I

1

United States Department of Commerce

j National Institute of Standards and Technology

NAT L. INST. OF STAND & TECH R.I.C.

A111D3 MSDD3M

NIST

PUBLICATIONS

NIST Special Publication 559 (Revised 1990)

Time and Frequency Users Manual

George Kamas

Michael A. Lombardi
NATIONAL INSTITUTE OF STANDARDS &

TECHNOLOGY

Research Information Center

Gakhersburg, MD 20699
NIST Special Publication 559 (Revised 1990)

Time and Frequency Users Manual

George Kamas

Michael A. Lombardi

Time and Frequency Division

Center for Atomic, Molecular, and Optical Physics

National Measurement Laboratory

National Institute of Standards and Technology

Boulder, Colorado 80303-3328

(Supersedes NBS Special Publication 559 dated November 1979)

September 1990

U.S. Department of Commerce

Robert A. Mosbacher, Secretary

National Institute of Standards and Technology

John W. Lyons, Director
National Institute of Standards

and Technology

Special Publication 559 (Rev. 1990)

Natl. Inst. Stand. Technol.

Spec. Publ. 559 (Rev. 1990)

160 pages (Sept. 1990)

CODEN: NSPUE2

U.S. Government Printing Office

Washington: 1990

For sale by the Superintendent

of Documents

U.S. Government Printing Office

Washington, DC 20402
ABSTRACT

This book is for the person who needs information about making time and

frequency measurements. It is written at a level that will satisfy those with a casual

interest as well as laboratory engineers and technicians who use time and frequency every

day. It includes a brief discussion of time scales, discusses the roles of the National

Institute of Standards and Technology (NIST) and other national laboratories, and

explains how time and frequency are internationally coordinated. It also describes the

available time and frequency services and how to use them. It discusses the accuracies

that can be achieved with the different services, and the pros and cons of using various

calibration methods.

Key words: frequency calibration; high frequency; Loran-C; low frequency; oscillators;

relative frequency; satellite broadcasts; standards; time calibration; time code; time

interval.

iii

PREFACE

This book is intended to assist users of time and frequency calibration services in

the United States and throughout the world. The book deliberately avoids using complex

derivations or mathematical analysis. Instead, simple explanations have been given in the

hope that more people will find the material useful.

Since the topics in this book are not covered in great depth, this book is intended

as an overview of time and frequency calibration methods, and not as a comprehensive

reference work. If you need more detailed information about a calibration method

described in this book, please contact NIST or a manufacturer of time and frequency

equipment.

v

CONTENTS

ABSTRACT iii PREFACE v

Chapter 1 - AN INTRODUCTION TO

TIME AND FREQUENCY 1 WHO NEEDS TIME AND FREQUENCY? 2

WHAT ARE TIME AND FREQUENCY? 5

WHAT IS A STANDARD? 6

THE NIST STANDARDS FOR TIME AND FREQUENCY 7

HOW TIME AND FREQUENCY STANDARDS ARE

DISTRIBUTED 8

FREQUENCY CALIBRATIONS 9

TERMS USED 11

Chapter 2 - TIME SCALES 15

SOLAR TIME 15

ATOMIC TIME 17

COORDINATED UNIVERSAL TIME 18

TIME ZONES 19

USING TIME SCALES FOR NAVIGATION AND

ASTROMONY 19

INTERNATIONAL COORDINATION OF FREQUENCY

AND TIME ACTIVITIES 21

The Role of the National Institute

of Standards and Technology (NIST) 21

The Role of the U.S. Naval

Observatory (USNO) 22

Chapter 3 - AN INTRODUCTION TO

FREQUENCY SOURCES 25

FREQUENCY SOURCES AND CLOCKS 25

THE PERFORMANCE OF FREQUENCY SOURCES 28

PRIMARY AND SECONDARY STANDARDS 30

QUARTZ OSCILLATORS 31

Temperature and Aging of Crystals 33

vii
Quartz Oscillator Performance 35

ATOMIC OSCILLATORS 36

Rubidium Gas Cell Oscillators 36

Cesium Beam Oscillators 37

Hydrogen Masers 38

COMPARISON OF FREQUENCY SOURCES 40

Chapter 4 - MEASURING FREQUENCY 41

THE THEORY OF FREQUENCY MEASUREMENTS 41

Time Interval Measurements 42

Using a Measurement System 44

A COMPUTER-CONTROLLED MEASUREMENT SYSTEM 46

The Reference Frequency 47

The Frequency Divider 48

The Time Interval Counter 48

The Computer 49

Output of the Measurement System 50

Day to Day Operation of the System 51

Recordkeeping 53

TRACEABILITY FOR FREQUENCY MEASUREMENTS 53

WHAT A FREQUENCY CALIBRATION MEASURES 55

SUMMARY 60

Chapter 5 - CALIBRATIONS USING HF RADIO BROADCASTS 61

BROADCAST FORMATS 61

WVW/WWVH 61

CHU 63

HF STANDARD FREQUENCY AND TIME SIGNAL

BROADCASTS 64

RECEIVER SELECTION 65

ANTENNA SELECTION 66

Antennas for the 2.5- to 4-MHz Range 67

Antennas for the 4- to 5-MHz Range 68

Antennas for the 7- to 10-MHz Range 68

Antennas for the 14- to 15-MHz Range 68

Antennas for 20 MHz 69

USING HF BROADCASTS FOR TIME CALIBRATIONS 70

Measuring the Receiver Time Delay 71

Using an Adjustable Frequency Source to Trigger the Oscilloscope 73

Delayed Triggering: An Alternate Method

That Doesn't Change the Clock Output 75

Using Oscilloscope Photography for Greater

viii
Measurement Accuracy 78

USING THE WWV/WWVH TIME CODE 78

Time Code Format 78

USING HF BROADCASTS FOR FREQUENCY

CALIBRATIONS 80

Beat Frequency Method 81

Oscilloscope Pattern Drift Method 84

Frequency Calibrations by Time Comparisons 85

MEASURING RADIO PATH DELAY 85

SUMMARY 88

Chapter 6 - CALIBRATIONS USING LF AND VLF RADIO

BROADCASTS 89

GENERAL INFORMATION ABOUT LF AND VLF

STATIONS 90

LF and VLF Antennas 90

Signal Formats 90

Propagation Characteristics and Other

Phase Changes 91

Field Strengths of LF and VLF Stations 92

Monitoring Station Availability 93

FREQUENCY CALIBRATIONS USING WWVB 94

Computing Relative Frequency from a WWVB

Chart Recording 95

TIME CALIBRATIONS USING WWVB 96

Format of the WWVB Time Code 98

FREQUENCY CALIBRATIONS USING THE OMEGA

NAVIGATION SYSTEM 100

Operating Characteristics of Omega 101

Propagation Characteristics of Omega 103

OTHER LF AND VLF TIME AND FREQUENCY

STATIONS 105

TIME AND FREQUENCY CALIBRATIONS USING

LORAN-C 107

Format of Loran-C Broadcasts 109

Loran-C Reception 111

Getting Time From Loran-C 112

Frequency Calibrations Using Loran-C 113

SUMMARY 114

ix
Chapter 7 CALIBRATIONS USING

SATELLITE BROADCASTS 115

USING THE GOES SATELLITE BROADCASTS 116

GOES COVERAGE 117

GOES SIGNAL CHARACTERISTICS 118

GOES TIME CODE FORMAT 118

GOES TIME CODE PERFORMANCE 119

GOES EQUIPMENT 120

TIME CALIBRATIONS USING GOES 120

PRECAUTIONS FOR GOES USERS 122

THE TRANSIT NAVIGATION SYSTEM 123

GLOBAL POSITIONING SYSTEM (GPS) 124

Using GPS 127

GPS Performance 130

SUMMARY 130

Chapter 8 - CALIBRATIONS BY TELEPHONE 131

THE NIST (VOICE) TELEPHONE TIME-OF-DAY SERVICE 131

THE AUTOMATED COMPUTER TIME SERVICE (ACTS) 131

The ACTS Time Code Format 132

Performance of ACTS 133

APPENDIX - SUMMARY OF TIME AND FREQUENCY

RADIO CALIBRATION SOURCES 135

GLOSSARY 137

INDEX 143

x
Chapter 1 - AN INTRODUCTION TO TIME AND FREQUENCY

This book is about time and frequency. It describes time interval, time of day, and

frequency calibrations. It explains the time and frequency broadcast services that are

available in the United States and other countries, and how you can use them. Your

requirements may be as modest as setting your watch, or as involved as calibrating precision

oscillators. In either case, you should find something of interest in this book.

Without realizing it, we use time and frequency every day. Knowing the correct time

allows us to function in an orderly manner. We need to know what time to meet a friend

for lunch, or to arrive at school or work. It's all right to get to church early, but it's embarrassing to walk in during the sermon. And we'd all be disappointed if we missed our

airplane after months of planning a Hawaiian vacation.

In these examples, knowing the correct time to within a few minutes is usually

adequate. But even a few seconds can sometimes be quite important. For instance, every

day hundreds of people drop nickels, dimes, and quarters into parking meters, coin-operated

washers and dryers, and other machines that "keep" time. Businesses pay thousands of

dollars for the use of a computer's time. We all pay telephone bills based on the time we

spend using the telephone. These activities all require accurate time. Fifteen minutes on

a parking meter should really be 15 minutes and not 14. An error in the meter's timer

could mean a parking ticket. If we talk on the telephone for 7 minutes, we don't want to be billed for 9 or 10.

Frequency is just as important as time. Every timer has a frequency source

inside. In fact, time as we know it (seconds, minutes, and so on) is simply the

accumulation of other more frequent time

pulses. Thus "time of day" is a label, a name tag given to just one of many possible

pulses. But all of these pulses represent a

frequency. One pulse per second (like a

clock tick) has a frequency of 1 hertz.

From this we can build up a "day" by

counting 86 400-second ticks, or we can

start with a much higher frequency of a

million pulses per second and count these

faster pulses a million at a time to get a

pulse rate of once per second. These

examples show that "frequency" describes

the rate at which events occur, and that

"time" is the name or label that we give to an interval. In fact, time interval is the

1
correct way to label a period of elapsed time. To measure frequency we will use time

interval. In this book there will be many references to such procedures (counting, timing,

and the calibration of devices) used to produce different pulse rates.

Accurate pulse rates or frequencies are used every day. TV stations must transmit on the exact frequencies assigned by the Federal Communications Commission (FCC). Power

companies supply power to homes and offices at 60 Hz (cycles per second), so that electric

clocks keep the correct time. A stereo turntable needs to spin a record at 33-1/3 rpm

(revolutions per minute) instead of 32 or 34 rpm, so that the musical tones are reproduced

accurately.

Our voices range in frequency from about 87 Hz (bass) to 1175 Hz (soprano). Our ears can detect sounds ranging from

a telephone dial tone at about 400 Hz, a smoke alarm at 600

Hz, and a dentist's ultrasonic drill at 10 000 Hz. A piano has

notes from 27.5 to 4186 Hz. "A" above middle "C" in the

musical scale is 440 Hz, a frequency often used to tune musical

instruments.

Unlike the other basic physical standards (length, mass,

and temperature), frequency and time (or more properly, time

interval) are relatively easy to measure with great precision.

For example, a length measurement of 2.5 micrometers (0.0001

inch) is difficult to make. On the other hand, time

measurements of 1 nanosecond (0.000000001 second) are commonplace in the world of science.

WHO NEEDS TIME AND FREQUENCY?

As we saw in the introduction, we all are involved with time and frequency to some

extent. For most of us, knowing the time to within 1 minute or so is usually enough.

However, some users need to know the exact second or even millionth of a second

(microsecond). Let's look at some of the more sophisticated users of time and frequency:

CELESTIAL NAVIGATORS need time of day to determine their exact location. An error of 2 seconds could cause a ship to miss its destination by about 1 kilometer.

Other SHIPPERS and BOATERS need even more accurate time of day. When ships use

sophisticated electronic navigation systems, an error of only 3 microseconds could cause unwanted errors.

2
POWER COMPANIES compare their generator frequency to control electric power flow at

exactly 60 Hz. If they didn't, electric clocks wouldn't keep the correct time. They need

precise time to monitor the power grid to help prevent "brownouts" and massive power

failures. They also use time to help locate power outages and trouble on the lines. Time

is also important for keeping track of power flow for billing purposes.

RADIO & TV STATIONS must broadcast signals exactly on their assigned radio frequencies.

They also need accurate time of day so they can join their networks at the right instant.

The MEDICAL PROFESSION uses time and frequency sources to calibrate medical test equipment, for date and time printouts in hospital care units, and for timing therapy and

observational procedures used in daily health care.

The OIL INDUSTRY needs accurate timing to help automate oil well drilling, especially

offshore.

JEWELERS & CLOCK/WATCH MANUFACTURERS need to set digital watches and clocks

to the correct time of day and rate before they leave the factory.

RAILROADS use time-of-day radio signals to set watches and clock systems, so that trains

arrive and depart on schedule.

The COMPUTER INDUSTRY needs

accurate time intervals for billing

purposes and for synchronizing

communication between systems many

miles apart.

POLICEMEN need accurate time to check stopwatches and radar guns used

to clock speeders. They use frequency

sources to calibrate radar devices used

for traffic control.

SURVEYORS use time signals to measure distance. For example, 3

microseconds translate into 1 kilometer

in distance when using electronic

instrumentation.

i©

3
MANUFACTURERS need time and frequency signals and sources to calibrate counters,

frequency meters, test equipment, timers used in electric appliances, and a variety of other

equipment.

-(otfo) foVThe TRANSPORTATION INDUSTRY needs

accurate time sources to synchronize clocks

used in public transportation systems, and for

vehicle location, dispatching, and control.

SPORTSMEN use elapsed time. Sports car rallies are timed to 0.01 second or less. So

are many track and field events.

The TELEPHONE INDUSTRY needs accurate clock time for billing and telephone timeof-day services. They need accurate frequency signals so that long-distance phone calls

don't become garbled during transmission.

The COMMUNICATIONS INDUSTRY depends on accurate frequency control for its ability to deliver messages to its users. Time is needed for labeling the time of occurrence of

important messages.

The MUSIC INDUSTRY uses frequency, obtained from tuning forks and crystal oscillators

and radio services (the 440 Hz tone, for example) to tune pianos, organs, and other musical

instruments.

The TELECOMMUNICATIONS INDUSTRY needs time intervals accurate to 1 microsecond

to synchronize satellite and communications terminals spread over wide geographical areas.

The AVIATION/AEROSPACE

INDUSTRY needs accurate time

interval sources for aircraft traffic

control systems and for

synchronization at satellite and

missile tracking stations. The

Federal Aviation Administration (FAA) records accurate time of day on its audio tapes along

with the air-to-ground communications from airplanes. Having an accurate record of when

particular events occurred can help determine the cause of a plane crash or equipment

failure.

4
ASTRONOMERS use time of day for

observing astronomical events, such as lunar occultations and eclipses.

Accurate time setting is required for

MASTER CLOCK SYSTEMS in large institutions, such as airports, hospitals, large

factories, and office buildings, so that all clocks in the system read the same time.

The MILITARY uses accurate time of day

to synchronize clocks on aircraft, ships,

submarines, and land vehicles. They also use it to synchronize communications

between bases, and for radio navigation.

GEOPHYSICISTS/SEISMOLOGISTS studying lightning, earthquakes, weather, and other

geophysical disturbances need accurate timing to obtain data synchronously and

automatically over wide geographical areas. They use it for labeling geophysical events.

Other SCIENTISTS use time sources for controlling the duration of physical and chemical

processes.

WHAT ARE TIME AND FREQUENCY?

The introduction and examples show that time and frequency are closely related.

Frequency is simply the rate at which things happen. For example, a human pulse beats

at a rate of 60 to 100 times per minute. U.S. power companies vary the voltage at a rate

of 60 times per second. Each of these rates is a frequency. The basic unit of frequency is the hertz (Hz). The hertz was named after Heinrich Hertz, an early radio scientist. If something happens once per second, we say that it occurs at a frequency of 1 Hz.

As you might have guessed, we use a frequency source to get time interval and time

of day. For example, inside many wristwatches you will find a tiny quartz crystal a few

millimeters in length. This sliver of quartz vibrates at a frequency of about 32 000 times

a second (32 kilohertz, or 32 kHz). A mechanism inside the watch counts these vibrations.

When 32 000 vibrations (or time intervals) have occurred, 1 second has elapsed. At this

point, the watch will either update its digital display or move the "hands" of the clock.

In fact, the international definition of the second is based on counting a frequency.

A second is a time interval, and it is defined in terms of the cesium atom. This is explained

5
in some detail elsewhere in this book. For now, we can say that a second consists of

counting 9 192 631 770 periods of a property associated with the cesium atom. In other

words, the tiny time intervals of the oscillating cesium atom are totaled to get a new

(longer) time interval we call the "second."

Since we used the cesium "vibrations" to get an interval of a second, we can, of course, use time interval to describe frequency. If you

knew exactly when a second started and ended,

you could count events in that second and

define a frequency. For example, if you

electronically counted 1000 cycles of a certain

signal in 1 second, you would know that the

frequency of that signal was 1000 Hz, or 1 kilohertz (1 kHz). The definition of frequency

is based on properties associated with the

cesium atom. The atom causes vibrations or

oscillations. After some 9 billion of these have

occurred, we give that interval the name

"second," which is the time interval equal to over 9 billion smaller time intervals. This is then continued through minutes, hours, days,

years, and so on. Time interval is a very

important quantity. It defines time of day and

duration, and is the basis for using the term

"frequency."

WHAT IS A STANDARD?

When calibrations are made, a reference standard is needed. The calibration is then

referenced to the standard. According to Webster, the definition of a legal standard is "something set up and established by authority, custom, or general consent as a model or example." In the United States, the National Institute of Standards and Technology (NIST)

is legally responsible for maintaining and distributing all of the standards of physical

measurement.

The four basic standards are length, mass, time interval (often just called time), and

temperature. All other measurements can be derived from these four. As stated earlier,

time and frequency can be controlled and measured with greater precision than the other

basic standards. This is because the physical devices used (atomic and quartz crystal

oscillators) are very stable, and the measurements performed depend on electronic parts that

are capable of very fast changes in their on/off states.

6
THE NIST STANDARDS FOR TIME AND FREQUENCY

Time of day is not a "standard" in the same sense as a meter stick or a standard set of weights. The real standard is time interval, which is the length of time between two

events. By agreement, a day is simply the accumulation of 86 400 seconds. By referencing

to a standard time interval of 1 second, a number of organizations (including NIST) can

maintain accurate time-of-day clocks. These clocks will always agree with each other, and

the variations in time of day from country to country are extremely small.

Even though there is no physical "standard" for time of day, most countries keep a

carefully controlled frequency source with suitable electronics set "on time." They do this

by starting with the correct time interval (usually cesium derived) and then generating other

intervals such as the second or minute. As a result, the time of day throughout the world

is almost the same in every country. Once a standard is set equal to other such standards,

their differences (if any) in the future depend on the time interval of the driving frequency

source. In the same way that a watch depends on its balance wheel or quartz crystal, the

national standards of the world depend on their cesium "balance wheels."

The NIST standard for frequency and time interval is located in Boulder, Colorado.

It is the latest in a series of atomic oscillators built and maintained by NIST to provide the

official reference for time interval or frequency in the United States. The current machine

is referred to as the "master" or "primary" frequency source. It is used to calibrate other

oscillators ("secondary" standards), which are used to operate a time scale (a time scale is a system of carefully operated oscillators), and then distributed to users through the NIST

services:

NIST Primary Standard

NIST Time Scale

NIST Services

Calibrations

?
The NIST time scale is adjusted to agree with similar time scales in other countries.

The output of the time scale is distributed to users through the various frequency and time

broadcast services described in this book.

The NIST time scale works the same way as a clock or watch. It has a frequency

source, a means of counting the frequency source and keeping time of day, and a way of

getting a useful output. In a clock or watch, the frequency source can be a 60-Hz power

line, a balance wheel, tuning fork, or quartz crystal. The counter for totaling the cycles of

frequency into seconds, minutes, and hours can be mechanical or electronic. The output

can be displayed digitally or by the position of the "hands" of the clock.

Anyone wanting to calibrate their frequency source or to compare their own timeof-day pulses, uses the NIST time scale as a master clock. They then set their secondary

clocks to agree with the master clock. A similar situation has existed since man started

keeping time. For example, one of the first clocks used by man was the sundial. Sundials

worked by measuring the Sun's angle. Someone may have "set" an hourglass by carrying

it outdoors and reading the time on the sundial. Once they knew the correct time they

could turn the hourglass over and return indoors. By doing so, they could keep fairly

accurate time for the next hour. In this example, the sundial is the master clock, and the

hourglass is a secondary clock referenced to the master clock.

HOW TIME AND FREQUENCY STANDARDS ARE DISTRIBUTED

NIST distributes frequency and time signals to the general public. Most time and

frequency data are distributed by radio. Time of day, frequency, and time interval are broadcast from radio stations WWV, WWVH, WWVB, and from the GOES satellites. These

services are controlled and operated by NIST. Precise time and frequency can also be

obtained by radio from Loran-C, Omega, and Global Positioning System (GPS) broadcasts.

These services are not operated by NIST, but they can provide an indirect reference to the

NIST time scale. Many of the broadcasts mentioned above are explained in detail elsewhere

in this book. NIST also distributes time and frequency data by telephone (both voice and

data) and through printed material.

Once obtained by radio, time and frequency signals are often distributed by cables.

For example, the standards laboratory of a manufacturing plant may provide signals for users throughout the plant area. The type of distribution system used depends on the plant

layout and the level of accuracy needed. If you need to maintain the accuracy of an atomic

oscillator throughout a large area, you need the very best equipment and cables, and even

then you'll lose some accuracy. On the other hand, you can relax the specifications if all you need is a time-of-day signal accurate to within 1 second.

8
One of the main problems with distribution systems is that cables pick up noise along

their path. This causes the signal at the end of the cable to be less useful than desired.

Not all cables work on all frequencies. It would be tempting to use commercial telephone

lines, but the highest practical frequency you can distribute in that way is 1 kHz. Any

attempt to send pulses over a telephone line intended for voice communication, but it wouldn't work due to the limited bandwidth. Also, delays may be introduced because

telephone companies often combine several signals on the same line. Delays are also

introduced when calls are transmitted by satellite.

Designing a good distribution system may require a large investment in both time

and money. As a result, some users with high accuracy requirements find that it isn't

practical to maintain a local distribution system, and they simply re-establish time and/or

frequency at each destination point.

Of course, it's difficult to say how much accuracy can be obtained with any

distribution system. There is no simple formula for successful distribution of time and

frequency signals, although the more effort you expend, the better your results will be.

FREQUENCY CALIBRATIONS

If you have access to a frequency standard, you can use that standard to calibrate

other frequency sources. A calibration can take one of two forms:

o You can calibrate a frequency source by adjusting it to agree with the standard.

o If you are satisfied with the accuracy of the frequency source, you can simply measure its frequency offset by comparing it to the standard and noting the error when you make other calibrations using the source.

Calibration laboratories can measure the error of frequency sources with resolutions

ranging from a few parts per thousand to one part per trillion (1.00E-12). The resolution

needed depends upon the organization's end product. Precise calibrations require paying

more attention to detail but are not difficult to achieve.

Nearly all calibrations of time and frequency equipment are called frequency

calibrations. This is because the frequency of the device's internal oscillator is what is actually being calibrated. For example, if your watch is 1 minute fast every day, you can

put it back on time by moving the minute hand. However, moving the minute hand doesn't

change the frequency at which the watch is running, and tomorrow it will be fast again.

9
To make the watch keep better time, you need to calibrate the internal oscillator by

adjusting its frequency and also reset the "hands" as required.

Since all calibrations are made using a standard, we can say that they are traceable

to that standard. If you make a calibration in the United States, it should be traceable to NIST. This requires using a reference frequency distributed by NIST. Traceability to NIST is always desirable and is the goal of many calibration laboratories.

To better illustrate traceability, let's look at an

example. Suppose you set your watch from a time

signal in your laboratory. The signal comes to you

from your company's distribution system. If you

trace the signal back through the system, you might

find that it comes from an oscillator on the

manufacturing plant grounds. If the oscillator is calibrated using NIST radio signals, it can claim a

certain accuracy level compared to NIST. This

accuracy is transferred to your laboratory perhaps

only slightly reduced. Taking all these factors into

account, the signal in your laboratory (and therefore

your watch) is traceable to NIST.

Users who require legal evidence of traceability

should keep a record or log of their calibration

activities, even for something as simple as listening

to a radio or telephone and setting time of day.

Such a log book becomes evidence of the exact steps

followed and the time they were performed. If more

sophisticated means are used, then chart records or photographs can be kept on file for a reasonable

time to demonstrate traceability.

What kind of accuracy is obtainable? As we

said before, frequency and time can both be

measured to very high accuracies with very great

measurement resolution. As this book explains,

there are many different ways to make calibrations.

Your accuracy depends on the technique you choose

and on the amount of error in your measurements.

Typically, frequency calibration accuracies range

from parts per million by high frequency radio

signals to parts per trillion for satellite or Loran-C signals. A great deal depends on how

much effort you are willing to spend on getting a good, accurate measurement.

10
Although some users take precise frequency measurement for granted, most time and

frequency devices need periodic calibration. For example, if a quartz oscillator is supposed

to produce a 5 MHz frequency, the frequency may still be in error by a significant amount.

Age affects the frequency of all quartz oscillators, and they can fail. Users need to know

their measurement requirements, and whether the method they choose meets those needs.

Once an oscillator is calibrated, it may not need to be calibrated again for a long

time. Today's oscillators are of excellent quality, and they may meet your accuracy

requirements for many weeks. Of course, nothing can be taken for granted. If you come

into your laboratory on Monday morning hoping that everything stayed put over the

weekend, you might be unpleasantly surprised. Digital dividers used to drive electronic

clocks do jump occasionally, especially if the power supplies are not designed to protect

against power glitches. It makes sense, therefore, to check both time and frequency

periodically to insure that the frequency is right and the clock is on time. If they are not,

you can then make an adjustment.

Many users find it convenient to maintain a continuous record of their oscillator's

frequency. This record will show when an oscillator needs calibration, and the results of

past calibrations. Normally, this record is a chart comparing the performance of the

oscillator to a radio signal which is traceable to NIST.

TERMS USED

This section covers some of the terminology used throughout the rest of this book.

Mega, Milli, Parts per and Percents

Throughout this book, we use terms such as kilohertz and megahertz, milliseconds

and microseconds. We also talk about accuracies of parts in 1.00E-09 cr 0.5%. The tables on the following pages explain the meaning of these terms, and should serve as a convenient

reference for the reader.

11
PREFIX CONVERSION CHART

Prefix Definition Example v

Pico 1 trillionth Picosecond - 1 trillionth of a second

Nano 1 billionth Nanosecond - 1 billionth of a second

Micro 1 millionth Microsecond - 1 millionth of a second

Milli 1 thousandth Millisecond - 1 thousandth of a second

Kilo 1 thousand Kilohertz - 1 thousand hertz

Mega 1 million Megahertz - 1 million hertz

Giga 1 billion Gigahertz - 1 billion hertz

Tera 1 trillion Terahertz - 1 trillion hertz

CONVERSIONS FROM PARTS PER ... TO PERCENT

PARTS PER PERCENT

1 part per hundred 1. OE-02 1. 0%

1 part per thousand 1. 0E-03 0. 1%

1 part per 100 thousand 1. OE-05 0. 001%

1 part per million 1.0E-06 0. 0001%

1 part per 100 million 1. OE-08 0. 000001%

1 part per billion 1. OE-09 0. 0000001%

1 part per 100 billion 1. 0E-11 0. 000000001%

1 part per trillion 1. OE-12 0. 0000000001%

1 part per 10 trillion 1. 0E-13 0. 00000000001%

12
The unit used almost universally for frequency is the hertz, which means one cycle or one pulse or one event per second. A "cycle" can be generated in many different shapes.

It can be a sine wave or a square, triangular, or sawtooth wave. Keep in mind as you read

this book that not all of the waveforms being considered are sine waves.

Throughout this book, consideration is given to frequencies of all ranges from the

1 Hz clock tick to many billions of hertz in the microwave region. The table below lists the

frequencies by bands. Most frequencies of interest are included in this table. The radio

frequency band contains the often heard references to high frequency, very high frequency,

low frequency, and so on.

RADIO FREQUENCY BANDS

RF Bands Frequency Range

VLF (Very Low Frequency) 3 - 30 kHz

LF (Low Frequency) 30 - 300 kHz

MF (Medium Frequency) 3 00 kHz - 3 MHz

HF (High Frequency) 3 - 30 MHz

VHF (Very High Frequency) 30 - 300 MHz

UHF (Ultra High Frequency) 300 MHz - 3 GHz

The difficulty of measuring frequency accurately is not directly related to the

frequency range. Making precise measurements at low frequencies is just as difficult as making precise measurements at high frequencies.

In some places in this book, we refer to the wavelength rather than the frequency

being used. Wavelength is especially convenient when calculating antenna lengths. In fact, a glance at an antique radio dial shows that the band was actually marked in wavelengths.

For example, radio amateurs still refer to frequency allocations in terms of the 20-, 10-, or 2-meter bands.

13
The conversion of wavelengths to frequency can be made for most purposes by using

the simple equation

300 000 000

Wavelength in meters =

f

where 300 000 000 meters per second is approximate speed of light, and f is the frequency

in hertz. From this, we can see that the frequency of the 10-meter band is approximately

30 MHz, and 1000 kHz on the broadcast band is 300 meters.

Precise calculations of wavelength have to take the medium into account. For

example, signals travel slower inside a coaxial cable than they do through the atmosphere.

14
Chapter 2 - TIME SCALES

There are a number of different time scales. The astronomical time scale is based

on the apparent motion of the Sun in the sky. The atomic time scale is based on the

"swings" of atomic oscillators. Time scales work the same way as clocks. Of course, the

pendulum in a time scale can be an atomic oscillator, and the "swings" are very rapid. For

example, a 1 MHz oscillator "swings" one million times per second (the "swings" are

electronic pulses). To keep track of these rapid swings we group the rapid pulses into

slower ones. Thus one million microseconds become 1 second, which is something a human

can deal with.

To see how the various time scales came about, let's take a brief look at the history

of time.

SOLAR TIME

Consider a time system that uses the Sun and a sundial. The Earth rotates once

every 24 hours, and we call this period 1 day. The shadow on the sundial can indicate

fractions of cycles (time of day). As complete days elapse, calendars can be used to count

the days and divide them into weeks and years.

However, clocks based on the Earth's rotation

do not run at a constant rate. This is because the

Earth's orbit around the Sun is not circular, and the

Earth slows down and speeds up depending on its distance from the Sun. The early astronomers and

mathematicians understood these laws of motion and

were able to correct the "apparent solar time" to obtain

a more uniform time called "mean solar time." This

correction is called the Equation of Time and is often

found engraved on sundials. Universal Time (UTO) is equal to mean solar time if you make the correction at the Greenwich meridian in England.

This time scale was given the name UTO, the first in a series of time scale designations that

have evolved through the years.

If you use a star that is farther away than the Sun, the fact that the Earth's orbit

is not perfectly circular becomes less important. This system of timekeeping is named

"sidereal time" and is similar to mean solar time since both are based on the Earth's

spinning on its axis. The rate is different by 1 day per year, since the Earth circles the

Sun once per year.

15
As better clocks were developed, astronomers began to notice a discrepancy in

Universal Time measured at different locations. This difference was eventually identified

as being caused by a wobble in the Earth's axis. The amount of wobble is about 15 meters

(nearly 50 feet) at the pole. By careful measurements made at various observatories

throughout the world, this wobble was corrected for, and a new time designation called UT1

was born. In its search for uniformity, the world community had now taken care of both

the non-circular orbit (UTO) and the axis wobble of the Earth (UT1).

When better clocks were developed,

it was found that UT1 displayed

fluctuations whose origin was unknown.

Due to the availability of stable

electronic clocks, these fluctuations

could be and were removed. This

resulted in an even more uniform time

scale called UT2.

To review, UT1 is a true

navigator's scale related to the Earth's

angular position. UT2 is a smooth

time and does not reflect the seasonal

variations in the Earth's position.

When the world's timekeepers went to UT2, they bypassed the navigators' real

needs. A little later we'll describe the

present-day system which fixes the

problem.

Up until now we have talked about

the Universal Time family. Let us now

look at the other members of the time

family. The first of these is "ephemeris

time." An ephemeris is simply a table

that predicts the positions of the Sun,

Moon, and planets. Astronomers soon

found that these predicted positions on

the table did not agree with the

observed positions, because the

rotational rate of the Earth was not a

constant. In response to this problem,

the astronomers created what is called

"ephemeris time." It is determined by

the orbit of the Earth about the Sun,

and not by the rotation of the Earth on

its axis.

16
ATOMIC TIME

Another kind of time that can be generated and used is Atomic Time. Atomic Time

is different from Universal Time, but the concept is similar. Universal Time is obtained by

counting cycles of the Earth's rotation from some agreed-upon starting point. Atomic Time

is obtained from counting cycles of a signal from an atomic frequency source.

In 1971, the General Conference of

Weights and Measures officially recognized

the Atomic Time Scale and endorsed an

International Atomic Time Scale (TAI).

Since January 1972, TAI has been used by

most countries in the world.

Atomic time scales give us very

accurate time of day because they use very

stable atomic oscillators. Furthermore, they

give us essentially constant intervals of

time. In other words, atomic time scales are uniform timekeepers. Uniformity is desired when we are trying to make two

events occur at the same time.

Let's review for a moment the

several time scales we have discussed.

First, the universal time family is dependent on the Earth's spin on its axis. Second, Ephemeris Time depends on the orbital

motion of the Earth about the Sun. And finally, Atomic Time, which is very uniform and

precise, depends on a fundamental property of atoms.

As shown in the table below, measurement uncertainties limit the stability of

Ephemeris Time to about 0.05 second in a 9-year period. Universal Time can be determined

to a few thousandths of a second or several milliseconds in 1 day. Atomic Time is stable

to a few billionths of a second in a minute or less. From these numbers, it is easy to see why scientists have been leaning toward a time scale based on atomic clocks.

Universal Time (UTO , UT1 , UT2

)

3 milliseconds in 1 day

Ephemeris Time (ET) 50 milliseconds in 9 years

Atomic Time <100 nanoseconds in 1 minute

17
COORDINATED UNIVERSAL TIME

Coordinated Universal Time (UTC) was adopted in 1971 and became effective in 1972.

UTC is based on an Atomic Time Scale. As a result, a UTC clock gradually gets out of step

with the Sun. This is the same situation that causes us to have leap years. Since the year

is not an exact multiple of the day, we add a day every 4 years to keep our calendar in

step with the seasons.

The same scheme was adopted to keep clocks in step with the Sun, and the "leap

second" was born. To make adjustments in the clock, a particular minute would contain

either 61 or 59 seconds instead of the conventional 60 seconds. You could, therefore, have

either a positive or a negative leap second. It was expected and proved true that leap

seconds would normally occur about once a year.

By international agreement, UTC is maintained within 0.9 second of the navigator's

time scale UT1. By adding positive or negative leap seconds, a good clock can keep

approximate step with the Sun. Since the rotation of the Earth is not uniform, we cannot

predict exactly when leap seconds will be added or deleted, but this is usually done on June

30 or December 31.

If you tune to a frequency and time broadcast (radio station WWV, for example),

the announced time is often UTC. This time is uniform. It will never differ from UT1 by

more than 0.9 second. Most users, such as radio and television stations and telephone

time-of-day services, use UTC so they don't care how much it differs from UT1. Even most

navigators don't need to know UT1 to better than 0.9 second, so UTC also meets their

needs.

However, a small number of users need UT1 time to less than 0.9 second. To meets

the needs of these users, most standard frequency and time radio stations broadcast a correction which can be applied to UTC to obtain UT1. On WWV, for instance, the

corrections, in units of 0.1 seconds, are encoded into the broadcasts by using double ticks or pulses after the start of each minute. The amount of correction is determined by

counting the number of successive double ticks heard each minute, and the sign of the

correction is given by the location of the double ticks within the minute (most frequency and

time stations worldwide have some such scheme for UT1).

Keep in mind that UTC prevents you from simply subtracting the dates of the events

to get the time difference between them. You must take into account any leap seconds that were added or deleted.

18
TIME ZONES

Standard frequency and time stations

usually broadcast Coordinated Universal

Time (UTC), which is referenced to the

Greenwich meridian. However, many users want to display the local time used in their

city. If the time is being decoded from a

time code (as opposed to a voice time-ofday announcement), the problem can be

solved by using clocks that can display time

for any of the world time zones, even though they are receiving and decoding

UTC. Each time zone differs from UTC by

a specific number of hours. The map on

the next page shows the time zones

currently in use in the continental United

States.

Contrary to popular opinion, NIST is not involved with determining time zones in

the United States. This responsibility

belongs to the Department of

Transportation, because the need for time zones

for interstate commerce. Information about

Department of Transportation, Washington, DC

EASTERN CENTRAL

MOUNTAIN PACIFIC

came about when railroads were first used

time zones can be obtained from the

20590.

USING TIME SCALES FOR NAVIGATION AND ASTRONOMY

Although most users like the uniformity of Atomic Time, there is one application that

needs the variability of Solar Time. This is in the area of celestial navigation where Earth

rotation (even though it fluctuates) is used in finding out where you are on the Earth.

Navigators who find their positions from the stars are among the largest user group

of standard time broadcasts. Since the Earth rotates once in 24 hours, a person can find

his position (in longitude) if he knows his local time and the time difference between the

Greenwich meridian and himself. As an example, a person trying to find his position uses an instrument like a sextant to measure the local solar time wherever he might be on the

Earth. He then needs to know the time at the Greenwich meridian. This is the same

problem that generated all the interest several hundred years ago in developing a good

chronometer. Those clocks were used for many years until radio clocks were invented.

Even today, most vessels do not leave home without a good chronometer.

19
Many countries operate high frequency radio stations to serve navigators and many

other users. The United States operates WWV in Fort Collins, Colorado, and WWVH in

Hawaii. Similar stations are operated by the Canadians and the Japanese and many

countries in Europe and Asia. The U.S. Navy also broadcasts time signals from a number

of radio stations. \

Most large countries also maintain observatories to measure and record astronomical

time. This is done using telescopes. The official U.S. observatory is operated by the Navy

in Washington, DC. Astronomical time is difficult to measure accurately. Errors of a few

milliseconds are realized even after a whole evening's sightings have been taken and

averaged.

Standard Time Zones of the Continental United States

20
INTERNATIONAL COORDINATION OF FREQUENCY AND TIME ACTIVITIES

Unlike other physical standards, time interval or frequency can be obtained from

many sources. Both Canada and the United States have primary frequency standards that

also act as flywheels for accurate timekeeping. In addition, the U.S. Naval Observatory

(USNO) makes astronomical observations for determining UT1 and keeps many frequency

sources running for use by the Department of Defense. Many laboratories throughout the

world maintain primary frequency standards for their countries.

The agency responsible for UT1 is the International Earth Rotation Service (IERS)

located in Paris, France. The IERS determines when leap seconds are needed.

The agency responsible for atomic time (UTC and TAI) is the International Bureau

of Weights and Measures (BIPM), also located in Paris, France. The BIPM determines the

frequency (rate) of UTC and TAI by comparing the primary frequency standards located in

several countries (including the United States, Canada, Japan, and Germany). The time for

UTC is based on international time scale comparisons between hundreds of clocks located

in many laboratories around the world. The time scale comparisons are currently made

using the Global Positional System (GPS) or Loran-C. The BIPM evaluates the data from

each time scale and corrects the data from each contributor. By international agreement,

all UTC time scales must agree with the UTC time scale operated by the BIPM to within

± 1 millisecond. The result is a uniform world frequency (and time) system that differs

from country to country by only a small amount. So, whether you get your frequency and

time from CHU in Canada or the PTB in Germany, it will differ only slightly from the

U.S. standard.

The Role of the National Institute of Standards and Technology (NIST)

NIST is in the U.S. Department of Commerce and has been authorized by Congress

to undertake the following functions:

"The custody, maintenance, and development of the national

standards of measurements and the provisions of means and

methods for making measurements consistent with those

standards, including the comparison of standards used in scientific

investigations, engineering, manufacturing, commerce, and

educational institutions, with the standards adopted or recognized

by the Government"

The Time and Frequency Division of NIST, located in Boulder, Colorado, carries out

the above functions related to frequency or time interval and keeps time-of-day clocks

21
running on its time scale system. The Time and Frequency Division has many

responsibilities. The division operates the NIST standard of frequency and time interval, as well as several time scales based upon this standard. In addition to maintaining the

standard, research efforts are carried out to improve it. This group also offers a direct

service for calibration of oscillators and clocks.

The Time and Frequency Division also distributes the standards and continually finds

new and improved methods of distribution. At this writing, the distribution services consist

of high frequency radio stations WWV and WWVH, low frequency radio station WWVB,

telephone time-of-day services (both voice and data), and several services based on radio

signals from GOES and GPS satellites or Loran-C navigation signals. This division also

produces literature and conducts seminars on how to use these services, an„ provides

calibration and monitoring data to the general public. The services are used to provide

national and international frequency and time coordination.

To summarize, NIST maintains services based upon the primary frequency standards.

These services are constantly being improved and are designed to meet the needs of users

at all levels of accuracy for frequency and time calibration. Training seminars are offered,

and a number of publications are available to assist the public. For more information,

contact:

Time and Frequency Division

National Institute of Standards and Technology

325 Broadway

Boulder, CO 80303

The Role of the U.S. Naval Observatory (USNO)

The U.S. Naval Observatory (USNO) is in the Department of Defense (DOD). Under

a DOD directive, the USNO is responsible for:

" maintaining a reference standard (astronomical and atomic)

for use by all DOD components, other agencies of the Federal

Government, DOD contractors, and related scientific laboratories.

This responsibility includes that of programming the necessary

resources to maintain the reference standard and to disseminate

precise time to DOD users."

22
The USNO contributes (along with a number of other laboratories throughout the

world) data to the International Earth Rotation Service (IERS) which combines the results

into the final values of UT1. The USNO is the only organization in the United States that

determines UT1 operationally.

The USNO serves as the main time and frequency reference for the DOD and its contractors. The DOD provides frequency and time services throughout the world. These

include many different radio transmissions, satellite signals, and portable clocks.

The USNO accomplishes its global responsibilities with a system of cooperating

worldwide stations that make measurements and keep very good frequency and time

references. The USNO also publishes information about its services. For more information

about these publications, contact:

U.S. Naval Observatory

Time Services Department

34th & Massachusetts Avenue, NW

Washington, DC 20392-5100

The three military services of the DOD have established focal points for matters

dealing with frequency and time. These facilities coordinate DOD efforts and provide

information to their organizations and contractors. The focal points are:

1. Aerospace Guidance and Metrology Center, Newark Air Force Station, OH 23055 (for

the Air Force).

2. Navy Electronic Systems Command, Code 510, Washington, DC 20360 (for the Navy).

3. U.S. Army Material Development & Readiness Command, DRCQA-PC, Alexandria, VA

20315 (for the Army).

23

Chapter 3 - AN INTRODUCTION TO FREQUENCY SOURCES

This chapter is about electronic frequency oscillators, how they work, and how they can be used. It talks about some of the physical properties of frequency sources and

includes a table comparing the different kinds of devices that are available.

FREQUENCY SOURCES AND CLOCKS

Most clocks (especially the very accurate and

precise ones) are based on high-quality frequency

sources. If we look at an event which occurs

regularly (the sunrise, for example), we can state how many of these events occur in a given time

period. This number is the frequency of this

series of events. In our example, we could say

that the frequency of sunrises is 7 events per

week, or 365 events per year. "Events per week"

or "events per year" would be the unit which we

used for our frequency number. This number

changes if we use different units. In our example,

we assumed that we knew the definition of a week

and a year, and the numbers change accordingly.

Now, what is the time interval between the

events? The answers for our examples are simple:

One sunrise follows the other after t = 1/7 week,

or t = 1/365 year, where we used "week" and

"year" as two possible choices for our unit of time.

We have learned two things. First, for periodic events, the time between the events

is related to the frequency of their occurrence in the following simple way:

1 Frequency =

Time Interval

Second, periodic events can be counted to define time. The frequency source becomes a clock when we add a counting mechanism for the events.

25
In this example, the frequency used is that of the rotating Earth. The time between

recurring events is one day. The rotating Earth has served mankind for thousands of

years and until recently was the source of the definition of time interval. The counting

mechanism which made it a clock was the recording of days and years.

The need to get along for many days which might

be cloudy, without sunlight, and to measure time

intervals much shorter than a day, brought about the

invention of clocks. The first "modern" clocks were

based on the pendulum. Pendulum clocks were

invented about 400 years ago and are still widely used

today. The pendulum may be a suspended weight

(gravitational pendulum) like in "grandfather" clocks, or the balance wheel (torsion pendulum) of modern

mechanical wristwatches. A pendulum clock has all of

the same features found in quartz crystal and atomic

clocks.

In a pendulum clock, the pendulum has to be kept

in motion by some type of energy source. In a wristwatch, this energy source is typically the winding

spring or battery. The pendulum or spring produces

small bursts of energy that drive the gears inside the

clock. The moving pendulum is a frequency source. In

order to have a clock, a read-out mechanism is necessary which counts and accumulates the ticks from

the frequency source (more accurately, the time interval

between the ticks) and displays the result. In our example of a wristwatch, this is accomplished by using

a digital display or a set of gears that move the hands

on the clock face.

We have just discussed how adding a counting

mechanism to a frequency source creates a clock. This

task can also be performed by an electronic frequency

divider. For example, a signal from a 5-MHz oscillator can be divided to 60 Hz (see figure on next page). The

60-Hz voltage can then be used to drive an electrical

clock motor similar to those driven by the 60-Hz power

line frequency that we use at home and at work. Or, an additional electric pulse generator may be used that

generates one very sharp electrical pulse per second. The time interval of 1 second

between the pulses (corresponding to a frequency of 1 Hz) comes directly from our

frequency source. These pulses can be used directly in time comparisons with those of

other similar clocks, or they can drive gears or a digital display.

26
Frequency 5 MHz

, . ^

Frequency 60 Hz

Source Divider

Divider & Pulse

Generator

1 Hz

A Typical Clort System

ClocX

(Counter/

Accumulator'

Clock-Tick Output

The electric power line is a very good frequency source for many applications. A

clock driven from the power line will keep excellent time. This is because the power

system is carefully controlled to maintain its frequency within definite limits. Each power

company is notified in advance to set its frequency to a particular value, so that the

millions of clocks on the system (in homes and offices across the country) will gain or lose

time as required to keep the clocks correct. The time corrections are usually done at

night.

The basic unit of time is the second (symbol s). The second has been defined by

using the property of a cesium atom. A second equals 9 192 631 770 periods of the

radiation corresponding to the transition between the two hyperfme levels of the ground

state of the cesium-133 atom. So, the frequency of a "cesium pendulum" is 9 192 631 770

events per second (the cesium atom is a very "fast" pendulum). The unit used for

describing frequency is the hertz (Hz), which means one event per second.

27
THE PERFORMANCE OF FREQUENCY SOURCES

The performance of a frequency source is usually described in terms of its accuracy,

reproducibility, and stability. These are defined as:

ACCURACY

How well does it relate to the definition? In the case of frequency, accuracy is a measure of how well the frequency source relates to the definition of a second (in

terms of cesium) mentioned previously. The very high frequency of the cesium

oscillator is divided to a lower easier-to-use value and compared.

REPRODUCIBILITY

If you built a number of frequency sources and adjusted them, how well would they

agree in frequency? This term obviously applies to sources that are manufactured

and then tested to see how they differ.

STABILITY

Once a frequency device is set to a given frequency, how well does it generate that

value during some period of time? At any given moment, an oscillator generates an

output signal whose frequency depends on a number of factors: temperature, time

since turn-on, line voltage, vibration and shock, and so on. Some time later its

frequency will change, again due to a number of causes. The difference between its frequency at one moment in time and another moment is called stability. The

specification for stability is usually given for a number of time periods: 1 second, 10

seconds, minutes, hours, or even days, months, or years. Stability is an important

factor in oscillator cost. More stable oscillators cost more.

The three characteristics are all important. Accuracy is sought by those who

evaluate and compare high-quality frequency sources. Reproducibility is important in

applications when several frequency sources are expected to agree with each other.

However, the stability of a frequency source is usually the most important characteristic

for the average user.

The frequency stability of a frequency source depends on many things that might

cause frequency changes. Frequency stability can be measured by taking a reasonably large

number of successive readings on an electronic counter which counts the frequency of the

device to be evaluated. Each counter reading (in hertz) is obtained by counting the output

frequency for some specified time period. This sampling time can usually be chosen by

simply adjusting a knob on the counter; for example, a sampling time of 0.1 second or 1 second may be chosen. The result will change as the sampling time changes.

28
Furthermore, variations in the readings of measured frequency might be expected

to average out if observed long enough. This is not always so. The stability of the

frequency source usually depends on the sampling time of the measurement and tends to get smaller with longer sampling times. But, again, there are many exceptions to this.

The frequency fluctuations at some later time may be partially due to the previous

fluctuations. Then, the computed value depends on the particular way in which the many

counter readings are averaged and evaluated. Another influence on measured stability

depends on whether the counter starts counting again immediately after completion of the

preceding count or if some time elapses ("dead-time") before counting starts again.

Finally, the electronic circuits used in

measuring frequency stability have a finite response

time. This means that they cannot follow frequency

fluctuations faster than some given rate. For

example, our eyes cannot register light fluctuations

which occur faster than about every 1/10 of a second;

we say that the eye has a frequency response

(bandwidth) of 10 Hz, or that the eye cannot follow

frequencies higher than 10 Hz.

In order to measure frequency stabilities for

sampling times smaller than some value, our measurement equipment has to provide for an

electronic frequency bandwidth which is large enough.

To summarize: A recommended way of

properly measuring and describing frequency stability

is the following: (a) make sure that the frequency

bandwidth of the total measuring setup is large

enough; (b) use a counter with a dead-time as small

as possible (the dead-time should be less than the

reciprocal bandwidth; if not, use the computation procedures that exist to allow for larger

dead-times); (c) take enough readings at a given sampling time. The result is that you'll see how the frequency of a source will change if you watch it for 0.01 second, 0.1 second,

1 second, and so on. Such short observation times have applications in radar,

communications, and other fields.

Often, results are expressed as a relative (sometimes called fractional) value. The

value obtained for the frequency stability is divided by the nominal frequency to normalize

it. This lets us "rate" the oscillator as being 1 in a million or 5 in 10 million, and so on.

29
There is a sound basis for using the relative frequency stability instead of using

frequency stability directly. Relative frequency is a numeric and is independent of the

actual operating frequency of the oscillator being discussed. This makes it possible to compare the stability of a 10-MHz oscillator to a 10-kHz oscillator.

In fact, many high-quality oscillators have 1-, 5-, and 10-MHz outputs. However,

calibrating these sources might require the generation of a different frequency, for example,

a signal divided to 1 Hz. If the original source had a relative frequency stability of one

part per million (1.00E-06), then the 1-Hz signal would have the same relative frequency

stability. This assumes, of course, that the generation of new frequencies does not change

the stability. This assumption is true for most applications.

PRIMARY AND SECONDARY STANDARDS

At this point, we should briefly

discuss the terms "primary frequency

standard" and "secondary frequency

standard." These terms refer to how

oscillators are used. Any frequency

source, regardless of its accuracy or

stability, can be a primary frequency

standard if it is used as the sole

calibration reference for other

frequency sources. A secondary

frequency standard is a device that is calibrated against a primary frequency

standard, and then used to calibrate

other frequency sources.

The machines used for primary

standards, like the one at NIST and

those in other countries, are in a class

by themselves. Because of the way

they have been built and operated,

they can be evaluated. This means

that experimental data are taken and

used to calculate the errors in their

output frequency due to all known

causes. It is because of this careful

evaluation that their accuracy can be

stated without having to check these

machines against others. This concept

will be discussed in more detail in the

section on cesium beam oscillators.

30
QUARTZ OSCILLATORS

Quartz oscillators (sometimes called crystal oscillators) are widely used. They range

from the tiny units found in wristwatches to elaborate instruments found in laboratories.

Quartz oscillators provide good performance at a reasonable price and dominate the field

of frequency sources.

The quartz crystal in the oscillator is a mechanical resonator. The resonator's

oscillations have to be excited and sensed. This is done by taking advantage of the

piezoelectric effect in the quartz crystal; that is, mechanical compression of the crystal

generates a voltage across the crystal. Conversely, the application of an external voltage

across the crystal causes the crystal to expand or contract depending on the polarity of the

voltage.

Quartz

Crystal

++++++++++ 4

t

Applied Pressure Generates Voltage

Applied Voltage

Causes Contraction

The Piezoelectric Effect

A crystal is not a homogeneous medium but has a certain preferred direction; thus,

the piezoelectric effect has a directional dependence with respect to the orientation of the

crystal. In order to take advantage of the piezoelectric effect, the crystal block must be

cut in a well-defined way with respect to the crystallographic directions. The raw material

used today is natural or synthetic quartz. A block is cut out of the raw crystal material

in the desired orientation with the aid of optical techniques which allow the determination

of the crystallographic axes. The high-precision, final orientation of the cut and the tuning

to the desired frequency are then done by grinding and etching, controlled by x-ray

methods.

31
The quartz crystal can be cut and electrically excited in a variety of ways (as shown

below). The most common types of vibrations (modes) are the longitudinal and thickness

modes, the flexure (bending) mode, the torsional mode, and the shear mode. In order to use the piezoelectric effect, metal electrodes have to be attached to the crystal surfaces so that the desired mode is excited.

Flexure Torsional

Longitudinal

The electrodes are typically created as extremely thin metallic coating by vacuum

evaporation of metals. Electric leads are attached to the electrodes by soldering. They

also serve as the mounting support, thus freely

suspending the quartz crystal. In order to least

upset the mechanical vibrations of the crystal,

the electrode-support leads are attached at

points where no vibrational motion occurs

(nodes). The crystal is then packaged, and the

case is either filled with a protective gas or else

evacuated.

Using the crystal, an oscillator can be built

by adding an electronic amplifier feedback and

a power supply. The oscillator's output

frequency is determined by the quartz crystal

resonator. The resonating frequency of the

crystal is determined by the physical dimensions

of the crystal and the type of crystal used. For

example, the resonance frequency for a

longitudinal mode of vibration is approximately

v0 = 2.7 x 103 x

where L is the length of the crystal. If L is in

meters, the resonance frequency v0 will be in

hertz. The equation allows us to estimate the

size of the crystals. For example, a 100-kHz

crystal is just a few centimeters long. Making

quartz crystals with resonance frequencies above

10 MHz is hardly possible. However, we can

excite resonators not only in their fundamental

mode (previously discussed), but also at

multiples (overtones) of this fundamental resonance frequency. For example, a violin string can vibrate at frequencies which are multiples of its fundamental. Quartz crystals designed

for excitation at multiples of their fundamental resonance frequency are called overtone

crystals.

Thickness

Shear

32
Temperature and Aging of Crystals

Temperature and aging are two factors that influence quartz oscillator performance.

There is a temperature dependence of the quartz crystal that affects its resonance

frequency, and there is also a drift of the resonance frequency due to aging.

The temperature dependence is caused by a slight change in the elastic properties

of the crystal. Certain cuts (crystallographic orientations of the crystal) minimize this

effect over a rather wide range of temperatures, most notably the "AT" and "GT" cuts. Temperature coefficients of less than one part in 100 million per kelvin (or degrees Celsius) are possible. In other words, the fractional frequency change will be less than 1.00E-08

with 1 degree of temperature change. Crystal oscillators must be carefully designed if very high frequency stabilities are desired. If large environmental temperature fluctuations are to be tolerated, the crystals themselves are enclosed in electronically regulated ovens which maintain a constant temperature. In some crystal oscillators this is done to better

than 1/1000 of a degree.

Feedback

Quartz

Crystal

Resonator

Output

Quartz Crystal

Oscillator

An alternate solution to the temperature problem is the so-called temperaturecompensated crystal oscillator or TCXO. An additional frequency-determining element in

the oscillator, which can be just a small capacitor, allows us to tune the oscillator over a

limited range. If a temperature sensor is added to cause a change in this capacitor, the

change in resonance frequency of the crystal resonator can be cancelled. Capacitors whose

values change with an applied voltage (varactors) are used. The applied voltage is derived

from a temperature-sensing circuit.

33
The TCXO does not necessarily require further temperature control by an oven. However, there is a drawback to this approach. By adding another frequency-determining

element, the crystal resonator loses a corresponding part of its control on the output

frequency of the whole oscillator. The long-term stability (days) of TCXO's is therefore

below that of crystals with a good oven control. TCXO's are used in small, usually

portable units of relatively lower performance. They are used where frequency stabilities

from day to day and frequency changes (over tens of degrees of temperature) of not better

than 1.00E-09 are needed.

Aging is a common trait of all quartz

oscillators. It is a nearly linear (uniform)

change in resonance frequency with time.

Drift often is negative, meaning that the resonance frequency decreases. A frequency

decrease could indicate an increase in the

crystal size. There are many possible causes: contamination (depositing of foreign material) on the surfaces; changes in the electrodes or the metallic plating; reforming of loose (from

grinding and etching) surface material, or changes in the internal crystal structure. All

of these are possibly caused or enhanced by

the vibrating motion of the oscillating crystal.

Recent crystal-holder design improvements,

combined with clean vacuum enclosures, have

led to a reduction of aging to about 1.00E-11

per day. For a 5-MHz crystal with a

thickness of a little less than a millimeter,

this aging corresponds to an absolute

thickness change of only 1.00E-11 of a

millimeter, or less than 0.1% of the diameter

of an atom.

When a quartz oscillator is first turned on, it will not usually oscillate at its original

frequency. It will go through a "warm-up" period while the temperature of the crystal

resonator and its oven stabilizes. The warm-up period may last several days or more. During this time, a large but diminishing drift occurs until the oscillator reaches its normal

operating temperature.

34
Quartz Oscillator Performance

Quartz oscillators are very stable. The best available oscillators have stabilities of

a few parts in 1.00E-13 for sampling times from 1 second to 1 day. The limitations in

stability are mainly due to noise from electronic components in the oscillator circuits.

This noise can be reduced by selection of low-noise components and by special circuit

designs. Thus, there is a fair chance that crystal oscillator stability can reach values of

less than 1.00E-13 for sampling times of seconds to hours. For times shorter than one

second, stability is often determined by additive noise in the output amplifiers. This can

be reduced by a crystal filter in the output. The long-term stability beyond several hours

sampling time is determined by aging and by external factors like line voltage variations,

temperature fluctuations, and so on.

It is apparent, therefore, that crystal oscillators require calibration at least once a

year. They may need it more often depending on the application. Frequency adjustments

are made with a small added capacitor in much the same way as was discussed in

connection with the TCXO.

The most stable crystal oscillators, with the lowest aging rate, may cost several

thousand dollars or more. They have a volume of a few thousand cubic centimeters and

require input power of about 10 watts. They have an elaborate crystal oven for

temperature control, well-designed electronics, and usually several output frequencies which

are derived from the oscillator with frequency dividers and multipliers. These highperformance devices may use 2.5- or 5-MHz crystal resonators and have a relative

frequency of 1.00E-11 per day.

Cheaper and smaller crystal oscillators are available in a variety of designs. As price

goes down, the performance also goes down. Costs can go down to below $100, sizes to a few cubic centimeters, and power requirements to less than 0.1 watt. Relative frequency can be as much as 1.00E-06.

For information on measuring the performance of quartz oscillators, please see chapter 4.

35
ATOMIC OSCILLATORS

This section discusses the design and performance of the three types of atomic

oscillators which are currently in use.

Rubidium Gas Cell Oscillators

Rubidium atomic resonance is at 6 834 682 608 Hz. Rubidium oscillators use a gas

cell containing rubidium gas. In order to reduce the effect of collisions among the

rubidium atoms, argon, an inert buffer gas, is introduced into the cell at about 1/1000 of

atmospheric pressure. This allows lifetimes of the rubidium atom oscillations of about

1/100 second. The oscillation lifetime is still limited by atom collisions. Atomic collisions, as well as the simultaneous action of the light and the microwave signals on the same

atom, cause frequency shifts of the order of 1.00E-09. These frequency shifts depend

strongly on the composition, temperature, and pressure of the buffer gas and on the

intensity of the light. As a result, rubidium gas cells vary in their resonance frequency by

as much as 1.00E-09, depending on the particular setting of the frequency shifting

parameters when the oscillator is manufactured.

Quartz Crystal

Oscillator &

Gas Cell

Rubidium Gas Cell Oscillator

Since rubidium oscillators do change frequency, they need initial calibration and

also recalibration just like quartz oscillators. The stability performance of rubidium

oscillators is still quite spectacular. At 1-second sampling times, they display a stability

36
less than l.OOE-11 and perform near 1.00E-13 for sampling times up to 1 day. For longer

averaging times, the frequency stability is affected by the frequency drift, which is typically

l.OOE-11 per month. This is much better than a quartz oscillator. As with quartz

oscillators, the performance of a rubidium oscillator generally goes down as the price goes

down.

Rubidium oscillators are used when excellent medium-term stability (a few minutes

to a day) is needed. They are smaller and less expensive than cesium beam oscillators and

work well in situations where a quartz oscillator (with its need for more frequent

calibration and its greater environmental sensitivity) would not suffice. Since rubidium

oscillators are more stable, they give better results with fewer adjustments than quartz

oscillators.

Cesium Beam Oscillators

For a cesium oscillator, atomic resonance is at 9 192 631 770 Hz. An oven contains

the cesium metal. If heated to about 100 degrees Celsius, enough cesium gas will be

produced to form an atomic beam, which leaves the oven through one or many channels

into a vacuum chamber. The beam traverses first the state-selecting magnet, then the

microwave cavity. Typically, a cavity with separated interrogation regions is used. In the

cavity, an external microwave signal acts on the beam. The beam finally reaches the atom

detector after passing another state-selecting magnet. The atom detector is simply a tungsten wire which is heated to about 900 degrees Celsius by passing an electric current

through it. This wire is biased with a few volts dc, and cesium atoms which hit it become

electrically charged or ionized and can be collected on an auxiliary electrode. The stream

of electrically charged atoms at this electrode represents an electric current which is amplified, detected, and used in the feedback network.

Atoms move through the cavity at speeds of about 100 meters per second. In

commercially available cesiums (which have to be reasonably small), the cavity is only

about 0.2 meter long. The corresponding interaction time is two-thousandths of a second.

In laboratory devices (like the NIST primary standard), the cavity may be 4 meters long, or even longer.

The fractional frequency stability of laboratory and commercial cesium standards can

reach 1.00E-14 at sampling times of less than 1 hour to days. The short-term frequency

stability is limited by fluctuations in the atomic beam intensity, "shot noise," which is basic

and unavoidable. These fluctuations affect the frequency stability less as more intense

atomic beams are used. This approach, which is becoming available in both commercial

and laboratory cesium standards, improves the stability. Laboratory cesium standards

allow a more complete and easier evaluation of all effects on the frequency than

commercial standards.

37
Quartz Crystal

Oscillator k

Frequency

Synthesizer

State

Selector

Cesium

Oven

V

Cavity

Feedback

State

Selector

I I u i—

I

J

Cesium Beam Oscillator

Atom

Detector

Cesium oscillators are used extensively where high reproducibility and long-term

stability are needed for sampling times of more than a day. They are the workhorses in

most of today's accurate frequency and time distribution services. By definition, cesium

oscillators are a primary frequency source. This means that (when operated correctly) a cesium oscillator will be very close to its correct frequency without any calibration.

However, since the expected level of performance is so high, checking the performance is a very important part of operating a cesium oscillator.

Hydrogen Masers

Maser is an acronym meaning "microwave amplification by stimulated emission of

radiation." The atomic resonance frequency is at 1 420 405 752 Hz. While not in

widespread use, hydrogen masers represent the state of the art in commercially available

oscillators for averaging times of 1 second to 1 day.

Hydrogen masers work like this: All natural hydrogen gas is composed of hydrogen

molecules. Each hydrogen molecule is formed by chemical bonding of two hydrogen atoms.

The beam source is a radio frequency gas discharge in molecular hydrogen. This discharge

produces atomic hydrogen with high efficiency. The atomic hydrogen beam leaves the source through one or many channels into a vacuum chamber. The beam then traverses

a state-selecting magnet and enters a storage bulb in the microwave cavity.

38
The storage bulb is made from quartz glass which has low electric losses. Its inner

walls are lined with Teflon. This coating allows many collisions of the hydrogen atoms

with the walls without significantly disturbing the oscillations of the atoms. The

underlying physical mechanisms are not yet fully understood. The storage bulb is typically

0.15 meter in diameter and dimensioned in such a way as to hold hydrogen atoms for

about 1 second. After about 1 second, the atoms leave the bulb and thus also leave the

microwave cavity. If the intensity of the hydrogen beam, which consists only of upper

state atoms (emitting atoms), is sufficiently large and if the cavity losses are sufficiently

low, self-oscillation will start in the cavity. The maser itself will generate a microwave

signal. We then have a maser-oscillator with an output frequency directly derived from

the atomic resonance. A quartz oscillator can be locked to this frequency by frequency

comparison techniques.

The hydrogen maser is not quite as accurate as a cesium oscillator. This is because

of experimental difficulties in the evaluation of the frequency shift due to the collisions of

the hydrogen atoms with the Teflon surface of the storage bulb. This limits the longterm stability over periods longer than several days. Values of long-term stability are not

better than those of cesium oscillators. However, for periods of a few seconds to a day,

the hydrogen maser has the best stability of all existing oscillators. Its application is limited to uses where these stabilities are critical and where a rather bulky device is not

a handicap. Unlike cesium and rubidium oscillators, hydrogen masers have not yet been

evaluated under adverse environmental conditions. The number of hydrogen masers in use

is very small compared to the numbers of cesium beams and rubidium devices, and the cost

of a maser is still very high.

The table on the next page summarizes the oscillators discussed in this chapter.

Hydrogen

Maser

Feedback

Quartz Crystal

Oscillator &. Frequency

Synthesizer

Comparator

Frequency

Cavity With

Storage Bulb

Microwave

39
COMPARISON OF FREQUENCY SOURCES

Feature

Type of Oscillator

Quartz

Rubidium

Gas Cell Cesium

Hydrogen

Maser

Output

Frequencies

(typical)

10 kHz to

100 MHz

1, 5, or

10 MHz

1, 5, or

10 MHz

1, 5, or

10 MHz

Relative

Frequency

(1 second)

1. 00E-06

to

1. 00E-12

2 . 00E-11

to

5.00E-12

5. 00E-11

to

5. 00E-13

5. 00E-13

Relative

Frequency

(1 day)

1. 00E-06

to

1. 00E-12

5. 00E-12

to

3 . 00E-13

1. 00E-13

to

1. 00E-14

1. 00E-13

to

1. 00E-14

Causes of

Long-Term

Instability

Aging of

Crystal &

Electronic

Components

Aging of

gas cell,

filter, &

light

Aging of

Electronic

Components

Cavity

Pulling

Time for

clock to

be off 1

microsecond

1 second

to

10 days

1 day

to

10 days

1 week

to

1 month

1 week

to

1 month

Start-Up

after

being off

seconds

to

hours

10 minutes

to

1 hour

3 0 minutes

to

1 hour

several

hours

Resonator

Life-Span

many

years

more than

3 years

3 years no data

Weight in

kilograms

(pounds)

0.1 to 10

(2 oz to

20 lbs)

1 to 20

(3 to 45

lbs)

16 to 400

(35 to 7 0

lbs)

over 100

kilograms

Power

consumed

(watts)

0.1

to

15

12

to

35

30

to

200

40

to

100

Estimated

Cost

$5

to

$10 000

$5 000

to

$20 000

$30 000

to

$50 000

over

$200 000

40
Chapter 4 - MEASURING FREQUENCY

In the last chapter, we discussed the different types of frequency sources (oscillators)

that are available. This chapter discusses how to measure an oscillator's performance. It covers the equipment needed to make time and frequency measurements, what the

equipment is used for, how it is used, and the kind of results that you can expect.

Determining the frequency of an electrical signal involves counting the number of

cycles or pulses that occur over a given time interval. For example, a digital clock may

change its display at a rate of 1 Hz (once per second). This rate has been given the name

of a famous German inventor, Heinrich Hertz. One Hz equals one event per second.

This chapter uses scientific notation when discussing the accuracy of an oscillator.

For example, a relative frequency of 1 part in 10 to the 11th is written as 1.00E-11.

THE THEORY OF FREQUENCY MEASUREMENTS

Frequency and time interval can be

measured with greater precision than any

other physical quantities. Frequency

measurements are made by comparing signals

from two frequency sources. This is true in

music, for example, where the orchestra tunes

its instruments to the oboe. In the same

way, oscillators are measured, adjusted, and

calibrated by comparing their output with the

output from a higher quality frequency

source. The higher quality frequency source can be a radio signal or another oscillator.

A simple and direct way to measure

frequency is to use a frequency counter. The

problem with this method is the time it takes

to make measurements of very high

resolution. The resolution of an ordinary

counter is increased by increasing the gate time. For example, a 1-second count of a 1- MHz signal might give a resolution of 1 Hz. The resolution improves to 0.1 Hz after 10

seconds. This resolution was obtained by waiting longer. It would take many hours to reach the resolution of a precision oscillator. Even if the time were available, this method

is not recommended because it allows only a few readings per day, and the chances for error become great. A system that must run continuously for hours to get one reading is susceptible to errors due to power outages and other causes.

41
A better approach is to measure time interval instead of frequency. This method

takes advantage of modern circuit chips and is faster. For example, if two oscillators with

1-Hz outputs are compared using a time interval counter, a high resolution reading can

be obtained every second. A typical counter might have a 100-MHz time base. This

means the measurement resolution obtained is the period of the 100-MHz signal (10

nanoseconds). Therefore, changing from frequency to time interval measurements results

in a dramatic increase in resolution.

Time Interval Measurements

The technique of measuring time interval to determine frequency is commonly used

for precise calibrations. Time interval measurements are made using an electronic device

called a time interval counter (TIC). To use a TIC, you connect signals from two different

frequency sources. One signal serves as a start pulse, and the other serves as a stop pulse.

The TIC measures the interval between the occurrence of the two pulses.

Time interval counters differ widely in specification and design details, but they all share several basic parts. These are: the time base, the main gate, and the decade

counting assembly (DCA).

Time

Base

UJJJ 1 1

1

Start Signal JStop Signal J.

DCA and Readout

J L

Amplifiers and

Signal Shapers

Gate Display

Control Control

Diagram of Time Interval Counter

42
The time base provides uniformly spaced pulses for counting and control of the TIC's

circuitry. The time base must be stable because time base errors will directly affect the

measurements. Most counters use an internal quartz oscillator for a time base.

The oscillator may be followed by decade dividers to allow the user a choice of

several different gate signals. Adding more dividers to the chain makes it possible to obtain longer measurement intervals. Increasing the frequency of the time base makes it possible to count shorter time increments (higher resolution).

The main gate controls the time at which the count begins and ends. The gate may

be actuated automatically by pulses from the time base or manually by means of a switch

on the control panel. Pulses which pass through the gate are routed at the decade

counting assembly where they are displayed on the counter's digital readout. After a preset display period, the counter resets itself and starts another count.

Input

A

Input

B

ii

Measuring the time interval between

two input signals

43

Main Gate

Enable Pulse

Time Base

Pulses

to Counter
Other counter sections include amplifiers, pulse shapers, power supplies, and control

circuits. The input channels are usually provided with level controls and attenuators to set

the exact amplitude limits at which the counter responds to input signals. Proper setting

of the level controls helps reject noise or other unwanted signals.

A counter in its "frequency measurement" mode will display the result as a frequency

(Hz, MHz, and so on). On the other hand, readings produced by a time interval counter

are in time units. The readings measure the length of the interval (in time units) between

the signals being calibrated. If the two signals have exactly the same frequency, the time

interval will not change. If the two frequencies differ, the time interval will change,

although usually very slowly. It is exactly as if each signal were a clock, and the readings

tell whether one clock gained or lost time relative to the other clock.

It takes two readings to get one data point. A single reading of the time interval

between two clocks is not useful. It is the second reading, subtracted from the first, that

tells whether time is gained or lost. This gain or loss of time is a measure of the

frequency difference between the two frequency sources.

Using a Measurement System

A typical standards laboratory has a primary oscillator which it uses as a frequency

reference. In many cases, the standards lab has made a considerable investment in this

oscillator. Quartz oscillators (based on 1990 prices) range from $500 to $10 000; rubidium

oscillators from $5 000 to $20 000; and cesium oscillators from $30 000 to $50 000.

The primary oscillator is used to calibrate equipment that is now in the lab or that

is expected soon. It too must be periodically calibrated so that its accuracy is known.

Calibrating the primary oscillator must be done on-site. Since oscillators are sensitive to shipment, it is not practical to send them to another laboratory for calibration. Being

turned on and off can cause their frequency to change.

The ideal situation for a laboratory is to backup its primary oscillator with batteries,

keep it running all the time, and continuously measure its performance using a measurement system. A good measurement system allows even small laboratories to perform calibrations at a relative frequency of 1.00E-12. To get an idea of what this

relative frequency (or frequency offset) means, if such an oscillator were used to drive a

time-of-day clock it would gain or lose only one ten-millionth of a second a day!

44
Calibration labs can use several types of frequency measurement systems.

Manufacturers offer VLF, LF, and Loran-C receivers that make measurements and record

the data on chart paper or via computer data logging. This equipment often uses the

primary oscillator as a receiver input. The receiver then makes the comparison and draws

the chart. Front panel indicators assist in operating the system. Receiver options include

different types of antennas, some distribution capability, and even a way to discipline the

primary oscillator to make it agree in frequency with the radio signal. A block diagram

of this type of system is shown below.

Reference

Frequency

>-

Phase

Comparator

Low Strip

Pass Chart

Filter Recorder

Oscillator

Being Tested

A Typical Commercially—Available

Frequency Measurement System

All measurement systems work basically the same way: they make comparisons

between two signals. One signal is a reference frequency, and the other signal is the

signal being measured. The reference is assumed to be more accurate than the signal

being measured and is most often a radio signal traceable to the NIST time scale

(traceability is discussed later in this chapter). The different radio signals you can use as reference frequencies are described in chapters 5-7. The signal being measured is from

an oscillator like those discussed in chapter 3.

The data from the system must be recorded in some way. The readings can be

manually recorded in a logbook, or continuously recorded by a chart recorder. However,

modern measurement systems often use a computer. A computer-controlled measurement

system is described in the next section.

45
A COMPUTER-CONTROLLED MEASUREMENT SYSTEM

This section describes the design and operation of a typical computer-controlled

measurement system. Each part of the system is discussed in the following paragraphs.

A block diagram of the entire system is shown below.

ANTENNA

Oscillator

Being Measured

Time-of-Day

Clock

Radio Receiver

(Reference)

STOP

Counter Tine Base

Frequency

Divider

START

Tine

Interval

Counter

COMPUTER

Disk

Drives

Printer Modem

46
The Reference Frequency

The designer of a computer-controlled measurement system needs to decide which

radio signal should be used as a reference frequency. The different radio signals you can

use are discussed in chapters 5-7. Help is also available from the manufacturers of time

and frequency equipment and also from the national laboratories that control the radio

signals. NIST assists users in this area with publications, phone consultation, and training

seminars.

The decision should be based on the accuracy required by the system. If the

required accuracy is very high, or if it can be expected to increase in coming years, then

consider only those radio signals which support that accuracy. For example, WWV can be

used to calibrate an oscillator of modest performance, but a high-performance oscillator

may require using signals from WWVB or Loran-C. Loran-C is a radio navigation system

maintained by the U.S. Coast Guard (Loran stands for LOng RAnge Navigation).

The choice of radio signal is also

limited by the location of the laboratory,

reception problems with certain radio

signals, available equipment, and past

experience. Another factor is whether the

radio signal lends itself well to automation.

It may be better to use a signal that is easy to automate by computer, even if the

initial cost of the equipment is higher. If

low-cost equipment is purchased, it may

require a lot of attention. In these

instances, the labor costs could soon exceed

the amount of money that was originally

saved.

Since a radio signal is used, you also

need to consider the type of antenna

required. The antenna needs to be on the

roof, and the receiver may need to be

grounded. Several antenna types are currently offered. VLF and Loran-C receivers

generally operate with short vertical whips or loops, but HF services like WWV need long

wires for good, noise-free reception. The antenna should be mounted in an area free from

obstructions and interference.

The system described here uses Loran-C radio signals as a reference frequency. It includes a radio that receives a signal from a Loran-C station. Loran-C is described in

more detail in chapter 6.

47
Loran-C signals make an excellent reference frequency for a number of reasons. They are extremely accurate, with a relative frequency of about 1.00E-12 per day. This

is good enough to check the performance of cesium, rubidium, or quartz oscillators. The

continued accuracy of Loran-C is insured since the stations are controlled by cesium

standards monitored by the U.S. Coast Guard and the U.S. Naval Observatory, in addition

to NIST. Loran signals are also traceable to NIST. Traceability is described in more

detail later in this chapter.

A second benefit is that some Loran-C receivers are inexpensive and automatic.

Finally, each Loran-C station has an effective range of over 1000 miles (1600 kilometers).

Since numerous Loran-C transmitters are in operation, this means that Loran can be

received in just about any location in the Northern Hemisphere (including all 50 States).

The Frequency Divider

The signals connected to a time interval counter for comparison must have the same

(or a related) frequency. For example, in order to compare a 5-MHz signal to a 1-MHz

signal, both signals must first be divided to a lower frequency (usually 1 Hz). The system

includes a frequency divider for this purpose.

The frequency accepts input frequencies of 1, 5, or 10 MHz and divides them to 1 Hz for comparison. It also produces a signal that matches the frequency (about 10 Hz)

of the output pulse from the Loran-C receiver.

The frequency divider accepts signals from one to four oscillators. This allows the

primary oscillator to be compared to Loran-C (the reference frequency), and the other three

oscillators to be compared to the primary oscillator.

The Time Interval Counter

The system's time interval counter can measure up to four channels simultaneously.

It has no knobs or controls and therefore reduces measurement errors due to knob

settings. The counter's time base frequency is obtained from the primary oscillator. The

time base frequency can be 1, 5, or 10 MHz. A light indicates whether a time base signal

is present.

Channel 1 of the counter is dedicated to the calibration of the primary oscillator in

the laboratory. The primary oscillator is compared to the Loran-C reference frequency.

Channels 2, 3, and 4 can be used to compare other oscillators to the primary oscillator (see

the figure on the next page).

48
CHANNEL

1

Loran-C (Reference Frequency)

User's Primary Oscillator

CHANNELS

2-4

User's Primary Oscillator

(Reference Frequency)

Other Oscillators in the

Calibration Lab

Calibration Procedure Using a Typical Measurement System

The Computer

Just about any computer can be used to control a measurement system. This NIST

system is controlled by a low-cost microcomputer with two disk drives, a monitor, and a

printer.

The computer averages time interval

readings and stores the data and the time the data were taken on disk. The time is obtained from a

clock inside the microcomputer. The computer

runs 24 hours a day and restarts automatically

after power outages.

Every 24 hours, the computer stops taking

data and plots the data recorded in the last 24

hours. It then prints a copy of this plot on the

printer. The information contained on the plots is described in the next section. The plotting is done

automatically, without user interaction.

i i i i i i i i i i i i i r i, i l l, i i i h i i 55 BSffigag

49
After the system plots, it starts taking readings for the next day. The process

continues in this way: recording, plotting, recording, plotting, and so on. The only

operator attention required is to occasionally add paper to the printer.

The computer software used by the system is "transparent." It requires little attention and makes users feel that they are using a completely integrated system.

Output of the Measurement System

As mentioned, the system stops taking data once every 24 hours and produces a plot

of the performance of each oscillator being measured. Since one to four oscillates can be

measured, from one to four plots are printed each day.

Since radio signals are affected by events along their path (like bad weather and

electrical interference), data from a radio signal must be averaged when compared to a primary oscillator (which may have a relative frequency of less than 1.00E-11 per day).

A 24-hour measurement is sufficiently long and still provides the user with a daily report

of each oscillator's performance.

A sample phase plot is shown below. Each plot shows the number of microseconds

that were gained or lost in the 24-hour interval of the measurement. The unit for the

vertical axis is microseconds. The unit for the horizontal axis is time of day (hours).

50
The plots also show the computed relative frequency of the oscillator. The relative

frequency is printed below the plot. Relative frequency is calculated by fitting a linear

least-squares line to the data and taking the slope of the line. The system can show

relative frequency offsets ranging from 1.00E-06 to 1.00E-12. This allows the system to measure the full range of oscillators, from low-quality quartz oscillators to high-quality

atomic oscillators.

Day to Day Operation of the System

The computer-controlled system was designed to make daily operation easy. The

automatic plotting and relative frequency features make the lab technician's job easier,

make the calibrations less confusing, and reduce the amount of operator attention.

However, the frequency measurement system should be checked daily to make sure that

everything is working. The manuals included with the equipment explain which front

panel lights and meters are important for daily system checks. Once a lab technician

becomes familiar with the equipment, the daily check should take only a few minutes.

Part of the check requires looking at the system's computer screen. A picture of the screen is shown below. The screen was designed so that the operator can check the status

of the system with just a quick glance.

National Institute of Standards and Technology

6 7 8 9 18 11 12

Oscillator Performance (last 24 hours)

87-89-89 Press <C0NIR0L-X> to exit

1748 UTC Press <C0MTR0L-P> to plot

Change in Tine (Ps)

Counter

Reading (ps)

^§ Cesiun us Loran-C 9940 (Fallon, Nevada) -8. 81 45.56

1 Brand X Quartz us Cesium -8.82 53.07

pllj Brand Y Quartz us Cesiun * +8. 83 68.51

I Rubidium us Cesiun -8.88 68.08

51
The measurement screen is divided into two parts. The bottom part of the screen

contains a box with information about the signals being measured. The left side of this

box shows the present time (UTC) and date. Below the date and time are the titles given

to each measurement channel. On our sample screen (on the previous page) the title for

Channel 1 is: Cesium vs Loran-C 9940 (Fallon)

This title tells us that a cesium oscillator is connected to Channel 1 and is being

compared to a Loran-C signal. Loran-C is the reference frequency, and the cesium

oscillator is the oscillator being measured. The cesium oscillator is the reference frequency on Channels 2, 3, and 4. By looking at the titles for those channels, you can see that

quartz oscillators are being measured on Channels 2 and 3, and that a rubidium oscillator

is being measured on Channel 4.

The right side of the box has two columns. The rightmost column is labeled

Counter Reading. This shows the last actual reading obtained from the counter. This

number is the time interval (in microseconds) between the signal from the reference

frequency and the signal being measured (see page 43). The leftmost column is labeled

Change in Time. This shows the difference (in microseconds) between the last two counter

readings. For example, if this number is 0.01, it means that the oscillator being measured

has moved 0.01 microsecond (10 nanoseconds) since the last counter reading was taken.

The system measured the performance of the oscillator by accumulating these time

differences.

The top part of the measurement screen contains a bar graph. This graph shows

the performance of each oscillator being measured over the last 24 hours. Each bar is a

different color. The color of the bar matches the color of the title for the channel.

The numbers at the top of the bar are a measure of oscillator performance. For

example, 6 represents a relative frequency of 1.00E-06, 9 represents a relative frequency

of 1.00E-09, and so on. The longer the bar, the better the performance of the oscillator.

If the bar is all the way to the right, the relative frequency of the oscillator is 1.00E-12

or better. This means that the oscillator is drifting less than 0.1 microsecond (100

nanoseconds) in 24 hours. If the bar is all the way to the left, the relative frequency of

the oscillator is 1.00E-06 or worse. This means the oscillator has drifted more than 0.1

seconds (100 milliseconds) in 24 hours.

The exact performance of the oscillator is shown on the daily phase plots (page 50).

The bar graph gives the operator a quick indicator of each oscillator's performance. By

looking at the bar graph, the operator can tell if there were any losses of the signals being

measured; for example, if the Loran-C receiver tracked properly for the last 24 hours. The

operator will also soon get a feel for how well each oscillator is expected to perform and

will quickly be able to notice if an oscillator is not performing properly.

52
Keep in mind that the quantity being measured is a very small number. This means

that even a small error at any time during the daily measurement run will affect the data.

For this reason the equipment should be left on; sudden temperature changes should be

avoided, and electrical interference (from cleaning equipment, power devices, generators,

etc.) should be minimized.

Recordkeeping

Users of a measurement system should keep enough records to satisfy the needs of

the laboratory. For example, users of the system described above could keep the daily

plots in a notebook for future reference and diagnostic purposes. They can also keep the

data on computer disk and record the daily relative frequency values.

Users of an integral radio-oscillatorrecorder (page 45) can keep the chart

records provided to support claims of

traceable calibrations. If data from the

signal being received are listed in a NIST

or USNO publication, those documents

should also be kept.

All calibration labs that use a measurement system should draw up a system block diagram showing how signals are generated, distributed, and calibrated.

When changes are made, they can be noted on copies of the diagram. This block

diagram keeps the lab manager aware of

any changes and possible problem areas.

TRACEABILITY FOR FREQUENCY MEASUREMENTS

Traceability means that a measurement can be traced back to the national frequency

standard (in the United States, that standard is the NIST time scale). The NIST primary

frequency standard is physically located in Boulder, Colorado. Access to the NIST

frequency standard is by radio methods. Measurements made using the radio signals

discussed in chapters 5-7 are traceable to NIST.

53
The rule for traceability is simple: The radio signal used must either be directly

controlled by NIST, or monitored by NIST. Signals controlled by NIST include WWV,

WWVB, WWVH, and GOES. The signals monitored (directly and indirectly) by NIST

include Loran-C, GPS, the Navy VLF signals, the Omega navigation signals, and Canadian

and European broadcast signals. All of these signals are useful because they are referenced

to atomic oscillators. Since they are carefully controlled, monitored, and intercompared

between national laboratories, traceability to NIST is assured. For example, users of the

signals from radio station CHU in Canada can be assured that these signals can be traced

to NIST, since the relationship between the Canadian and U.S. national standards is known.

The accuracy of the traceability is limited, however, by the number of steps in the

traceability path. Users should investigate the limitations so that no confusion exists over what can or cannot be accomplished with a given signal.

We can illustrate traceability using Loran-C as an example. Loran-C is traceable to NIST because its signals are monitored by NIST. The received signals from Loran-C are continuously compared to the nation's frequency standard. Through this monitoring, NIST

is able to measure the accuracy of the Loran-C signals relative to the NIST time scale.

NIST (and the USNO) publish Loran-C data and make it available to Loran-C users. A

sample is shown below. By looking at this data, users can see that the day-to-day

variations between Loran-C and the NIST time scale are very small, a fraction of a microsecond every 24 hours.

September

1989

Modified

Julian Date

Loran-C

(Dana 8970)

Loran-C

(Fallon 9940)

15 47784 -0. 16 -0. 10

16 47785 -0.23 -0.25

17 47786 + 0.30 + 0.20

18 47787 + 0.21 -0. 10

19 47788 + 0. 06 + 0. 06

20 47789 + 0. 06 -0.21

21 47790 -0. 16 + 0.01

22 47791 -0. 16 -0.20

23 47792 -0. 16 + 0.01

24 47793 + 0. 12 -0.20

25 47794 -0. 11 + 0.01

26 47795 + 0.31 + 0.46

27 47796 -0. 04 -0. 11

28 47797 + 0. 17 + 0.26

29 47798 -0.34 -0. 58

30 47799 + 0. 05 + 0. 13

54
The measurement system we just described used Loran-C as a reference frequency.

Users of the system measure the performance of their oscillator by comparing it to LoranC. The data in the figure were obtained by using the NIST time scale as a reference

frequency and using it to measure the performance of Loran-C.

The small variations in Loran-C do not concern most users. For example, the

relative frequency of Loran-C is about 1.00E-12 over a 24-hour period when compared to the NIST time scale. If the user is calibrating an oscillator to within 1.00E-09 of LoranC, the small errors in the Loran-C phase will not cause any problems. In this instance, the

performance of the reference frequency greatly exceeds the accuracy requirements of the

laboratory. This makes it fairly easy to establish traceability. From the user's viewpoint,

using Loran-C to make the calibration works just as well as using the NIST time scale.

Traceable radio signals like Loran-C make it possible for even the smallest lab to make

state of the art calibrations.

WHAT A FREQUENCY CALIBRATION MEASURES

Frequency calibrations measure the relative frequency of the oscillator. The time

interval over which measurements are performed is important. For the purposes of this

book, a time period of 1 day (24 hours) has been chosen.

From this starting point, two things

need to be considered: the mathematics of

calibrations, and the names and symbols to be used. This section follows the

international practices of the frequency and

time industry and the major calibration

laboratories.

A measurement becomes a

calibration if it compares the oscillator's

long-term frequency to UTC(NIST), which

means Coordinated Universal Time at

NIST. Traceability to NIST means that

the oscillator was compared to UTC(NIST)

over a traceable path (using WWVB,

Loran-C, and so on). The oscillator then

becomes a traceable frequency source. The

normal length of a calibration is 24 hours

(1 day). There are cases, however, when

this time period can be shortened.

55
The desired result of a calibration is to obtain the relative frequency of the oscillator

with respect to UTC(NIST). The international symbol for relative frequency is F. Relative

frequency is defined by the following equation:

F =

The Definition of

Relative Frequency

The nameplate frequency (usually 1, 5, or 10 MHz) is what the frequency of the

oscillator should be. If an oscillator operated exactly at its nameplate frequency, it would

be a perfect frequency source. In the real world, however, there is always some frequency

error, or a difference between the actual frequency and the nameplate frequency. This

frequency error is what a calibration measures. It is usually a very small number. In

much of the literature, the frequency error is referred to as delta-f (delta means a small

difference).

The equation finds the size of the frequency error. Dividing delta-f by the nameplate

value normalizes the equation. This lets the operator ignore the actual oscillator frequency

and concentrate on the frequency error.

To illustrate what we have covered so far, let's look at the numbers that calibration

technicians use to report their results. These are the same kinds of numbers used by

manufacturers when they quote specifications for their oscillator or frequency source. This

notation is also used internationally by many different countries.

f (actual) - f (nameplate)

f (naneplate)

56
For example, consider a 1-MHz oscillator that is high in frequency by 1 Hz. The

numbers needed to compute the relative frequency of the oscillator are shown below. All

numbers have been converted to Hz so that we have a common unit to work with.

f(nameplate) = 1 000 000 Hz (1 MHz)

f( actual) = 1 000 001 Hz (1.000 001 MHz)

delta-f = 1 000 001 Hz - 1 000 000 Hz = 1 Hz

The quantity delta-f by itself is very useful. It shows us that we have a frequency

error of 1 Hz. But our use of mathematical notation will be more useful if we take one more step. That step is called normalization and consists of dividing the frequency error by the nominal frequency like this and labeling it as relative frequency (using the equation

we looked at earlier):

This tells us that our source has a frequency error of 1 Hz (the numerator) but that

it is only 1 Hz out of a million (the denominator). Using powers of ten for ease of

writing, we have 1.00E-06. The usefulness of this notation is obvious. We can describe

this oscillator as having a 1-Hz error in one million, a one part per million error, or we

can say that its relative frequency is 1.00E-06.

This form of notation is useful for the very small numbers that occur in the

measurement and calibration of high quality oscillators. Also, the notation gives us the

"feel" we need to make judgments about the devices we are using. The same 1-Hz error

for a 10-MHz oscillator is a smaller part of the nominal frequency and gives us a smaller

relative frequency. By dividing the delta frequency or frequency error by the nominal

frequency, we no longer have to worry about whether the nameplate frequency is 1 MHz,

10 MHz, or 3.5875 MHz. The relative frequency value (F) serves as a sort of report card

for oscillators. It lets us compare the performance of oscillators, regardless of their

nameplate frequency.

Another benefit of this notation is that it doesn't make any difference if we use the

oscillator output directly or if we use a divided version of the oscillator. For example, we

can divide the 1-MHz output of an oscillator to 1 Hz without changing the results. This

means that we can deal with sources of any frequency by using dividers to make the

measurement problems more manageable. It is much easier to deal with lower frequencies,

and the final results are the same.

1 000 001 - 1 000 000

F = = 0.000 001 = 1.00E-06

1 000 000

57
The sign of F changes from + to - if the oscillator output is lower than the

nameplate. This follows international convention and is the practice followed by many

manufacturers. F is a number and has no dimensions like hertz or percent. F does not

depend on the oscillator frequency. For example, if a 10-MHz oscillator had an actual

frequency output of 10 000 010 Hz, it would also have an F of 1.00E-06.

The graphs below show the frequency performance of a quartz, rubidium, and a cesium oscillator. All three are graphs of actual data recorded at NIST and are typical

of the type of performance you can expect from each type of oscillator.

The first graph is of a low-cost quartz oscillator. This oscillator is typical of the

oscillators used as timebases in counters and other electronic test equipment. Its relative

frequency is 2.81E-08 (shown below the plot). The amount of oscillator drift over the 24-

hour period is nearly 3 000 microseconds.

Model V Quartz Oscillator us Cesium

1588 _ ,

1588 J

11/22/89 (MJD 47852) Channel 3 (MJD 47853) 11/23/89

16:88 [tic narks = 1 hour] 16:88 Data points= 25 Relative Frequency: +2.81E-88 r=+l.B8

The next graph (shown at the top of the next page) shows the performance of a rubidium oscillator. Over the 24-hour period, the amount of oscillator drift is only about

4 microseconds. The relative frequency of the rubidium is 4.27E-11.

58
Brand X Rubidium us Cesium

And finally, the plot below shows the performance of a cesium oscillator when compared

directly to Loran-C. Because a radio signal is being used, this plot is not as smooth as the

other plots. However, notice that the two signals never differed by more than 0.5

microsecond (500 nanoseconds) over the 24-hour period.

11/22/89 (MJD 47852) Channel 1 MJD 47853) 11/23/89

16:88 [tic narks = 1 hour] 16:80 Data points= 25 Relative Frequency: -2.71E-12 r=-8.58

59
SUMMARY

Time interval measurements are the method of choice when making accurate

frequency calibrations. You can buy or build many types of measurement systems based on the time interval method, but all should run 24 hours a day and use a reference

frequency that is traceable to NIST. We encourage users to discuss their needs with

manufacturers of time and frequency equipment and to read the available literature.

Relative frequency, or F, is a way to talk about an oscillator's performance in a way

that is easy to understand; the oscillator is either higher or lower in frequency than it is supposed to be. Measuring relative frequency requires dealing with very small quantities,

since the difference between the actual frequency and the nameplate frequency is usually

very small.

The next three chapters discuss radio signals that can be used as the reference

frequency for a measurement system. All of these signals are traceable to NIST. They

include high and low frequency broadcasts and signals broadcast from satellites. Obviously,

you will not want (or need) to use all of the services. Your accuracy requirements,

available manpower, and budget are all contributing factors in choosing a service that best

meets your needs.

60
Chapter 5 - CALIBRATIONS USING HF RADIO BROADCASTS

High frequency (HF) shortwave radio broadcasts are a popular source of time and

frequency information. HF signals from stations such as WWV (Ft. Collins, Colorado),

WWVH (Kauai, Hawaii), and CHU (Ottawa, Canada) are readily available and provide

essentially worldwide coverage. A number of foreign countries operate services in these

frequency bands, and the signals can be received with relatively low-cost receivers.

In addition to the simpler, low-cost receivers, several manufacturers now provide

more elaborate receiving equipment. These receivers pick the best signal automatically by

re-tuning from one frequency band to another. Also, you can now buy receivers with a

built-in computer interface, making it possible to obtain a time code to reset a computer

clock. Of course, any shortwave radio receiver from the simplest to the most elaborate can

be used.

BROADCAST FORMATS

Many HF radio stations worldwide can be used for time and frequency measurements.

Many of these stations are listed in the table on pages 64-65. The following paragraphs

discuss the stations located in the United States and Canada.

WWV/WWVH

Standard time and frequency stations

WWV and WWVH are operated by the

National Institute of Standards and

Technology (NIST). WWV is in Ft. Collins,

Colorado, and WWVH is in Kauai, Hawaii.

Both stations broadcast continuous time and

frequency signals on 2.5, 5, 10, and 15 MHz.

WWV also broadcasts on 20 MHz. All

frequencies carry the same program, and at

least one frequency should be usable at all times. As a general rule, frequencies above

10 MHz work best in the daytime, and the

lower frequencies work best at night.

The stations get their signals from a cesium beam frequency source. They each use

three "atomic clocks" to provide the time of

day, audio tones, and carrier frequencies.

61
The rates or frequencies of the cesium oscillators at the stations are controlled to be

within 1.00E-12 of the NIST frequency standard located in Boulder, Colorado. Time at the

stations is kept within a few microseconds of the NIST atomic time scale, UTC(NIST).

The seconds pulses or "ticks" transmitted by WWV and WWVH are obtained from the

same frequency source that controls the carrier frequencies. They are produced by a double

sideband, 100 percent modulated signal on each RF carrier. The first pulse of every hour

is an 800-millisecond pulse of 1500 Hz. The first pulse of every minute is an 800-

millisecond pulse of 1000 Hz at WWV and 1200 Hz at WWVH. The remaining seconds

pulses are brief audio bursts (5-millisecond pulses of 1000 Hz at WWV and 1200 Hz at

WWVH) that sound like the ticking of a clock. All pulses occur at the beginning of each

second. The 29th and 59th seconds pulses are omitted.

8.82b

Second —

1880 Hertz WWV

1288 Hertz WWVH

Each tick is preceded by 10 milliseconds of silence and followed by 25 milliseconds

of silence to avoid interference from other time stations and to make it easier to hear the

tick. The total 40-millisecond protected zone around each seconds pulse is illustrated in the

figure. This means that the voice announcements are also interrupted for 40 milliseconds

each second. This causes only a small audio distortion. The ticks have priority and must

be received clearly.

The complete broadcast format for WWV and WWVH, showing exactly what is broadcast during each minute of the hour, is listed on pages 78-80.

62
CHU

Canada has many frequency and time services similar to those in the United States.

The Canadian HF broadcast station CHU is located near Ottawa. Its signals can be heard

over much of the United States and are a valuable alternative to the WWV signals. It has

the same propagation characteristics, and the same receiving techniques are used.

The CHU signals differ from those of the U.S. stations in two ways. They are not

in the standard frequency bands, and they use a different format. The format is principally

voice and ticks. At CHU, cesium frequency sources are used to generate the carriers and

the seconds pulses. Two systems are used to complement each other in cases of

maintenance or failure. The output from the cesium oscillator is fed to a frequency

synthesizer which produces the 3330-, 7335-, and 14670-kHz carrier signals for the

transmitters.

A 100-kHz signal is fed into one of two digital clocks, where it is divided into seconds

pulses of 100-Hz tone. The clock gates out the 51st to 59th second pulses of each minute

to permit the voice announcements to be inserted, and also gates out the 29th pulse to identify the half-minute point.

The same 100-kHz signal is fed into two "talking clocks." One announces the station

identification and time in English, and repeats the time in French. The other announces

the station identification and time in French, and repeats the time in English.

In 1975, CHU converted its operation to single sideband. It now broadcasts upper

sideband with full carrier. This is called the 3A3H mode. Users can still get the carrier

as a frequency standard, and an ordinary AM radio will allow reception of the audio signals.

A time code appears in the 31st to the 39th seconds pulses of each minute. The

modulation is the commercial 300 baud FSK (frequency shift keying) at frequencies of 2025

and 2225 Hz. The code is a modified ASCII code in which each 11-bit character contains

two BCD digits, with one start bit and two stop bits. The first digit is the number 6 for

identification, which should be verified in the receiving clock; the remaining 9 digits give

the day, hour, minute, and second of UTC. The entire message is then repeated so that the

receiving clock can check for identical messages before updating. The code ends, and update

occurs at 0.5 second. This half-second must be added, along with the time zone hour, to give the correct time. The same code is also available by telephone. Details can be obtained

by writing to the Time and Frequency Section, National Research Council, Ottawa, Ontario,

Canada.

The table on the following pages contains information about other HF Time and

Frequency Stations.

63
HF STANDARD FREQUENCY AND TIME SIGNAL BROADCASTS

Name Country Carrier

Power (kW)

Broadcast

Frequency (MHz)

Days/

Week

Hours/

Day

ATA India 8 5, 10, 15 7 24

BPM China 10-20 2.5, 5, 10, 15 7 24

CHU Canada 3-10 3 .330, 7 . 335,

and 14.670

7 24

HLA Republic

of Korea

2 5 5 7

I AM Italy 1 5 6 2

IBF Italy 5 5 7 2 .75

JJY Japan 2 2.5, 5 , 8

,

10, 15

7 24

LOL Argentina 2 5, 10, 15 7 5

OMA Czechoslovakia1 2 . 5 7 24

RCH USSR 1 2.5, 5, 10 7 21

RID USSR 1 5.004, 10.004,

15. 004

7 24

RIM USSR 1 5, 10 7 20.5

RTA USSR 5 10, 15 7 20.5

RWM USSR 5-8 4.996, 9.996,

14.996

7 24

VNG Australia 10 5, 10, 15 7 24

WWV United

States

2.5-10 2.5, 5, 10,

15, 20

7 24

WWVH United

States

5-10 2.5, 5, 10, 15 7 24

64
HF STANDARD FREQUENCY AND TIME SIGNAL BROADCASTS (continued)

Name Country Carrier

Power (kW)

Broadcast

Frequency (MHz)

Days/

Week

Hours/

Day

ZLFS New

Zealand

0.3 2 .

5

1 3

ZUO South

Africa

4 2.5, 5 7 24

RECEIVER SELECTION

This and the following sections discuss the use of HF broadcasts for time and

frequency calibrations. For convenience, we will refer mainly to WWV; however, the

discussions also apply to other HF broadcasts.

Almost any shortwave receiver can be used to receive HF signals for time and

frequency calibrations. However, for accurate time and frequency calibrations, it is important to have a good antenna-ground system and a receiver with optimum sensitivity,

selectivity, image rejection, and frequency or phase stability. A block diagram of a typical

high-performance receiver is shown below.

V Antenna OFF

RF

Anapl

1st Mixer

ON

Signal

IFAmpl

2nd

Mixer

Xtal Osc

«—OH AGC —(\*) Strength Meter

IFAmpl

AF

Ampl

VFO

Speaker

o

Output

Preselector Main Tuning

Block Diagram of a High — Performanance

HF Receiver

65
The first requirement of a good receiver is sensitivity. Therefore, a tuned RF

amplifier is desirable because it increases sensitivity. The next requirement is selectivity.

This is the ability of a receiver to reject interference. Often, either crystal or mechanical

filters are used.

The third feature of a good receiver is the ability to reject interference from an

undesired signal at what is called the image frequency. Since the IF signal is the difference

between the local oscillator frequency and the incoming signal, there are always two

different incoming signals that can produce the same IF signal. One is above and the other

below the oscillator frequency. Refer to radio texts for further explanations.

A local crystal oscillator can be used in these receivers to provide tuning stability.

Other information regarding well-designed receivers can be found in such reference material

as the Radio Amateur's Handbook.

Several receivers will automatically tune themselves to WWV. If timing is a special

problem in your home or business, of course check the receiver very carefully before you

purchase it. The single best option to look for in a receiver is the provision for an external

antenna. This may be just a short wire or an elaborate rooftop installation. Fancy knobs

and adjustments won't help much if you can't get a good signal.

ANTENNA SELECTION

Some HF stations transmit on more than one frequency. Because of changes in

ionospheric conditions, most receivers are not able to pick up the signals on all frequencies

at all times in all locations. However, unless there are severe magnetic disturbances (which

make radio transmissions almost impossible), users should be able to receive the signal on

at least one of the broadcast frequencies. As a general rule, frequencies above 10 MHz

provide the best daytime reception, while the lower frequencies are best for nighttime

reception.

All-band antennas capable of covering the entire HF band are commercially available.

These are used for around-the-clock communication, where the entire HF band must be used

for maximum reliability. Depending on location, an antenna and a receiver capable of

receiving two or more frequencies may be required. Any of the different WWV frequencies

transmitted may be received depending upon distance, time of day, month, season, and

sunspot cycle. This section discusses the type of antenna best suited to each frequency. For

more information, refer to antenna manuals such as those published by the American Radio

Relay League.

66
Antennas for the 2.5- to 4-MHz Range

In order to use these frequencies during the daytime, your receiver should be located

within 320 kilometers (200 miles) of the transmitter. This is because the ground wave from

the transmitter will travel only a short distance. These frequencies become more useful at

night, however, especially during the winter season in the higher latitudes, where longer

nights prevail. Reception is then possible over distances of several thousand miles.

There are two types of antennas which work in the 2.5- to 4-MHz range. The

vertical monopole quarter-wavelength antenna is very effective in receiving long distance

skywave signals normally arriving at angles of 20 degrees or less. It is also useful for

receiving weak groundwave signals.

For nighttime reception on paths up to several thousand miles, the skywave is predominant, and a horizontal dipole half-wavelength antenna is recommended. The antenna

should be located a quarter-wavelength or higher above ground. Choose an area free from

obstructions and interference.

67
Antennas for the 4- to 5-MHz Range

These frequencies can be received at greater distances than the 2.5-MHz frequency

throughout the day or night, especially during the minimum of the sunspot cycle. Reception

is possible up to 1600 kilometers (1000 miles) under ideal conditions, but the range is usually less than that during the day.

At night, 5 MHz becomes a very useful frequency for long-range reception except

during maximum sunspot cycle. It is excellent during early dawn and early evening in the

winter months. Horizontal dipole antennas are a good choice for this band. You can also

consider using a multiband antenna.

Copper

Wire

Antenna

Support Height =

Wavelength

Cable to

Receiver

Quarter-Wavelength Vertical

Monopole Antenna

Antennas for the 7- to 10-MHz Range

At these frequencies, reception over great

distances is possible during the day or night, but

they are still dependent upon the sunspot cycle.

During the minimum sunspot cycle, great

distances can be covered using 7-10 MHz in the

daytime when higher frequencies cannot be

received. And during the maximum sunspot cycle,

these are probably the best frequencies to use at

night when the lower frequencies cannot be

heard. However, during the maximum sunspot

cycle, reception is limited to short distances

during the day with limitations comparable to those noted for 5 MHz. The 7-10 MHz range can

also provide daytime reception at fairly close

range, and can be used when 5-MHz reception is poor. The half-wavelength horizontal dipole

antenna should be selected for short distances. A

quarter-wavelength vertical monopole antenna is suitable at greater distances.

Antennas for the 14- to 15-MHz Range

These frequencies are best suited for longrange reception during the day. They are not

usable for short-range reception except during

periods of maximum sunspot activity. However,

for long-range reception, they are the most

favored frequencies during both sunspot cycle

conditions. Under average conditions, the

maximum wave angle is limited to 30 degrees or

less.

68
During maximum sunspot cycle, reception may even be possible during the night in

some locations. During minimum sunspot cycle, they are useful only during the daylight

hours and dawn and dusk periods. Both horizontal and vertical antennas work well in this

range.

ANTENNA DIMENSIONS FOR 2.5, 5, AND 10 MHz

Frequency

(MHz)

Quarter-WaveLength

Vertical Antenna

Half-WaveLength Horizontal

Dipole Antenna

Height Length Height

2 . 5

28.37 m

94 1 - 7"

56 . 1 m

187 1

15 to 30 m

50' to 100'

5.0

14 . 05 m

46' - 10"

28.07 m

93' - 7"

9 to 15 m

30' to 50'

10. 0

7.05 m

23' - 6"

14.05 m

46" - 10"

7.5 to 15 m

25' to 50'

Antennas for 20 MHz

Normally, 20 MHz is the best frequency to use for daytime reception and will be

optimum at either noon or a few hours past noon. Signals at this frequency arrive at very

low wave angles and are useful only for long distance reception. During the minimum of

the sunspot cycle, reception is poor but improves during the winter. During the maximum

of the sunspot cycle, the reception is excellent at night and during the day. The vertical

monopole that favors low wave angle radiation has been used at this frequency with

favorable results.

69
USING HF BROADCASTS FOR TIME CALIBRATIONS

Time of day is available from many sources in the United States and Canada. Radio

and television stations mention the time frequently and, in fact, use the time of day to schedule their own operations. Telephone companies offer time-of-day services in many

locations.

Most time-of-day services in the United States start at NIST. A NIST telephone

service is available by calling (303) 499-7111. In addition, WWV and WWVH broadcast voice

time-of-day once each minute. This is also the case for CHU, where the time is given

alternately in French and English. Using the WWV voice announcement and the tone

following the words, "At the tone, XXXX hours XXXX minutes Coordinated Universal Time,"

a person can check a wall clock or wristwatch to within a fraction of a second. The UTC

time that is announced can be converted to local time by using a time zone map.

Recovering time at higher

accuracies requires using electronic

equipment. For example, if an

oscilloscope is used to see the seconds

ticks, the user can set clocks with much

greater accuracy than is possible by

only listening to the ticks.

The following sections describe

several methods of recovering time of

day with resolutions better than 1 millisecond (1000 microseconds) by

using an oscilloscope. Under very

favorable conditions, it is possible to recover time to within 100

microseconds. In each case, path and

equipment time delay corrections are necessary for accurate results.

For best results using any of these methods, the following guidelines are recommended:

o Make measurements at the same time every day.

o Avoid twilight hours, when the ionosphere is the least stable.

o Use the highest frequency that has good reception.

o Look at the received signals on the oscilloscope for a few minutes to judge

the stability of propagation conditions.

70
Measuring the Receiver Time Delay

For accuracy in time-setting, the receiver delay must be known. Typical delays in

receiver circuits are usually less than a millisecond. However, they should be known to the user who wants the very best timing accuracy. The actual delay in the receiver will vary

with tuning and knob settings.

To measure the receiver time delay, the following equipment is required (connected

as shown in the diagram):

o an oscilloscope with a calibrated, externally triggered time base

o an HF signal generator

o an audio signal generator

RECEIVER

Oscilloscope Audio HF

Signal Signal

IN OUT VERT

T Generator Generator

1 kH;

Equipment Setup for Receiver

Time-Delay Measurements

The receiver should be tuned to receive WWV/WWVH signals. This is because the

receiver delay time varies with slightly different receiver dial positions. Therefore, the

receiver tuning should be set and marked where the maximum signal is received. The

frequency of the HF signal generator is then adjusted for peak receiver output.

71
The audio signal generator is set to a 1-kHz output frequency. An accurate 1-kHz

signal is not required. The HF generator is externally modulated by the 1-kHz signal.

The oscilloscope sweep rate is set to 100 microseconds per division with positive external

triggering from the 1-kHz signal. The vertical amplifier gain is set high for a large vertical

deflection. The vertical position control is adjusted for zero baseline with no input signal.

Initially, the 1-kHz signal generator is connected to the vertical input of the

oscilloscope. The trigger level is adjusted so that the trace crosses or touches the horizontal

center line at the left. The horizontal position can be adjusted so that the signal crosses the first division on the left as shown below. The crossover point of the undelayed signal

will serve as the zero delay reference point.

t

\

—1—

r/

Delayed Zero Crossover

Undelayed Zero Crossover

Without touching any of the oscilloscope controls, disconnect the 1-kHz signal from

the vertical input and replace it with the delayed 1-kHz signal from the receiver output.

Since a receiver delay is almost always less than 1 millisecond (1 cycle of a 1-kHz signal),

there is little chance of ambiguity on which cycle to measure. The delay is equal to the

sweep time from the reference undelayed crossover to the first delayed crossover point.

4

Delay

Time

72
If the delayed signal's phase is the opposite of the reference 1-kHz signal, the receiver

has an inverted output signal. However, the receiver delay time remains unchanged, and

the only difference will be that the output seconds pulse will be inverted with a negative

leading edge. For receiver delays of less than 500 microseconds, the sweep rate can be 50

microseconds per division.

This technique produces a local signal that approximates the timing signal. It uses

the same frequency on the dial and uses the same tone frequency. If you have a twochannel scope, you can display the tone before it enters the RF signal generator and after

it comes out of the receiver.

Using an Adjustable Frequency Source to Trigger the Oscilloscope

This method (sometimes called the direct trigger method) requires an oscilloscope

with an external sweep trigger and accurately calibrated time base, and a receiver with

electronic audio output. The frequency source (clock) must be adjustable so its 1-pps output can be advanced or retarded. Connect the equipment as shown:

HF

Revr

Seconds Oscilloscope

Vertical Trigger

1 Hz

<

Freq.

Source Tick

A 1-Hz pulse from the frequency source is used to trigger the oscilloscope sweep.

At some time interval later during the sweep, the seconds tick appears on the oscilloscope

display. The time interval from the start of the sweep to the point where the tick appears

is the total time difference between the local clock and the transmitting station. By

subtracting the path and receiver time delays from the measured value, the local clock time

error can be determined (path delays are discussed on page 85). The equation to determine

time error at a receiving location is shown on the next page.

73
TIME ERROR = TR - TT = TD - (PPD + RTD)

where: TR = time at receiving station

TT = time at transmitting station (WWV, WWVH)

TD = total time difference (measured using oscilloscope)

PPD = propagation path time delay (computed)

RTD = receiver time delay (measured)

Note: The units (usually milliseconds) should be the same for all terms.

Tune the receiver to the station and set the oscilloscope sweep rate to 0.1 second per

division. You can listen to the broadcast to check the quality of reception. The tick will

then appear on the oscilloscope display. If the tick is one division or more from the left side of the scope display, adjust the time of the local clock until the tick falls within the

first division from the left side. If the local time tick is late, the received tick will be heard

before the sweep starts. If this is the case, adjust the local clock until the tick appears.

After the local seconds pulse has been properly adjusted and appears within the first

division (0.1 second in time), increase the sweep rate. Then adjust the clock again until

the leading edge of the received pulse starts at a time equal to the propagation delay time

plus the receiver delay time after the trigger.

The sweep rate should be increased to the highest rate possible. However, the total

sweep time should not exceed the combined propagation and receiver deiay time minus 5

milliseconds (to allow for the length of the received seconds pulse).

With a sweep rate of 1 millisecond per division, for example, greater resolution can

be realized by measuring the second zero crossover point of the 5 millisecond received ticks.

Although the leading edge of the seconds pulse as broadcast from these stations is "on

time," it is difficult to measure due to the slow rise time at the beginning of the burst and

distortion due to propagation. For this reason, the second zero crossover should be used.

The second zero crossover of the WWV or CHU pulse is delayed exactly 1000 microseconds,

and the WWVH crossover is delayed 833 microseconds. The delay is called the cycle

correction.

74
At a sweep rate of 1 millisecond per division, any changes in arrival time (jitter) are

readily apparent. After watching the pulses for a period of a minute or two, select a cycle

that is undistorted and relatively large in amplitude. In determining the time at a receiving

location, include the delay of the chosen zero crossover point, then add the cycle correction

to the propagation and equipment delay using the following equation:

TIME ERROR = TR - TT

= TD - (PPD + RTD + cycle correction)

where: TR = time at receiving station

TT = time at transmitting station (WWV, WWVH)

TD = total time difference (measured using oscilloscope)

PPD = propagation path time delay (computed)

RTD = receiver time delay (measured)

Cycle correction = 1000 microseconds per cycle (WWV or CHU)

= 833 microseconds per cycle (WWVH)

Delayed Triggering: An Alternate Method That Doesn't Change

the Clock Output

To improve the resolution of measurement, the oscilloscope sweep must be operated

as fast as possible. You can sweep the scope faster by generating a trigger pulse

independent of your clock and then positioning the pulse for maximum sweep speed.

However, you then must measure the difference between the clock and the trigger pulse.

This can be accomplished by using an oscilloscope with a delayed sweep circuit built in or with an outboard trigger generator. The latter method is discussed here, but an oscilloscope

with a delayed sweep could also be used. Refer to the instrument manual for assistance.

On a typical digital delay generator, a delay dial indicates the delay between the

input local clock tick and the output trigger pulse. If the user already has a variable rate

divider to produce delayed pulses, a time interval counter can be used instead of the delay

generator. In either case, the trigger delay must be accounted for in measuring the time

delay (TD) of the received tick with respect to the local master clock.

75
Measurements should be made at the same time every day (within 10 minutes) for

consistent results. Choose the time of day when it is approximately noon midway between

the transmitting station and the receiver's location. For night measurements, choose a time

when the midpoint is near midnight. Do not make measurements near twilight.

Connect the equipment as shown below. A commercially available frequency divider

and clock can be used in place of the controlled delay generator. A time interval counter

is then used to measure the output of the delayed clock to the master clock. The output

of the delayed clock is used to trigger the oscilloscope. The procedures described previously

also apply to this method.

f Antenna

Delayed 1 Hz

100 kHz

Delay Gen

or Divider

& Clock

Master

Clock

1 Hz

With the oscilloscope sweep adjusted to 1 millisecond per division, the trigger pulse

should be delayed by an amount equal to the propagation delay in milliseconds. Don't worry

about fractional milliseconds in the delay. The sweep should be adjusted so that it begins

exactly at the left end of the horizontal graticule and is vertically centered.

The second zero crossover point of the tick (see figure on next page) should be

observed and carefully measured. With the sweep at 1 millisecond per division, the delay

of the second zero crossover on the oscilloscope is measured to the nearest one-tenth of a

millisecond and added to the trigger delay, resulting in an approximate total time delay.

76
If the local clock 1-pps time is exactly coincident with the UTC(NIST) seconds pulse, the

total measured time delay will be approximately equal to the sum of the propagation delay

time, the receiver delay time (typically 200 to 500 microseconds), and the cycle correction

(1000 microseconds for WWV or CHU and 833 microseconds for WWVH).

< > Second Zero Crossover

To further increase the resolution of delay measurement, increase the oscilloscope

sweep rate to 100 microseconds per division and adjust the trigger pulse from the generator

to be approximately 500 microseconds less than the total delay time previously measured.

At these settings, the second zero crossover of the tick will be somewhere near the middle

of the oscilloscope face.

The vertical centering of the sweep should be rechecked and centered if necessary.

The tick is measured to the nearest 10 microseconds. The result should be within ± 100

microseconds of the result obtained at the 1 millisecond per division sweep rate. If the

result of this measurement falls outside this tolerance, then the procedure should be

repeated by measuring the time delay at a sweep rate of 1 millisecond per division. Use the

equations on pages 74-75 to obtain the time.

77
Using Oscilloscope Photography for Greater Measurement Accuracy

By photographing five or more overlapping exposures of the WWV/WWVH tick, you

can estimate an average of the tick arrival time with more accuracy. The exposures are made when consistently strong and undistorted ticks appear on the oscilloscope. To

determine the time, the average of the second zero crossover point of the tick is measured

using the procedure described previously.

To make measurements using this technique, you need an oscilloscope camera that

uses self-developing film. Place the camera shutter in the time exposure position so that

it can be opened and closed manually. The lens opening of the camera, the oscilloscope

trace intensity, and the scale illumination must be determined by experiment. Refer to your

camera manual.

One of the previously described procedures is followed to obtain the seconds tick.

At a sweep rate of 1 millisecond per division, the shutter is opened before the sweep starts and closed after the sweep ends. This is repeated each second until five overlapping

exposures are completed. The pictures should be taken when the ticks begin to arrive with

the least distortion and maximum amplitude.

This procedure can also be used at a faster sweep rate of 100 microseconds per

division with the second zero crossover point appearing in the middle of the trace (one

complete cycle of the tick should be visible). By taking overlapping exposures of the ticks,

you can obtain an average reading from the photograph.

USING THE WWVAVWVH TIME CODE

The broadcasts from WWV and WWVH include a time code. The time code signal is 100 Hz away from the main carrier and is called a subcarrier. The code pulses are sent

out once per second. With a good signal from a fairly high-quality receiver, you can hear

the time code as a low rumble in the audio. HF receivers that receive and decode this

signal can automatically display the time of day. The next section describes the time code

format.

Time Code Format

The WWV and WWVH time code is continuously broadcast in binary coded decimal

(BCD) format on a 100-Hz subcarrier. The time code is a modified version of the IRIGH code. The code is transmitted serially on a 100-Hz subcarrier at a rate of one pulse per

second.

78
The time code is in binary coded decimal (BCD) format. Groups of binary digits

(bits) are used to represent decimal numbers. The binary-to-decimal weighting scheme is 1-2-4-8. The least significant bit is always sent first. The table below shows the BCD

groups and the equivalent decimal number:

BINARY GROUP DECIMAL

Weight: 1 2 4 8 EQUIVALENT

0 0 0 0 o

1 0 0 0 1

0 1 0 0 2

1 1 0 0 3

0 0 1 0 4

1 0 1 0 5

0 1 1 0 6

1 1 1 0 7

0 0 0 1 8

1 0 0 1 9

The decimal number is obtained by multiplying each bit in the binary group by the

weight of its respective column and then adding the four products together. For example,

the table shows that the binary group 1010 is equal to 5. This is derived by:

(1 x 1) + (0 x 2) + (1 x 4) + (0 x 8) = 1 + 0 + 4 + 0 = 5

In the standard IRIG-H code, a 0 bit consists of exactly 20 cycles of 100-Hz amplitude

modulation (200 milliseconds duration), and a 1 bit consists of 50 cycles of 100 Hz (500

milliseconds duration). The WWV/WWVH code differs from IRIG-H because all tones are suppressed briefly while the seconds pulses are transmitted.

Tone suppression also deletes the first 30 milliseconds of each binary pulse in the

time code. This makes the WWV/WWVH bits 30 milliseconds shorter than the IRIG-H bits.

Therefore, 170 millisecond pulses are recognized as 0 bits, and 470 millisecond pulses are recognized as 1 bits. The leading edge of each pulse coincides with the positive-going

crossing of the 100-Hz subcarrier; but due to the tone suppression, it occurs 30 milliseconds

after the start of the second.

Within 1 minute, enough bits are sent to express the minute, hour, and day of year,

the UT1 correction, and a Daylight Saving Time (DST) indicator. The coded time

information refers to the time at the start of the 1-minute frame. Seconds are determined

by counting pulses within the frame. Two BCD groups are needed to express the hour (00

79
to 23) and minute (00 to 59); and three groups are needed to express the day of year (001

to 366). Some bits in the BCD groups are unused, but may provide additional information

in the future. To represent units, tens, or hundreds, the basic 1-2-4-8 weights are multiplied

by 1, 10, or 100, as appropriate.

Each frame begins with a unique spacing of pulses that mark the start of a new

minute. During the first second of the minute, no pulse is transmitted. This creates a 1- second (1000-millisecond) hole. Since the pulses are already delayed 30 milliseconds by the

tone suppression, the UTC minute actually begins 1030 milliseconds (1.03 seconds) earlier

than the first pulse in the frame. For synchronization purposes, a position identifier pulse

is transmitted every 10 seconds. The position identifier pulse lasts for 770 milliseconds (77

cycles of 100 Hz).

UT1 corrections are sent during the final 10 seconds of each frame. These

corrections are to the nearest 0.1 second. The UT1 correction is expressed with bits called

control functions. Control function #1 occurs at 50 seconds and tells whether the UT1

correction is negative or positive. If a 0 bit is sent, the correction is negative; if a 1 bit is sent, the correction is positive. Control functions #7, #8, and #9 tell the amount of the

UT1 correction. They occur at 56, 57, and 58 seconds, respectively. Since the UT1

corrections are in tenths of seconds, the binary-to-decimal weights are multiplied by 0.1.

DST information is sent by control function #6, at 55 seconds. If DST is in effect, a 1 bit is sent. If Standard Time is in effect, a 0 is sent. The setting of this bit is changed

a few hours prior to 0000 UTC on the date of change. This schedule notifies users in the

continental United States of the time change several hours before it occurs locally (usually

at 2:00 a.m.). Receivers that display local time can read control function #6 and make the

1-hour adjustment automatically when time changes occur.

Additional changes to the WWV/WWVH time code formats are planned for

implementation during early 1991. These involve addition of two digits of the current year, a leap second warning indicator, and improved indicators of Daylight Saving Time. Contact

NIST for current status information regarding these changes.

USING HF BROADCASTS FOR FREQUENCY CALIBRATIONS

In addition to the widely used time service of WWV and WWVH, standard frequencies

are also available to the broadcast listener. Both stations provide a calibrating frequency

that is readily available for comparison and measurement.

There are two ways to use WWV (or WWVH) as a standard frequency. You can measure your own frequency source against WWV and write the difference down for

reference, or you can adjust your frequency source to make it agree with WWV.

80
In this section, several calibration methods are discussed. These methods use WWVtype signals to calibrate lower accuracy quartz oscillators. Under good conditions, relative

frequencies of 1.00E-07 are possible. Direct frequency comparison or measurement with

WWV can usually be accomplished to about 1.00E-06. This resolution can be improved by

long-term (many weeks) time comparison of clocks operated from a frequency source rather

than direct frequency comparison. Three methods of calibrating frequency sources using the

broadcasts of WVW/WWVH are discussed: (1) beat frequency method; (2) oscilloscope pattern

drift method; and (3) frequency calibrations by time comparisons.

The beat frequency or heterodyne method is a simple technique commonly used by

radio operators to calibrate transmitters and tune receivers. A frequency offset of about

1.00E-06 can be accurately determined. This means that this method can be used to calibrate a 1-MHz signal to within 1 Hz.

The figure below shows an arrangement for calibrating a 100-kHz oscillator. A 100-

kHz signal containing harmonics is coupled to the receiver input along with the WWV

signal from the antenna.

Beat Frequency Method

WWV/WWVH

Broadcast

22 pf cap

Speaker

100 kHz

Square Square

Wave

Generator

100 kHz

Wave Quartz

Oscillator

Equipment Setup for

Beat Frequency Method

81
The beat frequency method works by heterodyning or mixing a known and accurate

frequency (like a WWV RF signal) with the output of an oscillator. The mixing is accomplished by the converter circuit in any superheterodyne receiver. The difference

frequency of the two RF signals can be amplified and detected. The result is an audio

output signal called the beat frequency or beat note.

The frequency of the beat note is the difference of the two input frequencies. When

the two frequencies are made equal, their difference decreases to zero and is called "zero

beat." When zero beat is reached, the oscillator is equal in frequency to the WWV

frequency.

To calibrate a frequency source or quartz oscillator with an output frequency lower

than that broadcast by WWV, the correct harmonic equal to the WWV signal is required.

For example, if a 100-kHz signal is to be calibrated with the WWV 5-MHz carrier frequency,

then it must also contain a harmonic 50 times itself. This means that the signal to be

calibrated has to be a submultiple of the WWV carrier frequency.

Theoretically, a sine wave does not contain any harmonics. In practice, though, all sine wave signals contain enough harmonics to produce a beat note. A square wave signal, on the other hand, is very rich in harmonic content and is ideal for generating harmonics

to calibrate receivers and transmitters in the HF and VHF band. A simple method of

generating a square wave from a sine wave is by clipping the signal with a diode clipping

circuit. To obtain a strong harmonic signal for beat notes requires a large amplitude signal

to produce heavy clipping. A better method is to digitally condition the 100-kHz signal to produce square waves.

If the receiver input impedance is low (50 to 100 ohms), a 10- to 20-picofarad (pF)

capacitor can be used to couple the high frequency harmonic to the receiver input and to reduce the level of the lower fundamental frequency. If the receiver has a high input

impedance with unshielded lead-in wire from the antenna, the harmonic signal can be loosely

coupled to the receiver input by wrapping a few turns of an insulated wire around the

antenna lead-in and connecting it directly to the output of the oscillator. For receivers with

built-in or whip antennas, you must experiment to find a way to inject the oscillator signal.

The relationship between the oscillator error and the beat note that is measured

during the calibration looks like this:

f (actual) = f(nameplate) + delta-f

The actual oscillator output is designated as f(actual). This is made up of two parts,

the correct frequency f(nameplate), plus an error that we can designate as delta-f.

82
When we make our measurement, a harmonic of f(actual) is beat against the carrier

frequency, f(carrier). The resulting beat note f(beat) is the difference between the two and

is written as:

f(beat) = f (carrier) - harmonic of f (actual)

A negative sign in the answer is ignored, so the answer is always a positive number.

To find the frequency error, delta-f, we divide f(beat) by the number of the harmonic (N):

f (beat)

delta-f

N

For example, if a beat frequency of 100 Hz is measured between the WWV 5-MHz

carrier frequency and the 50th harmonic of a 100-kHz oscillator signal, the frequency error

of the 100-kHz signal is:

100 Hz

delta-f = 2 Hz

50

The oscillator frequency is in error by 2 Hz. The relative frequency of the oscillator

is 2 parts in 100 000 or 2.00E-05. To determine whether the oscillator is high or low in

frequency, the oscillator frequency must be changed to note which way the beat frequency

decreases. If increasing the oscillator frequency decreases the beat note, it indicates that

the oscillator frequency is lower than the WWV/WWVH frequency.

If the beat note is above 50 Hz, headphones, a speaker, or a counter can be used.

Below that frequency, a dc oscilloscope can be connected to the receiver detector. A signal

strength meter can be used and the beats counted visually. The automatic gain control

(AGO should be disabled, if possible, for the meter fluctuations to be more noticeable. The

manual RF gain can be adjusted to compensate for loss of the AGC.

83
To correct the oscillator frequency, turn the adjustment knob in the direction that

lowers the frequency of the beat note. Between 50 Hz and about 1 Hz, the beat note cannot

be heard, and the signal strength meter will begin to respond to the beat note as it approaches 1 Hz. As zero beat is approached, a very slow rise and fall of the background

noise or the WWV audio tone can also be heard on the speaker. The meter effect is much

easier to follow. As it approaches zero beat, the very slow rise and fall of the signal

strength may sometimes become difficult to distinguish from signal fading due to propagation

effects.

Oscilloscope Pattern Drift Method

The oscilloscope pattern drift method is good for comparing two frequencies if you

have an oscilloscope with external triggering. The method requires an oscilloscope with an accurately calibrated sweep time base. External triggering is obtained from the signal

to be calibrated. This signal can be any integer submultiple of the tone being received from

WWV/WWVH. The receiver (tuned to WWV or WWVH) has its audio output connected to the vertical input of the oscilloscope. With the sweep rate set at 1 millisecond per division,

the trigger level is adjusted so that a zero crossover of the corresponding 600- or 500-Hz

signal is near midscale on the scope.

By measuring the phase drift during a given time interval, the frequency error is determined. If the zero crossover from the oscillator being measured moves to the right,

the oscillator is higher in frequency than the WWV signal, and if it moves to the left, the

oscillator is lower in frequency (see figure below). Under ideal conditions, a relative

frequency of 1.00E-06 can be determined by increasing the observation time.

k2i

Initial Final

84
Frequency Calibrations by Time Comparisons

If you are already making daily time calibrations using WWV or WWVH, you can use

the data you obtain to make frequency calibrations of the oscillator driving your clock. You

can do this by recording the daily time differences and then calculating the frequency rate. The operation is similar to telling your jeweler that your watch gains or loses so many

seconds a day. He then adjusts the rate to compensate.

The operation proceeds something like this. Each day, note the amount the clock

output differs from WWV. Then keep an accurate record of the history of the oscillator in

terms of the time gained or lost with respect to WWV ticks. This change in time can then

be converted to the relative frequency of your oscillator. See chapter 4 for more information

on the mathematics involved.

In summary, frequency calibrations can be made by recording only the time error produced by an oscillator. This technique is recommended for lower quality oscillators and

for situations when you are already making time calibrations.

MEASURING RADIO PATH DELAY

Measuring radio path delay involves two things. First, the great circle (curved)

distance must be found between the transmitter and receiver. A simple computer program

to accomplish this (written in BASIC) is listed below. This program calculates the great

circle distance between any two points on the earth.

' Great Circle Distance Program (written in BASIC)

' function to convert radians to degrees

def fnRadToDegrees(x) = x/57.2957795131

' function to calculate the arccosine of a number

def fnArcCos(x) = ((-atn(x/sqr(-x*x+l)) + 1.5707633)*57.2957795131)

els ' clear the screen dim pointa(6) ' array for point A coordinates

dim pointb(6) ' array for point B coordinates

print "This program calculates the distance and the path delay between"

print "points A and B. You must enter the coordinates for both points."

print

print "Enter Coordinates for Point A"

print

input "Is the Latitude in Degrees North (Y or N, Default is Y): ", ql$

input "Is the Longitude in Degrees West (Y or N, Default is N): ", q2$

if ql$o"n" and ql$o"N" then NorthA=-l else NorthA=0

85
print

input "Latitude Degrees: ", pointa(l)

input "Latitude Minutes: ", pointa(2)

input "Latitude Seconds: ", pointa(3)

input "Longitude Degrees: ", pointa(4)

input "Longitude Minutes: ", pointa(5)

input "Longitude Seconds: ", pointa(6)

' reduce latitude and longitude of Point A to two floating point numbers

yl=pointa(l) + (pointa(2)*60+pointa(3))/3600

y2=pointa(4) + (pointa(5)*60+pointa(6))/3600

yl =fnRadtoDegrees(yl) ' Point A latitude y2=fnRadtoDegrees(y2) ' Point A longitude

if q2$="N" or q2$="n" then y2=fnRadtoDegrees(360)-y2 ' adjust longitude if in eastern hemisphere

print

print "Enter Coordinates for Point B"

print

input "Is the Latitude in Degrees North (Y or N, Default is Y): ", ql$

input "Is the Longitude in Degrees West (Y or N, Default is N): ", q2$

if ql$o"n" and ql$o"N" then NorthB=-l else NorthB=0

print

input "Latitude Degrees: ", pointb(l)

input "Latitude Minutes: ", pointb(2)

input "Latitude Seconds: ", pointb(3)

input "Longitude Degrees: ", pointb(4)

input "Longitude Minutes: ", pointb(5)

input "Longitude Seconds: ", pointb(6)

' reduce latitude and longitude of Point B to two floating point numbers

zl=pointb(l) + (pointb(2)*60+pointb(3))/3600

z2=pointb(4) + (pointb(5)*60+pointb(6))/3600

zl =fnRadtoDegrees(zl) ' Point B latitude z2=fnRadtoDegrees(z2) ' Point B longitude

if q2S="N" or q2S="n" then z2=fnRadtoDegrees(360)-z2 ' adjust longitude if in eastern hemisphere

p=cos(abs(y2-z2))

y3=sin(yl)

y4=cos(yl)

z3=sin(zl)

z4=cos(zl)

if NorthAoNorthB then C=y4*z4*p-y3*z3

else C=y4*z4*p+y3*z3

end if

' cosine of difference in longitude between points A and B

' sine of Point A latitude

' cosine of Point A latitude

' sine of Point B latitude

' cosine of Point B latitude

' points are on opposite sides of equator

' points are on same side of equator

c=fnArcCos(c)

miles=c*60*1.151

kilos=c*60*1.8522

pathdelay=miles*5.376344086

print

print

print "Distance in Miles:

print "Distance in Kilometers:

print "Path Delay in Microseconds:

end

' distance in nautical miles

' distance in miles

' distance in kilometers

' path delay in microseconds

";miles

";kilos "jpathdelay

86
The second thing we need to know is the number of times the signal bounces from

the ionosphere to the Earth (hops). This factor is part of the propagation delay that the

signal experiences along its path. The computer program we just looked at estimates the

path delay, but does not take propagation delay into account. For groundwave signals

transmitted at low frequencies (like those discussed in chapter 6), this estimate is probably

very accurate. However, for HF signals it probably isn't. The reason for this is that at any

particular time, the path delay may not be at its average value. Since the path is constantly

changing by small amounts, it cannot be estimated with great accuracy.

Knowing the exact number of hops between the Earth and ionosphere is important;

otherwise, estimates of path delay can be off by 500 to 1000 microseconds (0.5 to 1 millisecond). If you are trying to make time calibrations to within 1 millisecond, you need

more accurate estimates of the path delay.

The ionosphere is made up of a number of layers whose actual height varies both

daily and seasonally. This changes the path delay a lot if the receiver and transmitter are

close to each other. Since the Earth is round, there is a maximum ground distance a single

hop can span. This is about 4000 kilometers or 2200 miles. For greater distances, the radio waves must obviously be reflected a number of times. Any error in the wave path

computation for one hop must be multiplied by the total numbers of hops.

To reduce the error in estimating the path delay, the frequency used for reception

should be selected for the least number of hops. This should also result in a stronger

signal. Some frequencies will penetrate the ionosphere and not reflect. Other frequencies

will skip over your receiving site, so a lower frequency must be selected. Use of the

maximum frequency that is receivable assures the least number of hops. This maximum

usable frequency is called the MUF. A frequency about 10 percent below the MUF provides

the best reception.

For distances under 1600 kilometers (1000 miles), the single-hop mode of

transmission dominates. For short distances, the height must be estimated carefully. For

distances of less than 1600 kilometers, where only a single-hop mode of transmission occurs, a much wider range of error in the height can be tolerated.

Errors can be reduced by estimating height according to time of day, season, latitude,

and sunspot cycle. An average height of 250 kilometers is reasonable for the winter months

when propagation conditions are good at 10 MHz and above. In summer, the average height can be increased to 350 kilometers. In the fall, the estimated height can be decreased again.

Using this method can reduce the error.

87
For distances of 1600 to 3200 kilometers (1000 to 2000 miles) where multiple-hop

transmission occurs, the height must be determined with greater accurac}'. Heights for a

particular latitude, longitude, and time of day are available from the World Data Center,

NOAA, Department of Commerce, Boulder, CO 80303.

SUMMARY

High Frequency (HF) radio broadcasts are commonly used for time and frequency

calibrations. Accuracies ranging from 1 millisecond for time calibrations to 1.00E-07 for

frequency calibrations can be obtained. If your accuracy requirements are higher, you should

use one of the radio broadcasts discussed in the next two chapters.

88
Chapter 6 - CALIBRATIONS USING LF AND VLF

RADIO BROADCASTS

Along with the widely used high frequency broadcasts discussed in chapter 5, NIST

also operates a frequency and time service on WWVB, a low frequency (LF) radio station.

WWVB is on the WWV site in Ft. Collins, Colorado. WWVB continuously broadcasts time

and frequency signals at 60 kHz for the continental United States.

WWVB operates at 60 kHz to take advantage of the stable radio paths

in that frequency range. Both frequency

and time signals are provided, but no

voice transmissions are made due to the

narrow bandwidth of the

transmitter/antenna combination. Many

countries have services in this band,

which ranges from 30 to 300 kHz, as well as in the VLF (very low frequency)

band from 3 to 30 kHz. In addition to discussing the use of WWVB, this

chapter also covers other LF and VLF

stations, including the 100-kHz Loran-C

broadcasts.

It may seem unusual to send

signals in a frequency band that is almost in the audio range, and these

signals pose some special problems for

the transmitter and receiver design

engineers. However, low frequencies

such as the 60-kHz signal of WWVB are used because of their remarkable

stability. Radio waves at low frequencies use the Earth and the ionosphere as a waveguide and follow the Earth's

curvature for long distances. Accuracies

of 1.00E-11 or better for frequency and

500 microseconds for time can be

achieved by using LF or VLF broadcasts.

Users can do even better with Loran-C.

WWVB

Fort Collins, CO

60 kH

89
GENERAL INFORMATION ABOUT LF AND VLF STATIONS

The following sections contain some general information about LF and VLF time and

frequency broadcasts.

LF and VLF Antennas

Using a quarter-wavelength antenna to receive LF and VLF signals is obviously

impossible; at 60 kHz, this antenna would have to be about 2 miles long! As a compromise,

antennas that are electrically "short" are used with tuning boxes and special couplers. On

vertical antennas, top loading is often used. This consists of radial wires extending from

the top of the antenna to the ground. Of course, as with any antenna system, a good

ground is essential.

The physical location of LF and VLF antennas is important. The location affects

signal strength and noise. Keep the antenna away from metal objects. Long-wire antennas

should be at least 15 to 20 feet above ground. Several commercial antennas use

preamplifiers so the connecting coaxial cable supplies power to the amplifier. In those cases, care must be taken to avoid shorting the cable.

Manufacturers of VLF-LF radio receivers offer a variety of antenna types. Longwire antennas up to several hundred feet are available. Whip antennas 8 to 10 feet long

are used where space is a problem. On the other hand, air loop antennas are able to reject

interference but do not have as much gain as whips. Ferrite loop antennas are often

smaller than the air loops.

All of these antennas benefit from having couplers and/or amplifiers incorporated into

the antenna structure to allow a match to be made with the shielded antenna cable. For

more information about LF and VLF antennas, consult an engineering handbook or an

antenna manual.

Signal Formats

WWVB transmits a carrier for frequency information and changes the level (-10

decibels (dB)) of that carrier to transmit a binary time code. The Omega Navigation System

sends only the carrier. The Loran-C navigation system transmits pulses. Receivers for all of these signals usually "lock" onto the carrier and thus recover frequency information. In

addition, some means are provided to hear the station. This is usually just a tone output.

For example, if you were to listen to WWVB, you would hear the 1-second code segments

as a tone that changes from loud to soft. There are no voice signals on any of the LF or VLF stations. The bandwidth used cannot transmit voice signals.

90
Propagation Characteristics and Other Phase Changes

Phase records made of VLF and LF stations show phase shifts caused by the daily

and seasonal changes along the radio path. These phase shifts occur when sunrise or sunset

occur on the path from the transmitter to receiver. For instance, as the path is changing

from all darkness to all daylight, the ionosphere lowers. This shortens the path from

transmitter to receiver. This shortened path causes the received phase to advance. This

phase advance continues until the entire path is in sunlight. The phase then stabilizes until

either the transmitter or receiver enters darkness. When this happens, the ionosphere

begins to rise, causing a phase retardation.

A strip chart recording of the phase of WWVB is shown below. The chart shows the

signal from WWVB being compared to a very stable oscillator, so the phase shifts can be

attributed to WWVB and not the oscillator. The phase shifts that take place at sunrise and

sunset can be easily seen. The magnitude of the change is a function of the path length,

and the rate of the change is a function of the path direction.

-Sunset (rcvr) — Sunset

(WWVB)

- Si

Sunset

inrise (rcvr) (WWVB) — Sunrise „ , Sunset

(WWVB) (rcvr) —J

Sunrise —

,

(WWVB)

Sunrise —

(Rcvr)

2 ° - o 2 h

2 m N m a 2 a

2o 2 o $ 5 2 § 5 o o S °

Time (UTC)

Phase of WWVB as received in the eastern United States (chart is 50 microseconds wide)

A phase recording from a stable VLF or LF radio station contains a great deal of

information. The user's job is to sort out this information so that he can understand what

is happening to the frequency source that is being calibrated. Most stations operate with

a nearly perfect record, but mistakes can happen. This happens just often enough so that

the user needs additional information. This information consists of monthly or weekly

notices of the actual phase of the signal (measured in microseconds). NIST publishes data

for WWVB, and the U.S. Naval Observatory (USNO) publishes data for a number of LF and

VLF stations. This information is free upon request.

91
Do not rush through LF or VLF calibrations. Certain practices are highly

recommended. Be careful when you adjust the receiver. Once it is working properly, do not

change knob settings or cabling. Always operate the equipment continuously, if possible.

This gives you a continuous chart record so that you know when to expect sunrise/sunset

phase shifts. You can also detect local interference and noise conditions. If your receiver

has a mechanical phase counter, jot down the readings on the chart. This is a great help

in trying to reconstruct events that happen on weekends or at night.

A typical occurrence for a tracking receiver is the cycle phase shift. Since the

receiver is faithfully following a zero crossing of the received phase, it doesn't know which

of the thousands of crossings it is locked to. If the receiver loses lock, it will simply go to the next crossing that comes along. On a phase chart this will show up as a phase shift

equal to one cycle of the carrier.

For the 60-kHz WWVB signal, one cycle of phase equals 16.167 microseconds. If the

chart recorder/receiver combination is producing a chart that is 50 microseconds wide (see

the chart on the previous page), the pen will move about one-third of the way across the

chart for each cycle change. You need to identify and ignore these phase shifts when

making calibrations. Keep in mind that phase charts are ambiguous by an amount equal

to the period of one cycle of the carrier frequency.

How can you tell whether the recorded phase difference indicates a change in your

oscillator, the path, or the transmitted signal? The answer is that you must know from

experience. If you plan to use VLF or LF signals for frequency calibrations, you must

become very familiar with the characteristics of the signals you are using. Battery backup

for receivers is highly desirable, in fact, almost necessary if you plan to calibrate precise

oscillators over a period of many days. All of this may sound difficult, but it really isn't.

The results are worth the effort when you consider that you can perform calibrations up to 1.00E-11 in 24 hours.

Field Strengths of LF and VLF Stations

The field strength of the WWVB signal has been measured along nine radial paths

from the station. These measurements are summarized on the field contour map shown on

the next page. The map does not show the nonlinear field gradient between the 500- and

100-microvolt per meter contour.

Destructive interference occurs between the first hop skywave and the groundwave

at approximately 1200 kilometers (750 miles) from the station. On some radial paths, this

dip in field intensity is quite severe and will cause signal loss at certain times. The distance

between the station and this null varies from day to night. It is also seasonal. The

sharpness of the null is much less pronounced in the winter. In general, the signal should

be stronger during the winter months.

92
Measured Field Strength of

Monitoring Station Availability

No matter which station is chosen as a basis for calibration, WWVB, Omega, or VLF,

you should be on a mailing list to receive notices of changes in operation schedule. WWVB

currently operates 24 hours a day, every day. No changes in operating format are made

without advance notification. The Omega stations do schedule maintenance outages and

other changes in operation. Announcements regarding the status of the various Omega

stations in the Omega Navigation System are given hourly on both WWV and WWVH.

Currently, NIST and the USNO are monitoring and reporting the phase differences

of some of the U.S. Loran-C stations. In addition, NIST monitors and reports phase

differences for WWVB, and the USNO offers data on the VLF and Omega stations. These

data are available to interested users by contacting the Time and Frequency Division of

NIST or the USNO.

93
FREQUENCY CALIBRATIONS USING WWVB

Commercially available WWVB receivers are often used to compare a local oscillator

with the received WWVB signals. These receivers are often complete frequency measurement

systems like the one shown on page 45. WWVB serves as the reference frequency for these

systems. They may include a built-in chart recorder that shows the phase change of the

oscillator being measured relative to the WWVB signal. This type of system is discussed in

this section. If it meets your needs, WWVB can also be used as the reference frequency in a computer-controlled measurement system like the one shown on page 46.

The phase change depends on the relative difference between your oscillator and the

cesium oscillator controlling the WWVB signal at the transmitter. If a precision oscillator

(like a rubidium or cesium) is being used, most of the phase changes are caused by WWVB.

For example, in the chart shown on page 91, the phase shifts are due to the diurnal effect, or the rise and fall of the Sun along the radio path between the transmitter and the

receiver. During the daytime and nighttime, WWVB serves as a very stable reference

frequency with a relative frequency of about 1.00E-11.

If you use a WWVB receiver to compare a lower quality oscillator, the diurnal phase

shifts will be less noticeable. For example, if your oscillator is performing at a relative

frequency of 1.00E-08, it is drifting about 1000 microseconds (1 millisecond) per day. With

this much drift, the diurnal phase shifts may not be noticeable at all. However, the chart

recording may be difficult to interpret. If you are using a chart record that is 50

microseconds wide, the chart will "overflow" nearly once an hour. This means that the pen

on the chart recorder will drop from the top of the chart back to the bottom and start over. The result will be a jagged record like the one shown below:

On low-quality oscillators you may want to increase the chart width as much as possible (to 100 microseconds, for example). On higher quality oscillators you may want to decrease the chart width to show more resolution. You can also vary the speed of the chart

recorder. You need to study the manuals for the receiver and chart recorder so that you

can produce charts that are easy to interpret and that suit your calibration needs.

94
When you use WWVB for frequency calibrations, remember that the signal started

out at the transmitter as a nearly perfect frequency source. By the time it arrives as your

receiver, it has been altered by diurnal phase shifts, and noise along the radio path. If you

know what to look for, you can interpret the chart recordings obtained from your receiver

and measure the performance of your oscillator at accuracies as high as 1.00E-11.

Computing Relative Frequency from a WWVB Chart Recording

There are two ways to compute relative frequency from a VLF or LF plot. You can

take the slope of the daytime portion of the plot (the straight portion), or you can take

the time difference between two discrete points 1 day apart. This second method is easier

to use. For example, after comparing your oscillator to your WWVB receiver for over 24

hours, you can select one point on the chart that was recorded during the daytime (to avoid

diurnal phase shifts). You can then take the difference between this point and a point

recorded 24 hours later. For the purposes of our example, let's say that this difference is 25 microseconds, or one-half the width of a typical chart.

Since WWVB is the reference frequency, the 25-microsecond phase shift is attributed

to the oscillator being tested. The number of microseconds in a 24-hour period is shown

below:

86 400 000 000

Since the oscillator moved 25 microseconds, we can say that its relative frequency is equal to 25 parts in 86 400 000 000 parts, or:

25

86 400 000 000

This number represents the relative frequency of the oscillator under test. Since the

number is so small, we use scientific notation:

2.89E-10

If you use the slope of the daytime phase to compute relative frequency, you need to account for cycle jumps and transmitter phase shifts. On days when the radio propagation

is poor or the signal is noisy, it may not be possible to get an accurate relative frequency

reading for that day. For more information on relative frequency and what it means, see chapter 4.

95
TIME CALIBRATIONS USING WWVB

Like the high frequency stations WWV and WWVH, WWVB also broadcasts a time

code. There are three ways to use the time code. The first (and most expensive) way is to use a WWVB receiver that automatically decodes and displays the time. There are a number of manufacturers that produce this type of equipment. A second way is to use a

receiver with internal logic circuits that provide a level shift code output. This code may

be applied directly to a strip chart or to an oscilloscope for manual use. And finally, the

simplest way is to observe the amplified signal using a tuned radio frequency receiver and

an oscilloscope.

The illustration below shows the signal envelope as seen on an oscilloscope at the

transmitter with a scale of 5 milliseconds per centimeter. The on-time point is easily seen. With the horizontal scale of the oscilloscope expanded to 200 microseconds per centimeter,

the on-time point can be determined to within about ±2 cycles of the 60-kHz carrier. Of

course, the farther the receiving site is from the transmitter, the more the signal-to-noise

ratio degrades until some averaging techniques must be employed. Since the WWVB data

rate is only one bit per second, visual integration is very difficult, especially when the

horizontal scale is expanded to allow greater time resolution. Averaging or signal

integration using a signal averager or an oscilloscope camera works quite well at remote

receiving locations.

0 1 2 3 4 5

milliseconds/centimeter

96
The actual process of time recovery consists of viewing the signal envelope on an

oscilloscope that is being triggered by a local clock at the receiving site. Having previously

determined the path delay, its value can be subtracted from the total observed delay on

the oscilloscope to obtain the local clock error.

In very noisy locations, where the on-time point is difficult to identify, a photograph

of the waveform can be helpful. Sometimes it is advantageous to allow a number of

oscilloscope traces to be exposed on the same piece of film. This has an averaging effect

that simplifies the location of the on-time point. However, a single exposure can be used.

Take the photo and draw one horizontal line through the average of the waveform amplitude

and another line along the average slope of the dropout. The intersection of these lines is the on-time point.

Receiving sites that are long distances from the transmitter have an added problem

when high resolution timing is desired. If the delay to the receiver site is, say, 15

milliseconds and the sweep speed is set to 1 millisecond per centimeter, the on-time point

of the envelope will be off the oscilloscope face.

This problem can be solved if a second clock is available. The second clock can be

adjusted late so that when used for the oscilloscope trigger source, the on-time point will

be near the beginning of the trace. The sweepspeed can now be increased to obtain the

desired resolution. The time intervals to be accounted for are the time between the

beginning of the trace and the on-time point, and the interval between the local clock and

the second clock. The local clock error is:

Local Clock Error = D - delta(tc) - delta(to)

where: D is the propagation delay

delta(tc) is the interval between the two clocks

delta(to) is the trace delay on the oscilloscope

If the local clock error is positive, then the local clock pulse occurs after the

transmitted time pulse. If the local clock error is negative, then the local clock pulse occurs

before the transmitted time pulse.

97
Format of the WWVB Time Code

WWVB transmits a special time code that provides time information. This service

is used by seismologists, standards labs, commercial power companies, and others interested

in synchronization with accuracies of the order of 500 microseconds. The code provides

year, day, hour, and minute information. Seconds are resolved by counting bits. A

correction, applied to the transmitted time to obtain Earth time, UT1, is also provided for use by some astronomers and navigators. Other code bits provide information about

Daylight Saving Time, leap years, and leap seconds.

Unlike a code that is designed primarily for machine decoding, the WWVB code was

originally designed to be manually decoded from strip chart recordings or tapes. To simplify

this process for a human decoder, the most significant bit occurs first in each code word.

The actual bit, whether a binary zero, binary one, or position identifier, is determined by

the duration of the power reduction of the transmitter carrier.

The WWVB time code is synchronized with the 60-kHz carrier and is broadcast

continuously at a rate of one pulse per second. The time code is sent in binary coded

decimal (BCD) format. Bits are sent by shifting the power of the 60-kHz carrier. The

carrier power is reduced 10 dB at the start of each second. If full power is restored 200

milliseconds later, it represents a 0 bit. If full power is restored 500 milliseconds later, it represents a 1 bit. Reference markers and position identifiers are sent by restoring full power 800 milliseconds later.

The time code is in binary coded decimal (BCD) format. Groups of binary digits

(bits) are used to represent decimal numbers. The binary-to-decimal weighting scheme is 8-4-2-1. The most significant bit is always sent first. This is the reverse of the

WWV/WWVH time code. The table below shows the BCD groups and their decimal

equivalent:

BINARY GROUP

Weight: 8 4 2 1

DECIMAL

EQUIVALENT

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

1

1

0

0

0

0

1

1

1

1

0

0

0

0

1

1

0

0

1

1

0

0

0

1

0

1

0

1

0

1

0

1

0

1

2

3

4

5

6

7

8

9

98
The decimal number is obtained by multiplying each bit in the binary group by the

weight of its respective column and then adding the four products together. For example,

the table shows that the binary group 0101 is equal to 5. This is derived by:

(0 x 8) + (1 x 4) + (0 x 2) + (1 x 1) = 0 + 4 + 0 + 1 = 5

Every minute, the WWVB time code sends the current minute, hour, day of year, and

year; a UT1 correction, and Daylight Saving Time (DST), leap second, and leap year

indicators. Two BCD groups are needed to express the hour (00 to 23) and minute (00 to

59); and three groups are needed to express the day of year (001 to 366). To represent

units, tens, or hundreds, the basic 8-4-2-1 weights are simply multiplied by 1, 10, or 100 as appropriate. The coded information refers to the time at the start of the one-minute frame.

Seconds are determined by counting pulses within the frame.

Each minute begins with a frame reference pulse lasting for 0.8 second. A position

identifier pulse lasting for 0.8 second is transmitted every 10 seconds.

UT1 corrections are broadcast at seconds 36 through 44 of each frame. These

corrections are to the nearest 0.1 second. The bits transmitted at 36, 37, and 38 seconds

show whether UT1 is positive or negative with respect to UTC. If 1 bits are sent at

seconds 36 and 38, the UT1 correction is positive. If a 1 bit is sent at second 37, the UT1

correction is negative. The amount of the UT1 correction is sent in a 4-bit BCD group at

40, 41, 42, and 43 seconds. The binary-to-decimal weights are multiplied by 0.1, because the

UT1 corrections are expressed in tenths of seconds. Information about tens of year is sent

in seconds 45 through 48, and units of year information are sent in seconds 50 through 53.

The WWVB time code also contains information about leap years, leap seconds, and

DST. The leap year bit is transmitted at 55 seconds. If it is set to 1, then the current year

is a leap year. The bit is set to 1 during each leap year sometime after January 1 but

before February 29. It is set back to 0 shortly after January 1 of the year following the

leap year. Receivers that read this bit can automatically adjust themselves during leap

years. Receivers can also automatically adjust themselves for leap seconds, by reading the

leap second warning bit transmitted at 56 seconds into the frame.

Two DST bits are sent at 57 and 58 seconds. Using two bits allows a receiver that

is turned on during a time change day to set its time correctly. Bit 57 changes from 0 to

1 at 0000 UTC on the day of the change from standard time to DST. Exactly 24 hours

later, bit 58 also changes from 0 to 1. On the day of change back to standard time, bit

57 will go from 1 to 0 at 0000 UTC, followed exactly 24 hours later by bit 58. During all other days both bits will be 0 or 1, depending on whether standard time or DST is in effect.

99
FREQUENCY CALIBRATIONS USING THE OMEGA NAVIGATION SYSTEM

The Omega Navigation System consists of eight VLF radio stations operating in the

10- to 14-kHz range. The eight stations are listed below:

Omega Navigation System Stations

Call

Sign

Location Power

(kW)

Carrier

(kHz)

Days/

Week

Hours/

Day

Omega

A

Alda,

Norway

10 11.05 - F

10.20 - A

11.33 - C

13.60 - B

7 24

Omega

B

Monrovia,

Liberia

10 11.05 - G

10.20 - B

11.33 - D

13.60 - C

7 24

Omega

C

Haiku, Oahu,

Hawaii

10 11.05 - H

10.20 - C

11.33 - E

13.60 - D

7 24

Omega

D

La Moure,

North Dakota

10 11.05 - A

10.20 - D

11.33 - F

13.60 - E

7 24

Omega

E

La Reunion 10 11.05 - B

10.20 - E

11.33 - G

13.60 - F

7 24

Omega

F

Golfo Nuevo,

Argentina

10 11.05 - C

10.20 - F

11.33 - H

13.60 - G

7 24

Omega

G

Woodside,

Victoria,

Australia

10 11.05 - D

10.20 - G

11.33 - A

13.60 - H

7 24

Omega

H

Tsushima

Islands,

Japan

10 11.05 - E

10.20 - H

11.33 - B

13.60 - A

7 24

100
If you decide to use an Omega signal for frequency calibrations, a phase-tracking

receiver is recommended. If one of the navigation frequencies is to be used, then an Omega

commutator must also be used. This is a device that turns the phase-tracking receiver on

and off at the proper times to receive only the desired Omega station.

The frequencies and the format segments of the Omega stations are referenced to cesium beam oscillators, so the transmissions are very stable. The USNO monitors and

reports the daily phase values for each Omega station. NIST radio stations WWV and

WWVH (see chapter 5) each broadcast a 40-second message describing the current status

of the Omega Navigation System. This message is broadcast at 16 minutes after the hour

on WWV and at 47 minutes after the hour on WWVH.

Operating Characteristics of Omega

The eight Omega stations transmit in the internationally allocated VLF navigational

band between 10 and 14 kHz. Since the Omega stations transmit at a very low frequency

and at a high power (10 kilowatts), it is possible to receive at least one Omega station just

about anywhere in the world. In some remote locations, Omega might be the only signal

available for frequency calibrations. The map below shows the location of the eight Omega

stations.

101
Each Omega station transmits on four common navigational frequencies (10.2, 11.05,

11.33, and 13.6 kHz) and one unique frequency (from 11.8 to 13.1 kHz) using an

omnidirectional antenna. In order to prevent interference, transmissions from each station are time-sequenced in an eight-segment frame as shown in the figure below- Each station uses one channel of the frame for each of the four common frequencies, and four segments

for its unique frequency. The unique frequencies for each station are marked with an

asterisk. The unique frequency is normally used for frequency calibrations.

Station

Segments with Frequencies in kHz

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8

Norway 10. 02 13 . 60 11. 33 12 . 1* 12 . 1* 11.05 12 . 1* 12 . 1*

Liberia 12 . 0* 10.20 13.60 11. 33 12 . 0* 12.0* 11. 05 12 . 0*

Hawaii 11.8* 11.8* 10.20 13 . 60 11.33 11.8* 11.8* 11. 05

North Dakota 11. 05 13 . 1* 13 . 1* 10.20 13 . 60 11. 33 13. 1* 13 . 1*

La Reunion 12 .3* 11. 05 12 .3* 12 .3* 10.20 13 . 60 11. 33 12 .3*

Argentina 12 .9* 12.9* 11.05 12.9* 12.9* 10.20 13.60 11. 33

Australia 11. 33 13 . 0* 13 . 0* 11. 05 13 . 0* 13 . 0* 10.20 13 . 60

Japan 13 . 60 11. 33 12.8* 12.8* 11.05 12.8* 12.8* 10.20

* unique frequency

The Omega signal pattern is arranged so that only four stations transmit on the

navigational frequencies during each segment. Since no stations broadcast on the same

frequency at the same time, each individual station can be identified. The length of each

segment varies from 0.9 to 1.2 seconds, and there is a 0.2-second silent interval between

segments. The entire signal pattern repeats itself every 10 seconds.

All Omega transmitting stations are synchronized by means of very stable cesium

beam frequency standards. The synchronization of all transmissions is tightly controlled,

and the phase relationships between all signals are maintained to within a fraction of a

cycle. Although the signals are highly stable as transmitted, you need to be aware of the

propagation characteristics of Omega before you use the signals for frequency calibrations.

These characteristics are discussed in the next section.

102
Propagation Characteristics of Omega

The same characteristics that allow Omega signals to be received at great distances

also limit their accuracy. Since Omega signals are propagated between the Earth and the

ionosphere, the propagation parameters change as a result of changes in the Earth or ionosphere. If you use Omega for frequency calibrations, you need to be aware of several

types of phase shifts that might show up in your data.

The most common type of Omega phase shift is due to the diurnal effect. Like

WWVB signals (page 91), Omega signals are subject to diurnal phase shifts due to the rise

and fall of the Sun along the radio path. However, since these diurnal phase shifts are highly repeatable, it is possible to predict when they will occur and to correct for them

during calibrations.

Unpredictable short-term variations may also occur. Ninety-five percent of the time,

these are small variations related to random propagational variations which will not degrade

the signal's accuracy. Occasionally, however, large disturbances can occur as a result of

solar emission of ray or particle bursts. The emission of rays from the Sun occasionally causes a short-term disruption of Omega signals; this is called a Sudden Phase Anomaly

(SPA). The duration of a SPA is generally not greater than 1 hour, but it can cause a

large phase shift. A SPA can occur as often as 7-10 times per month. It usually affects

signals from only a few stations at a time since rays from the Sun usually enter only part

of the illuminated portion of the Earth's surface.

The Omega phase can also be shifted by a Polar Cap Disturbance (PCD). A PCD

occurs when a large quantity of protons are released from the Sun. Although an infrequent

occurrence, a PCD might shift the phase of an Omega signal for a period of several days.

However, a PCD only affects those transmissions involving arctic propagation paths.

Because of their possible long duration, PCD notices are broadcast as navigational warning

messages on WWV and WWVH (see page 101).

Modal interference is another form of signal interference. It occurs when the Omega

signal propagates in different ways over the radio path, and the various propagation modes

interfere with each other (the groundwave interferes with the skywave, for example). Under

ideal conditions, one mode would be dominant at all times, and the received phase from

Omega would be regular. However, in practice, the competing modes do not completely

disappear. The worst thing that can happen with modal interference is a situation where

the modal dominance changes. An example of this is a situation where one mode is dominant during the day and a second mode is dominant at night. During the transitional

period between day and night, the two modes are equal, and abnormal transitions may occur

in which cycles are "slipped" or lost.

103
The plots below show the phase of Omega as received at NIST in Boulder, Colorado,

and compared to the national frequency standard over a 1-week period (7 days). The first

plot shows the 11.8-kHz signal from Hawaii, and the second plot shows the 13.1-kHz signal

from North Dakota. The plots show that the Omega signals are stable and the diurnal

phase shifts are predictable. The plot of the Hawaii signal demonstrates that Omega signals are usable over a very long radio path (several thousand miles).

Onega Hawaii (11.8 kHz) us UTC(NIST)

46

11/18/85 (MJD 46387) Channel 1 (MJD 46394) 11/25/85

16:18 [tic narks = 4 hours] 14:52

Data points= 263

Onega North Dakota (13.1 kHz) ws UTC(NIST)

48

11/18/85 (MJD 46387) Channel 2 (MJD 46394) 11/25/85

16:18 [tic narks = 4 hours] 14:52 Data points= 263

104
OTHER LF AND VLF TIME AND FREQUENCY STATIONS

There are a number of other LF and VLF time and frequency stations located around

the world. Information about many of these stations is listed in the table below and on the

next page.

LF and VLF Time and Frequency Stations

Call

Sign

Location Power

(kW)

Carrier

(kHz)

Days/

Week

Hours/

Day

DCF77 Mainflingen,

Germany

20 77 . 50 7 24

GBR Rugby, United

Kingdom

60 15. 95

16. 00

7 22

HBG Prangins

,

Switzerland

20 75. 00 7 24

JJF-2

JG2AS

Sanwa,

Sashima,

Ibaraki

,

Japan

10 40 . 00 7 24

MSF Rugby, United

Kingdom

25 60. 00 7 24

NAA Cutler, Maine

United States

1000 24 . 00 7 24

NCA Aguada

,

Puerto Rico

100 28.50 7 24

NTD Yoshima

,

Japan

50 17.40 7 24

NLK Jim Creek,

Washington,

United States

125 24.80 7 24

NPM Lualualei

,

Hawaii

,

United States

600 23.40 7 24

NSS Annapolis,

Maryland,

United States

400 21.40 7 24

105
LF and VLF Time and Frequency Stations 1

Call

Sign

Location Power

(kW)

Carrier

(kHz)

Days/

Week

Hours/

Day

NWC NW Cape,

Australia

1000 22.30 7 24

OMA Liblice,

Czechoslovakia

5 50. 00 7 24

RBU Moskva,

USSR

10 66. 67 7 24

RTZ Irkutsk,

USSR

10 50. 00 7 23

RW-166 Irkutsk,

USSR

40 200. 00 7 23

RW-7 6 Novosibirsk,

USSR

150 272 . 00 7 22

UNW3 Molodechno,

USSR

25.50, 25.10

25.00, 23.00

20.50

7 2

UPD8 Arkhangelsk,

USSR

25.50, 25.10

25.00, 23.00

20. 50

7 2

UQC3 Khabarovsk,

USSR

300 25.50, 25.10

25.00, 23.00

20.50

7 2

USB2 Frunze,

USSR

25.50, 25.10

25.00, 23.00

20. 50

7 3

UTR3 Gorky,

USSR

300 25.50, 25.10

25.00, 23.00

20. 50

7 2

106
TIME AND FREQUENCY CALIBRATIONS USING LORAN-C

As we discussed in chapter 4, radio signals from Loran-C can make an excellent

reference frequency for calibrations. The success of Loran-C signals is due to a number of

things. Each station broadcasts 24 hours a day, 7 days a week. Each station is controlled

by cesium standards, and the signals are carefully monitored and controlled by the U.S.

Coast Guard, NIST, and the U.S. Naval Observatory (USNO). Loran-C groundwave signals

provide state-of-the-art frequency and time calibrations. Even the skywave signals, though

slightly less accurate, can become the basis of excellent high-quality calibrations. And since

many Loran-C transmitters exist, the signals are usable just about anywhere in the northern

hemisphere.

Like Omega, Loran-C is a radio navigation system (Loran is an acronym for LOng

RAnge Navigation). All Loran-C stations broadcast on a frequency of 100 kHz, using a bandwidth from 90 to 110 kHz. At this low frequency, the radio waves follow the Earth's

curvature and are not subjected to the large diurnal phase shifts that occur with signals

from WWVB or Omega.

The Loran-C navigation system consists of many synchronized "chains" or networks

of stations. These chains provide groundwave coverage of most of the United States,

Canada, Europe, the North Atlantic, the islands of the Central and West Pacific, the

Philippines, and Japan. Each chain has one master station (designated as M), and from two

to four slave stations (designated as W, X, Y, and Z). Information about each Loran-C chain

is listed below and on the next two pages. This information lists all of the chains being

monitored by the USNO at the time of this writing, but new stations are continually being

added. For the exact status of the Loran-C system, please contact the U.S. Coast Guard.

Loran-C Time and Frequency Stations

Chain Stations Power (kW)

4990 Johnston Island, Hawaii, USA M 275

Upolu Point, Hawaii, USA X 275

Kure Island, Hawaii, USA Y 275

5930 Caribou, Maine, USA M 350

Nantucket Island, Mass., USA X 275

Cape Race, Newfoundland, Canada Y 1500

Fox Harbour, Labrador, Canada Z 800

5990 Williams Lake, BC, Canada M 400

Shoal Cove, Alaska, USA X 540

George, Washington, USA Y 1600

Port Hardy, BC, Canada Z 400

107
Loran-C Time and Frequency Stations

Chain Stations Power (kW)

7930 Fox Harbour, Labrador, Canada M 800

Cape Race, Newfoundland, Canada W 1500

Angissoq, Greenland X

*7 C f\

~i f~\ f r\ 7960 Tok, Alaska, USA M 540

Narrow Cape, Alaska, USA X 400

Shoal Cove, Alaska, USA Y 540

r\ *7 r\ 7970 Ejde, Faeroe Islands, Denmark M 325

Sylt, Germany W 325

Boe, Norway X 165

Sandur, Iceland Y 1500

Jan Mayen, Norway Z 165

T O A A 7980 Malone, Florida, USA M

r\ r\ r\ 800

Grangeville, Louisiana, USA W

o r\ r\ 8 00

Raymondville, Texas, USA X 400

Jupiter, Florida, USA Y 275

Carolina Beach, N. Carolina, USA Z 550

7990 Sellia Marina, Italy M 165

Lampedusa, Italy X 325

Kargabarun, Turkey Y 165

Estartit, Spain Z 165

8970 Dana, Indiana, USA M 400

Malone, Florida, USA W 800

Seneca, New York, USA X 800

Baudette, Minnesota, USA Y

o r\ r\ 800

9940 Fallon, Nevada, USA M 4 00

George, Washington, USA W 1600

Middleton, California, USA X 400

Searchlight, Nevada, USA Y 540

9960 Seneca, New York, USA M 800

Caribou, Maine, USA W 350

Nantucket Island, Mass., USA X 275

Carolina Beach, N. Carolina, USA Y 550

Dana, Indiana, USA Z 400

108
Loran-C Time and Frequency Stations

Chain Stations Power (kW)

9970 Iwo Jima, Japan M 1800

Marcus Island, Japan W 1800

Hokkaido, Japan X 1000

Gesashi, Japan Y 1000

Yap, Caroline Island z 1000

9980 Sandur, Iceland M 1500

Angissoq, Greenland W 760

Ejde, Faeroe Island, Denmark X 325

9990 St. Paul, Alaska, USA M 275

Attu, Alaska, USA X 275

Point Clarence, Alaska, USA Y 1000

Narrow Cape, Alaska, USA Z 400

The master station in a Loran-C chain transmits groups of pulses that are received

by the slave stations. The slave stations receive the master pulse groups, and then transmit

similar groups of synchronized pulses.

When Loran-C is used to navigate, the constant time differences between the

reception of the master pulses and the slave pulses are used to determine a line of position

(LOP). Determining an LOP requires receiving signals from three separate Loran-C

transmitters (the master and at least two slaves). However, for frequency and time

applications, you only need to receive one Loran-C station. This station can be either a master or a slave, although some receivers require the master station to be received before

the slaves can be identified.

Format of Loran-C Broadcasts

All Loran-C stations broadcast on the same carrier frequency (100 kHz). Because of

this, a Loran-C receiver has to distinguish between signals broadcast from a number of

different transmitters.

Each Loran-C chain is identified by a unique Group Repetition Interval (GRI). The

length of the GRI is fixed, and each chain is named according to its GRI (divided by 10).

For example, the 7980 chain has a GRI of 79 800 microseconds. This means that every

79 800 microseconds (or about 12 times per second) every station in the chain transmits a group of pulses. The GRI must be long enough for each station in the chain to transmit

its pulses and to accommodate for spacing between the pulses. Enough time must be

109
included between the pulses so that signals from two or more stations cannot overlap in

time anywhere in the coverage area. Therefore, the minimum GRI is determined by the

number of stations in the chain, and by the distance between the stations. Possible GRI

values range from 40 000 microseconds to 99 990 microseconds. \

Once a Loran-C chain has been identified, the stations within the chain can also be

identified by looking at the pulses. The master station sends its pulses first. The master

transmits 8 pulses separated by a 1000-microsecond delay. Then 2000 microseconds after

the 8th pulse, a 9th pulse is sent. The 9th pulse is used to identify the master station.

The slave stations then send their pulses in turn. For example, if a chain has three slave

stations (X, Y, and Z), they send their pulses in order. X goes first, then Y, then Z. Each

slave station transmits 8 pulses separated by a 1000-microsecond delay. The figure below

illustrates the way Loran-C pulses are transmitted.

Master

Pulses

GRI —

X Y

Pulses Pulses

Z

Pulses

Master

Pulses

Loran station identification is also aided by separately phase-coding the master and

slave pulses. Each group of pulses is coded by a phase reversal process which enables the

receiver to eliminate certain types of interference. All these subtle differences in

transmission pulse rates make Loran-C receivers fairly complex. If you have a manual

Loran-C receiver, you need to know many of the details of the broadcast format before you

can acquire and track a Loran-C signal. However, some Loran-C receivers are now

completely automatic. If you key in the GRI, these receivers will acquire and track the

desired stations in just a few seconds.

110
Loran-C Reception

Radio energy from each Loran-C transmitter radiates in all directions. A portion of

the energy travels out from each transmitting station parallel to the surface of the Earth.

This is the groundwave.

Useful Loran-C groundwave coverage extends from approximately 2400 to 3200

kilometers (1500 to 2000 miles). During periods of good reception, this range may be

greater; and during periods of high noise and interference, it may be less. However, with

typical noise and interference levels, 2400 kilometers (1500 miles) is a good estimate of the

reliable groundwave range of Loran-C signals from a station transmitting 300 kilowatts.

Part of the Loran radio signal radiates upward from the transmitting antenna and

is reflected from the electrified layer of the atmosphere known as the ionosphere. This

signal is called the skywave. If the groundwave signal has traveled a long distance, it will

be reduced in amplitude and weakened. The receiver will pick up both the groundwave and

the skywave signals. The receiver cannot easily lock to the groundwave because it is weak

and noisy, so it will lock to the skywave signal.

Receiving the skywave is less desirable than receiving the groundwave. This is because the skywave signal "moves" around, since it is reflected off the ionosphere. This

movement is caused by the motion of the ionosphere due to the rise and fall of the Sun.

If you are receiving skywave signals from Loran-C, you may see diurnal phase shifts in your

data, similar to those (although smaller in magnitude) from WWVB (page 91) or Omega

(page 104).

Receiving the skywave signals isn't all bad, however. Because the skywave signals are stronger than groundwave signals at great distances, skywave lock-on is possible at

distances beyond where the groundwave signals can be received. And although the skywave

moves around, it does so in a predictable way. With good recordkeeping, the Loran-C

skywaves can yield very good time and frequency data.

Part of the reason that Loran-C transmits pulses is so that the receiver can

distinguish between groundwave and skywave signals. The accuracy of the system is based on the fact that the early part of the pulse (the part that leaves the transmitter first) will

travel along the ground and arrive before the less stable skywave pulse that bounces off the

ionosphere. By determining what cycle of the pulse is being tracked, you can tell if you are tracking a skywave or a groundwave. Many receivers track the third cycle of the pulse.

The third cycle arrives early enough to be groundwave but has enough amplitude for the

signal to be strong. A picture of a Loran-C pulse with the third cycle identified is shown

on the next page. The shape of the pulse makes it possible for a receiver to identify one

particular cycle of a 100-kHz carrier, and to stay locked to that cycle.

Ill
Getting Time From Loran-C

Loran-C pulses are very stable and can be used as the frequency source for a very

accurate clock. Loran-C does not have a time code, and the clock must originally be set to the correct time (UTC), using a time signal from WWV (chapter 5) or some other source. However, once the clock is set, the Loran-C pulses should keep the clock accurate to within

10 microseconds or better.

If you use Loran-C pulses to drive a clock, you must remember that the interval

between pulses (the GRI) is not an even multiple of 1 second. For example, the stations

in the Loran 7980 chain transmit their pulses every 79 800 microseconds*, or a little more

than 12 times per second. In order to get time from Loran-C, you need to know the time

of coincidence (TOC) when the Loran pulse coincides with a 1 second pulse. Depending

on the GRI, a TOC may occur as infrequently as every 16 minutes. You can obtain TOC

tables for all Loran-C chains by writing to the U.S. Naval Observatory, Time Services

Department, Washington, DC, 20392-5100.

Some Loran-C receivers have a TOC button. If the receiver is locked to the incoming

signal, you can press this button when a TOC occurs to synchronize a 1 pulse-per-second

(1 pps) timing signal to the Loran pulses. If you do not lose power, and the receiver does

not lose lock, the timing pulses will stay on time. It is important to keep a battery supply

connected to the receiver to prevent loss of synchronization in case of power outages.

112
As mentioned previously, a clock driven by Loran-C pulses can keep time to within

10 microseconds. Of course, keeping time at this accuracy requires taking path and

equipment delays into account. In addition, you need to know the sample point where the

receiver is locked on the signal. Since Loran-C operates at 100 kHz, the zero crossings of

the pulses are separated by the 10-microsecond period. Whenever your receiver moves from

one cycle to the next, the time jumps by 10 microseconds. Some Loran-C timing receivers

have oscilloscope and chart recorder outputs so you can see the exact position of the sample

point.

Frequency Calibrations Using Loran-C

When using Loran-C for frequency calibrations, time interval measurements are the

method of choice. For details about making frequency calibrations using the time interval

method, please read chapter 4. That chapter discusses a computer-controlled frequency

measurement system based on the time interval method that uses Loran-C as a reference

frequency (page 46). This system uses a time interval counter to measure and record the

time interval between the Loran-C signal and the signal from the oscillator being calibrated.

Using a system like the one described in chapter 4 allows even the smallest laboratory to make state-of-the-art frequency calibrations.

Loran-C is almost unequaled as a frequency calibration source. Loran-C signals are good enough to calibrate quartz, rubidium, or cesium oscillators. One reason for this is that

the Loran-C groundwave (unlike other VLF or LF broadcasts) is not subjected to large

diurnal phase shifts. Of course, Loran-C signals change phase due to propagation noise

along the radio path. However, these phase shifts are quite small and average out over a 24-hour period. For example, the relative frequency of Loran-C is about 1.00E-12 over a 24-hour period when compared to the NIST time scale. This means that the amount of

Loran-C phase shift over a 24-hour period is only about 0.1 microsecond (100 nanoseconds).

The small errors in Loran-C phase generally do not cause problems when making

frequency calibrations. This is because the Loran-C signals are far more accurate than the

frequency output of most oscillators. For example, assume that Loran-C is being used to calibrate an oscillator with a calibration requirement of 1.00E-10. Since Loran signals are accurate to about 1.00E-12 over a 24-hour period, this means they are 100 times more

accurate than the calibration requirement for the oscillator. If the performance of the

oscillator relative to Loran-C is plotted, the small errors in the Loran-C phase are not even

visible. A plot which illustrates this is on the next page. For this type of calibration, using

Loran works just as well as using the NIST time scale.

The second plot on the next page shows a cesium oscillator compared to Loran-C over

a period of nearly 4 weeks. This data is plotted on a much smaller scale than the previous

plot, and the data is not as smooth because the small errors in the Loran-C phase are now

visible. However, the plot still shows us that the cesium oscillator is high in frequency

(although only by 1.87E-12), relative to Loran-C.

113
Rubidium Oscillator vs Loran-C 9948 (Fallon, Nevada)

20

11/01/89 (MJD 47831) Channel 1 (MJD 47832) 11/02/89

16:39 [tic narks = 1 hour] 14:54 Data points= 21 Relative Frequency: +2.42E-10 r=*1.00

Cesiun Oscillator vs Loran-C 9940 (Fallon, Nevada)

E 2.5

e

12/02/89 (MJD 47862) Channel 1 (MJD 47888) 12/28/89

17:00 [tic narks - 24 hours! 17:00 Data points^ 623 Relative Frequency: +1.87E-12 r=*0.98

SUMMARY

Signals broadcast from LF and VLF radio stations are an excellent choice for time

and frequency calibrations. These signals provide more accuracy than the HF signals

discussed in chapter 5. However, using LF and VLF signals might require more time,

money, and effort than using HF signals.

The next chapter of this book discusses yet another alternative: time and frequency

signals broadcast by satellite.

114
Chapter 7 - CALIBRATIONS USING SATELLITE BROADCASTS

Several satellite signals are available for time and frequency calibrations. An earthorbiting satellite is a nearly ideal vehicle for broadcasting time and frequency radio signals.

This is because the path between the satellite and the receiver is clear, and not influenced

by earth-bound noise sources.

NIST provides a continuous

time code through the GOES

(Geostationary Operational

Environmental Satellite) satellites.

These satellites are operated by the

National Oceanic and Atmospheric

Administration (NOAA). The time

code is referenced to UTC(NIST) and

is broadcast continuously to the entire

Western Hemisphere from two

satellites (GOES/East and

GOES/West). This cooperative

arrangement between NIST and

NOAA was made by formal

agreement. The current agreement

extends until 1997.

The U.S. Navy operates the

TRANSIT series of navigation

satellites, with major participation by

the Applied Physics Laboratory of the

Johns Hopkins University and the

U.S. Naval Observatory. The

operation of this system is also

discussed in this chapter.

In addition to GOES and

TRANSIT, the Global Positioning

Satellite System (GPS) is also covered

in this chapter. GPS offers users

several advantages. Its frequency

band, signal strength, and the use of

atomic oscillators on board each

satellite allow high-accuracy

calibrations. Also, its popularity

should make equipment available that

is versatile and easy to use.

115
USING THE GOES SATELLITE BROADCASTS

A satellite signal is no different than any other radio signal as far as the user is concerned, You should not be discouraged by the difference in frequency or the operating

techniques needed for frequency and time calibrations using GOES. In fact, tests have

shown that GOES is one of the easiest services to use and can be used in areas where

other signals are nearly impossible to receive. The equipment provided by manufacturers

is usually quite sophisticated and nearly automatic in its operation.

The GOES satellites are in geostationary orbit 36 000 kilometers above the equator

and travel at a speed of about 11 000 kilometers per hour. Geostationary means that the

satellites stay above the same spot on the Earth's surface. Because they are geostationary,

the path delay for the time code remains relatively constant at all times.

Geostationary satellites for time broadcasting are almost always in view and provide

a source of continuous synchronization. Non-geostationary satellites, on the other hand,

offer exposure to the user for only short periods of time at intervals ranging from about

1 hour to many hours or even days. Thus, non-geostationary satellite systems usually

have a number of satellites in orbit.

GOES can be used for frequency calibrations. You could use GOES signals as the

reference frequency for a frequency measurement system like the one shown on page 46.

However, GOES has a time-code output (perhaps its major application is for its time code),

and most commercially available GOES receivers were designed for time recovery.

Frequency calibrations obtained using GOES time data fall into the accuracy range from

1.00E-06 to 1.00E-09 (for a 1-day measurement) with respect to NIST, depending on the

sophistication of the equipment used.

The path from the receiver to a geostationary satellite is free from obstructions and

allows using high carrier frequencies that are largely unaffected by the ionosphere and

troposphere. This eliminates the fading and path length variations which are characteristic

of terrestrial HF signals. The clear path also means that the path delay can be computed

with greater accuracy than with HF signals.

The NIST master clock is located on the ground rather than in the satellite itself. The satellite is only a transponder used to relay signals. This allows for easy control and

maintenance of the system, thus guaranteeing better performance and reliability.

Because of these advantages, the GOES satellite can provide a continuous time

message to receivers in its view. It can control the frequency rate of the slaved ground

clock to eliminate the need for high-quality oscillators and can also provide position data

to correct for propagation delays.

116
GOES COVERAGE

There are usually three GOES satellites in orbit, two in operation and a third

serving as an in-orbit spare (this situation can change due to failure of one or more

satellites). The two operational satellites are normally located at 135 degrees and 75

degrees West Longitude, and the spare is at 105 degrees West Longitude, however, this

may change at times depending upon the current operational status of the available

satellites. The western GOES operates on 468.825 MHz; the eastern on 468.8375 MHz.

The approximate coverage of the two operational satellites is shown on the map below.

As you can see from the map, much of the Western Hemisphere is covered by at least one

satellite. The continental United States is covered by both satellites.

It is relatively simple to point an antenna to either satellite. If the path to the

satellite is clear, pointing in the general direction of the satellite is usually sufficient,

particularly for relatively low gain antennas (<10 dB). Satellite positions may change with

time. Users should check the monthly NIST Time and Frequency Bulletin for the latest

information.

1 - GOES/West

2 - Both Satellites

3 - GOES/East

117
GOES SIGNAL CHARACTERISTICS

As mentioned earlier, there are three GOES satellites in orbit, two in operational

status with a third serving as an in-orbit spare. The signal characteristics of the two

operational satellites are summarized in the table below:

uU£iO/ HCl 0 L. Frequency 468.8250 MHz 468.8375 MHz

rOlailZaLlun

riuuuiauiun V-jrorv ^ZDU J "«* r 0 Ja (IDU J

LJCX La J\d L-t: 1 u U O IT aJJ 1 on Rpc;

Satellite Location 135 West 75 East

Signal Strength

(output from

isotropic antenna)

-131 dBm -131 dBm

Coding Manchester Manchester

Bandwidth 400 Hz 400 Hz

* right hand circularly polarized

** coherent phase shift keying

GOES TIME CODE FORMAT

The GOES time code is generated and sent to the satellite from NOAA's facility at

Wallops Island, Virginia. The frequency standards at Wallops Island provide a stable and

accurate reference for the time code. They are compared to UTC(NIST) with Loran-C and

GPS. The transmitted accuracy from Wallops Island is kept within at least 10

microseconds of UTC(NIST).

The GOES time code includes the current year, complete time-of-year information,

the UT1 correction, satellite position information, accuracy indicators, Daylight Saving Time

and leap second indicators, and system status information.

The time code is interlaced with interrogation messages that do not contain time and

frequency information. The interrogation messages are used by NOAA to communicate

118
with systems gathering weather data. The interrogation messages are broadcast at a rate

of 100 bits per second. They are one-half second, or 50 bits in length. The first 4 bits

form a BCD time code word. The remaining 46 bits do not contain timing information.

A time code frame consists of 60 BCD time code words. It takes 60 interrogation

messages, or 30 seconds, to complete a time code frame. The completed time code frame

contains a synchronization word, time code accuracy indicators, Daylight Saving Time

(DST) and leap second indicators, system status information, a time-of-year word (UTC day

of year, hour, minute, and second), the last two digits of the current year, the UT1

correction, and the satellite's position. The position information is updated every minute.

It includes the satellite's latitude, longitude, and height above the Earth's surface.

GOES TIME CODE PERFORMANCE

The GOES time code can be used at three performance levels: uncorrected for path

delay, corrected for mean path delay only, and fully corrected.

Uncorrected: The total path delay from Wallops Island, Virginia (where the time code

originates), to the satellite and then back to Earth is about 260 milliseconds. To

compensate for this path delay, the signals are advanced by 260 milliseconds before

transmission from Wallops Island. The uncorrected signal arrives back on Earth nearly on time (within 16 milliseconds), depending upon the receiver's location.

Corrected for Mean Path Delay. If the appropriate mean path delay correction is made,

the signal arrival time is usually accurate to within ±0.5 milliseconds. (Occasionally,

however, NOAA uses satellites that produce delay variations of several milliseconds during

a 24-hour period.) For example, the mean path delay from San Francisco through

GOES/East is 255 milliseconds. The mean path delay consists of 130.5 milliseconds from

satellite to Earth, and 124.5 milliseconds from Earth to satellite. Since the time is advanced by 260 milliseconds before leaving Wallops Island, it arrives at San Francisco 5

milliseconds early. You can correct for mean path delay in San Francisco by subtracting

5 milliseconds from the time signal.

Fully Corrected: The satellite's orbit is not perfectly circular and not in the plane of the

equator. Therefore, the path delay at a fixed location typically varies by a few hundred

microseconds throughout the day. Also, the satellites are sometimes moved to keep their

orbital position within assigned limits. This movement causes irregular changes in the

path delay. Obtaining a fully corrected time signal requires correcting for these position

changes. Since satellite position data are included in the time code, users (and automatic

receivers) can make these corrections. A fully corrected time signal is usually accurate

to within ±100 microseconds. The ultimate accuracy depends on equipment delays and

noise levels in addition to the path delay.

119
GOES EQUIPMENT

GOES time code receivers are commercially available. Some of them are accurate

to within 100 microseconds over averaging periods of hours, months, or years. Other

versions are accurate to within 1-2 milliseconds over the same periods. For a list of

manufacturers, contact the Time and Frequency Services Group, 576.00, NIST, 325

Broadway, Boulder, CO 80303.

The manufacturers of GOES receivers also sell several different types of antennas.

The best performance has been obtained using a right hand, circularly polarized helical

antenna with about 10 dB gain. Excellent results have been obtained with the microstrip

antenna, also shown. Dipoles and loops have also worked at lower levels of performance.

All of these antennas had gains in the range of 3 to 10 dB. As a general rule, GOES

antennas are small and easy to use and install. They often work well indoors. This

makes it easier to receive GOES than many other time and frequency signals.

TIME CALIBRATIONS USING GOES

To use the GOES signals to calibrate or set another clock, you need to determine

the relationship of the satellite-controlled clock's 1 pps output relative to UTC(NIST) and

to the clock being calibrated. This relationship is usually determined by use of a time

interval counter. For example, the clock to be calibrated may start the counter; then the

satellite controlled clock stops it. The relationship between UTC(NIST) and the clock

being calibrated is then known by combining this measured result with the computed

difference between the satellite clock and UTC(NIST).

An example of the clock calibration procedure is given below. The clock to be

calibrated is located in Boulder, Colorado, where the GOES satellite signals are being

received. The calibration procedure is listed here for informational purposes. Keep in

mind that few, if any, users would actually need to work through this example. Most

GOES receivers perform these calculations automatically.

Signals received in Boulder (105.26 degrees West Longitude and 40.00 degrees North

Latitude) showed the satellite location to be:

134.92 degrees West Longitude

0.38 degrees South Latitude

-1-46 microseconds distance

120
The total path delay from NOAA's Wallops Island to the GOES receiver in Boulder,

Colorado, is 266 351 microseconds. This delay can be broken into three parts:

WALLOPS ISLAND TO SATELLITE

SATELLITE TO BOULDER

MEASURED EQUIPMENT DELAY

133 606 microseconds

127 533 microseconds

5 192 microseconds

TOTAL DELAY 266 351 microseconds

Since the GOES signal is late with respect to the clock at Wallops Island, we can

write our equation as follows:

GOES SIGNAL - WALLOPS ISLAND CLOCK = -266 351 microseconds

To compensate for the path delay between Wallops Island and the GOES receiver,

the Wallops Island clock is set 260 000 microseconds early with respect to UTC(NIST).

This means that a GOES signal received anywhere inside the coverage area will always be

within 16 000 microseconds of UTC(NIST). In the case of our receiver in Boulder, the

time difference is only -6 351 microseconds (260 000 - 266 351):

The measured time interval between the clock being calibrated and the GOES signal

is stated as:

CLOCK BEING CALIBRATED - GOES SIGNAL = +6,548 microseconds

Then, by adding the last two equations:

CLOCK BEING CALIBRATED - UTC(NIST) = +197 microseconds

This means that the clock being calibrated is within 197 microseconds of

UTC(NIST). From this example, you can see that GOES serves as an excellent reference

for time calibrations.

GOES SIGNAL - UTC(NIST) = -6 351 microseconds

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PRECAUTIONS FOR GOES USERS

The following paragraphs describe some conditions you should be aware of while

receiving GOES signals.

Interference From Land-Mobile Radio Services

The land-mobile radio services can interfere with the GOES time code, since they

use the same frequencies (468.8250 and 468.8375 MHz). This interference occurs mainly

in urban areas with high land-mobile activity. Since the land-mobile frequency allocations

have priority over the GOES allocations, complaints to the FCC do not help.

Because of the specific frequencies involved, the land-mobile services affect

GOES/West more than GOES/East. Therefore, users in urban areas should use GOES/East

if land-mobile interference is a problem,

Larger-than-Normal Time Code Deviations

The GOES time code is as accurate as stated more than 99 percent of the time.

However, some situations can cause largerthan-normal time code deviations. One

such situation occurs when NOAA uses a GOES/East and/or GOES/West satellite

with larger-than-normal orbit inclinations.

In this instance, users in "uncorrected"

mode may receive time with variations of

several milliseconds.

A more common problem (though of

much shorter duration) occurs when

stationkeeping maneuvers are performed on

the satellites. These maneuvers are performed every 1 or 2 months to keep the

satellites in their assigned orbit locations.

Receivers that use the position data can compensate for these maneuvers; however,

the position data are not updated until

0000 UTC on the day after the maneuver.

This means that for up to 24 hours

following a maneuver, the time code may

be off by more than the normal 100

microseconds. NIST changes the accuracyindicator bit in the time code to indicate

when this condition occurs.

Wallops Island,

Virginia

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Continuity

NIST cannot guarantee the long-term continuance of the GOES time code, since

the satellites belong to NOAA. However, NIST and NOAA have agreed to include the time

code in the GOES satellite transmissions as long as possible. The current agreement

extends to 1997.

THE TRANSIT NAVIGATION SYSTEM

These Navy navigation satellites have been operational since 1964. Known as the

TRANSIT satellites, their design, power, and coverage provide an excellent source of time

and frequency signals for calibration purposes. The signal format used on the system

lends itself well to time recovery from which frequency calibrations can be derived using

the techniques previously described in this book.

TRANSIT, being an orbiting system, experiences a much larger Doppler shift of its radio signal than GOES. This is no real problem for the user since the overall system

design takes this into account and provides enough information to the users so that

accurate time recovery can be achieved. The biggest difference between GOES and

TRANSIT is that the TRANSIT system can be used only during several brief periods each

day when a satellite is in view of the receiver.

This system is a good candidate for users who have a worldwide requirement.

TRANSIT will work anywhere in the world. GOES is limited to the Western Hemisphere

and its oceans.

The satellites broadcast at about 400 MHz. Their message contains information

that allows position fixing and time recovery. As with the GOES system, TRANSIT allows a user to recover time signals that can be used as a clock or to steer an oscillator's

frequency. Unlike GOES, however, the TRANSIT time signal format does not include dayof-the-year information. Accuracy of the overall system is slightly better than GOES. As

with the GOES system, the satellite message is designed to allow the receiver to synchronize itself, locate the required bits in the data stream and produce a time mark.

At this writing, the TRANSIT system permits time recovery to within 10-50 microseconds.

Although TRANSIT is primarily a navigation satellite system, the U.S. Navy provides

support for its frequency and time function. Users planning to obtain equipment to use TRANSIT, especially at remote locations, should contact the U.S. Naval Observatory (page

23) for the latest information. The manufacturers of TRANSIT equipment are another

good source of information.

123
At this writing, the TRANSIT system is supported by five orbiting satellites. These

are in a circular polar orbit at an altitude of about 1100 kilometers. Thus, a user on the

Earth will see a satellite every 90 minutes or so. In contrast to a GOES-type of

transponder, TRANSIT has an accurate clock onboard each of its satellites. These are monitored from earth-control stations, and corrections are sent to the satellites periodically

to keep them on time. In addition to position information, the satellites send a time

mark every 2 minutes. By monitoring the signals from four ground-monitor stations, the

Navy is able to steer the on-board clocks by special commands and to carefully control

the accuracy of the TRANSIT signals.

Equipment costs are higher for TRANSIT than for GOES, but still not unreasonable

considering the few alternatives. Antennas are small, vertical, omnidirectional, and simple

to install. Some TRANSIT receivers are computer-controlled and allow nearly hands-off

operation. However, TRANSIT receivers typically require that you obtain the time of day

(from another source) to within 15 minutes in order to resolve the time ambiguity of

TRANSIT. For some applications, it may also be necessary to key your longitude and

latitude into the receiver.,

GLOBAL POSITIONING SYSTEM (GPS)

The Global Positioning System (GPS) is a worldwide satellite-based radio navigation

system developed by the U.S. Department of Defense (DOD). The system allows users to obtain highly accurate time. GPS also transmits navigation information that permits

positioning accuracy at two levels. The higher accuracy is obtained from the precision

positioning service (PPS). Reduced accuracy is available from the standard positioning

service (SPS).

The PPS signal is not available for use by the general public. However, the SPS

signal is available to any properly equipped user. There are no fees associated with the use of SPS.

GPS should be fully implemented by the mid-1990's. The finished system will

include 24 satellites (21 primary satellites and 3 in-orbit spares). The spares will usually

be active and available to users. Each satellite will carry two rubidium and two cesium

atomic standards. The 24 satellites will be located in 6 equally spaced orbital planes (4

satellites per plane) inclined at 55 degrees with respect to the equator. The altitude of

each satellite is about 10 900 nautical miles.

GPS is being implemented in phases. The first GPS satellites (called Block I) were

launched beginning in February 1978. A total of 11 Block I satellites were launched. As

of this writing, seven are still operating and six are still usable for precise time transfer.

124
However, the Block I satellites were preliminary test units and will not be part of the 24

satellites included in the finished system. The satellites that will be included in the

finished system are called Block II satellites. The first Block II satellite was launched in

1989, and the launches will continue at a rate of about 5 per year until all 24 satellites are in orbit. After that time, about 3 additional launches per year may be needed to provide GPS with the necessary in-orbit spares.

Once all 24 satellites are in orbit, the probability is greater than 99.6% that a user

(at a random time and place on the Earth) will have coverage within the given threshold

for PDOP (position dilution of precision). A value of PDOP < 10 and an elevation angle

greater than 5 degrees are considered necessary to meet this condition.

Each GPS satellite broadcasts two carrier frequencies, called LI and L2 (where LI = 1575.42 MHz and L2 = 1227.6 MHz). Specified minimum signal strengths are -163

dBW and -160 dBW, respectively. Two spread spectrum waveforms (PRN) are in use:

(1) a coarse acquisition code (C/A), with a 1.023-MHz chip rate and

a period of 1 millisecond

(2) a precision code (P), with a 10-MHz chip rate

The C/A code is associated with the Standard Positioning Service and the P code

with the Precision Positioning Service. The C/A code is intentionally degraded in accuracy.

The LI frequency from each satellite is modulated with both the C/A and P codes, while

the L2 frequency is only modulated with the restricted P code. Although all GPS

satellites transmit on the LI and L2 frequencies, the interference between satellites is minimal. This is because each satellite is given an individual code assignment to prevent

interference.

Both the LI and L2 carrier frequencies are continuously modulated with a 50 bit

per second navigation message. This message contains the following information:

(1) The current status of each satellite, allowing you to reject

satellites that may be having problems.

(2) A "Handover Word (HOW)" needed in the acquisition of the P

code from the C/A code.

(3) Satellite clock corrections, providing differences between the

particular satellite clock and GPS system time and between

125
GPS system time and UTC(USNO). GPS system time is normally kept within 1 microsecond of UTC(USNO), except that

leap seconds are ignored by GPS system time. Users who apply

all time corrections contained in the GPS data message can

relate their clocks to UTC(USNO) with a precision of 100

nanoseconds and an accuracy of better than 1 microsecond.

(4) Satellite position information.

(5) Information about ionospheric delay effects.

(6) Information about all GPS satellites. This allows you to acquire

all satellites once the first one has been acquired.

The GPS space segment is supported by a network. This network includes a master

control station in Colorado Springs, Colorado, and multiple monitoring and upload stations

located around the world. Each monitoring station transmits the data they receive to the

master control station. This information is then sent to the GPS upload stations and

uploaded into the satellites, so that the navigation messages can be updated.

GPS system time is produced by the reference clock at one of the monitoring station

sites. This role of system reference clock can be switched from clock to clock and from

station to station if necessary, without making significant changes to the GPS system time.

As mentioned earlier, users of the Standard Positioning Service (SPS) are restricted

to signals with intentionally degraded accuracy. Since SPS is available to anyone, the

DOD adds errors to the data in the interest of national security. Currently, SPS users can expect timing errors of about 300 nanoseconds, but DOD reserves the right to reduce

the accuracy even more.

Even with the reduced accuracy of SPS, GPS is still an excellent time and frequency

source. Most users should find it more than adequate. However, if you do need more

precise time, you have several options:

(1) You can receive signals from the Block I satellites. The current

Block I satellites provide unrestricted, full-accuracy timing

signals. Some of these satellites are expected to remain usable

for several more years.

126
(2) You can use GPS in the "common-view" mode (described in the

next section). The common-view mode does not totally eliminate

the reduced accuracy of SPS, but it does minimize the effects.

(3) Since the data errors are random, you can improve the data

by averaging.

(4) You can apply corrections to the received data.

For more information about GPS, contact the Time Service Department of the U.S.

Naval Observatory, 34th and Massachusetts Ave., NW, Washington, DC 20392. Their

Automated Data Service contains a number of files accessible to civilian timing users of

GPS that provide both current and past GPS data, as well as current information on the

GPS system.

Using GPS

A variety of GPS receivers are available. These include sophisticated multifrequency versions, small handheld units, and specialized timing receivers used for civilian

timing applications. A single-frequency, SPS timing receiver can be purchased from a number of commercial suppliers at prices ranging from $15 000-$25 000 (1990 prices).

These receivers are often completely automatic and require only a small omnidirectional

antenna.

A typical GPS timing receiver can automatically acquire the signal from each desired

GPS satellite, extract the timing information from the received signal, and apply

corrections to the received time to determine either GPS system time or UTC(USNO).

The receiver's coordinates must be known and entered into the receiver. This can be done

either manually (if the precise location of the site is known), or automatically by the

receiver, through performing a navigation solution from the GPS signals from multiple

satellites. Ideally, the position should be known within 1 meter or better.

To derive UTC at your location, several corrections need to be determined and

applied to the received satellite signal. First, the path delay from satellite to receiver

must be computed by the receiver. This is possible because the precise positions of the

satellite and receiver are known. The satellite position information is included in the

navigation message, and the receiver's position was entered during receiver initialization.

Next, the resulting path delay is further corrected for ionospheric and tropospheric delay

effects, again making use of data supplied in the navigation message. At this point the

time delivered to your site can be related to the time kept by the satellite's onboard clock.

127
In order to refer the received time to GPS system time or to UTC, further

corrections are necessary. To relate to GPS system time, a correction must be applied for

the amount of time offset between the satellite clock and GPS system time. This

information is available to the receiver from the navigation message. Finally, you may

apply a correction for the current difference between GPS system time and UTC(USNO).

This information is available from continuous monitoring of the received GPS signals by

the U.S. Naval Observatory. You can obtain the USNO data in various forms from the

USNO's Automated Data Service by using a computer and a modem. Contact the USNO

for a list of available GPS files and for instructions for accessing the computer database.

There are two principal methods for using GPS time. The first is the "time

distribution" mode. In this mode the user receives the direct GPS timing signals and uses them as the local equivalents of GPS or UTC time (depending on which correction was

applied). Some receivers provide standard time and frequency outputs that are phase

locked to UTC(GPS) or UTC(USNO). The time distribution mode is capable of providing

time to within 100 nanoseconds, but will be less accurate when using SPS.

The second method is the "common-view" mode. This mode is used to synchronize

or compare time standards or time scales at two or more locations. For example, commonview is often used to make time scale comparisons between international laboratories. A

diagram of the common-view mode is shown below:

128
Users at the two sites, A and B, make simultaneous measurements of the same GPS

timing signal when the satellite is visible to each site with reasonable elevation angles.

Each site measures the difference between its local clock and the received signal.

Typically, repeated 6-second measurements are made during a satellite pass lasting for 10-

15 minutes. The individual measurements at each site are then averaged to produce

estimates of (Clock A - GPS satellite clock) and (Clock B - GPS satellite clock). If these

results are then subtracted, the satellite clock drops out and an estimate of Clock A - Clock B remains.

One advantage of the common-view technique is that the errors associated with the

satellite clock are common to both sites and are thus eliminated in the comparison. This

means that satellite clock errors introduced by the SPS service should not affect the

accuracy of common-view time comparisons. The common-view method also reduces the

effect of satellite position errors. Since these errors are not totally common to the two

paths they will still have some impact on the time difference results. If a comparison is being made between two widely separated locations (like the United States and Japan), this

effect can produce uncertainties as large as several tens of nanoseconds.

In order to use the common-view technique, the sites being compared must be close

enough to each other to receive signals from the same satellite. However, the acceptable

distance is larger than might be expected. For example, it is possible for common-view

time comparisons to be made between the western United States and India.

The common-view method provides the basis for the NIST Global Time Service.

This service allows users to procure a turn-key GPS receiving system from NIST and

allows traceability to UTC(NIST) at accuracy levels of less than 100 nanoseconds. Also,

BIPM publishes tracking schedules for common-view links between various regions of the

world. Users wishing to compare time with other laboratories can consult these schedules

to determine which satellites and time periods are available for common-view

measurements. These comparisons can provide accuracies over intercontinental distances

to within 10 nanoseconds.

To further improve the usefulness of GPS, other more specialized techniques are also

being developed. One example is a codeless, ionospheric calibration receiver being

developed by several laboratories. Since errors in predicting the ionospheric delay are a major source of time comparison uncertainties, this new receiver could significantly improve

the results. The ionospheric calibration receivers make use of the fact that the two carrier

frequencies (LI and L2) are affected differently as they traverse the ionospheric region.

By measuring this different behavior, you can predict the actual path delay more

accurately. These new receivers can perform this calibration using the dual GPS

frequencies without having access to the restricted P code transmissions. Another possible

development is a receiver that can receive signals from both the GPS satellites and signals

from the GLONASS system under development by the USSR.

129
GPS Performance

Although not all of the GPS satellites have been launched, the system's time transfer

capabilities are available now, since only one satellite is needed to transfer time. The plot

below shows GPS performance over a 3-day period when compared to UTC(NIST):

GPS Timing Receiver vs UTC(NIST)

E .25

0

86/28/98 (MJD 48862) CHI Adjusted (MJD 48865) 86/23/98

21:47 ttic marks = 2 hours] 22:12

Data points= 43 Relative Frequency: +1.17E-13 r=+8.1B

The plot shows data obtained with a commercially available GPS timing receiver.

These receivers are readily available, and their cost has gone down over the past few years.

The receiver was using the (C/A) code with intentionally degraded accuracy. Even so, the

range of the data is less than 0.5 microsecond (500 nanoseconds) over the 3-day period.

The plot shows that GPS is an excellent source for precise time transfer. However,

users outside the DOD should realize that the precision of GPS timing has been reduced

and may be reduced further in the future. If you need time at the highest possible

accuracy you should monitor future GPS developments very closely.

SUMMARY

Satellite signals are an excellent reference for time calibrations and may also be used

for frequency calibrations. Commercially available satellite receivers are sophisticated, easy

to use and install, and allow you to obtain time to within 100 microseconds or better.

The next chapter of this book discusses two NIST services that allow you to recover time by telephone.

130
Chapter 8 - CALIBRATIONS BY TELEPHONE

If your accuracy requirements are low, you may be able to get a perfectly acceptable

time signal by telephone. This chapter describes two telephone services offered by NIST.

THE NIST (VOICE) TELEPHONE TTME-OF-DAY SERVICE

The audio portions of the WWV and WWVH broadcasts (chapter 5) can also be heard

by telephone. The actual time you hear on the telephone will differ by a few milliseconds

from that heard by radio. This is because of the delay in the telephone lines. In addition,

if you are calling from any great distance, the way that the telephone company handles

your call may limit the accuracy of the tones to a few hertz. This means that if you are making a calibration at 1000 Hz, you could have an error as great as 3 Hz. This accuracy

is not as good as the accuracy obtained using radio signals, but may be perfectly acceptable.

To hear these broadcasts, dial (303) 499-7111 for WWV, and (808) 335-4363 for WWVH.

Callers are disconnected after 3 minutes. These are not toll-free numbers, and callers

outside the local calling area are charged for the call.

THE AUTOMATED COMPUTER TIME

SERVICE (ACTS)

In 1988, NIST began the Automated

Computer Time Service (ACTS). This service

provides computers with telephone access to NIST time at accuracies approaching one

millisecond. Since the time code uses the

standard ASCII character set, it works with

nearly all computer systems and modems.

Simple hardware can also be built to set non- computer clock systems.

The phone number for ACTS is (303)

494-4774. ACTS operates at 300 or 1200 baud,

with 8 data bits, 1 stop bit, and no parity. In

addition to the UTC hours, minutes, and

seconds, the time code includes the date, the

Modified Julian Date (MJD), Daylight Saving

Time and leap second indicators, a leap second

flag, a UT1 correction, and other information.

Users at 1200 baud receive the full time code

each second, while 300- baud users require 2

seconds to receive the complete time code.

131
The ACTS Time Code Format

The time code for ACTS is sent in ASCII at either 300 or 1200 baud. Both baud rates

require 8 data bits, 1 stop bit, and no parity. The 1200-baud format is shown below:

? = HELP

National Institute of Standards and Technology

Telephone Time Service

(1 second pause here)

D L D

MJD YR MO DA H M S ST S UT1 msADV OTM

47222 88-03-02 21:39:15 83 0 + .3 045. 0 UTC(NIST) * 47222 88-03-02 21:39:16 83 0 + .3 045. 0 UTC(NIST) * 47222 88-03-02 21:39:17 83 0 + .3 045. 0 UTC(NIST) * 47222 88-03-02 21:39:18 83 0 + .3 045. 0 UTC(NIST) * 47222 88-03-02 21:39:19 83 0 + .3 037 . 6 UTC(NIST) #

47222 88-03-02 21:39:20 83 0 + .3 037 . 6 UTC(NIST) #

©t- C • • • Gt-C^ • * * • • • •

The first part of the time code contains the Modified Julian Date (MJD), the date

(year, month, day), and the time (UTC hours, minutes, seconds). This information is followed by the Daylight Saving Time (DST) information. The DST code is always a twodigit number (00 to 99). This code is normally 00 when Standard Time (ST) is in effect, or 50 when DST is in effect. About 48 days prior to a time change, however, this code

starts counting the days until the change. When ST is in effect, the DST code counts down

from 99 to 51 in the 48 days prior to the time change. When DST is in effect, the DST

code counts down from 49 to 01 in the 48 days prior to the time change. In both cases, the

code is updated at 0000 UTC.

The leap second (LS) flag is always "0," "1," or "2." If no leap second is scheduled

at the end of the current month, it is "0." It is "1" if a leap second is scheduled to be

added on the last day of the current month. The LS flag remains on for the entire month

before the leap second is added. Once the leap second is added, the LS flag is reset to "0". The leap second flag is a

"2" only if a leap second is to be deleted on the last day of the

current month. So far, a negative leap second has never been needed.

The UT1 correction is shown as either a positive or negative number in steps of 0.1

second. The remainder of the time code shows the millisecond advance (msADV) and the

on-time marker (OTM). The displayed time is valid at the OTM. The OTM is either an

132
"*" or a "#" character. When you first connect, the "*" OTM is displayed. This marker is transmitted 45 milliseconds early with respect to UTC(NIST). The 45 milliseconds accounts

for the 8 milliseconds required to send a character at 1200 baud, an additional 7

milliseconds to compensate for delay from NIST to the user, plus a 30 millisecond

"scrambler" delay. The "scrambler" delay approximately compensates for the internal delay

found in 1200-baud modems.

If you echo all characters, NIST measures the round trip delay and advances the

OTM so that the midpoint of the stop bit arrives at your computer on time. When this

happens, the msADV shows the actual required advance in milliseconds and the OTM

becomes "#." Four consecutive stable measurements are needed before the OTM switches

from "*" to "#." If your 1200-baud modem has the same internal delay used by NIST (30

milliseconds), then the "#" OTM should arrive at your computer within ±2 ms of the correct

time. Different brands of 1200-baud modems have different internal delays, and the actual

offset of the "#" OTM may be as large as ±10 ms. This should still be more than adequate,

however, since many computer clocks can only be set within 20-50 milliseconds.

The 300-baud time code is potentially more accurate than the 1200-baud code. Due

to a simpler modulation scheme used at 300 baud, the OTM should arrive at your computer

within 1 millisecond of the correct time.

Users are allowed 55 seconds on ACTS unless all lines are busy. In that case, the

first call that reaches 15 seconds is terminated.

Performance of ACTS

With appropriate software, ACTS can set or check computer time-of-day clocks in one

of two different modes:

Fixed Delay Mode - In this mode, the user receives the time code and an on-time marker

character. The marker character has been advanced in time by a fixed amount to compensate for typical modem and telephone line delays. Unless the connection is routed

through a satellite, the accuracy in this mode should be better than 0.1 second.

Measured Delay Mode - In this mode, the user's computer echoes all characters back to NIST and the round trip line delay is measured. The on-time marker character is then

advanced to compensate for the line delay. The accuracy in this mode should be better than

10 milliseconds using a 1200-baud modem, or about 1 millisecond using a 300-baud modem.

Accuracy at 1200 baud is limited by the internal delays in 1200-baud modems. Repeatability

at both 300 and 1200 baud is about 1 millisecond.

133
The accuracies cited above assume that the telephone connection is reciprocal, that

is, that the connections follow the same path, so the path delay is the same in both

directions. Most phone connections are of this type.

NIST offers software which lets users use ACTS on several popular personal

computers. The documentation for this software includes more information about the

features of the service and a simple circuit diagram that can be used to obtain an on-time

pulse. This material costs $35.00 (subject to change without notice). To order, contact:

NIST Office of Standard Reference Materials, Room 205, Building 202, NIST, Gaithersburg,

MD 20899, telephone (301) 975-6776. Ask for the Automated Computer Time Service

Software, #RM8101. If you have questions or comments about ACTS, write to: NISTACTS, Time and Frequency Division, 576.00, 325 Broadway, Boulder, CO 80303.

134
APPENDIX - SUMMARY OF TIME AND FREQUENCY

RADIO CALIBRATION SOURCES

The table below serves as a quick reference to the time and frequency radio

calibration sources described in this book. When using the table, please keep in mind that

the accuracies stated are relative to UTC(NIST) and are possible only within the coverage

area of the signal. Some signals may not be usable in your area. For more specific

information about each calibration source, please refer to the chapter listed in the table.

Name of Source

and carrier

frequency

Accuracy Topic

Covered

Frequency In:

(24 nours)

Time

(microseconds

)

nr olgrldlS

(2.5 to 25 MHz) 1. 00E-07 1000 Chapter 5

GOES Satellite

(468 MHz) 1. 00E-09 100 Chapter 7

Omega and VLF

(10 to 15 kHz) 1. 00E-10 1000 Chapter 6

WWVB and LF

(30 to 300 kHz) 1. 00E-11 1000 Chapter 6

Loran-C

(100 kHz) 1.00E-12 < 10 Chapter 6

GPS

(1575 MHz) 1.00E-13 < 1 Chapter 7

135

GLOSSARY

The following definitions are offered as an aid to the reader. The definitions relate

to the way the terms appear in this book and may differ from the definitions listed in other

references.

ACCURACY - the degree of conformity of a measured value to its definition.

AGING - the systematic change in frequency with time due to internal changes in the

oscillator. For example, a 100-kHz quartz oscillator may age until its frequency becomes

100.01 kHz.

AMBIGUITY - having more than one possible value. For example, if a 24-hour clock

displays a time of 3 hours and 5 minutes, it is ambiguous as to the day. If we add a number to the clock display to show that it is day 17, the time is still ambiguous as to the

month. If we add another number showing it is month 3, the time is still ambiguous as to the year.

ATOMIC TIME (TA) - the time obtained by counting cycles of an atomic frequency source

as opposed to time based on the Earth's rotation. Atomic time is extremely uniform.

AUTOMATIC GAIN CONTROL (AGO - a circuit used in some radio receivers (including

HF receivers) so that both weak and strong signals can be heard at similar volume.

CALIBRATION - a measurement that determines the frequency or time offset of an

oscillator relative to the national standard, UTC(NIST). Calibrations are usually made by

comparing the output of an oscillator to a reference signal known to be traceable to UTC(NIST). The reference signal is usually obtained by radio. Calibrations can also be

made by making a direct comparison between two oscillators. In this case, one oscillator

is assumed to be the better of the two and is used as the reference.

CESIUM OSCILLATOR (Cs) - any oscillator that uses cesium to obtain atomic resonance. Cesium oscillators are often used as a laboratory's primary frequency standard.

DECADE COUNTING ASSEMBLY (DCA) - a circuit used in counters that counts from

0 to 9 before it overflows. This enables the counter to display units of tens, hundreds, and

so on. DIURNAL PHASE SHIFT - the phase shift (diurnal means daily) associated with sunrise

and sunset on low frequency radio paths.

137
DOPPLER EFFECT - an apparent change in frequency caused by movement of either the

transmitter or receiver. In the case of radio waves, the Doppler effect occurs when the

ionosphere changes its position.

DRIFT (FREQUENCY DRIFT) - the systematic change in frequency with time of an

oscillator. Drift is due to aging plus changes in the environment and other factors external

to the oscillator (see Aging).

DUT1 - the approximate time difference between UT1 and UTC, expressed to the nearest

0.1 second. The value of DUT1 is sometimes included in time codes (WWV, for example)

so that listeners can correct the time as heard to make it agree with UT1 to within 0.1

second.

EPHEMERIS TIME (ET) - an astronomical time scale based on the orbital motion of the

Earth.

FREQUENCY - if T is the period of a repetitive event, then the frequency (f) is equal

to 1/T. Frequency is normally expressed in hertz, with 1 Hz meaning that an event occurs once per second.

FREQUENCY-SHIFT KEYING (FSK) - a means of modulating a radio carrier by changing

its frequency by a small amount.

GREENWICH MEAN TIME (GMT) - a 24-hour time system based on the time at

Greenwich, England. Greenwich Mean Time can be considered equivalent to Coordinated

Universal Time (UTC), which is broadcast from all standard time and frequency radio

stations. However, several international organizations have recommended that UTC be used

rather than GMT in all applications.

GROUP REPETITION INTERVAL (GRI) - the rate of recurrence of specified groups of

pulses. In the case of Loran-C, the GRI is altered between different groups of stations to avoid interference.

IONOSPHERE - the outer part of the Earth's atmosphere. The ionosphere consists of a

series of constantly changing layers of ionized molecules. Many radio waves reflect back to Earth from the ionosphere.

138
JITTER - usually used to describe the small changes in a signal over time. Phase jitter causes a counter to be triggered either early or late.

JULIAN DAY (JD) - the Julian Day is obtained by counting days with a starting point of

noon on January 1, 4713 B.C. (Julian Day zero). This is one way of telling what day it is with the least possible ambiguity.

LEADING EDGE - the first occurring change in a pulse. The leading edge can be either

negative- or positive-going.

LEAP SECOND - an intentional increment of 1 second used to adjust UTC to ensure approximate agreement with UT1. An inserted second is called a positive leap second and

an omitted second is called a negative leap second. A leap second is needed about once per

year.

LONG-TERM STABILITY - describes the frequency change of an oscillator that occurs over periods greater than 1 second.

MAXIMUM USABLE FREQUENCY (MUF) - the highest frequency that can be used for

radio transmissions without having the signal escape through the ionosphere. Signals below

the maximum usable frequency will reflect off the ionosphere.

MEAN SOLAR TIME - time based on a mean solar day, which is the average length of

all solar days in a solar year. The mean solar second is 1/86 400 of a mean solar day.

MIXER - an electrical circuit that mixes two signals and produces a new signal that is usually either the sum or the difference of the two inputs.

MODIFIED JULIAN DAY (MJD) - this is equal to the Julian day, shifted so its origin occurs at midnight on November 17, 1858. The MJD differs from the Julian Day by exactly

2 400 000.5 days.

NIST - abbreviation for The National Institute of Standards and Technology (formerly

the National Bureau of Standards).

OMEGA NAVIGATION SYSTEM - a low frequency (10 to 15 kHz) navigation system

also used for time and frequency calibrations.

139
PATH DELAY - the amount of time it takes for a radio signal to travel from the

transmitter to the receiver.

PHASE JUMP - a sudden phase change in a signal.

PHASE LOCK - a servo mechanism technique for causing one signal to follow another.

The signals can be (but do not have to be) at the same frequency. Phase locking in terms

of frequency sources is analogous to a mechanical servo, where one shaft or wheel follows

another.

PHASE SIGNATURE - a deliberate phase offset to identify a signal. WWVB as broadcast

is deliberately phase shifted at 10 minutes after the hour. This tells you that are tracking

WWVB and not some other signal.

POWER LINE FREQUENCY - in the United States, the power lines are held to a frequency of 60 Hz. This frequency is often used to drive electric clocks.

PRECISION - the degree of mutual agreement among a series of individual measurements.

Precision is often (but not necessarily) expressed by the standard deviation of the

measurements.

RECEPvTER DELAY - the delay experienced by the signal going from the receiving antenna

to the detector or output device, speaker, or oscilloscope terminal. A delay of several

milliseconds is typical in high frequency radio receivers.

REPRODUCIBILITY - the ability of a single device (or a set of devices) to produce the

same value when they are put into operation repeatedly without adjustment.

RESOLUTION - the degree to which a measurement can be determined is called the

resolution of the measurement. For example, a measurement made with a time interval

counter might have a resolution of 10 nanoseconds.

RUBIDIUM OSCILLATOR (Rb) - a precision atomic oscillator based on a resonance of

rubidium gas.

SELECTIVITY - the characteristic of a radio receiver that allows it to separate one signal

from another.

140
SENSITIVITY - the characteristic of a radio receiver that allows it to detect weak signals.

SHORT-TERM STABILITY - a description of the frequency fluctuations caused by random

noise in an oscillator. To properly state the short-term stability, the number of samples,

averaging time, repetition time, and system bandwidth must be specified.

SIDEREAL TIME - time based on observations of stars rather than the Sun. Sidereal

time is used by astronomers and a sidereal day is equal to about 23 hours, 56 minutes, and

4 seconds of solar time. Because it is based on observations of stars, it is more accurately

determined than solar time.

SIGNAL-TO-NOISE RATIO (SNR) - the ratio of the strength of a radio signal to that of

the noise. This is a more useful term than signal strength.

STANDARD - a universally accepted reference. The NIST frequency standard is a cesium

oscillator located at the National Institute of Standards and Technology in Boulder,

Colorado. Many frequencies generated and used in the United States are referenced to this

standard.

STANDARD FREQUENCY BAND - radio bands allocated expressly for the purpose of

distributing standard frequency and time signals. For example, all of the transmissions of

WWV occur in standard frequency bands centered on 2.5, 5, 10, 15, and 20 MHz.

SYNCHRONIZATION - in the context of timing, synchronization means to bring two

clocks or data streams into phase so they agree. They need not be on time.

TCXO (TEMPERATURE COMPENSATED CRYSTAL OSCILLATOR) - a crystal oscillator

that contains special components to minimize the effect of temperature on the crystal

frequency.

TIME BASE - in a frequency counter the oscillator that provides the timing signals for

measurement and control. The accuracy of the counter is directly related to the time base.

TIME INTERVAL COUNTER - a counter designed to measure the time interval between

two input signals. Time interval counters are often used to measure the performance of an

oscillator.

141
TIME OF COINCIDENCE (LORAN) - the time when the GRI pulse from a Loran-C

station is coincident with an exact second of Coordinated Universal Time. These times of

coincidence occur at regular intervals of 16 minutes or less, depending on the GRI.

TIME SCALE - a system of unambiguous ordering of events.

TRANSFER STANDARDS - the name given to a signal that is used to perform a

calibration when it can be referenced to a standard. For example, since WWVB is referenced

to the NIST frequency standard, it can be used as a standard to calibrate other oscillators

at remote locations.

TRIGGER ERROR - the error associated with false triggering caused by phase noise or

jitter on a signal.

UNIVERSAL TIME (UT) FAMILY - Universal Time (UT) is the name given to time scales

based on the rotation of the Earth. UT is given in several ways. Apparent solar time is first corrected by the equation of time to mean solar time, UTO. It is then again corrected

for migration of the Earth's poles to obtain UT1. This is further corrected by removing

fluctuations of unknown origin to obtain UT2.

ZERO BEAT - the condition between two signals when no beat is heard or seen between

the signals (when the frequencies are equal).

142
INDEX

ACCURACY

Definition 28

AGING (OF QUARTZ CRYSTALS) 33-34

ANTENNAS

GOES Satellite 120

GPS Satellite 127

HF (High Frequency) 66-69

TRANSIT Satellite 124

VLF and LF (Very Low and Low Frequency) 90

APPARENT SOLAR TIME 15

ASTRONOMICAL TIME 20

ATOMIC

International Atomic Time (TAI) 17

Oscillators

Rubidium 36-37

Cesium 37-38

Hydrogen 38-39

Time Scales 17-18

AUTOMATED COMPUTER TIME SERVICE (ACTS)

Computer Software 134

General Information 131

Performance 133-134

Time Code Format 132-133

BASIC STANDARDS 6

BEAT FREQUENCY METHOD FOR FREQUENCY CALIBRATIONS 81-84

CALIBRATIONS

Frequency Calibrations

Automated Calibration Systems 44-55

Definition 9-11

Direct Measurements 41

Theory 41-44

Time Interval Measurements 42-44,60,113

What They Measure 55-60

Using HF Broadcasts 80-85

Using Loran-C 113-114

143
Using Omega 100-104

Using WWVB 94-95

Time Calibrations

Using GOES , 120-121

Using the GOES Time Code 118-119

Using GPS 127-129

Using HF Broadcasts 70-78

Using Loran-C 112-113

Using WWVB 96-97

Using the WWVB Time Code 98-99

Using the WWV/WWVH Time Code 78-80

CESIUM BEAM OSCILLATORS 37-38

CHU (CANADA) 63

CLOCKS 25-27

COMPUTERS

Time Recovery for Computer Systems 61,131-134

Used in Measurement Systems 49-50

CONVERSIONS

Parts Per ... To Percents 12

Prefix 12

Wavelength to Frequency 14

COORDINATED UNIVERSAL TIME (UTC) 18-19

COORDINATION OF FREQUENCY AND TIME ACTIVITIES 21-23

COUNTERS

Frequency 28,41,44

Time Interval 42-44,48

DELAYED TRIGGER METHOD OF TIME CALIBRATION 75-77

22-23

19

73-75

DISTRIBUTION SYSTEMS 8-9

DIURNAL PHASE SHIFTS 91,95,103-104

107,111

DEPARTMENT OF DEFENSE, U.S.

DEPARTMENT OF TRANSPORTATION, U.S.

DIRECT TRIGGER METHOD OF TIME CALIBRATION

144
DRIFT, FREQUENCY 34

ELECTRIC POWER LINE FREQUENCY (60 Hz) 3,26-27

EPHEMERIS TIME (ET) 16-17

FEDERAL COMMUNICATIONS COMMISSION (FCC) 2

FREQUENCY CALIBRATIONS (See CALIBRATIONS)

FREQUENCY DIVIDER 48

FREQUENCY MEASUREMENT SYSTEMS

Computer-Controlled

Day to Day Operation

Output

Recordkeeping

Typical

GLOBAL POSITIONING SYSTEM (GPS)

Block I satellites

Block II satellites

Carrier Frequencies

Common-View Mode

Coverage

Performance

Precision Positioning Service (PPS)

Receivers

Standard Positioning Service (SPS)

Time Calibrations

GOES SATELLITE

Accuracy 116, 119-121

Antennas 120

Continuity 123

Coverage 117

Frequency Calibrations 116

Interference 122

Outages 123

Performance 119

Receivers 120

Signal Characteristics 118

Time Calibrations 120-121

Time Code Deviations 122

Time Code Format 118-119

GREAT CIRCLE DISTANCE CALCULATIONS 85-86

46-51

51-53

50-51

53

45

124-125

125

125

128-129

129

130

124-26

127

124-126

127-129

145
GREENWICH MERIDIAN 19

GROUNDWAVE, LORAN-C 107,111

GROUP REPETITION INTERVAL (GRI), LORAN-C 109-110

HF (HIGH FREQUENCY) BROADCASTS

Antennas 66-69

Broadcast Formats

CHU (Canada) 63

WWV/WWVH 61-62

Calibrations

Frequency 80-85

Time 70-78

Time Code 78-80

Ionospheric Effects on Reception 87

List of Stations 64-65

Receivers

Measuring Receiver Time Delay 71-73

Selection 65-66

HYDROGEN MASER 38-39

INTERNATIONAL ATOMIC TIME SCALE (TAI) 17

INTERNATIONAL BUREAU OF WEIGHTS AND MEASURES (BIPM) 21

LEAP SECOND 18,139

LF AND VLF (LOW AND VERY LOW FREQUENCY) BROADCASTS

Antennas 90

Calibrations

Frequency

Using Loran-C 113-114

Using Omega 100-104

Using WWVB 94-95

Time

Using Loran-C 112-113

Using WWVB 96-97

Using the WWVB Time Code 98-99

Field Strengths 92-93

Monitoring Station Availability 93

Propagation Characteristics 91-92

Signal Formats

General 90

Loran-C 109-110

Omega 101-102

146
Stations

List of LF and VLF Stations 105-106

List of Loran-C Stations 107-109

List of Omega Stations 100

LORAN-C NAVIGATION SYSTEM (100 kHz)

Calibrations

Frequency 47-53,113-114

Time 112-113

Chains 107-110

Control (by USNO and U.S. Coast Guard) 107

Group Repetition Interval (GRI) 109-110

List of Stations 107-109

Performance 113-114

Published Data 54

Pulse Shape 111-112

Reception 111

MAXIMUM USABLE FREQUENCY (MUF) 87

MEAN SOLAR TIME 15

MODAL INTERFERENCE 103

NAMEPLATE FREQUENCY 56-58

NATIONAL INSTITUTE OF STANDARDS AND TECHNOLOGY (NIST)

Publications 22,54,93,117

Responsibility 6,21-22

Services

Radio Broadcasts

GOES 115-123

WWVB 89-99

WWV/WWVH 61-88

Telephone Service

Automated Computer Time Service (ACTS) 131-134

Telephone Time-of-Day Service 131

Time and Frequency Standards 8-9

Traceability to NIST 10-11,53-56

NATIONAL OCEANIC AND ATMOSPHERIC ADMINISTRATION (NOAA) 115, 123

OMEGA NAVIGATION SYSTEM

Coverage Area 101

Frequency Calibrations 100-101

List of Stations 100

Operating Characteristics 101-102

Propagation Characteristics 103-104

147
OSCILLATORS

Comparison Table 40

Performance 28-30

Types

Cesium * 37-38

Hydrogen Maser 38-39

Quartz 31-35

Rubidium 36-37

OSCILLOSCOPE

Photography 78,96

Used for Frequency Calibrations 84

Used for Time Calibrations 70-78,96-97

OSCILLOSCOPE PATTERN DRIFT METHOD 84

PATH DELAY

GOES Path Delay Corrections 119

GPS Path Delay Corrections 127

Measuring Radio Path Delay 85-88

PATTERN DRIFT CALIBRATION METHOD 84

PHASE PLOTS

Cesium Performance 50,59,114

Omega Performance 104

Quartz Oscillator Performance 58

Rubidium Performance 59,114

WWVB Performance 91,94

PIEZOELECTRIC EFFECT 31

POLAR CAP DISTURBANCE (PCD) 103

PRIMARY FREQUENCY STANDARD 30,38

PRIMARY OSCILLATOR 44-45,48-49

PROPAGATION CHARACTERISTICS

GOES 116

GPS 125-126

HF Broadcasts 87-88

LF and VLF Broadcasts 91-92

Loran-C 111

Omega 103-104

TRANSIT Satellites 123

148
QUARTZ OSCILLATORS

General Information 31-32

Performance 35,58

Quartz Crystals 31-32

Temperature and Aging Effects 33-34

Warm-Up Period 34

RADIO FREQUENCY BANDS 13

RECEIVER TIME DELAY, MEASURING 71-73

REFERENCE FREQUENCY 45,47-48,55,60

RELATIVE FREQUENCY

Defined 55-58

General 29-30,60

Measuring with WWV 82-84

Measuring with WWVB 95

REPRODUCIBILITY 28

RESONANCE FREQUENCY 32

RUBIDIUM GAS CELL OSCILLATORS 36-37

SATELLITE SERVICES

GOES 115-123

GPS 124-130

TRANSIT 123-124

SECONDARY FREQUENCY STANDARD 30

SECOND (DEFINED) 5-6,27

SIDEREAL TIME 15

SKYWAVE, LORAN-C 107,111

SOLAR TIME 15-16

STABILITY 28-30

STANDARDS

Definition 6

NIST Standards for Time and Frequency 7-10

Primary and Secondary Standards 30

SUNDIAL 8,15

149
TCXO (TEMPERATURE-COMPENSATED CRYSTAL OSCILLATOR) 33-35

TELEPHONE TIME SERVICES 131-134

TIME AND FREQUENCY

General Information 1-2,5-6,25-27

Terminology 11-14

Users of Time and Frequency 2-5

TIME AND FREQUENCY DIVISION OF NIST 21-22

TIME BASE 42-43,48

TIME CALIBRATIONS (See CALIBRATIONS)

TIME CODE

CHU (Canada) 63

GOES 118-119

WWVB 98-99

WWV/WWVH 78-80

TIME COMPARISON METHOD OF FREQUENCY CALIBRATIONS 85

TIME OF COINCIDENCE (TOO 112

TIME SCALES

Atomic Time Scales 17-18

Solar Time Scales 15-16

Using for Navigation and Astronomy 19-20

TIME ZONES 19-20

TRACEABILITY 10-11,53-56

TRANSIT SATELLITE NAVIGATION SYSTEM 123-124

U.S. NAVAL OBSERVATORY (USNO)

Data Monitoring and Publications 93,107,112,115

GPS Data 127

Responsibility 20-23

UTC (COORDINATED UNIVERSAL TIME) 18-19

UTO 15

UTl

Corrections

On ACTS 126

On GOES 119

150
On WWVB 98-99

On WWV/WWVH 80

Defined 16

Determination of 21,23

Relationship to UTC 18

UT2 16

WAVELENGTH 13-14

WRISTWATCH 5,9-10

WWVB

Antennas 90

Cycle Phase Shifts 92

Field Strength 92-93

Frequency Calibrations 94-95

Performance 91-92

Propagation Characteristics 91-92

Signal Envelope 96

Signal Formats 90

Time Calibrations 96-97

Time Code Format 98-99

WWV/WWVH

Antennas 66-69

Broadcast Formats 61-62

Frequency Calibrations 80-85

Measuring Radio Path Delay 85-88

Receiver Selection 65-66

Time Calibrations 70-78

Time Code Format 78-80

ZERO BEAT METHOD OF FREQUENCY CALIBRATIONS 81-84

151

-fr U.S. GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE. 1990 -261 -913 20704

BL-114A

(5-90) U.S. DEPARTMENT OF COMMERCE

NATIONAL INSTITUTE OF STANDARDS AND TECHNOLOGY

BIBLIOGRAPHIC DATA SHEET

1. PUBLICATION OR REPORT NUMBER

NIST/SP-559 (Revised 1990)

PERFORMING ORGANIZATION REPORT HUMBER

3. PUBLICATION DATE September 1990

4. TITLE AND SUBTITLE Time and Frequency Users Manual

5. AUTHOR(S) George Kamas and Michael A. Lombardi

6. PERFORMING ORGANIZATION (IF JOINT OR OTHER THAN NIST. SEE INSTRUCTIONS)

U.S. DEPARTMENT OF COMMERCE

NATIONAL INSTITUTE OF STANDARDS AND TECHNOLOGY

BOULDER, COLORADO 80303-3328

7. CONTRACT/GRANT NUMBER

8. TYPE OF REPORT AND PERIOD COVERED

9. SPONSORING ORGANIZATION NAME AND COMPLETE ADDRESS (STREET, CITY, STATE, ZIP)

10. SUPPLEMENTARY NOTES

Supersedes NBS Special Publication 559 dated November 1979

11. ABSTRACT (A 200-WORD OR LESS FACTUAL SUMMARY OF MOST SIGNIFICANT INFORMATION. IF DOCUMENT INCLUDES A SIGNIFICANT BIBLIOGRAPHY OR

LITERATURE SURVEY, MENTION IT HERE.)

This book is for the person who needs information about making time and frequency

measurements. It is written at a level that will satisfy those with a casual interest

as well as laboratory engineers and technicians who use time and frequency every day.

It includes a brief discussion of time scales, discusses the roles of the National

Institute of Standards and Technology (NIST) and other national laboratories, and

explains how time and frequency are internationally coordinated. It also describes

the available time and frequency services and how to use them. It discusses the

accuracies that can be achieved with the different services, and the pros and cons of

using various calibration methods.

12. KEY WORDS (6 TO 12 ENTRIES; ALPHABETICAL ORDER; CAPITAUZE ONLY PROPER NAMES; AND SEPARATE KEY WORDS BY SEMICOLONS)

frequency calibration; high frequency; Loran-C; low frequency; oscillators; relative

frequency; satellite broadcasts; standards; time calibration; time code; time interval

13. AVAILABILITY UNLIMITED FOR OFFICIAL DISTRIBUTION. DO NOT RELEASE TO NATIONAL TECHNICAL INFORMATION SERVICE (NTIS). X

ORDER FROM SUPERINTENDENT OF DOCUMENTS, U.S. GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE, WASHINGTON, DC 20402. ORDER FROM NATIONAL TECHNICAL INFORMATION SERVICE (NTIS), SPRINGFIELD, VA 22161.

14. NUMBER OF PRINTED PAGES 160

15. PRICE

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