1^ 1 1 y United States Department of Commerce

l^kl 1^^^ I Technology Administration

. .1 ^M^^ i National Institute of Standards and Technology

NAT'L INST. OF STAND & TECH R.I.C.

III ill III II NiST

AlllDM PUBLICATiONS

NIST Special Publication 873

Joint DoD/NIST Workshop on International

Manufacturing Systems Research

and Development

John D. Meyer, Editor

QC

100

.U57

NO. 873

1995
Jhe National Institute of Standards and Technology was established in 1988 by Congress to "assist industry

in the development of technology . . . needed to improve product quality, to modernize manufacturing processes,

to ensure product reliability . . . and to facilitate rapid commercialization ... of products based on new scientific discoveries." NIST, originally founded as the National Bureau of Standards in 1901, works to strengthen U.S. industry's

competitiveness; advance science and engineering; and improve public health, safety, and the environment. One of the agency's basic functions is to develop, maintain, and retain custody of the national standards of measurement, and

provide the means and methods for comparing standards used in science, engineering, manufacmring, commerce,

industry, and education with the standards adopted or recognized by the Federal Government.

As an agency of the U.S. Commerce Department's Technology Administration, NIST conducts basic and applied

research in the physical sciences and engineering, and develops measurement techniques, test methods, standards, and

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research facilities are located at Gaithersburg, MD 20899, and at Boulder, CO 80303. Major technical operating units and their principal activities are listed below. For more information contact the Public Inquiries Desk, 301-975-3058.

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Laboratory

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'At Boulder, CO 80303. ^Some elements at Boulder, CO 80303,
NIST Special Publication 873

Joint DoD/NIST Workshop on International

Manufacturing Systems Research

and Development

John D. Meyer, Editor

Manufacturing Engineering Laboratory

National Institute of Standards and Technology

Gaithersburg, MD 20899-0001

October 1995

U.S. Department of Commerce

Ronald H. Brown, Secretary

Technology Administration

Mary L. Good, Under Secretary for Technology

National Institute of Standards and Technology

Arati Prabhakar, Director
National Institute of Standards

and Technology

Special Publication 873

Natl. Inst. Stand. Technol. Spec. Publ. 873

237 pages (Oct. 1995)

CODEN: NSPUE2

U.S. Government Printing Office

Washington: 1995

For sale by the Superintendent

of Documents

U.S. Government Printing Office

Washington, DC 20402
Preface

An international workshop was held in Rockville, Maryland, on November 3-5,

1992 to discuss major research and development programs in manufacturing

systems technology. Approximately 25 leading experts attended the workshop,

which was co-sponsored by the U. S. Department of Defense's Manufacturing

Technology Program.

Several papers, each covering a specific geographic region or topic, were presented

at the workshop. Copies of the presentations are included in these proceedings.

In addition to individual R&D programs and technology sources in North America,

Western Europe, Eastern Europe, and Asia, the workshop participants also

discussed R&D needs, priorities, underlying motivations, and opportunities for

international collaboration. The results of these discussions will be summarized in a separate report. Information about the summary report may be obtained from the

editor of these proceedings.

J. D. Meyer

Gaithersburg, Maryland

October 1992

Except where attributed to NIST authors, the content of individual sections of this volume has not been reviewed or edited by the National

Institute of Standards and Technology. NIST therefore accepts no responsibility for comments or recommendations therein. The mention of

trade names in this volume is in no sense an endorsement or recommendation of the National Institute of Standards and Technology.

iii

Final Participants List

MANUFACTURING SYSTEMS RESEARCH & DEVELOPMENT WORKSHOP

National Institute of Standards and Technology

Gaithersburg, Maryland

Woodfin Suites Hotel

November 3-5, 1992

Peter Brown

NIST

Bldg. 220, Rm A217

Gaithersburg, MD 20899

301/975-3515

Fax: 301/258-9749

Albert Jones

NIST

Bldg. 220, RmB310

Gaithersburg, MD 20899

301/975-3554

Fax: 301/948-5668

Bernard Chern

National Science Foundation

1800GSt.,N.W.

Washington, DC 20550

202/357-7373

Fax: 202/357-1056

Fumihiko Kimura

The University of Tokyo

Hango 7-3-1 Bunkyo Ku

Tokyo 113, Japan

+81-3-3812-2111 ext. 6455

Fax: +81-3-3812-8849

Hank Grant

National Science Foundation

1800 G St., N.W.

Room 1128

Washington, DC 20550

202/357-7676

Fax: 202/357-5166

Charles Kimzey

OASD (P&L)

8000 Defense Pentagon

Rm 3B253

Washington, DC 20301-8000

703/697-0957

Fax: 703/693-6990

Bernd E. Hirsch

Bremen Univ. (BBA)

Hochschulring 20

2800 Bremen 33

Germany

+49-421-2183384

Fax: +49-421-2200979

Lloyd Lehn

OASD (P&L) PR/MM

8000 Defense Pentagon

Rm 3B253

Washington, DC 20301-8000

703/614-4783

Fax: 703/693-6990

Michael Hitchcock

Air Force Man Tech

WL/MTI

WPAFB, OH 45433-6533

513/255-7371

Fax: 513/476-4420

Thomas Mahoney

National Science Foundation

2101 Constitution Ave.

Washington, DC 20418

202/334-2570

Fax: 202/334-2571

V
Charles McLean

NIST

Bldg. 220, Rm A127

Gaithersburg, MD 20899

301/975-351 1 Fax: 301/258-9749

John Meyer

NIST

Bldg 245, Rm B102

Gaithersburg, MD 20899

301/975-3371

Fax: 301/926-8730

Frederick Michel

Society of Mfg Engineers

8409 Felton Lane

Alexandria, VA 22308

703/360-7665

Fax: 703/360-7665

Eugene Ovsyannikov

St. Petersburg Institute

for Informatics & Automation

39, 14th Line

St. Petersburg, 199178

Russia

Leo Plonsky

U.S. Navy

NAVIRSA; Bldg. 75-2

Naval Base

Philadelphia, PA 19112

215/897-6684

Fax: 215/897-5949

Stan Settles

OSTP/White House Office

Old Executive Office Bldg.

Rm428

17th & Pennsylvania Ave., N.W.

Washington, DC 20500

202/395-1408

Fax: 202/395-3719

K. (Cheena) Srinivasan

National Science Foundation

1800 G St., N. W.

Room 1128

Washington, DC 20550

James Solberg

Purdue University

Potter Bldg.

Engineering Bldg.

W. Lafayette, IN 47907

317/494-7715

Fax: 317/494-0811

Brent Starkey

U.S. Army

Rock Island Arsenal

Attn: AMSMC-PRS-L

Rock Island, IL 61299-6000

309/782-1391

Fax: 309/782-0295

David Stieren

OASD (P&L)

8000 Defense Pentagon

Rm 3B253

Washington, DC 20301-8000

703/695-7580

Fax: 703/693-6990

Julie Tsao

Defense Logistics Agency

Cameron Station

PRM 4B190

Alexandria, VA 22304-6100

Nathan Tupper

Consultant

4317 Appleton PI. Kettering, OH 45540

513/294-4930

Fax: 513/294-7438

vi
Table of Contents

Page

Preface iii

Final Participants List v

Introductor> Remarks

John Meyer, National Institute of Standards and Technology

Gaithersburg, MD 1

North American R&D in Manufacturing

James Solberg, Purdue University

West Lafayette, IN 5

Western European R&D for Manufacturing Systems

Bemd Hirsch, Bremen University

Bremen, Germany 23

Eastern European R&D in Manufacturing

Eugene Ovsyannikov, Institute for Informatics and Automation

St. Petersburg, Russia 95

Asian R&D in Manufacturing

Fumihiko Kimura, University of Tokyo

Tokyo, Japan 115

Manufacturing Systems R&D Study Results

207

vii
i

I
Introductory Remarks

John Meyer

Manufacturing Engineering Laboratory

National Institute of Standards and Technology

Gaithersburg, MD 20899

It is widely recognized that most of the costs of manufacturing a product are not attributable to direct labor expenses or the costs of purchased materials

and components. Instead, the primary cost drivers are often "above-the-shopfloor" types of expenses for such functions as production scheduling and

control, material and supplier management, quality assurance,

manufacturing engineering and other overhead categories. In addition to

representing major cost elements, these non-direct functions also have a major impact on the overall effectiveness and efficiency of the entire

manufacturing operation, and therefore are doubly important in determining

a company's ability to compete successfully in world markets.

For the purposes of this workshop, these non-direct functions are referred to as "manufacturing systems" technologies, where the term "systems" is used

in its broadest context and is not limited strictly to computer-based production

processes or techniques. Included in this definition are the many approaches

to integration of manufacturing systems and the engineering tools and

methods for designing processes, manufacturing equipment, facilities, and

enterprises.

Major advances in manufacturing systems technologies are being pursued by

numerous organizations around the world. Undoubtedly, these research

efforts will yield new and improved methods and technologies that will

enable companies to manufacture products parts more flexibly, with better

quality and lower costs in smaller volumes.

In the midst of this high level of on-going international research, there is a need for a mechanism for examining such efforts on a worldwide basis in an

open forum, with an eye towards identifying collaborative research

opportunities among regions. Workshops serves as one such mechanism.

To this end, a workshop was jointly sponsored by the U.S. Department of

Defense (DoD) and the National Institute of Standards and Technology

(NIST). Both DoD and NIST are actively involved in the development and

implementation of advanced manufacturing technologies and each is

interested in exploring international collaborative research projects in this

field.

1
The purpose of the workshop was to provide an international forum for

discussing major research and development programs in manufacturing

systems technology. Specifically, the objectives of the workshop were to:

1. Identify major R&D programs and sources of advanced

manufacturing systems technology in Europe, Asia, North America

and other parts of the world.

2. Determine the approximate level of resources being expended in

each R&D area.

3. Examine the goals and strategies of these R&D programs, as well as the underlying reasons and motivations for undertaking such

efforts.

4. Explore any unmet needs or high-impact research opportunities

that may exist in the area of manufacturing systems technology.

5. Discuss the potential for international collaborative R&D projects

and any key issues associated therewith.

For the purposes of this workshop, the term "manufacturing systems" was

very broadly defined and included the following topics: — Production scheduling and control — Material management — Supplier management

-- Quality assurance ~ Manufacturing and industrial engineering — Tool and equipment design

-- Facilities and enterprise design — Information management — Equipment justification — Manufacturing strategies

Other "above-the-shop-floor" costs, such as marketing and sales expenses,

general management, equipment depreciation, and financing were

considered to be outside the scope of the workshop.

Because of the focused and specific nature of the workshop's objectives, the

meeting was conducted on a "by-invitation-only" basis. The total number of

participants was limited to a maximum of 25 people. Each individual was

expected to be an active participant in the discussions. Thus, only

knowledgeable experts in the field were invited to participate in the meeting.

The workshop was truly international in flavor, with leading observers from

all regions of the world taking part in the meeting.

2
The meeting spanned a three-day period. The agenda was as follows:

Day 1: Morning: Registration and individual presentations and questions

Afternoon: Individual presentations and questions

Day 2: Morning: Group discussion of R&D framework and research programs

Afternoon: Group discussion of R&D needs and priorities

Day 3: Morning: Group discussion of collaboration opportunities

Afternoon: Adjourn

Approximately 25 people attended the workshop. A list of the attendees is included in this proceedings.

As can be seen from the agenda, a considerable portion of the workshop was

devoted to group discussions of various issues concerning manufacturing

systems R&D. A separate report summarizing these discussions is planned

for preparation in 1993. More information about the report is available from

the editor of these proceedings.

3

North American R&D in Manufacturing

James J. Solberg

Engineering Research Center for

Intelligent Manufacturing Systems

Purdue University

T. TNTRODUCTTON

The American approach to manufacturing research is widely diverse, distributed,

and unorganized. Not only do we lack a central authority or government body with

responsibility for coordinating the work, there is not even a single source to find out what

is happening. If outside observers find this confusing, so do insiders. But this typically

American pluralistic approach has served us weU in many other cases, so we live

comfortably with more confusion that other cultures might allow. In particular, we resist

centralized planning and control even when the altemative seems irrational and chaotic.

Before attempting to make some sense of the very complex picture relating to manufacturing research in the U.S. today, I must acknowledge several factors that limit

my perspective. Although I am reasonably familiar with what is happening in several of

the relevant government agencies, in universities, and in a few government labs, the total

picttire is too big and complicated for anyone to have a full grasp of the simation. Even if

I were able to offer complete knowledge of the current situation, it is changing so rapidly

that any conclusions could only be temporary. Indeed, one of the few statements that I can confidendy make is that change is occurring rapidly. Any perspective on these issues can only be a personal one; many people could look at the same issues and interpret them

very differendy.

Having given those warnings, I will nevertheless attempt to interpret what I know in as bold a manner as possible. I will identify the principal players, as I see them, and try

to son out the roles of each. I will also state what I see as the major themes that emerge

from the totality of all the manufacturing research going on today. I will even offer some

predictions.

n. HTSTORTCAT. RACKGROTIND

By tradition and broad public preference over the period from 1950 to 1990, the

U.S. government has not played a significant direct role in industrial affairs. Of course,

government imposed tax policies and regulations have had a big effect, but in comparison

to other industrialized nations, there has been relatively litde governmental suppon for

industry. The only interactions between business and government tended to be

adversarial (that is, government was taxing or regulating industry), so the business

community generally preferred less rather than more interaction. In order to understand

this posture, one neeids only to realize that U.S. supremacy in manufacturing was

5
unchallenged for several decades following World War 11. So, while other countries were

pursuing aggressive industrialization policies, aided by a wide variety of government

programs intended to stimulate development, the U.S. was content with tliungs as they were. Therefore, for the last forty five years we have accepted the concept that business

will thrive best if the role of government is minimized. These conditions prevailed so long that they came to be taken for granted. In fact, virtually all of the present workforce

and management have spent their entire working careers knowing only these conditions.

Similarly, and for some of the same reasons, there has been relatively litUe

interaction between universities and industry over the same period. During the 1950's

and 1960's, most universities gradually eliniinated their manufacturing laboratories and

courses. Few American-educated students showed an interest in manufacturing,

preferring instead the glamour of space, computers, and pure science. Manufacturing

jobs were looked upon as routine, uninspiring, and inappropriate for college-educated

people. The brightest young people, if they had any interest in a career in business,

gravitated toward law, marketing, or finance. Most of our current corporate leaders came

from such a background.

All of that began to change in the 1970's, when it became apparent that the rest of

the industrialized world was catching up in manufacturing. StiU, it was hard to break the

patterns of thought and behavior that our entire population had grown up with. Through

most of the 1980's, the mood was one of denial. Our failures were either blamed on

others ("unfair practices") or rationalized as unimportant ("we are becoming a service

economy anyway"). The Reagan and Bush administrations strongly resisted any form of

industrial policy, believing that the best long run strategy is to allow free market forces to operate without government intervention. More and more, however, even the Bush

administration came to accept the concept that a new relationship between government

and industry was needed. Although there is still a deeply rooted bias in the American

culture against direct federal involvement in private business, there is now widespread

support for the idea that the government should engage in pre-competitive generic

research that will benefit American industry.

We are now in a period of re-examination of our basic institutions and their role in

promoting or facilitating industrial strength. The public, the political leaders, and

industry itself have finally awakened to the importance of the task. We know that things

have changed, but have not yet achieved consensus on what to do. Out of the many

mixed views, conflicting directions, and imaginative proposals, I expect the U.S. to develop a strong, but still pluralistic, approach to industrial modernization.

m. WHO SUPPORTS MANTIFACTTIRTNG RESEARCH?

There are many organizations, public and private, that purport to speak for the

manufacturing community. In fact, to list them would require a large directory. For the

most part, the companies that d2 manufacturing see themselves as independent of any of

these organizations. Nevertheless, they are looking more openly toward parmership

arrangements, and are attentive to what the universities and government are doing.

A. Private Organizations

In many companies, the term "research" is taken to mean "finding out what others

have done", rather than "creating something new." This view is certainly appropriate for a company that wants to mimic the leaders (a reasonable strategy) or cannot afford its own original work. But it should not confuse us about the real meaning of research or

6
distract us from concern about the creative energies that drive innovation. According to

[1], approximately half of the total R&D expenditures in the U.S. come from private

industry. (Industry spends about three quaners of the R&D, but pan of this comes from

the govemmenL) Of the roughly $89 billion that private industry spends in R&D, mostperhaps $70 billion-is attributed to manufacturing. However, this accounting treats food,

chemicals, lumber, petroleum, and many other industries as manufacturing, leaving only

a few of the Standard Industry Classification industries as non-manufacturing. It is difficult to estimate what portion of privately funded R&D is associated with is normally

considered product manufacturing, and of that, what portion is really concerned with true innovation as opposed to routine product development and equipment replacement.

However, it is safe to assume that the reponed figures for the amount of money spent on R&D by industry grossly exaggerate the effort, simply because the category is so loosely

defined.

In their best days, many of the giant corporations, such as General Motors, Ford,

IBM, General Electric, AT&T, and Xerox, maintained large research laboratories that

conducted long range research only remotely related to company products. Most of those

laboratories are gready reduced today, and almost ail of the work is pressured by

immediate market demands. Perhaps because of the low stature of manufacturing during

past decades, most of the privately supponed research is related to product, rather than

process, improvements. It has been reponed and widely accepted that the balance

between product and process research is roughly four or five to one in the U.S. versus the

exact opposite proportions in Japan. [2]

Although attention naturally turns to large companies in discussions of research,

small companies account for much of the infusion of new technology into the

marketplace. Both as suppliers of new technology and as users who can adopt

innovations more readily than large organizations, they often appear at the beginnings of

the growth curves for new technology. The U.S. cherishes its small businesses.

Compared to other countries, the U.S. makes it remarkably easy to stan new businesses on a small scale, with a minimum of interference. Apple Computer and Microsoft are two examples of companies that staned only about 15 years ago with the ideas and work

of just a few people and grew quickly to industrial giants. Such success stories are held

up as demonstrations that anyone can become rich in America through hard work.

Despite these extreme examples, most manufacturing companies are squeezed by

economic forces that they cannot control and only dimly understand. For most,

maintaining the broad based research to suppon innovation across their product and

process lines in a sufficiendy aggressive manner to remain competitive is simply too

expensive. Consequendy, they are Uiming more and more to various kinds of pannership

arrangements. For example, Sematech (Semiconductor Manufacturing Technology) , a consortium of companies working together to keep semiconductor manufacturing

competitive in the U.S., operates at a level of $200 million annually. [3] The Department

of Defense pays half the cost. MCC (Microelectronics and Computer Technology

Corporation) is another large consortium, drawing $65 million from 20 member

companies. There are now many industrial consortia working on such technologies as

batteries for electric vehicles, composites, plant biotechnology, and superconductivity.

There are, of course, many professional associations that deal with issues related to manufacturing research. They generate very litde financial suppon for research, but have

a lot to do with conununications and professional networking. Prominent among these

are the Society of Manufacturing Engineers (SME), the American Society of Mechanical

Engineers (ASME), die Instimte of Industrial Engineers (ICE), the Association for

7
Manufacturing Technology (AMT, formerly the National Machine Tool Builders

Association), the National Coalition for Advanced Manufacturing (NACFAM), the

Electronic Industries Association (EIT), the National Association of Manufacturers

(NAM), the Aerospace Industries Association (AJA), the National Electrical

Manufacturers Associations (NEMA), and many more. I would not attempt to give a complete listing; only to illustrate that there are many.

Anwng the organizations of private citizens that give formal advice to the

government, the National Academy of Engineering (NAE) and the National Academy of

Sciences (NAS) carry particular authority, because their membership consists of the

country's most distinguished scientists and engineers. The NAE has had a special

emphasis on manufacturing in its program for the past seven or eight years. The most

recent annual meeting reaffirmed this emphasis. [4] Although it does not engage in very

many studies, it has funded a few that were directiy aimed at identifying manufacturing

research needs. [5, 6]

The National Research Council (NRC) is an independent organization, operated

through the NAS and NAE, whose function is to conduct impartial studies on technical

matters for the government. The Boards and Committees are constituted of experts in

specific areas assembled carefully to reflect balanced viewpoints as well as technical

expertise. Their reports are subjected to a formal review process before release to the

public. Most of the manufacturing-related studies are carried out under the Commission

on Engineering and Technical Systems (CETS). Under this Commission, there are

thirteen Boards, including the Manufacturing Studies Board (MSB), the National

Materials Advisory Board (NMAB), the Board on Army Science and Technology

(BAST), and others. Recent studies include [7-9]. The Manufacturing Studies Board is currentiy considering an expansion of its traditional role.

Several private non-profit foundations, such as the Sloan Foundation, the Carnegie . Commission, and the Hudson Institute have directed significant funds to the addressing

the needs of manufacturing. [10]

B. Universities

As mentioned above, academic research in the U.S. has been mostiy oriented in

directions that had little to do with manufacturing. There has been a small and active

community of university researchers; however, they have operated primarily as

individuals. A few universities, including Purdue, the University of Wisconsin,

Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute, MTT, Georgia Tech, and Ohio State, are noteworthy

exceptions to the general pattern because they retained research and education programs

in manufacturing through the years when others were eliminating them. Now, of course, most engineering schools are attempting to build up their capabilities in manufacturing,

and many new research and education programs have been started in the last five years.

The primary factor impeding this progress seems to be the limited availability of qualified

faculty. Only a handful of universities have either research or education programs in

manufacturing that involve more than a few faculty members. Of course in academic

circles, small programs can be important Individual professors of particular distinction,

such as K. K. Wang at Cornell, Dell Allen at Brigham Young, Sam Wu at Michigan,

Roger Nagel at Lehigh, and several others, have been influential forces in manufacturing

research for several decades.

At least part of the reason for renewed interest in manufacturing on university

campuses relates to funding pressures. Since the late 1950's, when engineering began its transition to a more science-based group of disciplines, it dependence on federal funding

8
for research has grown steadily. Over the last fifteen years, federal funds for university

research has grown from $4 billion to $17 billion. During this time, graduate programs in

engineering (which, incidentally, have been increasingly populated by foreign-bom

students) were funded largely out of federal research funds. This system is now coming

under close scrutiny to determine whether national interests are really best served by such

a system. [11] It appears that federal funding for university research in general is likely

to flatten out or even decrease over the next decade. On the other hand, the emphasis on

economic competitiveness is likely to produce an increase in federal funding for

ntianufacturing research. Funding from industry is virtually certain to take the same

direction. The resulting shifts may produce a "last water hole in the desert" phenomenon,

in which previously uninterested researchers begin to cluster around the only sources of

support.

In attempting to establish credential for participating in the new priorities, many

universities will undoubtedly relabel past work as manufacturing-related. Presendy, I estimate that no more than $250 million is being spent in universities on manufacturing

research from both federal and industrial sources. C. Government

The elections which have just passed are likely to unleash profound changes in the

national priorities and mechanisms for research. Concern for the health of the economy

and awareness of the more aggressive federal support by international competitors were

prominent in the campaigns of all of the presidential candidates. Congress also "got the

message" and will be eager to demonstrate positive actions.

1. The President and the Executive Office

The President and the branch of government that he controls, the Executive Branch,

has a great deal of authority and latitude in carrying out programs within the limits

established by Congress. Matters related to manufacturing technology are handled

through the Office of Science and Technology Policy (OSTP), which is headed by the

Assistant to the President for Science and Technology Policy (usually just called the

President's Science Advisor). A good current reference on the views of the Bush

administration Science Advisor, Dr. D. Allan Bromley, is [12].

Another important body in the Executive branch is the Federal Coordinating

Council for Science, Engineering, and Technology (FCCSET- pronounced "fix-it"). It consists of high level executive branch officials and is charged with the responsibility of

coordinating federal activities in science and technology that cut across the missions of

more than one agency. It has existed for some time, but only during the last four years

has taken on a more powerful role. Of particular importance for the present discussion is the FCCSETs method for bringing together agency activities in "crosscuts". A crosscut

is a national initiative in some large technical area. Prior crosscuts involved Global

Change, Math and Science Education, High Performance Computing, Advanced

Materials, and Biotechnology. Manufacturing is scheduled to take effect as the next

crosscut in 1994. Officially, FCCSET has no authority to either fund or require any

particular actions. However, the mere fact that it focuses attention on a problem area and

brings a sense of order to the subject tends to raise the priority of that area in the

Congressional budgeting process.

Other organizations that have reported to the President on manufacturing issues arc

the President's Commission on Competitiveness, the Council on Competitiveness, and the

President's Council of Advisors on Science and Technology (PCAST). Just recentiy a

9
new organization called the Critical Technologies Institute was created to conduct

sttategic planning. It remains to be seen, at the time of this writing, what effect the

Clinton administration will have upon these organizations. Many observers believe that

large changes are likely. The pre-election Clinton plan promised to "create a civilian

advanced technology agency modeled after the successful Defense Advanced Research

Projects Agency (DARPA)." [13]

2. Congress

Congress controls, through appropriations, the money that is available for use by the

agencies of the federal government In addition to a complicated set of committee and

staff work. Congress receives advice from the National Research Council (mentioned

above) and another organization called the Office of Technology Assessment (OTA).

This organization, like the NRC, provides impartial technical advice, but it responds only

to requests from Congress. A recent OTA repon on the manufacturing needs of the

country [14] documents the nature of the problem and makes several policy

recommendations

.

Both the House of Representatives and the Senate have members who are vocal

advocates of manufacturing research and the institutions that support it. Representative

George E. Brown, Jr., who is chairman of the Committee on Science, Space, and

Technology recendy published a very thoughtful paper on the way that the research

community must adjust to address social needs. [15] Senators Bingaman, Hollings, and

Rockefeller have been strong advocates of various new ideas in supporting manufacturing

innovation.

Overall, there is great concern in the Congress that the traditional modes of

conducting research are not as effective as they should be. In a time of tight budgets,

they are looking for new approaches that are both less expensive and more productive.

3. The Department of Commerce

The governmental agency most naturally responsible for commercial activity would

be the Department of Commerce. Historically, however, it has been more concerned with

regulation than with research or innovation. However, within the Department of

Commerce is an organization now called the National Instimte for Standards and

Technology (NIST), formerly the National Bureau of Standards. The name change,

which came in 1988 as pan of a congressional bill entitied the "Omnibus Trade and

Competitiveness Act" clearly signaled the intention of Congress to change the basic

mission and attimde of the Department of Commerce.

Since the 1970's, a group of programs under the Manufacturing Engineering

Laboratory (MEL) has conducted standards-related research (broadly constmed) in

advanced manufacturing. It constructed a test and demonstration facility called the

Advanced Manufacturing Research Facility (AMRF). This facility and the people

associated with it provided an exemplary model which attracted a good deal of national

attention.

Partiy because of the visible success of the AMRF, Congress instituted a program

for Manufacturing Technology Centers (MTCs) whose original purpose-since

broadened-was to serve as regional technology transfer sites to move the results of NIST

research into use. There are currendy seven MTCs administered through NIST, and there are plans for up to fifty. Another program administered by NIST, aimed more at

10
supporting particular R&D projects by groups of companies, is the Advanced Technology

Program (ATP). Thirty eight of these awards were made in 1991 and 1992. One

example is the ATP on Rapid Response Manufacturing, conducted through the National

Center for Manufacturing Sciences (NCMS) in Ann Arbor, Michigan, and involving

Texas Instruments, Ford, General Motors, United Technologies, Oak Ridge Laboratory,

Parametric Technology, Spatial Technology, Aries, CIMPLEX, ICAD, and CIMFlex

Teknowledge. Even in a tight budget year. Congress saw fit to increase funding for these

NIST programs by 55% in FY '93. [16]

4. The Department of Defense

The Department of Defense (DOD) is struggling with the issue of downsizing the

entire military establishment in the wake of the end of the cold war. [17-19] This is a massive adjustment that affects the entire economy. Even leaving aside the political

pressures to maintain unneeded activities for the sake of preserving jobs, the challenge is enormous. For example, if the military services were to live off of inventories for the

next ten years, the suppliers of military products would go out of business. Then, when

they might be needed, there would be neither capacity nor capability to produce highly

specialized military products. Furthermore, there is recognition that future conflicts are

likely to take a different form. The DOD is charged with the responsibility for

maintaining whatever military capability might be needed, but to do so with a budget that

is reduced by at least one third.

A few simple concepts seem to dominate the discussions of basic strategy in

reducing the cost of defense. One is the greater use of civilian suppliers for all but the

most specialized military products. In terms of the technologies supported by the R&D

expenditures, a priority will be placed on so-called "dual-use technologies," so that the

costs and benefits of the research can be shared between the civilian and military sectors. A study commissioned by the Office of the Secretary of Defense Manufacturing

Technology (MANTECH) program and carried out by a group of industry representatives

led to a vision of "agile manufacturing" that would service both civilian and military

needs. [20] Another basic strategy is to be ready to produce quickly in time of need, but

avoid investing more in actual production than is absolutely necessary. This means that

new weapons systems will continue to be developed to the stage of proven effectiveness

and then put "on the shelf' in readiness for full scale production. The effect of this

strategy will be to reduce procurements, but preserve or even slighdy increase the R&D

expenditures. .

,

Historically, each of the services has maintained separate programs to improve the

manufacturing base that supplies military products. They have been conducted relatively

independentiy. For example, the Air Force Manufacturing Technology (MANTECH)

program focuses on the industries that supply Air Force weapons systems, the Army

MANTECH program on Army needs, and so forth. Research in advanced technologies

that would be applicable to all services has been supponed by the Defense Advanced

Research Projects Agency (DARPA). With the reexamination of the roles of these

various programs in the light of the downsizing pressures, it appears that relatively more

of the research will be managed centrally. At the least, the MANTECH programs will be

more closely coordinated than they were in the past.

Partly as a result of past successes in developing advanced technology for military

applications (with many side benefits to civilian applications). Congress and many

outside commentators have been advocating a "civilian DARPA" to address the research

needs of manufacturing. The best current reference on Congressional thinking on this

11
issue that I am aware of is by Senator Bingaman. [21] As mentioned earlier, the Clinton

plan also uses simiiar language. It seems likely that something new along these lines will

emerge in the months ahead Whether this will take the form of an entirely new agency, a

revised mission for DARPA, NIST, or NSF, or some coordinating body for the existing

agencies remains to be seen. The most recent (FY '93) defense appropriations bill contained provisions for several hundred million dollars worth of programs in extension

centers, dual use technologies, and manufacturing education.

5. The National Science Foundation

Compared to otiier agencies, the National Science Foundation does not have much

money to spend. However, NSFs influence is great, because of the respect it commands

and its role as the primary source of university research funding. Out of a total budget of

about $2,500 million, approximately $90 million goes to fund research that can by some

stretch of imagination be associated with manufacturing. If one were really being strict,

perhaps one third to one half of that would be something that manufacturing companies

would see as relevant to their needs.

Most of the manufacturing research is carried out through the Engineering

Directorate, a smaller portion through the Computer and Information Science and

Engineering Directorate, and just a little in five other directorates. In the Engineering

Directorate, there is a Division of Design and Manufacturing Systems, which supports

individual investigators through three programs: Operations Research and Production

Systems, Design and Computer Integrated Engineering, and Manufacturing Processes and

Equipment The annual budget for the Division is around $6.5 million. There has been

an annual Grantees meeting for the investigators in this program for the past fifteen years.

The most recent Proceedings [22] contains 175 reports of grants to single investigators or

small teams.

The NSF staned in 1985 a program to establish Engineering Research Centers.

These are large cross-disciplinary university- based centers focused on various topics of

importance to national economic competitiveness. Each has funding from NSF and

industry totaling from $2 to $5 million per year. There are currentiy eighteen ERCs, of

which four relate direcdy to manufacttiring. They are managed through the Division of

Engineering Education and Centers (until recentiy called the Division of Cross

Disciplinary Research), within the Engineering Directorate. The ERCs have been

independentiy evaluated by several study groups and found to be fulfilling their intended

goals well. [23]

Table 1. NSF Engineering Research Centers Focused on Manufacturing

University Theme

Carnegie Mellon

Ohio State University

Purdue

Wisconsin

Engineering Design

Net Shape Manufacturing

Intelligent Manufacturing Systems

Plasma-Aided Manufacturing

Using the Purdue ERC as an example, the Engineering Research Center for

Intelligent Manufacturing Systems conducts an inte^ted cross-disciplinary program of

research, education, and industrial interaction involving over sixty companies, forty

faculty members, and two hundred students. There is a long range strategic plan to create, implement, and educate personnel for a new generation of manufacturing

capability called Intelligent Manufacturing Systems. The concept involves an integrated

12
enterprise which is capable of responding quickly and correctly to changing requirements.

("Agility" and "rapid response manufacniring" are terms appearing recently that refer to much the same issues.)

Another program that is operated through the same Division of NSF is for IndustryUniversity Cooperative Research Centers (lUCRCs), These involve relatively minor

stan-up funding from NSF and must become essentially self-supporting through industry

memberships. Their research agendas are driven by the member companies. About 50

of these now exist, of which the seven shown in the table below relate directiy to manufacturing. Only $4 million of NSF funds support all of the lUCRCs.

Table 2. NSF lUCRCs Focused on Manufacturing

University Theme

Georgia Tech

U. of Southern California

U. of Michigan

U. of Connecticut

Ohio State U.

Iowa State U.

Oklahoma State U.

Material Handling

Manufacturing Automation

Optical and Mechanical Measurement

Grinding

Welding

Non-destructive Evaluation

Web Handling

Another variation of the centers concept is found in the State lUCRCs. These

centers involve matching funds from states as well as industry in three equal shares. The

program is new; there are currendy six. A program called the Strategic Manufacturing Initiative, administered through the

Division of Design and Manufacturing Systems, funds medium sized groups to work on

issues identified as strategically important to manufacturing. [24] A somewhat similar

program exists in Canada's NSERC (Natural Science and Engineering Research Council

of Canada), which is the Canadian equivalent of NSF. It is called the Strategic Grants

Program for Advanced Technologies and funds work in information systems;

biotechnology; industrial materials, products, and processes; manufacturing systems; and

energy.

The NSF is currendy considering its future role in supporting research. The

Director, Walter Massey, laid out three options: ( 1) to revert to its traditional base as a

small agency supporting individuals and small groups, (2) to continue its present course

of exploratory and special programs, such as centers, or (3) to expand its role with a broader portfolio, including areas of economic priority. A speciaJ Commission was

formed to study the options and report before the end of 1992. The entire research

community is presently wrestling with the implications of the three options. [25]

Meanwhile the National Science Board, which is the governing board of the NSF,

recentiy issued a report that seems to endorse the third option. [26] An indication of

Congress' view is contained in this year's appropriations bill. The overall funding was

essentially flat at $2,733 million; with certain fimding restrictions specified by Congress,

there is acmally less available than last year. There was language in the bill, kept out at the last minute, that would have placed minimum funding liimts for manufacturing, highspeed computing, and interdisciplinary environmental science.

6. The Department of Energy

One might be surprised to see the Department of Energy even mentioned in

connection with manufacturing research. It is not obvious from either its name or its past

13
emphasis that the DOE would be involved However, it is likely that the agency will

have a lot to do with future manufacturing research in the U.S. The reason is that the

agency has created some 2 1 large national laboratories with an array of talent and

facilities that are truly impressive. They employ 23,000 scientists and engineers, have

$100 billion worth of facilities in place, and have annual budgets totaling $22 billion

(drawing from many sources, but especially defense). DOE's budget for research this

year is about $2.4 billion. In the past, their efforts were focused on nuclear power and

weapons systems, but these missions are generally viewed, rightiy or wrongly, as declining in importance. As the funding for these missions declines, the labs will almost

surely try to reorient to civilian needs, including manufacturing. It remains to be seen whether they can adjust to such radically different requirements.

The largest labs, which are most likely to play a major role in manufacturing R&D,

are Sandia Laboratories (with an annual budget of $1.2 billion and 3600 researchers),

Lawrence Livermore (with $1.1 biUion and 3300 researchers), and Oak Ridge ($0.5

billion and 2000 researchers).

7. States

All of the states have programs that suppon science and technology development,

with perhaps a greater emphasis on technology transfer than original research. TTie

Benjamin Franklin Instimtes in Pennsylvania and the Edison Institutes in Ohio are among

the most prominent of these. Prior to 1980, only three states had such programs; by 1991,

every state had created one. Figure 1 reflects this rapid growth during the 80's. Usually

these programs are aimed more at economic development than at research per se. That is, the motives for funding work have more to do with creating an attractive climate so that

companies will locate within the state than with creating knowledge and sharing it broadly.

14
E. Funding Summary

In table 3 below, I have attempted to estimate how much is spent on manufacturing

R&D by the various government agencies, drawing upon a number of sources. I have

also indicated by arrows my own guesses about whether the amounts are likely to increase, decrease, or stay about the same. Before interpreting these data, I must

emphasize that the figures are highly questionable even as estimates. For example, I know that a lot of the research that is categorized as manufacturing R&D in the National

Science Foundation is placed there only because it is administered by the Division of

Design and Manufacturing Systems, while in reality a good deal of the research in this

program has littie to do with manufacturing. Other agencies are similar. These flaws in

the data are not deliberate deception; they are simply artifacts of the accounting

procedures.

Table 3. 1992 Expenditures in Manufacturing (in $ millions)

Source Total Budget R&D Expenditures Manufacturing

DOD $300,000 $38,000 V $553 ^

DOE 11,400 *^ 6,000 501 ^

DOC 3,000 550 ^ 104 ir' NSF 2,700 » 1,900 » 90 V

Other Federal 883,000 » 11,000 » 153 ^

Total Fed. 1,200,000 >* 68,000 » 1,400 V

Non-Federal 4,300,000 - 89,000 70,000

Total U.S. $5,000,000 (GNP) $157,000 » 71,400 V

In absolute terms, it is clear that the Department of Defense and the Department of

Energy are the largest federal supponers of Manufacturing R&D, although even these

pale by comparison to the private sector. Figiu-e 2 illustrates the agency comparisons.

Figure 2. Federal Support for Manufacturing R&D, 1992 (in $ millions)

15
A different picture emerges, however, if one looks at the relative fraction that

manufacturing R&D is relative to total R&D, as shown in Figure 3. Here, the

Department of Commerce stands oul Yet another picture appears if one compares the

manufacturing R&D budgets to the total budget of the agency, as shown in Figure 4. The

Department of Energy, the Department of Commerce, and the National Science

Foundation all spend about three to four percent of their total budget on manufacturing

R&D, while the Department of Defense and other agencies spend only tiny fractions of

their budgets in this category.

Figure 3. Fraction of R&D Budget Devoted to Mfg. R&D, 1992

Figure 4. Fraction of Total Budget Devoted to Mfg. R&D, 1992

16
lY. THEMES

The U.S. has acknowledged its manufacturing problems and is attempting to do

something about them. This fact alone is significant because it was not true five years

ago. Along with the obvious fact that foreign competitors were capturing market share in

U.S. markets, domestic companies have come to realize (slowly at first) that the basis of

competition is not price alone. First, there was a realization in the past decade that our

products were sometimes inferior in quality to what the best in the world could offer.

This realization led to a broad-based "quality movement" that has now reached almost

every manufacturing company in the U.S. Then, just within the past three or four years,

companies began to realize that speed was also an important factor, "Time-to-maiicet"

and "time based competition" became driving influences for change in the product

development process. Many companies have now gone beyond time, cost, and quality

criteria to more abstract aspects of competitiveness, such as flexibility and volumeindependence. The important point is that the companies have discarded the old

simplistic, one-dimensional notion of cost- based competition and replaced it with a still evolving but much more sophisticated notion of multi-dimensional competition.

If there is any single issue that dominates all others, it would be change. Virtually

all aspects of manufacturing are being reexamined, from the processes and technologies

employed to the scope, scale, and organization of companies,

A. Technical Issues

As manufacturing companies have struggled with the fundamental issues of what to keep, what to discard, and what to create, the research community has also attempted to

sort out priorities for manufacturing R&D. Almost all of the many organizations that

deal with manufacturing research have issued repons in the past two years that attempt to lay out strategic agendas for future work. Most of the studies call attention to the fact that

the problem is not entirely technical.

Several organizations have produced lists of "critical technologies" that deserve

special emphasis for reasons of national interest. [27] Manufacturing always appears on

these lists, along with such issues as communications networks or new materials. In Table 4, 1 have extracted the manufacturing-related themes mentioned in several of these

studies and noted the commonalities. Having participated in numerous workshops where

such lists were generated, I can attest to two contrasting conclusions. First, one has to be

very cautious about taking such lists as true indicators of the most important issues. The

workshop format tends to produce a kind of lowest-common-denominator conventional

wisdom, rather than inspired thinking or deep analysis. Also, they are political events,

with advocates of certain kinds of research speaking for their own interests. Secondly,

despite these warnings and despite differences in these lists, I detect that there is a shared

sense of what needs to be done.

First, there is a great need for much better understanding of basic manufacturing

processes. Most are poorly understood by scientific standards, and obtaining better

control and improved quality from them requires much more than the experience- based

knowledge that manufacturers now rely upon. New processing methods, such as micro

and nano-fabrication or composites forming, promise to open up whole new methods of

manufacturing. We need new kinds of sensors and the methods to interpret the data they

produce. In these areas and others, the critical technologies lists suggest a rich research

agenda at the processing level.

Another category of need focuses on the product development process, with an emphasis on speed. lliere are fundamental issues of design representation, software

17
integration, rapid prototyping, simulation and niodeling, and knowledge capture that all could contribute to much faster development of products. These information-intensive

activities are also key to achieving the "agility" or "intelligence" that many companies

aspire to.

The theme of integration is another common thread. Integration of computer

programs (which are notoriously incompatible), integration of the design to manufacturing transition, integration of customers and suppliers to the manufacturing

organization, and integration of enterprises are all variations on the same theme. Many of

the studies call out "systems behavior" or "systems management" as critical issues,

suggesting a widespread feeling that out methods have not brought enough together to deal with the complexities that modem manufacturing involves.

These days, almost all technologies involve computers, so it is not surprising that

computer hardware and software issues appear on the critical technologies lists. However, one must not assume that programming current knowledge is sufficient. In many if not most cases, current manufacturing practices are so ad hoc that to automate

them would only speed up the rate of mistakes.

Table 4. Critical Technoiogies Lists Compared.

National Council on Commerce DOD NSF

Theme Critical CompcL Emerging Critical STRAT- IMS

Tech. Crit. Tech. Tech. Tech. MAN

! Manufacturin? Processes X Micro and Nanotechnology X Advanced Sensors X X X

Precision Engineering X X

Process Modeling X

Flexible Manufacturing X X X

Intelligent Machines & Robotics X X X X Clean Manufacturing X Design Methodologv

Integrated Product/Process Dev. X X X Rapid Prototyping X X

Product & Process Representation X X

Software/Integration

Software Development X X X Simulation X X X X Sensor Fusion X X X

Artificial Intelligence X X X

Enterprise Integration X Human and Or?anizauonal

Human-Machine Interaction X X Teams X System Management X X Global Manufacturing X

B. Infrastructure Issues

There is also a good deal of agreement on some of the non-technical needs. We

know that, compared to other industrialized nations, we are slow and inefficient in

implementing the results of our research. We feel generally confident about our ability to

18
invent new things, but are frustrated by an apparent inability to gain a commercial

advantage.

We are also frustrated by obvious weaknesses in our educational system,

particularly with respect to mathematics and science. We feel that oiu" university system

is among the best in the world, but the elementary, high school, and vocational training

systems are far below world standards.

We are only beginning to comprehend what it means to compete globally.

Americans are unaccustomed to thinking of non-U.S. markets, so product designs,

distribution, and marketing methods are often ill-suited to the foreign customer. Because

there is no systematic program or govemment support, each company learns its own

lessons the hard way.

All of these challenges are also oppormnities. We are responding to our perceived

weaknesses in ways that would have been hard to imagine ten years ago. There are many

new experiments in infrastructure suppon for technology deployment, workforce

education, globalization, and collaborative research. The old view that each company is best off taking care of its own needs is largely discredited now. In its place is a new

search for strategic parmerships. The regulations that previously inhibited joint ventures

(based on anti-trust fears) have been greatiy relaxed. Many forms of parmerships are being tried, including company to company, groups of companies either within or between industry sectors, company to university, and many other forms. We are working

out new ways to deal with the apparentiy contradictory notions of competition and

collaboration.

C. Emergent Issues

Compared to both European and Asian efforts, the U.S. has placed remarkably litde

focus on research involving human issues. We still tend to emphasize technologies that

replace workers or lower the level of skill required, instead of improving the skills of the

workers. Most companies have now learned-some at great expense-that no technological

improvement can succeed without the help of a prepared and willing workforce.

However, our research community has not yet focused on research contributions that

would help with this problem. It demands not ergonomics or work methods, but a whole

new approach to human factors research. Take, for example, the question of how to prepare an organization for a major innovation, viewed as a design problem. Field

smdies, designed experiments, and models could provide very helpful guidance in this

common problem faced by industry. Although there is currendy very littie research

activity along these lines, I predict that a new kind of human factors will emerge as a major research issue

Another class of issues that wiU grow enormously over the next decade is that

related to environmental issues. Whether by choice or by force of law, manufacturing

companies wiU have to contend with a host of issues that affect the design of products,

the use of processes, the recycling of materials, the control of by-products, and systems to account for all of these things.

Finally, I would like to suggest that there is a beginning of a whole new way to look

at manufacturing problems, generated out of the failures of the past. We have leam.ed

that reductionism does not work very well in the complicated world of contemporary

manufacturing. That is, our standard method of breaking a complex problem down into

19
manageable pieces and then working on the pieces independently does not yield results

that make much sense in the whole. We have also learned that none of these problems

are susceptible to one-time solutions. None of the buzzword, slogan, and "silver bullet"

approaches of the last decade has delivered on its promise. What we need is a way to work on problems gradually and holisticaily. Instead of looking for solutions, we need to be able to synthesize workable pathways to sustainable, continuous improvement The

methods that would allow and support such an approach is a research issue in itself.

REFFRFNCFS

1. National Science Board, Science and Engineering Indicators - 1991. 10th ed.

Washington, D.C.: U.S. Government Printing Office, 1991.

2. National Center for Manufacturing Sciences, Focus. Ann Arbor, Michigan: NCMS,

May, 1992.

3. Corcoran, E., Semiready: A Consortium Prepares for the Second Half of the Battle.

Scientific American, 267, 5, November, 1992. 121-122.

4. White, R.M. In Search of Technology Strategy, in 28th Annual Meeting. Washington,

D.C.: National Academy of Engineering, 1992.

5. Compton, W.D., ed. Design and Analysis of Integrated Manufacturing Systems.

Washington, D.C.: National Academy Press, 1988.

6. Heim, J.A. and W.D. Compton, ed. Manufacturing Systems: Foundations of World

Class Practice. Washington, D.C.: National Academy Press, 1992.

7. National Research Council, Manufacturing Studies Board, Toward a New Era in U.S.

Manufacturing: The Needfor a National Vision. Washington, DC: National Academy

Press, 1986.

8. National Research Council, The Competitive Edge: Research Priorities for U.S.

Manufacturing. Washington, D.C.: National Academy Press, 1991.

9. National Research Council, STAR 21 : Strategic Technologies for the Army of the

Twenty-First Century. Washington, DC: National Academy Press, 1992.

10. Costello, R.B. and M. Ernst, Regaining U.S. Manufacturing Leadership.

Indianapolis, IN.: Hudson Institute, 1992.

11. Marshall, E. and J. Palca, Cracks in the Ivory Tower. Science, 257, 28 August, 1992.

1196-1201.

12. Bromley, D.A., Science, Scientists, and the Science Budget. Issues in Science and

Technology, 1992. (Fall), 41-48.

13. Clinton, B. and A. Gore, Putting People First. New York: Times Books, 1992.

20
14. U.S. Congress and Office of Technology Assessment, Making Things Better:

Competing in Manufacturing. Washington, DC: U.S. Government Printing Office, 1990,

15. Brown, G£., Rational Science, Irrational Reality: A Congressional Perspective on

Basic Research and Society. Science, 258, 9 October, 1992. 200-201.

16. Marshall, E. and D.P. Hamilton, R&D Budget Collides With the Deficit. Science,

258, 9 October, 1992. 208-209.

17. U.S. Congress, Office of Technology Assessment, Redesigning Defense: Planning

the Transition to the Future U.S. Defense Industrial Base. Washington, DC: U.S.

Government Printing Office, 1991.

18. U.S. Congress, Office of Technology Assessment, American Military Power: Future

Needs, Future Choices-Background Paper. Washington, DC: U.S. Government Printing

Office, 1991.

19. U.S. Congress and Office of Technology Assessment, Building Future Security:

Strategies for Restructuring the Defense Technology and Industrial Base. Washington,

D.C.: U.S. Government Printing Office, 1992.

20. Nagel, R. and R. Dove, 21st Century Manufacturing Enterprise Strategy, vol I and

2. Bethlehem, PA: lacocca Institute, Lehigh University, 1991.

21. Bingaman, J. and B.R. Inman, Broadening Horizons for Defense R&D. Issues in

Science and Technology, 1992. (Fall): p. 80-85.

22. National Science Foundation, ed. Proceedings of the 1991 NSF Design and

Manufacturing Systems Conference. Dearborn, MI.: Society of Manufacturing Engineers,

1991.

23. National Academy of Engineering, Assessment of the National Science Foundations

Engineering Research Centers Program. Washington, D.C.: National Academy of

Engineering, 1989.

24. National Science Foundation, Research Priorities for Proposed NSF Strategic

Manufacturing Research Initiative. Washington, D.C.: National Science Foundation,

1987.

25. MarshaU, E., NSF: Being Blown Off Course? Science, 258, 6 November, 1992. 880-

882.

26. National Science Board, The Competitive Strength of U.S. Industrial Science and

Technology: Strategic Issues. Washington, D.C.: National Science Board, 1992.

27. Mogee, M.E., Technology Policy and Critical Technologies. Washington, D.C.: The

Manufacturing Forum, December, 1991.

21

N I S T Manufacturing Systems

Research and Development

Workshop

Rockville, Md. November 3-5, 1992

WESTERN EUROPEAN R&D

FOR

MANUFACTURING SYSTEMS

Prof. Dr.-Ing. Bemd E. Hirsch

and

Dipl.-Soz. B. Hamacher

Dr.-Ing. K.-D. Thoben

B I B A

Bremer Institut fuer Betriebstechnik und

angewandte Arbeitswissenschaft an der

Universitaet Bremen (Germany)

Tel.: +49 421 218 3384

Fax : +49 421 218 5510
TABLE OF CONTENTS

0. SUMMARY

1. RESOURCES FOR WESTERN EUROPEAN RESEARCH

PROGRAMMES FOR MANUFACTURING SYSTEMS

1.1 The Programmatic Approach of the European Community for R&D for

Manufacturing Systems

1.1.1 From Single Research Projects to a European RTD-Framework

Programme

1.1.2 Relevant R&D programmes for Manufacturing Systems within the

European Framework Programme

1.1.2.1 ESPRIT

1.1.2.2 BRITE/EURAM

1.1.2.3 RACE

1.1.2.4 Other relevant programmes

1.1.3 National R&D-programmes for Manufacturing Systems in Western

Europe

1.1.3.1 Overview

1.1.3.2 Coordinating Bodies

2. EUROPEAN INSTITUTES IN THE FIELD OF R&D FOR

MANUFACTURING SYSTEMS

3. RESEARCH AFTER MAASTRICHT: THE POLICY OF THE

EUROPEAN COMMUNITY FOR EUROPEAN RTD

4. UNMET NEEDS AND OPPORTUNITIES IN WESTERN EUROPEAN

R&D

4. 1 Global Needs for Future Cooperative Production Systems

4.2 Business and Economic Needs

4.3 One-of-a-Kind-Production Systems

4.4 Enterprise Integration and Enterprise Cooperation

24
4.5 Environmental Life-Cycle Analysis for Product and Production Systems

4.6 Performance assessment on the Basis of Scenario Techniques

4.7 Long Term Re-assessment of Industrial Potential

e.g. Maritime Industries

5. THE POTENTIAL FOR COLLABORATION FOR RTD IN THE

PERSPECTIVE OF INCREASING GLOBALIZATION

LIST OF REFERENCES

LIST OF FIGURES

25
B.E. Hirsch et. al.: Western European R&D for Manufacturing Systems

0. SUMMARY . iti

Research and Technology Development (RTD) in Western Europe is funded by public programmes.

Of particular relevance to Advanced Manufacturing Technologies (AMT), a series of programmes

has been initiated within the last ten years by the Commission of the European Communities (CEC)

in order to coordinate RTD-activities on a European level.

This paper starts with a brief description of the RTD Framework-Programme of the Commission of

the European Communities (CEC) and the major research programmes included. Subsequently an

attempt is made to scan the major national activities for AMT in Western Europe, even though it is obviouly difficult to be complete and accurate.

In the second section AMT research institutes in Europe will be briefly presented to give an

impression of the European competence and capacities. Again it is not claimed to be comprehensive

as there are inventories on a European scale not yet available. More or less it reflects the overview

of the authors compiled from own project cooperations.

The third section sketches motivations and European strategies in R«feD within this decade. The

RTD-Framework of the CEC as a follow-up of the negotiations about the Treaty of Maastricht, will

be described.

The fourth section outlines some unmet needs and shortcomings in the current R«feD activities. Of

course, this is biased by the experiences and perceptions of the authors in this field.

Finally the fifth section describes the R&D potential for cooperation in the light of the ongoing

globalization of markets.

N I S T Manufacturing Systems Research and Development Workshop Rockville, Md. 3.-5. November 1992

26
B.E. HIrsch et. aJ.: Western European R&D for Manufacturing Systems

1. RESOURCES FOR WESTERN EUROPEAN RESEARCH PROGRAMMES FOR

MANUFACTURING SYSTEMS

Up to the early eighties, Research and Development (R&D) for manufacturing systems was mainly

supported and managed independently by several national R&D programmes in each European

country. These programmes were, and are, usually public programmes, initiated and managed by

national government organizations and oriented towards the needs of the respective national

industries.

Up to the beginning of the eighties the European administration, namely the Commission of the

European Communities (CEC) in Brussels, was not concerned with manufacturing industry oriented

R&D programmes on a broad scale. Early activities of the CEC were limited to the civil usage of

nuclear power (EURATOM, CERN) and a European programme for aeronautics and space technologies, coordinated by the European Space Agency (ESA).

Although Article 235 of the European Economic Community (EEC) Treaty from 1957 gives the CEC

the general opportunity to generate and develop policies for industrial R&D, in the sixties and

seventies this legal basis was not employed to set up industrial R&D programmes.

A change in that understanding emerged with the "European Strategic Programme for Research and

Development in Information Technology - ESPRIT". This programme, established in 1983, was the

first R&D programme at the community level aimed at the development and dissemination of

information technology for European industry.

The rules and procedures for cooperation between industry and university, precompetitive research

and goal oriented projects, developed by ESPRIT, created a pattern for most of the subsequent R&D

programmes in Europe.

In the eighties the success of ESPRIT and the growing insight into cross-national cooperation at all levels has led to a revised understanding and the development of a structured policy between national

and European programmes.

In this process the authority for structured policies and R&D-programmes was shifted more and more

to the CEC. This was formally acknowledged and extended by the Treaty of Maastricht in 1992,

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where the new article 130 F was introduced stating:

"The Community shall have the objective of strengthening the scientific and

technological bases of Community Industry and encouraging it to become more

competitive at international levels, while promoting all the research activities deemed

necessary by virtue of other Chapters of this Treaty.

Simultaneously it was also laid down in the Maastricht decisions that the

"Community and the member states shall coordinate their research and technological

development activities so as to ensure that national policies and community policy are mutually consistent.

1.1 The Programmatic Approach of the European Community for R&D on Manufacturing Systems

The Treaty of Maastricht has given the CEC a prominent role of defining goals for R&D and to allocate the necessary money to reach these goals. In Maastricht it was confirmed as well that each

R&D activity should be embedded in a comprehensive programmatic approach for a consistent

European development. This encompasses the obligation to create and continously update a Reference

Framework for RTD,

1.1.1 From Single Research Projects to a European RTD-Framework Programme

Following the ESPRIT example, several R&D programmes for industrial technologies, materials,

communication technologies and training activities were initiated or conceptualized in the first half

of the eighties. Each of these programmes has its own set of objectives, its own administration and,

of course, its own clients. In 1984, the first attempt was made to launch a common R&D framework, structuring single activities according to a common European innovation model as sketched in

fig. 1.

Fig. 1: The European Innovation Model

This innovation model interrelates the functions of High-Technologies, industries and inft^structures

to a structure, where High-Technologies mainly have the double function of firstly supporting industries by process innovation and secondly developing infrastructures by product innovation. In this

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model, industry has the role to expand this model by development of complementary applications and

services.

The intention to systemize community actions was basically already the overall objective of the first Framework Programme valid for the period from 1984 to 1987. In the second Framework

Programme from 1987 to 1991 this approach was enhanced and focused on the needs and

opportunities for European IT-industry (see fig. 2)

Fig. 2: European Needs and Opportunities for IT-Industry

Based on the community goals towards improved competitiveness and market commitment and

considering the social and cultural needs of the different Member States a transnational infrastructure

for Europe was proposed to support integration of national business potential into a common market

after 1992. In this context Information and Communication Technologies (ICT) were considered as key technologies for realizing such a transeuropean infrastructure. Based on this objective, technologies were selected and the requirements for focused R&D were specified in detailed R&D

programmes.

This focus is maintained in the current Framework Programme issued for the period from 1990 to 1994. In this third Framework Programme the objectives and procedures have been refined and

stronger attention is paid to establishing cross-national cooperation, especially between small and

medium-sized enterprises (SME's). The installation of networks and cross-national mobility-programmes play a favourite role in the current Framework Programme.

The subsequent table gives an impression of the scope and relative weight of the individual

programmes in the current third Framework Programme. The table shows that enabling technologies,

the management of natural resources and the management of intellectual resources are the major

action lines. Within this scope the budget allocation stresses the importance of enabling technologies.

But in the medium term more attention will be paid to human capital and environmental questions.

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CEC-Programme period

CEC

budget in

$ M

% of

total

budget

I. Enabling Technologies

1.1. Information Technologies 90-94 1,731 23.7%

1.2 Communication Technologies 91-94 626 8.6%

1.3 Telematics Systems 91-94 486 6.7%

2.1 Industrial and Materials Technologies 91-94 957 13.1%

2.2 Measurement and Testing 92-94 179 2.5%

n. Natural Resources

3.1 Environment 91-94 530 7.3%

3.2 Marine Science 91-94 133 1.8%

4.1 Biotechnology 92-94 210 2.9%

4.2 Agriculture 91-94 426 5.8%

4.3 BiomedicaL/Health Research 91-94 170 2.3%

4.4 Life Sciences for Developing Countries 91-94 142 1.9%

5.1 Non-nuclear Energies 91-94 201 2.8%

5.2 Nuclear Fission Safety 91-94 255 3.5%

5.3 Controlled Thermonuclear Fusion 91-91 586 8.0%

m. Intellectual Resources

6. Human Capital and Mobility 92-94 663 9.1%

Total budget 7,296 100.0%

Budget Allocation for the third CEC Framework Programme

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After eight years of programmatic RTD the Commission of the European Communities has

developed its own methodologies, an appropriate administrative structure and many transnational

networks supporting successful refmement of this approach. This of course enhances the potential

to guide the integration process. The project to complete the Single Market by 1993 was first conceived from a legal and regulatory viewpoint. The basic idea was mutual recognition and

minimal harmonization of legislation. This was indeed a necessary pre-condition, but not in itself sufficient. To achieve European integration, it is equally important to make sure that the basis of

interconnecting infrastructures, based on the idea of interoperability, is in place.

This understanding appears as well in the new perception of a European industrial policy. Unlike

the seventies, where industrial policy was perceived as a dirigistic approach, it is recognized

today that public Intervention in this area must take the form of horizontal activities to achieve the

right climate and balance to support the competitiveness of European industry.

An example of this revised understanding is also the rule of "rolling programme" when defining

the Framework Programme. This means an overlap of one or two years between two successive

programmes. Again this originates from a non-dirigistic understanding of the programmes as integrating guidelines rather than prescriptive plans.

1.1.2 Relevant R&D programmes for Manufacturing Systems within the European

Framework Programme

Within the European Framework Programme, ESPRTT (European Strategic Programme for

Research and Development in Information Technology), BRTTE (Basic Research in Industrial

Technologies for Europe) and RACE (Research and Development in Advanced Communications

Technologies in Europe) are the most relevant programmes for R&D in manufacturing systems.

The budgets and their development are shown in figure 3.

Fig. 3: CEC Programmes Budget Development

1.1.2.1 ESPRIT

ESPRIT was started in 1983 with a preparatory phase for establishing the approach to be used for

precompetitive R&D in Information Technology (IT). Equipped with a budget of $14.7 million,

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cessing, office automation, computer integrated manufacturing and information exchange systems were selected.

The result of the preparatory phase was a detailed programme structure for the ESPRIT I phase

from 1984 - 1988 (total budget: $960 Million) specifying a catalogue of objectives and projects

according to the above subjects.

The overall objective for the CIM area in ESPRIT I was to establish a technology base for

progressive introduction of IT into all phases of the manufacturing cycle. The main emphasis was

placed on manufacturing elements as needed for discrete batch manufacturing. In this CIM

subprogramme 36 international projects were started.

In the second programme phase of ESPRIT, from 1987-1992, three general objectives were

established:

to provide European IT-industry with basic technologies

to promote European industrial cooperation in IT R&D

to pave the way for internationally accepted standards.

According to these objectives "Microelectronic and Peripheral Electronics", "Information

Processing Systems" and "IT Application Technologies" were selected as R&D areas. The CIM

activities were extended in scope, specifically including engineering as a R&D subject. The

overall budget for this phase was $2.1 billion.

For the third phase of ESPRIT, from 1990 - 1994, emphasis has been placed on actions and

projects accelerating the integration of advanced technologies in the business world. This phase

comprises accompanying measures for technology transfer and training activities to increase the

potential for participation especially in peripheral European regions. The total budget of this phase

is $1.7 billion.

Within the subprogramme of Computer Integrated Manufacturing and Engineering (CEME) the

work programme for ESPRIT III distinguishes three main sub-areas:

1 . Architecture and Infrastructure for CIME

2. Management and Design of Industrial Enterprises

3. Mechatronics, Robotics and Sensing Technologies

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The first sub-area comprises architectures, systems engineering and communications for CIME

applications based on former ESPRIT projects like CIM-OSA, CNMA and CADEX.

The second sub-area encompasses design, engineering, production management and logistics with

several tool development projects for design and evaluation of complex CIM systems.

The third sub-area addresses IT based automation and control systems for production processes,

manufacturing units, autonomous mobile robots and mechatronics devices.

In 1991 the budget for this CIME area was $198 million (CEC-contribution = 50%).

ESPRIT is considered a very successful programme. In 1990 3,531 enterprises and universities were involved in various project consortia.

1.1.2.2 BRTTE/EURAM

BRITE staned as a programme in 1985 to encourage collaborative precompetitive R&D on advanced technologies with basic R&D and demonstration projects in the first phase. Areas of

BRTTE were: laser- technology, computer-aided testing, CAD/CAM-applications and application of

new materials, particularly polymers in industry. The budget of this phase was $237 million.

In the second phase from 1989 - 1992 BRTTE was extended in scope explictly addressing

"European Research on Advanced Materials" (EURAM) and by a special section for aeronautics.

The areas of BRITE/EURAM are Advanced Materials Technologies, Design Methodologies for

Products and Processes, Application of Manufacturing Technologies and Technologies for

Manufacturing Processes.

For these subjects 374 projects were selected and initiated covering industrial applied research,

focused on fundamental research and feasibility for small and medium sized enterprises. Current

statistics show that approximately 56 % of BRTTE/EURAM participants come from industry (1/3

of these are SME's), 27% are Universities and 17% are research centres.

For the second phase of BRITE/EURAM a total budget of $639 million was allocated.

In the third phase of BRTTE/EURAM from 1990 - 1994, the focal points, defined in the second

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phase, are basically continued with a slight shift towards the integration of advanced technologies

in user industries and technology transfer. Special emphasis is also placed here on materials,

processes and technologies to reinforce the scope and effectiveness of recycling.

This current third phase is equipped with a budget of $858 million.

1.1.2.3 RACE

RACE was launched in 1985 by a 18-month definition phase for developing an Integrated

Broadband Communication (IBC) reference model, to evaluate projects for technology options and

to evaluate the techno-economic feasibility of the IBC reference model. For this work programme

a budget of $28.3 million was allocated, to implement the programme.

The first RACE programme phase from 1987-1992 was focused on the community wide

introduction of Integrated Broadband Communication (IBC), in coordination with the European

national introduction of the Integrated Services Digital Network (ISDN), starting in 1995.

Covering all aspects of terrestrial networks, satellite and mobile telecommunications, it includes

narrowband networks and distribution networks of aU kinds as well as specific broadband

networks. This first phase of RACE was equipped with a budget of $704 million.

The second programme phase of RACE from 1990-1994 is basically a continuation of the

activities defined in RACE I, but strengthening the research effort on optical communications and

techniques of synchronic/asynchronic switching, intelligent networks and new value-added

services that are both profitable and adapted to the developing needs of users. These actions

include a community R&D effort of the prenormative type in order to guarantee the

interoperability of the systems on the basis of common standards and protocols. Particular attention will be given to the growing demand for mobile telephony services and the integration of

these services into networks. This second phase has eight priority areas:

1. IBC (Integrated Broadband Communications)

2. Intelligence in networks/ flexible communication resource management

3. Mobile and personal communications

4. Image and data communications

5. Integrated service technologies

6. Information security technologies

7. Advanced communication experiments

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8. Test infrastructure and interworking

The allocated budget for this current phase is $ 625.9 million.

RACE is ultimately concerned with services, their definition and their exploitation by end users. This means a very general, multi-purpose and public infrastructure.

The impact of RACE for manufacturing is related to distributed manufacturing and multi-supplier

situations. This is a very exciting field for future applications. For a long time the scope of CIM

was limited to internal enterprise functions. So CIM systems were designed to integrate functions

of one enterprise. The cross integration of functions from different enterprises into one

consortium was beyond this view and not supported. But complementary networks, composed of

different enterprises are an important business reality. Especially in europe a relevant proportion

of business is organized by flexible consortia formed out of SME's. For this kind of

manufacturing business open-systems and public IBC-networks have an important potential.

1.1.2.4 Other relevant programmes

Additionally to the above mentioned R&D programmes aiming primarily at technology development, other programmes have been launched by the CEC to develop supportive structures. Examples of such programmes are COMETT, DELTA, DRIVE, SPRINT, STAR.

COMETT is the Community Action Programme for Education and Training for Technology. This

programme was started in 1987 to promote European cooperation between universities and

enterprises by fostering the joint development of training programmes and by improving the

supply of training in the Community. The current COMETT phase from 1990 - 1994 has a budget

of $256 million.

DELTA is the acronym for "Developing European Learning through Technological Advance" and was started in 1988, to stimulate European cooperation in learning technologies by the

development, testing and validation of Advanced Learning Technology concepts. The pilot-phase

of this programme was equipped with a budget of $25 million.

DRIVE is the acronym for Dedicated Road Infrastructure for Vehicle Safety in Europe. This

programme aims for the introduction of an Integrated Road Transport Environment (IRTE)

offering improved transport efficiency. DRIVE has a budget of $75 millon.

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SPRINT (Strategic Programme for Innovation and Technology Transfer) is aiming to strengthen

the assistance infrastructure for transnational technology transfer in Europe. The instruments of

this programme are the creation of a cooperation network, conferences and the organisation of

training activities to advise SME's on innovation. SPRINT started in 1989 and has a budget of

$115 million.

STAR (Special Telecommunication Action for Regional development) is a general programme to support the development of less-favoured regions of the EC by access to advanced

telecommunication services. This programme started in 1986 for a five year period and was

equipped with a budget of $940 million.

1.1.3 National R&D-programmes on Manufacturing Systems in Western Europe

Subsequently a brief overview on publicly funded national R&D-programmes for manufacturing

systems will be given, followed by a short presentation of the coordinating bodies and

organisations.

1.1.3.1 Overview

In figure 5 several national R&D-programmes on Manufacturing systems in Western Europe are

listed. This selection of current and recent programmes is probably not exhaustive, as there is no

central institution or database, responsible for tracing and updating the actual programme-state in Western Europe.

Fig. 4: National R&D-Programmes in Western Europe

This table shows that in most of the European countries complementary programmes are in effect. The total budget of these programmes even exceeds the budget available to the CEC for RTD. So

the total publicly funded effort for industrial manufacturing systems was in 1988 $6.2 billion (see

fig. 5), whereas the total budget of the current third Framework Programme of the CEC sums up

to $7.3 billion for five years! This stresses again the importance of the coordination principle,

laid down in the Treaty of Maastricht and the potential for mutual synergy from that.

Fig. 5: National R&D-Effort in AMT

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1.1.3.2 Coordinating Bodies

Subsequently the national ccKDrdinating bodies, mentioned in the table (see fig. 4) with their

respective acronyms will be described in terms of the type of organisation, their responsibilities

and objectives:

BMFT/Bundesministerium fiir Forschung und Technologie

HeinemannstraBe 2, D-5300 BONN 2

The BMFT is the central R&D National Ministry for Research and Technology,

responsible for the preparation and execution of national programmes. Furthermore BMFT

finances the major part of the scientific basic research in germany by providing funds for

the "Max-Planck Gesellschaft zur Forderung der Wissenschaften (MPG)" and several other

institutions tike the "Fraunhofer Gesellschaft (FhG)". The total annual budget of BMFT is $6.7 billion.

CNR/Consiglio Nazionaie delle Richerche

Piazza Aldo Moro 7, I-OOlOO ROMA

CNR is the general Italian governmental research organisation. It allocates the national

budget for R&D to different projects and institutes within and outside the universities. It also advises the Interministerial Commission for Economic Planning (CIPE). This

commission is responsible for the development of national R&D programmes.

CNRS/Centre National de la Recherche Scientifique

15, Quai Anatole France, F-75 700 PARIS

CNRS is a public institution for science and technology, reporting to the "Ministry of

Research and Technology". The main task of CNRS is the management of national

research programmes, the evaluation of programmes and projects and the dissemination of

scientific results. CNRS has a budget to finance R&D and as well own institutes and

laboratories.

CSIC/Consejo Superior de Investigaciones Cientificas

Serano 1 17, E-MADRID

CSIC was setup in 1981 and is one of the main bodies in Spain to promote scientific and

industrial R&D. CSIC is directiy reporting to the Ministry of Education an Sciences and

manages about 23 % of the total R&D effort in spain.

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DFG/Deutsche Forschungsgemeinschaft

Kennedyallee 40, D-53(X) BONN 2

The DFG is the German national organisation for the support and management of scientific

research over all disciplines. The DFG has an advisory function on various levels of

governmental departments. The annual budget of the DFG in 1991 was $877 Mio.

JNICT/Junta Nacional de Investigacao Cientifica e Tecnologica

Avenida Don Carlos I, 126, P-1200 LISBOA

JNICT was founded in 1967 and is the governmental coordinating body to promote and

finance scientific and technological research in Portugal.

KFWF/Kommission zur Forderung der Wissenschaftlichen Forschung

Wildhainweg 21, CH-3(X)1 BERN

THE KFWF is an public organisation for the administration of federal funds for R&D in Switzerland. The main subjects of this R&D are electronics, mechanical engineering and

material science.

NBST/National Board for Science and Technology

Shelboume House - Shelboume Road, EI-DUBLIN 4

The NBST is an Irish organisation, reporting to the Ministry of Industry, Trade,

Commerce and Tourism. The NBST is responsible for the development of a "viable

national research competence in key technologies". The NBST conducts several R&Dprogrammes on universities and research institutes. The annual budget of the NBST is 1,1

mio IRL (1988).

NTNF/Norges Teknisk-Naturvitenskapelige Forskningsrad

P.O. Box 70 Tasen, N-0801 OSLO 8

NTNF's objective is to promote scientific, industrial and related research for the

Norwegian industry. NTNF was founded 1946 as an independent institution. It advises the

Norwegian government in trends and demands for R&d and is widely autonomous in the

management of the annual R&D-budget granted by the government. NTNF's principal

fields of interest are: industry and mining, energy supply and the continental shelf,

building and civil engineering, shipping, transport and communication.

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SERC/Science and Engineering Research Council

Garrick House, 3-5 Charing Cross Road, GB-LONDON

The Science and Engineering Research council is the British national council supporting

basic and applied research in natural sciences and engineering. SERC has close contacts to industry and provides grants for various R&D-projects.

SPIN/Stimulerings Projectteam Informaticaonderzoek

P.O. Boc 316, NL-2600 AH DELFT

SPIN is an organisation within the framework of the "Dutch Information Technology

Stimulation Programme (NL-INSP)". The function of SPIN is here to stimulate research in information technology, to administer the programme and to advise the Dutch

Administration on strategic trends in technology markets.

STF/Statens Tekniskvidenkabelige Forkningsrad

Holmens Kanal 7, DK-1060 KOPENHAVN

The STF is one of the six research organisations in Denmark, established in 1968, forming

the so called "Central Danish Research Organisation". STF is responsible for technical

sciences. Heading these research organisations is the "Council for Science Policy and

Planning", established in 1973, which advises the government.

STU/Styrelsen for Teknisk Utveckling - Box 43200, S- 10072 STOCKHOLM

STU is the Swedish national board for technological development and supports various

technical research projects, cooperative research and industrial developments. STU initiates, executes and monitors national R&D-programmes.

TEKES/Technology Development Centre

Malminkatu 34, SF-00101 HELSINKI

TEKES was founded in 1983 and charged with the task of raising and maintaining the

level of technology in Finland. TEKES advises the Ministry of Trade and Industry (MTI)

in technology policy and is charged to implement national R&D-programmes through the

financing and R&D-projects in cooperation with research units and other organisations

which finance technological research. The funds of TEKES are intended to support

corporate R&D projects, as well as research performed in institutions of higher educations,

and at research institutes.

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2. EUROPEAN INSTITUTES IN THE FIELD OF R&D FOR MANUFACTURING

SYSTEMS

The following section provides an overview of European institutes working in the field of

advanced manufacturing systems development. Most of these institutes are publicly funded and lo- cated at technical universities. This is the result of a widespread policy in europe to combine the

public educational functions at universities with technology transfer functions to industry by dedicated and related R&D-centres at the same place.

The following list again does not claim to be complete or exhaustive. So it gives only a partial

view and a brief characteristic of various institutes known by contacts, achieved in different

European cooperation programmes. This list shows that there is a potential in ail Western

European countries to develop and adopt advanced manufacturing technology. -

BIBA/Bremer Institut fur Betriebstechnik und angewandte Arbeitswissenschaft an der Universitat

Bremen

Hochschulring 20, D-2800 BREMEN 33

'

BIBA is an institute at the University of Bremen, working in the field of production

techniques and the design of manufacturing systems. BIBA applies a broad

multidisciplinary approach, covering mechanical engineering, electrical engineering, informatics, mathematics, economics and social sciences. One of the main functions of BIBA is technology transfer to industry. Moreover BIBA is involved in more than 200 projectcooperations with different European partners.

CIMRU/University College Galway

Nun's Bland, IRL-GALWAY

CIMRU is one of the centres of excellence in Ireland in the field of factory automation,

CIM architectures and control systems for CIM and CAD/CAM applications. CIMRU is one of four AMT Applied Research Units under the umbrella of the national AMT

programme, CIMRU has close contact to industry and is here especially involved in the

development of advanced production and inventory management systems. Moreover

CIMRU is involved in various European programmes and projects.

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EPFL-LPG/Ecole Polytechnique Federale de Lausanne Laboratoire de Gestion de la Production

ME-ECUBLENS, CH-1015 LUSANNE

EPFL is one of the Swiss federal institutes of technology. CIM is one of the major areas of R&D. In this field, several laboratories contribute to other European projects like the

ESPRIT projects CIM-OSA, CNMA and FICIM. Furthermore a demonstration-centre is set up for information and training of SME's.

FhG/Fraunhofer Gesellschaft

LeonrodstraBe 54, D-800 MUNCHEN 19

The "Fraunhofer Gesellschaft" is a german association, operating various institutes in applied R&D in close cooperation with german technical universities. Fraunhofer institutes working in the field of Manufacturing Systems are the "Fraunhofer Institut fiir Arbeitswirtschaft und Organisation" and the "Fraunhofer Institut fur Produktionstechnik

und Automatisierung" in Stuttgart, the "Fraunhofer Institute fiir Produktionsanlagen und

Konstruktionstechnik" in Berlin, the "Fraunhofer Institut fiir Produktionstechnologie" in Aachen, the "Fraunhofer Institut fiir Systemtechnik und Innovationsforschung" in Karlsruhe and the "Fraunhofer Institut fur Transporttechnik and Warendistribution" in Dortmund. All these institutes work in close contact with industry and are involved in numerous national and international projects.

GPCm Greek Productivity Centre IT

28 Kapodistrious Street, 106 82 ATHENS

GPICT is a greek R&D centre of the greek ministery of National Economy in the fields of

education and training, development of software application and standardisation in IT and

CAD/CAM.

GRAI/Laboratoire GRAI - Universite de Bordeaux 1 Cours de la Liberation 351, F-33405 TALENCE Cedex

GRAI is an institute at the University of Bordeaux working in the field of CIM and

production techniques. The GRAI-institute is a specialist in modelling techniques for

production systems. The GRAI-methodology is such a modelling technique designed for

decision and information modelling. GRAI is involved in numerous European projects on

advanced manufactunng technologies and production management systems.

HUT/nA/Helsinki University of Technology, Institute of Industrial Automation

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1

I Otakaari lA, SF-02150 ESPOO

The Institute of Industrial Automation is a research institute at the Technical University,

working in the field of automation, mechanical engineering, industrial engineering and in- formation technology. HUT/TAI works in close contact with national industry.

Approximately 90% of the activities are based on industrial projects. HUT/TAI is also

involved in various European R&D-programmes like RACE, ESPRIT or BRTTE/EURAM

although Finland has to funf this participation with national money.

nRS/Institute for Industrial Research and Standards

Ballymun Road, IRL-DUBLIN 9

IIRS is a technical service institute for industry, aiming at encouraging and assessing the use of science and technology in industry. The main working areas are electronics,

engineering, information technology, textiles and timbers.

nCERLAN/Centro de Investigaciones Tecnologicas

E-20500 MONDRAGON

IKERLAN is the Spanish research centre for applied R&D in advanced technologies for the

basque machine tool industry. It offers R&D services on an contractual basis and as well

training and consultancy services. The function of IKERLAN covers promotion of AMT

and services to support regional development. IKERLAN is also involved in various

European projects and programmes.

ITP-TNO/Instituut Informatie-Technologie voor Productieautomatisering

P.O. Box 513, NL-5600 MB EINDHOVEN

The ITP is one of the varous institutes of the dutch organization for applied research and

development called TNO. Similar to the german "Fraunhofer Gesellschaft" TNO covers a wide spectrum of application oriented technical research. Within this framework ITP's one

institute working in the development and application of computer science for discrete

production, process industry, logistics and production management. FTP is located on the

campus of the Technical University of Eindhoven.

LAAS/Laboratoire d'Automatique et d'Analyse des Systemes

7 Av. du Colonel Roche, F-31077 TOULOUSE Cedex

LAAS is a french institute, working in the field of automation, computer science,

microelectronics and production systems. The annual budget is about $15 million.

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LNETI/Laboratorio Nacional de Engenharia e Tecnologia Industrial

Estrada Paco do Lumiar 22, P- 1600 LISBOA

LNETI is a body with administrative and financial autonomy and has its own budget for

disposal to R&D. The function of LNETI is to promote and implement R&D in industry

and energy sectors. Furthermore LNETI performs training and consultancy projects for the

Portuguese industry. LNETI operates a technology institute called ITI and an energy

institute. The ITI has 5 departments covering mechanical engineering, electronics and

chemical R&D.

NEL/National Engineering Laboratory

East Kilbride, G75 OQU GLASGOW

NEL is a governmental organisation of the Department of Trade and Industry (DTI) in London and works on expert systems and computer integrated manufacturing within the

national R&D programmes. NEL is also involved in European projects to develop

industrial oriented manufacturing systems.

RTF/Department of Manufacturing Systems and Computer Systems

for Design and Manufacturing - The Royal Institute of Technology

Brinnelvagen 81, S- 10044 STOCKHOLM

The Institute of Technology is part of the Stockholm University and has about 7000

students in Engineering. The staff is 150 professors and about 2000 administrators and

technicans. The Department of Manufacturing Systems works especially in the area of

robotics and CAD/CAM. This work includes human, organisational and economic aspects.

Sl/Senter for Industriforskning

Forskningsveien 1, N-0314 OSLO 3

SI is a multidisciplinary research institute, providing professional development and market

orientated R&D for industry in the areas of automation, robotics, CAD/CAM and CAE.

The application fields of SI are mechanical industry, offshore and marine industry. SI

works mainly on a contractual basis.

SINTEF/The SINTEF Group Norway

Strindveien 2, N-7034 TRONDHEIM

The SINTEF Group is an non-profit organisation with a total staff of nearly 2000

employees engaged in R&D for industry, public services and governmental departments.

SINTEF and the Norwegian Institute of Technology (NTH) in Trondheim, work together

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in close cooperation. The basic disciplines within SINTEF cover microelectronics,

computer architectures, image processing and information management. The key

application areas are: telecommunication, simulation of industrial processes, CIM, medical

technology and the social impacts of IT.

Teknologisk Institute (TI)/

Gregensensvej, DK-2630 Tastrup

The TI is a polytechnical industrial development centre providing resources and projects on

mechanical engineering, automation, software engineering, industrial psychology, business

administration and industrial engineering. The main function of the TI is to operate as a

technology transfer centre for the danish industry. The TI has about 650 employees

organized in 17 departments or groups.

UDIRL/University of Durham Industrial Research Laboratory

South Road, U-DHl 3LE DURHAM

UDIRL is a public research laboratory at the university of Durham. The working areas of

UDIRL are electronics, information technology, production technologies, robotics and

aerospace technologies.

WTCM/CRIF/Wetenschappelijk en Technisch Centrum van de Metaalverwerkende Nijverheid,

Campus Arenberg, Celestijenlaan 300 C, B-3030 HEVERLEE

WTCM/CRIF is one of the industrial centres for technical research of the Belgian

Metalworking Industry. WTCM has about 100 employees covering mechanical engineering, automation and surface technologies. Since 1987 WTCM has operated several

R&D-programmes in CAD/CAM and CIM applications. It is closely linked to the Catholic

University of Leuven. Other CRIF-institutes are linked to the universities of Brussels and

Liege.

3. RESEARCH AFTER iMAASTRICHT: THE POLICY OF THE EUROPEAN

COMMUNITY FOR EUROPEAN RTD

Europe as it is in 1992 is considered by the CEC at a critical stage regarding integration,

competitiveness and social needs. The process of moving into a common European market is extremely challenging and requires a wide scope of supportive actions. These challenges have to

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be reflected in the Fourth Framework Programme currently under preparation.

To achieve its goals - strengthening European cohesion and industrial competitiveness including

volume products - the CEC has refmed the programmatic approach as represented in figure 2 into a structure as shown in figure 6. The left hand column represents the activities which are normally attributed to the public sector. The right hand column represents the activities which are

the prerogative of industry itself - the actual activities would vary according the specific industrial

sector.

Fig. 6: Integration Processes for EC Framework

Based on these general structure four types of activities has been selected by the CEC for the

Fourth Framework Programme:

1. Implementation of research, technological development and demonstration

programmes, by promoting cooperation with and between industry, research centres and universities;

2. Promotion of cooperation in the field of Community research, technological

development and demonstration with third countries and international organizations;

3. Dissemination and optimization of the results of activities in Community research,

technological development and demonstration;

4. Stimulation of the training and mobility of researchers in the Community.

In the preliminary proposal of the CEC from the 2nd of October 1992, the group of activities is broken down into 35 individual activities covering Information and Communication Technologies,

Industrial Technologies, Environment, Life Science and Technologies and Energy. The other

groups of activities are also subdivided into 14 individual lines of action.

The total budget for this Forth Framework Programme (1994-1998) is calculated to a volume of

$18,817 billion. This is two and a half of the budget allocated to the current Third Framework

Programme.

The allocation of this budget to the individual action lines is not yet completed. For the time

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being specific figures are not yet available. But it can be expected that the new high priority rule

for "subsidiary" will cause a major change to the allocation rules. The current recommendation in

this field is to support in the future those branches showing a high R&D intensity, whereas

branches with a low R&D intensity should be neglected. A first proposal for a classification of

branches, considering this principle, is shown in figure 7.

Fig. 7: Technology Intensity Groups

4. UNMET NEEDS AND OPPORTUNITIES IN WESTERN EUROPEAN R + D

Research programmes normally originate from discussion between the financial sponsor and the

various organizations being sponsored i.e. the industrial users and/or research institutes.

Through the cooperation of the partners, each considering his own interests, a more or/less wellbalanced programme comes into existance. At the same time the economic interests of all parties are in the foreground. This holds true not only for the research institutes but even more so for the

industrial users.

In order to recognize the requirements and chances of future production systems, the

superordinate global context has to be taken into account in addition to the technical, business

management and economic needs and interests.

Rg. 8: General Development Trends in Manufacturing

Derived from the current development trends of industrial production various classes of needs can be distinguished:

global economic needs v global environment-related needs

regional economic needs

(business management, macro economics)

technical needs

(performance and quality related)

Unmet needs and opportunities are not to be derived from single or individual problems. On the

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contrary, the overall context shaping a future working together in this world has to be

emphasized.

Beginning with the global needs it will be possible, following a top-down approach to derive the

other requirements emphasizing their general relevance.

4.1 Global Needs for Future Production Systems

The future state of the world can be characterized by the following:

climatic threats environmental pollution

indebtedness of the Third World

population growth

shortages of resources.

Fig. 9: World Population Growth

Fig. 10: Decreasing Quality of Copper Ore Mining in the USA (1900 - 1990)

Industrial production has a considerable impact on all these developments. Future production

systems cannot shirk a global responsibility.

Through recent developments, such as the disintegration of the major military blocks, we are challenged to undergo a radical change. The necessity of a new orientation should be understood

as a unique chance first time offered.

The fundamental rule of growth implies that when capital expands faster than the population, the

standard of living rises.

Just the contrary is the case in the third world. Economic prosperity is declining and the

population rate is climbing fast. This population increase hinders the growth of industrial capital,

especially as an increased accumulation of capital is necessary in order to maintain life-essential

services. The cause of the dilemma of the third world is the unequal spatial distribution of

industrial growth. Economic growth is still concentrated in the already highly industrialized

countries.

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Fig. 11: Global Industrial Production

Fig. 12: Global Metal Consumption

The flow of refugees from developing and over populated countries - as it can currently be

observed in Europe and the USA - will not cease until these people see a chance of reasonable

development and adequate prosperity in their own country. Only a suitable global distributed

prosperity can reduce the population growth, which, in turn, will guarantee and improve the

prosperity for everyone, including the industrial nations. What is the value of a product, if thsre are no solvent customers. However, the prerequisites for this are fair market conditions with fair product and raw material prices.

Independent of an active part by the industrialized countries in this context, the production

resources will inevitably have to be reassessed in the future. Mass production will continue co shift to newly industrialized countries (NID) because of cheap labour and loose environmental

regulations etc.. A trend which can hardly be stopped.

The problems of overdevelopment on one hand and underdevelopment on the other have to be overcome simultaneously. Only in this way can the earth's ecological capacity and balance be

preserved and the survival of future generations be secured.

Industrial production may only be, but also has to be, increased on the basis of conservational

activities and environmental technologies.

The industrial nations are being urged upon to think about a worldwide labour distribution in accordance with global political demands. A conscious and deliberate shaping of the global

distribution of labour can be the basis for preventing national conflicts on the one hand and the

worldwide introduction of environmental protective production methods and systems on the other

hand.

The production challenges for the industrial nations resulting from a global labour distribution will

be described in the following paragraph.

4.2 Requirements for the Future Production Systems

In order to develop business and economic requirements for future production systems we have to

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redefine our role in the context of an increased global distribution of labour. The time has come

to develop and implement a new production paradigm for the industrialized countries.

The introduction of a new product both on domestic and foreign markets was usually performed

according to the "product cycle theory".

Rg. 13: Market cycle

During the first stage, the innovation phase, the product is developed and produced for the

domestic market. After sufficient production and marketing knowledge has been gathered, the

product is introduced to foreign markets (export phase) where such relevant know-how isn't available. In the third phase the production has been improved and standardized. Afterwards it is adopted by foreign producers (imitation phase) who normally have the advantages of low labour

costs and limited environmental regulations.

The innovator's technological advantage at this point decreases step by step until he ultimately

starts importing the product in question himself (import phase). Sometimes a further stage, the

repatriation phase, follows. This can happen when the country which initially designed the

product manages to come up with advances in the production technology. In such cases domestic

production is reinstated.

This generally acknowledged theory emphasizes the close relationship between international

competitiveness and innovative capacities.

Fig. 14: Economical Influences on the Product-life-cycle

As highly industrialized countries can usually only be competitive in the early stages of

production, it is especially important for them to keep coming up with so-called intelligent

product or process innovations which cannot easily be imitated. These however generally depend on a high research and development input requiring extensive funding. This pressure is increased

by the fact that the market cycles which reflect the market penetration and customer demand are continuously becoming shorter. Often only he who is first to introduce a product can count on making profits. "Time to market" is increasingly becoming a critical factor for success.

The development, maintainance and enlargement of the protoyping capability, i.e. the domination

of a short "time-to-market" on the basis of the most up-to-date manufacturing technologies, will

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become the crucial challenge of a modem Industrial Community. In the future only the rapid

transformation of a new product idea into a prototype and related manufacturing equipment will

guarantee early profits in the field of serial and mass production.

To meet these challenges industrialized nations have to aggressively pursue advanced

manufacturing processes for products as well as to take into account major technology

breakthroughs driven by advances in information and communication technologies and

manufacturing processes.

4.3 One-of-a-Klnd-Production Systems

If the statements up to now have emphasized the "Time to Market" approach they depict only a form of the perfection of the former phases of the Mass Production Paradigm (MPP). The limii3

of the MPP will be reached by reducing lot sizes and increasing product variance.

Fig. 15: Product quantity vs. Product variety

Fig. 16: Variants in car manufacturing

One extreme example: Due to the numerous possible varieties of the Daimler Benz 190 model

there are only two identical cars each year in the Bremen plant which produces over 500 cars

daily and more than 120,000 annually [2].

Even though consumer goods are continued to be produced in large batches in the future, product

individualization will take place in more and more areas. While in the area of investment goods

constantly growing customer requirements for technical and usability functions are leading to an

increase of product complexity and uniqueness, the same tendencies are shown in the area of

luxury goods due to the increasing requirements for prestige functions.

Fig. 17: Product oriented customer requirements

The extreme case of infinite product variance is attained when the product is only manufactured

once. With the turning away from reproductive manufacturing the direct application and/or putting

into operation of a uniquely developed product (a one-of-a-kind product) will be achieved. The

following statements mainly focus on the single production of investment goods as is usual in shipbuilding, aircraft and aerospace technology, machine tools etc.

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Fig. 18: One-of-a-Kind Production Characteristics

Based on these peripheral characteristics and reflecting the general development trends of the

international markets (see Fig. 19), future requirements for the prototyping capability of

production systems can be derived.

Fig. 19: Future Requirements for the Prototyping Capabilities of Production Systenss

Ongoing research and even standardization activities like STEP factory integration modelling,

research for rapid prototyping techniques like Desktop manufacturing (DTM), etc. must be

strengthened. The aim is the enforcement of the prototyping capabilities of future production

systems.

Although a systematic reappraisal for a new production paradigm is beyond the scope of this contribution, some elements can be highlighted.

In order to be competitive in a global context, prototyping capability means the ability to offer

and manufacture incomparably unique sophisticated products based on continuously changing

customer demands.

Fig. 20: Customer Intervention in the Product Life Cycle

This will require a focus on the quality and productivity of intellectual workers; higher levels of

creativity will be demanded.

Fig. 21: Mass Production versus One-of-a-Kind Production

In mass and serial production a decrease in the learning curve can be achieved by incremental

investments in the automation level of the applied production systems. The greater the product

quantity, the lower the price of the product. The lower the price, the greater the need for low

production costs. The lower the approved costs, the greater the need for a high automation level.

Depending on the history and tradition of industrialized nations in production management there are different approaches (I, n, HI) to manage the correlation between cost per part and the

number of parts as characterized by the different learning curves.

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Fig. 22: Reconfigurability of Manufacturing Equipment

However all approaches are based on the idea of optimizing the production process and reducing

the costs per part through reproduction strategies.

However, in the case of One-of-a-Kind production there is no possibility for optimizing the

production process through reproduction strategies. The ultimate challenge will be: "Do it right

the first time". In this context the reuse of experience will play a predominant role, in reducing

the technical and economical risks.

Fig. 23: "To be" versus "As is" Information Level

Fig. 24: Experience-Centered Classification of Design and Planning Tasks

Fig. 25: Comparison of Production Programme Planning

Beside the reuse of data the use or reuse of experience is an important asset in the OKP business,

but this experience must be acquired and maintained during the daily work. To obtain wholeness

requires an involvement in a holistic loop to generate experience. The requirement for an

experience generation loop is illustrated [1].

Fig. 26: Experience generation loop

With decreasing lot sizes and increasing customer interventions the basis of production systems is shifting from technical integration to human cooperation.

Due to the uniqueness and complexity of One-of-a-Kind products the human resource units as well

as the machining resources should provide a high level of complexity in terms of capabilities. The

one-task-one-employee principle in Adam Smith's pin fctory is not adequate here. Adam Smith's

principle is based on standardization and specialization, but the OKP business implies nonstandard

and fuzzy situations. This requires a complexity of capabilities a single employee cannot offer. This means that a high qualification level of the personnel, group work and the configuration of

stable work teams are essential requirements. [1]

Fig. 27: Qualification of Personnel

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The generation and the use of human experience will become on essential subject of modem

production systems if the competence of the worker will be requested and maintained by suitable

decision and responsibility structures.

4.4 Enterprise Integration and Enterprise Cooperation

The above outlined demands have led to efforts being made to parallelize the product development

process and to extend the just-in-time idea to the process of product development with regard to the information flow.

Due to the decrease in production depth (increase in team manufacturing) this development is not only confined to internal processes but increasingly also covers enterprise internal tasks as they occur between manufacturers and/or customers and suppliers. Accordingly advantages will only

emerge from cooperation in the sense of an "extended" enterprise comprising all partners taking

part in a particular task.

Figure 28: Current and Future Enterprise Cooperation

The resulting level of specialization and integration between designing, planning, and producing a product has therefore not only become increasingly important on an internal level but is also

especially influential with regard to the cooperation between customer and supplier. "The supplier

becomes (the customer's) external special department...".

Nets of independent, cooperating partners emerge. To ensure well functioning cooperation,

appropriate information systems, communication technology, and compatible enterprise

organization are required. Internal and external data exchange as well as the functional inter- dependencies between the various business activities therefore have to be coordinated and

integrated, in order to enable the involved enterprises to deal with a project in a joint and

integrated manner.

Figure 29: Levels of Integration

Enterprises will have to become customers, suppliers, partners, and competitors all at the same

time.

If the industrialized nations acknowledge their global responsibility, we have to extend this

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interpretation of integration on the basis of a justified global distribution of production resources.

4.5 Environmental Life-Cycle Analysis for Product and Production Systems

In the past both product design and production systems design were, in principle, market and

legislation oriented. New materials, manufacturing processes, etc. were used without considering

the consequences for recycling or waste deposition.

Public pressure, extremely increasing costs for waste disposal and our own conviction to conserve

natural resources and to recycle most kinds of materials make it necessary to develop new

strategies for products and manufacturing processes for the future. Corresponding to their global responsibilites and their high technological standards the industrial

nations have to assume the leading position in the discussion on and in solving the production

related environmental challenges.

Fig. 30: Life-Cycle-Analysis

Based on extensive knowledge of the interaction between economy, technology and ecology we

have to analyze the whole life-cycle of our products, beginning with the generation of raw

materials and ending up with the recycling and the waste management of used products.

The aim must be to get a much better coherence between economy, technology and ecology.

First analyses of different kinds of highly sophisticated machining processes show surprising

results. The impact on the environment and accordingly the production costs are strongly

influenced by using cutting fluids [3].

Fig. 31: Machining Process Input/Output

The consequent application of an overall life-cycle analysis can be seen as the most essential

procedure to elucidate the energy and material flows which influence economy, technology and

ecology,

4.6 Performance Assessment on the Basis of Scenario Techniques

Performance assessment of production systems is becoming a more and more complex task. As

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customers' decisions tend to be less determined by prices alone. Other features of production

sytems, such as leadtime, product quality or the capability to customize products, are gaining

importance. Altough difficult to quantify, these features have to be taken into account when

evaluating performance of existing or designed production systems.

It is therefore not sufficient to describe the performance by a set of numbers alone. What we need

is a holistic approach that not only looks at technical or economical criteria, but also at "soft

factors" like social, organizational, cultural impact etc. Instead of comparing sets of indicators,

we should rather compare scenarios showing us the production system as a whole, explaining its behaviour - which may well be driven by the soft factors - and its realisations to the world around

it. Such scenarios will substantially improve our understanding of production systems and will

open new design choices for the factories of the future.

Fig. 32: Levels of Analysis in CRIMP

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4.7 Long Term Re-Assessment of Industrial Potential

e.g. Maritime Industries

According to the foregoing discussion on future requirements for production systems the industrial

nations have to rearrange their areas of production activity. Non opportune alignments have to be

identified; new chances have to be evaluated and developed. A strategic reassessment of the

"value" of industrial potential with respect to production capabilities has to be carried out.

As an example we will derive the "value" of a Maritime Industry for Western Europe. Shipping,

shipbuilding and equipment manufacturing are traditional industries in Western Europe. However

the world market share of this european industry has decreased dramatically since the Sixties. Due

to high labour costs and the application of more or less conventional production systems these

industries were forced to retire from traditional areas of shipbuilding activities. Accordingly there

have been proposals within the EC to reduce or even stop the fundings for related industrial and

R&D activities. If this would come true Europe would loose its competitivness and influence over

a nowadays as a "low-tech" rated potential which could be a major asset with respect to an

important bussiness domain of the future. In the following this statement will be argued.

Believing in serious predictions on the growth of populations we can imagine the future

challenges in producing a suitable quantity and quality of food, but the potential of

cultivateable ground is extremely restricted.

An increasing shortage of nearly all kinds of raw materials including potable water and

primary energy sources can be considered. Shedding the load of raw material and energy

consumption can diminish but not solve this problem.

The creation of the internal market leads to an increasing congestion in road traffic and a

related increase of air pollution

etc.

Facing these future challenges we should consider the following aspects:

More than 70 % of the surface of the earth is covered with water.

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The sea and the sea-bed are composed of various kinds of resources (oil, gas, minerals,

capabilities for aquaculture, etc.)

Western Europe is more or less surrounded by the sea. Its coast - more than

10.000 miles long - is equipped with hundreds of small and medium sized ports, an

excellent infrastructure for short sea shipping.

etc.

Taking into account the long term industrial potential needed to meet this future challenge, a completely different approach for funding R&D and industrial activities will be needed. Up to now the R&D activities on production systems are more or less concentrated on terristrial approaches for production systems.

for future markets. The shipping, shipbuilding and equipment manufacturing activities need to be

developed towards a cooperating Maritime Industry exploring the global and longterm

opportunities and then to be transformed into a New Maritime Industry of the future. The

requirements and potential supply of this new Maritime Industry are well known and crucial for

the industrialized nations: High level R&D activities combined with prototyping capabilities.

For modem, trade and production oriented nations, the complexity of the transport function is increasing. Not just the port-to-port carriage of goods but their movement from original source to ultimate destination is becoming a total logistic industry.

5. THE POTENTIAL FOR COLLABORATION FOR RTD IN THE

PERSPECTIVE OF INCREASING GLOBALIZATION

In order to recognize the potential for global collaborative R&D projects, the superordinate global

economic and environmental needs and responsibilities of industrial nations have to be taken into

account in addition to the individual technical, business management and economic needs and

interests of the different partners. A number of starting points are given to describe the actual

state of the world:

- climatic threats

- environmental pollution

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- indebtedness of the Third World '

- shortage of resources.

This contexts has already been discussed in chapter 4. Global needs are only manageable with

collective approaches. Recent developments give us the first chance to tackle these global

challenges.

Within these collaborations the various nations should work on complementary aspects, related to their traditions and history. The greater the challenge the greater the need to integrate these

specialised capabilities if we are to tackle these problems effectively.

Another potential area for global cooperation is represented by tasks which are characterized by

minor economic interests of individual partners. One example: For the future there will be an

increasing social and political demand for higher global safety and environmental standards. An

ultimate basis for a successful cooperation within this field will be the exchange of different

cultural backgrounds and an increasing knowledge about each other.

However a global collaboration will be successful if all partners can see their advantages even if their views are dominated by global or national interests. In the following some first approaches for international cooperations are listed in which our

institute is involved to some extent:

Intelligent Manufacturing Systems (IMS)

Based on a Japanese proposal from 1990 there is an ongoing discussion on a more or less global cooperation on Advanced Manufacturing System. During the IMS feasibility study

which began in February 1992, approximately three test cases will be funded and launched

internationally in order to test the emerging collaborative framework of EMS.

EC - US cooperation on Enterprise Integration Modelling

(CIM OSA - MCC cooperation)

EC - US "Collaborative Action" on Product Modelling

(NEUTRABAS - NIDDESC cooperation) Within this cooperation the funding is restricted

to travel costs.

In addition there are several bilateral cooperation between many individual institutes and

organisations.

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The growing spirit of global cooperation is shown by TINA, a joint industrial R&D activity set up

by BELLCORE, NTT and BT in the field of intelligent networking. This is the first time that development, rather than standardisation of a basic networking technology has taken place at a

global level. TINA hopes to provide the communications building blocks necessary amongst

others, for the development of fully integrated, globally distributed production.

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LIST OF REFERENCES

[1] Hirsch, B.E.; Hamacher, B.; Thoben, K.-D.

Human Aspects in Production Management; in: Computers in Industry; 19 (1992) 65-77

[2] 2^yfang, D.; Hesse, R. New Organizational Structures for Automobile Assembly; in [4]

[3] Haepp, H. J.; Byrnes, G.

Life Cycle Analysis - A Strategic Element for Future Products and Manufacturing

Technologies; in: National Advanced Manufacturing Technology Programme; Sep. 1992,

Galway, Ireland

[4] Hirsch, B. E.; Thoben, K.-D. (Editors)

"One-of-a-Kind" Production: New Approaches; Elsevier Science Publishers; B.V. (NorthHolland); IFIP Transactions, 1992

[5] Hirsch, B. E. (Editor)

CIM in der Unikatfertigung; Springer Verlag: Berlin, Heidelberg, New York, u.a,; 1992

[6] Ley, W.

Simultaneous Engineering in der variantenreichen kundenauftragsspezifischen

Anlagenproduktion; VDI-Berichte 758, 1989, S. 43-64

[-] Meadows, D.H. and D.L.; Randers, J. Beyond the Limits; Chelsea Green Publishing Co., Post Mills, Vermont, USA 1992

[-] Deutsches Ubersee-Institut (Editor)

Jahrbuch Dritte Welt 1992; Verlag C.H. Beck, Munchen 1992

[-] Information Technology Atlas - Europe; North-Holland; Amsterdam, New York, Oxford,

Tokyo

[-] BRITE-EURAM Programme; Synopses of Current Projects 1990-1991; Office for Official

Publications of the European Communities,

Cataloque number: CD-NA-14042-EN-C; Luxemburg 1991

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[-] EC Research Funding; 3rd. Fully Revised Edition; A Quide for Applicants; Office for

Official Publications of the European Communities, Cataloque number: CD-NA-14122-

EN-C; Luxemburg 1992

[-] ESPRIT: European Strategic Programme for Research and Development in Information

Technology; Tatigkeits- und Ergebnisbericht; Office for Official Publications of the

European Communities, Cataloque number: CD-NA-13583-EN-C; Luxemburg 1991

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LIST OF FIGURES

Fig. 1 Fig. 2

Fig. 3

Fig. 4

Fig. 5

Fig. 6

Fig. 7

Fig. 8

Fig. 9

Fig. 10

Fig. 11 Fig. 12

Fig. 13

Fig. 14

Fig. 15

Fig. 16

Fig. 17

Fig. 18

Fig. 19

Fig. 20

Fig. 21

Fig. 22

Fig. 23

Fig. 24

Fig. 25

Fig. 26

Fig. 27

Fig. 28

Fig. 29

Fig. 30

Fig. 31

Fig. 32

The European Innovation Model

European Needs and Opportunities for IT-Industry

CEC Programmes Budget Development

National R&D-Programmes in Western Europe

National R&D-Effort in AMT

Integration Processes for EC Framework

Technology Intensity Groups

General Development Trends in Manufacturing

World Population Growth

Decreasing Quality of Copper Ore Mining in the USA (1900 - 1990)

Global Industrial Production

Global Metal Consumption

Market cycle

Economical Influences on the Product-life-cycle

Product quantity vs. Product variety

Variants in car manufacturing

Product oriented customer requirements

One-of-a-Kind Production Characteristics

Future Requirements for the Prototyping Capabilities of Production Systems

Customer Intervention in the Product Life Cycle

Mass Production versus One-of-a-Kind Production

Reconfigurability of Manufacturing Equipment

"To be" versus "As is" Information Level

Experience-Centered Classification of Design and Planning Tasks

Comparison of Production Programme Planning

Experience generation loop

Qualification of Personnel

Current and Future Enterprise Cooperation

Levels of Integration

Life-Cycle-Analysis

Machining Process Input/Output

Levels of Analysis in CRIMP

N I S T Manufacturing Systems Research and De.elopment Workshop Rockville, Md. 3.-5. November 1992

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94
Russian Academy of Sciences

St. Petersburg Institute for Informatics and Automation

Eastern European R&D in Manufacturing

Main Tendencies in Research and Development

of Advanced Manufacturing Systems

in Russia and Eastern Europe

St. Petersburg - 1992

95
Main Tendencies in Research and Development

of Advanced Manufacturing Systems

in Russia and Eastern Europe

I

Contents '

Introduction !

I

State of Economics and Industry in Russia

'

j Research Strategies and Motivations in Developing of Advanced j Manufacturing Systems

Tendencies in the Field of Automation of Manufacturing Systems

|

Tendencies in the Field of Equipment Design and Industrial Engineering '

Tendencies in the Field of Production Scheduling and Control

The Role of Information Management and Strategic Planning in

Development of Manufacturing Systems

Potential for Collaboration

Appendix 1. Russian Projects of Automated Plants

Appendix n. Organizations Working in the Field of Advanced

Manufacturing Systems

96
Abstract: Main tendencies are considered in the field of research and development of

advanced manufacturing systems in Russia and Eastern Europe, caused by specific economic

situation and engineering traditions in the countries.

INTRODUCTION

The title of the paper implies that the content is devoted to the situation in East-European

countries. Unfortunately, in a short period of time, it was not possible to get exhaustive

information about all former socialist republics of Europe and USSR.

Therefore, the main summary and conclusions are made on the basis of analysis of the

situation in Russia. But to the strong belief of the expert group preparing the paper, the

situation in the other countries is very similar because of adequate conditions in which they

are now. The information which we have by means of international relations and post

exchange proves that we are not mistaken. So the narration is organized around Russian

events but it is possible to extend the main principles and conclusions to all countries

mentioned above. In the table exhibiting research organizations working in the fields being

examined, representatives of East-European countries can also be found.

STATE OF ECONOMICS AND INDUSTRY IN RUSSIA

The main distinguishing features of the economic state of Russia are as follows:

In Economic Branch

a. Recession in economy shows that the gross national product has reduced correspondingly:

in 1990 - by 3%, in 1991 - by 9%, and in 1992 - by 12-15%.

b. In essence, none are those production relations which are adequate to exchange economy.

With 90% capital funds being state property, private enterprises do come into being.

c. Actually, the market relations are non-existent, forming in but only the commodity market;

the capital and financial markets are none. The existing commodity market is deficient.

d. The government policy "profit-tax" is changing aU the time and this, practically, excepts

the possibility of strategic planning for the development of enterprises and their technical

reconstruction. Add to this the perspective of privatizing the enterprises by the end of 1993 - 35% federal and state property - to be privatized, total cost of the capital fund being about 1.5 billion roubles.

e. There is an inflation outbreak in the financial sphere. The average speed of money issued

for tiie last 15 months makes up 37.4% a month; therefore there is no market basis, i.e., producer's competition for a consumer's rouble. In this case, increased are sharp rates of

97
interest on credit - they amount to 50-100% annual ones, this exceeding the world standards 5

times and more.

f. In energy and transport infrastructure, for the last 5 months, more expensive have become

power-carriers and transportation services (more than 10 times). However, considering the

existing rate of the Russian rouble converting, this is considerably lower than world prices

(the price of oil is 10% of the world price).

g. As to the sphere of labor resources, wages have grown 10-20 times (mainly in the raw

materials and extractive industry), in the science-consuming branches, those do not exceed 2-3

times, the living standard of the population has fallen 3-5 times. All of the above indications

lead to the loss of qualified personnel draining off from the production and scientific sphere.

h. Because of political reasons, there takes place breaking off of the economic connections

among the enterprises, substituting of the civilized character of the commercial agreements

"commodity-money-commodity" for the form "commodity-commodity".

i. The level of inflation in 1992 will amount to 2100%, comparing with the developed

countries where it is 3.3%.

In Industry Branch

a. In the industry of Russia, predominant is the proportion of "non-market" branches:

extractive and raw material industry and military industry (the latter in St. Petersburg makes

up 70%); necessary is structural reconstruction of the industry which leads, as it is known, to the decline of the traditional branches.

b. Giving up the militarization of the economy has resulted in essential reduction of the state order for the enterprises of the military industry complex (in 1992 - by 30%, for St. Petersburg - by 75%). These conditions bring the necessity of carrying out their civil

conversion.

c. By force of historic reasons which have dictated the existence of the Russian enterprises

within the bounds of the tough centralized state systems of planning, the life cyclical phases

such as - "marketing" and "follow up" - are, practically, in embryo at present time.

d. On the threshold of privatizing, the large-scale enterprises begin to disintegrate and form

mobile small enterprises with their own subject-closed specialization of production.

e. In connection with raw materials and materials becoming more expensive, the expenses of

the enterprises for the first months of 1992 has exceeded their incomes 3-4 times. That has

brought, for example, over 20% of the enterprises of St. Petersburg to the verge of ruin.

f. . Under the conditions of existence of the deficient domestic market, in fact, there fallen

away are the requirements to be satisfied by the products' quality.

98
g. Simplification of the foreign economic activities has required from some developed

branches as avia-, motor-, and power-plant industry to increase competitiveness of products.

This being expressed, among other things, for example, in increasing the proportion of

individual orders up to 30-50% of the production volume.

h. The processing equipment of most parts of the enterprises is worn out (17%). This has

resulted in reduction of industrial production rate, for example, m May of 1992 - by 15%.

i. Most of the enterprises have practically no present-day information technology, as the

Russian computer science has lagged behind the world level for no less than 10 years.

Acquiring the up-to-date equipment and programs requires hard currency, but this, under the

existing conditions of forming the state currency equalization fund (about 50% of hard

currency income is withdrawn from the enterprises), is significantly difficult. This is the cause of isolation from the information recourse of the civilized world, and among other

things, from the wold bases of data and knowledge.

j. The level of capital investments in the industry has abruptly been reduced. Compared with

the 1st quarter of 1991, it has reduced by 43% with the largest drop being observed in

machine-building; it making up 60%.

k. During the last two years, the volume of financing of research and development in the

field of advanced manufacturing systems has reduced no less than 3-4 times.

Nowadays in the frame of the newly established Ministry of Industry of Russia, special funds

for research and development of advanced manufacturing systems are being founded:

- The fund for tool and equipment design,

- The fund for support of industrial engineering works.

But up to this moment, the volume of these funds has not yet been defined.

RESEARCH STRATEGIES AND MOTIVATIONS IN DEVELOPING OF ADVANCED

MANUFACTURING SYSTEMS

In order to organize designing and development of the manufacturing systems within the

ministries and departments, in former days, leading designing institutes were created

specializing in development and design of new plans and specifications for erecting the

enterprises engaged in production of articles in conformity with the type of the ministry.

These designing institutes formed scientific research programs, worked out the plans of

financing the creation of new productive capacities, and developed the existing ones of these

ministries. Uncoordinated and closed designing works resulted in their duplicating, choosing

the subjective decisions connected with using the processing equipment from that for

machining, preparing processes, and for the specialized machines intended for performing the

unique processing operations. This tendency was maintained and at transition to ordering and

purchasing the processing equipment abroad. The leading institutes dictated not only the

99
technical policy aimed at working out the projects but at the reconstruction and technical

requirement of the enterprises as well.

At present, such a tendency has weakened significantly due to decentralization of planning

and financing of the enterprises. If finances, in particular, relating to long-term programs,

have been reserved by the state structures (committees and commissions), the enterprises have

consolidated their initiatives to define the directions of the scientific-technical development

and their realization, and the administrators (mainly chief engineers) of the existing

enterprises have to become chief designers of programs for technical reconstruction being

responsible fully for the strategy and realization of chosen direction.

For the last ten years, observed are several periods concerning strategy of creating and

developing the enterprises peculiar to the tendencies in the society. At the beginning of the

1980s, the extensive way of development of the productive capacities at their high specific

amount of metal per structure as well as high power consumption has resulted in exhaustion

of most natural resources. The direction adopted in reconstruction of the society has

influenced the strategy of development of the enterprises and caused the changes in it. Aiming at intensification of the production has led to creating the all-union and regional

programs for reconstruction of the enterprises. The base of this being introduction of

automated or "substantially" automated production systems based on using the flexible

manufacturing systems. Investments of considerable capital of the centralized use into the

processing equipment (indices, as a rule, has let down from the top, at least, relative to automation level of processing operations) have led, most commonly, to the fact that the

general production process has not been developed as required. Thus, introduction of highefficient equipment for the local processes increasing production 2-3 times, has led to general

growth of productivity 2-3% maximum.

Such an insignificant general effect of automation level change has been caused by lagging in

other types of provision, for example, in information servicing means (technical preparation of

production, managing the materials' flow was mainly carried out only on paper base). Even

there, where the introduction of flexible modules (FM) into production process was

successful, the production preparation was not in time for their requirements. The effect from

their introduction corresponding to the amount of financing was obtained only in large-scale

production, but this requiring considerable cooperation of customers of the given products.

The experience of five-seven year introduction of the automated modules, sections, and shops,

as well as considerable reduction of centralized financing have led to the necessity changing

the strategy of development and reconstruction of the enterprises. In 1989, the decision was

taken to concentrate financing for special purposes in the form of the projects for creating the

plants of the future which are a testing ground of integration of the automated systems for

different purposes (see Appendix 1).

Such testing grounds of the state budget financing for special purposes are meant to solve the

problems of creating the integrated automated systems based on the typical designs for

different-purpose automated systems followed by their circulation.

100
At present, the concentration of financing does not give the due effect, although it reduces the

level of duplicating the developments being financed by the state. To our mind, this is connected with the following shortcomings of organizing these works:

- insufficient experience of creating the industrial software: the USSR had no market

of the programs of domestic production and, as a rule, each software product had singleintroducing equal to (93%), two-or-three times introducing - (5%), and the rest - (2%) for the

circulated software product (data of 1991). This tendency (ordering by myself-using by

myself) has led to the deep-rooted technology of carrying the program product to completion

in the shortest time in order to pass it to the electronic computers of the customers

considering theix remarks and by no means satisfying the requirements of the technology of

the software being circulated (though operation was not services by the development

engineer);

- not strict enough discipline of executing the specifications for each subsystem (long

terms of development and introduction - lead to the changes improving each component, but

the characteristics of their integration are growing worse);

- insufficient, to our mind, financing for purchasing the computer facilities results in

orientation to personal computers (both - in developing organizations and in computing

centers of the plants under design). These are effective for solving test problems in designing

institutes, but as far as real volumes of information are concerned, their field changes are lengthening out for long terms (half a year - year);

- high barrier of currency rate in respect to a rouble on the domestic market has not

allowed wide use of western software and this leading to complete and, rarely to partial lack

of the discipline of standardization of data exchange on specialized developments. The level

of user interface has made no provision for strict control of the data being introduced.

Widely used were own database management systems without deeply analyzing the

requirements to the typical ones, and in these cases any transition to the up-to-date software

led to partial and, sometimes, complete loss of information (this being a deterrent for their

introduction), or to parallel accompaniment of several versions of program systems for one- two years.

TENDENCIES IN THE FIELD OF AUTOMATION OF MANUFACTURING

SYSTEMS

The problems which are stated today in the field of production automation can be classified

conditionally into two groups:

- the first group is brought to mass covering with partial automation of some

machines, units, and processing operations as part of their reconstruction and modernization;

- the second group is brought to radical changes in the processes and to putting into

operation of integrated production processes.

101
As the domestic experience shows, 50-70% of the defects found in the ready machinebuilding products are caused by errors in the design, 20-30% are due to the limitations of the

production processes, 5-15% are through the workers' fault. Therefore, throughout the

processing requirement of our country, of great importance are automated integrated

processes. The integrated processes are developing in two directions:

- integration of processing operations through concentrations of the operations when a number of operations are being tied together on one machine or on the complex of machines;

- computer-integrated processes realized by means of integrated production complex

(IPC). This direction is considered defining in development of the production processes now.

Integration of the processing operations is realized by two ways:

1, Creating the multi-zone processing centers (complexes), including several operating

zones, for example, St. Petersburg State Technical University has created the complex with

the zones of plasma jet hard facing and machining by cutting and grinding. The use of such

complexes, to the experts' mind, will provide the possibility of increasing the time of proper

machining with the use of equipment from 5% to 28% of the operating time fund.

2. The units with several machining heads, for example, centers of AT11 -400 and

Am-300 type (with four and three capstans) developed by Research Institute for Technology

and Organization of Production (in Moscow).

The development of automation goes in parallel with development and usage of information

processes. Today the production is characterized by complication and complexity, this

requiring the creation of new management approaches. Thus, the decisive role of success of

the production processes belongs to such information processes by which completed are the

production processes.

The basis of these facts (in principle, making provision for the status of IPC at our time)

becomes apparent in the tendency making provision for development in two directions. This

tendency is oriented to real and wide introduction into the industry of the fully automated

complex system of production. The first of these two directions is a "management" one, and

it stimulates development and usage of new management methods of production systems.

Both directions are important when mastering the new and high-efficient method of the

production organization which is assumed as the basis of IPC.

Within the technological direction outlined are two development tendencies. The first is a

clearly defined tendency aimed at creating the powerful potential for simultaneous designing

the articles, planning and realization of their production as well as servicing. The second

important technological tendency is directed at development of artificial intelligence for the

production systems. Within the management direction defined may be four types of important

development tendencies regarding correspondingly, organizational, professional, educational,

and financial aspects of the enterprise activity.

102
In Russia, these important strategical directions of the production systems development are not widely spread enough for now. The main reasons are as follows:

- the manufacture of modem qualitative and safe complexes of the processing

program-controlled equipment with numerical control realizing ecologically-pure "breakingthrough" resources and power saving technologies have not been corrected;

- enough qualitative and safe computer facilities of all the classes necessary for IPC

have not been manufactured;

- there is no qualitative and safe equipment and software for creating the computing

networks;

- the manufacture of the peripheral equipment necessary for recording and primary

processing the information is not organized. The question is remote collection of data,

operating control of the manufacture processes, information representation, commutation and

data transfer;

- cheap and reliable supply stabilization units for computing means, including built-in

control systems of the processing equipment with numerical control are not manufactured;

- there is no series production of system, problem, and application software for flexible

manufacturing systems.

TENDENCIES IN THE FIELD OF TOOL DESIGN AND INDUSTRIAL ENGINEERING

The analysis of the methods and means used in the process of designing the equipment and

tools shows that their development depends on the technical possibilities of computing means. At the beginning of the 1980s, computers were mainly used for engineering calculations of

the parameters based on physical models of the objects under design. Among these methods

are, for example, strength analysis carried out with the use of the method of finite differences

for constructions, gear-boxes of processing equipment, fastening elements of cutting tools,

temperature distribution in stamps and so on.

The next stage was the creation of data bases for design decisions. This allowing:

- to reduce labor-consuming search of scientific and technical information and

specification and standards to pass to designing with the use of prototypes; this resulting in

considerable effect when using the borrowed and most successful designs;

- to carry out realization of most functions of the technical systems with the use of one

physical phenomena;

- to form a considerable number of versions to realize one physical function choosing

the effective designs.

103
In the middle of the 1980s, started was the active use of computing means for automating the

solution of the problems connected with turning out the design plans and specifications,

drawings, sketches, and text. The first successful attempts in graphic documenting or of

typical machine-building drawings have changed into difficulties connected with the

organization of automated files (data bases). Limited volumes and low safety of data storage

facilities of search of parameterized drawings, lack of full volume of technical means for

preparation of documents - all this has led to existence of a double standard. Left was the

technology of turning out the paper documents by hand in conformity with the old standards;

designations, code classifiers, and so forth. At the same time, it was the new system of

simplified requirements that was developing actively. The latter allowing to formalize the

process of graphic and text documenting. Naturally, the double standard of documents has

not allowed to introduce full volumes of data-retrieval, reference, and other automated data

processing systems for information service of the production.

Another important problem for creating CAD/CAM systems is predominance in using

personal computers. During the first stage-wide use, personal computers gave the possibility

at the end of the 1980s to increase sharply the number of automated working places in design

offices and in production. Convenient "friendly" interfaces for the users have stimulated to a

great degree their use on a mass scale. Their spreading was greatly connected with lack of

legal protection for software in the USSR. Availability of western automation facilities has

given the possibility to include them into the production cycles within the shortest terms. In

many cases, the software on a personal computer has not required money investments, at

least, on the stage of its mastering and introducing. But this had also a negative effect. For

medium-scale and large scale computers such a method of getting software was not realized.

Such a situation has led to an abrupt disproportion of using the computers of different classes

- main orientation is directed to personal computers. They are used for multi-hour

engineering computations, for creating the production data base and so forth, i.e., solved are

the problems with the specifications unsuitable to them. Usage of local computer networks

based on the personal computers of IBM PC-type does not solve the principle difficulties of

using the computers of this class.

The mentioned problems hold back the development of CAD/CAM systems in the states of

the former USSR. However, great scientific potential allows us to make optimistic prognosis

for developing these systems. To our mind, creating the financing mechanisms on the basis

of the requirements for creating the industrial software will give the possibility to raise their

technical level.

The main tendencies of creating CAD/CAM systems in Russia as well as in the former USSR

can be presented by the following directions:

- creation of interactive designing medium that makes provision for multi-functional

graphic user's interface in order to operate it with multi-media information;

- actively including into the designing process the knowledge bases with different

reasoning mechanisms by means of creating the expert systems, decision-support systems,

inteUectual CAD/CAM;

104
- development of the means for geometric modeling of the complicated details and

space constructions;

- creation of the distributed data bases (deduction, object-oriented, semantic, weak

type-designed ones, and so forth;

- development of parallel process decision-support in CAD/CAM systems.

TENDENCIES IN THE FIELD OF PRODUCTION SCHEDULING AND CONTROL

One of the key directions of the large-scale automation which was started at the beginning of

the 1970s is automation of production scheduling and planning tasks. In this case, the main

tendency of solving these problems is connected with their position in the hierarchy of the

production tasks.

The automatic control systems was designed by tradition as a multi-level storage system. The

top level (of the formation) is intended for solving the tasks of computations of volume and

cost indices, for analysis of technical indices, redistribution of materials and labor resources, and for information servicing the administration. At the level of the plant solved are the tasks

of operative-calendar management, engineering calculations, and designing and technological

tasks. The next level is intended for solving the planning management tasks of separate shops

and sections.

The first advance in this direction is connected with solving the tasks of automating the

control of the technological conditions of separate production links (machines, production

units, transport). The main means of formalization for such systems were finite-automation

models. The subsequent stages were the works aimed at automation of dispatching control

level of management and planning tasks (tasks in on-line moment mode of the technological

complex members' activity in conformity with the schedule of actuation/release of details). In

this case, the most effective are: situation analysis, recognition, classification, and elaboration

of the decisions under the strict limits for the time of taking the decisions. At least, the

present stage being considered is connected with complex decision of control and planning

tasks as lower levels, so the top ones, including the tasks of operating control and planning

the production. The methods and models used at this level are based, to a large extent, in

simulation, combinatorial optimization, and artificial intelligence.

In spite of substantial simplicity and traditional character of general consideration of control

processes and planning the production, the particular development of these systems runs

against a number of problems of the principle character. Primarily, it is a high structural and

functional complication of the technological objects under control. Besides, control does

grow substantially considering the alternative equipment, processing operations and routes of

processing the details. The control processes of production are characterized by the main

features of the complicated technical systems, such as distributiveness, asynchronous,

dynamic, and parallel character. Control of production systems is connected with processing

105
the large volumes of information (about 100 Mbytes), the substantial part of which has, in

principle, an illegible and heuristic character.

This has resulted in the following main demerits of control systems existing in most

enterprises of Russia:

- excessive overloading by control and recording functions;

- planning the range and series of products based on the results obtained by studying

the consumer's demand not being carried out. In fact, it is determined to a large extent by the

consumer's requests and is not investigated by the enterprise itself;

- excessively low level of automation of the working places of the management

subdivisions;

- deficient interrelations of the services when solving through control tasks requiring

the unique information base and complex economic calculations;

-duplicating the work by the subdivisions;

- prevalence of the current (for a day) planning;

- most part of the working time is spent for the works out of plan (the main reasons of

that are as follows: deficient operativeness of getting the necessary information; waiting for

business meetings; necessity of frequent travel and long terms of their routes; shortage of

persoimel specializing in calculation of typists, messengers, and so forth);

- weak discipline of fulfilling the duties, high labor-consuming control of executing

orders and directions;

- unsatisfactory organization of operative registering of the motion of material, blanks,

semi-products, completing details, and assembly units.

THE ROLE OF INFORMATION MANAGEMENT AND STRATEGIC PLANNING IN

DEVELOPMENT OF MANUFACTURING SYSTEMS

Now some words about Information Management (EM) and Strategic Planning (SP), one can

say that in former socialist countries, these methodologies have been developed only during

the last few years. That is true if we speak about them in western meaning. Namely we

mean economically-oriented accumulation and systematic analysis of information for the

purposes of development of the enterprise. It is very important that this kind of analysis is oriented mainly to support business activities of the company.

First about strategy, in the conditions of command system, there was no need to formulate the

objectives of enterprise development based on philosophy of the firm and consideration of the

106
market situation. In that, goals of each enterprise were defined rather strictly, at least for the

last five years, by Ministry. Therefore, not so many top-managers were thinking about long

term development of the enterprise. The main task was to fulfill the already defined five

year plan. Of course, inside this plan there were special parts devoted to application of new

equipment and technologies but in the majority of cases, the main directions were also

determined by the Ministry or sometimes even by the Government. A good example is a case of universal recommendations for Automatic Control Systems (ACS) in the 1970s. In such

conditions, the only task of the development group was to confirm on paper the possible

efficiency of new equipment which was already recommended. From this came the fact that

methods for evaluating the costs and benefits of new technologies were poorly developed. No

methods of work analysis, very rare comparison of different innovation variants, and no topdown decomposition of enterprise structure were used.

One simple formula was applied for each unit of new technique, usually not in good

connection with the other parts of the enterprise.

There was a kind of methodology of pre-design investigations for computer systems

applications, publicated by the Ministry of Instrumentation. But it was formulated in an

arbitrary way, fixing only the consequence of steps in the investigation. As a result, the

generated documents couldn't be used as a base for project management, realizing systematic

approach for the purpose of enterprise development.

The described activities did not bring to the situation when methodologies, devoted to development of the enterprises and organizations, were based on scientific achievements of

systematic analysis and other branches of science.

We stress here that there was no need in usage of symbolic languages for description of

activities, special methods of top-down decomposition, analysis/synthesis procedures, software

packages, supporting the methodology and special CASE tools for production, adaptation, and

follow-up of these packages.

As a conclusion, one can say that methods, connected with IM and SP were poorly

developed. Automation tools for systematic analysis did not exist at all.

One of the reasons of the workshop is to identify unmet needs or gaps in our current R&D.

We can state here that one of the tasks of specialists working in the field of Information

Management is to adapt and develop the above mentioned methodologies for the needs of

East-European countries. Only with this condition, the economy of East-European countries can be successfully integrated with the others.

Moreover, we can say that these methods should be developed further, representing a better

link with such areas as stiategic marketing and organization planning.

These additional needs are connected with specificity of the economical situation in EastEuropean countries. It was said previously that many large enterprises, which were under the

107
control of the government, have the tendency to be decentralized and are trying to find their

place in the market.

For this purpose, they need an instrument for modeling new organizational structures and

decision support systems for marketing.

Beginning in 1985 in former socialist countries, research in this direction was made separately

by groups mainly organized inside universities and high schools. Appendix n shows the

facilities of these research groups. It is visible that they are small. Maybe it is worth it to organize some type of common project to concentrate the efforts of the researcher.

POTENTIAL FOR COLLABORATION

Here we come to the most important point: Potential for Collaboration. In the opinion of the

expert group who had prepared this report, it would be very useful to concentrate the efforts

of international teams in solving the technological problems of conversion for military

enterprises. We think this task is of common interest for many countries. We mean

elaboration of a special methodology and decision support system which can help to convert

the former military enterprises in the direction of civil production, keeping as much as possible of its property. In this paper we imply under term "conversion" mainly a technological not a social problem as it was understood before. In that case, the solution was

simple: only buildings were kept, all other things belonging to the former enterprise were

changed, including people. If we look at this task from the side of technological problems to be solved, we can find it much more attractive. As the result of application of such kind of

methodology, you don't need to make any sharp decisions, such as lock-outs, etc. Instead,

you have the opportunity to keep the most valuable parts of the enterprise and make a rather

soft turn from production with centralized finance support to a market-oriented profitable

factory.

In our opinion, this problem is closely connected to the topics which we discuss today

because they are a part of reconstruction and development of the enterprise. Moreover, the

main achievements in these topics, in principle, may be used as a basis for new advanced

methodology. Let's try to describe it.

The most important thought is to determine new goals of the enterprise for civil purposes and

to formulate a long-term strategy and actions for the immediate future. For this reason, it is thought that we will need a better link of "above-the-shop-floor" activities with marketing and

general management. Such a support system has to be highly computerized because we need

to examine plenty of variants.

After the strategy is formulated, we shall need a special tool for evaluation of facilities of

existing equipment and one which is going to be purchased by the firm. At this stage, the

main task is to keep the most suitable for new goal units and find the best new equipment to accomplish the whole ^stem.

108
This procedure is going to be repeated many times from the very beginning until we can find a good solution. Each iteration has to include cost/benefit analysis evaluating plenty of

technical and economic parameters of every unit.

One of the features of new methodology is a possibility of top-down decomposition of the

problem area by way of modeling the area in the graphical language. As a basis for such an

approach, already existing methods may be used such as Information Systems and Analysis of

Changes (ISAC) elaborated in Sweden or Structured Analysis and Design Technique (SADT)

used in the USA.

A number of different models may be used in the development of such a system: functional

models to define what the system must do, implementation models to tell how, and so on.

In many aspects, the application of expert systems, knowledge bases, and other tools might

also be very efficient.

We think international research in this direction might be very fruitful. Many countries now

need such an approach and special methodology.

109
APPENDIX I

RUSSIAN PROJECTS OF AUTOMATED PLANTS

Creation of automated plants (AP) in Russia is financed now by the Ministry of Science, high

school and technical policy based on the program "Technologies, Machines, and Production of

the Future". In 1992, the volume of financing for scientific research to the experts evaluation,

made up no less than 100 million roubles.

The leading organizations and the main executors of this program are: Experimental Research

Institute of Metal Cutting Machine Tools, Research Institute for Technology and Organization

of Production, Institute of Management Sciences (in Moscow), and St. Petersburg State

Technical University.

The main principle for the organization of this program is financing the typical projects. Here

are two examples of such in the machine-building field. Both projects are financed from

1989, expenses for the projects for the last two years amounting to:

1991 1992

MPO "Krasny Proletary" (machine-tool plant): 15 mln 25 mln

Tushinsky machine-building plant (stamps and moulds): 4 mln 11 mln

The terms of creating the base automated plants (AP): 4-5 years

As does show the analysis of a number of the projects of the automated plants being realized

in Russia, the cost of scientific-research and research and development works, if considering

as the expenditures is comparable with the cost of the equipment of an automated plant. The

expenditures for S&R and R&D works are distributed, in their turn, among the directions as follows:

Development of new technologies - 19%

Development of tools providing system - 2%

Development of CAD for product - 2%

Development of CAD for tools - 2,5%

System of automated programming for numerical control system - 7.6%

Designing an automated plant - 32.5%

Designing the quality assurance system - 19.2%

Development of new information technologies:

hardware - 8.9%

software - 4.7%

110
The characteristics of the production as expected for the automated plants in comparison with

the existing productions are as follows:

Labor productivity growth - 9 times

Reduction in the number of staff - 4.5 times

Capital productivity increase - 1.5 times

Increase of production output per unit of production area - 2.3 times

Level of CAD works and technological preparation of the production (TP) - up to 90%

Level of automating the manufacture, control, and tests - up to 70-90%

In connection with the high labor-consuming process of automation of control and designing

tasks at an automated plant, they will be realized in the following turn (in brackets indicated

is a relative cost):

The first turn (20%):

- Forming a portfolio of orders,

- Considering the plan of finished products supply,

- Designing the control programs for the machines with numerical control (NC),

- Unification of products and technological processes,

- Information retrieval systems for the technological purposes.

The second turn (25%):

- Designing the operational technological processes,

- Grouping the details and designing the group technological processes,

- Unification of technological equipping,

- Technical and economic planning,

- Volume and calendar planning,

- Taking account of material resources on warehouses and in storerooms.

The third turn (50%):

- Production scheduling,

- Construction and modeling the lines, sections, shops (the task is carried out after

detail and/or subject-closed areas in the shops being organized),

- Primary accounting,

- Personnel registering,

- Designing the articles (stamps and moulds),

- Designing the technological equipment.

The fourth turn (5%):

- Informant of director and chief engineer,

- Control of the production technological preparation, informants of chief product

engineer and chief designer.

111
- Control of the financial activity of an enterprise.

Main statements laid in the indicated projects are as follows:

In the field of Production Organization:

- subject specialization of the areas, creation of closed productions which permit to carry out TP in whole (from a blank to a finished detail);

- creation of a buffer production zone, "an automated plant-envkonment", aimed at localization of external sources of breaking down the operation keeping a steady

pace;

- the possibility of change-over from the transport scheme "machine-machine" to the

scheme "machine-storage-machine";

- realization of the block-module structure of the production processes, including one

for their wide circulation;

- creation electronic system for coding and identifying of the material objects of an automated plant.

In the field of Technologies and Equipment:

- economy of expensive materials when passing over to the more progressive methods

of production of blanks with the utilization factor of material 0.65-0.75 (precision

steel casting in combination with gas staticizing process, laser and jet water-abrasive

cutting-out of blanks, repeated usage of rejects);

- creation of integral machine stations to perform all the operations in conformity with

the single controlled program on one field. The question is sized processing,

strengthening, and control of stamp and mould details. It is expected that performing

this integrated equipment will permit to reduce abrupt time losses for intermediate

operations, to achieve reduction of labor consumption by 2-10 times, production

defects by 3-5 times, production areas by 2-3 times, production cycle by 1.5-2 times,

transport expenses by 50-60%, and to increase reliability by 1.5-2 times;

- utilization of rejects (briquetting and packaging);

- electrodeposition with separation for processing the slurry;

- manufacture of combined tools permitting to perform several transition of processing

in one setting;

- creation of complex equipment realizing electrophysical and chemical technology of

the new level for finishing the complicated space (shared) surfaces of stamps and

moulds;

- usage of surface strengthening methods for strengthening the surfaces of stamps,

moulds, and cutting tools;

- introduction of independent technology for manufacture and assembly of stamp and

mould details being tied up on the basis of using the experience of the automated

production of heat-protective coating of multiple spacecraft "Buran".

112
In the field of Designing:

- computerization of forecasting and considering the demand, creation of the

perspective design-and-processing decisions' bank, prediction of the required

production arrangement;

- usage of the block-mould principle for building up the article (ganging up) based on

design-and-processing unification of the product details and assemblies;

- classification of the product components according to their resistance against time for

invariable ones (terms of renewal-10-15 years), changing for 3-5 years and quickly

changing;

- creation of standard-sized series of the product unified components on the similarity

base;

- usage of the new easily-processed materials, (for example, organic concrete,

posessing high dumping ability and low susceptibility to short-term environmental

fluctuations).

In the field of Planning and Control:

Creation of the problem-oriented automated work stations containing the following

functional software components;

- facilities for introduction, representation, and editing of the primary information,

which are oriented to the sets of the documents entered for a particular working

place. The facilities for diagnosis of the information being entered permits essential

lowering of the labor-consumption for preparation of the primary data.

- data base of norms and standards (All-Russian state standards, branch standards,

directions and methodical documents, and so forth);

- computation-and-logic facilities (computation, analysis of the decisions having been

taken, visualization and archiving the designs) oriented to the particular List of tasks.

- the facilities for interacting with the other work stations (network facilities, multi

-machine complexes);

- the facilities for text and graphic documentation (forming the output text and graphic

documents) as well as the facilities for generation of new output forms at introduction of changes in the made up documents' turn-over.

In the field of Quality Control:

- with the aim of increasing the quality of stamps and mould, usage of nondestructive

tests (controlling the structure and residual stresses in the surface layers of tool

working surfaces) based on metallographic and physical methods.

- high resistance of product (about 100 thousand working cycles and over) is obtained

by means of "breaking-through" processing methods for coating (plasma coat under

the conditions of vacuum and microexplosion);

- obtaining the required quality of products by means of active automated operational

113
control and of using "breaking-through" strengthening technologies based on heat

treatment in vacuum furnaces with the use of induction and gas heating, as well as multi-layer titanium carbides and nitrites vacuum evaporation, plasma-mechanical

treatment, and so on);

creation of quality control systems for details and assemblies; systems of control,

prediction and failure diagnosis of treatment equipment.

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Figure 1: Two types of linear motion guide mechanisms.

(a) (b)

Figure 2: Two types of shape errors: (a) Twisted error (b) Horizontal

inclination error.

Figure 3: Terminology; a contact of a vertex and a face.

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Figure 5: Example of the efTect of horizontal inclination error: (a) Initial

contact state (b) Intermediate state (c) New contact state.

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Tool geometry

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# TC184 : SCI: Physical Device Control

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# Title : Industrial Data and Global

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Figure 14.1 : R&D Projects in Manufacturing Technology

(i) Development of a design methodology to ensure the

successful implementation of CIM systems.

(ii) Methodology and Technology supporting Concurrent

Engineering (framework, database management sys- tem, open system, design for manufacturing/automation/testing).

(iii) Development of Manufacturing Planning Control

System.

(iv) AT and Knowledge Based Systems applied to Quality

Control/Industrial Engineering/Design.

(V) Development of expertise in communications net- working for manufacturing.

(vi) Computer Aided Instruction for manufacturing system.

(vii) Man machine interfaces using multi-media and AI.

(viii) Sensors Technology.

(ix) Development of thin and thick film coatings.

(X) Development of laser technology for CNC machine.

(xi) Development of expertise in the design and development of high speed, and/or high precision assembly

equipment.

(xii) Development of expertise in quick mould fabrication

using stereolithography.

(xiii) Development ofCAD/CAM linkage for metal moulds.

(xiv) Development of a generic low-cost automatic visual

inspection system.

196
too a

197
Korea : Rather Advanced

Technology Intensive

ROC: Rapidly Developing

Intermediate State:

Primitive .... Developed

Singapore: Knowledge Intensive

Scale Problem

Focused Development

198
Future Strategy for Japan

• Manufacturing as a New Discipline

• Focus on High Technology

• Globalization V

• Clean Manufacturing

^

X

• Keep Country Profit

• Evolution of the World

• Important Factor: Human

Development and Maintenance of Knowledge

^

Attract Good Students to Manufacturing

^

Share Generic Knowledge

IMS Program

1"'^ Profitable

Optimization in Globe-Scale

199
Factors for Manufacturing R&D

^

Long Range Strategy

Japan: Renovation of Manufacturing Technology

(Ex. Ship-building, Textile, ...)

Others: Focus on Product Design Technology

^

Government Committment

Japan: Industry Leadership, Government Support

Others: Strong Government Control

^

R&D Sources

Japan: University - National Labs - Industry

Different Roles

Bottom-up, Informal Contact

Others: Overlapping Roles

Top-down, Formal Contact

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Japan: AU-Round Player

Life-long Employment

Others: Expert (Ph.Ds from foreign universities)

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