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NISTTN1682

3D Imaging Systems for Manufacturing,

Construction, and Mobility

Geraldine Check

Maris Juberts

Marek Franaszek

Alan Lytle

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National Institute of

Standards and Technology

U.S. Department of Commerce

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NISTTN1682

3D Imaging Systems for Manufacturing,

Construction, and IVIobility

Geraldine Cheok

Engineering Laboratory

Maris Juberts

Engineering Consultant

Marek Franaszek

Engineering Laboratory

Alan Lytle

NIST Guest Researcher

December 2010

*

*^4Tl« 0*

U. S. Department of Commerce

Gary Locke, Secretary

National Institute of Standards and Technology

Patrick D. Gallagher, Director

DISCLAIMER

Certain trade names and company products are mentioned in the text or identified in an

illustration in order to adequately specify the experimental procedure and equipment used. In no

case does such an identification imply recommendation or endorsement by the National Institute

of Standards and Technology, nor does it imply that the products are necessarily the best

available for the purpose.
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Abstract

The National Defense Center of Excellence for Industrial Metrology and 3D Imaging (COEIM3DI) is conducting research to enable the next generation of manufacturing-centric

human/instrument/machine interactions. The generalized goal of the C0E-IM3DI research is to

facilitate the transition of 3D imaging technology from one requiring highly skilled/specialized

technicians to a ubiquitous measurement capability available in real-time on the shop floor. This

long-term effort requires a detailed examination of the current state-of-the-art in 3D imaging and

projected technology development trends over the next ten years.

In 2004, NIST produced a report [1] on the then state-of-the-art of the 3D Imaging field with a

particular focus on hardware requirements for applications in manufacturing, autonomous

vehicle mobility, and construction. This report will extend that initial work (principally with

respect to software) and provide an update that will support the needs of the C0E-IM3DT

research program. The specific 3D imaging areas examined include:

• Current state-of-the-art software and future software trends for 3D image data

• Current state-of-the-art hardware and future hardware trends for active 3D imaging

systems

• Assessing operational requirements of 3D imaging for national defense with a focus on manufacturing, construction, and autonomous mobility

Keywords: 3D imaging; hardware survey; focal plane arrays (FPAs); LADAR; laser scanners; LIDAR; software survey.

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Table of contents

Abstract iii Table of contents iv

1 Introduction 1 2 Current Applications for 3D Imaging Systems 3

2.1 Manufacturing 3

2.2 Construction 4

2.3 Autonomous Mobility 5

3 Current State-of-the-Art (2010) 6

3.1 Introduction 6

3.2 Active 3D Imaging Hardware 8

3.2.1 Commercial Technology Overview 8

3.2. 1 .

1

Breakdown of Optical 3D Imaging Hardware by Range Measurement

Techniques 8

3.2.1.1.1 Triangulation 9

3.2.1.1.2 Time-of-Flight Techniques 10

3.2.1.1.3 Interferometry time-of-flight range measurement techniques 12

3.2. 1 .2 Technical review of most common range measurement approaches used

commercially 14

3.2.1.2.1 Laser scanning techniques for active triangulation range imaging 14

3.2.1.2.2 Time of Flight Measurement Techniques 18

3.2.1.2.3 Interferometric-based Optical Coherence Tomography 30

3.2.2 Research Overview 31

3.2.2.1 Experimental femtosecond coherent LIDAR 32

3.2.2.2 Active laser stabilization during linear sweeps for FMCW chirped LADAR. 34

3.2.2.3 Non-scanning parallel optical coherence tomography (pOCT) 37

3.2.2.4 Real-time active 3D imaging for dynamic perception apphcations 39

3.2.2.5 Advances in electron avalanche photodiode (e-APD) FPA technology 61

3.2.2.6 Terrestrial and mobile terrestrial 3D imaging 64

3.2.2.7 Obscurant penetration and collision avoidance for helicopters 66

3.3 Software 74

3.3.1 Background 74

3.3.2 Section Organization 75

IV
3.3.3 Platform 76

3.3.4 Data Input / Output 77

3.3.5 Point Cloud Processing 78

3.3.6 Modeling 80

3.3.7 Analysis 81

3.3.8 Visualization 82

4 Future Trends and Needs 84

4.1 Hardware Trends and Needs 84

4.1.1 Active optical 3D imaging needs in manufacturing 84

4.1.2 NIST program in measurement science for intelligent manufacturing 86

4. 1 .3 Operational requirements of active 3D imaging systems for mobility applications87

4. 1 .3.

1

Operational requirements of laser radar as a real-time 3D imaging sensor for

driving UGVs (Unmanned Ground Vehicles) 88

4. 1 .3.2 Baseline requirements for autonomous navigation and perception on small

UGVs (such as PackBots) 91

4. 1 .3.3 Desired sensor measurement attributes for automotive safety systems „... 9

1

4. 1 .3.4 Autonomous navigation and collision avoidance for industrial Automated

Guided Vehicles (AGV) 95

4.1.4 Construction Trends and Needs 97

4.2 Software Trends and Needs 97

4.2.1 Trends and Needs 97

Appendix A: Initial Survey of Active 3D Imaging Technology 103

Appendix B: 2010 Technical Survey of Active 3D Imaging Products and Prototypes 11

1

Appendix C: 3D Imaging Software Packages 146

REFERENCES 157
1 Introduction

The National Defense Center of Excellence for Industrial Metrology and 3D Imaging (COEIM3DI) is conducting research to enable the next generation of manufacturing-centric

human/instrument/machine interactions. The generalized goal of the COE-IM3DI research is to

facilitate the transition of 3D imaging technology from one requiring highly skilled/specialized

technicians to a ubiquitous measurement capability available in real-time on the shop floor. This

long-term effort requires a detailed examination of the current state-of-the-art in 3D imaging and

projected technology development trends over the next ten years. This proposed research by the

National Institute of Standards and Technology (NIST) would directly address this need.

The Construction Metrology and Automation Group (CMAG) at NIST collaborated with

Youngstown State University in support of the C0E-IM3DI to produce a detailed review of the

3D imaging research and development field, provide an in-depth understanding of the current

state-of-the-art in active-sensor 3D imaging, and project development trends over the next

decade. In 2004, NIST produced a then state-of-the-art report [1] of the 3D Imaging field with a

particular focus on hardware requirements for applications in manufacturing, autonomous

vehicle mobility, and construction. This report will extend that initial work (principally with

respect to software) and provide an update that will support the needs of the C0E-IM3DT

research program. The specific 3D imaging areas examined include:

• Current state-of-the-art software and future software trends for 3D image data

• Current state-of-the-art hardware and future hardware trends for active 3D imaging

systems

• Assessing operational requirements of 3D imaging for national defense with a focus on manufacturing, construction, and autonomous mobility.

3D imaging (3DI) systems are used to collect large amounts of 3D data of an object or scene in a

short period of time. A definition of a 3D imaging system as taken from ASTM E2544 [2] is:

A 3D imaging system is a non-contact measurement instrument used to produce a 3D

representation (for example, a point cloud) ofan object or a site.

DISCUSSION—

(1) Some examples ofa 3D imaging system are laser scanners (also known as LADARs

[Laser Detection and Ranging] or LIDARs or laser radars), optical range cameras (also

known asflash LIDARs or 3D range cameras), triangulation-based systems such as those

using pattern projectors or lasers, and other systems based on interferometry.

(2) In general, the information gathered by a 3D imaging system is a collection ofntuples, where each n-tuple can include but is not limited to spherical or Cartesian

coordinates, return signal strength, color, time stamp, identifier, polarization, and

multiple range returns.

(3) 3D imaging systems are used to measurefrom relatively small scale objects (for

example, coin, statue, manufacturedpart, human body) to larger scale objects or sites

(for example, terrain features, buildings, bridges, dams, towns, archeological sites).
The work in this report was conducted under the CRADA (Cooperative Research &

Development Agreement) ID number CN-09-5 118 between NIST and Youngstown State

University and a contract between Mr. Maris Juberts, an engineering consultant and a former

NIST employee, and Youngstown State University.
2 Current Applications for 3D Imaging Systems

2.1 Manufacturing

Applications in manufacturing for active 3D imaging systems include: tooling and product/part

inspection, capturing physical geometry of parts, reverse engineering of parts and assemblies,

CAD part modeling, capturing production line equipment and manufacturing sites in 3D for

documentation and production line planning, large volume metrology, navigation and collision

avoidance for Automated Guided Vehicles (AGV), safety and security systems for automated

equipment in assembly line operations. Table 1 contains a list of the main features and salient

characteristics of active 3D imaging methods used in manufacturing applications.

Table 1. Typical Applications in Manufacturing

Type of 3D imaging

methods

Triangulation (active)

Pulsed Time-ofFlight (TOF)

(scanning)

AM (Amplitude

Modulated) TOF-

(scanning)

FM (Frequency

Modulated) TOF-

(scanning)

Main features & salient characteristics

ID, 2D, & 3D illumination Depth of field (DOF) < 4 m*

High measurement rate ( 1 to 1000) kHz*

Most require scanning

Some shadowing

Low cost

light beam illumination DOF> 10 m*

Requires scanning

Good measurement rate ( 1 to 250) kHz*

Good in bright ambient (outdoors)

Multiple pulse return detection- possible

light beam illumination

D0F:(1 to 100) m*

Requires scatming

High measurement rate (50 to 1000) kHz*

May be affected by bright ambient

light

Primarily used indoors

Typical range for uncertainty values

0.02 mm to 2.00 mm*

5 mm to 50 mm*

0.05 mm to 5.00 mm*

light beam illumination

DOF< 10 m*

Slow scanning rate (0.0 1 to 2.0) kHz*

Highest detection sensitivity

Lowest power requirements

High dynamic range Most expensive

0.01 mm to 0.25 mm*

Typical applications

Reverse engineering,

quality assurance, CAD part modeling,

part/assembly

inspection

Machine, production

line, building, infrastructure modeling and

documentation

Tooling, reverse engineering, inspection,

metrology of larger

parts and assemblies.

CAD part modeling.

Machine, industrial site & infrastructure modeling and

documentation.

large scale dimensional

metrology
Type of 3D imaging

methods

AM TOF

Focal Plane Array

Confocal Optical

Coherence

Tomography

& White Light

Interferometry

Parallel Optical

Coherence

Tomography (pOCT)

Main features & salient characteristics ^_

Entire FOV Illumination

Non-scanning

Narrow FOV 40°x 40° typical

Largest array size 200 x 200

Real-time operation up to 100

frames per second (fps)

Typical DOF: (0.5 to 30) m

Limited operation outdoors. Low cost Flying spot scanning in two

dimensions - relatively slow

Broadband light source - low

coherence.

Short standoff distances & limited

to a few millimeters of depth

imaging ^^

Uses CCD camera or CMOS smart

pixel arrays. Fast measurement rate: up to 10 3D

fps.

Broadband light source - low

coherence.

Short standoff distances & limited

to a few millimeters of depth

imaging

Typical range for uncertainty values

±1 cm

<±10|im

<±lO\im

Typical applications

Navigation & safety

systems for AGVs &

other mobility

platforms.

Real-time perception for

industrial robots &

assembly line equipment and safety

systems.

Subsurface 3D imaging

of translucent or opaque materials. Non-destructive

material tests. Reverse engineering of

small parts. Subsurface 3D imaging

of translucent or opaque

materials. Non-destructive testing

of parts and materials. Reverse engineering of

small parts - such as MEMS devices.

* Beraldin, J. A., "Basic Theory on Surface Measurement Uncertainty of 3D Imaging Systems," Proceedings of

SPIE-IS&T Electronic Imaging, Vol. 7239, 2008.

2.2 Construction

The majority of the 3DI systems used in construction are time-of-flight instruments. Common

applications include surveying, volume determination, clash detection, creating as-built models,

dimensional checking, tolerance checking, and topographic mapping. The use of 3DI systems

has the added benefit of allowing the work to be performed at a safe distance, e.g., bridge or road

surveying.

Typical characteristics of 3DI systems used for construction applications are:

• horizontal fields-of-view (FOVs) of 360°

• vertical FOVs of 80° or better

• measurement uncertainties on the order of millimeters

• maximum ranges from about 50 m to over a kilometer.

3DI systems have been used by various state Departments of Transportation (DOTs) for land and

highway surveys. The 3DI systems used for these types of applications have maximum ranges of
100 m to 200 m. For volume determination (e.g., mining, excavations) and topographic

mapping, systems with longer maximum ranges are more efficient. 3DI systems used for clash

detection and for the creation of as-built models typically have maximum ranges of 50 m to 200 m. Systems used for tolerance checking have ranges of 50 m or greater and measurement

uncertainties on the order of millimeters or better.

2.3 Autonomous Mobility

Applications in mobility systems for active 3D imaging systems include: Automated Guided

Vehicle and other industrial vehicle navigation and collision avoidance; military autonomous

Unmanned Ground Vehicle (UGV) navigation, terrain mapping and collision avoidance;

automotive collision avoidance, mapping and surveying. Table 2 contains a list of the main

features and salient characteristics of active 3D imaging methods used in mobility systems

applications.

Table 2. Typical Applications in Mobility Systems.

Type of 3D

imaging

methods

"Pulsed TOF

(scanning)

Pulsed TOF

(non-scanning)

Focal Plane

Array

Main features & salient characteristics

Light beam illumination

Multiple scanning planes & laser/ detector pairs

Wide FOV available DOF >100 m

Measurement rate > 1 million pixels per second

Good in bright ambient light

(outdoors)

Capable of multiple pulse return detection

Typical range for uncertainty values

5 mm to 50 mm

Typical applications

Military UGV autonomous

navigation, terrain mapping

and collision avoidance.

Automotive collision avoidance

Mapping and surveying.

3D illumination-high power

Non-scanning

Variable narrow FOV

DOF > 10 m up to kilometers

Up to 256 X 256 array size Measurement rate typically > 30 Hz

Good in bright ambient light

(outdoors)

Capable of multiple pulse return detection

2 cm to 5 cm

AM TOF Entire FOV Illumination

(non-scanning) Non-scanning

Focal Plane Narrow FOV 40°x40'' typical

Array Largest array size 200 x 200

Real-time operation up to 1 00 fps

Typical DOF: (0.5 to 30) m

Limited operation outdoors

Low cost

Robotic vehicle navigation,

mapping, security and

targeting.

± 1 cm Navigation & safety systems

for AGVs & other mobility

platforms.

Real-time perception for

industrial robots & assembly

line equipment and safety

systems.

Automotive safety systems.
3 Current State-of-the-Art (2010)

3.1 Introduction

A 3D imaging project involves the following basic steps:

1. 2.

3.

4.

5.

6.

Selecting a location that minimizes occlusions.

Setting the instrument on a stand or tripod. Depending on the instrument, the instrument can be attached to a tribrach and centered over a point below the tripod.

Collecting data from several locations - see Figure 1. This is necessary since a 3DI

system is a line-of-sight instrument and thus, data from several different locations are needed to obtain a full 3D model. The data is stored in the laptop/PC that controls the

instrument or on memory cards in the instrument.

Exporting the data.

Registering the data. Registration is defined as the process of determining and applying

to two or more datasets the transformations that locate each dataset in a common

coordinate system so that the datasets are aligned relative to each other [2]. Sometimes

registration to a global reference frame (e.g., state plane) is required in a project.

Processing data. ''Final data processing can represent a significant effort on some

projects—a structure that is scanned in 4 hours may take as much as 40 hours or longer

to process the data to a CADD compatibleformat. The software usedfor processing

scanned datasets is a critical component in the overall efficiency and economy ofthe

process. [3]"

Figure 1. Multiple scan locations (indicated by the small square boxes) are needed to fully model a building

and cover obscured areas. In practice, additional scan locations may be needed due to occlusions from

vegetation or other objects between the building and the scanning instrument. Figure taken from [3].
A general workflow for a 3D imaging project is shown in Figure 2. The hardware primarily

affects the planning and data collection stages and the software primarily affects the data

processing, data analysis, and modeling stages. The hardware and software are described in

more detail in the remaining sections of this chapter.

Input: Project

specifications,

required

deliverables

Planning

(e.g., site visit, type of 3DI system, instrument

locations, constraints (e.g., site, access), permits/

clearances, QA/QC procedures)

Data collection

(e.g., system calibration, instrument settings, data registration, data

QA/QC, data export)

1

Data processing

(e.g., data registration, data filtering, data segmentation, data export).

Data Analysis and Modeling

(e.g., fitting primitives, creating 2D plans and 3D models, error analysis, visualization, data export, archiving data).

Application

(e.g., interference/collision detection, inspection, planning

monitoring, documentation)

Figure 2. Simplified workflow for a 3D imaging project.
3.2 Active 3D Imaging Hardware

This portion of Chapter 3 covers the hardware portion of the current state-of-the-art and ongoing

research in active 3D imaging technology as it currently exists for a variety of industrial,

automotive and military applications. It supports the needs of the National Defense Center of

Excellence in Industrial Metrology and 3D Imaging (C0E-IM3DI) research program at Youngstown State University and updates the 2004 NIST report [1] on next generation 3D

imaging systems for applications in manufacturing, construction and mobility. Section 3.2.1

provides an overview of the hardware approaches.

3.2.1 Commercial Technology Overview

As stated earlier, active optical 3D imaging technology is widely used in many diverse

applications such as: reverse engineering (3D modeling), heritage and architectural preservation,

ground surveying (terrestrial, mobile terrestrial, aerial), automated manufacturing (assembly,

inspection), AGV (automated guided vehicle) guidance and safety systems, automotive collision

avoidance, obstacle and target detection and tracking, UGV (unmanned ground vehicle)

autonomous driving, and medical diagnostics. New improvements and new product

developments could increase the use of this technology in many other market areas. Active 3D

imaging systems use lasers or broadband spectrum light sources to illuminate surfaces in a scene of interest and to generate a 3D digital representation (range map or point cloud) of the surface.

Each range measurement is represented in a spatial coordinate system (a matrix) where the row

and column indices are a function of the orthogonal scan angle or some regular interpolated grid

in the x and y directions. Each cell in the matrix can contain the corresponding depth

measurement (z values), calibrated (x, y, z), or any other attributes such as color or uncertainty

[4]. The processing and display of the range data can directly provide the geometry of the

surface of an object or the scene in an environment which is relatively insensitive to background

illumination and surface texture.

The following sections will provide a breakdown of the most commonly used measurement

principles/approaches that are currently being used in commercial systems. Because of the

limited scope of the hardware study, the main focus will be on laser based optical triangulation

approaches and optical time delay (TOP measurement) approaches. For the same reasons, scanning techniques and devices will not be covered. Overviews of this topic can be found in [ 1

,

5]. Some coverage will also be provided on the emerging, wider use of Optical Coherence

Tomography, which uses a low coherence (broadband light) interferometric approach for very

high resolution range imaging. A survey of some currently available hardware products and

research prototypes is included in Appendices A and B.

3.2.1.1 Breakdown of Optical 3D Imaging Hardware by Range Measurement

Technigues

The most common optical active 3D range imagers utilize the basic measurement principles of

(1) triangulation, (2) time-of-flight, and (3) coherent time-of-flight or interferometry. Figure 3
I

shows the family of optical 3D range/shape measurement techniques. These techniques mostly

use light wave illumination sources in the wavelength range of 400 nm to 1 600 nm (visible and

near infrared (NIR) spectrum). This section will summarize the basic measurement principles of

each approach. Microwave and ultrasonic wave techniques will not be included in the

description.

Contactless 3D shape measurements

Microwave

A = 3 - 30 mm

(10- 100GHZI

J"

Triangutation

depth detection by means of geometrical angle measurement

Light wave

'- = 0.5 - I nm

(300 - 600 THz)

Interferometry

depth detection by means of optical coherent

time-of-flight measurement

Ultrasonic wave

X = 0.1-1 mm

{0.3 - 3 MHz)

Time-of-flight (TOF)

depth detection by means of optical modulation

time-of-flight measurement

Figure 3. Family tree of non-contact 3D shape measurement techniques [6].

3.2.1.1.1 Triangulation

Laser-based, triangulation scanning represents the most commonly used approach in industrial

applications. Figure 4 illustrates the principle of active triangulation range measurement.

object

z=?

rsr~ ^y'^s^ object triangle

V

v I image triangle

light source

' L^

X

I

I

Figure 4. Principle of active triangulation range measurement [7].

• 9
Laser-based, triangulation 3DI systems project a laser spot or stripe onto the object being

measured and then use a hnear or 2D array detector to locate the illuminated area on the object

being inspected or measured. The light source, the illuminated area on the object, and the

detector form a triangle as illustrated in Figure 4. Lange provides a basic overview of the laserbased triangulation measurement technique in his 2000 doctoral dissertation [7]. Much of the

following text comes from that dissertation.

With a laser spot projection, 3D information can only be gained by scanning the laser spot over

the scene and sequentially acquiring a point cloud of range measurements. A much faster

approach is to project a light stripe onto the scene. By replacing the position sensitive linear

detector with an imaging array, a 2D distance profile can be measured with a single

measurement. The scan has to be done in only one direction to obtain a 3D point cloud of the scene. The laser stripe is the most common approach used in applications where fast measurement rate is important. Further advanced techniques even use 2D structured light

illumination and 2D imaging to perform 3D triangulation measurements without scanning. The

most important members of this structured light group are phase shifting projected fringe,

greycode approach [8], phase shifting moire [9], coded binary patterns, random texture [10] or color-coded light. They typically use LCD (Liquid Crystal Display) projectors for the projection

of the structured patterns. This category of imaging sensors is not covered in this report.

3.2.1.1.2 Time-of-Flight Techniques

Q Light waves travel at a velocity (c) of approximately 3*10 m/s through the earth's atmosphere.

There is a class of measurement methods which take advantage of this knowledge by measuring

the time delay created by light traveling from an illumination source to a reflective target and

back to a detector located in close proximity to the position of the illumination source. The light

beam travels a distance which is twice that of the distance to the reflective target. Figure 5

illustrates the most basic principle of a time-of- flight (TOF) ranging system (a pure "pulsed"

time-of-flight range measurement principle). A very short laser pulse (0.5 ns to 5 ns) is used to

start a timing circuit. Once the detector picks up the reflected signal, it immediately stops the

timer. An extremely accurate clock is required to achieve measurements with small errors. The

distance, d, to an object is equal to (c * TOF delay divided by 2).

10
I

START

Detector

Figure 5. Fundamental principle of a "pulsed" time-of-flight range measurement technique (adapted from

Lange [7]).

Time-of-flight range measurement systems use either pulsed modulation or continuous wave

(CW) modulation of the illumination source. Figure 6 shows a "family tree" of the different

types of modulation signals used in time-of-flight range measurement systems. The three main

categories are: pulsed modulation; CW modulation and pseudo-noise modulation. Pseudo-noise

modulation will not be covered here.

11
Time-of-Flight Measurement

Pulsed

Modulation

CW

Modulation

Pseudo-noise

Modulation

""^n

AM

Homodyne

Phase-shift

AM

Heterodyne

ZF-phase

FM

Chirp

Modulation

AM

Sequential

Phase Coding

Lightbeam

(1D-lllumfnation)

OD-detector

OD-mixer

2D-scanner

Lightstripe

(2D-illumination)

1 D-detector

1D-mixer

ID-scanner

Llghtvolume

(2D-lllumination)

2D-detector

2D-mixer

No-scanner

Figure 6, "Family tree" of the different types of modulation signals used in Time-of-Flight range

measurement systems, (adapted from Lange [7]).

Continuous wave modulation techniques can be further broken down into the following subcategories: Homodyne Amplitude Modulation (AM) (single modulation frequency) phase shift

techniques; Heterodyne AM (multiple modulation frequencies); Frequency modulation chirp

(linear frequency sweep of the coherent wavelength source) modulation; and AM sequential

phase coding [11]. The technical details for these techniques will be described in the following

section.

3.2.1.1.3 Interferometry time-of-flight range measurement techniques

Single or multiple wavelength interferometry and Optical Coherence Tomography (OCT) can be

classified separately as a third active range measurement technique. The most basic

interferometer setup (the Michelson interferometer) is illustrated in Figure 7.

12
Cooperative

Surface

\^iZ = K ^/2)

Reference

Mirror

ZZ]

Beam Splttter

DIrectioral

light soijir.e

t

r^ Light

T"""~r detector

Figure 7. Working principle of Michelson interferometer (adapted from Beraldin [4]).

The following basic overview of the interferometric technique comes from the Lange dissertation

[7]. In the figure, a monochromatic and coherent laser beam is split into two rays by a beam

splitter. One ray is projected to a reference mirror (constant reference path) while the other is projected on the object/target (variable measurement path). Both rays are reflected back to the

beam splitter, which projects the rays onto the detector electronics where the interference is measured and counted. A movement of the object away or towards the sensor results in a constructive interference peak being observed each time the object moves by a multiple of the

laser's half wavelength. By counting the min-max transitions in the interference pattern, the

relative distance of object motion can be determined at an uncertainty on the order of the laser

light's wavelength {X) or better. The technique can be interpreted as a time-of-flight principle,

since the runtime (time delay) difference between the reference and measurement path is evaluated. Lange also provides the following overview of other interferometric approaches and

associated references in his dissertation [7]:

''Several other interferometer setups can be found, for example in [12] or [13]. The

principal drawback of classical interferometers is that absolute distance measurements

are not possible and the unambiguous distance range is as low as half the wavelength.

Enhanced approaches overcome this restriction. One nice example is Multiplewavelength interferometry, where two very closely spaced wavelengths are used at the

same time. [This allows] beat frequencies down to GHz or even MHz range [to be]

synthetically generated, enabling absolute measurements over several tens ofcentimeters

at A/100 resolution [6, 14]. Especially important for high sensitivity 3D deformation

measurements is the electronic speckle pattern interferometry (ESPI), where a reference

wave front interferes with the speckle pattern reflected by the investigated object. With a

conventional CCD camera the speckle interferogram, carrying information of the object

deformation, can then be acquired. Like conventional interferometers, ESPI can also be

improved in sensitivity and measurement range by the multiple-wavelength technique

[14].

Another way to enlarge the measurement range is to use light sources of low coherence

length. Such interferometers (white-light interferometry or low-coherence interferometry

13
[15P make use ofthefact that only coherent light shows interference effects. If the optical

path difference between the measurement and reference paths is higher than the

coherence length of the light, no interference effects appear. For a path difference of the

order of magnitude of the coherence length, however, interference takes place. The

strength of interference, depends on the path difference between the reference and object

beams, and thus absolute distances can be measured. Interferometry finds its applications predominantly for highly accurate measurements (1/100 to X/1000) over

small distances rangingfrom micrometers to several centimeters.''''

Because of the limited scope of the hardware study, further detailed technical description of the

traditional/classical interferometry approaches is not be provided here. An overview on these

techniques can be found in the 1999 Handbook of Computer Vision and Applications [16]. On

the other hand, since low-coherence or Optical Coherence Tomography (OCT) has generated a

lot of interest in the medical diagnostics community (especially in ophthalmology applications)

and now in manufacturing applications, further information and references will be provided. The

following material is a summary of information on OCT available at: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Qptical_coherencetomographv.

This coherent approach uses either a white (broadband) light source (such as super bright LEDs)

or femtosecond laser pulses and uses short/low coherence interferometry to generate interference

distances of only a few micrometers. The light source is used to penetrate through opaque or

translucent material or tissue samples to generate reflectance range data to resolutions better that

1 \im.. Light interaction is broken into two paths - a sample path and a reference path. The

reflected light from the sample and the reference signal are optically mixed to produce an

interference pattern. The interferometer strips off any scattered light outside the short coherence

interference length. Because of the exceptionally high range resolution, this approach has gained

acceptance in the manufacturing community - especially where it is necessary to obtain precise

3D imaging inside translucent or opaque materials. To generate 2D data sets (cross section

image of the object) a scanning of the object can be accomplished by using a translation stage to move the object. This is also called single (confocal) OCT. To generate a 3D data set (volumetric image) an area scan must be done. This can be accomplished by using a CCD

camera as the detector (does not need an electro-mechanical scan). By stepping the reference

mirror and taking successive scan images, a 3D volumetric image can be constructed. The only

limitation of this approach is the short standoff distances and imaging of less than 3 mm below

the surface of opaque materials. Additional information on OCT technology can be found in [17,

18].

3.2.1.2 Technical review of most common range measurement approaches used

commercially

3.2.1.2.1 Laser scanning techniques for active triangulation range imaging

The National Research Council (NRC) of Canada was one of the first organizations to invent and

develop the triangulation based laser scanning approach [19]. Since then they have published

many papers on the topic, which are available as NRC documents. A summary of the basic

principles of triangulation systems is in this report. Technical details can be found in the

following NRC and other publications [4 , 20-24]. Beraldin , et al. [23] provides an explanation

14
of the basic principles in the triangulation range measurement concept. The following is a summary of the principles, applications and limitations of the approach presented in [23].

The triangulation approach for 3D imaging is primarily used in applications where the range to the object being scanned is less than 10 m. There are three categories: (1) short range imagers

for standoff distances of less than 0.5 m, (2) medium sensors for distances of 0.5 m to 2 m, and

(3) larger sensors for distances between 2 m to 10 m.

In basic triangulation, the angles of the similar triangles which are formed by the object triangle

and image triangle are measured indirectly by using the ratio of two distances (based on law of

cosines). This ratio is shown in Figure 4 to be

zh

X

X

since the angle a is the same in both triangles.

7 -* z = hx — Eq. 1

The basic measurement principles of active triangulation imaging is shown in Figure 8 and

Figure 9 where Figure 8 shows a single laser spot range measurement and Figure 9 depicts the

approach used for object scanning.

Light source

Surface

Profile

Figure 8. Active triangulation based single spot laser range measurement. [23].

15
Figure 9. Active triangulation based scanning type laser ranging. From NRC publication [23].

For a single spot laser range measurement , as shown in Figure 8, the shape of the similar

triangles are determined from angles a and A|3 relative to the baseline distance d. In Eq. 1, substituting d for jc,/o for h, andp for the measured position jc 'on the detector results in the Z

equal to

Z = /oX-.

If the laser is scanned over the object using a deflection mirror, as shown in Figure 9, the

coordinates of the z and x measurement can be calculated using simple trigonometry. The value

of z for this configuration is now

Z = /oX

(p + fotanO)

The additional termyo tan 9 in the denominator is due to the displacement on the detector from

the scanning angle 9 in the object triangle.

The NRC paper continues by describing some of the limitations of the scanning triangulation

method. The standard deviation of error in the z value, ctz, is given by

(/orf) "

where o-p is the standard deviation of the error in measuring p. It appears that the uncertainty in z can be lowered by increasing the detector focal lengthTo and the baseline distance d.

16
Unfortunately, this is misleading because shadow effects increase and overall stability of the sensor structure decreases with increasing values of J. Also, since the field of view ^x of a

conventional triangulation sensor is given by

(p =2 tan"

2/r

where P is the length of the position detector, a compromise has to be made when selecting the

parameters for a desired application and performance. The paper points out that triangulation

sensing performance can be improved by using a scanning scheme that was developed by Rioux

[20] that allows a large FOV to be achieved even with small triangulation angles. This scheme is illustrated in Figure 10. With this approach, the instantaneous FOV of the position detector

follows the deflection angle of the laser beam. A sensor using this scheme can achieve a wide

FOV with small optics and a small baseline.

liZ ObjBot

/

/:

cc©

t ' ABi Sc5U¥!er

/ / Lssier p^

31

TafQ&t.

b) Figure 10. Auto synchronized scanner: a) single scan axis scanner and b) dual axis scanning. [23].

When using laser triangulation scanners, full 3D image data sets can be achieved by moving the scanner or by using galvanometers to drive the laser beam displacement mirrors along the x- and

y-axes in order to produce a raster range image. For metrology applications, laser line scanners

are typically mounted on Coordinate Measuring Machines (CMMs); however, if lesser

performance is acceptable, they can be mounted on a rotation stage or a translation stage to achieve full 3D imaging.

In another more recent NRC publication [4], Beraldin describes the intrinsic uncertainty of

active optical 3D imaging measurement techniques. He states that range measurement

uncertainties for each class of active 3D imagers can be represented by a single equation that

depends on the signal-to-noise (SNR) ratio. If SNR is assumed to be greater than 10, then the

range uncertainty, 6r, can be shown to be

K

^/SNR

17
J^ is a constant which depends on the range measurement methodology used. For laser based

triangulation scanners

K

ifd) BW

where Z is the distance to the surface being scanned, /is the focal length of the detector collector

lens, d is the sensor baseline distance, and 5 fT is root-mean-square signal bandwidth. Although

speckle noise does affect active triangulation based measurement performance when SNR is very

large, in most cases, performance (range of operation) is primarily limited by the geometry of the

sensor. Typical values of range uncertainty for active triangulation-based 3D imaging sensors is between 0.02 mm to 2 mm. In addition, the paper states that the depth-of-field (DOF) and

measurement rates for these sensors are typically less than 4 m and between (10 to 1000) kHz,

respectively. More in depth description of other contributions to the measurement uncertainty can be found in publications [25-27].

3.2.1.2.2 Time of Flight Measurement Techniques

The 2004 NIST report [1] describes in detail the fundamental time-of-flight measurement

techniques used in 3DI systems that were available at that time. This report will not attempt to duplicate this effort but will summarize the fiindamental science of each approach, list the

advantages and limitations, and cover some of the most common applications. Expanded

discussion will be provided on advances being made in focal plane array technology and

particularly for real-time applications where either the sensor or the scene is in motion.

(1) Pulsed Modulation (Pure pulse TOF)

A typical setup for direct TOF laser-based 3DI system is illustrated in Figure 11.

18
Polarizing

Beam Splitter

InGaAs

Avalanche

Photodlode

Digitizer

(fast AtoD)

Pre Amp Post Amp

Figure 11. Typical setup for a direct-time-of-fliglit laser-based 3D imaging system.

One very obvious improvement over the triangulation scheme is that the laser illumination source and the detector operate synchronously, producing full range data sets without any

shadowing. Essentially, the illumination beam and detector beam can be made coUinear. By

keeping the laser pulses very short (a few nanoseconds or even a few hundred picoseconds), a

large amount of light energy can be transmitted, thus reducing the effects of background

illumination and producing a high signal to noise ratio. The large signal to background

illumination ratio reduces the need for the detector to have a high sensitivity and high signal to noise performance. This high signal to background illumination ratio allows for long distance

measurements even under bright ambient conditions. Also, the low mean value of the optical

power that is used, is extremely important in preventing eye damage, especially if the laser

wavelength is in the IR (infrared) range [7].

One drawback of the pulsed TOP measurement approach is the need for the receiver electronics

to have a large bandwidth. Currently, the maximum attainable bandwidth that is commercially

attainable is limited to about 15 GHz\ This means that the achievable range resolution (A/?) is

c 1 2 B

where B is the bandwidth of the receiver electronics. Ai? is typically no better than 1 cm.

Range uncertainty for the various range measurement methods can be expressed as:

From a Bridger Photonics presentation.

19
5, "

The value of AT for pure pulse TOF ranging is:

where Tr is the rise time of the laser leading edge. Typical values of range uncertainty are between 5 mm and 50 mm for pulsed modulation approaches [4].

If low range uncertainty and high range resolution are important, the pulse duration should be

kept as short as possible. Some 3DI systems have been operated with laser pulses as short as 250 ps [28-30]. Femtosecond pulse operation has also been demonstrated, but this topic will be

described under the coherent laser radar part of the discussion. "Super resolution" algorithms are another way of improving range uncertainty. This is a process of combining information from

multiple images to form a single high resolution image. Information on these algorithms can be

found in [31] and [32].

There are other limitations that factor into performance of pure TOF 3DI systems:

(a) Laser sources used in generating short duration high optical peak power pulses generally

have low repetition rates [typically (1000 to 250 000) pulses/s)]. This tends to limit the

acquisition rates of single emitter/single detector scanning devices. The highest

repetition rates have been achieved using microchip laser sources in combination with

single photon Geiger-mode APDs (avalanche photodiodes) [28-30]. This limitation can be overcome by using large area flash focal plane array (FPA) detectors or by using

multiple laser/detector pairs on the scanning mechanism. These will be covered in

Section 3.2.2.4 under the topic of real-time active 3DI systems.

(b) Because of imperfect optics and atmospheric dispersion, the illumination beam expands

with range. Figure 12 shows the divergence characteristics for an uncompensated

microchip laser beam and another for a diffraction-limited optics laser beam. If the

unambiguous range of the distance measurement is very large (> 50 m), the reflected

return signal will contain multiple target reflections that are within the cone of the

dispersion beam. A possible time domain range profile is shown in Figure 13. Most

commercial grade pulse imagers average the values of the reflected returns and present

only a single measured value. This results in phantom points being generated along

vertical and horizontal edges of objects [1]. Some producers, however, offer multiple

return features such as: reporting first and last return, more than two returns, or even

multiple time slicing and range measurements following an initial detected return [33,

34].

20
Uncompensatect Microchip Laser Beam Divergence

400 mmi

With Diffraction-Limited Optics

20 mm

100 m

Figure 12. Laser beam divergence and beam diameter at 100 m for an uncompensated Microchip Laser

Beam and for a Diffraction-Limited Optics beam.

Noise

Threshoid

,/

Foliage

Foliage

Vehicles

''"^^ii^y%:

Time from Source Pulse Trigger (ns, full frame width = 400 ns)

Figure 13. Full time-domain profile return response for a Ins pulse imager (courtesy Night Vision Lab).

(2) Amplitude Modulated Continuous Wave (AM-CW) (phase-based measurements)

Another way of measuring TOF is by modulating the laser beam with a continuous wave signal

and then measuring the phase difference between the emitted signal and the reflected/return

signal. This measurement approach is represented in Figure 14. The distance dto the object is given by:

d =

A0C

4 71/,AM

where Ac]) is the phase difference and/AM is the modulation frequency.

21
The unambiguous interval, L^, for tlie range measurement approach is given by:

c 2/.AM

modulation

frequency: >-

outbound

signal

return

signal

Thus....

A(p of 271 = Ad of 7.5 m

Figure 14. Phase-based measurement of TOF. The unambiguous range Lu is set by the wavelength of the

modulation frequency.

For a modulation frequency of 20 MHz, the value for the ambiguity interval is calculated to be

7.5 m. If we assume a phase measurement resolution of 0.01° then range resolution is about

0.25 mm [23].

Higher modulation frequencies will improve the range resolution, but, will also reduce the

unambiguous range of the measurement system. One way of maintaining good resolution over

large ranges is by using several modulation frequencies (known as heterodyne operation). The

lower frequency signal is used to establish the unambiguous interval for the longest measurement

distance within which the higher frequency measurement is located. The latter technique has

been implemented in imaging products provided by Z+F, Basis Software and others [1].

The general form for calculating the measurement uncertainty for the phase-based approach is

[1]:

22
Ad =

4n^jN K (SNR)

where N is the number of equally spaced places the signal is sampled along a given wavelength,

A, is the modulation frequency wavelength and K is the modulation contrast which is given by:

K =

a^ a2

where a2 is the amplitude of the transmitted modulation signal and a\ the amplitude of the

received signal.

An example of the calculated range uncertainty for a phase based Homodyne 3D imaging system

is illustrated in Figure 15 for a variety of modulation contrasts and possible SNR figures. If the

available modulation contrast is selected to be 0.1 and the SNR of the detection process is assumed to be 70 dB, then the range uncertainty is about 1.1 mm [1].

10

10

•5 10

>

V 10 mm TS

C

c^ 10

1

10

P^Eq 1

! ! i ! f i i i

i ! -f- r •

i Vfodulation frequency 2OMH2- L^

! ^^%i.. :>^^

* ••%, CT' ^S ^^^ ^ r -;|- |-|~ Si^—^^^^rr•

i

1—

^N h-^*^, 1 x. i ^. y/^ ^ ti^.^^^3'

t^, -r—

1 !_ c/>^u —

-r-J- ':''W^,'**W' H-,^

1 —1

"'OJ^^tic± '^k

—4-

.^^ i- --^,

—h-#fc^ Sum ,„. "'^Lifc_. T ^^iMk.

-:-

j •w*^

\ p , ZZ ,=±=tl:ztk=~. 1

'-

t~:z.

\

i

1 10

-3 -2 -1 10 10

Modulation contrast

10

Figure 15. Range uncertainty of an AM-CW Homodyne 3D imaging system based on CMOC photonic mixer

technology as a function of modulation contrast (K) and SNR for a single modulation frequency of 20 MHz

and a sampling constant, N, of 8 [35].

23
There are many ways of improving the signal to noise value for a sensor, such as: averaging a

large number of samples (often thousands of samples for each measurement); using higher power

illumination sources and more efficient optics; higher efficiency photoelectron production in the

detector material; and having a digitizing system with enough bits to resolve the higher

resolution count. Implementing some of the methods can result in much improved range

measurement uncertainty values [1]. Typical range uncertainty values for AM-CW approaches

are reported in [4] to be between 0.05 mm to 5 mm for ranges from 1 m to about 100 m.

There are several variations of this approach which should also be discussed. These are:

(a) AM Homodyne 3D imaging

One way of measuring the phase shift between the transmitted and received signals is by synchronously demodulating the signal in the detector through a process known as "photonic mixing". This is a cross correlation process (sampling at specified phase

locations of the modulation signal) which allows for the direct derivation of the phase

angle. This sampling approach of the mixed transmitted and received signals is illustrated in Figure 16.

opt 1=^20 MHz. T=50 m

Figure 16. Illustrated "photon mixing" solution where the signal is sampled at an interval of jt/2 along the

resulting waveform [7].

Sampling the mixed signal at the detector at intervals of 7i/2, or four equally spaced

temporal points, and using the discrete Fourier transform, allows for the calculation of

the phase delay, signal amplitude, and signal bias. Further in-depth discussion of this

approach can be found in [1, 7, 35, 36 ].

The physical implementation of this measurement approach can take the form of a

focal plane array detector. Miniature 3D imagers have been built by CSEM,

PMDTec, Canesta and possibly others which take advantage of custom built

CMOS/CCD(complementary metal-oxide semiconductor/charged couple device)

technology: [www. CS EM. c om, www. PMDTec. com, www.caiiesta.com ]. The scene

24
is illuminated using an LED array which matches the FOV of the detector optics. The

optical signal is typically modulated at 20 MHz which has an ambiguity range of

7.5 m. The phase delay is measured by each pixel in the detector array. Array sizes

of 200 X 200 have been achieved in commercial products. The results achieved with

this approach are full frame (array size) range images generated at video frame rates or higher. Claimed values for range resolution and range uncertainty by developers

are in the 1 mm range.

The main drawback of this approach has been the inability of the CMOS detector

electronics to limit the effects of bright sunlight. This results in a very large value for

signal bias value (B), which significantly reduces the signal to noise ratio for the

sensor. That is the reason why they have been primarily used in indoor environments.

Recently, however, the use of ambient light suppression techniques and laser based

illumination are being considered as approaches for overcoming this limitation

[www.PMDTec. com]

.

(b) AM-CW Heterodyne 3D imaging

As explained earlier, one way of maintaining good resolution over large ranges is by

using several modulation frequencies (known as heterodyne operation). The lower

frequency signal is used to establish the unambiguous interval for the longest

measurement distance within which the higher frequency measurement is located.

The technique has been implemented in imaging products provided by Z+F, Basis

Software and others [1]. An in-depth discussion of this approach can be found in a paper by Schwarte [37]. Although a 0.001 mm range resolution has been reported by

one company (under best conditions), typical values are at about 0.1 mm. Typical

values of range uncertainty are between 0.5 mm to 5 mm (depending on the range).

(c) Combination of CW and Pulsed Modulation (taken from Lange [7])

"v4 combination ofboth CWmodulation andpulsed modulation would be ideal,

combining their specific advantages of (I) better optical signal-to-background ratio

than availablefrom pure CW-modulation, (2) increased eye safety due to a low

mean value ofoptical power and (3) largerfreedom in choosing modulation signals

and components. Combination in this content means, for example, a (pulsed sine)

operation, i.e. a sequence of Ims high power sine modulation followed by 9 ms of

optical dead time. This dead time can be usedfor examplefor post processing

tasks'". This technique has been implemented by Trimble in their CX model scanner

[product survey at www.gim-inteniationai.coni ]. Range uncertainty is about 2 mm at 50 m distance.

(d) AM-CW Chirp Modulation

In this variation of the traditional AM-CW approach, a linear chirp amplitude

modulation signal is used instead of a single frequency. This approach, developed at the Army Research Lab (ARL) by Stann et al. [38], is based on an approach

developed for radar [39]. The modulation signal, which looks like the one in Figure

17, is fed into a wideband power amplifier that generates the current drive signal to a

25
semiconductor laser diode. The result is a laser light illumination beam whose

intensity is frequency modulated linearly over the chirp bandwidth.

I! i I

/ 1

V

Time

Figure 17. Linear Chirp. Frequency sweep of AM modulation signal (courtesy of ARL).

A custom built self-mixing electronic detector generates a photo-current which is the

product of the local oscillator waveform with that of the reflected return signal. This

is similar in effect to the photonic mixing technique described under the Homodyne

approach. The electronic mixing process results in an intermediate frequency/f being

generated which represents the difference between the emitter signal and the reflected

signal. The frequency of this signal is proportional to the target range and is equivalent to the measurement of the phase delay in the traditional AM-CW

approach. Figure 18 shows the waveforms in the chirped AM-CW modulation

approach. The intermediate frequency signal is then processed with a fast Fourier

transform (FFT) to obtain the time domain calculation of A/. Barry Stann describes

the details of the approach in [38] and determines that the equation for range

resolution is given by:

A/? = 2AF

where AF is the difference between the start and stop frequencies of the chirped AM

modulation signal. An experimental breadboard was built by ARL where AF was

equal to 600 MHz. Therefore, the achievable range resolution is equal to about

250 mm.

26
/,

AF

start T

I

Time

cos(fjfi + ^J

Figure 18. Chirped AM/CW ranging concept. A self-mixing detector is used to measure tlie product of tlie local oscillator optical waveform and the reflected return signal - producing the

intermediate frequency/f (courtesy of ARL).

Although the initially attained value does not appear to be very high, there are ways

to improve range resolution [40]. The main advantage of this approach is that it can be used to recover the time history of multiple target reflections during the time

duration of the modulation sweep signal. The AM-CW Chirp approach has generated

interest in the commercial sector, however, there are no such products available at this time. The main limitations of implementation include: complicated chirpgeneration electronics; limited frequency response of the tunable laser source; and

more difficult post processing electronics, especially if a large array implementation

is planned.

(3) Coherent Laser Radar or FM-CW Chirp Modulation

In coherent laser radar detection, a part of the illumination laser source and the reflected return

signal from an object are optically mixed in a heterodyne detector where the optical interference

signal is measured. However, it is more common to have a separate Local Oscillator (LO) and to use mode locking to synchronize the LO to the illumination source. A simplified diagram of the

coherent laser radar approach is shown in Figure 19.

27
Coherent hv To

Illumination Source \

Beam

Deflector

Target

'

' modelocking

Local

Oscillator

Detector

Heterodyne

(optical) Mixer [beam splitter]

hxj' From

Target

Figure 19. A simplified diagram of the coherent laser radar approach.

In this approach, the LO power being appHed to the optical mixer can be adjusted independently

to any desirable level (up to the point where it saturates the detector). This feature greatly

amplifies the interference portion being detected at the detector. The advantage of this approach

is that the signal amplification takes place in the optical domain before any thermal noise is detected in the electronics. This can result in a very high SNR in the detector. A description of

the fundamentals of the measurement concept is provided in Chapter 2.4 of the NISTIR 7117 [1].

More detailed information is available from Kammerman [41] and Gatt [42].

A common hardware implementation of this approach is called the FM-CW Chirp laser radar

where the wavelength of the laser source is swept linearly using an FM approach. Figure 20

shows the FM chirp approach and the time delay separation between the transmitted signal and

the return signal. One way of changing the wavelength of the laser source is through thermal

excitation of the laser cavity. Another way involves the use of mechanical piezoelectric

actuators to control the length of the laser cavity. This approach requires a very repeatable linear

wavelength sweep control system in order to achieve high range resolution and very low range

uncertainty values. This requirement is the hardest thing to achieve with this design, however,

solutions have been implemented at Nikon Metrology (formerly Metric Vision), Boeing and

Bridger. Typical bandwidth of the FM chirp is 100 GHz over a sweep duration of 1 ms. The

mathematical validation of the measurement approach is provided in Chapter 2.4 of the NISTIR

report [1] along with an implementation scheme provided by Nikon Metrology Inc./Metric

Vision. Figure 21 shows a typical implementation of an FM-CW chirp laser radar (courtesy of

Nikon Metrology Inc./Metric Vision) Chapter 2.4 of the NISTIR report [1] also provides a

technical description of the achievable theoretical range accuracy for this kind of a sensor. Much

more detail is provided in [41, 42 ].

28
5f is in low megahertz band

Frequency

200THZ

transmitted signal

received signal

Figure 20. Example of FM-CW chirp concept in measuring time delay between the transmitted and reflected laser signals.

System

Signal Processor

Analog

Electronics / DAC

Signal Detector

Monitor

Detector

To / From Target

BS

Signal Monitorj

Ktx^-^^

Freq.

Shifter

Scanner Telescope

CW

Master Oscillator

T/R

Switch

Transmitted Beam

CW or Pulsed Amplifier

Injection-Locked

or Injection-Seeded Oscillator

Figure 21. Typical implementation of a FM-CW chirp laser radar (courtesy of Nikon Metrology Inc./Metric

Vision).

The equations for calculating range uncertainty values for the FM-CW chirp approach are provided in [4]. As described earlier, the range uncertainty 6r, for laser based range imaging

techniques can be expressed by

K

y/SNR

For the FM-CW chirp modulation approach, K is given as

29
V3 c

i^ 2n AF

Typical values for range uncertainty are given as 0.010 mm to 0.250 mm for depth of field

measurements of less than 1 m. Because of the large time duration for each FM sweep interval

(1 ms), range measurements are obtained at rather slow rates (typically between 0.01 kHz to

1 kHz). However, if extreme high resolution and low range uncertainty values are necessary for

metrology 3D imaging applications, this approach is hard to beat.

3.2.1.2.3 Interferometric-based Optical Coherence Tomography

As mentioned earlier in the introduction to the active 3D imaging concepts, optical coherence

tomography (OCT) has gained considerable interest in the manufacturing applications area. This

is because of the sub-micrometer depth resolution which has been achieved by this technique.

OCT is basically a low-coherence interferometric (white-light interferometry) technique which

uses white (broadband) or near-infrared light sources to generate interference distances in the

sub-micrometer range. In addition, the use of near-infrared wavelength light allows the light to penetrate into opaque and transparent materials thus generating high resolution tomograms of the

internal structure of a material.

Much of the following technical description is taken directly from the 2006 dissertation by

Stephen Beer at the University of Neuchatel in Switzerland[18]. Because of the length and

complexity of the thesis, only a portion of the introduction is used to describe the fundamental

measurement concept. Although the main goal of the thesis was to realize a very fast and robust

3D OCT imaging system with the use of parallel OCT techniques, it provides a technical

overview of the traditional OCT approaches and lists many of the references on this topic.

"OCr and the related technique white-light interferometryfor surface detection is based on

low-coherence interferometry. A typical interferometric set-up is the Michelson

interferometer shown in Figure 7. The beam splitter divides the optical wave from the source into two paths and recombines them after they have been reflected by mirrors. The

recombined wave is detected by an optoelectronic device. Ifthe lightfrom the two beams is at least partially coherent, i.e. the phase fluctuations of the two waves are related instead

of being completely random, the two waves interfere. This means that the detected optical

power depends on the difference of the lengths of the two paths. Typically, the power is sinusoidally modulated as function of the optical path difference with a period

corresponding to the wavelength. The interferogram is the measured optical power at the

detector as a function of the position of one of the two mirrors called reference mirror. If

the illumination source ofthe interferometer is coherent, e.g. a laser, the signal modulation

stretches over a large interferometer arm length difference of up to many meters. If the source is so-called low temporal coherence, such as an light emitting diode (LED) or a

thermal lamp, the width of the modulated packet, called coherence length, becomes very

small and may even be of the order ofa micrometer. Ifnow the reference mirror is moved

in a controlled manner and the optical signal is analyzed to detect the signal modulation,

30
the position of the static mirror can be detected unambiguously with a precision

corresponding to half of the coherence length. In OCT, the static mirror is replaced by a

sample, and since every reflecting interface ofthe sample generates a signal modulation at the corresponding reference mirror position, cross-sectional images can be acquired even

through scattering material [43, 44].

Most systems exploiting the above explained time-domain (TD-) OCTprinciple, acquire a

depth scan for one lateral position ofthe sample at a time, a so-called A-scan, then move to a laterally neighboring position to acquire the next scan, and so on. Cross-sectional or

volumetric images are then composed of a multitude of A-scans. Real-time volumetric

imaging, which is a requirement for many applications, is with this principle only

achievable by the use of extremely fast axial scanners. By replacing the single-spot

detector by a detector array, a three-dimensional image is acquired by one depth scan[A5-

47]. This so-calledparallel OCT (pOCT) orfull-field OCT also reduces the complexity and

cost ofthe systems. ""{ 18].

"Recentlyfrequency domain (FD-) OCTprinciples, alternatively referred to as spectral

domain (SD-) OCT, have gained a lot ofattention due to their high sensitivity even at low

illumination powers. Instead ofmechanically scanning the optical delay between the sample

and the reference path as in the presented TD-OCT, the optical spectrum ofthe detected

signal is analyzed. The depth profile is then generated by means ofFourier transformation.

Spectrum analysis can be either be done sequentially, e.g. by changing the center wavelength

ofa monochromatic tunable laser, which is referred to as swept source (SS-) OCT, or

simultaneouslyfor example by means ofa broadband illumination source, a grating, and a CCD or CMOS line sensor, usually called Fourier-domain OCT.

FD-OCT offers and advantage in sensitivity compared to TD-OCT, especiallyfor low light

level applications [48, 49] "[18]. This is discussed in more detail in Chapter 4 of Beer's

thesis.

Beer concluded that

" the performance ofan OCT system is characterized by thefollowing properties: the number

ofacquired voxels per complete two-dimensional or three-dimensional image, the axial and

lateral resolution, the depth range, the acquisition time, the dynamic range, and the

sensitivity, which represents the smallest detectable reflection. These properties are all related andphysically limited by the choice ofthe illumination source" [18].

3.2.2 Research Overview

At the start of the active optical 3D imaging study in 2009, representatives of commercial

product developers and research organizations were contacted to determine their interest in

contributing information and material on advanced research for the 3D hardware portion of the

study. Appendix A contains the names of the organizations contacted. Because of company

31
policies and new government restrictions on releasing information on critical technology to the

public, only a limited number of respondents contributed research material for this publication.

Therefore, the topics selected represent only a small fraction of the ongoing research. Interested

participants contributed information and expert opinions on the needs and solutions for various

applications in manufacturing, industrial metrology, automotive safety, the military, dynamic

perception, and mobility. These cover many of the needed 3D imaging solutions described in

Chapter 4. Some of the presented material is in the form of technical synopses provided by the

contributors, while others are technical summaries or text material taken from published

documents.

3.2.2.1 Experimental femtosecond coherent LIDAR

The NIST Laboratory in Boulder, Colorado has developed an experimental femtosecond

coherent 3D imaging system that has the ability to achieve better than 1 p.m range measurement

uncertainty even at large-range ambiguity. They also claim the following very desirable

features: high precision, speed, low light level operation, multiplexing capability, flexibility and

spurious reflection immunity.

It uses two Mode-Locked coherent broadband fiber laser frequency comb sources. One is used

for the target signal pulses and the other for the time delayed LO pulses (slightly different

repetition rate). The following is a short description of the approach provided by Nathan

Newbery at the NIST Boulder office:

"The dual comb LIDAR system can be viewed in two different ways - either as a veryfine

resolution "time-offlight" system or as a very dense multi-wavelength interferometer.

In terms of the "time-offlight" picture, the pulses from the signal source are transmitted

out and reflected off the target. The second "LO" source then samples the returning

LIDAR pulses with very high time resolution. This operational picture is very similar to a down-sampling oscilloscope where the LO pulse provides the sampling time gate that is slowly "walked through " the returning signal. The result is that we map out the electric

field of the returning signal pulses. (While standard time-of-flight measurements would

just measure the intensity ofthe returning signal pulse, we measure the full electric field.)

By measuring the time of arrival of the pulse envelope, we can obtain a coarse range

measurement, with a range ambiguity of 1.5 m set by the laser repetition rate. Since the

measurement is coherent, we also measure the phase of the optical carrier wave. From

this carrier phase, we obtain a fine range measurement with a range ambiguity given by

the optical wavelength, just as with a CW laser interferometer. If the course range

measurement is sufficiently precise, we can determine the absolute range to within an

optical wavelength (~L5 jum). At that point, we can use the interferometric range

measurementforfiner precision. Figure 22 shows this basic concept and is directly taken

from our Nature photonics article" [50].

32
95 1 90

Figure 22. Time-of-flight picture, (a) Ranging concept. A higli repetition rate "signal" source transmits

pulses that are reflected from two partially reflecting planes (glass plates): the reference (r) and the target (t). The reference is a flat plate and yields two reflections, the first of which is ignored. Distance is measured as the time delay between the reflections from the back surface of the reference flat and the front of the target.

(b) The signal pulses are detected though linear optical sampling against a local oscillator (LO). The LO

generates pulses at a slightly different repetition rate. Thus, every repetition period (T^), the LO pulse "slips"

by ATr relative to the signal pulses and samples a slightly different portion of the signal. Consecutive samples

of the overlap between the signal and LO yield a high-resolution measurement of the returning target and

reference pulses. Actual data are shown on the right side where each discrete point corresponds to a single

digitized sample and only the immediate overlap region is shown, (c) The measured voltage out of the

detector in both real time (lower scale) and effective time (upper scale) for a target and reference plane

separated by 0.76 m. A full "scan" of the LO pulse across the signal pulse is accomplished every ==100 jis in real time and every == 10 ns in effective time. Two such scans are shown to illustrate the fast, repetitive nature

of the measurement. Also seen are two peaks in grey which are spurious reflections of the launch optics.

"As stated above, the system can also be viewed as a very dense multi-wavelength

interferometer. The coherent pulsed sources are really frequency combs - they output an

entire comb ofdifferent wavelengths oflight at once. Through the use ofthe second comb, we

essentially configure the system so that each one of these wavelengths of light is used in its own individual CW laser interferometer and provides its own range measurement. This

system then is similar to a conventional multi-wavelength interferometer (MWI) except that

we have many, many (thousands) of different wavelengths involved. Through the standard

MWI approach of combining the range measurements from all these individual CW

interferometers, we acquire an absolute range measurement with high precision. The use of

the combs, as opposed to conventional swept CW lasers, allows us to do this quickly, with

only two laser sources, and with very low systematic errors. "

[50].

33
Performance advantages of the femtosecond 3D imaging system are provided in comparison to the FM modulation (chirp approach) coherent laser radar approach:

"The resolution ofany laser system is set by the system bandwidth divided by the signalto-noise ratio. The dual comb system can have significantly more bandwidth than

conventional FM modulated laser radar and therefore can provide significantly higher

range resolution. There are three advantages to the dual comb system vs. FMmodulated

coherent laser radar:

1) Resolution: Much higher effective modulation bandwidth is possible (THz vs. GHz)

with a corresponding improved range resolution (or, equivalently, reduced signal-tonoise ratio requirementsfor the same range resolution).

2) Speed: Multiple modulation frequencies are transmitted at once for this system as opposed to sequentially in a typical fm modulated approach. As a result, we can

determine an absolute range more quickly in a given range ambiguity window. Sampling

rates ofat least 5000 measurements per second can be achieved.

3) Accuracv (low systematics): Significantly lower systematics are possible since there are no cyclic errors. The reason for this is that the simultaneous transmission ofmultiple

modulation frequencies allows us to observe and "gate out " spurious reflections that

would otherwise lead to cyclic errors, a major systematic in other ranging systems. We

note that this control ofsystematics is hard to quantify but is potentially one of the most

beneficialfeatures ofthe system. " [50].

This system is still a lab research instrument and has not been implemented with a scanner. However, if implemented, the features offered by this system would make it a high performance

laser-based 3D imaging system that could be used for large-scale metrology applications. Issues

of sensor complexity and cost would have to be resolved in order for this approach to be

developed into a useful and cost competitive 3D imaging product for industrial and other

applications.

3.2.2.2 Active laser stabilization during linear sweeps for FMCW chirped LADAR

This technical synopsis was provided by Brant Kaylor of Bridger Photonics and is reproduced

with his permission.

Bridger Photonics (Bridger) has developed a new design for a frequency-modulated continuouswave (FMCW) LADAR system that utilizes an actively stabilized swept laser source and a heterodyne receiver architecture similar to that of microwave radar systems. The system offers

tremendous optical bandwidth and extremely linear chirps, thus producing extremely high range

resolution and very low measurement noise.

"A detailed diagram of the FMCW technique is shown in Figure 23. Bridger 's innovation enables extremely linear chirps over enormous optical bandwidths to produce

34
unprecedented resolution and precision. The frequency chirped laser light passes

through a splitter, with the transmit portion passing first through an optical circulator

and then towards a distant target object. Light that returns firom the target is time

delayed by T£,= 2R/c, where R is the distance to the object and c is the speed of light.

This time-delayed light is collected, passes out of the circulator to be recombined with

the portion of the original chirped light that is not time delayed called the reference or

local oscillator. When the recombined light is detected, a constantfrequency offset exists

between the two chirps as a result of the time delay. This appears as a heterodyne or

"beat note" which has a frequency feat = kxd = 2kR/c, where k is the chirp rate in Hz/s.

The distance to the object, R, can therefore be determined by measuring the beat note

frequency. As before, the range resolution AR of this LADAR technique is given by AR =

c/2B, where B is the bandwidth of the optical chirp. Typically, FMCW chirped LADARs

have much better range resolution because the optical bandwidths that they can cover

are much larger. The maximum range window or beat note that can be measured is often

limited by the bandwidth of the digitizer used and can reach large distances ( > 1 km).

Note that by delaying the reference path, the range window can be shifted, so that an

object could be examined tens ofkilometers away.

"

Monostatic ^. . Tx/Rx O")^":'

— FFT

Local Delay ed

V Oscillator Signal

o y^

i k d y^

CDcr 'beat --KT^ Xy^

X S

o

Q.

^ ' O * To Tc >

Time

Figure 23. (Top) The setup for an FMCW chirped heterodyne LADAR system. (Bottom) The optical

frequency versus the sweep time for the local oscillator and delayed return signal.

"To date, Bridger has achieved range resolutions of 47 jum and precisions of 86 nm. These results utilized an optical sweep linearized over 5 THz with frequency residuals

below 200 kHz (4 parts in 10^) [51]. These results are shown in Figure 24. In the

interest of clarity, Bridger measures resolution as the full-width halfmaximum of the

range peakfor a single-point return andprecision as the standard deviation of the leastsquares peakfit."

35
-4000 -2000 2000

Relative Range (mm)

4000

Figure 24. (Top) A frequency sweep from the SLM-H laser system shown covering more than 4 THz of

optical bandwidth. (Middle) The residual sweep errors from linearity showing a 170 kHz standard deviation.

(Bottom) Two range profiles for (grey) an unstabilized sweep with 400 mm FWHM and (black) a stabilized sweep with 47 jim FWHM.

The following is a list of some of the main advantages offered by the new FMCW laser radar

system design:

2.

4.

Extremely high range resolution andprecision.

Sensitivity to very low light levels. Bridger 's system relies on heterodyne detection and

thus is sensitive to very low light return levels. Bridger has demonstrated a unity SNR

point ofless than 100 aW (or 1 x

10''^ W).

Low bandwidth receiver electronics. FMCWsystems rely on heterodyne detection to measure thefrequency offset between the return light and local oscillator. This

frequency offset is typically on the order of(I to 10) MHz, significantly less than the

bandwidth ofthe optical sweep.

Flexible resolution and measurement speed. Bridger Photonics has developed a variety

ofsystems to offer resolution from 50 jum to 5 mm at update rates of1 Hz to 30 kHz. At

present, the Bridger system can achieve precisions < 100 nm at 10 Hz and < 1 nm at

100 Hz.

Large range windows and stand-offdistances. Through active stabilization, Bridger has

produced very linear chirps with long coherence lengths. In practice, the analog-to36
digital converter is often the limitingfactor. To date, Bridger has demonstrated 100 m

range windows and up to 14 km stand-offdistances.

6. Robust, compact, low cost, commercial off-the-shelfcomponents. Bridger leverages the

extensive development ofcomponents in the telecom band (1.5 jum) to enable robust,

compact, low cost systems. Existing systems are housed in standard 483 mm (19 in.)

rack-mounted enclosures.

3.2.2.3 Non-scanning parallel optical coherence tomography (pOCT)

CSEM in Switzerland has developed a non-scanning parallel OCT - white light interferometer sensor which is being marketed by Heliotis ( http:/7www.heliotis.ch ). This is part of the EU

project SMARTIEHS ( http://www.ict-smartiehs.eii:8080/SMART[EHS/publications ) [52] to develop a massively parallelized interferometry based OCT system for testing and characterizing

of MOEMS (Micro- Opto-Electro Mechanical Systems) structures. CSEM is in charge of

developing a pOCT 3D imaging system which has a spatial array size of 150 x 150 pixels. This

action was taken because the current state-of-the-art inspections systems perform serial

inspection of each MOEMS structure individually. This procedure is too time consuming and is not suited for mass production needs. SMARTIEHS is expected to decrease inspection time of

wafers by a factor of 1 00 which will cut production costs and shorten the time-to-market.

The following material on the new massively parallel inspection approach comes from the

chapter on Photonics from the CSEM 2008 Scientific and Technical Report

( http:/7ww\v.CSEM.ch ).

"A new inspection approach has been developed in the EU project SMARTHIES [52].

With the introduction of a wafer-to-wafer inspection concept, parallel testing and

characterization of tens of MOEMS structures within one measurement cycle has been

made possible. Exchangeable micro-optical probing wafers are developed and aligned

with the MOEMS-wafer-under-test. Two different probing configurations, a 5 x 5 array of

low-coherence interferometers (LCI) and a 5x5 array of laser interferometers (LI), use an array of5 x 5 smart-pixel cameras featuring optical lock-in detection at the pixel level

[53].

This smart-pixel image sensor dedicated to optical characterization of MOEMS, called

SMOC, offers processing of the detected intensity signal at each pixel. In an

interferometer, this functionality enables to pre-process the interference signal in order

to increase measurement speed and accuracy. The SMOC imager, with its 150X150

pixels, features background suppression and direct I-Q (smart pixel) demodulation [18].

Global shutter allows integrate-while-read operation. The sensor has column-parallel

10-bit ADCs and 5 output pads operating at 41.5 MHz each. Maximum frame rate of

more than 400fps (frames per second) atfull resolution is supported. Higherframe rates can be achieved by region-of-interest (ROI) sub-frame viewing. On the digital side, a

fully programmable sequencer has been implemented. The camera composed of the 5x5

synchronously operating smart-pixel imagers has a CameraLink-interface running at 3 Gbps.

37
The principle of the camera module allowing individual mechanical adjustment of each

imager module is shown in Figure 25.

A prototype of the smart-pixel imager is under development and will be taped out at the

beginning of 2009. Further versions will have quadrupled number ofpixels (300 x 300)

and a significantly increasedframe rate (more than 9 kfps).

"

Imaaer Module

intertero- metric Sgnal'^

Imager Array Carr:era Sysem

with 5x5 Mcdulas

High-soeed Frame Oabber Data Acquisition Image Sensor C aioc

Figure 25. Schematic representation of the SMARTHIES camera module - from the pixel to the high-speed

interface to the PC. (from SMARTIEHS website linlc [52] - Newsletter N.2).

In a report issued in April of 2010, SMARTIEHS reported that the design of the massively

parallel inspection system has been completed and that two single channel demodulation

detectors have been tested. The multi channel system is expected to be completed in 2010.

Further information can be obtained directly from the SMARTIEHS web site: http://www.ict-smartiehs.eu:8080/SMARTIEHS/publications

As mentioned earlier, Heliotis has developed several fast 3D microscopy products based on the

pOCT concept developed at CSEM. In addition to inspection of micro-optical components (such

as MOEMS), pOCT products are also being used in biological tissue and other medical imaging,

for inspection of surface mounted devices and die and wire bonds, and inspection of injection

molded parts. This represents just a sampling of potential applications for this fast growing

technology.

38
3.2.2.4 Real-time active 3D imaging for dynamic perception applications

An area of active optical 3D sensor research and product development that has demonstrated

rapid growth in the last 10 years is in real-time 3D imaging for mobility or dynamic perception

applications. Focal point arrays, multi-laser/multi-planar scanning sensors and now MicroElectro-Mechanical Systems (MEMS) based laser scanning sensors are being built by

developers to demonstrate their use for improving perception in autonomous and semiautonomous vehicles for navigation/collision avoidance, non-contact safety systems, automated

material handling, and other industrial, commercial, transportation and military applications.

The interest in non-scanning FPA technology has grown quickly and will be covered first.

The FPA designs use either pulsed laser or AM modulated homodyne techniques for range

measurement. There are no moving parts used for laser scanning and only a single laser pulse or AM modulated sampling period is used to measure the range image of the FOV at each pixel of

the APD array. Although 256 x 256 APD arrays have been built for pulsed laser mode

operation, the most common size currently available as a product is 128 x 128. Since the APD

approach seems to be best suited for narrow field-of-view applications, some developers are placing these sensors on precision pointing stages (for stitching scenes together) or scanning the

detector FOV to generate larger FOV data sets.

A. Custom CMOS/CCD FPA Technology

Several developers have produced compact, low cost, real-time 3D imaging systems that take

advantage of custom CMOS/CCD technology and employ the AMCW Homodyne range imaging

approach. They are stand-alone camera systems which typically have used LED light emitting

array (in the IR signal range) continuous wave signal illuminators which are modulated in

amplitude. The reflected signal from the scene travels back to the camera, where the TOF is measured by recording the phase delay between the signals. The signal phase is detected by

using a synchronous demodulating scheme. The largest array that is available is a 200 x 200

FPA and frame rates of 1 00 Hz have been achieved. Performance outdoors was poor in some

earlier versions, but developers are designing laser-based illuminators or are developing ambient

compensation circuitry at the pixel level to overcome these limitations. Because of their low

cost, these types of systems are being increasingly used in automotive, robotic (both military and

industrial) applications.

Two of the leading developers of custom CMOS/CCD 3D imaging cameras, PMDTec and

CSEM, contributed material for the research part of the active 3D imaging technology study.

(1) PMD Technologies (in Siegen, Germany) and their partners/shareholders Audi and ifm

have mass produced and sold over 100 000 sensor units and have generated over 25

patents. They were first to introduce a 204 x 204 pixel array camera and are now

exploring the production and qualification of a non-scanning imager for automotive

safety applications. The automotive sensor is expected to provide real-time object and

pedestrian detection and tracking to a measurement range of about 60 m. The

unambiguous range of the sensor is set to 120 m by lowering the AM modulation

frequency. This is the maximum possible measurement range if sufficient illumination

39
power is used. The B-Muster PMD camera has sufficient optical power to obtain range

measurements out to 60 m from vertical surfaces. The sensor also uses patented

suppression of background illumination (SBI) circuitry in each pixel in order to allow the sensor to operate in bright sunlight conditions. The FOV of the sensor is expected to be

about 50° horizontally, however, if a larger FOV is desired, multi-camera operation can be achieved using different frequency channels. Figure 26 shows how the sensor and

illumination sources can be mounted on a vehicle.

Figure 26. Illustration of a PMD camera mounted on a vehicle: (a) PMD Muster camera, (b) IR LED

illumination lamps, (c) Internal car setup, (d) Schematic of car setup.

In 2010, PMD introduced the PMD (vision) CamCube 3.0 camera. With a 200 x 200

pixel array, the sensor is the highest spatial resolution all-solid-state TOF 3D camera that

is currently commercially available.

Research activities at PMDtec include: building progressively larger and larger pixel

array sizes with smaller and smaller CMOS technologies, increasing frame rates to over 100 fps, providing onboard camera CPU/DSP (digital signal processing) capabilities to increasingly enhance onboard intelligent 3D image processing for advanced data

visualization and intelligent control systems.

(2) CSEM and their marketing partner MESA in Zurich, Switzerland also develop and

produce AM-CW Homodyne FPA 3D imaging cameras. They use CMOS technology to miniaturize and to reduce cost and power usage in their product. The MESA 3D FPA

imager, the SR4000, has an array size of 176 x 144 pixels and can be operated at a frame

rate of as high as 54 fps. Although the application areas are similar to those being

addressed by PMD, their main focus is on industrial applications, and they have made a tremendous effort to provide stable and repeatable range imaging measurements in very

demanding shop floor environments. Even though they have implemented in-pixel

40
I

I background light suppression capability, this is not the main emphasis of the product

design. Therefore, the SR4000 is not intended for use in bright sunlight.

CSEM has been in the research and development business of active optical 3D imagers

for close to ten years and was first to successfully demonstrate the capabilities of the

lock-in based concept in 3D imagers at the pixel level. They were also one of the first companies to develop and demonstrate the parallel optical low coherence tomography

(pOCT) concept. In recent years, they have concentrated their research effort to further

miniaturizing the TOF cameras while improving range measurement performance and

lowering power usage. The SR4000, marketed by MESA is only (4x4x4) cm^ in size,

requires less than 6 W of power, and has a range measurement uncertainty of less that

± 1 cm. Figure 27 shows a picture of the camera and Figure 28 shows 3D range images

taken with the camera. Higher modulation frequencies (up to 80 MHz) can be used to

fiirther improve the range resolution. The research base at CSEM is very broad and

includes:

Ultra low power - single chip digital cameras (2 mW)

High speed - 2D imaging ( 1 000 fps to 2000 fps)

Ultra high speed - line sensors (80 000 fps)

Very high dynamic range miniature video cameras (> 140 db)

High resolution optical encoders ( 1 00 nm)

X-ray imaging systems

Phase contrast X-ray imagers

Additional information covering research to extend capabilities of optical TOF 3D imaging can be found in [54].

I

I

I

I

I

I

I

Figure 27. Picture of the MESA SR4000 3D imaging camera.

41
Figure 28. Single frame range images taken with the MESA SR4000 3D camera.

(3) Canesta, in Sunnyvale, California, is also developing CMOS-based FPA 3D cameras that

perform like the cameras available from PMDTec and CSEM. Similarly, they also use

the continuous wave AM phase-based approach for measuring the TOF at each pixel in

the detector array. Custom 3D imaging detectors are provided to existing customers for

specific applications and embedded systems, but are also provided to academic

organizations for research purposes. The detectors are 64 x 64 pixel arrays than can be

implemented with background illumination suppression circuitry and with two different

AM modulation frequencies in order to increase the unambiguous range of operation

(http://www.canesta.com ).

B. Avalanche Photodiode Array (APD) FPA 3D Imagers

(1) Another FPA imaging concept which has matured in the last five years and is being

introduced to the sensors market by Spectrolab/Boeing ( http://www.spectrolab.com ) is the Geiger-mode APD array. This imaging technology was originally developed and

demonstrated by MIT Lincoln Labs. Under a technology development agreement,

Spectrolab has taken over the research work and is making improvements to the design to make it suitable for volume production, reduced cost, and improved stable and reliable

performance. The following description of Geiger-mode operation comes from Section

4.1 of Chapter 7 in the NIST book publication on Intelligent Vehicle Systems [55]:

"7/7 order to achieve enhanced ionization which is responsive to the arrival of a

single photon, Lincoln Labs have developed a "Geiger-mode" (GM) avalanche

photodiode (APD) array that is integrated with fast CMOS time-to-digital

converter circuits at each pixel [56]. When a photon is detected there is an

explosive growth of current over a period of tens ofpicoseconds. Essentially, the

Q APD saturates while providing a gain oftypically > 10 . This effect is achieved by

reverse-biasing the APD above the breakdown voltage using a power supply that can source unlimited current.

" ""

42
Some of the early work by Lincoln Labs, using a GM APD 32 x 32 FPA LADAR can be

found in SPIE conference publications [28, 57].

"jWr also reports [29] that they have extended their earlier work with silicon

based APDs by developing arrays of InGaAsP/InP APDs, which are efficient

detectors for near-IR radiation at 1.06 jtim. These detectors are 32 x 32 pixel

arrays, with 100 jum pitches. Figure 29 shows the key elements that are integrated

into a package for Geiger-mode operation. In the figure, light enters the array

from the top and is focused by the microlens array onto the detector array. About

70 % to 80 % of the light is captured and focused onto the detector pixel

elements. The overall detector efficiency with the microlenses is in the order of

30 %to 35 % thus considerably increasing detector efficiency. The thermoelectric

cooler is necessary to reduce the dark current rates in order to keep the LADAR

time-of-flight gates open for times in excess of 1 jus. This is adequate for many

LADAR applications.''''

V w ww\u ww w w *

f<r'i r??^ y^:-^ i^-t-q i^<i \<^, {•^<\ \<<-\ •*•

r"-^- ' ','^\K\-'

__——• fvlicrolens array

___^—— APD chip

APD mesas

Bump bonds

A,' ^.,.\A TE cooler

Figure 29. Cross section showing key elements integrated into package for Geiger-mode APD arrays

(courtesy of MIT/LL).

Additional details of the Geiger-mode APD approach can be found in Chapter 5.3 of the

NISTIR 7117 report [1]. It describes the differences between p-n photodiode detectors,

linear-mode APD detectors and Geiger-mode APD detectors. The chapter also describes

the active quenching circuitry needed for resetting the GM APD below the breakdown

voltage in order to quickly prepare it for taking the next TOF measurement. Much of the

material for describing the GM APD operating principles came from AuU et al. [58].

Spectrolab has incorporated improvements in the Geiger-mode pixel design to provide

more uniformity in performance across all the pixels in the array, has increased the sensor frame rate to close to 30 fps, and has improved the Read-Out Integrated Circuit (ROIC)

to operate with a 0.5 ns timing resolution [30]. Table 3 lists the most important FPA

figures of merit that impact the single photon counting sensor system performance. PDE

stands for photon detection efficiency and DCR for dark current count rate in the table.

Figure 30 demonstrates the operation of a GM-APD. Figure 3 1 shows a color coded 3D

image taken with a Spectrolab Gen I 3D imaging camera. The right image shows the

same scene taken with a 2D vision camera.

43
Table 3. Typical single photon counting FPA figures-of-merlt for a 32 x 32 GM-APD (courtesy of

Spectrolab)

Parameter Spec Test Condition

Wavelength 1.06 urn Format 32x32

Pixel Pitch 100 nm

PDE 40% 240 K, 4 V overbias

Fill Factor 70%

DCR 20 kHz 240 K, 4 V overbias

Cross talk < 1 %

Optimized overbias for SCS

Pixel operability 99%

RMS timing jitter 0.5 ns

1.E-04

.E-05 -

1.E-06

i 1.E-07 -\ ^

1.E-08

1.E-09-

1.E-I0 -I 1 r 1 1 1 1 r 35 40 45 50 55 60 65 70 75 80 35

Voltage |V)

Gelger-mode operation

Sinote Photon input

APD outDut

tinw

Digital comparator output

time

/ 1 \ time

Successful Photon absortsed Dark count

single photon but msufficient from dark

detection 9^'" " ""'ssed current count

Figure 30. Typical operation of a Gelger-mode APD. The left panel shows the voltage and current

characteristics of a 200 jim GM-APD under Illumination (red line) and In darkness (blue line). The linear

mode region is highlighted in blue, while the Gelger-mode operation region is shaded In red. The right panel

illustrates the three possible cases in Gelger-mode detection, (courtesy of Spectrolab).

44
SV"

I

I

I

I

II

Figure 31. 3D image taken with a Spectrolab Gen-I 3D imaging camera. The picture is color coded with the

range information. The right image is the same scene talcen with a 2D vision camera (courtesy of Spectrolab).

The new ROIC in the Spectrolab Gen II LADAR camera is being redesigned in 0. 1 8 |im

CMOS technology by Black Forest Engineering. The main effort is in minimizing timing

jitter, improving pixel functionality and in reducing crosstalk between pixel elements.

With support from DARPA, larger format FPAs (128 x 32 and 256 x 256) can be

expected. The main goal of the development work appears to be directed at making the

Geiger-mode FPA sensors more efficient, more robust and convenient to operate, and to be commercially competitive.

(2) Advanced Scientific Concepts Inc. (ASC)

ASC, based in Santa Barbara, CA, was the first company worldwide to develop and

demonstrate a real-time APD array flash LADAR 3D camera. The latest camera, which

uses a 128 X 128 APD pixel array detector, has been successfully demonstrated in various

military and commercial applications - including use in space by NASA. In 2006, ASC

provided a synopsis of the APD flash LADAR concept for the NIST book publication

"Intelligent Vehicle Systems: A 4D/RCS Approach" [55]. The following is part of that

synopsis:

'TAe ASC designs used Commercially Off The Shelf (COTS) parts as much as

possible to reduce cost and a compact laser was used to reduce volume, weight and

power. The designs used no mechanically moving parts for laser scanning and only a

single laser pulse was needed to capture the entire FOV with a hybrid 3D FPA.

Figure 32 shows a typical ASC hybrid 3D FPA configuration. It shows how a Readout Integrated Circuit (ROIC) is bump bonded to a solid-state detector array

(such as a Silicon, InGaAs or HgCdTe PIN or APD detectors). Each unit cell, or pixel,

contains circuitry which independently counts time from the emission ofa laser pulse

from the camera, to the detection of the reflected pulse from a surface. In this

manner, each pixel captures its independent 3D information in a scene (angle, angle,

45
range). Additional circuitry is available in each pixel to capture temporal information

from the returning pulses. Twenty sampling circuits are provided in the ASC FPA

design which helps in detecting objects which are obscured by smoke, foliage, etc. As designed with off-the-shelf optics, all the 3D imaging systems use two aperture

systems whether they are WFOV (wide FOV), NFOV (narrow FOV) or a combination

of the two: an aperture for the laser-transmit optics and an aperture for the 3D

imaging, receive optics. Figure 31 illustrates a possible camera configuration for the

ASCpulse TOF WFOVdesign [34]. The drive and output electronic circuit boards, as

well as the laser transmitter, are inside the camera housing. The same configuration

and the same 3D FPA (with longerfocal length optics) can also meet the needs for a NFOVstand-alone sensor."" [55]

BETECrOR >aRRAy CHIP /////////// 7^

//////////////

.,1 ^ oz-mcTDn! \/

READOUT/SIGNAL

PROCESSOR

CHIP

i:-nERODf*CCT /

|t nil tell C'lrvuiirv

Figure 32. ASC 3D FPA Hybrid Design. ROIC bump bonded to detector array chip.

Ribbon Cable DouTiloadi

3D Data to Laptop

Hand Held 3I> Camera Under

De'!.-elopment at ASC

Rec eivei Aseitiue

La-i€r Ifaosmitter

Apeitiue

Liipiup Piixjesses

and Displays 3D

loiages aad

C-ontroIs Caanera

Fiuictions

Figure 33. Possible packaged configuration for a standalone WFOV camera. Estimated weight is 1.8 kg; the COTs optics are a large fraction of the weight.

46
ASC is now using a 128 x 128 InGaAs APD detector which operates with an eye safe

1570 nm pulsed laser. The new APD detector has achieved an eight times improvement

in gain over the original InGaAs PEST detector array. This has allowed them to operate

the sensor at longer ranges (over 2000 m) at 20 fps to 30 fps. They have enhanced object

detection, recognition and tracking abilities by adding and registering color and/or IR

detector images with the range image data taken with the camera. The specifications for

the latest APD FPA cameras available from ASC are provided in Appendix B (the

technical survey portion) of this report.

The following updated overview on the 3D APD array Flash Camera operation came

from the ASC Inc. website (http:/7www. ASC3D.com).

''ASC's 3D cameras are eye-safe Flash laser radar (3D Flash LIDAR) camera

systems that operate much like 2D digital cameras, but measure the range to all objects in its field of view (the "scene") with a single "flash" laser pulse (per

frame). The technology can be used in full sunlight or the darkness of night. 2D

Video cameras are able to capture video streams that are measured in frames per

second (fps), typically between 1 fps and 30 fps with 1, 5, 15 and 30 being most

common. The dynamic frame capture paradigm holds true for the 3D Flash

LIDAR Camera (3D FLC) as well with 1 fps to 30fps (orfaster if required) being

possible. There are some cooling design constraints when designing the laser

system for the higher fps capture rates to ensure the laser has adequate cooling

operating margins.

As seen in Figure 34, light from the pulsed laser illuminates the scene in front of

the camera lens, focusing the image onto the 3D sensorfocal plane array, which

outputs data as a cloud ofpoints (3D pixels). Each pixel in the sensor contains a

counter that measures the elapsed time between the laser light pulse and the

subsequent arrival of the reflected laser light onto each pixel of the focal plane.

Because the speed of light (the laser pulse) is a known constant, accurately

"capturing" the scene in front of a camera is a relatively straight-forward

process. There is an inherent relationship between the pixels themselves in the scene, representing the entire scene at an instant in time. The point cloud data

accurately represents the scene allowing the user to zoom into the 3D point cloud

scene without distortion.

The 3D Flash LIDAR cameras are single units which include a camera chassis or

body, a receiving lens, a focal plane array and supporting electronics. On the

Portable 3D camera, data processing and camera control is done on a separate

laptop computer. The TigerEye 3D camera is controlled via an Ethernet

connection with the initial processing done on the camera and display done on a PC. The output of both cameras can be stored and displayed on a PC running

ASC's software; TigerView'^^for the TigerEye and FLASH3D'^^for the Portable camera.

47
Both raw and processed data can be stored or output in various formats for

additional video processing using industry standard 3D computer graphics tools

such as Autodesk's Maya, 3D Studio Max or Softimage.

Figure 35 illustrates raw data capture (color codedfor range and viewing) of a

single-pulse 3D image taken with a Portable 3D FLVC (Flash LADAR Video

Camera). Note the FLVC camera can be used to accurately identify vehicles or

other objects without additional data. It is possible to "see" through the

windshield to identify passengers and objects inside the vehicle as well. In this

example, raw data was processed using the ASC 's range algorithm (essentially a

raw-data image) only, color-codedfor depth and intensity.

Note the shape of the rotating helicopter rotor blade, in Figure 36, as it is captured without motion distortion from above. The lack of motion distortion is a major feature of ASCs 3D cameras. The image is color coded for range and

intensity which is determined using the ASC 's algorithm. The picture on the right

is the same raw data rotatedfor viewing purposes.''''

Rco«<r«ni Transmit

Flas-h LADAR t

Am^B*

x.vmitt RecleV'e

FUshLAOAA 1

CXi^a

Figure 34. Illustration of ASC Flash LIDAR camera operation, (by permission from Applied

Researcli Laboratory, Penn State University).

Figure 35. Two raw data image orientations of a single point cloud frame from an ASC 3D FLVC;

128 X 128 pixel resolution, color-encoded for range and intensity.

48
Figure 36. Two 3D raw data orientations of a helicopter using the same data; captured 396.24 m

from above; color-encoded for range and intensity.

C. Scanning type real-time 3D imagers

A few developers continue to provide and improve real-time scanning type 3D imaging systems

for mobility applications. They have been extensively tested in field operations and have

demonstrated reliable and robust obstacle detection/avoidance and autonomous on and off road

driving under difficult environmental conditions. Although they are more expensive than realtime FPA LADAR sensors, they have a much wider horizontal and vertical FOV which improves

peripheral perception capabilities at great distances - especially when operating at higher vehicle

speeds. All the current available sensors use the laser pulse TOP range measurement approach

because of their reliable long range measurements under bright outdoor ambient conditions.

Another feature that makes the pulse laser approach attractive is the ability to extract the range

profile (multiple-returns) for a single beam column. The sensors that utilize this feature can improve range measurement performance in the presence of obscurants such as rain drops, dust,

fog and foliage. Some of these imaging systems are described below.

(1) Sick Inc. The simplest sensor system is a single plane wide FOV scanner available from Sick. Sick

has been successful in marketing this type of sensor for industrial AGV and automated

material handling systems for many years. Their LMS 100, LMS 200, and LMS 400

series offer different capabilities for various industrial indoor applications: Measurement

range from short range (3 m) to long range (80 m) operation, a FOV from 70° to 270°

operation, angular resolution from 0.25°, 0.5° and 1.0° per measurement step, scanning

frequency from 25 Hz to as high as 500 Hz, range measurement uncertainty of ± 4 mm to ± 30 mm. Typical range resolution for all of the LMS series sensors is approximately

1 mm.

For outdoor applications. Sick has introduced a new multi-planar, long range, laser based

3D imaging system. It is based on the multi-planar scanning sensor concept developed

by the IBEO Co. in Hamburg, Germany for automotive applications. The LD-MRS

features an operating range of 0.5 m to 250 m, an 85° FOV when using four measurement

49
planes and an 110° FOV when using only two measurement planes, selectable angular

resolutions of 0.125°, 0.25°, and 0.5° per measurement step, selectable scanning

frequency of 12.5 Hz to as high as 50 Hz, range resolution is 40 mm over the range of

operation, and multiple pulse technology for improved outdoor capabilities including

obscurant penetration.

(2) IBEO Automobile Sensor GmbH

IBEO, in Hamburg, Germany, offers the LUX Laserscanner for automotive safety system

applications. This sensor uses a four or eight layer/planar scanning approach where the

reflected returns are processed in parallel as the mirror scans the scene horizontally.

These sensors perform very well under most weather condition and on hilly roads as long

as the vehicle doesn't experience large vertical excursions such as can be expected in off

road terrain. Typical range of operation for this sensor is between 50 m to 60 m; however,

objects perpendicular to the road surface have been detected at 200 m in demonstrations.

The unique feature of the sensor is the multi-target capability (detection of 3 return

reflections from one laser pulse. This feature provides for reliable object detection even

in the presence of obscurants (such as rain drops). Figure 37 shows how the multi-target

feature operates.

f^WA igWfe fc *^

=*rf

1B4.UX-C05

Figure 37. LUX Laserscanner multi-target return feature.

Return pulse (1) is the return pulse from the window pane. It is characterized by a high

vohage signal, but over a very short period of time. Return pulse (2) is a reflection from

a rain drop. It usually characterized by a low voltage pulse and lasts for a very short

time. Voltage (3) is the threshold voltage setting and return pulse (4) is the last return

from a solid object on the road. It is characterized as a high voltage return signal and

lasts for a much longer time interval.

Figure 38 shows how the four layer/plane scanner is configured to provide a 3.2° vertical

FOV capability. This feature allows the sensor to detect objects better on hilly roads and

if the vehicle is experiencing heavy acceleration or braking.

50
9

A

i.g'

0°

-0,8°

-1.6"

IB-LUX-007

Figure 38. LUX Laserscanner four layer scanning configuration.

The LUX Laserscanner can be operated at three different scanning frequencies (12.5 Hz,

25 Hz, or 50 Hz). The horizontal angular resolution is based on the scanning frequency.

The horizontal FOV (working area) for the four layer/plane configuration is 85° and 100°

if only two layers are used. Multiple sensors can be used to expand the working FOV.

Additional information is available at the IBEO website ( http://www.ibeo-as.com).

(3) High definition laser based 3D imaging systems for autonomous on and off road driving.

A couple of laser based 3D imaging systems have been designed specifically for

autonomous on and off road driving. These sensors provide a very dense (high spatial

resolution) point cloud and can achieve measurement rates of a million samples per

second or better. This is necessary because the sensors need to cover a very large

horizontal FOV (up to 360°) and vertical FOV (20° to 30°). This high density spatial

resolution feature can be accomplished using a large number of laser/emitter pairs, where

each pair establishes a layer/plane having high density (closely spaced) range

measurements.

A commercial version of this type of sensor, manufactured by Velodyne, was utilized by

many of the teams who competed in the 2007 DARPA Urban Challenge

( http://www.DARPA.mil/grandchatlenge/index.asp ). The HDL-64E laser scanner was

used on five of the six finishing teams, including the winning and second place team

vehicles. Figure 39 shows the mechanical configuration of the sensor and Table 4 lists the sensor specifications ( http://www.velodvnelidar.com ). In addition to autonomous

vehicle navigation, the sensor can be used wherever high definition mobile and dynamic

3D imaging is needed, such as: automotive safety systems, mobile surveying (road

infrastructure, rail systems, mining), mobile mapping, and security applications.

Lockheed Martin has selected the HDL-64E as the main perception sensor for navigation

and collision avoidance on the Squad Mission Support System (SMSS) robotic vehicles

being built for Army future robotic weapon system needs.

51
Laser

Eeiicters

!4 Groups af iSJ

Recovers e Scaups of 3Si

Motor

Mounting

gaee

Ifoiifiing

(Entra

MO* sjMirrs as S-1S Hxt

---lJ

Figure 39. Mechanical configuration of the Velodyne HDL-64E S2 high definition 3D imaging

system.

Table 4. Specifications of the Velodyne HDL-64E 3D imaging system

Sensor: 64 lasers / detectors 360° FOV (azimuth)

0.09° angular resolution (azimuth)

26.8° vertical FOV (elevation) ±2° up to -24.8° down w^ith 64 equally spaced

angular subdivisions (approximately 0.4°) < 2 cm distance accuracy

5 Hz to 1 5 Hz FOV update (user selectable)

50 m range for pavement (~0.10 reflectivity)

120 m range for cars and foliage (-0.8 reflectivity) > 1.333 X 10^ points per second < 0.05 ms latency

Laser: Class IM - eye safe 4x16 laser block assemblies

905 nm wavelength

5 ns pulse

Adaptive power system for minimizing saturations and blinding

Mechanical: 12 V input (16 V max) @4 A

< 13.2 kg (29 lbs) 254 mm (10 in) tall cylinder of 203 mm (8 in) OD diameter

52
300 RPM to 900 RPM spin rate (user selectable)

Output: 100 Mbps UDP Ethernet packets

In August of 2010, Velodyne introduced the HDL-32E LIDAR sensor. It meets the

demand for a smaller, lighter and less expensive high definition laser scanner for

autonomous vehicle navigation and mobile mapping purposes. The following description

of the new sensor was taken from a Velodyne press release:

''''The HDL-32E extends the core technology developedfor the revolutionary HDL64E introduced in 2007. The HDL-32E measures just 5.9 inches [150 mm] high

by 3.4 inches [86 mm] wide, weighs less than three pounds and is designed to meet stringent military and automotive environmental specifications. It features

up to 32 lasers aligned over a 40 Vertical Field of View (from +10° to -30°), and

generates 800,000 distance points per second. The HDL-32E rotates 360 degrees

and provides measurement and intensity information over a range of five

centimeters to 100 meters, with a typical accuracy of better than +/ 2 cm. The

result is a rich, high definition 3D point cloud that provides autonomous vehicles

and mobile mapping applications orders of magnitudes more useful

environmental data than conventional LiDAR sensors.'" A military version of a high definition 3D imaging system , built by General Dynamics

Robotic Systems (GDRS), has been used extensively in Future Combat Systems UGV

test scenarios. It has demonstrated reliable and robust performance for autonomous

driving and obstacle detection/avoidance as part of the ARL's Robotic Collaborative

Technology Alliance program ( http://wvvw.arl.arrnv.iTii!/www/defaLilt.cim?page^392). Because the sensor technology is considered to be critical technology by the military,

GDRS was not able to provide updated information on the specifications and

performance of their latest generation models and on current research and development

activities. The latest information available came from the 2003 Army CTA conference.

At that time, a Gen Illb LADAR was in development which had the following features

and specifications:

Eye safe laser wavelength of 1550 nm

Maximum range of 1 00 m with 20 % target reflectance

Maximum range of 50 m with 4 % target reflectance

Large sensor optics 40 mm for improved sensor sensitivity and resolution

180 x 64 or 360 x 128 pixels per frame for a 120° x 30° FOV

Range resolution of 2 cm

Digital sampling of multiple pulse returns history

30 Hz frame rate for 180 x6 4pixels per frame, 15 Hz for 360 x 128 pixels per

frame

53
D. MEMS based scanning-laser 3D imagers

An aspiration for a laser based vision system for mobility and machine automation was given in

the 2004 NIST report [1]. The ideal attributes of such a system were:

Illumination source

Field of View

Range resolution

Angular resolution

Frame rate Size

Cost

Eye safe laser (1500 nm)

90° X 90°; 40° x 90°; 9° x 9°

1 mm @ 15 m; 3 mm @ 5 m to 100 m

< 0.03°

> 10 Hz

"Coffee Cup"

< $1000 US dollars

LightTime, LLC has taken on the challenge, by conceptualizing and developing a MEMS-based

3D imaging system (as a next generation LADAR) to achieve the goal of building a high

accuracy 3D imaging system which is smaller, faster, cheaper, and amenable to high volume

production [1, 59]. The initial objective is to build and demonstrate a fast frame rate camera for

machine control, automatic field metrology and military applications having an operating range

of less than 100 m. Working with military and automotive technical personnel, LightTime

generated a set of performance specifications for such a MEMS- based system. The resulting

high-level specifications for the MEMS sensor and mirror are listed in Table 5.

Table 5. High-level Specifications of MEMS Sensor and Mirror

Parameter Spec Value Notes Scanner

Maximum Frame Rate (fps at 100 m)

15 fps or greater with tradeoffs in #

pixels per frame

FDA Laser Classification (Class) Class 1 (Eye Safe) - Optional

Beam Divergence (diameter at specified distance)

1 mrad (e.g., 50 mm at 50m)

Maximum Range (m) (@object

reflectivity %)

100m((glOO%)

30 m {@\0%)

Scan FOV (vertical) Optical 24° to 48° depends on MEMS mirror

characteristics

Scan FOV (horizontal) Optical 32° to 64° depends on MEMS mirror

characteristics MEMS Mirror Spec Value Notes

Mirror mechanical rotation angle > 8° X 6° minimum mechanical full angle (fast x slow axis) Raster fast axis operating

frequency

2 kHz

approximate value

Raster slow axis operating

frequency (sets frame rate)

10 Hz

approximate value

Mirror scan motion 2D linear raster synchronized

54

I

I

I

I
After investigating the market for the commercial availability of ID and 2D MEMS scanning

mirrors, LightTime found that none could meet their performance requirements of ( 1 ) mirror

size, (2) angular range, (3) operating frequencies, and (4) highly linear activation. LightTime

decided to develop a "second generation" 2D MEMS mirror system for the MEMScan prototype

LADAR that they were developing. Figure 40 illustrates how a 2D MEMS mirror scanner would

operate.

1 Mirror

1 1

Las«r

..^^^k,4.^U. .J^B

f—IB

^,

jp*iil"'Ni«fc 4J ••

Slow axis scan ^T^

Fast axis scan MEMS ninf Scanning

Figure 40. Conceptual illustration of a 2D MEMS mirror scanner in operation (courtesy of LiglitTime).

LightTime provided the following overview of their MEMScan program:

''LightTime recognized that it wouldfirst have to develop the appropriate "Second

Generation " MEMS mirror system, and is doing so as an integral part ofits MEMS scanning

LADAR program. LightTime is presently developing a prototype ofits new LADAR product,

MEMScan , a scanning-laser real-time 3D image sensor. MEMScan will be a compact,

lightweight image-data capturingfront-end component that interfaces with customers ' image

processing and control systems. The latter will post-process MEMScan 's output datafor the

purposes ofimage display, analysis, and/or autonomous system control. LightTime intends to make MEMScan available as an OEM(original equipment manufacturer) component.""

Figure 41 is system block diagram of the MEMScan top-level design. The dashed line represents

the path of a single (emitted and reflected) laser pulse.

55
LADAR Module

Angle

' "«• .^ Multiplier

MSM

Scanning Mirror Driver Electronics

1 SenseSynchronization

Data Acquisition

LADAR Signal

: Processing

Figure 41. MEMScan System Block Diagram.

''The initial MEMScan production version is optimizedfor short ranges (I m to 100 m);

however, its design embodies several innovations making it scalable to longer-range

applications. MEMScan 's key design element is the use ofa proprietary 2D MEMS scanning

mirror where, due to the mirror 's design in combination with special optics, the mirror 's native scanning range is increasedfrom several degrees to producing at least a 32°

(horizontal) opticalfield ofview; with potential ofup to 64°.

Currently, the mirror is in thefinal stages ofhardware test, targetedfor sampling in Ql

2011. A complete LADAR prototype is targetedfor sampling in Q4 2011.''

Features of the MEMS scanning approach are:

• Real time 3D image data capture (data generated for each pixel in the field-of-view

includes: range, intensity, slow and fast axes angles)

• Miniature system; without batteries/converter: < 400 cm and < 0.5 kg

• Raster scan pattern for efficient operation and simple standardized upstream image-data

processing

• IR scanner design that is low footprint

• Eye safe operation

• Possible cost of less than $100 in large volume production

In a paper published in the 2006 SPIE Defense & Security proceedings, LightTime made the

following statement concerning potential applications for the next generation MEMS LADAR

technology [60]:

''This next-generation ofMEMS LADAR devices is not anticipated to replace the relatively

mature current technologies initially but rather be usedfor new applications where current

LADAR devices are not appropriate because ofsize, weight, speed, or their inability to

56
withstand rugged conditions. Such real-time applications include unmanned aerial vehicles

(UA V), helmet mounted LADARfor the individual soldier[61], and many more as described

in Table 6."

Table 6. Potential New Applications for MEMS Scanning LADAR

Area of

Application Description/Advantages

Remote

Surveillance

(border/perimeter)

Low power consumption and small size (easier to hide/protect). Could be used to protect a border for significantly less than $lM/mile.

Reconnaissance They could be dropped behind enemy lines for quick intelligence and monitoring.

Missile guidance Real-time 3D imaging. Short-range or as an adjunct (limited to < 1 km).

3-D Mapping Real-time 3D battlefield imaging, mission planning, virtual reality simulations, etc.

Target

Acquisition/ID

X, y, z of target for soldier targeting and/or remote fire control/guidance.

Automotive Obstacle identification & autonomous navigation under rugged conditions. UAV Perfect for aerial drones since it is small, lightweight, and has low power consumption.

Terrestrial Drones/RobotsThough size and weight are not as critical as with an UAV, they are still important as well as power consumption.

Medical

Laparoscopic surgery, robotic surgery, face/body 3D collection (for virtual manipulation or

reconstruction prior to surgery), etc.

Manufacturing Robotic manipulation and depth of field vision, 3D bar code reading, etc.

Civil Engineering Real-fime quality control (e.g., aggregate analysis for road beds).

Scene Archiving Forensic, archeological, etc. (small & lightweight, can go anywhere).

Movie/Camera

Industry

Concurrent range data incorporated into each pixel of the digital image for computer

processing into a 3D movie (TV, video, etc. as processing becomes more mature).

Simulation/Gaming Real-time, real-word input of 3D scenes and actions for simulations/game design.

Scientific Application such as particle analysis and distribution, microscopy.

Other Laser printing, etc.

The ARL has also reported on the development of a MEMS-based 3D imaging system for use on

small military UGVs (PackBot size vehicles). This LADAR research program is a near-term

effort to build a LADAR using COTS components and mount it on a small ground robot and thus

support autonomous navigation research [40, 62]. An early prototype has been built and tested,

and shows great promise that the MEMS approach will provide for a low cost, compact, low

power 3D perception solution for small robot applications. The design approach is similar to LightTime, except, that it is entirely based on using COTS components. ARL uses a fiber laser

which operates at a rate of 200K laser pulses per second and uses a commercially available 1.6 mm diameter MEMS mirror vs. the custom designed (4 x 4) mm MEMS mirror designed by

57
LightTime. The following is a description of the system architecture which was provided by

ARL:

"77ze LADAR uses a pulsed laser to determine range to a pixel and a two-axis MEMS

mirror to establish the angular direction to a pixel. The LADAR architecture is depicted

in the block diagram of Figure 42; detailed descriptions of the LADAR are included in

the attached references [62]. Referring to Figure 42, a trigger signal commands an

erbium fiber laser to emit a short 2 ns to 3 ns pulse of light at a rate of 200 kHz that is collimated and then directed to the surface of a small MEMS mirror. Analog voltages

from a high-voltage (HV) amplifier set the pointing direction of the mirror. Light

reflectedfrom the mirror then passes through a telescope that "amplifies" the scan angle

of the MEMS mirror. Light backscatteredfrom the target is collected on the largeface of

a tapered fiber bundle that effectively increases the diameter of the photo detector,

thereby improving the signal-to-noise (S/N) by a factor of three. Photocurrent from the

detector is fed into a monolithic 50-ohm microwave amplifier. This output is then split

into a low and high gain channel. On the radio frequency (RF) interface board, the low

and high gain channel outputs are each summed with the photocurrent from a detector

illuminated by an undelayed sample (called T-zero) of the original transmitted light

signal. The T-zero pulse of the transmitted signal may then be used as a reference to determine target range. The outputs of the two channels feed respective inputs on a twochannel 8-bit analog-to-digital convertor (ADC). The ADC samples at a rate of L5 gigasamples-per-second (GSPS) and a first-in, first-out (FIFO) register is commanded to start acquiring ADC data upon transmission of the laser pulse by signals from a field

programmable gate array (FPGA). The FPGA stores the amplitude data as a function of

time from the ADC, determines the range to the pixel, and formats the data for

acquisition by a PC for display. The FPGA also controls the pointing direction of the

MEMS mirror and directs the laser to emit a pulse.'"

Receiver hv^44-

Laser

RF Interface

Clock

ADC

u

Mirror Memory

±__ '

FPGA

Transmitter nitter I HVAmp W DAC

Power Conditioning and Regulation

Ethernet board

I

! PackBot

\ CPU

DAQ :x:

PC

Figure 42. ARL MEMS LADAR system block diagram.

58
The LADAR was built to be mounted on the iRobot Explorer PackBot shown in Figure 43. The

desired requirements specify that the LADAR fit within the PackBot sensor head [229 mm x 210 mm X 51 mm (9 in x 8.25 in x 2 in)]. However, since the sensor is an early demonstration

prototype, only the transmitter and receiver parts are located in the sensor head. The control,

data collection and signal processing hardware are located in the payload area. The initial desired performance requirements of: 6 Hz frame rate; a 60° x 30° FOV and an image size of 256

(h) x 128 (v) pixels; 20 m operating range; eye safe laser illumination; and at least a 40 cm range

resolution was achieved with the current prototype.

Sensor head

Payload bay

Figure 43. Explorer PackBot.

In April of 2010, ARL reported on 2009 achievements at the 2010 SPIE Defense & Security

conference [40].

''This year we started redesign ofthe transmitter assembly so that the entire structure will

fit within the PackBot sensor head. We replaced the commercial mirror driver board

with a new small in-house design that now allows us to attach the top to the PackBot

sensor head without a modification that increased its depth by 10 mm (0.4 in). We built

and installed a new receiver that is smaller than the original and possesses three-fold

higher signal-to-noise with roughly twice the bandwidth. Also we purchased and tested a new Erbium fiber laser that requires afraction of the volume andpower of the laser used

in last year 's effort. The most significant work focused on software development that

integrates the LADAR system with the PackBot 's onboard computers. This software

formats the LADAR data for transmission over the PackBot 's Ethernet and manages the

flow ofdata necessary to drive the PackBot and transmit LADAR and video imagery over a wireless connection to a laptop computerfor display. We conducted tests of the entire

PackBot and LADAR system by driving it over a short course in the lab while displaying

and recording video and LADAR data.''

In the publication, ARL provided a review of the LADAR architecture, briefly described the

design and performance of the various subassemblies and software, summarized the test activities, and identified future development work.

59
A driving test of the sensor mounted on the PackBot was conducted at the ARL lab. Figure 44

is a photo snap-shot of the test bay. Figure 45 shows one LADAR frame from the run in grey

scale, and Figure 46 shows the corresponding LADAR image with false-color range information.

The test results revealed that the alignment between the right and left motion scans of the MEMS

mirror were slightly out of place on vertical edges of objects in the scene. By adjusting the left and right motion scans relative to one another, they were able to considerably reduce the

misalignment. In the next phase of the development, they expect to increase the S/N by about

six-fold with the installation of a new receiver and a better laser to obtain even better range

image quality.

Figure 44. Photo snap-shot of lab test scene. Figure 45. Grey scale LADAR image.

Figure 46. False color range LADAR image.

60

I
3.2.2.5 Advances in electron avalanche photodiode (e-APD) FPA technology

The Infrared Technologies Division of DRS Sensors and Targeting Systems has reported that the

next generation of IR sensor systems will include active imaging capabilities [63]. Early

development work on a new high gain HgCdTe electron avalanche photodiode was reported in

2003 and 2004. This work was funded by the DARPA MEDUSA program. Since then, progress

has been made in implementing a 128 x 128 FPA for a gated - active/passive imaging system

which is primarily designed for targeting and identification purposes at fairly long ranges.

In [63] DRS describes that:

""The Gated FLIR (forward looking IR) is an active imaging system that uses a laser pulse

to illuminate the region of interest in a scene. The reflected radiation is detected by a camera that is gated to integrate signal only during the time period when the return pulse

is expected. This gating improves signal to noise and removes scene clutter due to reflections off objects that are either in front of or behind the object of interest. Target

ID is enhanced due to the high resolution and low FOVofthe active imager.'"

Typically, a WFOV (wide FOV) daylight or thermal imaging system is used as a search engine

for targeting, before imaging is done with the high resolution gated FLIR. This requires precise

alignment for accurate registration of the target information from the two systems.

DRS offers the following solution for a simplified targeting system:

"r/ze solution is a combined sensor wherein the same FPA and optical system is usedfor

both passive and active operating modes. This eliminates the needfor bore-sighting two

different cameras and greatly reduces the overall complexity and size of the system. The

HgCdTe MWIR (Mid Wave Infrared) electron avalanche photodiode (e-APD) provides an elegant and high performance solution to the sensor in that it can be switchedfrom

active to passive modes by simply changing the bias on the detector. Obviously, the

readout and the optics must also accommodate the two modes ofoperation.

"

The following is a description of the detector architecture and performance of the HgCdTe APD

provided by DRS:

"TTze HgCdTe avalanche photodiode (APD) detector design is based on the ... "high

density vertically integrated photodiode" (HDVIP^^) architecture developed by DRS.

The HDVIP'^^ structure forms a front-side illuminated, cylindrical, n-on-p photodiode

around a small via (circular electrical connection) in the HgCdTe, as shown in Figure

47. Details of the structure, operating theory, fabrication processes, and measured

performance ofthese devices have been previously reported [64-66]

.

The via provides electrical connection between the n-side of the photodiode and the input

to the readout circuit. The HDVIP^^ structure is currently employed at DRS for

61
production of SWIR (Short Wave Infrared), MWIR, and LWIR (Long Wave Infrared)

staring arrays. Important features of this design include: (I) interdiffused CdTe

passivation of both surfaces for low 1/f noise; (2) thermal cycle reliability that is detector- and array-size independent; (3) low defects due to near-parallel diode junction

orientation with respect to threading dislocations; and, (4) front side illumination for

high quantum efficiency, highfillfactor, and good MTF (modulation transferfunction).

The optically active area is the total pixel area (pixel pitch squared) minus the area ofthe

via and the area ofthe top side grid substrate corner contact, if used. The area of the via

is typically 95 % to 98 % of the total area. Without a grid, the fill factor for a 40 /urn pitch pixel with a 6 jum via is 98 %. A halfgrid corner contactfor a 40 jum pitch single 6

jum via pixel results in an opticalfillfactor of84 %.

P+

\1

1

m M

P+ N- N-J iN-t N- P+ ^ ROIC Input

HDVIPTM e-APD archit

cross-section

Figure 47.

top view

ecture.

The excess noise of an APD is important in determining ultimate performance. Because

the gain process in an APD is random, there is an excess noise that is associated with the

variance in the gain. The cylindrical geometry of the HDVIP'^^ diode strongly favors

electron injection and multiplication over the corresponding vacancy (hole) processes.

This inherent carrier selectivity, coupled with the unique band structure of the HgCdTe

material, and the electron mobility and lifetime characteristics at cryogenic

temperatures, result in extremely low (near unity) excess noise for MWIR devices. More

importantly, the excess noise is independent of gain, remaining low even as gain is increased to very high levels. Figure 48 shows measured gain and excess noise factors

for a representative MWIR device, confirming an excess noise factor of unity to gains as

large as 1000.''

The derivation of excess noise as a function of A: was provided by Mclntyre [67] where k is the

theoretical hole-to-electron ionization coefficient constant in electron-photon interactions. A

comparison of the measured excess noise factor to the theoretical coefficient is provided in [68].

62
10000

1000

« 100

10

' =' ^^=

' ^=

' ^=—^ m—'-

i = == = =='\~ ^

i

1 ^ ^ ^= ^E =i m^E =':

-- i

- = == s == =3 ^^

-•

. ._ j

4-

a- theory for k =

4^ 2

' f

4 "h- . g a

0-

'^data

5 10 15 BOO 1000 1B0D

Qiln

Figure 48, The gain (left) in MWIR HDVIP devices can exceed 1000 with less than 15 V of bias, and the

excess noise factor remains near unity even at high gain.

Details of the FPA design, the ROIC design, the FPA performance, the demonstration system,

and test results are provided in the 2007 SPIE paper on the gated FLIR FPA [63].

An example of the gated FLIR system performance is shown in Figure 49. An SUV was

targeted at a distance of approximately 0.5 km from the sensor. The gated image is quite sharp

with a lot of detail so that it can be easily identified as an SUV. The gate width for the sensor was set to approximately 200 ns (or about 30.5 m [100 ft] in range).

Figure 49. An SUV at 0.5 km was used as the primary target for the initial outdoor test. A fan resolution

target was also included to provide a quantitative assessment of image quality.

The demonstration test confirmed the capabilities of the actively gated FPA device to support

both passive MWIR and active SWIR operating modes and demonstrates the potential of

developing advanced sensor systems for future gated imagers and possibly for high resolution

laser based 3D imaging.

63
3.2.2.6 Terrestrial and mobile terrestrial 3D imaging

The greatest advances in active 3D imaging products include terrestrial and mobile terrestrial

systems. The most common active range measurement approach utilized in these sensors is time

of flight. Another common approach is to measure the phase shift in the return signals which has

been amplitude modulated with a sinusoidal signal. Systems which combine the features of both

approaches are also being developed.

Terrestrial surveying/scanning is defined as measuring the 3D positions of points and the

distances and angles between them from a stationary ground position

(http://en.wikipedia.Org/wiki./surveying ). Mobile terrestrial surveying is similar but the

measurement is from a mobile reference point established with a high-accuracy navigation

position sensor that uses both GPS (Global Positioning System) and INS (Inertial Navigation

System) information. Terrestrial sensors currently are the primary scanning sensors selected for

applications in industrial reverse engineering, product inspection and modeling, industrial

productions facility modeling and mapping, terrain mapping, and in heritage preservation.

Mobile terrestrial sensors are being used in transportation related applications such as: surveying,

highway design, corridor development, highway safety.

The hardware technical survey information, on terrestrial type scanning sensors for this study, is incomplete. Only four of the main thirteen commercial developers offered to provide

information for this study and survey. Refer to Appendix B: Hardware technical survey for the

provided information. However, as evident in the previous sections of the report, there was a very positive response from newer companies introducing new active 3D imaging products or research groups developing new measurement concepts. The reason for this lack of interest by

the more established companies may be because they believe that the GIM International and

Point of Beginning surveys are sufficient for their marketing needs. The reader should go to the

corresponding websites (http://www.gim-international.com, http://www.pobonline.com) to obtain details of sensor features and specifications available from the following producers:

3rdTech, Basis Software, Callidus, FARO, Leica, Maptek I-Site, Measurement Devices Ltd.,

Optech, Riegl, Spatial Integrated Systems Inc., Topcon, Trimble, and Z+F.

Ongoing research information at these companies was also very difficult to obtain. Three of the

four companies who participated in the study, said that no major changes were expected in the

current products, however, the companies are continuing to enhance sensor performance by

lowering measurement uncertainty, improving dimensional accuracy, increasing scarming rates,

improving sensor functionality and speed of operation, and lowering cost. It appears that making

advances in software processing of range image data is a much more important development

effort for terrestrial 3D imaging developers. This may be driven by the needs of service

companies for better and more automated processing software.

An overview of 3D laser scanners used for high resolution mapping of all types of facilities,

structures, utilities and terrain is presented in Chapter 10 of a manual prepared in 2007 by the US

Army Corps of Engineers titled: "Engineering and Design: Control and Topographic Surveying"

[3]. The following is a summary of the high points presented in the report:

64
• Terrestrial laser scanners can be used to scan objects at high density - over a designated

FOV - at speeds upwards of 500K samples per second - having pixel dimensions smaller

than 5 mm.

• Although 3D range accuracies as low as a millimeter are claimed by some developers

(with redundant measurements), 5 mm to 10 mm uncertainties are obtained in practice.

• A full FOV scan of a site or structure can be performed in 5 to 15 minutes, but may

require several setups to provide full detail coverage.

• The scanners are very useful for mapping electrical generating facilities, dams,

archeological sites, traffic areas, and imaging hard to reach locations.

The report also covers the following important topics:

1. Product manufacturers: Terrestrial laser scanners came on the market in the late 1990s.

As of 2005, about 12 manufacturers were listed in trade publications.

2. Cost: The cost of a complete laser scanning system (including modeling software and

training) can run between $150K and $200K. Daily operating costs of $2,000 to $5,000

or more (including processing) are not uncommon.

3. Accuracy: Relative accuracies are very good (5 mm or better at close ranges). Absolute

accuracies depend on the accuracy of the site reference network and how accurately the sensor is aligned to the network. Absolute accuracies can be kept within 1 cm to 2 cm

over a small project/structure site. 4. Density of scanned points: 3D imaging systems can be set to any desired scan density,

e.g., 5 mm to 1 m at a nominal measurement distance. The higher the density setting, the

longer the data collection, editing, and processing time.

5. FOV: Typically scanners can be set to scan a full 360° horizontal field or to a smaller

FOV setting. Vertical settings are typically less than 310°.

6. Range: Some scanners are designed for close range scanning of 200 m or less while other

claim ranges of 1000 m or more. The longer the range, the larger the footprint and less

accurate the resulting measurement. Most detailed scans of facilities and buildings are obtained at ranges of 150 m or less. Eye safety must also be taken into consideration - A

longer range sensor may require a higher power laser (Class 3). This may not be

acceptable for surveying in populated areas.

7. Beam footprint size: The footprint size varies with the distance of the object from the scanner. At 30 m or less, a 5 mm footprint can be observed.

Transportation agencies in the U.S. and worldwide have increasingly used 3D imaging

technology, often in multi-sensor configurations that include GPS, photography, and video for

various applications. The LIDAR Focus Group of the Wisconsin Department of Transportation

is assessing the most promising uses of 3D imaging for transportation. Their recent report on

"Lidar Applications for Transportation Agencies", released in February of 2010, represents an

initial scoping of this topic [69]. This report provides selected resource information on: Principles of 3DI, Types of 3DI, 3DI applications, technical issues, and other resources for

additional information.

The report provides sample citations for each application area that includes information on

practicality of use, sensor performance analysis, and analysis of cost associated with actual case

65
studies. The report also states that there is significant on-going research in the areas of: 3DI

data collection and analysis, 3DI error and accuracy, and on integration of 3DI and

photogrammetry.

3.2.2.7 Obscurant penetration and collision avoidance for helicopters

Helicopter brownout conditions can occur from sand, dust or debris being pushed upwards by the

rotor downward thrust during take-offs and landings. It can cause the pilot to lose visibility of

the ground reference terrain. Figure 50 provides an example of such a condition. It was

obtained from an article by Gareth Jennings for IHS Jane's (www. j anes .com) titled " Down in

the dirt" for the military [70]. The following statements were highlighted in the report:

• The number of brownout-related accidents involving rotary-wing aircraft has more than

doubled since US-led operations began in Afghanistan and Iraq.

• Finding a solution to the problem has become a priority for the military and industry.

Figure 50. Example of brownout conditions for rotary-wing aircraft (from IHS Jane's report).

Two companies addressing this problem provided the following write-ups and information on

their concepts for penetrating obscurants in helicopter visibility:

1) The Neptec Design Group prepared a synopsis on their Obscurant Penetrating

Autosynchronous LIDAR for this publication:

Overview

66
The Obscurant Penetrating Autosynchronous Lidar (OPAL) has been developed as a

variant ofNeptec 's TriDAR laser scanning system usedfor space vehicle rendezvous and

docking. OPAL is designed to penetrate obscurants such as dust, snow, fog to detect

objects engulfed in a cloud ofobscurants.

OPAL has been in development since 2007 and has been tested at various military

facilities in view of providing a laser-based vision system to assist helicopter pilots

operating in dusty areas. A pre-production TRL-7 model was completed in July 2009,

and subsequentlyflight tested in January 2010.

The OPAL is a general purpose sensor designed for many applications where a high

resolution 3D sensor is required to operate in all weather conditions where visibility can

be reduced due to dust, snow, andfog.

Background

The development of OPAL started in 2007 as a lab prototype system. The prototype was

initially testedfor its obscurant penetration capabilities at DRDC (Defense Research and

Development Canada) - Valcartier laser propagation facility, which is equipped with an

instrumented dust chamber. Following that, it was also tested at Porton Down (Porton,

England) for UK Ministry of Defense and it was tested in March 2009 at the Yuma

Proving Ground (Yuma, Arizona) facility at the invitation of the US Air Force Research

Lab. The formal tests were very successful and indicated a penetration capability in dust

concentration of about 3 g/m , which is in the upper range of typical dust concentration

produced by large helicopters attempting to land on dusty/sandy ground.

Neptec also received a contract from CAE in early 2009 to build a flight-worthy OPAL

system which was completed in July 2009. The instrument is similar to the lab prototype

but provides a higher sensitivity detector and a faster data acquisition rate at 40 kHz.

The system was tested successfully in January 2010 aboard a Bell 412 helicopter at Yuma

Proving Ground.

Current State of Technology Development

The dust penetration capability is achieved through the use of a proprietary optical

design that minimizes detector saturation and through the exploitation of the trailing

edge ofthe light return pulses, allowing the system to detect obstacles engulfed in a cloud

of obscurants. Please refer to the following references to get a better understanding of

the approach used in the OPAL design [71, 72]. In addition to the hardware, a filter has

been developed and implemented in software to remove a large proportion of the laser

pulse returns caused by atmospheric particulates. The net effect is to reduce the noise in

the 3D imagery and detect the presence of objects and terrain in the obscured

environment.

In terms of other obscurant penetrating technologies, radar has traditionally been the sensor of choice. However, radar suffers from a poor spatial resolution capability. In

contrast, OPAL provides a spot size of 3 cm at 100 m range, offering the capability to detect small objects that can pose a threat to a landing aircraft, such as wires, rods,

fence posts, and tree stumps.

67
Figure 51 illustrates an example of dust penetration using OPAL in an environment

where dust has been generated by a UH-1 helicopter. Figure 52 shows an example ofthe

application of the dust filter, where the light reflected by dust particles suspended in the

air is removedfrom the raw data.

m

1

^^

1

^J

Figure 51. Example of dust penetration. Left picture shows the environment in clear conditions. Right

picture show the raw OPAL data with a top left insert showing the same environment obscured with dust. Main objects are referenced between the picture and the LIDAR data.

68
Figure 52. Example of the application of the dust filter to raw data. Top left shows the scene prior to dust

generation. Top right shows the scene after dust generations. The lower left shows the raw OPAL 3D data

with false coloring: red corresponds to the ground, green to the targets and white corresponds to the noise

caused by the light returns due to dust particles. The picture on the lower right shows the same raw data

after the OPAL dust filter algorithm has been applied.

Performance characteristics for the OPAL are given in Table 7.

Table 7. TRL-7 OPAL Prototype Performance Data

Parameter Value Notes

Laser Wavelength 1540 nm

Laser Beam Size 10 mm

Laser Beam

Divergence

0.3 mrad

Field of View 30° X 30° (H X V) The field-of-view can be

slewed through a vertical range of 60°.

The field-of-view size and aim is configurable through the scan command.

Angular Resolution 0.001° Data Acquisition Rate up to 32,000 points per second

Target Detection -

Clear Air

2000 m for a 80 % reflective surface

550 m for a 6 mm (0.25 in) metal wire

Target Detection -

Obscurant

15m for a 80 % reflective surface in

5 g/m^ uniform \0 \im diameter dust

cloud.

69
50 m for a 80 % reflective surface in

1 gW uniform 10 jam diameter dust

cloud.

2) EADS Deutschland GmbH - Defense Cassidian (EADS) of Germany has over twenty years

of experience in developing and using LADAR technology. During the German military

unmanned ground vehicles program, PRIMUS (Program of Intelligent Mobile Unmanned

Systems, 1995 - 2004), they used a LADAR sensor to provide range information about the

environment and were able to successfully detect and avoid obstacles in the path of the ground

vehicle. Based on this experience, Cassidian developed an enhanced LADAR for helicopter

collision detection/avoidance applications. The following description of helicopter collision

hazards came from a paper presented at the 2008 SPIE Europe Security & Defense symposium

in Cardiff, UK [73].

"Power lines and other wires pose serious danger to helicopters, especially during low-level

flight. The problem with such obstacles is that they are difficult to see until the helicopter is close to them, making them hard to avoid. Even large pylons, towers and tall trees are tricky

to spot and avoid ifthey do not stand out clearlyfrom their backgrounds.

"

To overcome these difficult problems, EADS Deutschland GmbH - Cassidian Electronics of

Germany developed the HELLAS-Waming System (HELLAS-W) which was introduced to the

market in 2000. The system uses a pulse modulation TOP scanning LADAR to detect obstacles

in the flight path of the helicopter and provides a visual and audible warning signal to the pilot.

The system is currently being used by the German Federal Police & Emergency Medical

Services and is starting to be deployed on military helicopters.

Figure 53 shows a photo of the HELLAS Laser Radar scan head and a diagram of the operating

principle.

target

, r^ -

Figure 53. Photo of HELLAS Laser Radar scan head and diagram of operating principle.

70
The next generation HELLAS-Awareness System (HELLAS-A) which is shown in Figure 54, is targeted for use on military helicopters. It is currently undergoing performance qualification

tests. The system uses the same LADAR architectural concept as the HELLAS-W, but has

improved performance specifications and is an integral part of the aircraft avionics. HELLAS-A

overlays the detected and identified hazardous obstacles over other sensor information, such as FLIR, and database information, such as digital maps. This is illustrated in Figure 55.

Figure 54. HELLAS-A.

Figure 55. Obstacle symbology overlaid over FLIR video.

71
The HELLAS-A sensor is designed to detect a 5 mm wire at a distance of more than 700 m at a

visibility of 12 km with a detection probability of 99.5 percent per second. This system can be

fully integrated in the helicopter avionics system. Its results can be displayed on the helicopter's

multifunctional display (MFD) units or on a pilot's head-mounted sight and displays (HMS/D).

HELLAS-A plans to address another common challenge. When helicopters land on sandy or dusty ground they experience "brownout" where their visibility is blocked by the disturbed sand,

dust (Figure 56), or snow. Such situations are very disorienting for the pilots and can lead to accidents as reference points are obscured. HELLAS-A tackles this with brownout recovery, a three-dimensional see-and-remember system. It does this using its situation-awareness suite that

has a range of different detectors, including radar and LADAR. The scene that is previously

detected is kept in memory and is displayed during a brownout situation.

Figure 56. German CH53 in a brownout. Source: Heeresflieger Laupheim.

The detected image data of the landing area (collected by the HELLAS system) prior to brownout, is displayed to the pilot along with supplementary data from other sensors (such as millimeter-wave radar sensors) which can penetrate obscurants and detect objects and movement

on the ground. This fused information provides the pilot with "enhanced synthetic vision",

allowing the pilot to fly safely in zero (human eye) visibility, low light level, and in bad weather

conditions [74, 75]. Initial tests have demonstrated that objects as small as 0.4 m in size can be

detected in the 3D data. Figure 57 shows an example of the HELLAS see-and-remember vision

display that is provided to the pilot.

72
^ m

[iiiiitei< 1

a

i n^^y^i^'^A m '•

Figure 57. HELLAS See-and-Remember Vision.

The HELLAS real-time 3D imaging technology has also been used to address the growing needs

for safety and guidance of unmanned ground vehicles. Some of the robotic support functions that

have been tested by Cassidian Electronics include:

• the detection of terrain / driving obstacles

• road detection and following

• building of a local and global obstacle situation map

• detection of negative obstacle (ditches/depressions)

• vehicle / object following

• detection of explosive trip wires in the path of the vehicle

73
3.3 Software

3.3.1 Background

The primary advantage of 3DI systems is the abiUty to acquire milUons of 3D points in a short

period of time and the amount of detail that can be extracted from the 3D data. However, good

post-processing software is required to fully realize this advantage. Such software has to be able

to read and display large datasets quickly. At a minimum, it has to provide typical visualization

and editing functionalities such as zooming, rotating, translating, clipping, and selecting and

deleting subsets of the data. However, raw datasets require further processing to add value to the

data and therefore post-processing functionalities, in addition to basic visualization and editing

functionalities, offer more advanced computational tools, see Figure 2. They enable the creation

of as-built models of the scanned scene, calculation of geometrical attributes of the model (e.g., area, volume, slope), determination of the deviations of the as-built model from the as-designed

model, and detection of clashes. These high-level tasks require other sub-tasks such as data

segmentation, fitting geometric primitives, display of modeled surfaces with overlaid point

clouds, and the ultimate performance of these packages depends on how those sub-tasks are solved (e.g., at what level of automation and processing speed). Different software packages

support these capabilities to different extents.

Software packages for 3DI instruments started out as software that was developed by the

instrument manufacturer. These packages were used mainly to control the instrument and to acquire data from that instrument. Since 3D imagining was a new technology for construction

and manufacturing applications, there were no software packages that were developed to make

full use of the 3D data and that could easily handle the large number of data points collected by a 3DI system. Thus, as the use of and the applications for 3DI systems expanded, this necessitated

the evolution of the control software to include additional capabilities such as data processing,

modeling, and visualization and then to the development of standalone software to specifically

utilize 3D imaging data. As a result, 3DI software can be grouped into three general categories:

1. Software that controls the 3D imaging system

2. Software that uses and processes the 3D data

3. Software that does both (1) and (2)

In general, the software in category 1 is easier to learn than software in the latter two categories.

The training required for the software in categories 2 and 3 is similar to that for CAD/CAM

packages. The software in categories 2 and 3 can also be grouped by:

1

Sector: manufacturing or construction/civil

2. Specific area: e.g., transportation, structural/architectural, reverse engineering.

In general, software designed for manufacturing and reverse engineering applications differs

from those designed for construction or transportation applications in that the input data for the

former type of software is less noisy and the required accuracies for the data are higher. Also,

the point clouds are smaller for manufacturing and reverse engineering applications. The need

74
for particular software functionality may also depend on the type of application and instrument

used to acquire data. For example, for most of the construction applications, medium to longrange instruments are used. The scanning process requires placing an instrument in many

locations to get complete coverage of the scene (see Figure 1). In this case, registration of many

point clouds to a common coordinate system is required and post-processing software should

provide this functionality. On the other hand, point clouds for inspection in manufacturing

applications are often acquired with short range instruments mounted on mechanical arms which

tracks the locations and orientation of the scanners. These types of systems provide one point

cloud where many subsets of data obtained from different instrument positions are automatically

registered and the post-processing software does not have to deal with registration or errors resulting from the registration process. Also, inspection tasks often involves known objects or models of the object and thus object recognition is not a requirement for the post-processing

software.

Software developed for a specific application has features that make the workflow easier for the

user. For example, software for transportation applications has features that incorporates

procedures similar to those that would be performed by a surveyor.

3.3.2 Section Organization

The focus of this section is on software developed for terrestrial systems and does not include

software for airborne systems.

An online magazine. Point of Beginning (POB), conducts annual surveys of 3DI hardware and

software. The surveys are very comprehensive, but the surveys are focused on software and

hardware for construction applications. The list of software in the POB survey is given in

Appendix C, Table C. 1. This list also includes software packages for 3D imaging systems that are not in the POB survey. The link to both POB surveys is: http://laser.jadaproductions.net/

(last accessed 7/21/10). The questions from the POB survey were sent to some of the software

companies not in the 2010 POB survey and their responses are given in Table C. 2.

The POB software survey data was available from 2004 to 2010 (data from the 2008 survey is not available). The number of software packages from 2004 to 2010 is shown in Figure 58.

75
Figure 58. Number of software packages in the 2004 to 2010 POB survey.

(Data from 2008 not available).

One method of analyzing the trends in software was to examine how the responses to the POB

survey questions changed over a period of time. For example, an increase in the number of

"Yes" responses to the question "Automatic removal of noise (e.g., cars, vegetation)? Yes/No"

over time would indicate improvements to the software and a market need as software

improvements are usually driven by customer demands or needs. This method, however, yielded

counterintuitive results most of the times. The main reasons for this are 1) subjectivity - different interpretations of the survey questions and/or potential biases in the responses, and 2)

software packages available in earlier surveys were not available in later surveys and vice versa.

The intent of this section is not to reproduce the POB survey, but to describe the capabilities of

the software for 3D imaging systems. With this intent, a taxonomy of the software features or

capabilities was developed; the major groupings in the taxonomy for software features and

capabilities are: Platform, Data Input / Output, Point Cloud Processing, Modeling, Analysis, and

Visualization

The following sections describe each of these groupings in more detail. There is no attempt to

rate the software packages in any way.

3.3.3 Platform

All of the commercial software packages operate in a Windows environment and do not require a high-end workstation. The workstation requirements are typical for a moderate to professional

level workstation: CPU of about 2.5 GHz, RAM range from 512 MB to 2GB, hard disk space of

about 2 GB to 4 GB, and typically an accelerated 3D graphics card with support for Open GL

76
and a minimum of 128 MB of memory. However, a workstation with faster and multiple CPUs,

higher RAM, and a better graphics card could improve efficiency.

The software packages can run on a 64-bit machine, but most of the software is not written to take full advantage of a 64-bit machine. However, more software is being written to do so. Approximately half of the software packages listed in Appendix C support the client-server

architecture to allow multiple users to share a floating license. A useful feature of the client- server architecture is the ability for multiple users to work on the same project simultaneously,

and about 50 % of the packages offer this feature.

3.3.4 Data Input / Output

Interoperability between software packages is a very important consideration. This includes the

ability to:

1) Import files from

a. Different 3D imaging packages

b. CAD package into a 3D imaging software package

c. Surveying packages (e.g., control data)

2) Export files to

a. Another 3D imaging software package

b. From a 3D imaging software package to a CAD package

c. Specialized software packages (e.g., slope stability software packages)

Another consideration is other data that are imported or exported along with 3D data (e.g.,

intensity, color, digital photo) and what metadata (e.g., name of 3DI system, measurement units) are supported.

In general, software that is primarily used to control an instrument is developed by the

instrument manufacturer. This type of software can import data (point clouds) in its native

format, in ASCII format, and in a very limited number of file formats from other instruments.

These software packages can generally export point cloud data in their native format and in

ASCII format.

Software that processes and utilizes data from 3D imaging systems is developed either by the

instrument manufacturer or by a third party. This type of software can import data from more

instruments and can export data in more formats than software developed to control an

instrument. This is especially true of software developed by a third party. Some of the common

export file formats are DWG, DXF, VRML, IGES, OBJ, STL, ASCII, and TXT. Other formats

that are not as common include DON, JPEG, TIFF, AVI, CGM, PLY, and LAS.

Interoperability can also be achieved though the incorporation of the ftinctionality of one

software package into another software package via plug-ins. For example, some point cloud

processing functionality is made available from within a CAD environment and some instrument

77
control functionality is made available from within point cloud processing software. Currently,

some software vendors are using this strategy.

3.3.5 Point Cloud Processing

A deliverable from 3DI systems is a point cloud. Point cloud processing consists of the ability to display, process and to manipulate large numbers of points. Most of the software packages claim

to be able to load 100 million or more points or up to the limit of the computer hardware.

However, some problems encountered when processing and manipulating datasets of 100 million

points and larger include slow start up time (i.e., time to load points into memory) and slow

response time when viewing or navigating (e.g., rotations, refreshing the view), and crashing of

the program.

Some common features for processing and manipulating millions of points include:

• registering datasets: Most software packages have the capability to register datasets with

70 % of the packages able to register without the use of targets.

There are two methods to register datasets: with special targets placed in the scene and

without targets. For the first method, about 38 % of software packages can automatically

detect these targets while others require manual identification of the targets. Once the

corresponding targets are identified, the registration process is straightforward.

The second method for registration does not require special targets to be placed in the

scene. This method of registration (also known as target-free registration) can help

improve the 3D imaging workflow. For target-free registration, there are two ways to

register. First, an automated registration can be performed but it requires overlapping

regions in the datasets and that the datasets are roughly aligned to begin with. The

algorithm that is mostly used to perform this type of registration is a form of ICP

(fterative Closest Point) and the required overlap region ranges from 20 % to 50 %. A

second method involves manually picking a minimum of three corresponding points in

the two datasets.

Another form of registration is geo-referencing the datasets to a global coordinate system.

Most software packages have this capability.

• automatic detection ofscan targets: Target detection is usually based on shape, intensity,

and/or pattern and 38 % of the software packages are able to automatically detect scan

targets (targets placed within a scene for registration). This feature helps improve the 3D

imaging workflow.

• clipping or cropping data: The ability to easily set and change limits within which the

data points are visible.

78
segmenting data: The ability to easily select a of set points. The selection is generally

made using a user-defined fence, and the user can select the points within or outside the

fence. Another way of segmenting the points is by using a surface such as a plane. The

selected points can then be deleted, exported, or further processed. Data segmentation is mainly a manual operation although certain software are able to segment the point cloud

by various parameters (such as elevation from a ground plane). The ability to automate

this task would greatly improve efficiency.

decimating the number ofpoints: The ability to reduce the number of points in the data

set. A common method of reducing the number of points is to delete every other point or every X number of points. This method does not have any "intelligence" associated with

the point selection. A better method, but less common method, is to remove more points

in a more densely populated area and fewer points in a less populated area or to keep

more points in regions where there are more variations in the surface (e.g., break lines,

discontinuities in the surface, changes in the slope). This feature is useful in removing

redundant points in regions where point clouds overlap.

filtering points: This feature is found primarily in software packages that mainly control an instrument where the collected points may be filtered based on signal strength or other

criteria. About 70 % of the software packages have algorithms to remove unwanted

points such as those from cars, vegetation, etc.

• merging ofdatasets: In its most basic form, this feature allows the user to import of

multiple datasets and to combine them into one. All software packages that can import

point clouds have this capability. When combining datasets, some areas may become

more densely populated as a result and some packages have algorithms to reduce the

duplicate points (i.e., points that are close to each other) in these regions.

• double precision processing: This feature is available in all software packages

Other less common features include:

•

• batch mode processing: The ability to write a script to perform a set of tasks. Certain

processes can take a long time when millions of points are involved. The ability to perform batch mode processing would increase a user's efficiency; however, this feature

is only offered in one package.

viewing multiple data sets at the same time and manipulating (translating and rotating)

each data set independently: This capability is very useful for manual registration of two

or more data sets.

gridding: Some software packages allows the user to generate a regularly gridded set of

points from a point cloud.

multiple return analysis: Multiple returns are caused when a laser beam hits multiple

objects separated in range. The ability to detect the multiple returned signals allows the

79
user to detect objects that may otherwise not be visible. This feature is only offered in one software package.

3.3.6 Modeling

Common deliverables derived from 3D imaging data are 2D plans and 3D models such as wireframe, surface, and geometric models. The process to create a 3D model is mostly manual

process and can be time consuming depending on the type of model, amount of detail, and the

required accuracy. Automated object recognition from a point cloud is the subject of much

research and this capability is currently very limited; for example, the development of software

that automatically finds and fits geometric primitives such as lines, planes, cylinders, and spheres

in point clouds.

Most commercial software packages have the capability of fitting geometric primitives such as

lines, planes, spheres, and cylinders; however, this process is not fully automated as evidenced

by the responses to the following survey question:

"Is fitting of lines, planes and shapes to cloud done manually or automatically, or both?"

Both = 59%

Some automated (e.g., lines, planes) = 7 %

Manual =17%

NoorN/A= 17%.

About 35 % of the software packages have the capability to perform automatic extraction of

standard shapes (e.g., pipe fittings, structural steel members) from the point cloud. However, the

degree of automation is unknown. Only 28 % of packages have the capability of fitting CAD

models to the point cloud using standard object tables/catalogs. However, about half of the

software packages allow features to be defined with user-created code libraries. A few of the

software packages are plug-ins to CAD packages and operate in a CAD environment.

About half of the software packages offer features such as solid modeling, edge detection, and

automatic generation of a polygonal mesh. A polygonal mesh that is commonly used is a

triangulated irregular network or a TIN. A common use of a polygonal mesh is the generation of

a topographic map. The detection of breaklines in the topographic map is not a common feature

in the software packages (this feature is offered in a few software packages that processes data

from airborne systems).

Other features such as the ability to automatically track lines or automatically calculate

centerlines of shapes (e.g., pipes) are offered by about half the software packages. These

features are somewhat application specific. For example, the ability to track lines or follow

edges would be a feature in software developed mainly for transportation applications.

Another type of 3D model that is currently not as common is a BIM (building information

model). "A BIM is a digital representation of physical and functional characteristics of a

facility" [76]. A BIM allows different stakeholders at different phases of the life cycle of a

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facility to add, extract, update or modify information. The information could include material

properties, equipment manufacturer, date of purchase, and date of last maintenance. Therefore,

the import and export of a BIM model will have to support metadata (e.g., facility management

database).

3.3.7 Analysis

The software packages offer the basic features for analyzing the 3D data such as the

measurement of:

• distances between

o two points o points and object/model o two models

• angles between

o two lines o line and plane o two planes

• attributes of fitted geometric primitives such as pipe diameter, pipe length, and sphere

center.

About 50 % of the software packages have the ability to detect measurement outliers based on

fitting geometric primitives. However, the ability to detect outliers that originate from split

signals caused by object edges is not a common feature offered by the software packages.

A useful feature is the ability to calculate volume and this feature is offered in about 50 % of the

software packages. Volume calculation depends on the complexity of the surface which defines

the volume. For example, the calculation of the volume of surfaces with undercuts is more

difficult and may require user intervention. Another potential solution is the use of

tetrahedralization.

Another feature that is useful for renovation/revamp projects is interference or clash detection.

This feature is offered by about 75 % of the software packages and the need for this feature

appears to be increasing. The degree of automation and sophistication of the clash detection

varies between different packages.

Another use of 3D imaging data is for inspection where the acquired data (point cloud or as-built

model) is compared to plans or models (as-designed). About 65 % of the software packages

have the capability of comparing the point cloud with floor plans and engineering drawings of

objects. Packages with this capability also have the capability of reporting (text and/or

graphically) the differences between the as-built and the as-designed models.

In the POB survey, 65 % of the responses to the question "Create statistical quality assurance

reports on the modeled objects? Yes/No" was "Yes". However, another important piece of

information that is needed is the uncertainty of the fitted parameters such as the uncertainty of a

fitted sphere center or the orientation of the axis of a fitted cylinder. It is important because the

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uncertainty of the model parameters (e.g., geometric dimension) has to be known in order to determine with a given level of confidence whether the model is within tolerance or not. Only a few of the software packages provide the uncertainties of the fitted parameters.

Slope analysis is not a common feature offered in the software packages as it is specific to construction applications (e.g., mining, excavation, roadway surveys). This feature is offered in

some airborne software packages.

In general, software packages with the capability of registering data sets also generate a report of

the registration error. It should be understood that the average distance between corresponding

points within the overlap region used for registration is not larger than the registration error. However, average distance between corresponding points outside of the overlap region used in

the registration may be larger.

3.3.8 Visualization

An important benefit of 3D imaging data is the ability to visualize a scene, especially if the scene

is very complex. The ability to view the scene from any angle and to zoom in to view more

details is a powerful tool. The basic navigation capabilities offered by all of the software

packages include pan, tilt, and zoom. A majority of the software packages (70 %) have an

intelligent level-of-detail display based on scale of view. Other less common features that aid in scene viewing/navigation include the ability to view the data from the point-of-view of the

instrument or from a user-selected point-of-view.

Coloring of the points in a point cloud is another key visualization tool. Most software packages

offer some or all of the following coloring schemes:

• False coloring

• Coloring based on: o range o intensity o true color - RGB obtained from 3D imaging system o true color - RGB from photo overlay (not obtained by a 3D imaging system) o user specified (e.g., color based on elevation or x-axis values)

In addition, about 70 % of the software packages have the capability to generate texture-mapped

models or point clouds for a more realistic appearance. Some of the packages allow the user to capture an image for use in reports or presentations.

Walk-through or fly-through movies based on the point clouds, models or both, can be useful

tools when preparing bids or for presentations to clients. This feature is supported by 88 % of

the software packages. The ease-of-use varies between packages.

Most software packages have the capability to make profiles and cross sections. About 45 % of

the software packages can generate contours.

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Some software packages offer a free "viewer" which is useful as it allows others to view the

point cloud or model without having to purchase the software.

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4 Future Trends and Needs

4.1 Hardware Trends and Needs

4.1.1 Active optical 3D imaging needs in manufacturing

In 2007, the Manufacturing Engineering Lab (MEL) at NIST investigated the needs and

requirements of active 3D imaging technology for automation in assembly and mobility

applications in the manufacturing industry. The task started with a review of recently published

documents [77-83] describing the fiiture technology needs and challenges for developing and

applying next generation robots to many new social and industrial tasks in the 2V^ Century.

During the review particular interest was placed on collecting data describing expected 3D

imaging requirements in next generation manufacturing applications. The material collected in

the review process was then used in the preparation of a list of survey questions and distributed

to a selected group of company representatives to gather their expert opinions on the topic. The

survey was sent to representatives in the following industries: aircraft manufacturing,

automotive manufacturing, manufacturing inspection and metrology services, robots for

assembly, and marine technologies. The representatives provided expert insights on

manufacturing applications and the corresponding requirements needed for industry acceptance.

These were the major application areas suggested by the survey participants:

• Safety systems * o Collision avoidance for robots, Automatic Guided Vehicles (AGVs) and large

assembly parts that are in motion

o Supervisory safety systems on the assembly line for human and robot

cooperation

• Automatic material handling systems o Part identification and tracking o Part acquisition and manipulation o For elimination of errors in part selection for assembly

• As-built modeling and inspection of parts and assemblies o Provide corrections to manufacturing equipment and for refinement of parts for

assembly o Reverse-Engineering - precise comparison of as-built with design

specifications

• Optimizing the distribution of tasks between robots and humans in cooperative

assembly tasks

The following is a summary of the 3D sensing requirements that were provided by the survey

participants:

• Need performance standards and tests to characterize measurement performance on

static and dynamically moving parts - edges and comers, different materials and

colors, different target angles

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• 3D measurement requirements for tooling and inspection of parts o General: ± 0. 1 mm uncertainty in three dimensions o For precision Reverse-Engineering: ± 0.0025 mm uncertainty in three

dimensions o Frame rates of 1 000 Hz or higher o Ranges of up to 10m or more

• 3D measurement requirements for assembly line operations (for static and moving

parts) o Macro Level: ± 1 cm uncertainty in three dimensions o Micro Level: ± 1 mm or less uncertainty in three dimensions o Micro-Micro Level: ± 0. 1 mm or less uncertainty in three dimensions o Frame rates between 15 Hz and 30 Hz

o Part tracking at speeds of (3 to 4) m/min

o Compensation for perturbations (1/2 G forces are possible)

• Performance measures and analysis to evaluate repeatability and reliability • Performance measures and standards for sensor interfaces

Based on the data collected in this study, it appears that companies in the manufacturing industry

are only beginning to understand the capabilities and performance that can be provided by the

next generation active optical 3D imaging technology. They are testing available products and

prototypes to establish some baseline understanding of the performance characteristics. All of

the study participants pointed out that performance measures and standards are needed for this

technology to be accepted and considered for application on the shop floor.

The standards and performance issues of next generation optical 3D perception systems were

recently discussed at a workshop on Dynamic Perception: Requirements and Standards for

Advanced Manufacturing on June 11, 2009 in conjunction with the International Robots, Vision

& Motion Control Show in Rosemont, Illinois. The complete report on the dynamic perception

workshop is available at: http:/7www.nist.g:ov/manuscript-piiblicationsearch.cfm?pub id=^9046 1

2

. The workshop addressed the following four main questions

regarding the needs and steps necessary to advance the use of dynamic 3D imaging technology

in advanced manufacturing robotics and machine/assembly automation [84]

:

• Are there sets of manufacturing scenarios or tasks that can be identified as candidates for

employing sensing to advance robotic capabilities?

• Which of these scenarios or tasks are the "low hanging fruit" that can have a near-term

impact?

• What expanded capabilities and performance are needed to advance perception systems

in manufacturing robotics?

• What are essential metrics for evaluating perception systems in these scenarios?

There was considerable discussion regarding the first three items on the list and a very

interesting observation made by the workshop organizers:

"The participants generally identified material handling tasks as the best first priority for

candidate scenarios. During the initial phase in which participants individually listed possible

85
scenarios, only one participant mentioned part processing such as machining, welding, cutting

andpainting while one other mentioned partjoining. Other participants listed variations on the

perception of objects for a broad range of picking and placing operations, and the open

discussion centered on defining and refining pick and place scenarios. We concludedfrom this

that perception during transformative operations, like cutting, welding or milling, is a lower

priority at this time, and that initial success at perceiving objects for grasping and placement

would be a naturalfirst step to loading and handling objects during processing.

"

There was insufficient time for the workshop participants to get into discussing details of metrics

for evaluating sensor performance in the selected scenarios. At the end of the workshop,

discussion was initiated on the following topics: requirements for possible standard artifacts or

targets, measurement resolution and accuracy, and on visual characteristics (such as reflectance,

emissivity and occlusion of targets) that can affect sensor performance. These topics were to be

pursued at post-workshop meetings.

4.1.2 NIST program in measurement science for intelligent manufacturing

In the fall of 2007, the Manufacturing Engineering Lab at NIST initiated a new program in

Measurement Science for Intelligent Manufacturing Robotics and Automation which addresses

several goals identified during the NIST smart assembly workshop in 2006. A complete report on the smart assembly workshop can be obtained at the following website link: http://smartassembly.wikispaces.com/ . The Hst of goals includes: monitoring shop floor

activities to maintain virtual models, improving sensing capabilities, providing additional

capabilities and adaptability in assembly systems. Performance measures and standards are pointed out as being central to effective in-process measurement and for real-time continuous

metrology in the manufacturing process. As a follow-up to the 2006 workshop, a workshop on

requirements and standards for dynamic perception in advanced manufacturing was held in 2009

[84]. In response to the needs expressed by industry participants, MEL initiated a program in

Intelligent Manufacturing. The main challenge of the program is to develop robust dimensional

metrology methods in order to evaluate the performance of these new sensors for manufacturing

in dynamic unstructured environments where people and machines interact. This is called out as an important area of innovation in the NIST assessment of the United States Measurement

Systems (USMS) needs and particularly in Laser-based 3D Imaging Systems [85].

The following manufacturing industry needs are being addressed by the MEL program in

measurement science for intelligent manufacturing systems

(http://www.nist.gov/el/isd/si/msimra.cfm):

• New and reliable inexpensive safety systems to protect humans and avert damage to equipment in dynamic shop floor environments

• Flexible and adaptable control systems that can adjust to variations in the shop floor

environment and in materials

• Advanced sensors to locate and identify parts and which can determine properties and

manipulate parts in 3D space

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• Adaptable, safe and repeatable simulation environments that interact seamlessly with

real-world manufacturing equipment and environment

• Sensors and measurement technology to measure motion and displacements in

nanomanufacturing and in nanorobotics

• Advanced control and positioning systems for 3D micro/nano structures and devices

The performance requirements and standards being addressed by the program for advanced

perception and measurement systems include:

• Performance test methods, characteristics and metrics for static and dynamic 6 degree-offreedom (DOF) sensing systems

• Standards which describe sensor system product performance and help match products to applications

• Calibration procedures for 2D, 3D and 6 DOF sensors to enable cross-sensor comparison

and evaluation

4.1.3 Operational requirements of active 3D imaging systems for mobility

applications

The U.S. Department of Defense (DOD) has established programs for deployment of ground

robotic systems in future combat operations. These encompass large manned and autonomous

Unmanned Ground Vehicles (UGVs) as well as smaller UGVs (PackBot size vehicles)

performing various tactical mission scenarios. Possible tactical missions for UGVs include:

reconnaissance, active or passive surveillance, communication relay, mine detection and

clearing, targeting, search and rescue, supply, terrain control/denial, forward observation, and

lethal or non-lethal missions. These missions will require the vehicles to drive autonomously in

structured and unstructured environments which could contain traffic, obstacles, military

personnel as well as pedestrians. UGVs must therefore be able to detect, recognize and track

objects and terrain features in very cluttered environments. Laser-based 3D imaging sensors

(laser radar) has demonstrated the ability to provide reliable real-time 3D imaging with sufficient

resolution to effectively model the 3D environment at distances out to 100 m for on and off road

driving. Although advances have been made over the last 5 years, and robust performance has

been demonstrated, the relatively high cost of these sensors is still an issue which needs to be

addressed.

An overview of the sensor requirements for driving UGVs is presented in a book published by

NIST in 2006 on Intelligent Vehicle Systems [55]. Chapter 7 of the book is on Advanced

LADAR for Driving Unmanned Ground Vehicles. Since the sensor operational requirements are

still valid for UGVs, the material from the book will be used extensively in this report and

updated only if necessary. The use of laser radar for real-time active 3D imaging is also being

considered for autonomous navigation, mapping and collision avoidance on small UGVs (such

as the iRobot SUGV and PackBot and the Foster Miller Talon). The operator would just need to provide a command to the robot to go to a designated target location. The sensor could also be

used for imaging and mapping of terrain (streets and buildings) in urban settings as well as unstructured environments (such as caves). Because of the limited size and available power on

small PackBot size robots, baseline sensor performance requirements will need to be adjusted.

87
Real-time active 3D imaging technology is also beginning to be used in automotive safety

systems and in automated material handling systems used in manufacturing. New developments

in sensor performance requirements in these applications will be presented.

The sensor operational requirements are broken out into the following categories:

1. Autonomous on and off road driving for UGVs with active real-time 3D imaging

2. Autonomous navigation and perception for small PackBot size robots

3. Automotive safety systems

4. Autonomous navigations and collision avoidance for industrial Automated Guided

Vehicles (AGVs)

These requirements will be presented in detail in the following sections.

4.1.3.1 Operational requirements of laser radar as a real-time 3D imaging sensor for

driving UGVs (Unmanned Ground Vehicles).

An initial set of baseline LADAR requirements for driving UGVs was established by NIST in

2002. These were based on the experience NIST gained from participating in the Army Demo

III program which investigated the use of LADAR for on and off-road autonomous driving. The

original baseline specifications are described in section 2 of Chapter 7 in [55].

''NIST envisioned the need for two types of LADAR range imaging sensors for this type of

application - one having a wide FOV (40° x 90°) with an angular resolution of about 0.25° or

better per pixel, and the second afoveal LADAR having a narrow FOV of approximately 1/1 0th

of the wide FOV with an angular resolution of about 0.05° or better per pixel. The intent was to make the foveal LADAR quickly steerable to points-of-interest positions within the wide

peripheral angle FOVLADAR at a rate ofat least 3 saccades (point-to-point moves) per second.

Both types ofLADAR sensors were expected to have an uncertainty of about ±5 cm or better in

range, and be able to detect the ground plane out to a distance of better than 50 m and vertical

surfaces out to a range ofat least 100 m. Frame rates of higher than 10 Hz were required. Both

types ofLADAR were expected to be eye safe and be provided with the capability ofpenetrating

dust, fog, grass and light foliage (either by sensing multiple returns or looking for the last

return), and be able to operate in full sunlight conditions. Small size and low cost were also

emphasized as important requirements.''

Detailed requirement specifications for LADAR were published in a 2002 NIST BAA (Broad

Agency Announcement) titled "Next Generation LADAR for Driving Unmanned Ground

Vehicles." These are listed in Appendix B of [1]. In 2005, NIST updated the above

requirements based on guidance from DARPA and on the outcome of an ARL funded project to establish perception and autonomous driving requirements for a tactical Road Reconnaissance

mission. The updates to the baseline requirements, which were presented in section 2.3 of

Chapter 7 in [55], are as follows:

"Initial study results have indicated that the original NIST BAA requirements still stand but

need some minor changes and additions. Figure 59 is a conceptual diagram ofa single LADAR

88
sensor or dual sensors intendedfor autonomous UGV driving needs. A Wide FOV (WFOV) (40°

X 120°), coarse angular resolution (0.25°) LADAR is neededfor peripheral vision and a Narrow

FOV (NFOV) (4° X 12°), fine angular resolution (0.025° or better) is neededfor saccadic foveal

perception. The intent is to steer the foveal LADAR to areas of interest within the field-ofregard

of the peripheral LADAR sensor at a rate of3 to 10 saccades per second. The higher resolution

is necessary to detect, classify and track objects andpersonnel on or near the path taken by the

vehicle at distances up to 200 m, when the vehicle is operating at top speed. Some sort of image

stabilization or image motion compensation must be providedfor the high resolution camera.

"

0.25 per pixel Peripheral vision

Figure 59. NIST conceptual diagram of a single 3D imaging sensor or dual sensors for UGV autonomous

driving needs.

The 2005 updates also included the following changes and additions to the LADAR

requirements:

1

.

Range uncertainty (standard deviation plus bias) must be ± 5 cm

2. Range resolution should be at least 15 cm or better

3. Provide intensity and color data for improved object classification and recognition.

4. Include: Concertina wire detection, thin wire and object detection, and detection of rocks

hidden in grass and foliage. Publications [86, 87] describe research which was conducted

in this topic area.

Additional LADAR performance requirements for increased safety in high speed UGV driving were generated by NIST in a study conducted for ARL. The following text came from [55];

89
"As UGVs near deployment in military operations, there is a growing need for high

speed driving safety. In a study conducted for ARL, NIST developed some initial

perception performance requirements for 3D imaging systems at distances out to 100 m. The 3D imaging system must be able to detect and identify a person in the path of the

vehicle in time for the vehicle to stop or avoid hitting the person. Tests conducted at

NIST with a long range, variable resolution, high performance 3D imaging system have

concluded that an angular resolution (0.2° to 0.25°) enabled the detection of objects the

size ofa human at 100 m, but not the identification of them. When the angular resolution

was set to 0.02° (foveal LADAR perception), it was possible to apply segmentation

approaches to identify a person as shown in Figure 60. There are 600 pixels on the

target at 100 m. In addition, by combining the range image with color, fewer than 100

range pixels on target may be required to identify a person at ranges past 100 m.

"

Figure 60. Recognition of a human target at 100 m. Range image was obtained with an angular resolution of

0.02° per pixel. This is approximately the resolution of unaided human foveal vision.

In January of 2009, the ARL Robotics Collaborative Technology Alliance (CTA) conducted an

assessment and evaluation of multiple algorithms for real-time detection and tracking of

pedestrians using LADAR and vision sensor data. A robotic vehicle was equipped with two

pairs of stereo cameras, GDRS Gen III LADARs, and SICK line scanner imagers. The

performance measures for static and dynamic multiple human detection and tracking from a moving vehicle are presented in [88]. A robust and accurate independent pedestrian tracking

system, developed by NIST, was used to provide ground truth. The variables in the test scenario

included robot vehicle speeds of (15 and 30) km/h and pedestrian speeds of (1.5 and 3.0) m/s.

The performance evaluation was intended to provide evaluation of sensor and algorithm

perfomiance for Military Operations in Urban Terrain (MOUT). Humans were detected and

tracked reliably at distances well over 50 m. The assessment was successful in validating the

measurement system and procedures for evaluating sensor and algorithm performance.

Additional information on the assessment approach can be found in [89].

90
4.1.3.2 Baseline requirements for autonomous navigation and perception on small

UGVs (such as PackBots)

The following minimum 3D imaging performance requirements for small robots were provided

by ARL in the presentation material at the 2010 SPIE Defense & Security conference [40].

Frame rate: better than 5 Hz (10 Hz to 12Hz desirable)

Pixels per frame: at least 256 (h) X 128 (v)

FOV: at least 60° (h) X 30° (v)

Spatial resolution: at least 0.25°/pixel

Range (DOF): at least 20 m (longer ranges desirable)

Range bin sampling interval: 10 cm or better

Range uncertainty: < ± 2 cm

Laser wavelength: eye safe (e.g. 1550 nm)

Sensor power requirement: < 30 W

Sensor weight: ~ 1 kg

Intensity image: for overlay on range images

Must operate in bright outdoor ambient light conditions

The research at ARL is driven by the need to develop low cost, compact, low-power LADAR

imagers for small UGVs for navigation, obstacle detection and avoidance, and target detection

and identification.

4.1.3.3 Desired sensor measurement attributes for automotive safety systems

The transportation industry and the Government are looking at advanced technology to improve

vehicle safety and reduce traffic accidents [55]. In 2005, the Department of Transportation

(DOT) initiated a new program to develop and evaluate an Integrated Vehicle Based Safety

System (IVBSS) designed to provide warnings for imminent rear-end, lane-change, and road

departure crashes on light vehicles and heavy commercial trucks. Information about the program

is available at the following website: http://www.its.dot.gov/ivbss/'index.htm .

Figure 61 is an illustration, provided by a commercial 3DI system developer, of what automotive

safety and driver assist applications may be possible with an advanced sensor package. A critical

component of the IVBSS test program was for NIST to develop verification test procedures and

an independent measurement system (IMS) for determining acceptable performance and study

the characteristics of the prototype warning system on public roads. After studying the problem,

NIST decided to look for a 3DI system which had the following measurement attributes:

1Determine location of obstacles (range and azimuth)

2. Determine size of obstacles

3. Determine range rates to obstacles

4. Perform measurements at maximum highway speeds (120 km/h)

5. Detect obstacles at far range (> 65 m)

6. Sufficient FOV to view and detect obstacles in the path of the vehicle

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a. rear-end sensing - FOV must cover the road in front to measure curvature of

the road

b. road-departure sensing - FOV must cover the shoulder in the forward

direction of the vehicle and take into account the curvature of the road and

obstacles directly to the side (e.g., jersey barriers)

c. lane-change sensing - FOV must cover the adjacent lane directly to the side of

the vehicle and possibly to the rear to detect passing vehicles

230m range

Figure 61. Application of a 3D imaging system for automotive safety and driver assist systems (courtesy of

IBEO Automotive Sensor GmbH).

NIST decided to use laser-based 3DI systems to measure ranges to obstacles in front and to the

sides of the test vehicles. The complete IMS system description along with measurement

procedures and system performance is available in [90]. Figure 62 illustrates the IMS systems

FOV capability.

92
/Laser scanners field of view

80 m range

/

/Forward camera calibration sticks 6 m wide, 5 m in front of vehicle

a

<r~

T)

"^Side camera calibration sticks Extended 2 m - 4 m from wheel

Figure 62. Measurement system FOV [40].

'Two commercially developed real-time laser scanners were mounted on thefront corners ofthe

vehicle to provide distances to objects around the test vehicle at rangesfrom 1 m to 80 m. Each

laser scanner uses fourfixed lasers mounted to provide a

4'' verticalfield-of-view. A rotating

mirror scans the laser beams a 320° horizontalfield-of-view. The laser scanner includes an

electronic control unit (ECU) thatfuses the range datafrom both scanners into a single

Cartesian coordinate system." [90].

Figure 63 shows all the system components of the IMS system. The sensor calibration

procedures, data collection methods, system measurement procedures, and system acceptance

tests are described in [90]. Figure 64 shows the view of the laser scanner data display during a

test run.

93
CarrtouN

Tru:i: moy I

Figure 63. Measurement system components [90].

jBPfffHffT!W*li

5V QT\cj\n Figure 64. View of 3D imaging data collected during a test run [90].

Ttie IMS contributed to the IVBSS program by providing vehicle safety system performance

validation data and measurement capabilities for dynamic on-road testing. This contribution was

summarized in [90] as follows:

"The independent measurement system developed by NIST is a real-time, vehicle-based

system for measuring range and range-rate to objects surrounding a test vehicle andfor

boundaries. IMS users can post-process and analyze the test data to achieve a high94
degree of confidence in its accuracy and reliability. The system 's forward-range

uncertainty is approximately ± 1 m at distances up to 60 m and at target closing speeds

of20 m/s.

Independent measurements support the user in:

• Identifying errors in warning range

• Identifying warning system latencies

• Identifying errors in data time-stamping

• Modeling errors and applying the models to compensate for range and timingdelay errors

The system provides a wide range of measurement and data collection capabilities for

both on-track and on-road testing without the needfor instrumentation on other vehicles or of the roadway. A less-expensive approach such as using reference marks painted on

the track surface or a calibratedforward-looking camera may suffice as an alternative or

as a backup checkfor IMS malfunction.'"

4.1.3.4 Autonomous navigation and collision avoidance for industrial Automated

Guided Vehicles (AGV)

AGV technology needs were evaluated in a study [83] contracted by NIST . As part of the study, a set of questions was sent to 26 companies. Even though only eight responded to the survey,

they represented most of the major AGV vendors in the U.S.

The following were the questions in the survey:

1) What technological gains can significantly improve AGV operational capacity,

expanding and opening up new markets for AGV vendors?

2) Specifically regarding operational speed, what improvements in sensing / machine

intelligence does it take to increase speed of operations?

3) Regarding operating in unstructured environments, what are the technology

enablers? Which machine intelligent factors must be enhanced? On the applications

side, what type of industrial environments would benefit most?

4) What are new task areas for AGVs? In what operations currently performed

manually could "smarter" AGVs be used?

5) Improvements in mapping and simulation capability ~ within existing facilities, is there a need/benefit to produce facility maps using only a sensor-laden vehicle? If so, what kind of detail and tolerances are required in these maps?

6) For potential AGV users assessing AGV operations, how useful is it to provide rapid

virtual representation of plant operation to assess AGV alternatives?

7) What are fundamental cost factors that could be addressed through advanced

technology development?

95
8) Are there industries in which AGVs could be natural operational mode, but they are not being used? If so, are there technical barriers to be overcome in perception and/or

control?

9) NIST is considering establishing an informal steering committee to define objectives,

assign priorities, and evaluate progress in their AGV program. Also a seminar/workshop is tentatively planned for 2006. Would you be potentially

interested in participating in these types of activities?

Reducing costs and developing AGVs which are smart enough to automatically handle obstacles

and navigate in unstructured environments were the main areas of expressed interest. Lower

costs could be achieved by:

• lower cost sensors

• moving from centrally controlled systems to distributed processing

• operating at higher speeds

Autonomous operation in dynamic unstructured environments could be achieved by:

• improvements in sensor technology

• improvements in perception algorithms

• use of dynamic simulation environments to evaluate operation of autonomous

• AGVs.

The study [83] concluded that 3D imaging sensors (both laser radar and stereo vision) are of

greatest interest to the AGV vendor community in providing autonomous operation in dynamic

unstructured environments.

As stated in [55], "Owe way ofincreasing cost efficiency in the manufacturing and material

handling industries is to increase the speeds that AGVs operate at. Vehicle speedsfor indoor

operation as high as 2 m/s are being targeted. This, however, increases the possibility of

accidental collisions with personnel and other stationary or mobile equipment. The most widely

used AGVsafety systems use contact bumpers, however, this may not be sufficient to prevent

injury or damage at these higher operating speeds."

A better approach for improving AGV safety may be to use real-time active 3DI systems as noncontact safety bumpers for collision avoidance. In 2005, the ASME B56.6 bumper safety

standard was revised to include non-contact safety sensors. This greatly stimulated the use of

laser line scanners and other active 3DI systems on AGVs for improved autonomous navigation

and safety.

The next step being taken by the ANSI/ITSDF (new organization replacing ASME) B56.6

standards committee is to develop performance standards for Object Detection Devices and

Controls for Driverless, Automated Guided Industrial Vehicles and Automated Functions of

Manned Industrial Vehicles. NIST has proposed the use of test pieces to evaluate sensor performance for detecting objects or people (positioned within the contour area of the vehicle)

with the vehicle traveling at speeds up to 1 00 % of vehicle maximum speed. The sensors will be

96
required to detect various standard size test pieces (not yet accepted) having a specified low

surface reflectivity and dark optical density. A ballot on these recommended additions is expected in the latter part of 2010.

4.1.4 Construction Trends and Needs

As indicated by the improvements to 3DI systems over the past several years, hardware trends

for 3DI systems used for construction applications are faster data acquisition, more accurate

measurements, increased resolution, and reduced size or increased portability of 3DI systems.

Also, mobile 3DI systems are a rapidly growing trend as indicated by the increasing number of

these systems that have come on the market. These systems are used for city modeling "the

fastest growing market segmenf [91]. Additionally, mobile systems are used for another

growing area, roadside/highway asset inventory, for asset management and safety analysis.

3DI systems are becoming a common tool for surveyors and this is indicated by the integration

of 3DI systems and optical surveying and the incorporation of more features of a total station in a 3DI system. The features include onboard controls, "tribrach mounting and a laser plummet,

GPS and prism attachments, and dual-axis tilt compensation. These features enable surveyorfriendly workflows such as setting up over known points, resectioning, and traversing."[92].

Currently, the use of 3DI systems requires substantial capital investments due to the high costs of

the instruments and the software. Additionally, both hardware and software require well-trained

personnel. In a survey for airborne systems, the top three (out of 10) barriers to growth of the

airborne market as identified by [93]:

• end users were: o cost of data o availability of experienced analysts o cost of hardware/software

• software and hardware industry were: o software functionality o cost of data o cost of hardware/software "

These barriers and their ranking are very likely the same for terrestrial systems.

4.2 Software Trends and Needs

4.2.1 Trends and Needs

Applications such as inspection (e.g., health monitoring of structures, parts in an assembly line)

and providing feedback for equipment automation or for situational awareness for equipment

97
operators are potential growth fields which would require real-time data acquisition and

processing. Additionally, the hardware trend for mobile 3D imaging will benefit from real-time

data processing.

The software needs for construction and manufacturing are listed below.

Interoperability between software packages and between software and hardware

packages.

Interoperability between software packages is probably the most important improvement

needed. For point cloud data, this issue is being addressed by a standard. Specification of

3D Imaging Data Exchange, written by the ASTM E57.04 Data Interoperability

Subcommittee that is currently up for ballot.

The other types of files are CAD/BIM files, and the seamless exchange of these types of

files needs to be improved. It is anticipated that the use of BIM will increase, and

interoperability between software packages will become critical. For example,

information exchange between software for construction-related applications and for

mechanical, HVAC systems.

As alluded to in Section 4.1.1, airborne imaging is very closely related to terrestrial

imaging and interoperability between the software packages for airborne data and

terrestrial data would be a beneficial capability.

Tools for automatic object recognition, segmentation ofplanes, spheres, trees, removal of

"noise".

A higher level of automation of tasks such as object recognition, segmentation, fitting,

and data filtering (e.g., noise removal) is one of the more important improvements in the

next generation software. Yet, it is also the most challenging task as it requires research

and development of robust algorithms. The difficulty in accomplishing this task is evidenced by the fact that the automatic object recognition using 3DI data has been an

area of research for quite a few years with limited progress.

Currently, the data acquisition time is much less than the time needed for postprocessing. In addition, highly trained and skilled personnel are needed to use the

software. Automation would not only reduce post-processing time but also reduce the

dependence of the final results on the operator's skills.

Error characterization and how it affects measurements made in the software

For continued and expanded growth/use of 3DI systems, confidence in the measurements

and deliverables based on these measurements is needed. The confidence in the

measurements from these systems is addressed by the increased accuracy of the

instruments. The confidence in the deliverables from 3D data can be addressed by the

ability to quantify the error of the deliverables. This requires prior knowledge of the

98
instrument's error and other sources of errors (e.g., registration) and the abihty to propagate these errors to the end deliverable.

In the simplest case, the error in the distance between two points is on the same order as

that of the instrument error. However, with 3DI systems, thousands of points are collected on an object. Therefore, the error of the distance between two walls (modeled

as planes) benefits from the thousands of points used to define the planes and the error would be ^fN (where N is the number of points) less than the error of the instrument.

Detailed as-built model

Fitting an as-designed model to a point cloud is usually the first step in creating an asbuilt model. For example, the width of a rectangular room is determined as the distance

between two parallel planes which represent the models of two opposite walls. In this

example, the deviation between the as-built and the as-designed models could be defined

as the difference between the as-built and as-designed room widths (see Figure 65 a and

c). The as-built room width could be derived from the distance between two parallel

planes fitted to the point cloud. In general, two walls are never constructed truly parallel.

Therefore in this simplified modeling approach, possible local deviations of the actual

room width are ignored.

The large number of points acquired by 3D imaging systems allows more detailed

modeling which takes into account local deviations from the as-designed model. For

example, the as-built walls may be modeled by higher order surfaces (e.g., NURBs) in

which case the local deviations from the designed room width could be evaluated. In order to take full advantage of the acquired large datasets, the fiinctionality of the postprocessing software needs to be extended beyond simple geometrical modeling (e.g.,

NURB surfaces instead of planes or elliptic cylinders instead of circular cylinders). In

addition, the ability to evaluate and display a map of local deviations of one surface from

another is needed (see Figure 65d). Currently, most of the software packages display

only a map of the distances of the data points from the as-designed or the as-built

surfaces which may not allow for tracking local deviations between the as-built and as- designed models (especially when the deviations between both surfaces are comparable

to or smaller than the instrument error).

99
a) b) true as-built

• •

as-designed model

±±

max

-JU:

mm;

c)

/

d) as-built model based

on higher order fit. Z

as-built model based

on plane fit.

max

^^

mm I _j^.^»^»tB^"*«""*^''

Figure 65. Schematic diagram of fitting a model to a point cloud: a) acquired point cloud registered to the

as-designed model (represented here by a pair of parallel planes); b) true (i.e. unknown) as-built model

overlaid on the as-designed model; c) as-built model based on fitting two parallel planes to the acquired

point cloud (the distance between the fitted planes is different from the as-designed distance); d) a higher

order fitted as-built model enables checking of local deviations between the as-built and the as-designed

model (i.e., determine form error).

Parallelization ofsoftware and 64-bit architecture

As the technology advances and the capability of the 3DI systems to collect even more

data increases, it is crucial that the software be able to efficiently process all these data.

To increase the computational power of the computer, the current trend is to use multiple

processors instead of using a single faster processor. Therefore, in order to increase the

processing speed and improve efficiency, the software needs to be parallelized.

A few software packages are written to take advantage of the 64-bit architecture. It is expected that this trend will be followed by the other software vendors.

Better registration workflow

Better registration workflows can be developed to improve work efficiency. Methods to improve the registration process include:

100
• The use of "smart targets", e.g. targets that can broadcast their ID and location to the

3DI system.

• Good field practices (e.g., practices to eliminate errors in identifying and

documenting locations of targets) • Software algorithms that can perform on-the-fly registration without targets

Compression ofpoint cloud data

Because of the large amount of data generated by current 3DI systems and the current

trend of faster data acquisition which means even more collected data, there is a need to develop an algorithm for context sensitive data compression which will allow the user to easily search the compressed databases. There is a trend for making point cloud data

available in a BIM model. A primary purpose of creating a BIM model is the ability to obtain information about the facility throughout its lifecycle, i.e., from "cradle-to-grave" or from design to decommissioning. Therefore, having access to the raw data is important because the model created from the raw data is 1 ) a simplification and 2) future

needs may require that a slightly different model be created.

Integration ofpoint cloud data into BIMsoftware

Originally, the point cloud software was developed as stand-alone applications where

interoperability between this type of software and CAD software was accomplished

through common file formats. This situation has evolved to the point where the software

for processing point clouds are becoming integrated with CAD programs as plug-ins. As

stated in the first bullet (Interoperability), it is anticipated that the use of BIM will

increase, and a similar progression will be observed for the point processing software and

BIM software. As a case in point, GSA (General Services Administration) recently

worked with BIM-authoring vendors to ensure that their software was capable of

exporting the data in a neutral data format, IFC (Industry Foundation Classes).

Point cloud simulator

A point cloud simulator that incorporates a 3DI system's characteristics (e.g.,

measurement uncertainty, beam width, beam divergence angles), environmental

conditions, and surface characteristics (e.g., reflectivity, roughness) enables:

• test measurement strategies (e.g., determine optimal instrument location and

instrument settings ) • better understanding of instrument errors

• data validation

Simulated data can also be used for algorithm testing.

Standard data sets for verification and algorithm testing

Standard data sets could be used to test and compare performance of different packages

in an objective way. Publicly available benchmarks would provide users an objective

101
means of selecting software suitable for their particular needs. Standard data sets would

also stimulate further research and development of new algorithms.

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Appendix B: 2010 Technical Survey of Active 3D Imaging

Products and Prototypes

111
Manufacturer's Name: Army Research Lab - Research Prototype

Product Name and Model Number: None - MEMS-Scanned LADAR Sensor Prototype

System Architecture: Uses pulsed laser (2 ns to 3 ns pulse) to determine range to a pixel and a two-axis

MEMS mirror to establish the angular direction to a pixel.

Applications: Low-cost, compact, low-power LADAR imager primarily for small unmanned ground

vehicles for navigation, obstacle/collision avoidance, and target detection and identification. Possible

commercial uses for small autonomous robots in household and industrial applications.

Year Introduced: 2009

Wavelength of illumination source (nm) 1550 nm

Illumination power (mW) 0.4 W average, 1 kW peak

Laser safety classification TBD

Beam diameter at exit (mm) 0.5 mm

Beam divergence (mrad) 1 mrad

Min./Max. range (m) lm/20m

Range uncertainty (mm)

(at specified range, reflectivity, and

number of measurements)

12 mm rms at 10 m, .5 reflectivity, 32 k samples

Range resolution (depth) ^ (mm) Currently 420 mm (based on FWHM pulse width)

Can system provide range profile (multiple

returns) for the same range column (Y/N)

Range and amplitude data are collected for every .1 m in range. Currently up to 3 targets in a single

range profile are displayed.

Sensor field of view, horizontal (degrees) 40°, 60° demonstrated

Sensor field of view, vertical (degrees) 30°

Pixel or date acquisition rate (pxl/s)

(if scanner used)

(200 to 400) kHz

Frame rate (if FPA) (frames/s) (6 to 12) Hz for a 256x128 pixel image

Array size (if FPA) (pixels) N/A

Angular uncertainty (degrees) TBD

Angular resolution (degrees) 0.156°, horizontal

Color imagery availability/registration (Y/N) N

Rated operating conditions (such as temperature,

ambient brightness, etc.)

TBD

Limiting operating conditions

Data and communication interfaces Ethernet

Power supply voltage (V) and consumption (W) 5 V, 30 W

Overall size of unit (wx d X h) (mm) (95x200x50) mm for prototype sensor modules

Weight of complete sensor (kg) 1kg

Retail cost (U.S. $) $12. 6K for components in small quantities

Lead time to delivery (weeks) Experimental LADAR

What processing software is provided (besides

control software)

TBD

112
Manufacturer's Name: Advanced Scientific Concept:s. Inc. Product Name and Model Number: Portable 3D Flash LIDAR Evaluation Kit System Architecture: InGaAs APD detector array with CMOS Read Out IC; 3D Flash LIDAR camera (= 5 ns

laser pulse) - with cooling options (air or water)

Applications: Autonomous navigation, security, obscurant penetration, inspection, mapping, aviation

situational awareness, target ID and tracking.

Year Introduced: 2006

Wavelength of illumination source (nm) 1570 nm, 1060 nm optional

Illumination power (mW) (2.5 to 5) mJ/pulse

Laser safety classification Eye-safe

Beam diameter at exit (mm) 4.25 mm square

Beam divergence (mrad) Depends on diffuser ( 1.5, 3, 8.6 or 45 degree FOV)

Min./Max. range (m) 70 m, 300 m, 600 m, 1100 m depends on selected

FOV

Range uncertainty (mm)

(at specified range, reflectivity, and

number of measurements)

(20 to 30) mm

Range resolution (depth) ^ (mm) 18 cm

Can system provide range profile (multiple

returns) for the same range column (Y/N)

Y: Because all the pixels (entire scene) is captured < lOnS with each laser pulse, it may not be necessary

Sensor field of view, horizontal (degrees) 1.5°, 3°, 8.6° or 45°

Sensor field of view, vertical (degrees) Same as above

Pixel or date acquisition rate (pxl/s)

(if scanner used)

Nominal = 327 000 pixels per second (non-scanning,

staring camera, solid state)

Frame rate (if FPA) (frames/s) (1 to 20) Hz typical, 30 Hz possible in burst mode

Array size (if FPA) (pixels) 128x128

Angular uncertainty (degrees) Small, almost immeasurable

Angular resolution (degrees) 0.012°, 0.023°, 0.070° or 0.35°

Color imagery availability/registration (Y/N) Y with co-aligned IR or visible camera

Rated operating conditions (such as temperature,

ambient brightness, etc.)

°C to 50 °C

Limiting operating conditions

Data and communication interfaces Camera Link

Power supply voltage (V) and consumption (W) 2 X 120 W 120 VAC for camera and laser Overall size of unit (w X d X h) (mm) (6.5x12x10) cm

Weight of complete sensor (kg) 6.5 kg

Retail cost (U.S. $) =US$ 285 000

Lead time to delivery (weeks) 16 weeks ARO

Requires external PC notebook for processing data

What processing software is provided (besides

control software)

FlashSD Licensed Software, can be used with

standard 3D computer graphics tools

113
Manufacturer's Name: Advanced Scientific Concepts, Inc. Product Name and iVIodel Number: TigerEye 3D Flash LIDAR Camera Kit System Architecture: InGaAs APD detector array with CMOS Read Out IC: 3D flash LIDAR (=5 ns laser pulse) - with active or passive cooling

Applications: Autonomous navigation (Space AR&D, UAV, UGV), security, obscurant penetration,

inspection, mapping, aviation (helicopter landing, target ID and tracl<ing, etc.), situational awareness

Year Introduced: 2010

Wavelength of illumination source (nm) 1570 nm

Illumination power (mW) (2.5 to 8) mJ/pulse

Laser safety classification Class 1 Eye-safe

Beam diameter at exit (mm) 3 mm square

Beam divergence (mrad) Depends on diffuser (i.e. 45, 8.6, 3 degree FOV)

Min./Max. range (m) 70m, 450m, 1,250m depending on selected FOV

Range uncertainty (mm)

(at specified range, reflectivity, and

number of measurements)

(20 to 30) mm

Range resolution (depth) ^ (mm) =3 cm to 5 cm

Can system provide range profile (multiple

returns) for the same range column (Y/N)

Y: Because all the pixels (entire scene) is captured < lOnS with each laser pulse, it may not be necessary

Sensor field of view, horizontal (degrees) 45 (17mm), 8.6 (85 mm), 3 (250 mm) degrees

Sensor field of view, vertical (degrees) Same as above, 22 x 45 degree FOV optional

Pixel or date acquisition rate (pxl/s)

(if scanner used)

Nominal = 327,000 pixels per second (non-scanning,

staring camera, solid state)

Frame rate (if FPA) (frames/s) (1 to 20) Hz typical; 30 Hz optional

Array size (if FPA) (pixels) 128x128 ( 128x64 for 45x22 FOV unit)

Angular uncertainty (degrees) So small, almost immeasurable

Angular resolution (degrees) 0.35 (45 FOV); 0.67 (8.6 FOV); 0.0234 (3 FOV)

Color imagery availability/registration (Y/N) Y (with optional, co-aligned 2D or IR cameras)

Rated operating conditions (such as temperature,

ambient brightness, etc.)

°C to 50 °C

Limiting operating conditions NA; Space qualified for Low Earth Orbit

Data and communication interfaces Ethernet/Power interface

Power supply voltage (V) and consumption (W) 24 VDC (+/- 4V), (28 to 45) W dependent upon

cooling

Overall size of unit (w X d X h) (mm) (110x112x121) mm

Weight of complete sensor (kg) <2kg

Retail cost (U.S. $) =$150 000

Lead time to delivery (weeks) 14 weeks ARO

All processing done "on camera"

What processing software is provided (besides

control software)

ASC 2D and 3D viewing software (TigerView) and

Flash3D command & control software

114
Manufacturer's Name: Basis Software

Product Name and Model Number: Surphaser 25HSX (multiple configurations)

System Architecture: Multiple-frequency AMCW TOF, plannar-mirror/pan scanning mechanism

Applications: Reverse engineering, inspection, metrology

Year Introduced: 2006

Wavelength of illumination source (nm) 685 nm

Illumination power (mW) 15 mW

Laser safety classification 3R

Beam diameter at exit (mm) 2.3 mm

Beam divergence (mrad) 0.1 mrad

Min./Max. range (m) 2m/46m

Range uncertainty (mm)

(at specified range, reflectivity, and

number of measurements)

0.33 mm at 10m (very low noise)

Range resolution (depth) ^ (mm) 0.001 mm under best conditions

Can system provide range profile (multiple

returns) for the same range column (Y/N)

N

Sensor field of view, horizontal (degrees) (0 to 360)°

Sensor field of view, vertical (degrees) 270°

Pixel or date acquisition rate (pxl/s)

(if scanner used)

214,000 to 1,000,000 samples/s

Frame rate (if FPA) (frames/s) N/A

Array size (if FPA) (pixels) N/A

Angular uncertainty (degrees) 0.01°

Angular resolution (degrees) 8 arc sec (0.0022°)

Color imagery availability/registration (Y/N)

Rated operating conditions (such as temperature,

ambient brightness, etc.)

0.5 °C to 45 °C, primarily for indoor light conditions

Limiting operating conditions

Data and communication interfaces USB 2.0

Power supply voltage (V) and consumption (W) (19 to 24) V (65 W peak)

Overall size of unit (w X d X h) (mm) (285x170x480) mm

Weight of complete sensor (kg) 11kg

Retail cost (U.S. $) $95K

Lead time to delivery (weeks) 4-12 weeks

What processing software is provided (besides

control software)

Typically used with commercially available SW

115
Manufacturer's Name: Boeing

Product Name and Model Number: Small SWAP LADAR UAV Mapping Payload

System Architecture: Scanning 32x32 Photon Counting Array Mapper.

Applications: Mapping and 3D imaging where small size, weight and power are required.

Year Introduced: 2010

Wavelength of illumination source (nm) 1064

Illumination power (mW) 2000 mW

Laser safety classification lllb Beam diameter at exit (mm) 3 mm

Beam divergence (mrad) 23

Min./Max. range (m) 100 m / 10,000 m

Range uncertainty (mm)

(at specified range, reflectivity, and

number of measurements)

Range resolution (depth) ^ (mm) 150 mm (timing clocks for Geiger latches are at 2 GHz, jitter in clocks contribute to depth spread)

Can system provide range profile (multiple

returns) for the same range column (Y/N)

yes

Sensor field of view, horizontal (degrees) 20

Sensor field of view, vertical (degrees) 1.3

Pixel or date acquisition rate (pxl/s)

(if scanner used)

8M

Frame rate (if FPA) (frames/s) 8000

Array size (if FPA) (pixels) 32x32

Angular uncertainty (degrees)

Angular resolution (degrees) 0.04

Color imagery availability/registration (Y/N) N

Rated operating conditions (such as temperature,

ambient brightness, etc.)

Limiting operating conditions Design trades meet operational requirements

Data and communication interfaces Camera Link, Ethernet

Power supply voltage (V) and consumption (W) 24 V, 325 W

Overall size of unit (wx d X h) (mm) (152x558x152) mm

Weight of complete sensor (kg) 9

Retail cost (U.S. $) <$1M (ROM)

Lead time to delivery (weeks) 12 (ROM)

What processing software is provided (besides

control software) none

116
Manufacturer's Name: Boeing Research & Technology

Product Name and Model Number: Targetless Laser Locator System

System Architecture: Laser Radar precision range & precision angle measurement. Two parts to system:

Optical Head Assembly (OHA) containing scanner and laser radar engine; Electronic Support Chassis

(ESU) containing embedded computer, electronics and power.

Applications: Precision dimensional metrology for aerospace production and test.

Year Introduced: 2008

Wavelength of illumination source (nm) 1550

Illumination power (mW) Eyesafe

Laser safety classification Beam diameter at exit (mm)

Beam divergence (mrad)

Min./Max. range (m) 0.5 m/7.6 m

Range uncertainty (mm)

(at specified range, reflectivity, and

number of measurements)

< +/- 0.025 mm to 7.6 m (2 sigma)

Range resolution (depth) ^ (mm)

Can system provide range profile (multiple

returns) for the same range column (Y/N)

Y

Sensor field of view, horizontal (degrees) Depends on orientation: +/- 175°

Elevation, +/-20°

Sensor field of view, vertical (degrees) See above

Pixel or date acquisition rate (pxl/s)

(if scanner used)

Range update rate: 6000 Hz; angle step time

approx. 1.5 ms

Frame rate (if FPA) (frames/s)

Array size (if FPA) (pixels)

Angular uncertainty (degrees) 45 PPM (2 Sigma)

Angular resolution (degrees)

Color imagery availability/registration (Y/N) N- B&W video camera image; NRK'SA

Visualization SW

Rated operating conditions (such as temperature) Typical industrial environment

Limiting operating conditions

Data and communication interfaces Ethernet 10/100/GE

Power supply voltage (V) and consumption (W) 110 VAC

Overall size of unit (wxd X h) (mm) OHA: (584x216x368) mm; ESU: (510x292x152) mm

Weight of complete sensor (kg) OHA: 25.9 kg, ESU: 17.2 kg

Retail cost (U.S. $) Not for external sale

What processing software is provided (besides

control software)

Visualization SW

117
Manufacturer's Name: Bridger Photonics, Inc. Product Name and Model Number: SLM-L

System Architecture: FMCW LADAR; system measures range profile along line-of-sight; includes laser,

receiver electronics and post-processing hardware

Applications: Industrial metrology, precision manufacturing, surface characterization, machine vision

and 3D imaging and object recognition

Yearlntroduced:2010

Wavelength of illumination source (nm) 1550

Illumination power (mW) <10 mW standard. Higher power available custom

Laser safety classification IM

Beam diameter at exit (mm) 0.01 fiber output, (25 to 50) mm with additional

optics

Beam divergence (mrad) 300 fiber output, 0.1 with additional optics

Min./Max. range (m) Range window =5 m for 1 kHz update rate. Range

baseline >10 km

Range uncertainty (mm)

(at specified range, reflectivity, and

number of measurements)

<0.005 mm, (1 m range, 4 % reflectivity, 1 measurement, 1 ms data acquisition), measured as a standard deviation of successive measurements of

the same measurand under repeatable conditions

Range resolution (depth) ^ (mm) 1.5 mm, calculated as FWHM of range peak

Can system provide range profile (multiple

returns) for the same range column (Y/N)

Y

Sensor field of view, horizontal (degrees) N/A

Sensor field of view, vertical (degrees) N/A

Pixel or data acquisition rate (pxl/s)

(if scanner used)

N/A

Frame rate (if FPA) (frames/s) N/A

Array size (if FPA) (pixels) N/A

Angular uncertainty (degrees) N/A

Angular resolution (degrees) N/A

Color imagery availability/registration (Y/N) N

Rated operating conditions (such as temperature,

ambient brightness, etc.)

22 °C ± 8 °C to maintain accuracy

Limiting operating conditions Low vibration environment required for standard

system. Vibration compensation available custom.

Data and communication interfaces Communication through control software only

Power supply voltage (V) and consumption (W) llOVAC, 20W

Overall size of unit (wx d X h) (mm) 100 mm H X 480 mm W x 480 mm D

Weight of complete sensor (kg) 8 kg

Retail cost (U.S. $) Contact Us

Lead time to delivery (weeks) 12-16

What processing software is provided (besides

control software)

None

118
Manufacturer's Name: Bridger Photonics, Inc. Product Name and Model Number: SLM-M

System Architecture: FMCW LADAR; system measures range profile along line-of-sight; includes laser,

receiver electronics and post-processing hardware

Applications: Industrial metrology, precision manufacturing, surface characterization, machine vision

and 3D imaging and object recognition

Yearlntroduced:2010

Wavelength of illumination source (nm) 1550

Illumination power (mW) <10 mW standard. Higher power available custom

Laser safety classification IM

Beam diameter at exit (mm) 0.01 fiber output, 25-50 with additional optics

Beam divergence (mrad) 300 fiber output, 0.1 with additional optics

Min./Max. range (m) Range window =100 m. Range baseline >10 km

Range uncertainty (mm)

(at specified range, reflectivity, and

number of measurements)

< 2e-4 mm, (0.75 m range, 4 % reflectivity, 1 measurement, 60 ms data acquisition), measured

as a standard deviation of successive

measurements of the same measurand under

repeatable conditions.

Range resolution (depth) ^ (mm) 0.050 mm, calculated as FWHM of range peak (no

windowing)

Can system provide range profile (multiple

returns) for the same range column (Y/N)

Y

Sensor field of view, horizontal (degrees) N/A

Sensor field of view, vertical (degrees) N/A

Pixel or data acquisition rate (pxl/s) N/A

Frame rate (if FPA) (frames/s) N/A

Array size (if FPA) (pixels) N/A

Angular uncertainty (degrees) N/A

Angular resolution (degrees) N/A

Color imagery availability/registration (Y/N) N

Rated operating conditions (such as temperature,

ambient brightness, etc.)

22 °C ± 8 °C to maintain accuracy

Limiting operating conditions Low vibration environment required for standard

system. Vibration compensation available custom.

Data and communication interfaces Communication through control software only

Power supply voltage (V) and consumption (W) llOVAC, <150W

Overall size of unit (wx d X h) (mm) 100 mm H X 480 mm W x 480 mm D

Weight of complete sensor (kg) 8 kg

Retail cost (U.S. $) Contact Us

Lead time to delivery (weeks) 12-16

What processing software is provided (besides

control software)

None

119
Manufacturer's Name: EADS - Deutschland GmbH

Product Name and Model Number: HELLAS-A (Awareness)

System Architecture: 2D Scanning LADAR System with pulsed fibre Laser and APD detector; integral part

of aircraft avionic. Classification of obstacles; display on MFD and/or HMS/D.

Applications: Obstacle warning for military helicopters (contracted for NH90)

Year Introduced: 2009

Wavelength of illumination source (nm) 1550

Illumination power (W) 15000

Laser safety classification Class 1 Beam diameter at exit (mm) 48

Beam divergence (mrad) 1.50

Min./Max. range (m) 50 m/1200 m

Range uncertainty (mm)

(at specified range, reflectivity, and

number of measurements)

±600

Range resolution (depth) ^ (mm) 600

Can system provide range profile (multiple

returns) for the same range column (Y/N)

N

Sensor field of view, horizontal (degrees) 36 + 24 degrees line of sight steering

Sensor field of view, vertical (degrees) 42°

Pixel or date acquisition rate (pxl/s)

(if scanner used)

Approx. 64000

Frame rate (if FPA) (frames/s) 3

Array size (if FPA) (pixels) N/A

Angular uncertainty (degrees) ±0.16°

Angular resolution (degrees) 0.33°

Color imagery availability/registration (Y/N) no

Rated operating conditions (such as temperature,

ambient brightness, etc.)

-40 °C + 50 X

Limiting operating conditions

Data and communication interfaces Arinc, Video, RS422, Milbus

Power supply voltage (V) and consumption (W) 28 V, max 280 W, 180 W typical

Overall size of unit (wx d x h) (mm) 320x300x320

Weight of complete sensor (kg) 22.5 kg

Retail cost (U.S. $) Customer specific

Lead time to delivery (weeks)

What processing software is provided (besides

control software)

120
Manufacturer's Name: EADS - Deutschland GmbH

Product Name and Model Number: HELLAS-W (Warning)

System Architecture: 2D Scanning LADAR System with pulsed fibre Laser and APD detector.

Classification and display of High Risk obstacles.

Applications: Obstacle warning for helicopters (in operational use at German Federal Police)

-Surveillance applications

Year Introduced: 2002

Wavelength of illumination source (nm) 1550

Illumination power (W) 4000

Laser safety classification Class 1 Beam diameter at exit (mm) 60

Beam divergence (mrad) 1.50

Min./Max. range (m) 50 m/1200 m

Range uncertainty (mm)

(at specified range, reflectivity, and

number of measurements)

±600

Range resolution (depth) ^ (mm) 600

Can system provide range profile (multiple

returns) for the same range column (Y/N)

N

Sensor field of view, horizontal (degrees) 31.5°

Sensor field of view, vertical (degrees) 32°

Pixel or date acquisition rate (pxl/s)

(if scanner used)

Approx. 55000

Frame rate (if FPA) (frames/s) 2 Array size (if FPA) (pixels) N/A

Angular uncertainty (degrees) ±0.16°

Angular resolution (degrees) 0.33°/ 0.16°

Color imagery availability/registration (Y/N) yes

Rated operating conditions (such as temperature,

ambient brightness, etc.)

-25°C + 55°C

Limiting operating conditions

Data and communication interfaces Arinc, Video, Ethernet

Power supply voltage (V) and consumption (W) 28 V, max 250 W, 140 W typical

Overall size of unit (wxd X h) (mm) 320x450x320

Weight of complete sensor (kg) 26.4

Retail cost (U.S. $) Customer specific

Lead time to delivery (weeks) From stock

What processing software is provided (besides

control software)

121
Manufacturer's Name: FARO

Product Name and Model Number: Laser Scanner Focus

System Architecture: Phase TOF 3D imaging scanner (Ambiguity interval - 153.49 m)

Stand-alone design

Applications: 3D documentation of building construction, excavation volumes, facade and structural

deformations, crime scenes, accident details, product geometry, factories, process plants.

Year Introduced: 2010

Wavelength of illumination source (nm) 905

Illumination power (mW) 20 mW

Laser safety classification 3R

Beam diameter at exit (mm) 3.8 mm, circular

Beam divergence (mrad) 0.16 mrad

Min./Max. range (m) 0.6 m to 120 m at 90 % reflectance

0.6 m to 20 m at 10 % reflectance

Range uncertainty (mm)

(at specified range, reflectivity, and

number of measurements)

± 2 mm at 10 m and 25 m, each at 90 % and 10 %

reflectivity

Range resolution (depth) ^ (mm)

Can system provide range profile (multiple

returns) for the same range column (Y/N)

N

Sensor field of view, horizontal (degrees) 360°

Sensor field of view, vertical (degrees) 305°

Pixel or date acquisition rate (pxl/s)

(if scanner used)

Variable: 122k / 244k / 488k / 976k pxl/s

Frame rate (if FPA) (frames/s) N/A

Array size (if FPA) (pixels) N/A

Angular uncertainty (degrees)

Angular resolution (degrees) 0.009°

Color imagery availability/registration (Y/N) Y (up to 70 megapixel)

Rated operating conditions (such as temperature,

ambient brightness, etc.)

5 °C to 40 °C

Limiting operating conditions

Data and communication interfaces SD, SDHC, SDXC, 32 GB card included

Power supply voltage (V) and consumption (W) 19 V (external), 14.4 V (internal) - 40 W

Overall size of unit (w X d X h) (mm) 240 X 200 X 100

Weight of complete sensor (kg) 5.0 kg

Retail cost (U.S. $)

Lead time to delivery (weeks)

What processing software is provided (besides

control software)

I

122
Manufacturer's Name: Heliotis AG

Product Name and Model Number: Optomoscope M2

System Architecture: Fast 3D Microscopy using Parallel Optical low-Coherence Tomography (pOCT)

Applications: Inspection of: micro-optical components, joints and adhesive bonds

Quality control of: micromechanical pieces, injection molded parts

Year Introduced:

Wavelength of illumination source (nm) Superluminescent Light Emitting Diode (SLED), 840

Illumination power (mW)

Laser safety classification Eye safe

Beam diameter at exit (mm)

Beam divergence (mrad)

Min./Max. range (m)

Range uncertainty (mm)

(at specified range, reflectivity, and

number of measurements)

Range resolution (depth) ^ (mm) < 2 nm

Can system provide range profile (multiple

returns) for the same range column (Y/N)

Sensor field of view, horizontal (degrees) From (3.8 x 3.2) mm to (0.2 x 0.2) mm depending on objective used: 2.5x, lOx, 40x, or 80x

Sensor field of view, vertical (degrees) See above

Pixel or date acquisition rate (pxl/s)

(if scanner used)

N/A

Frame rate (if FPA) (frames/s) 5000 2D slices per second, up to 5 3D fps

Array size (if FPA) (pixels)

Angular uncertainty (degrees)

Angular resolution (degrees) From 30 |im to 2 [xm depending on objective used

Color imagery availability/registration (Y/N)

Rated operating conditions (such as temperature,

ambient brightness, etc.)

Limiting operating conditions

Data and communication interfaces USB 2.0

Power supply voltage (V) and consumption (W) (110 to 240) VAC , 350 W (with PC)

Overall size of unit (wx d x h) (mm) L 105 X W 124 X H 196 (head only)

Weight of complete sensor (kg) 2.5 kg (head only)

Retail cost (U.S. $)

Lead time to delivery (weeks)

What processing software is provided (besides

control software)

123
Manufacturer's Name: Heliotis AG

Product Name and Model Number: M3-XL Optical Profiler System Architecture: Fast 3D profiler using Parallel Optical low-Coherence Tomography (pOCT)

Applications: Inspection and quality control in microelectronics and miniaturized surfaces,

micromechanical devices, and micro-optics. Tomographic and topological imaging of biological samples.

3D imaging for forensics and in security.

Year Introduced: 2010

Wavelength of illumination source (nm) Superluminescent Light Emitting Diode (SLED), 800

Illumination power (mW) 8mW

Laser safety classification Eye safe

Beam diameter at exit (mm)

Beam divergence (mrad)

Min./Max. range (m)

Range uncertainty (mm)

(at specified range, reflectivity, and

number of measurements)

Range resolution (depth) ^ (mm) 1 |im (standard configuration, 20 nm optional)

Can system provide range profile (multiple

returns) for the same range column (Y/N)

Sensor field of view, horizontal (degrees) (0.6 X 0.6) mm (standard configuration)

Sensor field of view, vertical (degrees) See above

Pixel or date acquisition rate (pxl/s)

(if scanner used)

N/A

Frame rate (if FPA) (frames/s) Smart pixel sensor processing of up to 1 million 2D

slices per second

Array size (if FPA) (pixels)

Angular uncertainty (degrees)

Angular resolution (degrees) 2 |im lateral resolution (standard configuration)

Color imagery availability/registration (Y/N) Y Live view supports navigation on sample

Rated operating conditions (such as temperature,

ambient brightness, etc.)

Limiting operating conditions

Data and communication interfaces

Power supply voltage (V) and consumption (W)

Overall size of unit (wx d X h) (mm)

Weight of complete sensor (kg) Retail cost (U.S. $)

Lead time to delivery (weeks)

What processing software is provided (besides

control software)

124
Manufacturer's Name: Ibeo Automotive Systems G TibH

Product Name and Model Number: Ibeo LUX Laserscanner family

System Architecture: Laser pulse time-of-flight, mu Iti layer scanning 3D imager

Applications: Obstacle detection, identification, and tracking for automotive safety systems

Year Introduced: 2009

Wavelength of illumination source (nm) 905 nm (approx. 4.5 ns pulse)

Illumination power (mW) Not provided

Laser safety classification Class 1 (eye safe)

Beam diameter at exit (mm) Not provided

Beam divergence (mrad) 0.08°

Min./Max. range (m) 0.3 to 50 m (@ 10 % remission) 200 m max. Range uncertainty (mm)

(at specified range, reflectivity, and

number of measurements)

Isigma repeat accuracy 100 mm

Range resolution (depth) ^ (mm) 40 mm

Can system provide range profile (multiple

returns) for the same range column (Y/N)

3 returns

Sensor field of view, horizontal (degrees) 110°

Sensor field of view, vertical (degrees) 3.2° or 6.4° (4 or 8 layer sensor)

Pixel or date acquisition rate (pxl/s)

(if scanner used)

Frame rate (if FPA) (frames/s) 12.5 Hz (max. ang. res.), 25 Hz, 50 Hz

Array size (if FPA) (pixels) N/A

Angular uncertainty (degrees) Not provided

Angular resolution (horizontal) (degrees) From 0.125° to 0.5° - depends on frame rate Color imagery availability/registration (Y/N) no

Rated operating conditions (such as temperature,

ambient brightness, etc.)

-40 °C to +85 °C

Limiting operating conditions

Data and communication interfaces Ethernet, CAN

Power supply voltage (V) and consumption (W) (9 to 27) VDC, 10 W max, 6 W average

Overall size of unit (wx d X h) (mm) (128x93x85) mm, ECU extra size, weight and power

Weight of complete sensor (kg) 0.9 kg, ECU extra size, weight and power

Retail cost (U.S. $) Approx. $20K

Lead time to delivery (weeks) 4

What processing software is provided (besides

control software)

Visualization software ILV

125
Manufacturer's Name: Leica

Product Name and Model Number: CIO

System Architecture: Pulse TOF 3D Laser scanner. All-in-One platform

Applications: As-built and topographic surveying

Year Introduced: 2009

Wavelength of illumination source (nm) 532

Illumination power (mW) 1 mW average

Laser safety classification 3R

Beam diameter at exit (mm) 6 mm

Beam divergence (mrad) 0.2 mrad

Min./Max. range (m) 0.1 m to 300 m with 90 % reflective target

0.1 m to 134 m with 18 % reflective target

Range uncertainty (mm)

(at specified range, reflectivity, and

number of measurements)

± 4 mm at 50 m, single measurement

Range resolution (depth) ^ (mm) < 1 mm at any range

Can system provide range profile (multiple

returns) for the same range column (Y/N)

N

Sensor field of view, horizontal (degrees) 360°

Sensor field of view, vertical (degrees) 270°

Pixel or date acquisition rate (pxl/s)

(if scanner used)

50 000

Frame rate (if FPA) (frames/s) Variable scan duration

Array size (if FPA) (pixels) N/A

Angular uncertainty (degrees) 0.0034°

Angular resolution (degrees) 0.0002°

Color imagery availability/registration (Y/N) Y, 5 megapixel internal camera

Rated operating conditions (such as temperature,

ambient brightness, etc.)

°C to +40 °C, full ambient light

Limiting operating conditions

Data and communication interfaces Ethernet, Dynamic Internet Protocol (IP) Address,

USB 2.0 devices

Power supply voltage (V) and consumption (W) 15 V DC (90 V ac to 260 V ac), 50 W average

Overall size of unit (wx d X h) (mm) 238x358x395

Weight of complete sensor (kg) 13 kg without batteries

Retail cost (U.S. $)

Lead time to delivery (weeks)

What processing software is provided (besides

control software)

126
Manufacturer's Name: Leica

Product Name and Model Number: HDS 6200

System Architecture: Phase based AM Modulation TOF scanning, 79 m abiguity interval

Applications: As-built surveys and site surveys, architectural and heritage surveys

Year Introduced: 2010

Wavelength of illumination source (nm) 650 to 690

Illumination power (mW) 4.75 mW average

Laser safety classification 3R

Beam diameter at exit (mm) 3 mm at exit Beam divergence (mrad) 0.22 mrad

Min./Max. range (m) 0.4 m to 79 m

Range uncertainty (mm)

(at specified range, reflectivity, and

number of measurements)

± 3 mm up to 50 m with 90 % reflectance target ± 5 mm up to 50 m with 18 % reflectance target

Range resolution (depth) ^ (mm) 0.1

Can system provide range profile (multiple

returns) for the same range column (Y/N)

N

Sensor field of view, horizontal (degrees) 360°

Sensor field of view, vertical (degrees) 310°

Pixel or date acquisition rate (pxl/s)

(if scanner used)

1 016 000 pxl/s

Frame rate (if FPA) (frames/s) Scan duration at super high resolution - 7 minutes

Scan duration at ultra resolution - 27 minutes

Array size (if FPA) (pixels) N/A

Angular uncertainty (degrees) 0.0071°

Angular resolution (degrees) 0.0018°

Color imagery availability/registration (Y/N) Y, as third party product

Rated operating conditions (such as temperature,

ambient brightness, etc.)

-10 °C to +45 °C, in full light

Limiting operating conditions

Data and communication interfaces Ethernet or integrated Wireless LAN (WLAN)

Power supply voltage (V) and consumption (W) 24 V DC (90 V ac to 260V ac), 65 W max.

Overall size of unit (wx d X h) (mm) 199 X 294 X 360

Weight of complete sensor (kg) 14 kg with internal batteries

Retail cost (U.S. $)

Lead time to delivery (weeks)

What processing software is provided (besides

control software)

127
Manufacturer's Name: LightTime

Product Name and Model Number: MEMScan

System Architecture: MEMS mirror-based scanning beam, 3D (TOF-range, return beam xy position; plus

intensity) image data

Capture subsystem (front-end to IJ\DAR imaging system)

Applications: all forms of transportation vehicle safety, geographic measurements, and military such as Unmanned vehicles imaging, target detection / recognition / acquisition / and surveillance

Year Introduced: to be introduced in 2011

Wavelength of illumination source (nm) TBD:(860tol550)nm

Illumination pow/er (mW) TBD

Laser safety classification Eye Safe / Optional

Beam diameter at exit (mm) TBD

Beam divergence (mrad) 1 mrad

Min./Max. range (m) 1/100 m at 100 % reflectivity, 1/30 m at 10 %

reflect. Range uncertainty (mm)

(at specified range, reflectivity, and

number of measurements)

TBD

Range resolution (depth) (mm) TBD

Can system provide range profile (multiple

returns) for the same range column (Y/N)

Yes

Sensor field of view, horizontal (degrees) TBD: 32° to 64°

Sensor field of view, vertical (degrees) TBD: 24° to 48°

Pixel or date acquisition rate (pxl/s)

(if scanner used)

IM pps (320 X 240 image at 15 frames/s)

Frame rate (if FPA) (frames/s) N/A

Array size (if FPA) (pixels) N/A

Angular uncertainty (degrees) 0.1° Angular resolution (degrees) 0.1° Color imagery availability/registration (Y/N) Only potentially false color via post-processing

Rated operating conditions (such as temperature,

ambient brightness, etc.)

(10 to 40) °C (can be extended), (20 to 80) % RH

Limiting operating conditions

Data and communication interfaces TBD

Power supply voltage (V) and consumption (W) TBD

Overall size of unit (wx d X h) (mm) Estimated (100x40x100) mm

Weight of complete sensor (kg) <0.5 kg

Retail cost (U.S. $) TBD

Lead time to delivery (weeks) TBD

What processing software is provided (besides

control software)

TBD: Likely a LabView executable

128
Manufacturer's Name: Mesa Imaging

Product Name and Model Number: SR4000

System Architecture: 3D Time-of-flight solid state sensor, 176cl44 lock-in pixel array

Applications: Logistics, surveillance, biometry, machine vision, mobile robotics, navigation, mapping

Year Introduced: 2007

Wavelength of illumination source nm 850

lumination power (mW) 0.4 Laser safety classification Beam diameter at exit mm N/A

Beam divergence (deg) +/-25

Min./Max. range m 0.5 to 10

Range bias

(at specified ranges)

(mm) +/- 1cm over full range

Range resolution (depth) (mm) 16 bits on max range

Range noise (specify 4 mm at 2 m at 30 fps on white target

reflectivity of targets and ranges)

mm rms

Sensor field of view, horizontal (degrees) 43

Sensor field of view, vertical (degrees) 34

Pixel or date acquisition rate

(if scanner used)

(pxi/s) = 500 000

Frame rate (if FPA) (frames/s) Up to 54

Array size (if FPA) (pixels) 176 X 144

Angular resolution (degrees) 0.25

Angular accuracy (degrees) 0.25

129
Ambient temperature (Centigrade)

calibrated operating range

0to50

Data and communication interfaces USB2.0 / Ethernet

Power supply voltage (V) and consumption (W) 12V/6W

Overall size of unit (w X d X h) (mm) 65 X 65 X 68 (USB) 65 X 65 X 76 (Ethernet)

Weight of complete sensor (kg) 0.47 (USB) 0.51 (Ethernet)

Retail cost (U.S. $) 9000

Lead time to delivery (weeks) 4

Color imagery availability/registration yes/no No

130
Manufacturer's Name: Neptec Design Group

Product Name and Model Number: Laser Metrology System (LMS)

System Architecture:

3D triangulation with dual-axis autosynchronous laser scanning

Applications:

Dimensional verification, inspection, reverse engineering

Year Introduced:

Wavelength of illumination source (nm) 635

Illumination power (mW) 5mW

Laser safety classification 3R

Beam diameter at exit (mm)

Beam divergence (mrad)

Min./Max. range (m) 0.6 m to 5 m

Range uncertainty (mm)

(at specified range, reflectivity, and

number of measurements)

50 |im @ 0.6 m

Range resolution (depth) (mm) 20 nm (0.6 m), 1.2 mm (5 m)

Can system provide range profile (multiple

returns) for the same range column (Y/N)

N

Sensor field of view, horizontal (degrees) 50°

Sensor field of view, vertical (degrees) 30°

Pixel or date acquisition rate (pxl/s)

(if scanner used)

10 000

Frame rate (if FPA) (frames/s)

Array size (if FPA) (pixels)

Angular uncertainty (degrees)

Angular resolution (degrees) 10 nm @0.6 m to 73 um @5 m

Color imagery availability/registration (Y/N) N

Rated operating conditions (such as temperature,

ambient brightness, etc.)

15 "C to 40 "C, 20 % to 70 % non-conder

humidity

ising

Limiting operating conditions

Data and communication interfaces 3/8" - 16 UNC tripod interface, USB 2.0 port

Power supply voltage (V) and consumption (W) 85 to 240 VAC 50/60 Hz

Overall size of unit (wxd X h) (mm) (330x340x216) mm (13 x 13.4x9.5) in Weight of complete sensor (kg) 13.6 kg (30 lbs) Retail cost (U.S. $)

Lead time to delivery (weeks)

What processing software is provided (besides

control software)

131
Manufacturer's Name: Neptec

Product Name and Model Number: MEMS Lidar Prototype

System Architecture: MEMS Lidar scanner

Applications: Ca nadian Space R&D

*-

., ^.. - pi. 51,

Scan of JUNO lunar rover Year Introduced: TBD

Wavelength of illumination source (nm) 1540

Illumination power (mW) 1500 mW average

Laser safety classification Beam diameter at exit (mm) 2.2 mm

Beam divergence (mrad) 0.55

Min./Max. range (m) 3 m / 50 m

Range uncertainty (mm)

(at specified range, reflectivity, and

number of measurements)

20 mm to 25 mm (3 m to 50 m) range noise, raw

data

Range resolution (depth) (mm) <5 mm

Can system provide range profile (multiple

returns) for the same range column (Y/N)

N

Sensor field of view, horizontal (degrees) 14.7°

Sensor field of view, vertical (degrees) 13.4°

Scanner pixel or date acquisition rate (pxl/s) 100 000

Frame rate (if FPA) (frames/s)

Array size (if FPA) (pixels)

Angular uncertainty (degrees)

Angular resolution (degrees)

Color imagery availability/registration (Y/N) N

132
Manufacturer's Name: Neptec

Product Name and Model Number: Obscurant Penetrating Autosynchronous LIDAR - OPAL (prototype)

System Architecture: Autosynchronous triangulation scanning sensor using pulsed TOF ranging

Applications: Obstacle detection during helicopter 1 anding

Year Introduced: Prototype

Wavelength of illumination source (nm) 1540 nm

Illumination power (mW) Average optical power: 1300

Laser safety classification Eye safe

Beam diameter at exit (mm) 10 mm

Beam divergence (mrad) 0.3 mrad.

Min./Max. range (m) Clear air: 2000 m for a 80 % reflective surface

550 m for a 5mm metal wire

With obscurants: 50 m for a 80 % reflective surface

in a 1 g/m^ uniform 10 ^im dia. dust cloud

Range uncertainty (mm)

(at specified range, reflectivity, and

number of measurements)

Production goal: 5 cm at 2 km, 80 % diffusive target,

1 measurement

Range resolution (depth) ^ (mm) 5 cm

Can system provide range profile (multiple

returns) for the same range column (Y/N)

N

Sensor field of \j\e\N, horizontal (degrees) 30°

Sensor field of view, vertical (degrees) 60°

Pixel or date acquisition rate (pxl/s)

(if scanner used)

Up to 32 000 pixels per second

Frame rate (if FPA) (frames/s) N/A

Array size (if FPA) (pixels) N/A

Angular uncertainty (degrees) Has not been analyzed or measured.

Angular resolution (degrees) 0.001°

Color imagery availability/registration (Y/N) N

Rated operating conditions (such as temperature,

ambient brightness, etc.)

Production goal: -SOX to +55 °C

Prototype: -10 °C to +50 °C

Limiting operating conditions

Data and communication interfaces Ethernet, RS-422

Power supply voltage (V) and consumption (W) 28 V, 100 W

Overall size of unit (wx d X h) (mm) Production goal: ( 254 x 254 x 152)

Prototype: (457 x 330 x 330)

Weight of complete sensor (kg) Production goal: 12 kg

Prototype: 19.5 kg

Retail cost (U.S. $)

Lead time to delivery (weeks)

What processing software is provided (besides

control software)

133
Manufacturer's Name: Nikon Metrology Inc. Product Name and Model Number: Laser Radar Model MV 224 and MV 260

System Architecture: Frequency Modulated (Chirped lOOGHz modulation) Coherent Laser Radar Two

Axis Scanner

Applications: Large volume measurement and inspection of parts , including part-to-CAD comparison, at distances out to 60 m with metrology measurement uncertainty.

Year Introduced:

Wavelength of illumination source (nm) 1550

Illumination power (mW) 2mW

Laser safety classification US, International Class 1 eye-safe

Beam diameter at exit (mm) Focused beam 0.16 mm @ 1 m

Beam divergence (mrad) Diffraction limited approx. 0.06 mrad

Min./Max. range (m) 1 m / 60 m

Range uncertainty (mm)

(at specified range, reflectivity, and

number of measurements)

0.016 mm at 1 m

0.102 mm at 10 m

0.240 mm at 24 m

Range resolution (depth) ^ (mm) 0.0001 mm

Can system provide range profile (multiple

returns) for the same range column (Y/N)

Y

Sensor field of view, horizontal (degrees) 360°

Sensor field of view, vertical (degrees) +/- 45°

Pixel or date acquisition rate (pxl/s)

(if scanner used)

Upto4000pixels/s

Frame rate (if FPA) (frames/s) N/A

Array size (if FPA) (pixels) N/A

Angular uncertainty (degrees)

Angular resolution (degrees) 0.000002°

Color imagery availability/registration (Y/N) Integrated video camera to follow laser line Rated operating conditions (such as temperature,

ambient brightness, etc.)

5 °C to 40 °C, (10 to 90) % humidity (noncondensing)

Data and communication interfaces

Power supply voltage (V) and consumption (W) (165 to 270) VAC, 50/60Hz, 5 A max or (85 to 130) VAC, 10 A

Overall size of unit (wx d X h) (mm) Sensor: (454x381) mm. Workstation: (913x610) mm

Weight of complete sensor (kg) Sensor: 40 kg. Workstation: 119 kg

Retail cost (U.S. $) MV 224: $280K, MV 260: $410K

Lead time to delivery (weeks) 8-12 weeks

What processing software is provided (besides

control software)

134
Manufacturer's Name: None (NIST Research)

Product Name and Model Number: N/A

System Architecture: Dual frequency combs In a coherent UDAR setup

Applications: Very precise absolute distance measurements between two surfaces. Potential

(undemonstrated ) for 3D imaging if used in frequency multiplexed configuration.

Year Introduced: 2009

Wavelength of illumination source (nm) 1550

Illumination power (mW) 9.6 mW or above

Laser safety classification 1 or above

Beam diameter at exit (mm) approx. 2 mm

Beam divergence (mrad) approx. 1 mrad

Min./Max. range (m) dependent on system architecture and target

Range uncertainty (mm)

(at specified range, reflectivity, and

number of measurements)

approx. ±3 nm at 1 \x\N detected power

Range resolution (depth) ^ (mm) approx. 2 i^m or 3 nm depending on operation

Can system provide range profile (multiple

returns) for the same range column (Y/N)

Y

Sensor field of view, horizontal (degrees) N/A

Sensor field of view, vertical (degrees) NA

Pixel or date acquisition rate (pxl/s)

(if scanner used)

5000 with a single detector- higher if multiplexed

Frame rate (if FPA) (frames/s)

Array size (if FPA) (pixels)

Angular uncertainty (degrees)

Angular resolution (degrees)

Color imagery availability/registration (Y/N)

Rated operating conditions (such as temperature,

ambient brightness, etc.)

Limiting operating conditions

Data and communication interfaces

Power supply voltage (V) and consumption (W)

Overall size of unit (wx d X h) (mm)

Weight of complete sensor (kg)

Retail cost (U.S. $)

Lead time to delivery (weeks)

What processing software is provided (besides

control software)

135
Manufacturer's Name: PMDTechnologies GmbH

Product Name and Model Number: PMD[vision] CamCube 2.0

System Architecture: Modular Demo System with external illumination trigger and exchangeable lenses

(CS-mount)

Applications: Research, Robotics, Under water 3D measurement. Medical Technology and Life Sciences,

Safety and Surveillance, Media and Retail, Factory Automation, Consumer and Gaming, Military.

Year Introduced: 2009

Wavelength of illumination source (nm) 870 nm (Standard Implementation - other

wavelength available upon request) e.g. 525 nm for

underwater application

Illumination power (mW) 4000 mW (Standard Implementation - other

illumination power available) Laser safety classification Class 1(IEC 60825)

Beam diameter at exit (mm)

Field of View (°) 40° X 40° (Standard Implementation)

Min./Max. range (m) 0.3 m to 7.5 m (30m with other illumination

sources)

Range bias error (mm)

(at specified ranges)

Range resolution (depth) (mm)

Range noise (specify (mm rms)

reflectivity of targets and ranges)

< 3 mm (S) 2 m distance, 80 %reflectivity

Sensor field of view, horizontal (degrees) 40 (exchangeable)

Sensor field of view, vertical (degrees) 40 (exchangeable)

Pixel or date acquisition rate (pxl/s)

(if scanner used)

parallel acquisition of 200x200 depth data - no

scanning

Frame rate (if FPA) (frames/s) Up to 25 fps, in other applications/demo setups up

to 100 fps

Array size (if FPA) (pixels) 204x204

Angular resolution (degrees)

Angular accuracy (degrees)

Ambient temperature (Centigrade)

calibrated operating range

0°Cto50°C

Data and communication interfaces USB 2.0, Ethernet on request

Power supply voltage (V) and consumption (W) 12Vand«72W

Overall size of unit (wx d X h) (mm) 60 mm x60 mm x60 mm for the camera unit

Weight of complete sensor (kg) 1.4

Retail cost (U.S. $) 11 360 US$

Lead time to delivery (weeks) Approx. 4 weeks

Color imagery availability/registration (yes/no) Yes

136
Manufacturer's Name: PMDTechnologies GmbH

Product Name and Model Number: PMD[vision] CamCube 3.0

System Architecture: Modular Demo System with external illumination trigger and exchangeable lenses

(CS-mount)

Applications: Research, Robotics, Under water 3D measurement. Medical Technology and Life Sciences,

Safety and Surveillance, Media and Retail, Factory Automation, Consumer and Gaming, Military.

Year Introduced: 2010

Wavelength of illumination source (nm) 870 nm (Standard Implementation - other

wavelength available upon request) e.g. 525 nm for underwater application

Illumination power (mW) 4000 mW (Standard Implementation - other

illumination power available) Laser safety classification Class 1(IEC 60825)

Beam diameter at exit (mm) 5 mm

Field of View (") 40° x 40° (Standard Implementation)

Min./Max. range (m) 0.3 m to 7.5 m (30 m with other illumination

sources)

Range bias error (mm)

(at specified ranges)

8 mm (S) 4 m distance, 75 %reflectivity

Range resolution (depth) (mm) Equal to range noise

Range noise (specify (mm rms)

reflectivity of targets and ranges)

< 3 mm @ 4 m distance, 75 %reflectivity

Sensor field of view, horizontal (degrees) 40 (exchangeable)

Sensor field of view, vertical (degrees) 40 (exchangeable)

Pixel or date acquisition rate (pxl/s)

(if scanner used)

parallel acquisition of 200x200 depth data - no

scanning

Frame rate (if FPA) (frames/s) Up to 40 fps, in other applications/demo setups up

to 100 fps with Region-of-lnterest function

Array size (if FPA) (pixels) 200x200

Angular resolution (degrees) 0.2° Angular accuracy (degrees) ±0.01°

Ambient temperature (Centigrade)

calibrated operating range

0°Cto50°C

Data and communication interfaces USB 2.0, Ethernet on request

Power supply voltage (V) and consumption (W) 12Vand«72W

Overall size of unit (wxd x h) (mm) 60 mm x60 mm x60 mm for the camera unit

Weight of complete sensor (kg) 1.4

Retail cost (U.S. $) 11,360 US$

Lead time to delivery (weeks) Approx. 4 weeks

Color imagery availability/registration (yes/no) Yes

137
Manufacturer's Name: Riegl GmbH

Product Name and Model Number: VZ 1000

System Architecture: Pulse Time of Flight Scanning LIDAR

Applications: Civil Engineering, BIM/Architecture, Archeology, City Modeling, Topography & Mining, As

Builts, Mobile data acquisition

Year Introduced: 2010

Wavelength of illumination source (nm) 1550

Illumination pov^/er (mW)

Laser safety classification Class 1 eye-safe

Beam diameter at exit (mm) 7 mm at exit, 30 mm at 100 m

Beam divergence (mrad) 0.3 mrad

Min./Max. range (m) 2.5 m/ 1400 m

Range uncertainty (mm)

(at specified range, reflectivity, and

number of measurements)

±8 mm at max. range

Range resolution (depth) ^ (mm) 3 mm

Can system provide range profile (multiple

returns) for the same range column (Y/N)

Yes. Online wave form processing

1 500 000 target returns per second

Sensor field of view, horizontal (degrees) 360°

Sensor field of view, vertical (degrees) 100°

Pixel or date acquisition rate (pxl/s)

(if scanner used)

122 000 maximum measurement rate

Frame rate (if FPA) (frames/s) 60° max. per second (horizontal)

Array size (if FPA) (pixels) N/A

Angular uncertainty (degrees) 0.005°

Angular resolution (degrees) 0.0005°

Color imagery availability/registration (Y/N) Yes/Yes

Rated operating conditions (such as temperature,

ambient brightness, etc.)

°C to +40 °C, 100 % humidity, outdoor ambient

light

Limiting operating conditions

Data and communication interfaces TCP/IP, USB, Wireless

Power supply voltage (V) and consumption (W) (11 to 32) VDC, 82 W typical

Overall size of unit (wx d X h) (mm) 308 X 200

Weight of complete sensor (kg) 9.8 kg

Retail cost (U.S. $)

Lead time to delivery (weeks)

What processing software is provided (besides

control software)

138
Manufacturer's Name: Riegl GmbH

Product Name and Model Number: VZ 400

System Architecture: Pulse Time of Flight Scanning LIDAR

Applications: Civil Engineering, BIM/Architecture, Archeology, City Modeling, Topography, As Builts,

Mobile data acquisition

Year Introduced: 2008

Wavelength of illumination source (nm) 1550

Illumination power (mW) ImW

Laser safety classification Class 1 eye-safe

Beam diameter at exit (mm) 7 mm at exit, 30 mm at 100m

Beam divergence (mrad) 0.3 mrad

Min./Max. range (m) 1.5 m/500 m

Range uncertainty (mm)

(at specified range, reflectivity, and

number of measurements)

5 mm at 500 m

Range resolution (depth) ^ (mm) 3 mm one sigma 100 m range at Riegl Test range

Can system provide range profile (multiple

returns) for the same range column (Y/N)

Yes. Online wave form processing.

1 500 000 target returns per second

Sensor field of view, horizontal (degrees) (0 to 360)°

Sensor field of view, vertical (degrees) 100

Pixel or date acquisition rate (pxl/s)

(if scanner used)

125 000 max. meas./s

Frame rate (if FPA) (frames/s) 60° max. per second (horizontal)

Array size (if FPA) (pixels) N/A

Angular uncertainty (degrees) 0.005°

Angular resolution (degrees) 0.0005°

Color imagery availability/registration (Y/N) Yes/yes

Rated operating conditions (such as temperature,

ambient brightness, etc.)

°C to 40 °C, 100% humidity, outdoor ambient light

Limiting operating conditions

Data and communication interfaces TCP/IP, USB, Wireless

Power supply voltage (V) and consumption (W) (llto32)VDC, 65W

Overall size of unit (wx d X h) (mm) 308 X 180

Weight of complete sensor (kg) 9.8 kg

Retail cost (U.S. $) $125 000

Lead time to delivery (weeks) 6

What processing software is provided (besides

control software)

RiScan Pro

139
Manufacturer's Name: TetraVue

Product Name and Model Number: TetraCorder

System Architecture: Real-time high resolution, FPA-based 3D camera, standard CCD/CMOS a rrays

Applications: construction, infrastructure monitoring, structural analysis, biometrics, forensics

games, quality assurance

, video

Year Introduced: expected in 2011 or 2012

Wavelength of illumination source (nm) IR Illumination power (mW)

Laser safety classification Class 1 Beam diameter at exit (mm)

Beam divergence (mrad)

Min./Max. range (m) 1 to 100

Range uncertainty (mm)

(at specified range, reflectivity, and

number of measurements)

Range resolution (depth) ^ (mm) 1 mm RMS @20 m, single frame

Can system provide range profile (multiple

returns) for the same range column (Y/N)

No

Sensor field of view, horizontal (degrees) 30

Sensor field of view, vertical (degrees) 30

Pixel or date acquisition rate (pxl/s)

(if scanner used)

Frame rate (if FPA) (frames/s) 30

Array size (if FPA) (pixels) > 2 M pixel

Angular uncertainty (degrees) <.03

Angular resolution (degrees) <.03

Color imagery availability/registration (Y/N) Y Rated operating conditions (such as temperature,

ambient brightness, etc.)

Any ambient lighting, including full sun

Limiting operating conditions

Data and communication interfaces

Power supply voltage (V) and consumption (W)

Overall size of unit (wxd X h) (mm) 300 X 200 X 150

Weight of complete sensor (kg) <8

Retail cost (U.S. $)

Lead time to delivery (weeks)

What processing software is provided (besides

control software)

140
Manufacturer's Name: Trimble

Product Name and Model Number: CX Scanner

System Architecture: Combined Pulse & Phase TOF Laser Scanner

Applications: Civil surveying, building information modeling (BIM), heritage documentation, and forensic

and accident investigation

Year Introduced: 2010

Wavelength of illumination source (nm) 660

Illumination power (mW)

Laser safety classification 3R

Beam diameter at exit (mm) 3 mm at exit, 8 mm at 25 m, 13 mm at 50 m

Beam divergence (mrad) 0.2 mrad

Min./Max. range (m) 1 m to 80 m

Range uncertainty (mm)

(at specified range, reflectivity, and

number of measurements)

± 2 mm

Range resolution (depth) ^ (mm) < 1 mm

Can system provide range profile (multiple

returns) for the same range column (Y/N)

N

Sensor field of view, horizontal (degrees) 360°

Sensor field of view, vertical (degrees) 300°

Pixel or date acquisition rate (pxl/s)

(if scanner used)

54 000

Frame rate (if FPA) (frames/s) Max. horizontal points per 360°, 180 000

Array size (if FPA) (pixels) N/A

Angular uncertainty (degrees) 0.004° Hand 0.007° V

Angular resolution (degrees) 0.002°

Color imagery availability/registration (Y/N) Y, video

Rated operating conditions (such as temperature,

ambient brightness, etc.)

°C to +40 °C

Limiting operating conditions

Data and communication interfaces USB Flash drive, data transfer cable, WLAN antenna

Power supply voltage (V) and consumption (W) 24 V DC (90 to 240 V ac), 50 W typical

Overall size of unit (wx d X h) (mm) 120x520x355

Weight of complete sensor (kg) 11.8 kg

Retail cost (U.S. $)

Lead time to delivery (weeks)

What processing software is provided (besides

control software)

141
Manufacturer's Name: Velodyne Acoustics, Inc. Product Name and Model Number: High Definition LIDAR - HDL 32E

System Architecture: Multiple laser/multiple plane pulse TOF real-time LIDAR

Pulse duration: 5 ns, APD detectors, entire sensor rotates 360°

Applications: Obstacle detection and avoidance for autonomous vehicle navigation systems

Mobile surveying/mapping

Industrial uses Year Introduced: 2010

Wavelength of illumination source (nm) 905 nm

Illumination power (mW)

Laser safety classification Class 1 - eye safe

Beam diameter at exit (mm)

Beam divergence (mrad)

Min./Max. range (m) 5 cm to 100 m

Range uncertainty (mm)

(at specified range, reflectivity, and

number of measurements)

< ± 20 mm

Range resolution (depth) ^ (mm) < 20 mm

Can system provide range profile (multiple

returns) for the same range column (Y/N)

Yes

Sensor field of view, horizontal (degrees) 360°

Sensor field of view, vertical (degrees) 40°

Pixel or date acquisition rate (pxl/s)

(if scanner used)

Upto800kpxl/s

Frame rate (if FPA) (frames/s) (5 to 20) Hz FOV update

Array size (if FPA) (pixels) N/A

Angular uncertainty (degrees) Not provided

Angular resolution (degrees) 1.25° in vertical Color imagery availability/registration (Y/N) No, but provides intensity image

Rated operating conditions (such as temperature,

ambient brightness, etc.)

-40°Cto+85°C

Limiting conditions

Data and communication interfaces 100 MBPS UDP Ethernet packets

Power supply voltage (V) and consumption (W) 12V(9VDCto32VDC) @2A

Overall size of unit (wxd X h) (mm) 150 mm tall cylinder x 86 mm OD dia. Weight of complete sensor (kg) <2kg

Retail cost (U.S. $) Not provided

Lead time to delivery (weeks) Accepting orders

What processing software is provided (besides

control software)

142
Manufacturer's Name: Velodyne Acoustics, Inc. Product Name and Model Number: High Definition LIDAR - HDL 64E S2

System Architecture: Multiple laser/multiple plane pulse TOF real-time LIDAR

Pulse duration: 5 ns, APD detectors, entire sensor rotates 360°

Applications: Obstacle detection and avoidance for autonomous vehicle navigation systems

Mobile surveying/mapping

Industrial uses Year Introduced: 2008

Wavelength of illumination source (nm) 905 nm

Illumination power (mW) Max peak power: 60 W, automatic power control Laser safety classification Class 1 - eye safe

Beam diameter at exit (mm) 6.4 mm at 10 m

Beam divergence (mrad) 0.13 mrad

Min./Max. range (m) 50 m for pavement - 120 m for cars & foliage

Range uncertainty (mm)

(at specified range, reflectivity, and

number of measurements)

<±20 mm

Range resolution (depth) ^ (mm) <20 mm

Can system provide range profile (multiple

returns) for the same range column (Y/N)

N

Sensor field of view, horizontal (degrees) 360°

Sensor field of view, vertical (degrees) 26.8°

Pixel or date acquisition rate (pxl/s)

(if scanner used)

>1.333 M pxl/s

Frame rate (if FPA) (frames/s) (5 to 15) Hz FOV update

Array size (if FPA) (pixels) N/A

Angular uncertainty (degrees) Not provided

Angular resolution (degrees) 0.09° in azimuth, 0.41° in vertical Color imagery availability/registration (Y/N) No, but provides intensity image

Rated operating conditions (such as temperature,

ambient brightness, etc.)

-10 °C to +50 °C

Limiting conditions

Data and communication interfaces 100 MBPS UDP Ethernet packets

Power supply voltage (V) and consumption (W) 12 V (16 V Max) (5) 4 A

Overall size of unit (wxd X h) (mm) 254 mm tall cylinder x 203 mm OD dia. Weight of complete sensor (kg) <15kg

Retail cost (U.S. $) $75K

Lead time to delivery (weeks) 2-4 weeks

What processing software is provided (besides

control software)

143
Manufacturer's Name: Zoller + Froehlich GmbH

Product Name and Model Number: Imager 5010

System Architecture: Stand alone phase-based laser scanner

Applications: very high speed and long-range (187 m) laser scanning

Industrial plants, forestry, forensics, security & accident documentation

Year Introduced: 2010

Wavelength of illumination source (nm) 1500

Illumination power (mW)

Laser safety classification Class 1 Beam diameter at exit (mm) =3.5 mm (at 0.1 m distance)

Beam divergence (mrad) <0.3 mrad

Min./Max. range (m) (0.3 to 187.3) mm (ambiguity interval)

Range uncertainty (mm)

(at specified range, reflectivity, and

number of measurements)

<±1 mm

Range resolution (depth) ^ (mm) 0.1 mm

Can system provide range profile (multiple

returns) for the same range column (Y/N)

N

Sensor field of view, horizontal (degrees) 360°

Sensor field of view, vertical (degrees) 320°

Pixel or date acquisition rate (pxl/s)

(if scanner used)

Up to 1,016,027 pxl/s

127 000 pxl/s for typical resolution scan Frame rate (if FPA) (frames/s) 26 s/frame to > Ih/frame (for extremely high res)

Array size (if FPA) (pixels) 1250 X 1250 preview res., 40k x40k ultrahigh res. 10k X 10k high res., 100k x 100k extreme res. Angular uncertainty (degrees) 0.007° rms

Angular resolution (degrees) < 0.0004°

Color imagery availability/registration (Y/N) Y

Rated operating conditions (such as temperature,

ambient brightness, etc.)

-10 °C to +45 °C

Limiting operating conditions

Data and communication interfaces Ethernet, WLAN, 2xUSB2.0, LEMO 9/7

Power supply voltage (V) and consumption (W) 24 V dc (100 V ac to 240 V ac) < 65W

Overall size of unit (wx d X h) (mm) 170x286x395

Weight of complete sensor (kg) 9.8 kg

Retail cost (U.S. $)

Lead time to delivery (weeks)

What processing software is provided (besides

control software)

144
Manufacturer's Name: Zoller + Froehlich GmbH

Product Name and Model Number: Imager5006-I (upgrade version of Imager5006 ) System Architecture: Stand alone phase-based laser scanner, user interface, PC+HDD, battery

integrated. Triple-frequency AMCW

Applications: very high speed, mid-range (0.4 m to 79 m) laserscanning

Year Introduced: end of 2008 (Imager5006: end of 2006)

Wavelength of illumination source (nm) visible (635 to 690) nm

Illumination power (mW) up to 29 mW

Laser safety classification 3R

Beam diameter at exit (mm) 3 mm

Beam divergence (mrad) 0.22 mrad

Min./Max. range (m) 0.4 m to 79 m (ambiguity interval)

Range accuracy (mm)

(at specified ranges)

< 1 mm, ranges up to 50m

Range resolution (depth) (mm) 0.1 mm

Range noise (with 20% or other (mm rms)

reflectivity target at specified ranges)

(all specs are mm rms, at 127.000 pixel/s

data rate, high-power mode)

at 10m:

100 %: 0.4mm / 20 %: 0.7mm / 10 %: 1.2mm

at 25m:

100 %: 0.7mm / 20 %: 1.5mm / 10 %: 2.6mm

at 50m:

100 %: 1.8mm / 20 %: 3.5mm / 10 %: 6.6mm

Sensor field of view, horizontal (degrees) 360°

Sensor field of view, vertical (degrees) 310°

Pixel or date acquisition rate (pxl/s)

(if scanner used)

up to 500 000 pxl/s,

127 000/254 000 typical

Frame rate (if FPA) (frames/s) 25 s/frame ... 26:40 min/frame

Array size (if FPA) (pixels) depending on selected resolution:

1250 X 1250 ("preview" resolution) up to 40.000x40.000 ("ultrahigh" resolution),

10.000 X 10.000 ("high" typical)

Angular resolution (degrees) 0.0018° hor/vert

Ambient temperature (Centigrade)

calibrated operating range

-10 °C ... +45 °C operation

0.4 m ... 78 m (ambiguity)

Data and communication interfaces Ethernet, WLAN, 2xUSB2.0,

digital RS232 and I/O for GPS, IMU connection,

connectors for motorized digital color camera Power supply voltage (V) and consumption (W) 24 V dc (ext. power supply: (90 V ac to 260 V ac) / max. 65W

Overall size of unit (wxd X h) (mm) (286x190x372) mm

Weight of complete sensor (kg) 14 Kg (including battery)

Retail cost (U.S. $) approx. 109 K $

Lead time to delivery (weeks) 2-3 weeks

145
Appendix C: 3D Imaging Software Packages

Table C. 1. List of Software Packages for 3D Imaging Systems.

Manufacturer Product Name

SrdTech SceneVision-3D

CertaintyBD, LLC TopoDOT

InnovMetric Software Inc PolyWorks Vll

kubit USA PointCloud 5

Leica Geosystems Leica Cyclone Family of Software [1]

Leica Geosystems Leica CloudWorx for AutoCAD (Basic and Pro versions)

Leica Geosystems Leica CloudWorx for MicroStation

Leica Geosystems Leica CloudWorx for PDMS

Leica Geosystems Leica CloudWorx for Intergraph SmartPlant Review

Leica Geosystems Leica TruView FREE Web Viewer

Leica Geosystems Leica Cyclone II TOPO

Leica Geosystems Inc. Cyclone

Maptek I-Site 3D Laser Imaging I-Site Studio 3.3 Maptek I-Site 3D Laser Imaging I-Site Forensic 2.1 Maptek I-Site 3D Laser Imaging I-Site Voidworks 2.0

Riegl RiSCAN PRO

Riegl USA Phidias

Riegl USA RiScan PRO

Spatial Integrated Systems Inc 3 DIS - 3 Dimensional Imaging & Scanning

Topcon Corporation ScanMaster

Topcon Positioning Systems ScanMaster

Trimble Trimble RealWorks

Trimble LASERGen

Z+F UK LTD LFM Software

Geomagic Geomagic Studio

BDReshaper 3DReshaper

New River Kinematics Spatial Analyzer

Delcam CopyCAD

Terrasolid TerraScan

Pointools Ltd Pointools Rapidform XOR/Redesign, XOV/Verifier, XOS/Scan

VirtualGeo CloudCube

Gexel JRC 3D Reconstructor

Virtual Grid VRMesh

QuantaPoint QuantaCAD

NOTE: Shaded cells are software packages in POB survey.

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