# NOAA Tech Memo NWFSC-7: Part 2Salmonid Propagation

#### Captive Brood Stocks (Reproductive Physiology)

The CZES Division has ongoing programs that serve as a model for maintaining seriously depleted or threatened stocks of salmonids in captivity throughout their entire life span. The goal of the captive brood-stock programs is to develop husbandry techniques that ensure good health and high survival of selected races of salmonids while maintaining genetic integrity and variability. 

Since 1979, the Division brood-stock egg production programs have focused on restoration of threatened runs of Atlantic (Salmo salar) and Pacific salmon. The captive brood-stock concept involves the rearing of smolts to maturity. The techniques employed can produce up to 200 spawning females from every female parent. In addition to quickly producing large numbers of eggs, a further benefit of brood-stock rearing has been the compilation of husbandry data, including information on physiological development during an otherwise unobservable period of the fish's life-cycle. These data are of considerable value to fisheries scientists. 

The culturing of Atlantic and Pacific salmon brood stocks and its associated research have provided cost-effective methods of maintaining egg banks of depleted populations of salmon. In addition, methods have been developed for the diagnosis, treatment, and prevention of common infectious and nutritional diseases. The existence of previously undescribed parasites and pathogens has been documented as well. Also, the CZES Division brood-stock program developed or refined a number of techniques for the induction of synchronous maturation and ovulation in marine cultured salmon. These techniques result in a greater egg-take (since prespawning mortality is reduced or eliminated) and more efficient use of staff and resources.

#### Bibliography

Dickhoff, W. W.1989. Salmonids and annual fishes: Death after sex. In M.P. Schreibman and C. G. Scanes (editors), Development, maturation, and senescence of the neuroendocrine system, p.253-266. Academic Press, San Diego.

Dickhoff, W. W., L. C. Folmar, J. L. Mighell, C. V. W. Mahnken, and A. Gorbman.1982. Thyroid hormones in smoltification of anadromous salmonids. In B. R. Meltell and R. A. Neve (editors), Proceedings of the North Pacific Aquaculture Symposium, p.217-226. Alaska Sea Grant Rep. 82-2, Univ. Alaska, Fairbanks.

Dickhoff, W. W., L. C. Folmar, J. L. Mighell, and C. V. W. Mahnken.1982. Plasma thyroid hormones during smoltification of yearling and underyearling coho salmon and yearling chinook salmon and steelhead trout. Aquaculture 28(1,2):39-48.

Dickoff, W. W., C. Sullivan, and C. V. W. Mahnken.1985. Methods of measuring and controlling the parr to smolt transformation (smoltification) of juvenile salmon. In C. J. Sindermann (editor), Proceedings of the Eleventh U.S.-Japan Meeting on Aquaculture, Salmon Enhancement, Tokyo, Japan, 19-20 October 1982, p. 5-9. U.S. Dep. Commer., NOAA Tech. Rep. NMFS 27.

Dickhoff, W. W., C. V. Sullivan, and C. V. W. Mahnken.1985. Thyroid hormones and gill ATPase during smoltification of Atlantic salmon (Salmo salar). Aquaculture 45:376.

Flagg, T. A., and L. W. Harrell.1990. Use of water-to-water transfers to maximize survival of salmonids stocked directly into seawater. Prog. Fish-Cult. 52:127-129.

Flagg, T. A., E. F. Prentice, and L. S. Smith.1983. Swimming and stamina and survival following direct seawater entry during parr-smolt transformation of coho salmon (Oncorhynchus kisutch). Aquaculture 32(3,4):383-396.

Folmar, L. C., W. W. Dickhoff, C. V. W. Mahnken, and F. W. Waknitz.1982. Stunting and parr-reversion during smoltification of coho salmon (Oncorhynchus kisutch). Aquaculture 28:91-104.

Gould, R. W., A. N. Palmisano, S. D. Smith, C. V. W. Mahnken, W. S. Zaugg, and E. F. Prentice.1985. Seawater acclimation of premigratory (presmolt) fall chinook salmon: a possible new management strategy? In C.J. Sindermann (editor), Proceedings of the Eleventh U.S.-Japan Meeting on Aquaculture, Salmon Enhancement, Tokyo, Japan, 19-20 October 1982, p. 15-19. U.S. Dep. Commer., NOAA Tech. Rep. NMFS 27.

Harrell, L. W.1984. Snake River fall chinook salmon broodstock program, 1983. Report to Bonneville Power Administration, Contract DE-AI79-83BP39642, 8 p. + Appendix. (Available from Northwest Fisheries Science Center, 2725 Montlake Blvd. E., Seattle, WA 98112-2097.)

Harrell, L. W., R. A. Elston, T. M. Scott, and M. T. Wilkinson.1986. A significant new systemic disease of net-pen reared chinook salmon (Oncorhynchus tshawytscha) brood-stock. Aquaculture 55:249-262.

Harrell, L. W., T. A. Flagg, T. M. Scott, and F. W. Waknitz.1985. Snake River fall chinook salmon brood-stock program, 1984. Report to Bonneville Power Administration, Contract DE-AI79-83BP39642, 19 p. (Available from Northwest Fisheries Science Center, 2725 Montlake Blvd. E., Seattle, WA 98112-2097.)

Harrell, L. W., C. V. W. Mahnken, T. A. Flagg, E. P. Prentice, F. W. Waknitz, J. L. Mighell, and A. J. Novotny.1984. Status of the NMFS/USFWS Atlantic salmon brood-stock program (summer 1984). Unpubl. manuscr., 16 p. (Available from Northwest Fisheries Science Center, 2725 Montlake Blvd. E., Seattle, WA 98112-2097.)

Harrell, L. W., and T. M. Scott.1983. Kudoa thyrsitis (Myxosporea Multivalvuidae) in Atlantic salmon, Salmo salar. J. Fish Diseases 8(3):329-332.

Harrell, L. W., T. A. Flagg, and A. J. Novotny.1984. Broodstock restoration programs at Manchester Marine Experimental Laboratory, Puget Sound, Washington. Proceedings of 34th Annual Fish Culture Conference, Moscow, Idaho, December 1983, p. 92-95. (Available from Northwest Fisheries Science Center, 2725 Montlake Blvd. E., Seattle, WA 98112-2097.)

Mahnken, C. V. W., E. F. Prentice, F. W. Waknitz, G. E. Monan, C.W. Sims, and J. Williams.1982. The application of recent smoltification research to public hatchery releases: An assessment of size/time requirements for Columbia River Hatchery coho salmon (Oncorhynchus kisutch). Aquaculture 29(1,2):251-268.

Novotny, A. J., J. L. Mighell, and T. A. Flagg.1985. Low-flow isolation system for salmonid egg incubation. Proceedings of the 35th Annual Fish Conference, Kennewick, WA, 1984, p. 8-13. (Available from Northwest Fisheries Science Center, 2725 Montlake Blvd. E., Seattle, WA 98112-2097.)

Schiewe, M. H., A. J. Novotny, and L. W. Harrell.1988. Pacific salmon diseases (Introduction). In C. J. Sindermann and D. V. Lightner (editors), Disease diagnosis and control in North American marine aquaculture, developments in aquaculture and fishery science, Vol. 17, p. 319-322. Elsevier Sci. Publ. Co., New York.

Schiewe, M. H., A. J. Novotny, and L. W. Harrell.1988. Vibriosis of salmonids. In C. J. Sindermann and D. V. Lightner (editors), Disease diagnosis and control in North American marine aquaculture, developments in aquaculture and fishery science, Vol. 17, p. 323-327. Elsevier Sci. Publ. Co., New York.

Schiewe, M. H., A. J. Novotny, and L. W. Harrell.1988. Furunculosis of salmonids. In C. J. Sindermann and D. V. Lightner (editors), Disease diagnosis and control in North American marine aquaculture, developments in aquaculture and fishery science, Vol. 17, p. 328-331. Elsevier Sci. Publ. Co., New York.

Schiewe, M. H., A. J. Novotny, and L. W. Harrell.1988. Bacterial kidney disease of salmonids. In C. J. Sindermann and D. V. Lightner (editors), Disease diagnosis and control in North American marine aquaculture, developments in aquaculture and fishery science, Vol. 17, p. 332-335. Elsevier Sci. Publ. Co., New York.

Schiewe, M. H., A. J. Novotny, and L. W. Harrell.1988. Botulism of salmonids. In C. J. Sindermann and D. V. Lightner (editors), Disease diagnosis and control in North American marine aquaculture, developments in aquaculture and fishery science, Vol. 17, p. 336-338. Elsevier Sci. Publ. Co., New York.

Schiewe, M. H., A. J. Novotny, and L. W. Harrell.1988. Viral erythrocytic necrosis of salmonids. In C. J. Sindermann and D. V. Lightner (editors), Disease diagnosis and control in North American marine aquaculture, developments in aquaculture and fishery science, Vol. 17, p. 339-340. Elsevier Sci. Publ. Co., New York.

Schiewe, M. H., A. J. Novotny, and L. W. Harrell.1988. Parvicapsula diseases of salmonids. In C. J. Sindermann and D. V. Lightner (editors), Disease diagnosis and control in North American marine aquaculture, developments in aquaculture and fishery science, Vol. 17, p. 341-343. Elsevier Sci. Publ. Co., New York.

Schiewe, M. H., A. J. Novotny, and L. W. Harrell.1988. Systemic fungal disease of salmonids. In C. J. Sindermann and D. V. Lightner (editors), Disease diagnosis and control in North American marine aquaculture, developments in aquaculture and fishery science, Vol. 17, p. 344-346. Elsevier Sci. Publ. Co., New York.

Schiewe, M. H., A. J. Novotny, and L. W. Harrell.1988. Miscellaneous diseases and disease of unknown etiology. In C. J. Sindermann and D. V. Lightner (editors), Disease diagnosis and control in North American marine aquaculture, developments in aquaculture and fishery science, Vol. 17, p.347-353. Elsevier Sci. Publ. Co., New York.

Smith, S. D., R. W. Gould, W. S. Zaugg, L. W. Harrell, and C. V. W. Mahnken.1983. Growth and seawater tolerance of fall chinook smolts (Oncorhynchus tshawytscha) after prerelease treatment with Formalin and potassium permanganate. Proceedings 34th Annual Northwest Fish Culture Conference, Moscow, Idaho, December 1983, p. 153-158. (Available from Northwest Fisheries Science Center, 2725 Montlake Blvd. E., Seattle, WA 98112-2097.)

Sower, S. A., W. W. Dickhoff, T. A. Flagg, J. L. Mighell, and C. V. W. Mahnken.1984. Effects of estradiol and diethylstilbestrol on sex reversal and mortality in Atlantic salmon, Salmo salar. Aquaculture 43:75-81.

Sower, S. A., R. M. Iwamoto, W. W. Dickhoff, and A. Gorbman.1984. Ovulatory and steroidal responses in coho salmon and steelhead trout following administration of salmon gonadotropin and D-A1a6 desGly10 gonadotropin releasing hormone ethylamide (GnRHa). Aquaculture 43:35-46.

Sullivan, C. V., W. W. Dickhoff, C. V. W. Mahnken, and W. K. Hershberger.1985. Changes in the hemoglobin system of the coho salmon, Oncorhynchus kisutch, during smoltification and triiodothyronine and propylthiouracil treatment. Comp. Biochem. Physiol. 81A:807-813.

Zaugg, W. S., D. D. Roley, E. F. Prentice, K. X. Gores, and F. W. Waknitz.1983. Increased seawater survival and contribution to the fishery of chinook salmon (Oncorhynchus tshawytscha) by supplemental dietary salt. Aquaculture 32:183-188.

Zaugg, W. S., E. F. Prentice, and F. W. Waknitz.1985. Importance of river migration to the development of seawater tolerance in Columbia River anadromous salmonids. Aquaculture 51:33-47.

#### Improved Quality of Hatchery Smolts (Developmental Physiology)

Throughout the 1980s, studies on smolt development at laboratories and production facilities continued. Researchers of the CZES Division believe that smolt development is crucial to the survival of cultured salmonids. Managers need objective measures of smolt development when evaluating attempts to improve survival, such as making adjustments in rearing strategies. Although a number of tests evolved that can index smolt development, two received major emphasis: 1) measurements of gill Na+-K+ ATPase activity, an enzyme that is closely associated with the ability to adapt to seawater, and 2) measurements of plasma thyroxine (T3 and T4) concentrations, which are involved in many developmental steps occurring at the time of smolt transformation. Both of these factors show significant increases during the transition from parr to smolt. 

Using various measurements of smolt development, the following relationships were discovered during the past 10 years: 

- The act of migration greatly increases gill Na+-K+ ATPase activity,   suggesting migration plays an important physiological role in the development   of seawater tolerance.   
- A dramatic drop in the immune response is associated with an increased   smolt development.   
- High pond density of coho (O. kisutch) and spring chinook salmon   suppresses gill Na+-K+ ATPase activity and is associated with decreased adult   recoveries.   
- Blood levels of insulin increase during the initial stages of smolt   development; also, other changes in the endocrine system occur (e.g.,   increases in plasma cortisol, growth hormone estradiol, norepinephrine, and   epinephrine).   
- Gradual adaptation to salt water of increasing salinities results in much   greater survival than direct entry into full strength seawater, especially   when fish show minimal smolt development.   
- When fish are released prior to indications of smolt development, they   migrate seaward slowly in near-shore areas, whereas more fully developed fish   tend to migrate more rapidly and in center stream.   
- Fish with elevated levels of gill Na+-K+ ATPase activity tend to be guided   more effectively by fish by-pass screens than fish with low levels of   activity.   
- Over a 5-year period, adult contributions of fall chinook salmon were   correlated with prerelease smolt development.   
- Subjecting yearling spring chinook salmon to advanced photoperiods for 3   months prior to release resulted in greater smolt development and more rapid   downstream migration. This was indicated by greater collection efficiency at   collector dams in the Columbia River.   
- Peak plasma thyroxine levels in some populations of salmonids occur during   the full moon.   
- Low levels of copper (Cu++) inhibit gill Na+-K+ ATPase activity associated   with smolt development and seawater adaptation, but not the activity present   in parr.   
- Experiments with the antibiotic actinomycin D indicated that the gill   Na+-K+ ATPase activity associated with smolt development and the Na+-K+ ATPase   activity associated with adaptation to seawater are probably related to the   same enzyme.   
- Fish experience weight and length loss when subjected to a Na+-K+ ATPase   24-hour seawater challenge. The amount of weight or length lost is related to   the level of gill Na+-K+ ATPase activity. 

In 1987, the Division became involved in an extensive study with the Washington Department of Fisheries to determine why there was differential survival in coho salmon between two hatcheries in the Grays Harbor area of western Washington. The study produced information on the possible roles of smoltification, health, predation, migration, seawater adaptation, pulp mill effluents, and other factors in survival. 

In the spring of 1989, Division scientists began a cooperative study to assess the quality of spring chinook salmon being released from five Columbia Basin hatcheries. Tests to determine the developmental status and general condition of fish being released from these hatcheries are being made. Since groups of fish being studied are coded-wire tagged, adult contribution will be correlated with all parameters being measured. 

Much progress was made during the past 10 years in determining the relationships between smolt development in hatchery populations and post-release migratory performance and survival. Although we now know that the degree of smolt development at the time of release significantly affects migration behavior, its effect on survival is not yet known. There is evidence that the more fully smolted fish are at the time of release, the greater their chance of survival. Present studies should provide further evidence and help determine just how important it is to release fish of high quality from our public hatcheries.

#### Bibliography

Beckman, B. R., and W. S. Zaugg.1990. Effect of actinomycin-D on gill Na+-K+ ATPase of juvenile chinook salmon, Oncorhynchus tshawytscha (Walbaum) J. Fish. Biol. 37:907-911.

Bhattacharya, S., E. Plisetskaya, W. W. Dickhoff, and A. Gorbman.1984. Influence of 17B-estradiol (E2) and triiodothyronine (T3) on protein metabolism by hepatocytes of juvenile coho salmon (Oncorhynchus kisutch). Gen. Comp. Endocrinol. 53:474.

Bhattacharya, S., E. Plisetskaya, W. W. Dickhoff, and A. Gorbman.1985. The effects of estradiol and triiodothyronine on protein metabolism by hepatocytes of juvenile coho salmon (Oncorhynchus kisutch). Gen. Comp. Endocrinol. 57:103-109.

Brown, C. L., C. V. Sullivan, H. A. Bern, and W. W. Dickhoff.1987. Occurrence of thyroid hormones in early developmental stages of teleost fish. In R. D. Hoyt (editor), 10th Annual Larval Fish Conference, p. 144-150. Symposium Series No. 2, American Fisheries Society, Bethesda, MD.

Darling, D. S., W. W. Dickhoff, and A. Gorbman.1980. Nuclear thyroid hormone receptors in salmon. Am. Zool. 20:858.

Darling, D. S., W. W. Dickhoff, and A. Gorbman.1982. Changes of thyroid hormone receptor and deiodinase activities in coho salmon. Amer. Zool. 22:854.

Darling, D. S., W. W. Dickhoff, and A. Gorbman.1982. Comparison of thyroid hormone binding to hepatic nuclei of a rat and a teleost (Oncorhynchus kisutch). Endocrinology 111:1936-1943.

Dickhoff, W. W., and D. S. Darling.1983. Evolution of thyroid function and its control in lower vertebrates. Am. Zool. 23:697-707.

Dickhoff, W. W., D. S. Darling, and A. Gorbman.1982. Thyroid function during smoltification of salmonid fish. In Phylogenetic aspects of thyroid hormone actions, Vol. 19, p. 45-61. Institute of Endocrinology, Gunma Univ., Japan.

Dickhoff, W. W., L. C. Folmar, J. L. Mighell, and C. V. W. Mahnken.1982. Thyroid hormones during smoltification of yearling and underyearling coho salmon and yearling steelhead trout. Aquaculture 28:39-48.

Dickhoff, W. W., L. C. Folmar, J. L. Mighell, C. V. W. Mahnken, and A. Gorbman.1981. Thyroid hormones in smoltification of anadromous salmonids. Proceedings of North Pacific Aquaculture Symposium, 1980, Newport, OR, 10 p. (Available from Northwest Fisheries Science Center, 2725 Montlake Blvd. E., Seattle, WA 98112-2097.)

Dickhoff, W. W., C. V. W. Mahnken, F. W. Waknitz, W. S. Zaugg, M. G. Bernard, and C. V. Sullivan.1989. Effect of temperature and feeding on smolting and seawater survival of Atlantic salmon (Salmo salar). Aquaculture 82:93-102.

Dickhoff, W. W., and C. V. Sullivan.1987. Thyroid involvement in salmon smoltification-with special reference to metabolic and developmental processes. In M. J. Dadswell, R. J. Klauda, C. M. Moffit, and R. L. Saunders (editors), Common strategies of anadromous and catadromous fishes, p. 197-210. Am. Fish. Soc. Sympos. Ser. 1.

Dickhoff, W. W., C. V. Sullivan, and C. V. W. Mahnken.1985. Methods of measuring and controlling the parr to smolt transformation (smoltification) of juvenile salmon. In C. J. Sindermann (editor), Proceedings of the Eleventh Annual U.S.-Japan Meeting on Aquaculture, Salmon Enhancement, Tokyo, Japan, 19-20 October 1982, p. 5-9. U.S. Dep. Commer., NOAA Tech. Rep. NMFS 27.

Dickhoff, W. W., C. V. Sullivan, and C. V. W. Mahnken.1985. Thyroid hormones and gill ATPase during smoltification of Atlantic salmon (Salmo salar). Aquaculture 45:376.

Dickhoff, W. W., and P. Swanson.1985. Changes in thyroidal response to bovine thyrotropin (bTSH) during the parr to smolt transformation of coho salmon (Oncorhynchus kisutch). Am. Zool. 25:80A.

Dickhoff, W. W., P. Swanson, C. V. Sullivan, and M. G. Bernard.1986. Effects of triiodothyronine (T3) on development and the thyroid system of salmon during smoltification. Am. Zool. 26:107A.

Folmar, L. C., and W. W. Dickhoff.1980. The parr-smolt transformation (smoltification) and seawater adaptation in salmonids. A review of selected literature. Aquaculture 21:1-37.

Folmar, L. C., and W. W. Dickhoff.1981. Evaluation of some physiological parameters as predictive indices of smoltification. Aquaculture 23:309-324.

Folmar, L. C., W. W. Dickhoff, C. V. W. Mahnken, and F. W. Waknitz.1982. Stunting and parr-reversion during smoltification of coho salmon (Oncorhynchus kisutch). Aquaculture 28:91-104.

Folmar, L. C., W. W. Dickhoff, W. S. Zaugg, and H. O. Hodgins.1982. The effects of Aroclor 1254 and No. 2 fuel oil on smoltification and seawater adaptation of coho salmon (Oncorhynchus kisutch). Aquat. Toxicol. 2:291-299.

Folmar, L. C., W. W. Dickhoff, W. S. Zaugg, and C. V. W. Mahnken.1982. Freshwater development and smoltification in coho salmon from the Columbia River. Proceedings of the Eighth U.S.-Japan meeting on Aquaculture, Bellingham, Washington, 17-18 October 1979. U.S. Dep. Commer., NOAA Tech. Rep. NMFS Circular 447.

Gern, W., W. W. Dickhoff, and L. C. Folmar.1984. Increases in plasma melatonin titers accompanying seawater adaptation of coho salmon (Oncorhynchus kisutch). Gen. Comp. Endocrinol. 55:458-462.

Giorgi, A. E., W. D. Muir, W. S. Zaugg, and C. S. McCutcheon.1990. Biological manipulation of migration rate: The use of advanced photoperiod to accelerate smoltification in yearling chinook salmon. Report to Bonneville Power Administration, Contract DE-A179-88BP50301, 37 p. (Available from Northwest Fisheries Science Center, 2725 Montlake Blvd. E., Seattle, WA 98112-2097.)

Giorgi, A. E., G. A. Swan, W. S. Zaugg, T. Coley, and T. Y. Barila.1988. Susceptibility of chinook salmon smolts to bypass systems at hydroelectric dams. N. Am. J. Fish. Manage. 8:25-29.

Gorbman, A., W. W. Dickhoff, J. L. Mighell, E. F. Prentice, and F. W. Waknitz.1982. Morphological indices of developmental progress in the parr-smolt coho salmon, Oncorhynchus kisutch. Aquaculture 28:1-20.

Gould, R. W., A. N. Palmisano, S. D. Smith, C. V. W. Mahnken, W.S. Zaugg, and E. F. Prentice.1985. Seawater acclimation of premigratory (presmolt) fall chinook salmon: A possible new management strategy? In C. J. Sindermann (editor), Proceedings of the Eleventh U.S.-Japan Meeting on Aquaculture, Salmon Enhancement, Tokyo, Japan, 19-20 October 1982, p.15-19. U.S. Dep. Commer., NOAA Tech. Rep. NMFS 27.

Grau, E. G., W. W. Dickhoff, R. S. Nishioka, H. A. Bern, and L.C. Folmar.1981. Lunar phasing of the thyroxine surge preparatory to seaward migration of salmonid fishes. Science 211:607-609.

Mahnken, C. V. W., W. W. Dickhoff, and D. M. Damkaer.1984. Comments on the mortality of coho salmon from saltwater release facilities in Oregon. In W. G. Pearcy (editor), The influence of ocean conditions on the production of salmonids in the North Pacific, a workshop, p. 19-23. Oregon State Univ., Corvallis, Sea Grant Coll. Program, ORESU-W-83-001.

Muir, W. D., A. E. Giorgi, W. S. Zaugg, and B. R. Beckman.1989. An assessment of the relationship between smolt development and fish guidance efficiency at Bonneville Dam. Report to U.S. Army Corps of Engineers, Contract DACW57-F-0320, 29 p. (Available from Northwest Fisheries Science Center, 2725 Montlake Blvd. E., Seattle, WA 98112-2097.)

Muir, W. D., A. E. Giorgi, W. S. Zaugg, W. W. Dickhoff, and B. R. Beckman.1988. Behavior and physiology studies in relation to yearling chinook salmon guidance at Lower Granite and Little Goose Dams, 1987. Report to U.S. Army Corps of Engineers, Contract DACW68-84H-0034, 47 p. (Available from Northwest Fisheries Science Center, 2725 Montlake Blvd. E., Seattle, WA 98112-2097.)

Muir, W. D., C. S. McCutcheon, A. E. Giorgi, W. S. Zaugg, S. R. Hirtzel, and B. R. Beckman.1990. An assessment of the relationship between smolt development and fish guiding efficiency at Lower Granite Dam, 1989. Report to U.S. Army Corps of Engineers, Contract DACW68-84-H-0034, 19 p. (Available from Northwest Fisheries Science Center, 2725 Montlake Blvd. E., Seattle, WA 98112-2097.)

Nichols, J. W., G. A. Wedemeyer, F. L. Mayer, W. W. Dickhoff, S.V. Gregory, W. T. Yasutake, and S. D. Smith.1984. Effects of freshwater exposure to arsenic trioxide on the parr-smolt transformation of coho salmon (Oncorhynchus kisutch). Environ. Toxicol. Chem. 3:143-149.

Novotny, A. J., and W. S. Zaugg.1981. Study of disease and physiology in the 1979 homing study hatchery stocks. A supplement to: Imprinting salmon and steelhead trout for homing, 1979, by Slatick, Gilbreath, and Walch. Report to Bonneville Power Administration, Contract DE-Al79-79BP10682, 55 p. (Available from Northwest Fisheries Science Center, 2725 Montlake Blvd. E., Seattle, WA 98112-2097.)

Novotny, A. J., and W. S. Zaugg.1984. Study of disease and physiology in the 1980 homing study hatchery stocks. A supplement to: Imprinting salmon and steelhead trout for homing, 1980, by Slatick, Gilbreath, and Walch. Report to Bonneville Power Administration, Contract DE-A179-80BP18236, 198 p. (Available from Northwest Fisheries Science Center, 2725 Montlake Blvd. E., Seattle, WA 98112-2097.)

Patino, R., C. B. Schreck, J. L. Banks, and W. S. Zaugg.1986. Effects of rearing conditions on the development physiology of smolting coho salmon. Trans. Am. Fish. Soc. 115:828-837.

Plisetskaya, E., S. Bhattacharya, W. W. Dickhoff, and A. Gorbman.1983. Insulin effects in vitro on protein metabolism and glycogen content in hepatocytes of juvenile salmon. Am. Zool. 23:1010.

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Plisetskaya, E., W. W. Dickhoff, T. L. Paquette, and A. Gorbman.1986. The assay of salmon insulin by homologous radioimmunoassay. Fish Physiol. Biochem. 1:35-41.

Plisetskaya, E., P. Swanson, M. G. Bernard, and W. W. Dickhoff.1988. Insulin in coho salmon (Oncorhynchus kisutch) during the parr to smolt transformation. Aquaculture 72:151-164.

Prentice, E. F., C. V. W. Mahnken, K. Gores, W. Waknitz, W. Zaugg, L. Folmar, R. King, J. Mighell, W. Dickhoff, T. Flagg, L. Harrell, A. Novotny, D. Damkaer, E. Wold, and R. Vreeland.1980. A study to assess status of smoltification and fitness for ocean survival of chinook and coho salmon and steelhead. Summary report financed by the Pacific Northwest Regional Commission, Project 10990060, 45p. (Available from Northwest Fisheries Science Center, 2725 Montlake Blvd. E., Seattle, WA 98112-2097.)

Prentice, E. F., C. V. W. Mahnken, W. S. Zaugg, L. C. Folmar, W.W. Dickhoff, F. W. Waknitz, K. X. Gores, L. W. Harrell, A.J. Novotny, T. A. Flagg, C. G. Safsten, and J. L. Mighell.1981. Assessment of smoltification and fitness for ocean survival (quality) of chinook and coho salmon and steelhead in the Columbia River and Puget Sound hatcheries. Final Report of research financed by the Pacific Northwest Regional Commission, Projects 10890017 and 10990060, Part I, 13 p., Part II, 34 p. (Available from Northwest Fisheries Science Center, 2725 Montlake Blvd. E., Seattle, WA 98112-2097.)

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#### Sockeye Restoration

Fish husbandry investigations involve the collection and spawning of adult sockeye salmon from the Wenatchee River, Washington, and incubation of eggs and rearing of juveniles at the CZES Division Stock Restoration Laboratory at the Northwest Fisheries Science Center in Seattle, Washington. Since 1987, up to 520 adult sockeye salmon have been captured yearly during late July and early August. Fish are captured at the Tumwater Dam fishway on the Wenatchee River and transferred to net-pens in Lake Wenatchee. There they are held to maturity, until late September or early October. After spawning, the green eggs are transported to the Seattle laboratory. Yearly adult capture-to-spawning survival has ranged from 70 to almost 98%. 

In 1987 and 1988, all net-pen spawners were documented as being free of infectious hematopoietic necrosis (IHN) virus although the incidence of IHN in the spawning rivers in the area was almost 90%. In 1989 and 1990, IHN was detected in many of the adult fish at the net-pen complex. It is believed that the IHN infections at the net-pen site may have been horizontally transferred from an infected sockeye salmon captured during trapping. However, it is possible that the infection was spread from a natural reservoir in the lake. Eggs from net-pen spawners were fertilized and reared at the Seattle laboratory, and all egg groups were incubated separately. Only progeny from parents certified as IHN negative were used in the restoration project. Progeny with one or more parent that was IHN positive were returned to the Washington Department of Fisheries. All eggs had been disinfected in iodophor at spawning, and the resultant juveniles remained negative for IHN through culture; this suggests that vertical (egg-associated) transfer of the virus from parent to progeny was avoided. 

The immediate goal of the restoration project is to determine if introduced sockeye salmon can successfully migrate from Cle Elum Lake under the irrigation discharge conditions that now exist. Approximately 90,000 juvenile sockeye salmon, certified as IHN negative from the 1987 and 1988 broods, were reared in Seattle and released in the Yakima River Basin from fall to spring in 1988-89 and 1989-90. Fry to smolt survival ranged from about 70 to 80% for these groups. All fish were freeze branded and coded-wire-tagged, and a portion (3 to 5%) were PIT-tagged. 

The 1989 to 1990 study relied on direct capture of juvenile sockeye salmon from the lake in traps. A floating Merwin-type (near-surface, near-shore) trap was located in the forebay near Cle Elum Dam and an inclined plane trap was located at the outfall from the dam. Evaluation of downstream movement was documented through recaptures at fish collection facilities at Prosser Dam on the lower Yakima River (about 150 miles downstream from Cle Elum Lake) and at McNary Dam on the mainstem Columbia River. 

The data suggest there are no severe blockages to migration of sockeye salmon in the free-flowing sections of the Yakima River System. Most groups released to the free-flowing Cle Elum River below the dam moved downstream to the ocean at rates of 20 to 30 miles per day. There were large numbers of juvenile sockeye salmon in the lake near the outlet structure during the springtime study period. However, very few of these fish were recaptured below the dam. Our data indicated that the major obstacle to restoring a run at Cle Elum Lake is fish attraction to and passage through the outlet structure at Cle Elum Dam. 

Coastal Zone and Estuarine Studies researchers believe it is possible to provide a flow pattern discharge from Cle Elum Lake that will attract outmigrants away from the outlet structure. In 1991, CZES investigators will evaluate links between water discharge patterns from the dam, sockeye salmon distribution patterns in the lake, and springtime smoltification and outmigrant readiness. These studies should provide information for the design of a smolt by-pass system to provide optimal outmigration under the irrigation water discharge pattern at Cle Elum Dam. 

The sockeye salmon restoration program provides a model for linking donor brood-stock concepts with habitat restoration efforts for depleted stocks.

#### Bibliography

Flagg, T. A., and L. W. Harrell.1989. Net-pen isolation of prespawning sockeye salmon--A promising method to avoid IHN. Proceedings of the 1989 American Fisheries Society, North Pacific International Chapter Annual Meeting, New Westminster, British Columbia, Canada. Abstract. (Available from Northwest Fisheries Science Center, 2725 Montlake Blvd. E., Seattle, WA 98112-2097.)

Flagg, T. A., L. W. Harrell, J. L. Mighell, and E. S. Slatick.1990. Cle Elum Lake sockeye salmon restoration feasibility study, 1988-1989. Report to Bonneville Power Administration, Contract DE-AI79-86-BP64840, 44 p. (Available from Northwest Fisheries Science Center, 2725 Montlake Blvd. E., Seattle, WA 98112-2097.)

Flagg, T. A., L. W. Harrell, T. E. Ruehle, and J. L. Mighell.1990. Results of the Yakima Sockeye Project, 1989-1990. Proceedings of the 1990 Alaska Department of Fish and Game Sockeye Culture Workshop, Anchorage, Alaska, 2 p. (Available from Northwest Fisheries Science Center, 2725 Montlake Blvd. E., Seattle, WA 98112-2097.)

Flagg, T. A., and J. L. Mighell.1988. Yakima Basin sockeye salmon restoration feasibility study--fish culture program. Proceedings of the 1988 Alaska Department of Fish and Game Sockeye Culture Workshop, Ketchikan, Alaska, 8 p. (Available from Northwest Fisheries Science Center, 2725 Montlake Blvd. E., Seattle, WA 98112-0297.)

Flagg, T. A., J. L. Mighell, E. S. Slatick, and L. W. Harrell.1988. Cle Elum Lake sockeye salmon restoration feasibility study, 1987-1988. Report to Bonneville Power Administration, Contract DE-AI79-86-BP64840, 34 p. (Available from Northwest Fisheries Science Center, 2725 Montlake Blvd. E., Seattle, WA 98112-2097.)

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