of the hand of Government. In response to a request for an expression of opinion concerning the legality of the work in standardization being carried on by trade associations and similar organizations under the auspices of the Department of Commerce, the Federal Trade Commission

stated, under date of March 12, 1931, that it has regarded the promotion of standardization of commodities among the members of an industry as peculiarly

the work of the Department of Commerce.

In no matter has the commission ever held the standardization of commodities by the members of an industry to be

violative of any of the statutes it has the duty of enforcing.

* * * The commission regards the work of the Department

of Commerce in encouraging the standardizing of commodities as important and beneficial to the public.

THE PERFORMANCE TYPE OF SPECIFICATIONS

Relative Merits of Performance and Material Specifications for Rubber Insulation

By Charles B. Boggs, Vice President, Simplex Wire & Cable Co.

In order to take advantage of improvements that

have been made in late years in rubber insulation it is important for a consumer who must purchase un- der specification to have a fair idea of the relative

merits of the several kinds of specifications.

There are two general types of specifications. The

older type is known as a “ materials ” specification,

as it describes in detail the materials to be used. It generally includes tests to be passed at time of purchase but requires no future performance from the

wire. This type of specification is based on the

theory that the purchaser knows the best design, materials, and manufacturing practice for his needs;

that he has had satisfactory service from such before

;

and that he desires to purchase exactly the same thing

again, regardless of improvements. He would rather

buy what he knows to be only fairly good, even at greater cost, than run the supposed risk of accepting

something bad.

The newer type of specification is the “ performance ” type. It is based on the principle that the

product ought to pass tests which indicate the per- formance in service. In the case of rubber insulation it calls, in general, for physical and electrical

tests, and an aging test to insure that the characteristics will remain approximately constant with

time. It includes additional tests for special requirements, for example ; in submarine cables, a water absorption tests; in multi-conductor cables, rigidity

tests ; in high tension wires, tests for breakdown

strength and resistance to ozone or freedom from ten- dency to form it ; and other tests showing resistance to flame, to high temperatures, to the action of oil, and so on as the case may be. To meet this kind of

specification the product must be capable of rendering a definite service and by such tests the purchaser

so assures himself. He is not concerned with the materials or the method of manufacture as long as the

product accomplishes the desired results. The manufacturer, on the other hand, is left free to make the

best product at the lowest cost to suit the service.

He can take advantage of all modern technical knowledge and methods of manufacture.

There is yet a third type of specification. Some

purchasers have shown a disposition to compromise

by adopting the necessary performance tests while

still retaining the old requirements as to materials,

except that they sanction the inclusion of one or more new ingredients—say some particular accelerator or

anti-oxidant—which may be needed to modernize the

compound. In this way the product is improved and

for the moment brought fairly up to date. Let us consider the relative merits of the three

types. The “ materials ” specification assures the purchaser only that goods accepted in the future will not

be any worse than those considered satisfactory in the

past. It is an equally effective obstacle to improvement, for it restricts the manufacturer to certain pre- scribed materials and the service of the product is necessarily limited by this choice. New ingredients

which would improve the electrical properties or prolong the life of the wire or cable in service can not

be utilized.

The “ mixed ” or “ compromise ” type is undoubtedly an improvement over the strict materials type

in that the performance tests insure the required service and the new ingredients included permit a better

compound. On the other hand, still better materials

which are soon made available bj^ progress in the

art, are excluded until the materials requirements

have again been revised. Thus, while the performance part of the specification insures a certain quality,

the materials requirements effectually block any further improvement. Periodic revisions of the specifications are only a partial remedy ; for no matter how

quickly made they are always lagging behind the art. To make proper revisions the purchaser would have

to keep himself informed on all the advances of the

art. This is impractical and experience shows that

he has not done so in the past. It is strictly the province of the manufacturer.

The performance type of specification is free from

these objections. While it fixes the lower limits of

availability to render service, it does not in any way

prevent or delay the making of better products. Improvements due to new materials and methods do not

necessitate any revision whatever, for surely no one

objects to getting something better than he demands.

Unrestricted by any prescriptions as to materials and

processes, the manufacturer is free, by the proper

choice of them, to exceed the requirements or to sat- isfy them at lower cost. If the purchaser desires to

raise the limits, it can be easily and quickly done

without any fundamental revision. This type of specification is an insurance, not an obstacle. The wa}r to take advantage of modern progress and

to do it automatically is to purchase on performance

specifications.
84 COMMERCIAL STANDARDS MONTHLY SEPTEMBER, 1931 STANDARD FORECASTS FOR AIR AND MARINE NAVIGATION

Resume Explains Working Procedure of United States Weather Bureau

By C. F. Marvin, Chief, Weather Bureau, United States Department of Agriculture

The standard forecasts and warnings of the

Weather Bureau are based chiefly on simultaneous observations of local Aveather conditions taken and tele- graphed from a network of representative stations in

the continental United States. They are supplemented

by weather messages obtained from ships at sea and

by interchange with other national seiwices.

The standard observations are taken at 8 a. m. and

8 p. m., seventy-fifth meridian time, and the general

forecasts of the bureau for aerial and marine navigations are based upon weather maps prepared by charting these reports. Observations at intermediate hours

form a basis for special forecasts and warnings.

On May 1, 1930, the Weather Bureau began on 20

selected vessels the use of the International Code for

reports from ships at sea. This code Avas adopted at a conference of the International Meteorological Organization at Copenhagen in September, 1929. It is a figure code in standard forms and when in general

use, it will make possible transmission of reports from

ships of any nationality to the meteorological service

of any country party to the agreement.

Adoption of this code is an important advance in

the development of forecasts for marine navigation

and will obviate the necessity of numerous code books

for translation of reports received, and the vessel master will be asked to send only one message in the standard form in place of several messages in a variety of

codes.

The standard forecasts of the bureau are issued for

fixed areas or districts. Since the forecasts are issued

to cover a definite period in the near future, speed in

transmission is essential. They are distributed over

considerable areas and to be useful must arrive at destination in advance of the period of time covered

in the forecasts. Brief messages are handled more

ACTION OF FEDERAL TRADE COMMISSION

RELATING TO FALSE BRANDING AND

ADVERTISING

Prominent among the trade-practice conference

rules receiving the official approval of the Federal

Trade Commission are those relating to false marking or branding, false advertising of grade, quality, or quantity of products.

In 22 of the 26 groups of rules recently revised and

approved by the commission, there were included one

or more rules relating to marking, branding, or quality of the goods. The following industries have ac- cepted these rules: Bituminous coal, common brick, concrete mixers and pavers, concrete reinforcing steel,

crushed stone, cut stone, face brick, greeting cards,

jewelry, kraft paper, milk and ice cream cans, mixed

feeds, paper bags, range boilers, steel office furniture,

solid sectional steel windows, structural-steel fabricators, vulcanized fibers, Avail paper, Avatchcases, and

woolstock.

Typical of the trade-practice conferences referred

to is that of the wall-paper industry.

rapidly, hence the standard forecast contains the

essential features of weather expected for a given area

in the smallest number of words in which it can be

effectively presented.

Standard forecasts for marine navigation are of

tAvo types ; general forecast and standard form. General forecasts, based upon the 8 a. m. and 8 p. m. re- ports, are issued for certain coastal and adjacent ocean

areas. They embody in general terms the outlook for

the weather during 24 hours in those regions. Hurricane, storm, and small craft warnings are based upon

the principal observations or special observations obtained for the purpose. In the standard form they

give the location of the disturbance, its probable direction of movement, intensity, and advise caution in cer- tain regions when the disturbance is of such proportion as to endanger shipping.

Forecasts for air navigation are of three types

(1) The general flying forecasts are based upon the

8 a. m. and 8 p. m. observations and give the weather

outlook at the surface and in the free air during a 12- hour period in the standard aviation zone; (2) route or trip forecasts are issued for the benefit of air navigation along designated routes; (3) there are standard 3-hourly summaries for designated airways

which contain information as to weather existing along

the airways and forcasts for brief intervals ahead

along comparatively narroAV and limited air lanes. Occasional forecast and informational service is furnished for transoceanic flying and the standard

service for this type of air navigation consists of

weather forecasts and summaries from the meteorological service of the country from which the flight

originates, supplemented by advices from the meteorological service of the country in which the flight ter- minates.

Under date of August 21, 1931, the commission an- nounced that modifications recently made by the commission in certain of the resolutions dealing with

business practices in the wall-paper industry have

been accepted by the industry. Ninety per cent of

that industry was present or represented at the tradepractice conference of the industry held under the

auspices of the commission, at which 13 resolutions were formulated and adopted by the industry.

Among the rules pertaining to practices held to be

violative of law are two relating to false marking and

deceptive advertising, as follows:

The false marking or branding of products of the industry,

with the effect of misleading or deceiving purchasers with

respect to the quantity, quality, grade, or substance of the goods purchased, is an unfair trade practice, and the marking

or causing or permitting to be made or published any false, untrue, or deceptive statement by way of advertisement or otherwise concerning the grade, quality, quantity, substance,

character, nature, origin, size, or preparation of any product

of the industry having the tendency and capacity to mislead

or deceive purchasers or jirospective purchasers, is an unfair trade practicd.
SEPTEMBER, 1931 COMMERCIAL STANDARDS MONTHLY 85

ARTIFICIAL RESPIRATION

Shaffer Prone Pressure Method of Resuscitation Approved by Various Organizations

By Dr. L. It. Thompson, United States Public Health Service

Along with the campaign for accident prevention

there has been developed in industry various types

of what are known as medical departments. This

term may roughly be applied to departments varying

in proportions from the simplest first-aid station to the modern medical plant which is prepared to treat the employee on the job, or at home, or even hospitalize him if necessary. Regardless of the type of medical department, in

fact whether or not the particular industry has one, an occupational group should be familiar with some

standard method of resuscitation to be practiced in case of emergency. To the person responsible for

health conditions about the establishment goes responsibility of seeing that this group has an opportunity

to learn a method of resuscitation.

To date no one standard method has been approved

by those interested in the practice of resuscitation.

However, in a broad way the Schaffer prone-pressure method, with slight modification, when correctly performed, has been approved by the followResuscitation position 1

ing: American Telephone & Telegraph Co., American Red Cross, American Gas Association, Bethlehem

Steel Co., National Electric Light Association, National Safety Council, the Bureau of Medicine and

Surgery of the Navy Department, the Surgeon General of the Army, the United States Bureau of Mines,

the National Bureau of Standards, and the United

States Public Health Service. Following is the procedure for giving artificial respiration by the pronepressure method

:

1. Lay the patient on his stomach, one arm extended

directly overhead, the other arm bent at elbow, and

with the face turned outward and resting on hand

or forearm, so that the nose and mouth are free for

breathing.

2. Kneel straddling the patient’s thighs with your

knees placed at such a distance from the hip bones as

to allow you to assume the proper position. Place

the palms of the hands on each side of the small of

the back with fingers resting on the ribs, and extending around the sides of the body, the little finger just

touching the lowest rib, with the thumb and fingers

in a natural position, and the tips of the fingers just

out of sight (thumb should be nearly against the

fingers).

3. With arms held straight, swing forward slowly, so that the weight of your body is gradually brought

to bear upon the patient. The full weight of the

body should not be brought down on small or frail patients. The shoulder should be directly over the

heel of the hand at the end of the forward swing.

Do not bend your elbows. This operation should

take about two seconds.

Resuscitation position 2

4. Now immediately swing backward, so as to re- move the pressure completely.

5. After two seconds, swing forward again. Thus

repeat deliberately 12 to 15 times a minute the double

movement of compression and release, a complete res- piration in four or five seconds.

6. Continue artificial respiration without interruption until natural breathing is restored; if necessary,

four hours or longer, or until a physician declares the

patient is dead.

7. As soon as this artificial respiration has been

started and while it is being continued, an assistant

Resuscitation position 3

should loosen any tight clothing about the patient’s

neck, chest, or waist. Keep the patient warm. Do

not give any liquids whatever by mouth until the

patient is fully conscious. (Be certain all foreign

materials such as tobacco, false teeth, etc., are removed

from the mouth and pull the tongue forward. A

fairly even area should be selected if possible, but in case the surface is sloping be sure the victim is placed

with his head at a lower level than his feet.)

8. To avoid strain on the heart when the patient

revives, he should be kept lying down and not allowed

to stand or sit up. If the doctor has not arrived by
86 COMMERCIAL STANDARDS MONTHLY SEPTEMBER, 1031

the time the patient has revived, he should he given some stimulant, such as one teaspoonful of aromatic

spirits of ammonia in a small glass of water, a hot

drink of coffee or tea, etc. The patient should be kept warm.

9. Artificial respiration should be started immediately. Resuscitation should be carried on at the nearest possible point to where the patient received his

injuries. He should not be moved from this point

until he is breathing normally of his own volition

and then moved only in a lying position. Should it be necessary, due to extreme weather conditions, etc., to move the patient before he is breathing normally,

artificial respiration should be carried on during the

time that he is being moved. (The alternate application and release of pressure on the sides of the patient

where the ribs are flexible will result in artificial breathing.)

10. A brief return of natural respiration is not a certain indication that artificial respiration will no

longer be needed. Not infrequently the patient, after a temporary recovery of respiration, stops breathing

again. The patient must be watched and if natural

WIRE CLOTH FOR PAPER-MAKING MACHINES

Under date of August 22, the success of the commercial standard for Fourdrinier wire cloth was an- nounced by the National Bureau of Standards to in- terested manufacturers and users of this commodity,

which is a replaceable part of paper making machines.

The standard will be considered effective as of November 1, 1931, for new production with a period of six

months thereafter for clearance of existing stocks. The chief purpose of the industry in the voluntary

establishment of this commercial standard is to provide a better understanding between buyer and seller as to nomenclature, physical requirements, methods of

inspection, labeling, handling, storage, and installation so as to secure a more intelligent application and

use; to promote a longer life with fewer shutdowns;

to provide a nationally-recognized basis for guarantees ; and to increase the general assurance in procurement and satisfaction in the use of Fourdrinier wire

cloth. Printed copies of the commercial standard will be

available in due course.

CENTRALIZED PURCHASING FOR CHICAGO

Steps have been taken by Mayor A. J. Cermak, of

Chicago, to organize a mayor’s advisory commission

to study the city government and make recommendations concerning contracts, specifications, and purchasing methods. One of the specific purposes of the commission is

To standardize, so far as possible, contracts and specifica- tions for municipal work and supplies so as to invite a muck

wider competition than lias heretofore existed in the letting

of such contracts and thus obtain fairer prices for the city

to improve the city’s central purchasing administration, by

providing approved safeguards in the purchase, handling', delivery, and accounting for supplies, materials, and equipment,

and to encourage by every proper means a feeling in the busi- ness community that the city of Chicago is entitled to the same

consideration in its contracts and purchases as are large pri- vate businesses, and that the city—of Chicago on its part will

breathing stops, artificial respiration should be

resumed at once.

11.

In carrying out resuscitation it may be necessary

to change the operator. This change must be made

without losing the rhythm of respiration. By this procedure no confusion results at the time of change of

operators, and a regular rhythm is kept up. When equipment is available and the services of a physician are possible, further action may meet with

success. In case the victim has been exposed to some

poisonous gas or fume, it may be considered advantageous to administer oxygen or oxygen and carbon

dioxide to hasten removal of the toxic substance from

the blood.

In certain industries where known hazards exist and

where there is danger of employees becoming asphyxiated, it is a duty of that industry to formulate rules

and regulations for resuscitation methods and take

extra precaution to see that a key employee in each

occupational group is well versed in the art of applying resuscitation methods. Because of the importance of starting artificial respiration immediately,

every employee of the group should have some instruction in this subject.

deal fairly and honestly with the business public in its pur- chases of supplies and the letting of contracts. Mr. John R. Whitehead, past president of the

National Association of Purchasing Agents, has been

appointed a member of the commission, and is also a member of the executive committee appointed by the

commission.

CERTIFICATION PLAN INAUGURATED BY

THE UNDERWRITERS’ LABORATORIES

The establishment of a new plan of inspection and

certification has just been announced by the Underwriters’ Laboratories. At present the plan is being

applied to structural clay tile only, but it is so designed that it can be applied to other materials which

may be listed by Underwriters’ Laboratories. The

purpose of this service is to assist the industry in

maintaining a product of standard uniform quality

and to supply such information as may be needed by

regulatory and insurance-rating bodies throughout

the country concerning respective manufacturers of

material certified. Individual certificates of inspection are issued to cover specific lots of material and do not apply

to the total production of a plant and it is not re- quired that a manufacturer certificate his total production in order to become eligible for listing. These

certificates are countersigned by the laboratories’ representatives and can be transmitted to the owner or

other interested persons as evidence that the material

in question is of a uniform quality conforming to the

laboratories’ requirements and as determined by factory and field operation.

This new plan of certification is not to be confused

with the scheme that has been adopted in connection

with automatic electric irons. The latter plan is one which involves the use of a printed tag carrying a simple statement made by the Underwriters’. Laboratories referring to the merits of automatic irons

manufacturers of listed automatic irons are given the

privilege of attaching such a tag to their product.
SEPTEMBER, 1931 COMMERCIAL STANDARDS MONTHLY 87

INCREASING THE PURCHASING POWER OF THE CONSUMER

Marketing Research and Mass Distribution Necessary to Maintain Mass Production

By Edward A. Filene 1

Let us understand at the outset clearly what mass

production is and what it implies. The word “ mass ”

is used to bring out the idea that these new methods

of production and distribution are for the masses. Mass production is not merely large-scale production.

It is scientific production, so planned, organized, and

carried on as to make possible a very high rate of production per man.

Large-scale production in itself reduces costs. But

if the economies are not passed on to the consumer in

lower prices, it is not mass production, because it does not help the masses to buy what is being produced. Their buying power is the essence of mass

production. And if wages are not raised about in

proportion to the increase in production, it is again

not mass production, for it has not done the utmost

possible to raise purchasing power and so put its products within the reach of the masses. Given larger mass

buying power, the total profits of business increase,

although the unit profit is kept low so as to keep

prices as low as possible and thus increase buying.

Business in the past, before this point of view was

adopted, endeavored to profit by catering to the

“ classes,” the comparatively well-to-do. But 100,000

or 500,000 or even a million multimillionaires can not

possibly make a market for the enormous output of mass production.

I do not want you to get the idea that I say cate- gorically that everything used can be made to sell at 5 or 10 cents apiece. But to emphasize my point I

shall exaggerate thus : If everything the masses need

and reasonably want could be sold for 5 or 10 cents

each, there would not be enough working people in

the world to supply the demand. That sounds like an impossible, fantastic dream. But here is the point

:

Between 5 or 10 cents and the prices now demanded

there is a price which is within reach of the masses

to pay for a vast output and so keep everyone at work. To achieve that price would bring social and

political stability nationally and internationally.

Mass production and distribution are not to be re- garded as purely American practices which for some

nefarious reason American business men wish to force on Europe. Mass distribution is a business fact to which modern invention, independent of national di- visions, has brought us. It is the next step before all industry, except, perhaps, that 15 per cent or so which

is concerned with producing what may be called de

luxe products. Nevertheless, because of the stage of

development of American industry and for other reasons, perhaps, which need not be elaborated, American

business men have quite generally subscribed to the

gospel of high wages and low costs through mass

production.

The masses in America who are benefited by mass

production do not join in the complaint made by a few quite uninformed idealists that mass production

1 Abstract of paper by Mr. Filene read before the World Social Eco- nomic Congress of the International Industrial Relations Association, Amsterdam, Holland, August 27, 1931.

is evil—that it is filling the world with automobiles

instead of with oil paintings; that it is getting the

workers of America interested in modern plumbing

rather than in sunsets and flowers and quaint old

customs; that the masses are going in for good dentistry and such material luxuries rather than the bad

teeth and nice, respectful manners which once seemed

so becoming to them. Mass production is a fact and

the only demonstrated method of raising standards

of living.

Innumerable instances of so-called mass production

in America are in reality only large-scale production.

They have attempted to increase output without paying the absolutely necessary attention to increasing

the buying power of the masses, without which the

increased output could not be sold. Those who clung

to traditional methods could not produce at low cost, and therefore could not pay high wages. They

blocked the maintenance and growth of purchasing

power. Factories using successful methods could

not sell because employees of inefficient companies

could not buy.

To sell the growing surplus of goods for which

there was no market, high-pressure salesmanship was

adopted. The advantages of low-cost production were offset by introducing high-cost distribution.

Consumers who yielded to this lure to buy at too high

prices had so much the less to buy the goods of other

industries. Thus even genuine mass-production in- dustries suffered—not because their competitors were employing better methods, but worse. The high cost of selling, which in turn seems to require so-called

high-pressure salesmanship, is thus seen to be due not

only to wastes in distribution, which are high, but to lack of purchasing power occasioned by too high prices

and too low wages. Given the proper balance of

wages and prices, truthful advertising, by making

large sales possible for mass production, instead of

being a wasteful expense, actually saves money for the consumer. Mass production had its inception without beingplanned on any larger scale than for the individual

establishment. Its spread has been unplanned, con- sequently slow and uneven. Planning demands fact

finding.

Methods of reducing wastes in distribution is the

first outstanding problem for fact finding. To seek out the best methods of producing or distributing in use anywifere and to make those best methods quickly

available to business men everywhere is a task for re- search in this field. The actual working out of better methods, the invention of better machines and

processes can doubtless best be done in the factories or on the selling front. Once worked out, however,

this knowledge should be made part of a general pool

of information for the benefit of competitors and noncompetitors alike. Closely allied with research into methods is investigation of markets. At the recent meeting of the
88 COMMERCIAL STANDARDS MONTHLY SEPTEMBER, 1931

International Chamber of Commerce in Washington

a report on distribution, while bringing together significant facts, had as its most significant result the

showing of how limited are the facts available and

how great is the need for further investigation. It has led to action by the International Chamber of

Commerce, looking toward the formation of a committee on distribution which will utilize the research

services of the International Management Institute

and other bodies to stimulate the gathering of facts on distribution for business men in all countries.

Mass production and mass distribution have become

a business fact—the inevitable next step before industry. It is a step that must be taken if we are to have

peace, profits, prosperity and stable governments, and

a step that must be planned on a world scale and a groundwork of facts rather than of opinions and

guesswork.

RADIO STANDARDS

Rapid Growth of Radio Prevents Rigid Standards of Performance and Operation

By C. B. .Tolli Fi-' e. Chief Engineer, Federal Radio Commission

The use of radio frequencies for any type of radio

communication depends primarily on the standard of

radio frequency. It is because of the fact that it is possible to maintain a radio transmitter on its assigned

frequency with a very high degree of precision, that

the large number of licensed radio stations and services can be operated simultaneously in the limited radio

spectrum. This precise frequency control, however,

would be useless except for the fact that the standard

of radio frequency has been accurately determined and

maintained. The orderly operation of radio stations

depends entirely upon the use of a single standard of

frequency, and in the reduction of interference between stations and services the Federal Radio Commission is dependent on the existence of this single

standard.

In broadcasting, the allocation has been standardized

by the assignment of stations to channels 10 kilocycles

wide; stations in the same geographical area being

separated by 50 kilocycles. This separation is based on the selectivity of the average receiving set in use

to-day. Changes in this standard of 50-kilocycle separation may be made as receiving-set design improves

and improved sets come into use by the public. The

standard of the channel width of 10 kilocycles, however, is determined by the frequency space necessary

to carry good quality speech and music, and improvements in receiving equipment will not change this

separation.

ILLUMINATING ENGINEERS TO DISCUSS AIR

SAFETY

Plans for the twenty-fifth annual convention of the

Illuminating Engineering Society to be held at the

William Penn Hotel in Pittsburgh, Pa., October 12 to

16, indicate that the convention program will include

several outstanding features in addition to the customary technical items, according to an official announce- ment of the society. Interest in the forthcoming

convention will be heightened by a special program

commemorating the society’s silver anniversary.

Recognizing the importance of safe night flying to the advancement of aviation and particularly the part

which fog plays in the safety of air travel, the society

has set aside one entire session for the discussion of

Allocation to broadcast stations is made, among

other things on the basis of power. Interference is a function of power, but service to the public is a function of power and modulation. In order that the

allocation of power may mean the same to all localities, the Federal Radio Commission has applied uniform methods of measuring power output and specified a minimum degree of modulation capability for

all broadcast stations. This standardization is neces- sary in view of the fact that the law has specified the

proportional distribution of radio facilities. The regulation of public-service commercial communication has not been in the direction of specific

standards of performance of equipment. In these

communications, because of competition, the standards of good service and efficient operation are imposed by the public. A standard system of assigning radio frequencies has been adopted, the amount of

frequency space depending on the frequency and the

type of service.

In all types of radio communications, equipment

and service are developing rapidly and it is difficult to apply rigid standards of performance and operation. To meet this development and to insure most

efficient use of radio frequencies and the best service

to the public, the general obligation is on all classes of radio services to maintain service and equipment

up to the general standard of the “ present state of

the art.”

aviation lighting. Experts in each field will present

important data on the lighting of airports, airways,

lighting of the plane, and the all-important subject

of the transmission of light through fog will be

discussed.

Monday, October 12, will be devoted to morning and

afternoon preconvention sessions of central-station

] ighting service engineers from all parts of the country.

The lighting service meetings facilitate the exchange

of information on a wide scope of fundamental questions of interest to lighting service engineers relating

to the sale of electrical energy, the merchandising of

electrical equipment, proper and comfortable home

lighting, safe industrial lighting, and general lighting

practice.
SEPTEMBER, 1931 COMMERCIAL STANDARDS MONTHLY 89

TOBACCO GRADING

International Trade in Tobacco Is Conducted Mainly on the Basis of Samples

By Charles E. Gage, United States Department of Agriculture

The application of the principle of standardization

to leaf tobacco is new only in method. The idea it- self is nearly as old as the history of the white man

in America. Almost as soon as the growing of

tobacco for export developed into a craze in the Virginia colony three centuries ago, restrictions were imposed upon the exportation of low-grade tobacco, and

therein were set up the first rudiments of tobacco

standards, and tobacco inspection service. The to- bacco inspection warehouses established during

colonial times at points from the James River landings to as far north as Georgetown (now Washington,

D. C.), have long since crumbled away, with a few exceptions, but the principle involved in their operation has had a rebirth in the establishment of United

States standard grades and the operation of the to- bacco-grading service.

Federal tobacco standards represent the first approach to the rather elusive subject of tobacco grades

by a systematic separation and gradation of the

major factors involved. These major factors are three

1. Group. —Embracing grade groups as follows:

(a) Wrappers, certain very high grades of leaf; (&)

lead, or heavy leaf; ( c ) thin leaf or cutters; (X) lugs.

The definitions of groups vary somewhat for different

types.

2. Quality. —Gradations within the groups numbered from 1, highest quality, down to as low as 7 for

lowest quality.

3.

Color. —A further separation of grades, the color

range for any given type of tobacco being separated

into: ( l

)

Light; (/) medium; (d) dark.

The combination of symbols representing these

three factors affords a description of grade, and is used

in connection with the name or number of the type

according to the United States classification of leaf tobacco. Thus, type 11, AIL, represents Old Belt flue- cured tobacco, wrapper, first quality, light or lemon

color. C2F is a cutter, second quality, of medium or orange color. There are from 60 to 100 grades in each

of the 26 recognized types of tobacco grown in the

United States, exclusive of the subgrades provided for

finer distinctions.

A Lexington, Ky., auction warehouse. The auctioneer and buyers proceed up and down the rows, the tobacco

being sold at a rate of 300 to J/00 piles an hour
90 COMMERCIAL STANDARDS MONTHLY SEPTEMBER, 1931

The primary functions of standard grades of tobacco

are similar to those pertaining to standard grades of

other commodities. They provide a measuring stick

for quality which may be instrumental in solving important problems encountered by growers in marketing tobacco and by affording a descriptive nomenclature for grade and quality may become a significant

aid in transacting international trade.

Fully 80 per cent of all American tobacco is sold

by the grower at auction markets where the buyers

are representatives of the large manufacturers, dealers, and exporters. Through the official tobacco-grading service and a market-news service farmers may

now have their tobacco officially inspected and classi- fied as to grade and thus be apprised of its approximate value previous to sale. The conditions sur- rounding the sale of tobacco at auction are such as to promote inequalities of price for tobacco of similar

quality, and a knowledge of grade and grade prices

is therefore a material safeguard to the grower, who

has the right to reject unsatisfactory sales. The operation of the tobacco-grading service is simple. Trained graders are stationed at certain markets (the organization is young and the service not

yet widespread) under the employment of the United

States Department of Agriculture and, usually, the

State department of agriculture jointly. The farmer

delivers his tobacco to the auction warehouse, places

it in trays, has it weighed, and puts it in line for

sale. (See illustration.) At the scales a warehouse

ticket is placed on the tobacco stating the name of

the grower and the number of pounds. Blank spaces

are provided for inserting the name of the buyer, the

jirice per pound, and the official grade of the tobacco

if the grower wishes to have it graded. Grading is not compulsory. The official grader, who is selected

only after rigid investigation and tests as to his

qualifications, examines the pile and certifies to the

grade. When the sale reaches that pile of tobacco the

auctioneer or a representative of the warehouse an- nounces the Federal grade and the bidding commences. Buyers are under no compulsion to take cog- nizance of the Federal grade, but inasmuch as a sale may be made every 8 to 12 seconds and the buyers

have scant time for examining the tobacco, the

grader’s judgment is usually welcomed.

Rapid selling promotes errors of judgment on the

part of buyers, and such inequalities of price as may

at times inflict severe hardship on growers whose

tobacco is knocked down for less than its real value.

In all markets, therefore, the farmer has the right to

reject the sale and call for another. He is materially aided in deciding whether to reject by a knowledge of the official grade of the tobacco coupled with

nformation as to current average prices for each grade.

That is where the market news service comes in. In the past two years of operation weekly summaries

of average prices paid for each grade have been

mimeographed and distributed, and chalked up on

large blackboards. Knowing the grade of his to- bacco and the average selling price for that particular grade, the grower is in position to make an intelli- gent decision. This year the market news service

will be expanded to provide daily reports on a few se- lected “ key ” grades, followed by weekly reports

presenting summaries for all grades and general market information.

Grading service costs the grower a small fee, never more than 10 cents per 100 pounds, but careful investigation shows definitely that by calling attention to the actual grade and removing some of the uncertainties of buying, the average price is enhanced more

than $1 per 100 pounds.

International trade in tobacco is conducted mainly

on the basis of samples. This costly process has nu- merous defects and disadvantages which it is believed

will be materially lessened by the use of Federal standard grades. As foreign buyers become familiar with

the grades and learn to specify their wants accordingly, and as American exporters adopt the practice of

making quotations on that basis and make delivery of

tobacco bearing the department’s certificate of grade,

it is reasonable to assume that this branch of the trade

in leaf tobacco will be facilitated and stimulated. A

beginning along the line of making quotations ac- cording to United States standard grades has already

been made, and at least one foreign tobacco monopoly

has instructed its buying agents in this country to purchase offerings of certain such grades.

An important application of Federal tobacco standards and grading service which developed during the

past year is the official grading of all tobacco received

by tobacco growers cooperative marketing associations. Two such associations now have their tobacco

officially graded. This supersedes the former system

by which associations employed their own graders and

which was found unsatisfactory.

Literature dealing with this subject more in detail

may be obtained upon request from the United States Department of Agriculture.

CLAY TILES FOR FLOORS AND WALLS

The revised simplified-practice recommendation on

clay tiles for floors and walls (formerly entitled

“White glazed tiles and unglazed ceramic mosaics”)

is now available in printed form.

A recently held revision conference recommended

that the scope of the recommendation be enlarged,

and, this recommendation was subsequently approved

by the industry. The program was enlarged to (1)

include all clay tiles for floors and walls, with a cor- responding change in the designation of the recom- mendation to “ clay tiles for floors and walls ” ; the

complete elimination of the commercial grade of tile and the adoption of “ standard grade ” and “ seconds ” as the only grades of tile to be manufactured

and marketed; (2) to discontinue the package grade

certificate; (3) to include new minimum grade specifications for colored glazed tile; (4) to revise the

minimum grade specifications for ceramic mosaic.

It was also decided to eliminate from the revised

edition of the recommendation the figures showing the

style, patterns, etc., for trimmers in glazed tiles, as they are now in process of further simplification.

Other minor corrections necessary to conform with

this major revision were effected. Copies of this pamphlet can be obtained from the

office of Superintendent of Documents, Government

Printing Office, Washington, D. C., for 10 cents each.
SEPTEMBER, 1931 COMMERCIAL STANDARDS MONTHLY 91

INTERNATIONAL HYDROGRAPHIC BUREAU

Monaco Common Meeting Ground for Comparison of Publications, Instruments, and Methods of

Hydrographic Surveying

By G. W. Littlehales 1

Although the subject of international cooperation

in maritime affairs was raised at various times during

the latter half of the last century, it is not known to have been seriously dealt with until the sitting of the

International Marine Conference at Washington in

the year 1889. The proposal then discussed was to establish a “ permanent international marine commission,” but it was decided that such an establishment at that time was not expedient.

The delegate of Denmark, however, did not agree

with this conclusion, as his country had previously decided definitely that such a commission was required.

The objects of the proposed International Commission did not, however, specifically refer to hydrographic work, although it would appear that hydrograph}7 must have been intended to be included in its activities since its proposed work was to deal with

maritime affairs of every description.

At the international congress of navigation which

was held in 1908 at St. Petersburg (now Leningrad),

a resolution was passed that it would be advantageous

if an international conference of seamen and surveyors

could be arranged with the object of introducing uniformity in conventional signs and abbreviations on

charts ; in drawing up sailing directions, regulations

for navigation, and the lighting and buoyage of

coasts. However, no definite proposal for the permanent establishment of a bureau to deal with such

subjects Avas made. The purpose of this resolution was greatly advanced during the succeeding international maritime conference held at St. Petersburg in

1912 by the advocacy of Monsieur J. Renaud, in- genieur-hydrographe en chef of the French Hydrographic Service, who enlarged upon the advantages

that would be conferred upon the seamen of the world

if an understanding was reached on questions of uniformity of method in the production of mariners’

charts and hydrographic publications.

It was in England that these aims were revived as soon as the World War was over, by the issuance of

invitations from the British Government to all maritime countries with which political relations had been

resumed to send representatives to an international

hydrographic conference to be convened in London

on June 24, 1919.

The subjects brought before the conference were

divided into 10 sections as follows

1, Charts; 2, sailing directions; 3, lists of lights;

4, notices to mariners ; 5, time signals, distance tables,

and other miscellaneous hydrographic publications

;

6, tide tables; 7, surveying instruments for use on

land and sea; 8, time-measuring instruments; 9, interchange of publications; and 10, establishment of an

international bureau.

The formal proposal for the creation of an international hydrographic bureau was made to the international hydrographic conference by the French delegation. Although this matter was brought forward

under the name of the French delegation as a whole,

there is no doubt that the project practically emanated

from Monsieur Renaud, the director of the French

Hydrographic Service, and that he must therefore

be considered as the originator of the aim for the

creation of an international hydrograhic bureau.

The delegates at the international hydrographic

conference were unanimous in their opinion that it was desirable that some form of an international hydrographic bureau should be established. It was obvious that the arrangements for the establishment of

such an institution could not be carried out during

the proceedings of the international hydrographic

conference, and, accordingly, an interim committee of

three members of the existing conference was appointed to take all the necessary steps to achieve the

desired end.

During the proceedings the attention of the international hydrographic conference was called to article

24 of the Covenant of the League of Nations, which

definitely states that any international bureau constituted after the establishment of the league shall be

placed under its direction. This pronouncement was

discussed at some length, as several delegates were

of the opinion that the affiliation of the international

hydrographic bureau to the League of Nations would

not meet with the approval of their respective governments.

It may be here stated that eventually all opposition

in this connection was withdrawn, and though at the

time of the establishment of the International Hydrographic Bureau, the league had not expressed its agreement, the council of the league formally placed

the International Hydrographic Bureau under its di- rection on October 5, 1921. In the best interests of the

associated States it appeared desirable that the Inter- national Hydrographic Bureau should be attached to some larger international organization, and in the

present case the jurisdiction of the league in the

auditing of the finances of the International Hydrograhic Bureau is obviously beneficial.

There are also certain matters which are, more or

less, common to both the league and the International

Hydrographic Bureau, and the former is frequently

referred to for advice. Fear was originally expressed

in certain quarters that affiliation to the league might

bring the affairs of the International Hydrographic

Bureau into international politics, but there does not

appear to be any justification for this supposition.

In order to enable the various associated States to understand the general progress of the work of the

International Hydrographic Conference Committee

and the attitude of other States, statements were drawn up monthly and forwarded to those concerned

;

the first of these was issued on November 1, 1919, and

thev were continued without interruption until May

1 Hydrographic 1, 1921. Office, U. S. Navy.
92 COMMERCIAL STANDARDS MONTHLY SEPTEMBER, 1931 On May 16, 1921, the delegations of the 10 States concerned were informed by letter that the election

of the three directors and the selection of the candidates for the secretaryship of the International Hydrographic Bureau would take place, and the fullest instructions concerning every detail for voting ac- companied this letter ; and on the completion of these

proceedings, announcement was made to the asso- ciated States of the formal establishment of the Inter- national Hydrographic Bureau, and of the dissolution of the International Hydrographic Conference

Committee.

While the national hydrographic offices of the asso- ciated States have retained their complete liberty and

initiative, the International Hydrographic Bureau,

supported by subscriptions from the associated States,

has kept itself in direct and close communication with

each of the national offices, distributing useful in- formation in relation to the works in course of prosecution by them and inspiring a community of interest

by assembling their representatives in periodical conferences at Monaco and by its study and comparison

of their publications, their instruments and appliances, and their methods of hydrographic surveying.

The works which are thus brought within the scope

of standardization by international cooperation and

study are the mariner’s charts and nautical books relat- ing to and required in navigation. No cargo is ever exported or brought home without the fostering aid of

the mariner’s chart. It is a miniature representation

upon a plane surface, in accordance with a definite sys- tem of projection or development, of a portion of the

navigable waters of the globe, generally including the

outline of the adjacent land together with the surface

forms and artificial features that are useful as aids to navigation, and always setting forth the depths of the

water, especially in the near approaches to the land, by

soundings that are fixed in position by accurate determinations. Except in charts of localities so limited

in extent that the curvature of the earth is inappreciable on the scale of construction, a nautical chart is customarily framed over with parallels of latitude

and meridians of longitude, in relation to which the

features to be depicted on the chart are located and

delineated, and the mathematical relation between the

mei'idians and parallels of the chart and those of the

terrestrial spheroid determines the method of meas- urement to be employed on the chart and the special

uses to which it is adapted.

From a deep-rooted origin in the maritime world the

Mercator chart—resulting from the development upon

a plane surface of an enveloping cylinder tangent

along the Equator on which the features of the earth

have been projected in such a manner that the track

of a ship as long as she pursues the same true course

will appear upon the chart as a straight line—has be- come the universal standard in nautical usage, rendering mutual understanding in the use of charts in navigation among mariners comparable to that which is realized with respect to numbers by having universally

in current use a certain character to represent a given

number of units.

International usage has not yet attained to the stage

of strict uniformity in regard to the conventional

signs and symbols employed in charts to portray natural forms and artificial structures, but rather has it reached a stage of similarities among these conventional signs recognizable for the purpose of reading

the information represented by the chart.

Mariners’ charts all have the fundamental characteristic of indicating the hidden dangers to be avoided

by mariners and the channels where safety is to be

sought in the guidance of shipping. Their numbers

reach thousands and thousands, and they are all graded in their design and execution to tell the sea- farer when there is a favoring tide and by how much

his compass declines front the true meridian and

where his safety is beset. The data gathered in the marine hydrographic sur- veys from which charts are made, serve also to supply

supplementary descriptive information of advantage

in piloting and the practice of navigation, which is embodied in manuals of sailing directions to accom- pany the charts, together with the descriptive lists of

lighthouses and beacons and the register of radio sta- tions and seamarks maintained in aid of navigation.

BRITISH STANDARD FOR INDICATOR-COCK

CONNECTIONS

The British Engineering Standards Association

has issued a specification, designated No. 412-1931,

dealing with the dimensions of indicator-cock con- nections and diagram sheets. This was prepared in

view of the desirability of being able to attach indi- cators of any make to an engine without the necessity

of having to change the cock, which would involve the

shutting down of the engine.

It should, therefore, be of direct interest to all engine builders and those engaged in engine testing.

The indicator end of the cock has been standardized

with an external thread and an internal cone. The

cylinder end of the cock has been standardized with

a %-inch Whitworth thread, with the usual %-inch

Whitworth thread as an alternative. It was decided

to adopt the %-inch Whitworth thread in view of the

fact that the %-inch thread has not given universal

satisfaction, and there is a growing demand for a

stronger thread. Three standard sizes of diagram

sheets are recommended.

BRITISH STANDARD FOR MOHAIR VELVET

The British Mohair Association has fixed a minimum quality standard for mohair velvets used in the

theater and cinema trade. This quality standard is known as B. M. A. standard and is fixed as the minimum quality capable of giving good wear, leaving

each manufacturer to construct his own cloth above

the minimum standard and permitting free competition between individual members.

The minimum standard of quality is lodged with

the City of Bradford Conditioning House, which is under the control of the corporation of the city. Details of the minimum standard are not disclosed, but

buyers may obtain official certificates from the City

of Bradford Conditioning House indicating whether

or not a given sample bearing the B. M. A. mark con- forms with that standard.
SEPTEMBER, 1931 COMMERCIAL STANDARDS MONTHLY 93

NATIONAL GRADES FOR FARM PRODUCTS

Shipments of Food Facilitated by Common Language

By Charles M. White, Chief, Division of Markets, State of Maine

The American consumer in this day demands a varied menu as compared with a decade ago. The

consumer is no longer satisfied with fruits and vegetables kept in common storage or canned from the

previous crop. To-day increasing quantities of fresh

lettuce, spinach, citrus fruit, tomatoes, or other out- of-season fruits and vegetables are needed to satisfy

this changed demand.

Shipments of lettuce have increased from 7,000 to 51,000 cars, green peas from 691 to 5,000, carrots from

1,630 to 8,800 cars. In fact, the last decade shows

an increase in total shipments of fruits and vegetables from 502,527 cars to 693,531 cars. This commerce involves lettuce growers in California, consumers in New England; tomato growers

in Texas and Mexico, consumers in Chicago and New

York; potato growers in Maine, consumers in Detroit,

Cleveland, and Florida; apple growers in Maine, con- sumers in all parts of the eastern United States, as well

as England, Germany, Scandinavia, and Argentina.

With producers and consumers so far distant from

each other, one may well ask the question, How is such far-flung trading possible? The answer is, A

common language with the proper means for expressing this common language. So far as the fruit and

vegetable industry is concerned this takes the form

of national standards or grades for farm products

which have multiplied during the last decade from

only a few to grades covering 43 different fruits and

vegetables and representing 57 different sets of standards.

These standards find their official expression in certificates issued by either Federal inspectors at receiving markets or Federal-State inspectors at shipping

points. These inspectors acting as disinterested parties are able to analyze samples from shipments of

perishable fruits and vegetables, using this data to write up official certificates which are recognized as prima facie evidence in both State and Federal courts.

These certificates are used by the trade in preventing unfair rejections, securing more prompt adjustments, and preventing unnecessary loss through demurrage charges and deterioration of the product it- self. The certificates are based solely on the actual

observations of the inspectors, describing accurately

where the inspection is made, the products which are inspected, and such distinguishing marks as may be on the packages.

The product itself is then described, including the

pack, size, the quality and condition ; this latter takes

into account maturity, cleanliness, color, defects, and

decay. On the basis of the findings under “ Quality

and condition,” a definite grade statement is made

showing whether the lot in question is or is not in

grade.

The certificate may also be adapted to special uses such as stating whether a lot of apples will meet the

factors of condition which are necessary for undergoing an ocean voyage without undue waste. This

special requirement is known as the United States Export Standards for condition. Another special use during the past season was to meet the requirements of

embargo regulations of foreign governments. This

feature of the certificate covered the freedom of the lot of apples from insect injury and spray residue, thereby

enabling exporters to dispose of large quantities of

apples in foreign markets which otherwise must have

been dumped on the domestic market.

Thus has receiving market and shipping point in- spection service provided a common language with a practical means of expressing it so that commerce in

fresh fruits and vegetables has been largely extended

during the last 10 }Tars. The shipping point inspection service has grown from nothing in 1920 to a total of 243,699 inspections in 41 States during the year

1930 and from 6,069 inspections in receiving markets

in 1918 to 37,632 in 1929, which is indeed a striking

indorsement of the value of this service.

EXCESSIVE VARIETIES STILL BURDEN

ELECTRICAL INDUSTRY

Boiled down to maximum economic concentration,

standardization in engineering development means

the elimination of excess varieties, states the editor

of Electrical World in an editorial on “Excess Varieties Still Burden the Electrical Industry.”

According to the editorial

Manufacturers are for it [standardization] and operators

of plants should be enthusiastic supporters of the process. Endless debate could be held over the definition of what an

excess variety in electrical equipment design is, but the fun- damental principle can not be safely overlooked in future

engineering. In a word, it is an economic crime to demand

needless variety in apparatus built for utilitarian service, and

the ultimate test is whether existing products can be counted upon to meet the problem in hand well enough to satisfy the reasonable requirements of leading professional and business judgment.

As pointed out by the editorial writer

Departure from proved standards can no longer be justified on the grounds of individual pride in having something

different or on the basis of technical whims. Only where

the benefits of leaving the broad highway of swift and effi- cient manufacture and distribution are clearly defined and of due weight should there be a change of route to pioneering

pathways. Research, development, and the cultivation of new

markets will go on because the variety of human necessities

is a dynamic movement and a challenge; but let there be an

end of trivial modifications of first-class material to please

somebody’s ego. There is room for diverse talents to find expression in satis- fying both routine and special requirements. Routine needs

demanding standard designs and construction will always employ the majority of men, and the elimination of excess varieties can never stop progress warranted by the creation of new

necessities and opportunities. The final justification of the

engineers’ cost to society lies in his capacity to make the

choice between the old and the new in equipment, materials,

and methods, but to-day the presumption favors standardization, since by giving it weight often denied in the past costs can be reduced all around and earnings increased with

resulting benefits to research as well as to consumers and

investors.
94 COMMERCIAL STANDARDS MONTHLY SEPTEMBER, 1931 INSPECTION OF WEIGHTS AND MEASURES NECESSARY

Establishment of Confidence in Commercial World, Through Accurate Weighing and Measuring

Instruments, of Primary Importance to State and Consumer

By Commissioner Harold A. Webster, Department of Weights and Measures, State of New Hampshire

The satisfaction that consumers feel by reason of

the accomplishments of their department of weights

and measures should also be shared bjr the honest

dealer who ought to realize that his own business is, in all probability, on a more equitable basis due in some degree to the protection furnished by the State. Such would not have been true had previous competition continued with the dishonest competitor who

frequently used fraudulent devices and sold commodities which were under weight.

It is evident that our ethical standards are on a higher plane than ever before. It costs severely sometimes not to maintain certain standards, and notwithstanding the vigilance of the commissioners, inspectors,

and sealers there have been incidents where men have

thought it shrewd and smart to be dishonest with

their customers, only to be apprehended and pay the

penalty, the chief sting of which has been the loss in

sales. The good will of the purchasing public is a great

asset and it depends entirely upon the desire and

ability of business men to serve their patrons satisfactorily. In short, there is no problem affecting the

commercial relations of the public upon which ail agree with greater unanimity than that the giving

of short weight or measure is fundamentally wrong

and detrimental to sound business principles.

The commissioner spends a great deal of time in

requiring manufacturers of weighing and measuring

devices to conform to the specifications and tolerances

adopted by this department of the State of New Hampshire. Two of the most notable have had to do with

those applying to grease-measuring devices and visi- gages on gasoline pumps. It has required much dili- gence to bring about a satisfactory compliance with

these regulations; although it ought to be stated in

fairness to several gas and oil companies that they

have shown a fine spirit of cooperation.

A visi-gage constructed of glass enables, as its name

implies, the motorist to see if the gasoline is passingthrough the pipe line. The enforcement of this regulation is one of the most important with which the

commissioner has had to deal, as it not only safeguards

the public but it protects the honest dealer. I doubt

if a single pump used in the State of New Hampshire

STANDARDIZATION AND ITS RELATION TO

SCIENTIFIC MANAGEMENT

The principles and most of the technique pertinent

to stabilization of the shop are identical with those

pertinent to standardization of an individual workshop, according to Dr. H. P. Person, managing direc- tor of the Taylor Society.

Speaking before the world social economic congress

of the International Industrial Relations Association,

in dispensing gasoline to the public is not equipped at present with one of these very important instruments.

The new cod,e of specifications for grease-measuring

devices makes it compulsory, after January 1, 1931, to

sell lubricants from such machines by volume rather

than by weight. Detailed specifications applying to

these devices have been Dromulgated.

The use of the 14-quart basket for fruits and vegetables has been prohibited in the State of New Hampshire. This is a result of the passage of the United

States standard container act which permits the use of hampers and round stave baskets of the following

capacities : One-eighth, one-fourth, one-half, five- eighths, one, one and one-quarter, one and one-half,

and two bushels.

Splint baskets, which include the peach baskets, are limited to the following sizes: 4, 8, 12, 16, 24, and 32

quarts. Section 5 of the controlling act states that

it shall be unlawful to manufacture for sale or shipment, to offer for sale, to sell, to offer for shipment,

or to ship hampers, round stave baskets for fruits or

vegetables, either filled or unfilled, or parts of such

hampers, round stave baskets or splint baskets that

do not comply with this act. The usual activities of a State department of

weights and measures, such as testing all scales, including railroad track, weights, measures, and gasoline pumps, are carried on in New Hampshire. The

reweighing of commodities in the various stores, inspection of coal and wood deliveries, enforcement of

net weight laws applying to the wrapping and stamping of bread, wrapped ham, bacon, and butter, are of great importance and frequently disclose violations

of the law to which the commissioner gives very care- ful consideration. Inasmuch as it has always been the

policy to make a distinction between carelessness and

a criminal intent, hearings are often granted to the

persons involved to decide whether or not a prosecution is warranted.

Broadly expressed, the application and underlying principles of the weights and measures laws affect more people than do any others on the statute books.

In all respects they definitely establish a link between

law and commercial life. The producer, the distributor, and the consumer are the three factors and their

systems of doing business are dependent upon sound

| principles.

at Amsterdam, Holland, August 27, 1931, Doctor Person said that “ early scientific management did its work in the first unit area so thoroughly that it dis- covered the principles and devised and assembled the- parts of an integrated technique for stabilization of any

area of purposive effort, whatever its nature and size. Touching on the subject "of standardization, Doctor

Person pointed out that standardization means simply

the publication of the results of research in the form

of specifications which serve as a guide to action..
SEPTEMBER, 1931 COMMERCIAL STANDARDS MONTHLY 95

Inasmuch as research should be continuous and con- tinuously fruitful of new knowledge, standardization

does not imply a static situation but regulated change.

The rates, increments, and times of change are themselves subject to determination by research involving

primarily the balancing of the costs of change—not

measured only in money—against the value of change.

A close-up cross-section of a scientific management

situation should disclose an apparent static relationship of coordinated “ bests in the present state of the

art.” But a scientific management situation in perspective over a period should disclose predetermined

and regulated change in these “ bests ” and their rela- tionships—a moving equilibrium of internal readjustments like that of a ship at sea. Doctor Person said

If there were more of genuine standardization of this sort, including particularly standardization of the methods and

rate of standardization, what is called technological unemployment would tend to be reduced to that caused by periodic

basic and revolutionary discoveries and inventions, and thus brought to a humanly irreducible minimum. Technological

unemployment appears to be caused generally by periodic

adaptations and utilization, stimulated by changes in eco- nomic conditions, of well-known rather than new basic dis- coveries and inventions. Most enterprises follow the line of least resistance and manage to get along with equipment and methods which gradually

become too obsolete to be operated in the face of the competition of new progressive plants. This situation forces periodic

sudden widespread and radical technical changes. Technologically too many employees are released at one time to be

reabsorbed economically. But in a plant in which research,

standardization, and restandardization are continuous, tech- nological improvement can be introduced by such small incre- ments that employees may be adjusted and reabsorbed. Under such circumstances the older workers, with their accumulated fund of skill and understanding, become an

asset instead of a liability.

TESTING TIMEPIECES

A new circular prescribing the tests for pocket

watches, stop watches, and chronometers (Bureau of

Standards Circular No. 392, entitled “ Testing of

Timepieces ”) has just been announced by the National Bureau of Standards. This supersedes Circular No. 51, published in 1914. The new circular

gives detailed descriptions of the bureau’s regular

tests for timepieces, as well as other information on

watches and time. Many of the tests have been developed within the last few years. Illustrations showing the variation from isochronism and the results of temperature changes on the

daily rates of timepieces make the value of the test apparent. The tests themselves are divided into periods of several days each to cover the various specifications which the timepieces are required to meet. Four tests are provided for pocket watches. These

are known as: Class A, class B, railroad precision, and

business precision. The class A and the railroad precision tests are intended for high-grade watches and

include tests in five positions and at three temperatures. The class A tests also include a test for isochronism. The class B and the business precision tests are the corresponding tests for 3-position watches. All of

these tests furnish excellent means of judging the

workmanship and performance of the watch.

In the tests of stop watches, each watch is run several times for intervals of 30, 45, 60, and 300 seconds,

the mean error for each interval being used in judging

the performance. Combination watches (watch and

stop watch) are also submitted to an additional test to determine the daily rate in the vertical and horizontal positions.

The chronometer test was developed to supply a short test for the ordinary tyue of chronometer used

by many jewelers and on board ship. The instrument

is tested at three temperatures, each temperature being

repeated several times, and for isochronism for 36

hours. The results allow a study of the recovery

of the chronometer after each temperature change..

Besides the descriptions of the tests, this circular

also gives definitions of terms used ; some helpful suggestions on the use and care of a watch; a list of

official stations sending out radio time signals, with

information regarding the same; a brief statement

concerning standard time and standard-time zones; and information and directions governing the submission of timepieces for test. There are also several

illustrations of the bureau’s equipment for testing

timepieces.

Copies of the circular may be obtained from the

Superintendent of Documents, Government Printing

Office, Washington, D. C., for 15 cents each.

FEDERAL SPECIFICATIONS

Twenty-eight Specifications Acted On By Board

Twenty-eight specifications were acted on by the

Federal Specifications Board during the month of

August. Of this number 5 were submitted for consideration as proposed new specifications and the re- maining 23 wT ere Federal specifications submitted for

revision. Copies of these specifications (in mimeographed form) and further information can be

obtained from the Federal Specifications Board,

National Bureau of Standards, Washington, D. C. The specifications submitted for revision bear the new designation in accordance with the system used

in the Federal Standard Stock Catalogue.

New desig- nation

Specifications proposed

Federal

Specifi- cation No.

N-M-648

T-R-571 GG-M-191...

PP-B-81

PP-B-201

PP-B-211

PP-B-221 PP-D-351 PP-H-71

PP-H-201

PP-K-351 —

PP-M-791—

PP-T-571...

QQ-I-651

QQ-I-656.... QQ-M-161

QQ-S-681

ZZ-S-751.. AAA-S-101—

AAA-S-121..

CCC-O-351... GGa-F-671..

GGG-S-291...

Tubing; electrical metallic Hash; corned beef, canned

Paper; photographic blotting, white

Stop watches.. Noodles

Macaroni, spaghetti, and vermicelli Rope, cotton Measuring devices; liquid (retail type) Bacon; smoked—

Beef; canned, corned

Beef; canned, dried, sliced - Beef; fresh Liver Hams; sweet-pickled cured, smoked

Hearts; beef - Kidneys; beef Mutton

Tongue; beef, canned --- Iron; gray, castings

Iron; gray, high-test (semisteel) castings—.

Metal, antifriction; castings and ingots

Steel; castings Stoppers; rubber

Scales; railroad track —

Scales; weighing (general specifications for) Oilcloth; table, white Frames; hack-saw... ... Shears, tinners’, hand (snips)

N-N-591

648 447

362 560a

561a 563a

619a 568a

565a

566a

Wi7n 570a

562a

141 140

536

170 383

314

473

498 479

451
96 COMMERCIAL STANDARDS MONTHLY SEPTEMBER, 1931 STANDARDIZATION BRIEFS

Norwegian Standards Federation.—In Norway the

organization of the standardizing body has been

changed from a committee to a federation of industrial and technical organizations and Government departments. It will now be known as Norwegian

Standards Federation.

Standard forms.—Four standardized report forms

were officially adopted by the Natural Gasoline Association of America, one recommendation of the association’s standard forms committee, by the board of

directors July 7, 1931. The forms are: Orifice meter

test report, charcoal test reports, physical test report,

and fuel, gas, electricity, or water ticket.

Paper fruit wraps.—Apple growers of the Northwest, through the Wenatchee-Okanogan Cooperative

Federation, have indicated their desire to the National Bureau of Standards for assistance in the

establishment of a commercial standard covering the

paper “ wraps ” used in packing apples and other

fruits. The size, strength, weight, and oil content

are of particular importance in providing satisfactory

packing and to prevent a defect known as “ apple

scald ” which develops in storage under certain conditions.

Test methods for liquefied gas.-—Initiation of formal specifications and preparation of official test methods for liquefied gas will be undertaken within the near future by the Natural Gasoline Association of

America. A subcommittee on the testing methods

and specifications has been appointed to work on the

formal specifications for liquefied gas, particularly

propane, butane, and pentane, and will prepare offi- cial test methods for submission to the association.

A subcommittee has also been appointed on research

and education. This latter subcommittee will canvass

the industry to determine what problems confront it now with reference to liquefied gas, and will attempt

to work out solutions for those problems.

British association to change name.—The British

Engineering Standards Association is at present petitioning for a supplementary charter to widen its scope and may possibly adopt a new name, the word

“ engineering ” being dropped. It is proposed to form

four divisional councils, functioning under the direction of the British Engineering Standards Association, and representing engineering, chemistry, building industry, and textiles. When all these councils are formed, British industry will be able to fix British

standards by mutual agreement and in association

with similar bodies in the Dominions. This move- ment is the result of resolutions on standardization

presented at the last imperial conference in London.

Alloy castings.-—Recommended standards of practice relating to alloy castings supplied for use in in- dustrial furnaces were approved at a meeting of the

heat and corrosion resistant alloy founders’ division,

Steel Founders’ Society of America (Inc.), held re- cently in Pittsburgh, Pa. In some instances through

carelessness or from other causes, material supplied

for that use was subjected to conditions of fuel, atmosphere and temperature not set forth in the original

specifications and requirements. Standards of practice, as adopted and approved by the Pittsburgh meeting, will clearly define the liability of the producer in

such instances.

British standard steel flanges for pipes, valves, and

fittings.—The British Engineering Standards Association has published part 4 of their specification No.

10. This is designated No. 10—Part 4—1931, and deals

with steel flanges for pipes, valves, and fittings, for

land use, for working steam pressures from 600 to 900

pounds per square inch, and for temperatures up to 800° F. (427° C.). With these temperatures it is necessary to pay special attention to the steel for the

stud bolts, and a specification is given, in this connection, of a typical steel suitable for the purpose, as a guide to users. The specification, however, permits

of the use of any other steel with free-cutting properties, which has a resistance to embrittlement greater

than that specified.

Rules adopted for safer travel by air.—Changes in

the airworthiness requirements of Federal air com- merce regulations for aircraft, calling for more careful attention to design and construction with the view

of providing increased safety in commercial air trans- portation, were agreed upon by the Department of

Commerce and the aircraft manufacturers at a con- ference July 31 between the aeronautics branch of the

department and the industry. The changes, largely

of a technical nature, were accepted by the manufacturers for the most part without comment. The re- mainder was held over for further consideration by

the branch which approved many of the industry’s

recommendations regarding these changes either fully or in principle. Other recommendations were taken

under advisement as a result of objections on the part

of manufacturers.

British standard for wood saws.—The British

Engineering Standards Association has issued specification No. 411-1931, which deals with the attachment

of circular saws for woodworking. The pamphlet

gives the dimensions for the diameter of the center

hole, the diameter of the pin and pin-hole, and the

distance of the pin from the center hole, for saws of

four different ranges of diameter. Tolerances on the more important dimensions are also specified. In fix- ing these dimensions, the committee responsible has

endeavored to keep in mind the desirability of accom- modating worn saws on smaller machines, and interchangeability can be obtained over quite a wide range

of saw diameters. The specification also includes

recommended methods by means of which saws made

to British standard dimensions may be used on existing saw benches, or whereby more than one range of saws

can be accommodated on the same machine.

o
SCIENTIFIC, TECHNICAL, AND COMMERCIAL

PERIODICAL PUBLICATIONS ISSUED BY THE

national BUREAU of standards

BUREAU OF STANDARDS

JOURNAL OF RESEARCH

The new Journal describes the bureau’s re- search results in science and technology. The

union of science and its applications in one

journal shortens the lag between discovery

and application.

All engaged in industry and commerce should

have available for current use and permanent

reference the Bureau of Standards Journal of

Research.

Early in its firSt year the Journal developed a

liSt of paid subscribers double the anticipated

maximum.

This Journal is full of interest to executives

and technicians controlling industries and

commercial enterprises. It enables them bet- ter to promote efficiency by determining the

scientific measured controls ofprocess through

experimental and theoretical research. ^ Issued monthly

Subscription price, $2.75 per year

COMMERCIAL STANDARDS

MONTHLY

MR.

TECHNICAL NEWS BULLETIN

The Bureau of Standards periodical with a WAR RECORD! Started during the dark

days of 1917 to keep the Army and Navy and

other branches of the Government informed

of progress in scientific war research at the

bureau. Upon urgent request this publication was continued and expanded to serve the

Government, science, and industry.

The TECHNICAL NEWS BULLETIN will

keep you informed of current progress in the

scientific and technical work of the bureau’s

laboratories, and gives each month a liSt of

the publications of the bureau. A complete

cross index is published with the December

issue.

You can not afford to be without the TECHNICAL NEWS BULLETIN. Every article is short and to the point. The busiest executive can afford the time to read it. Issued monthly

Subscription price, 25 cents per year

STANDARDS YEARBOOK

FOR 1931

This new governmental periodical is a review

of progress in commercial simplification and

standardization. It is the only journal of its kind. It covers the national movement initiated by President Hoover for the reduction

of needless sizes and varieties of products and

the promotion of voluntary commercial

Standardization by industry.

The Secretary of Commerce in the firSt issue

of this new journal said: “Certain Standards,

such as those used for weights and measures,

* * * have been fixed by legislative enactment. Mandatory Standards of this character, however, are few in number when compared with the large and steadily growing

volume of Standards developed by industry

and commerce and voluntarily maintained.

* * * The activities of the Commercial

Standardization Group of the Bureau of

Standards are concerned with Standards

adopted by voluntary agreement.”

Subscription price, $1 per year

The new Standards Yearbook for 1931 is the

fifth annual issue of a publication devoted

to the great and growing field of Standardization in its broad aspeCts. It gives a summary

of progress.

Standardization is a world-wide movement.

It covers all industries. It is part of the application of scientific methods to industry. Its achievements are of interest and concern to

business men and manufacturers as well as to

engineers. To the technician it is full of

example of methods and results of suggeSlive

and Stimulating value. To business men it discloses trends which deeply concern their

interest.

NOW READY Price, $1 ORDER AT ONCE

“Standardization is becoming an aspect of all well- ordered activity rather than an incidental

activity supplemental to others.”

To obtain regularly the above -described monthly Periodicals send your order, with remittance, addressed: Superintendent of Documents, Government Printing Office, Washington, D. C. Foreign prices (countries other

than the United States and its possessions, Canada, Mexico, Newfoundland, Cuba, and Republic of Panama) are: Journal, $3.50; Bulletin, $0.40; Monthly, $1.25; Yearbook, $1.20
THE UNITED STATES DEPARTMENT OF COMMERCE

R. P. LAMONT, Secretary of Commerce

“ * * * this department * * * is devoted solely to aiding and fostering the development of higher standards of living and comfort of our people * * * its ideals are clear: That by cooperation and not by compulsion it should seek to assist in maintaining and giving the impulse of progress to commerce and industry in a nation whose successful economic life underlies advancement in every other field.” —President Hoover, at the laying of the corner stone of the new building

of the U. S. Department of Commerce, June 10, 1929,

AERONAUTICS BRANCH, Clarence M. Young, Assistant Secretary of Commerce for Aeronautics. Establishment of civil airways and maintenance of aids to air navigation; inspection and registration of aircraft and licensing

of pilots; enforcement of air traffic rules; investigation of acci- dents; encouragement of municipal air ports; fostering of air commerce; scientific research in aeronautics; and dissemination of information relating to commercial aeronautics. (Some

of these functions are performed by special divisions of the Lighthouse Service, the Bureau of Standards, and the Coast and Geodetic Survey.)

BUREAU OF THE CENSUS, William M. Steuart, Director. Taking censuses of population, mines, and quarries, water

transportation, and religious bodies every 10 years; censuses of agriculture and electrical public utilities every 5 years; and a census of manufactures every 2 years. Compilation of statistics of wealth, public debt and taxation, including financial statistics of local governments, every 10 years; annual compilation of financial statistics of State and municipal governments.

Compilation of statistics of marriage, divorce, births, deaths,

and penal and other institutions annually, and of death rates in

cities and automobile accidents weekly.

Compilation quarterly or monthly of statistics on cotton, wool, leather, and other industries; annually of forest products.

BUREAU OF FOREIGN AND DOMESTIC COMMERCE,

F. M. Feiker, Director. The collection of timely information concerning world market

conditions and openings for American products in foreign countries, through commercial attaches, trade commissioners, and

consular officers, and its distribution through weekly Commerce

Reports, bulletins, confidential circulars, the news and trade

press the monthly Survey of Current Business, and district and

cooperative offices in 65 cities The maintenance of commodity,

technical, and regional divisions to afford special service to American exporters and manufacturers. The compilation and distribution of lists of possible buyers

and agents for American products in all parts of the world and

publication of weekly lists of specific sales opportunities abroad. The publicity of statistics on imports and exports. The study of the processes of domestic trade and commerce. BUREAU OF STANDARDS, George K. Burgess, Director. Custody, development, and construction of standards of measurement, quality, performance, or practice; comparison of standards used by scientific or other institutions; determination

of physical constants and properties of materials; researches and tests on materials and processes; and publication of scientific and technical bulletins reporting results of researches and

fundamental technical data. Collection and dissemination of information concerning

building codes and the planning and construction of houses. Establishment of simplified commercial practices through

cooperation with business organizations iu order to reduce the wastes resulting from excessive variety in commodities.

BUREAU OF MINES, Scott Turner, Director. Technical investigations in the mining, preparation, and

utilization of minerals, including the study of mine hazards, and

safety methods and of improved methods in the production

and use of minerals. Testing of Government fuels and management of the Govern- ment Fuel Yard at Washington.

Research on helium and operation of plants producing it.

BUREAU OF MINES—Conlinued.

Studies in the economics and marketing of minerals and col- lection of statistics on mineral resources and mine accidents The dissemination of results of technical and economic

researches in bulletins, technical papers, mineral resources series, miners’ circulars, and miscellaneous publications.

BUREAU OF FISHERIES, Henry O’Malley, Commissioner.

The propagation and distribution of food fish and shellfish,

in order to prevent the depletion of the fisheries; investigations

to promote conservation of fishery resources; the development

of commercial fisheries and agriculture; study of fishery methods,

improvements in merchandising, and collection of fishery statistics; administration of Alaska fisheries and fur seals; and the protection of sponges off the coast of Florida. BUREAU OF LIGHTHOUSES, George R. Putnam,

Commissioner.

Maintenance of lighthouses and other aids to water navigation. Establishment and maintenance of aids to navigation

along civil airways. Publication of Light Lists, Buoy Lists, and

Notices to Mariners. COAST AND GEODETIC SURVEY, R. S. Patton, Director. Survey of the coasts of the United States and publication of charts for the navigation of the adjacent waters, including

Alaska, the Philippine Islands, Hawaii, Porto Rico, the Virgin

Islands, and the Canal Zone; interior control surveys; magnetic

surveys; tide and current observations; and seismological investigations. Publication of results through charts, coast pilots, tide tables, current tables, and special publications.

BUREAU OF NAVIGATION, Arthur J. Tyrer, Commissioner.

Superintendence of commercial marine and merchant seamen.

Supervision of registering, enrolling, licensing, numbering,

etc., of vessels under the United States flag, and the annual

publication of a list of such vessels. Enforcement of the navigation and steamboat inspection laws,

including imposition of fees, fines, tonnage taxes, etc. STEAMBOAT INSPECTION SERVICE, Dickerson N. Hoover,

Supervising Inspector General. The inspection of merchant vessels, including boilers, hulls, and life-saving equipment, licensing of officers of vessels, certifi- cation of able seamen and lifeboat men, and the investigation of violations of steamboat inspection laws. UNITED STATES PATENT OFFICE, Thomas E. Robertson,

Commissioner.

The granting of patents and the registration of trade-marks

prints, and labels after technical examination and judicial

proceedings.

Maintenance of library with public search room, containing

copies of foreign and United States patents, and trade-marks. Recording bills of sale, assignments, etc., relating to patents

and trade-marks. Furnishing copies of records pertaining to patents Publication of the weekly Official Gazette, showing the patents and trade-marks issued. RADIO DIVISION, W. D. Terrell, Chief. Inspection of radio stations on ships; inspection of radio

stations on shore, including broadcasting stations; licensing radio operators; assigning station call letters; enforcing the terms of the International Radiotelegraphic Convention; aud

examining and settling international radio accounts.

U. S. GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE: I