The National Flood Insurance Program: 

 An Annotated Bibliography 
The National Flood Insurance Program: 

An Annotated Bibliography 

January 2006 

Completed for the Federal Emergency Management Agency 

Under Contract Number 282-98-0029 

The American Institutes for Research 

The Pacific Institute for Research and Evaluation 

Deloitte & Touche LLP 
1

Acronyms 

ASFPM Association of State Floodplain Managers 

BPAT Building Performance Assessment Team 

CAC Community Assistance Contact 

CAP Community Assistance Program 

CAV Community Assistance Visit 

CBRA Coastal Barrier Resources Act 

CBRS Coastal Barrier Resources System 

CRS Community Rating System 

CTP Cooperating Technical Partners 

DFIRM Digital Flood Insurance Rate Map 

DHS Department of Homeland Security 

EO Executive Order 

EPA Environmental Protection Agency 

FEMA Federal Emergency Management Agency 

FHBM Flood Hazard Boundary Map 

FIA Federal Insurance Administration 

FIMA Federal Insurance and Mitigation Administration 

FIRM Flood Insurance Rate Map 

FIS Flood Insurance Study 

FMA Flood Mitigation Assistance 

FmHA Farmers Home Administration 

FY Fiscal year 

GAO General Accounting Office 

GIS Geographic Information Systems 

GFIP Group Flood Insurance Policy 

GPRA Government Performance and Results Act 

HMGP Hazard Mitigation Grant Program 

HUD Department of Housing and Urban Development 

ICC Increased Cost of Compliance 

IFGP Individual and Family Grant Program 

LOMA Letter of Map Amendment 

LOMR Letter of Map Revision 
2

MMP Map Modernization Plan 

MPPP Mortgage Portfolio Protection Program 

NCUA National Credit Union Administration 

NEMIS National Emergency Management Information System 

NFIP National Flood Insurance Program 

NFIRA National Flood Insurance Reform Act of 1994 

NHRC Natural Hazards Research Centre 

OAM Office of Acquisition Management, FEMA 

OGC Office of the General Counsel, FEMA 

OIG Office of Inspector General, FEMA 

OMB Office of Management and Budget 

ORA Office of Risk Assessment, FEMA 

OTS Office of Thrift Supervision 

PA Public Assistance 

PL Public Law 

SBA Small Business Administration 

SFHA Special Flood Hazard Area 

SFIP Standard Flood Insurance Policy 

TVA Tennessee Valley Authority 

USACE United States Army Corps of Engineers 

USGS United States Geological Survey 

WYO Write Your Own 
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Abernathy, Ann Marie and Leslie Weiner. (1995). Evolving federal role for emergency 

relief. Forum for Applied Research and Public Policy, 10(1), 45-8. 

Available at: http://forum.ra.utk.edu/older/for10-1.htm#Abernathy

Keywords:

disaster assistance, history, legislation 

Abstract: The evolving philosophy, activities, and responsibilities of FEMA are outlined from 

the first federal law to authorize funding for disaster relief enacted in 1950 to proposed 

legislative amendments in 1994. Originally assisting with natural disasters such as earthquakes 

and floods, FEMA has come to provide assistance with technological, human-made, and natural 

catastrophes today. FEMA’s emphasis on hazard mitigation shows a focus on consequences of 

disasters and emergencies. Internal agency improvements to increase federal responsiveness and 

efficiency are described.

Adeola, Francis O. (2003). Flood Hazard Vulnerability: A Study of Tropical Storm Allison 

Flood Impact and Adaptation Modes in Louisiana. Quick Response Report #162. Boulder, 

CO: Natural Hazards Center. 

Available at: http://www.colorado.edu/hazards/qr/qr162/qr162.html or 

http://www.colorado.edu/hazards/qr/qr162/qr162.pdf 

Keywords: 

Louisiana, socioeconomic impacts, Tropical Storm Allison 

Abstract: The study focuses on the impact of Tropical Storm Allison of June 2001 in Louisiana. 

One-hundred forty-nine households in Slidell participated in a survey designed to assess the 

impacts of the storm, vulnerability, and coping and adaptation modes of the population. More 

than 50 percent of the sample consisted of repeat flood victims and 58 percent of the surveyed 

households reported moderate to severe damage from Tropical Storm Allison to their homes. 

Nearly 28 percent of households suffered monetary losses over $20,000. Among precautions 

taken by respondents, obtaining flood insurance was the major measure reported by the majority 

of respondents. While there was no statistically significant difference by race on impact of flood 

damages, major racial and socioeconomic differences were found for access to resources, 

emergency relief, source of relief, flood insurance policy, and elevation. The report highlights 

the need for local governments to review building permit processes, consider risk factors present 

in their community, assess the vulnerability of their community to flooding, increase expenditure 

on infrastructure improvements, educate homeowners of the benefits of flood insurance, and for 

FEMA to provide flood insurance subsidies to homeowners, especially those with lower 

incomes. 

Alabama Emergency Management Agency. (1999). Floodplain Management in Alabama: 

Local Officials Reference Manual. Clanton, AL: Alabama Emergency Management Agency.

Keywords: 

Alabama, Community Rating System, compliance, development, enforcement, federal programs,

Flood Mitigation Assistance Program, floodplain management, Hazard Mitigation Grant 

Program, mapping, mitigation, NFIP, substantial damage, substantial improvement, variances 

Abstract: This guidebook is intended to aid local building, planning, zoning, and code 

enforcement officials engaged in enforcement of the NFIP through explanations and examples of 

the NFIP’s requirements. The guidance outlines the minimum requirements for participating in 

the NFIP and offers recommendations for optional higher standards. Additionally, the handbook 
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gives information specifically related to floodplain management in Alabama. Chapter topics 

include flood hazard maps, standards for floodplain development, permit issuance, inspection, 

enforcement and compliance, variances, roles and responsibilities of local officials, suggestions 

for improving floodplain management and an introduction to related programs and objectives. 

Related programs and objectives include the Community Rating System (CRS), Flood Mitigation 

Assistance (FMA) Program, the Clean Water Act, and open space preservation. Appendices 

include technical information, state and federal contact information, and a glossary of terms. 

All-Industry Research Advisory Council. (1989). Surviving the Storm: Building Codes, 

Compliance and the Mitigation of Hurricane Damage. Oak Brook, IL: All-Industry 

Research Advisory Council. 

Keywords: 

building codes, compliance, enforcement, Hurricane Hugo, hurricanes, insurance coverage, 

insurance industry, mitigation 

Abstract: Hurricane Hugo brought into focus a need to examine how states, municipalities, 

building code officials, builders, architects, and insurers might work together to lessen damage 

from hurricanes. This study reports on the increase in people and property at risk from hurricanes 

along the Gulf and Atlantic Coasts. It also reviews evidence on how the strength of local 

building codes and the level of compliance have made a difference in the amount of damage 

sustained in recent hurricanes. The report analyzes the wide variations in building codes in effect 

along the Gulf and Atlantic Coasts, and highlights states and organizations that have paid special 

attention to wind resistance requirements in building codes. Cost implications of stronger wind 

resistance requirements for construction of new homes are explored. Finally, the study contains a 

summary of comments made by coastal building officials and inspectors about the challenges of 

improving enforcement of and compliance with wind resistance provisions in building codes. 

One major finding indicates that property values exposed to hurricane losses along the Atlantic 

and Gulf Coasts increased 64 percent from 1980 to 1988. 

American Geological Institute. (2000). Natural Hazards Mitigation and Insurance Update. 

Washington, DC: Government Affairs Program, American Geological Institute. 

Available at: http://inet2.agiweb.org/agi/gap/legis106/mitigation.html

Keywords:

legislation, mitigation, Stafford Act 

Abstract: On October 30, 2000, President Clinton signed H.R. 707, the Disaster Mitigation and 

Cost Reduction Act, into law (P.L. 106-390). The law amends the Robert T. Stafford Disaster 

Relief and Emergency Assistance Act to require that states submit a detailed, comprehensive 

state program for emergency and disaster mitigation prior to receiving funds from FEMA. The 

law requires FEMA to hold a public comment period before adopting new or modified policies 

that may result in a meaningful change in the amount of assistance a state or local community 

may receive. 

American Geological Institute. (2002). Natural Hazards Mitigation Policy. Washington, DC: 

Government Affairs Program, American Geological Institute. 

Available at: http://inet2.agiweb.org/agi/gap/legis107/mitigation.html

Keywords:

legislation, mitigation, Stafford Act 
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Abstract: This document reviews the recent legislation relating to natural hazards mitigation. It 

focuses on the legislative bottleneck the precluded new legislation from amending the Stafford 

Act. Two flood-related exceptions to the bottleneck were a disaster mitigation pilot program 

within the Small Business Administration and a law requiring states to submit detailed, 

comprehensive state programs for emergency disaster and relief before receiving funds from 

FEMA.

American Society of Civil Engineers. (2000). Reducing Flood Losses through the 

International Code Series: Meeting the Requirements of the National Flood Insurance 

Program. Washington, DC: FEMA. 

Available at: http://www.fema.gov/pdf/hazards/report-all.pdf

Keywords:

building codes, floodplain management, International Code Series 

Abstract: This guide (produced in cooperation with International Code Council, Building 

Officials and Code Administrators International, International Conference of Building Officials, 

Southern Building Code Congress International, Inc., Association of State Floodplain Managers, 

and the American Society of Civil Engineers) is to help community officials decide how to 

integrate the 2000 edition of the International Codes (I-CodesTM) for building safety into their 

current floodplain development and regulatory processes. The I-CodesTM contain provisions that 

meet the minimum flood resistant design and construction requirements of the NFIP. The guide 

neither endorses any specific approach nor does it explain the NFIP requirements and how to 

administer them. Chapter 1 includes an overview of the NFIP, community and state 

responsibilities under the NFIP, the benefits of participation in the NFIP, and the implications of 

not participating. Chapter 2 reviews approaches to floodplain management, noting that 

integrating a community's approach with the I-CodesTM involves planning to reduce overlap of 

regulations, duplications of effort, and conflicts. Worksheets are provided to help communities 

assess how their current approaches to regulating development compare to the NFIP’s 

requirements and to facilitate decisions. Chapter 3 discusses the implications of adopting the ICodesTM in terms of development other than buildings and structures, on-site utility systems, 

NFIP’s Community Rating System, building code amendments for consideration by 

communities that choose higher standards, requirements for handling substantial improvement 

and repair of substantial damage, and the provision of Increased Cost of Compliance coverage 

for substantially damaged buildings. Chapter 4 reviews community responsibilities under the 

NFIP, including record keeping, permits, notification requirements, flood hazard map-related 

duties, elevation certificates, inspections, enforcement and violations, and the variance process. 

Anderson, Dan R. (1974). The National Flood Insurance Program: Problems and 

potentials. Journal of Risk and Insurance, 16(4), 579-99. 

Keywords:

communication, marketing, NFIP 

Abstract: The National Flood Insurance Act of 1968 provides for subsidized flood-insurance 

and seeks to reduce long-term flood damage through land-use and other control measures. The 

floods of 1972 and 1973 provided early tests of the program, and it appears to have been 

deficient in many respects. The author examines these deficiencies and offers reasons for their 

existence. Ameliorative actions that were taken and others that have been proposed to improve 

the program are analyzed. Finally, the lessons learned from this study are used to postulate 
6

guidelines for improving existing and future government-industry programs. These guidelines 

include the use of modern marketing techniques, adequate incentives for salesmen, commitment 

from management, and measuring demand for the product. 

Anderson, Dan R. (2000). Catastrophe insurance and compensation: Remembering basic 

principles. CPCU Journal, 53(2), 76-89. 

Available at: https://webster.cpcusociety.org/source/pubs/show_journal_abstract.cfm?306

Keywords: 

insurance

Abstract: This publication reviews the basic principles for insurance as it relates to catastrophe 

insurance. The author concludes that the current systems for insurance and compensating 

property damages caused by natural disasters, including floods, are flawed by endemic problems. 

The severity of the problems has grown over 25 years in conjunction with increasing 

catastrophe-related property damage. A review of the problems (increased frequency and 

severity of events, rapid population of properties in high risk areas) and recommendations for 

new/alternative approaches are described, including a return to fundamental insurance principals.

Anselmo, V., G. Galeati, S. Palmieri, U. Rossi, and E. Todini. (1996). Flood risk assessment 

using an integrated hydrological and hydraulic modeling approach: A case study. Journal 

of Hydrology, 175, 533-54. 

Keywords: 

hydrology and hydraulics, Italy, modeling, risk assessment 

Abstract: This paper describes an integrated hydrological and hydraulic modeling approach for 

the risk assessment of a flood-prone area and its application to analyzing the effects of extreme 

flood events on the Montalto di Castro thermoelectric power plant. The approach is based on 

four major steps. The first step entails a detailed analysis of available critical events as well the 

collection of hydro-meteorological and cartographic data to perform a statistical evaluation of 

extreme rainfall events and an estimation of the probable maximum precipitation (PMP). The 

second step involves the calibration of a rainfall-runoff model for the upper catchment area based 

on the data observed during a recent flood event. The third step involves the calibration of a twodimensional hydraulic model for simulating floodplain inundation using the previously 

reconstructed runoff and a comparison of the results with the maximum flood levels observed 

during the same event. The final step concerns the simulation by the two-dimensional hydraulic 

model of the flood wave obtained via the rainfall-runoff model using the extreme and PMP 

values of rain redefined in the first step. The results of this approach appear to be extremely 

useful and easily transferable to other areas.

Armstrong, John M. and R. Bruce Denuyl. (1977). An investment decision model for 

shoreland protection and management. Coastal Zone Management Journal, 3(3), 237. 

Keywords:

coastal areas, cost-benefit analysis, erosion, property values 

Abstract: The article presents an investment decision model for problems associated with 

shoreline erosion. The model determines the economic benefits that a landowner can realize from 

available alternative protection structures. Benefits are estimated from erosion-induced property 

value decline for specific reaches of shoreline. This approach enables the decision-maker to 

determine the local economic impact of alternative shore land management policies. The 
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economic effects of coastal management policies, such as nonstructural shore land protection, 

wetlands regulation, and public beaches, are discussed in terms of the model's ability to evaluate 

and compare the opportunity cost of alternative policies. Finally, the article presents and 

discusses computational examples of the model output.

Arnold, N. Scott. (2002). The Role of Government in Responding to Natural Catastrophes. 

In Liberty and Hard Cases. Stanford, CA: Hoover Institution. 

Keywords: 

California, disaster assistance, Florida, insurance industry, insurance premiums, NFIP 

Abstract: Although the number of deaths and injuries due to natural disasters has declined in 

recent years, the number of people affected by these phenomena has increased. In light of the 

increasing financial costs of natural disasters, the private insurance industry has become 

increasingly skittish about insuring against them. This article identifies and evaluates the ways 

that state and federal governments can provide disaster relief and insurance against natural 

disasters. With regard to the NFIP, the author notes that private insurance companies face 

enormous difficulties providing insurance against flood damage. He notes the NFIP’s 

achievements in floodplain management; the development of FIRMs for at-risk communities, the 

increase in the participation of at-risk communities and the home mortgage industry, and the 

development of an efficient rate structure of flood insurance premiums. 

Association of British Insurers. (2001). Flooding: A Partnership Approach to Protecting 

People. London, England: Association of British Insurers. 

Available at: http://www.abi.org.uk/bookshop/researchreports/flooding_-

_a_partnership_approach_to_protecting_people.doc

Keywords: 

insurance coverage, insurance industry, structural approaches, United Kingdom 

Abstract: The report examines the role of government and the insurance industry in protecting 

individuals from flooding flood losses in the United Kingdom. The report also provides 

recommendations for improving floodplain management in the short, medium, and long term. In 

the short run, the insurance industry has committed to a two-year agreement to continue to make 

flood insurance available to existing residential properties and small businesses. The government 

has repaired flood defenses in the United Kingdom to enable them to withstand floods equivalent 

to the flood risk in that area. In the medium and long term, the insurance industry wishes to 

return to a market-based system of flood insurance in which the insurance industry is somewhat 

protected from losses by the government’s flood defense measures. The report recommends that 

the insurance industry should work with the government to determine where floodplain 

development and changes in land use could increase the demand for flood insurance coverage in 

areas that do not currently require it. Insurers are currently working with the government to assist 

policy holders in managing their own risk, either by properly insuring against damage or by 

taking steps to reduce their vulnerability to flood damage. The government ought to supplement 

these efforts by curtailing floodplain development and increasing investment in flood defenses. 

Association of British Insurers. (2003). Planning Policy Guidance 25: Development and 

Flood Risk. London: Institution of Civil Engineers. 

Keywords: 

development, England, floodplain designation, floodplain management, nonstructural approaches
8

Abstract: The document describes government policy on the role of land-use planning to reduce 

risks from flooding and encourage local planning authorities to take flood risk into consideration 

in the planning of developments. Approximately 8 percent of the total area of land in England is 

at risk from river flooding, affecting about 10 percent of the population and 12 percent of the 

agricultural land. The document recognizes that a sustainable approach to floodplain 

management involves avoiding additional development in some areas and utilizing an 

appropriate level of protection when development is necessary. Developers should expect to 

demonstrate that there are no reasonable options in lower-risk areas, when siting floodprone 

development. In England, there is no statutory responsibility for the government to protect land 

or property against flooding. However, government has permissive power to act in the public 

interest. Government policy is derived from policy issued by the Department for Environment, 

Food and Rural Affairs and the Environment Agency. The document also addresses the role of 

regional planning authorities, local councils, and developer contributions in decreasing flood 

risk. 

Association of State Floodplain Managers. (1984). Improving the Effectiveness of Floodplain 

Management in Western State High-Risk Areas: Alluvial Fans, Mudflows, Mud Floods. 

Boulder, CO: Natural Hazards Research and Applications Information Center, University 

of Colorado. 

Keywords: 

alluvial fans, Arizona, California, insurance claims, insurance coverage, mapping, mitigation, 

mudflows, Nevada, Oregon, risk assessment 

Abstract: This report summarizes the papers and discussions of a workshop to investigate 

approaches for improving the effectiveness of floodplain management in alluvial fan, mudflow, 

and mud flood areas. Participants in the workshop agreed that problems caused by alluvial fans 

and mud floods in the fast-growing areas of the West and Southwest were too serious to delay 

new initiatives until the completion of methodological research and the development of detailed 

maps. Reasonable actions including encouragement of local and state governments to exceed 

minimum NFIP standards, improved performance standards for land use, and increases in rates 

for flood insurance can and should be under consideration. Additional research to perfect 

methods of assessing risk and techniques of mitigating hazards should take place simultaneously. 

FEMA should provide leadership in such efforts, but other federal agencies should also 

contribute technical assistance and knowledge. Participants also recommend the encouragement 

of state and local governments to assume enhanced roles. 

Association of State Floodplain Managers. (1987). Reducing Losses in High Risk Flood 

Hazard Areas: A Guidebook for Local Officials. Washington, DC: FEMA. 

Keywords: 

alluvial fans, coastal areas, dams, erosion, development, ice jams, levees, mitigation, mudflows, 

risk assessment, risk management, subsidence 

Abstract: This document provides guidance to local officials in their efforts to reduce flood 

losses in areas of high risk. It is designed to identify general areas where special risks are posed 

to life and property due to the depth, velocity, and duration of flooding, debris in the water or 

other factors; describe a process for amending existing regulations or adopting new regulations 

for areas of high risk; and provide examples of innovative local programs and approaches for 

areas of high risk. Chapter 1 gives an overview of nine types of areas of high risk: areas behind 
9

unsafe or inadequate levees, areas below unsafe or inadequate dams, coastal flooding and erosion 

areas, flash flood areas, subsidence and liquefaction, fluctuating lake levels, ice jams, and 

mudslides. Chapter 2 explains the importance of managing areas of high risk and describes 

general options and steps for improving their management. Chapters 3 through 11 provide 

description and guidance for managing development in areas of high risk. The appendices 

contain examples of ordinances, regulations, guidelines, and descriptions of local programs. 

Association of State Floodplain Managers – Flood Insurance Committee. (1992). ASFPM 

Flood Insurance Promotion Survey. Madison, WI: Association of State Floodplain 

Managers. 

Keywords: 

marketing 

Abstract: This report is the result of a survey of ASFPM membership to determine what is being 

done to promote the sale of flood insurance and recommend guidelines based on the responses. 

The majority of respondents cited flood threats as the primary basis for promoting the sale of 

flood insurance. Slightly less than half of the respondents used a campaign approach to increase 

public participation. 

Association of State Floodplain Managers – Flood Insurance Committee. (1992). ASFPM 

Insurance Data Survey. Madison, WI: Association of State Floodplain Managers. 

Keywords: 

communication 

Abstract: The purpose of this survey is to evaluate the distribution of data on insurance policies 

from FIA to the states. The survey was initiated partly in response to complaints about the 

timeliness of communication between states and FIA. The survey asked state NFIP coordinators 

about the frequency and format of information they receive. Fifty-two percent of the responding 

states felt that they were not receiving the information on a regular basis and 80 percent felt that 

the information was necessary to the operation of the state NFIP program. 

Association of State Floodplain Managers and the Federal Interagency Floodplain 

Management Task Force. (1996). Addressing Your Community’s Flood Problems: A Guide 

for Elected Officials. Madison, WI: Association of State Floodplain Managers. 

Keywords: 

disaster assistance, disaster planning, federal programs, flood disaster planning, floodplain 

management, mitigation 

Abstract: This guide provides a point-by-point discussion on how elected officials should 

prepare for and recover from flooding in their communities. Successful preparation for a flood 

should involve understanding the local flood problem and floodplain and building support by 

promoting floodplain management. After a flood has occurred, a community has a number of 

resources at its disposal. Elected officials should know how to access those resources for the 

benefit of the community. The guide also includes a checklist of measures for addressing a 

community’s flood problems and information on mitigation and sources of outside assistance. 

Association of State Floodplain Managers. (1996). Coast to Coast: 20 Years of Progress. 

Proceedings of the Twentieth Annual Conference of the Association of State Floodplain 
10

Managers, San Diego, CA, June 10-14, 1996. Madison, WI: Association of State Floodplain 

Managers. 

Available for purchase at: http://www.floods.org/PDF/PUBSLIST.pdf

Keywords: 

building codes, coastal areas, Flood Mitigation Assistance Program, floodplain management, 

hydrology and hydraulics, mapping, mitigation, modeling, public policy, urban areas 

Abstract: Coast to Coast: 20 Years of Progress is divided into 12 parts: national policy and 

programs; multihazard mitigation; multi-use watercourses; local planning and management for 

flood mitigation, coastal hazard mitigation, hydrology and hydraulics; modeling and computer 

programs; mapping; precipitation, gauging, forecasting, and warning; stormwater management; 

construction techniques, building, performance, and data collection; and planning for, using, and 

maintaining structures for loss reduction. Relevant contributions to this anthology include: (a) 

Michael Davis’ “New Directions for the Corps of Engineers Water Resources Programs,” which 

emphasizes the need for both developing strong partnerships with state and local governments 

and supporting nonstructural approaches to mitigation; (b) Shirley Mattingly’s “Mitigation and 

Partnerships for Floodplain Management,” which states that the creation of the Flood Mitigation 

Assistance Program will lead the way for the creation of a pre-disaster mitigation program; (c) 

Bernard Scheff and Kenneth Nacci’s “Floodplain Management in Urban Redevelopment: A Case 

Study in Multiple Objective Management,” which presents the flood control project at Arcadia 

Creek as a case study to show how multiple objectives of urban development could be 

effectively achieved; (d) David Knowles and Peter Richardson’s “The Zone A Crunch,” which 

highlights the increasing demand for better mapping, particularly with increased enforcement of 

mandatory purchase by banks; (e) William Weaver’s “Urban Stormwater Regulations: A Worthy 

Opponent to Development-Induced Flooding,” which concludes that since the late 1970s, urban 

regulations have been important in reducing the impact of urbanization on flood conditions; and 

(f) Frank Thomas’ summary of the conference. Thomas identifies the inherent policy conflicts 

between land-use and mitigation and emphasizes the need to build closer working relationships 

within a multigovernmental, multihazard, and multidisciplinary framework.

Association of State Floodplain Managers. (1996). Floodplain Management 1995: State and 

Local Programs. Madison, WI: Association of State Floodplain Managers. 

Keywords: 

compliance, floodplain management, Unified National Program 

Abstract: This report provides a complete national summary of the practice of floodplain 

management at the state and local levels. Most of the information presented in this report was 

obtained through a questionnaire mailed to the NFIP coordinator in each of the 50 states, the 

District of Columbia, Guam, Puerto Rico, and the Virgin Islands. Supplemental information was 

obtained from various federal, state, local, and private resources, and other published material. 

The report begins with a discussion of the roles played by the state and local levels of 

government, then describes some broad activities they undertake. The middle part of the report is 

organized around the Unified National Program’s framework of strategies and tools. The last 

chapter summarizes the changes in the field over the last three years (or more, when earlier 

comparable data are available) and notes both statewide and national trends. 
11

Association of State Floodplain Managers – Flood Mitigation Committee. (1996). Use of 

Benefit/Cost Analyses to Evaluate the Elevation of Substantially Damaged Structures.

Madison, WI: Association of State Floodplain Managers. 

Keywords: 

cost-benefit analysis, floodplain management, mitigation, substantial damage 

Abstract: This report comments on the use of cost-benefit analyses for the elevation of 

substantially damaged buildings with FEMA funds. In 1996, FEMA issued a policy 

memorandum waiving the requirement for a cost-benefit analysis in the acquisition of 

substantially damaged buildings, except in coastal areas. ASFPM solicited comments on the 

issue from federal, state, local, and private-sector floodplain managers. Arguments in favor of 

requiring a cost-benefit analysis focus on the position that limited mitigation funding can be put 

to better use than in projects that do not provide an equitable return in damage prevented. 

Supporters of waiving the requirement for a cost-benefit analysis cite a variety of efficiency and 

consistency issues. According to the NFIP, elevating substantially damaged buildings proves 

cost-effective in a majority of cases. However, some respondents believe devoting resources to 

cost-benefit analyses on a project-by-project basis wastes resources, interferes with other 

planning considerations, and probably has minimal impact on projects. 

Association of State Floodplain Managers. (1997). Floodplain Management in a 

Multifaceted World. Proceedings of the Twenty-first Annual Conference of the Association 

of State Floodplain Managers, Little Rock, AR, April 28-May 2, 1997. Madison, WI: 

Association of State Floodplain Managers. 

Available for purchase at: http://www.floods.org/PDF/PUBSLIST.pdf

Keywords:

Army Corps of Engineers, coastal areas, floodplain management, Hurricane Fran, hydrology and 

hydraulics, mapping geographic information systems, mitigation, public policy 

Abstract: Floodplain Management in a Multifaceted World is divided into 13 parts: national 

policy and programs; state and local planning and management for flood mitigation; watershed 

management; coastal issues; lessons from Hurricane Fran; hydrology and hydraulics; mapping; 

using structures for loss reduction; using geographic information systems; protecting and using 

floodplain resources; evaluating environmental projects, international approaches; and the 

practice of floodplain management. James Lee Witt, Director of FEMA, summarizes the 

agency’s initiatives, in particular those involving buyouts, mapping, and communication. He also 

announces an ASFPM-FEMA cooperative project to develop an academic fellowship for 

floodplain management. Michael Davis, Deputy Assistant Secretary of the Army for Planning, 

Policy, and Legislation, concludes that integrated policies are possible and that the choice 

between flood protection and environmental protection does not have to be made. Dennis Mileti 

argues that the traditional perspective in dealing with natural disasters has flaws because it 

focuses on a hazard-by-hazard approach. He defends a more holistic view of hazards. Gilbert 

White argues that the next challenge for floodplain management is to find ways to create a fresh 

approach to floodplain management by incorporating the whole range of concepts. Robinson et 

al. present the Army Corps of Engineers’ new cost-effectiveness and incremental-cost analysis 

software called ECO-EASY. Hansen et al. discuss the research on environmental planning at the 

Corps of Engineers. They point out that the Corps initiated the Evaluation of Environmental 

Investments Research Program (EEIRP) in 1993 to provide Corps planners with methods and 

techniques to develop feasible projects under a limited budget. 
12

Association of State Floodplain Managers. (1999). Mitigation Success Stories in the United 

States. Madison, WI: Association of State Floodplain Managers. 

Keywords: 

Alabama, Colorado, Delaware, Flood Mitigation Assistance Program, Georgia, Hazard 

Mitigation Grant Program, Illinois, Maryland, Minnesota, Missouri, mitigation, Montana, North 

Dakota, South Dakota, Wyoming 

Abstract: Local, state and federal floodplain managers and emergency managers constantly 

work to reduce or eliminate the effects of natural hazards in communities nationwide. Efforts to 

achieve and implement mitigation techniques, approaches, and successes have been actively 

underway in the United States for over two decades. The Hazard Mitigation Grant Program 

(HMGP) and the Flood Mitigation Assistance (FMA) Program represent the primary funding 

sources for many of the projects described in this report. In addition to presenting examples of 

activities to mitigate the effects of natural hazards, the report publicizes the benefits of mitigation 

successes across the nation. These examples should serve as models for future projects and 

provide decision-makers with valuable information about how to formulate, undertake, and 

ultimately achieve natural hazard reduction at the local level. 

Association of State Floodplain Managers. (1999). Planning Ahead: Reducing Flood Losses 

in the 21st Century. Proceedings of the Twenty-third Annual Conference of the Association 

of State Floodplain Managers, Portland, OR, May 24-28, 1999. Madison, WI: Association 

of State Floodplain Managers. 

Available for purchase at: http://www.floods.org/PDF/PUBSLIST.pdf

Keywords:

compliance, enforcement, environmental policy, federal programs, floodplain management, 

geographic information systems, hydrology and hydraulics, insurance, modeling, mapping, 

mitigation, urban areas 

Abstract: Planning Ahead: Reducing Flood Losses in the 21st Century is divided into 13 parts: 

local projects and programs for planning, mitigation, acquisition, and recovery; watershed 

management; protecting and restoring natural and cultural resources in floodplains; community 

assistance for the NFIP; techniques and projects in stormwater management; hydrologic 

forecasting; flood modeling, GIS and simulations; flood hazard mapping; special flood-related 

hazards; international approaches to floodplain management; flood insurance; and federal 

programs, policies, and initiatives. Relevant contributions include: (a) Peterson et al.’s 

“Reducing Flood Losses Through Floodprone Land Acquisition: Identifying Total Costs and 

Benefits,” which analyzes the flood-prone land acquisition program (FLAP) initiated by Pima 

County, AZ, in 1984 to offer property owners, who had either lost their homes or sustained 

severe damage, the option of selling their property to the County rather than rebuilding at the 

same location (although the County later expanded the program to include the acquisition of 

underdeveloped properties and parcels in upper watershed areas); (b) Burrell Montz and Graham 

Tobin’s “The Effectiveness of the NFIP in Two Communities: Syracuse, NY, and Tampa, FL,” 

which obtains a preliminary view of the impact of the NFIP on the development of urban 

floodplains; (c) Mark Boyer’s “Coming Full Circle: Using the NFIP to Prevent At-Risk 

Development in Flood-Prone Lands,” which argues that the NFIP may well represent the best 

mechanism for achieving no new building in areas prone to flooding; and (d) Michael Scheffler’s 

“Flood Risk Assessment and Mitigation - An Insurance Company’s Approach,” which suggests 
13

that floodplain managers need to ally with and draw on the insurance industry’s network of losscontrol engineers. The author believes insurers, floodplain managers, and the public need access 

to the organized data sets used in FEMA’s studies of flood hydrology and hydraulics. Scheffler 

also considers it essential to reverse cutbacks on funding in the U.S. Geological Survey’s stream 

gage program, which provides critical data to quantify and direct changes in flood risk.

Association of State Floodplain Managers. (1999). Times are Changing: Flood Mitigation 

Technology. Proceedings of the Twenty-second Annual Conference of the Association of 

State Floodplain Managers, Milwaukee, Wisconsin, May 18-22, 1998. Madison, WI: 

Association of State Floodplain Managers. 

Available for purchase at: http://www.floods.org/PDF/PUBSLIST.pdf

Keywords: 

buyouts, coastal areas, Community Rating System, compliance, enforcement, environmental 

policy, erosion, floodplain management, geographic information systems, hydrology and 

hydraulics, mapping, mitigation, modeling, public policy, substantial damage, training 

Abstract: This conference report is divided into 14 parts: national policy and programs; state and 

local planning, management, and projects for flood mitigation; applying GPS, GIS, and other 

technology; coastal issues; mapping: program issues, applications, and new technology; 

acquisition; stream protection and restoration; flood damage estimation; post-flood activities; 

building performance and standards; program and policy evaluations and issues; professional 

activity in floodplain management; stormwater management and watershed management; and 

hydrology and hydraulics. Relevant contributions to this anthology include: (a) Michael 

Armstrong’s “Thirty Years of the National Flood Insurance Program,” which discusses the 

program’s accomplishments, challenges, and opportunities; (b) David A. Stroud’s “The NFIP’s 

Community Rating System: A Proactive Approach to Mitigation Planning,” which describes the 

process of planning as a component of participating in CRS; (c) Sue Hoegberg’s “FEMA’s New 

Digital Flood Insurance Rate Map Data Plans,” which explains FEMA’s proposal to create two 

new types of DFIRMs to meet the needs of floodplain management; (d) Miriam G. Anderson et 

al.’s “A New Urban Revival: Floodplain Acquisition in Lawrence, Massachusetts,” which 

outlines a project to acquire and demolish flood-prone structures in a densely developed, postindustrial city; (e) Marshall Mabry et al.’s “Local Floodplain Administrator Training During 

Post-Flood Recovery,” which summarizes efforts to train local floodplain administrators for 

work in the post-disaster environment; and (f) Rose Austin et al.’s “Community Profiling of the 

National Flood Insurance Program: A Quantitative Analysis of Local Programs,” which gives the 

details of a study undertaken by FEMA to assess the ability of local communities to administer 

and enforce the requirements of the NFIP by interviewing local floodplain managers. FEMA 

records the responses and uses them to develop a profile of the community. 

Association of State Floodplain Managers. (2000). Floodplain Management 2000 and 

Beyond: A New Beginning in a New Millennium. Proceedings of the Twenty-fourth Annual 

Conference of the Association of State Floodplain Managers, Austin, TX, June 18-23, 2000. 

Madison, WI: Association of State Floodplain Managers. 

Available for purchase at: http://www.floods.org/PDF/PUBSLIST.pdf

Keywords: 

Army Corps of Engineers, coastal areas, compliance, enforcement, environmental policy, 

erosion, floodplain management, geographic information systems, Hazard Mitigation Grant 
14

Program, HAZUS, hydrology and hydraulics, mitigation, modeling, mapping, Project Impact, 

public policy, repetitive losses 

Abstract: Floodplain Management 2000 and Beyond: A New Beginning in a New Millennium is 

divided into 13 parts: sustainable floodplains—ideas, plans, projects, and programs; regional 

approaches to planning and management; experiences in and techniques for local floodplain 

management; local mitigation plans and activities; preserving and restoring natural and cultural 

benefits of floodplains, acquisition programs; stormwater management; coastal issues; flood and 

precipitation estimation and prediction; mapping flood hazards; applying new technology to 

floodplain management; modeling and its applications; and nationwide perspectives, policies, 

and programs. Relevant contributions to this anthology include: (a) Melanie Sattler and Jack 

Tidwell’s “Going Above and Beyond the National Flood Insurance Program to Truly Stabilize 

Flood Risks: The Corridor Development Certificate Process,” which explains how 11 

communities in north central Texas have implemented an innovative program of permitting 

structures in the floodplain known as the Corridor Certificate (CDC) process; (b) Frank Pagano 

et al.’s “Comprehensive Community Assessment Visit Pilot Project,” which discusses the use of 

a pilot project to assess community compliance in four highly flood-prone jurisdictions in Texas 

and Louisiana; (c) Rachel Beer and Jennifer L. Lefort’s “Amite River Basin Flood Hazard 

Mitigation Plan,” which reports on a flood hazard mitigation plan developed for the Basin and 

intended to assist residents minimize losses and damages caused by flooding; (d) John Randolph 

and David Saha’s “Recommendations for Improving FEMA’s Hazard Mitigation Grant Program 

for Buyout Projects,” which offers recommendations for improving certain arduous aspects of 

applying for funds through HMGP; (e) Steve Dunn’s “Coastal Erosion: Economic Impacts and 

Implications for Public Policy,” which reports on a study on coastal erosion conducted by the 

Heinz Center; and (f) Mark A. Riebau’s “Technical Mapping Advisory Council: 

Recommendations for the 21st Century,” which provides an overview of activities undertaken by 

the Technical Mapping Advisory Council and encourages Congress to fund the Map 

Modernization Plan (MMP). 

Association of State Floodplain Managers. (2000). Mitigation Success Stories III. Madison, 

WI: Association of State Floodplain Managers. 

Available at: 

http://www.floods.org/Publications/mit%20succ%20stories/Success%20Stories%20III_print.pdf

Keywords: 

Alabama, Colorado, Connecticut, Delaware, Flood Mitigation Assistance Program, Georgia, 

Hazard Mitigation Grant Program, Illinois, Maryland, Minnesota, Mississippi, Missouri, 

mitigation, Montana, North Dakota, Pennsylvania, South Dakota, Texas, Utah, Wyoming 

Abstract: One of the primary goals of local, state, and federal floodplain managers and 

emergency managers is to reduce or eliminate the effects of natural hazards such as flooding, 

hurricanes, tornadoes, winter storms, wildfires, etc. in communities nationwide. The third edition 

of this report profiles 40 projects from 17 states in order to publicize the benefits of hazard 

mitigation. Each profile describes project benefits, costs, and funding sources. 

Association of State Floodplain Managers Inc. (2000). National Flood Programs in Review—

2000: Summary. Madison, WI: Association of State Floodplain Managers. 

Available at: http://www.floods.org/PDF/2000-fpr.pdf

Keywords: 
15

floodplain management 

Abstract: This study examines national floodplain management policies and programs and 

identifies improvements that would help secure sustainable floodplain lands and disaster-resilient 

communities for the future. The study identifies five areas in which ASFPM will focus over the 

next several years: (a) fostering responsibility and capability at the individual, local, and state 

levels; (b) refining policies, programs, and coordination to build on existing strengths and 

remedy deficiencies; (c) assembling and improving the data and tools that are vital to wise 

floodplain management; (d) enhancing education, training, and public awareness; and (e) 

assessing and evaluating programs so that the appropriate lessons can be learned from them.

Association of State Floodplain Managers. (2000). The Nation’s Responses to Flood 

Disasters: A Historical Account. Madison, WI: Association of State Floodplain Managers. 

Available at: http://www.floods.org/PDF/hist-fpm.pdf

Keywords: 

floodplain management, history 

Abstract: This document examines the forces and events that have shaped floodplain 

management policy and practice. One major result of past influences was the merging of flood 

control, disaster assistance, and resource protection programs. Future concerns lay in needed 

policy changes suggested by a number of floodplain and natural hazard response assessments 

conducted during the 1990s. Floods continue to teach us about the need for fundamental policy 

changes in disaster response, recovery, and mitigation and for long-term floodplain management. 

Because policy changes during the last decades of the twentieth century were largely the result of 

agency initiatives, the outlook for significant congressional actions going into the twentieth 

century are not promising for either providing overall direction on national flood policy or in 

coordinating federal programs and policies.

Association of State Floodplain Managers. (2002). Breaking the Cycle of Repetitive Flood 

Loss. Proceedings of the Twenty-sixth Annual Conference of the Association of State 

Floodplain Managers, Phoenix, Arizona, June 23-28, 2002. Madison, WI: Association of 

State Floodplain Managers. 

Keywords: 

Community Rating System, compliance, disaster planning, enforcement, floodplain 

management, geographic information systems, hydrology and hydraulics, mapping, modeling, 

mitigation, natural disasters, repetitive losses, risk assessment 

Abstract: Breaking the Cycle of Repetitive Flood Loss is divided into nine parts: analysis and 

aftermath of specific storms; flood hazard mapping; applications of new technology to floodplain 

management; flood forecasting and warning; hydrology and hydraulics; damage assessment, 

damage estimation, and risk analysis; modeling and its applications to floodplain management; 

floodplain management in practice; state and local projects and programs for flood hazard 

mitigation. Relevant contributions to this anthology include: (a) Nathan H. Foged’s “State of 

California Awareness Floodplain Mapping,” which explains a program that will identify and 

map flood hazards not already mapped by FEMA; (b) Donald W. Armour, Jr. and Cindy 

Crecelius’s “Statewide Floodplain GIS for Ohio,” which provides an overview of a Floodplain 

Management Geographic Information Management System (Floodplain GIMS) to manage 

selected information on flood hazards in Ohio; (c) John S. Grounds, III et al.’s “A Field Guide 

for Conducting Damage Assessments of Flooded Residential Structures,” which describes a pilot 
16

program in Houston and Harris County, TX, to assess damaged structures in the post-flood 

environment; (d) Eric Simmons and Edward Curtis’s “Encouraging North Carolina Communities 

to Adopt Safer Floodplain Management Standards,” which recommends how local officials can 

develop safer practices for development in the floodplain; (e) Gale William Fraser and Betty 

Hollister’s “The Growing Importance of Communication in Floodplain Management,” which 

emphasizes the importance of educating the public on the issues of flood safety and floodplain 

management; and (f) Adrienne Sheldon’s “Community Assistance Visits in West Virginia,” 

which discusses regulatory issues identified during 12 CAVs conducted in 2000. 

Association of State Floodplain Managers. (2002). The History and Future of State and 

Regional Floodplain Management Associations. Madison, WI: Association of State 

Floodplain Managers. 

Available at: http://www.floods.org/StatePOCs/HX_of_State_FPM_Associations_Aug2002.pdf

Keywords: 

community associations, history, floodplain management 

Abstract: This document traces the history of the Association of State Floodplain Managers 

(ASFPM), beginning in 1982. At that time, ASFPM was an organization with roughly 150 state 

floodplain managers from 48 states. They were starting to draw the attention of federal agencies 

involved in floodplain management, mapping, and insurance, such as the U.S. Army Corps of 

Engineers, U.S. Geological Survey, and National Weather Service. In 1982, Arizona formed the 

first state floodplain management association. Currently, there are 25 state and regional 

floodplain management associations, covering 33 states with almost 4,500 members. ASFPM 

supports state associations by distributing its newsletter, News and Views; attending state 

association meetings; providing opportunities for education, technical assistance, and 

accreditation programs; supporting education of federal, state, and local policymakers and the 

general public about flood risk reduction. The relationship between ASFPM and state 

associations is symbiotic: both provide support for one another through a variety of activities that 

aim to reduce flood losses. The report recognizes that the day-to-day implementation of 

floodplain management occurs in the 20,000 communities participating in the NFIP. Only a 

handful of communities are sufficiently wealthy and conscientious to send floodplain managers 

to ASFPM conferences and training. State floodplain management associations can fill the gap 

by educating and supporting local floodplain managers. The document provides detailed 

summaries of the histories, accomplishments, and goals of each state floodplain management 

association. 

Association of State Floodplain Managers. (2002). Mitigation Success Stories IV. Madison, 

WI: Association of State Floodplain Managers. 

Available at: http://www.floods.org/PDF/Success%20Stories%20IV_Final.pdf

Keywords: 

Alaska, Arizona, California, Colorado, Delaware, Flood Mitigation Assistance Program, Florida, 

Georgia, Hazard Mitigation Grant Program, Illinois, Iowa, Louisiana, Maryland, Michigan, 

Minnesota, Mississippi, Missouri, mitigation, Montana, Nebraska, New Jersey, North Dakota, 

Ohio, Oregon, Project Impact, South Carolina, South Dakota, Washington 

Abstract: For over two decades, mitigation activities have been implemented across the country 

to save lives, reduce property damage, and lessen the need for recovery funding. In many cases, 

mitigation success has been achieved following devastating disasters, when local officials and 
17

the general public have realized the need to effect change in their community. The fourth edition 

of this report profiles projects from 39 communities in 24 states in order to publicize the benefits 

of hazard mitigation. Each profile describes project benefits, costs, and funding sources. 

Association of State Floodplain Managers. (2002). New Trends in Floodplain Management, 

2001. Proceedings of the Twenty-fifth Annual Conference of the Association of State 

Floodplain Managers, Charlotte, North Carolina, June 3-8, 2001. Madison, WI: 

Association of State Floodplain Managers. 

Keywords: 

Base Flood Elevation, buyouts, coastal areas, compliance, disaster planning, enforcement, 

environmental policy, erosion, flood control, floodplain management, geographic information 

systems, Hazard Mitigation Grant Program, hydrology and hydraulics, International Code Series, 

mapping, mitigation, public policy, repetitive losses, Special Flood Hazard Areas 

Abstract: New Trends in Floodplain Management, 2001 is divided into 11 parts: protecting 

natural floodplain resources; special flood-related hazards; watershed management; techniques 

and projects in stormwater management; structural measures for flood hazard management; 

hydrology and hydraulics; applying GPS, GIS, and other technology; flood hazard mapping; 

national programs, policies, and initiatives; state, local, and regional programs and projects for 

flood mitigation; and partnerships for mitigation, disaster resilience, and sustainability. Relevant 

contributions to this anthology include: (a) Christopher Jones et al.’s “Consideration of a New 

Flood Hazard Zone: The Coastal A Zone,” which provides evidence to support design and 

construction requirements in coastal A Zones more similar to those of V Zones than to those of 

riverine A Zones; (b) Duke G. Altman’s “Balancing River Restoration Planning and Flood 

Control Requirements—San Antonio River in San Antonio, Texas,” which explains an 

innovative and progressive design to restore a section of the San Antonio River; (c) Eric Berman 

et al.’s “Digital CAV (DCAV) Data Collection Tool,” which describes new software to assist 

state officials in performing CAVs; (d) Edward Laatsch and Rebecca Quinn’s “The International 

Code Series: Issues Related to NFIP Participation,” which discusses how communities have the 

opportunity to use the adoption of the I-CodesTM for their NFIP provisions; (e) Ross Richardson 

et al.’s “Implementation of the FEMA Repetitive Loss Strategy in Louisiana,” which outlines a 

proactive strategy to address repetitive loss structures in Louisiana; and (f) Robert Sullivan and 

Mable Soong’s “The Hazard Mitigation Grant Program: Overview and New Trends Towards an 

Improved Local and State Mitigation Tool,” which summarizes efforts by FEMA and states to 

streamline the administration of HMGP. 

Association of State Floodplain Managers. (2003). Floodplain Management 2003: State and 

Local Programs. Madison, WI: Association of State Floodplain Managers. 

Keywords: 

floodplain management 

Available at: http://www.floods.org

Abstract: The report begins with a discussion of the roles played by the state and local levels of 

government. The second main section describes the underlying structures of state floodplain 

management: state and local authority, budgets, staffing, and details about program management 

and coordination. Each of the next five sections examines one of the actual activities the state 

(and local) programs carry out in their efforts to minimize flood losses: managing development; 

protecting natural functions and resources of floodplains; mitigation, providing information; and 
18

mapping. The concluding chapter summarizes some changes in the field over the last seven years 

and notes both statewide and nationwide trends. 

Association of State Floodplain Managers. (2004). Reducing Flood Losses: Is the 1 Percent 

Chance (100-year) Flood Standard Sufficient? Background Reading. Proceedings of Gilbert 

F. White National Flood Policy Forum, September 21-22, 2004, Washington, DC. Madison, 

WI: Association of State Floodplain Managers. 

Keywords: 

1 percent annual chance flood standard 

Abstract: The document presents a series of articles on the 1 percent annual chance flood 

standard. The articles are meant to serve as background information for the September 2004 

Assembly of the Gilbert F. White National Flood Policy Forum. The forum served as a 

discussion group and kick-off for a substudy of the Evaluation of the NFIP. The main topics 

were the history and use of the standard, tools and tech for mapping and risk analysis, the 

implementation of the standard, and its societal implications. The authors were primarily FEMA 

officials, academics, and floodplain management professionals. 

Attanasi, E.D. and M.R. Karlinger. (1979). Risk preferences and flood insurance. American 

Journal of Agricultural Economics, 61, 490-5. 

Available at: http://chla.library.cornell.edu/cgi/t/text/pagevieweridx?c=chla;cc=chla;sid=989d2ec89a2071d6376ffa2dcc19b975;rgn=full%20text;idno=5032826_

61_003;view=image;seq=0101

Keywords:

economic modeling, insurance purchase decision, risk assessment 

Abstract: A detailed theoretical model characterizing the individual’s decision to purchase flood 

insurance is specified and the magnitude of the risk parameter is estimated using data based on 

transactions of flood insurance purchases. Empirical results for several samples of this subset of 

the general population indicated that consumers exhibited a relatively uniform degree of risk 

aversion across various localities where different hydrologic and economic conditions prevailed. 

More specifically, results indicate that the individual’s demand for insurance becomes more 

price inelastic and shifts to the right as the risk parameter value increases. While the estimates 

presented should not be directly extrapolated to the entire population located in a flood prone 

area, they provide evidence that parameters determining an individual’s and/or community’s 

willingness to pay for flood protection can be measured.

Ayscue, Jon K. (1996). Hurricane Damage to Residential Structures: Risk and Mitigation.

Natural Hazards Research Working paper #94. Boulder, CO: Natural Hazards Research 

and Applications Information Center, Institute of Behavioral Science, University of 

Colorado. 

Available at: http://www.colorado.edu/hazards/wp/wp94/wp94.html

Keywords:

Hurricane Andrew, Hurricane Hugo, Hurricane Iniki, hurricanes, wind 

Abstract: This paper describes potential hurricane hazards from wind and water. Damage to 

residential structures from three recent intense hurricanes—Hugo, Andrew, and Iniki—shows 

that wind is responsible for greater property loss than water. The economic cost of the damages 

caused by these hurricanes is reported. 
19

Ayyub, Bilal M., Andrew Nyakaana Blair, and Stuart A. Davis for BMA Engineering, Inc. 

(2000). Economic Consequence Assessment of Residential Flood Damage Expert-opinion 

Elicitation. Alexandria, VA: Institute for Water Resources, U.S. Army Corps of Engineers. 

Keywords: 

Army Corps of Engineers, flood damage 

Abstract: This report offers the Army Corps of Engineers’ assessment of the economic 

consequences of residential flood damage. USACE estimates residential structure and content 

values and damages and the associated uncertainty parameters in order to estimate damages from 

floods and the benefits of flood-damage reduction projects. USACE developed its Corps of 

Engineers Floodplain Inventory Tool (CEFIT) for organizing floodplain inventory data and 

estimating residential structure and content damage for various depths of flooding on a structureby-structure basis. Information related to structure and content depth-damage relationships at the 

component level is not available from historical records, prediction methods, or literature review. 

Expert-opinion elicitation provides a means of gaining information on these essential risk-related 

quantities. This report describes the different components of the expert-opinion elicitation 

process, outlines the process itself, and documents the results. 

Babcock, Marion and Bruce Mitchell. Impact of flood hazard on residential property 

values in Galt (Cambridge), Ontario. Water Resources Bulletin, 16(3), 532-7. 

Keywords: 

attitudes, housing markets, Ontario, property values, risk perception, urban areas, 

Abstract: This study is an examination of the relationship between flooding and property values 

for an urban community in southwestern Ontario, which has a lengthy history of flooding. 

Peoples’ perceptions of the effect of flooding on property values are discussed. Analysis of sales 

prices and assessment data demonstrated no statistically significant differences in values of 

property for residences located in high- and low-risk areas. Sales prices after the 1974 flood were 

significantly higher than sale prices before the flood. The perceived property values followed a 

similar pattern. The analysis concludes that differences in flood risk and flood experience do not 

adversely affect actual or perceived long-term property values. 

Barnard, Jerald R. (1978). Externalities from urban growth: The case of increased storm 

runoff and flooding. Land Economics, 54(3), 298-314. 

Keywords: 

development, hydrology and hydraulics, modeling, urban areas 

Abstract: This paper is concerned with the problem of increased frequency and magnitude of 

flooding from urban growth and its impact on urban residential property. The research involves a 

joint hydrologic and economic investigation into urban growth in small watersheds. 

Additionally, the paper adds to the list of negative externalities linked with urban growth, namely 

the increased flood hazard that can develop in a small watershed due to urban growth. Results 

indicate that an externality and income-distribution effect arise from urban expansion in a small 

watershed. The hydrologic evidence shows that as urban expansion spreads further into the upper 

portions of the watershed, the probability of flooding downstream properties is increased. The 

analysis of property values indicates that the property market has recognized the effect of flood 

hazard, and property owners in the lower part of the watershed have suffered a relative decline in 

property values 
20

Barraqué, Bernard. (2003). Risk Prevention Plans in France. Paper presented at 

Precautionary Flood Protection in Europe conference. Bonn, Germany, February 5-6, 2003. 

Berlin, Germany: Institute for International and European Environmental Policy. 

Available at: http://www.ecologic-events.de/floods2003/de/documents/BernardBarraque.PDF

Keywords: 

floodplain management, France, public policy, structural approaches 

Abstract: The presentation begins by arguing that increased damages due to flooding are 

sustainable for property owners, businesses, governments, and insurance companies. Demand for 

flood insurance is conducted on an individual basis, with little or no solidarity or learning 

process. In a worst case scenario, high premiums lead to property owners dropping their policies, 

which leads to too little money for flood insurance companies, which leads to higher premiums. 

On the supply side, tax-funded infrastructure can lead to the illusion of protection. The typical 

reaction of governments to more damages is to introduce more infrastructure, which can lead to 

greater overconfidence among floodplain residents. A possible solution is to treat water as a 

common property and to combine land-use controls and regulatory tools to reduce vulnerability. 

Also, a super-fund based on a tax on insurance premiums establishes common protection against 

catastrophes, but with a learning mechanism. France has a system like this, in which five types of 

natural disasters are covered by a superfund. Insurance companies have not able to raise 

insurance rates on victim’s premiums because the disaster is “exceptional.” Communities are 

required to map hazard zones and enforce land-use regulations. In the 20-year history of the 

system, the French have found that it is difficult to decide what a real disaster is. Thus an 

increasing number of events are covered, sometimes repeatedly. The initial 6 percent tax on 

insurance premiums had to be raised to 12 percent. In the short term, the system performs well, 

but the lack of a learning process hinders its long-term effectiveness. The report concludes by 

discussing current and long-term limitations to France’s approach to floodplain management. 

Bartis, Melanie. (2003). Climatic Extremes and Hazards of Southeastern North America. 

Paper presented at Association of American Geographers Annual Meeting. March 6-7, 

2003. Washington DC: Association of American Geographers. 

Keywords: 

flood damage, South Carolina, Georgetown County

Abstract: A recent state assessment of repetitive flood losses in South Carolina indicated that 

Georgetown County has the greatest amount of monetary flood losses in the Southeastern United 

States, totaling almost $40 million from March 1978 to September 1999. Preliminary analysis 

suggests that while the coastal location of the county is a major determining factor, other coastal 

counties with much higher population and housing densities have significantly lower 

documented flood losses. The purpose of this research is to determine the etiology of flood losses 

within Georgetown County and to identify particular areas within the county that have the 

greatest flood losses. In order to determine what causes these high losses, a detailed study of 

communities within the county provides insight into characteristics that encourage flood losses. 

This study analyzes historic flood loss data, insurance and mitigation information, the number of 

properties within the community and in each flood zone, and the location of each property using 

statistical techniques and GIS. The conclusions will become a valuable tool for planners and 

emergency managers to direct physical and monetary resources toward the communities 

experiencing the greatest amount of losses. 
21

Baumann, Nancy and Rod Emmer. (1976). Flood Insurance Community Planning. Working 

paper #29. Boulder, CO: Institute of Behavioral Science, University of Colorado. 

Keywords: 

attitudes, awareness, compliance, floodplain management, Oregon, risk perception, Texas 

Abstract: This working paper contains two studies: “Adoption of the Federal Flood Insurance 

Program in Two Texas Communities” and “The Problems and Issues of Implementing the 

National Flood Insurance Act in Oregon.” The first study analyzes the local power structure in 

the decision to adopt floodplain regulations in New Braunfels and Sequin, TX. Based on surveys 

and interviews with various stakeholders, the author finds that proposals for regulating the 

floodplain seem to encounter general public apathy, although they may produce conflict with the 

local power structure. Furthermore, the perception of respondents to the risk of flooding and their 

evaluation of the consequences of floodplain regulations varied considerably. However, as the 

author notes, public officials in the two communities lacked a well-defined approach to 

promoting floodplain management and its consequences to citizens. The second study assesses 

the issues and problems of implementing the National Flood Insurance Act (the Act) in Oregon 

and seeks to determine, through surveying, the impact of the Act’s land-use regulations and the 

attitudes of occupants of the floodplain towards insurance. Based on the assessment, the Act had 

greater impact at the local level than at the state level of government. Six counties and five cities 

in the state adopted regulations to participate in the NFIP. Over 50 percent of these local 

governments would not have instituted regulations, as least not as soon as they did, had it not 

been for the assistance provided to victims of floods by the NFIP. Furthermore, a survey 

administered to residents of the floodplain in Lane County, OR, revealed that 59 percent favored 

restricting development within the 1 percent annual chance floodplain to open space and 

agriculture. Only 36 percent of respondents knew of the availability of flood insurance. 

Bea, Keith. (1992). Federal Emergency Management Agency and the Disaster Relief Fund. 

Washington, DC: Congressional Research Service. 

Keywords: 

disaster assistance, federal programs, legislation, Stafford Act 

Abstract: FEMA was established in 1978 by President Jimmy Carter and consolidated the 

emergency management and preparedness functions of various federal agencies. The agency is 

responsible for a broad range of statutory authorities and falls within the jurisdiction of a number 

of congressional committees and their subcommittees. FEMA administers the principal federal 

disaster relief authority, the Robert T. Stafford Disaster Relief and Emergency Assistance Act. 

While authorized disaster relief funds have traditionally been appropriated with little debate, a 

funding shortfall occurred in 1991. Action was taken to prevent recurrence of a shortfall.

Bea, Keith. (2000). Disaster Mitigation Assistance Bills in the 106th Congress: Comparison of 

Provisions. Washington, DC: Congressional Research Service. 

Available at: http://www.ncseonline.org/nle/crsreports/risk/rsk37.cfm?&CFID=16724038&CFTOKEN=63387721

Keywords:

development, floodplain management, legislation 

Abstract: The author argues that the Clinton Administration’s initiative to shift federal 

emergency management policy away from an emphasis on response and recovery generated little 

congressional controversy, although some raised concerns about the cost effectiveness of 
22

implementing a mitigation strategy. Greater attention, it is generally argued, should be given to 

mitigation (loss reduction) efforts before disasters occur in order to reduce future losses. Some 

future disasters may be prevented, or their impact lessened, by taking action beforehand. State 

and local governments have lowered disaster costs by retrofitting buildings in earthquake zones, 

elevating structures in floodplains, revising and enforcing building codes, or modifying land use 

plans. Advocates of the legislation seek to support these and other mitigation efforts. 

Beard, Leo R. (1997). Estimating flood frequency and average annual damage. Journal of 

Water Resources Planning and Management, 123(2), 84-8. 

Keywords: 

economic modeling, flood damage, modeling 

Abstract: In the National Research Council’s report, Flood Risk Management and the American 

River Basin—An Evaluation, the use of expected probability (accounting for sampling 

uncertainty) in estimating flood frequencies and average annual flood damages, as practiced by 

the Army Corps of Engineers, was said to be biased. Alternative procedures recommended in the 

report are based on studies of samples drawn from a Gaussian population with a fixed damage 

function. There is no extension of the study to diverse populations (many flood locations) with 

different flow-damage functions, but conclusions drawn are that the recommended procedures 

provide frequency and damage estimates that are nearly unbiased. Beard demonstrates that 

expected-probability procedures used by the Army Corps of Engineers are appropriate for floodfrequency estimation and for estimation of average annual flood damages. 

Belsie, Laurent. (1998). Rethinking a river. The Christian Science Monitor, December 3. 

Available at: http://csmonitor.com/cgi-bin/durableRedirect.pl?/durable/1998/12/03/p11s1.htm

Keywords:

environmental restoration, Midwest floods of 1993, Missouri River 

Abstract: This article examines efforts to return the Missouri River to a more natural state in the 

late 1990s. It discusses the importance of the river’s floodplains to the ecology of the river, 

balancing the economic and commercial needs of people along the river with environmental 

concerns, the percentage of the river’s native fish and wildlife species, which are on federal and 

state protection lists, the Missouri River Basin Association, and how the 1993 flood has impacted 

efforts to aid the floodplains. 

Bennett, Dery. (1993). Paying for sand. Audubon, 95(Sept./Oct.), 132.

Keywords:

coastal areas, development, subsidies 

Abstract: The author complains that despite geological evidence that the edge of the sea is an 

imprudent place to build houses, development along the Atlantic coastline is increasing. Many 

shore communities are inaccessible to the public yet rely on public funds for flood insurance, 

shore protection, post-storm cleanup, and restoration of houses damaged by coastal storms. The 

author concludes that if individuals were forced to bear more of the cost of shoreline living, 

homebuyers might think twice before deciding to build expensive homes on the coast. 

Berry, Linda. (1998). 1998 Gulf Flood Report. North Queensland, Australia: Emergency 

Management Australia and Queensland Emergency Services Division. 

Available at: http://www.tesag.jcu.edu.au/cds/reports/gulf.pdf
23

Keywords: 

Australia, disaster planning, mitigation 

Abstract: The report documents regional flooding associated with Tropical Cyclone May in the 

Gulf of Carpentaria in late February and early March 1998 and assesses residential and 

commercial preparation, local government response action, and state government assistance. Few 

homes were inundated with floodwaters, but major roads were closed and remained impassable 

for up to four weeks, isolating several townships. Communities and homes were generally 

unprepared for the isolation, which was compounded by the failure of septic tank systems, 

disruptions to fresh water supplies, and garbage disposal and landfill problems. Local 

government provided effective response action, but lacked mitigation and planning components. 

The report concludes that some of the economic loss could have been avoided if effective 

mitigation strategies had been initiated. 

Berz, Gerhard. (2000). Flood Disasters: Lessons from the Past – Worries for the Future. 

Munich, Germany: Munich Reinsurance Company. 

Available at: http://www.iahr.org/newsweb/bdy_flooddisaster.htm

Keywords: 

Economic impacts, public policy 

Abstract: Flood disasters account for about a third of all natural catastrophes throughout the 

world (by number and economic losses) and are responsible for more than half of the fatalities. 

Trend analyses reveal that major flood disasters and the losses generated by them have increased 

drastically in recent years. Cooperation between the state, the affected population, and the 

insurance industry assumes a key role with regard to the flood hazard. Scientists, engineers, and 

insurers must work together in formulating their requirements and shaping them in such a way 

that politicians can derive clearly recognizable policy options (e.g., land-use restrictions) from 

them. Another important aspect is stepping up the efforts being made towards curbing climate 

change, which might otherwise exacerbate the risk situation in the future. 

Betts, Haydn. (2002). Flood Damage Analysis Using GIS at Gold Coast City Council. 

Australian Journal of Emergency Management, 17(1), 33-37. 

Available at: 

http://www.ema.gov.au/agd/EMA/rwpattach.nsf/viewasattachmentpersonal/(85FE07930A2BB44

82E194CD03685A8EB)~Flood_damage_analysis_using_GIS_at_Gold_Coast_Council.pdf/$file/

Flood_damage_analysis_using_GIS_at_Gold_Coast_Council.pdf

Keywords: 

Australia, cost-benefit analysis, development, economic modeling, geographic information 

systems, modeling, risk assessment 

Abstract: The article presents a GIS-based flood damage model used by the Gold Coast City 

Council to determine the benefits of proposed flood mitigation measures and assess proposed 

floodplain development. The model integrates a property database, a floor-level survey database, 

a topographical digital elevation model, floor surface digital elevations models, and stage 

damage relationships for differing dwelling types. Using these components, the model analyzes 

existing data and estimates the property damage to a specific area given a certain set of flood 

conditions. Despite a number of limitations, the model has successfully assessed the flooding 

impact of development proposals and flood mitigation options for the community. 
24

Bezuyen, M.J., M.J. van Duin, and P.H.J.A. Leenders. (1998). Flood management in the 

Netherlands. Australian Journal of Emergency Management, 13(2) 43-9. 

Available at: 

http://www.ema.gov.au/agd/ema/emaInternet.nsf/Page/RWP93A223A213F4B13CCA256C7500

7F6B15?OpenDocument

Keywords: 

flood control, Netherlands 

Abstract: During the last several years, residential and commercial development of once 

unoccupied floodplains has increased significantly in the Netherlands. The development has 

prompted Dutch authorities to reconsider and revise their approaches to flood management. This 

article deals with several aspects of the floods that occurred in 1993 and 1995 and outlines the 

formal system of disaster management in the Netherlands. Finally, an overview is provided of 

the events that occurred during both floods with special emphasis on warning and evacuation. 

Important lessons drawn from Dutch flood management include: adoption of rules concerning 

entrance into an abandoned, flooded area; development of procedures for the evacuation of 

livestock; understanding of the economic consequences to agriculture, business, and industry; 

knowledge of how the government awards post-disaster aid; and the communication of floodrelated information to the public. Furthermore, the authors cite the self-regulating behavior of the 

Dutch people as one of the most critical factors to their success with flood management.

Bialaszewski, Dennis and Bobby A. Newsome. (1990). Adjusting comparable sales for 

floodplain location: The case of Homewood, Alabama. The Appraisal Journal, 114-9. 

Keywords: 

Alabama, economic modeling, housing markets, property values 

Abstract: This study tests the hypothesis that homes located in floodplains have lower property 

values. Data came from 93 home sales in Homewood, AL, of which 39 were from homes located 

within the 1 percent annual chance floodplain. Control variables included square feet of heated 

area, finished basement, age of house, number of bedrooms, number of bathrooms, fireplace, car 

storage, and time on market. The housing market appears relatively homogenous because selling 

prices ranged from $48,000 to $90,000 and because all the homes had locations in the same 

school district. The authors fit the data with a stepwise-linear regression model. According to the 

regression model, a property’s location in the floodplain does not have statistical significance. 

The authors conclude that while floodplain location does not influence property values in 

Homewood, appraisers of real estate should not generalize these results but rather conduct 

similar analyses for each housing market. 

Bin Atan, Ismail and A.V. Metcalfe. (1994). Estimation of seasonal flood risk using a twostage transformation. Water Resources Research, 30(7), 2197-206.

Keywords: 

England, modeling

Abstract: Hydrological time series are often asymmetric in time, insomuch as rises are more 

rapid than recessions, as well as having highly skewed marginal distributions. A two-stage 

transformation is proposed for deseasonalized series. Rises are stretched and recessions are 

squashed until the series is symmetric over time. An autoregressive moving average (ARMA) 

model is then fitted to the natural logarithms of this new series. A double mixture of Weibull and 

exponential distributions represent the residuals from the ARMA model. The method is 
25

demonstrated with 24 years of daily flows from the River Cherwell in the south of England and a 

40-year record from the upper reaches of the Thames. The article gives seasonal estimates of 

flood risk and these can be conditioned on catchment wetness at the time of prediction.

Bin, Okmyung and Steve Polasky. (2002). Valuing Coastal Wetlands: A Hedonic Property 

Price Approach. Working paper. Raleigh, NC: Center for Environmental and Resource 

Economics Policy, North Carolina State University. 

Keywords: 

economic modeling, North Carolina, property values, wetlands 

Abstract: This study uses hedonic property price approach to estimate how wetlands affect 

nearby residential property values. Two general categories of wetlands are recognized – coastal 

and inland. A hedonic price function is estimated using wetland inventory data coupled with 

extensive property sales records in Carteret County, NC. Results indicate that proximity to 

coastal wetlands has a positive association with the nearby property value, while inland wetlands 

lower the value in a neighborhood. Reducing the distance to the nearest coastal wetland by 1,000 

feet raises the property price by $1,010 at the initial distance of one mile, while the same change 

for inland wetlands decreases the property price by $567. In addition, this study utilizes a semiparametric method in selecting an appropriate hedonic price functional form. 

Bin, Okmyung and Steve Polasky. (August 2003). Effects of Flood Hazards on Property 

Values: Evidence Before and After Hurricane Floyd. Land Economics, 80: 490-500. 

Available: 

http://www.ecu.edu/econ/wp/03/ecu0306.pdf#search='Evidence%20Before%20and%20After%2

0Hurricane%20Floyd' 

Keywords: 

floodplain, North Carolina, property values, wetlands, economic modeling 

Abstract: This study uses a hedonic property price function to estimate the effects of flood 

hazards on residential property values. The study utilizes data from over 8,000 single-family 

residential home sales in Pitt County, North Carolina between 1992 and 2002. This area 

experienced significant flooding from Hurricane Floyd in September 1999. Results show that a 

house located within a floodplain has a lower market value than an equivalent house located 

outside the floodplain. Furthermore, the price discount from locating within a floodplain is 

significantly larger after Hurricane Floyd than before. For an average valued house, the price 

discount for floodplain location is greater than the capitalized flood insurance premiums for sales 

after Floyd but less than capitalized flood insurance premiums for sales before Floyd. 

Bjonback, R. Derek. (1984). The Impact of the National Flood Insurance Program on 

Residential Property Markets. (Ph.D. dissertation, Colorado State University). 

Keywords: 

development, economic modeling, environmental policy, floodplain management, housing 

markets, insurance, mandatory purchase, Minnesota, NFIP, public policy, property values, risk 

perception, zoning 

Abstract: This research aims to develop models of single-family housing and land markets to 

determine the nature of benefits from economic efficiency and distributional implications of 

improved information on flood hazard and floodplain development regulations introduced by the 

NFIP and to empirically test the model in a case study of Rochester, MN. A gain in economic 
26

efficiency is demonstrated when improved information on flood hazard can allow a household to 

make better decisions in planning housing purchase and investment, consumption, and saving 

over a lifetime. On the supply side, gains in economic efficiency are expressed as a socially 

optimum expansion of new construction in the flood-free zone, and contraction in the flood 

hazard zone. Accompanying these gains are distributional impacts for owners of properties in the 

floodplain (negative impact on property values) and outside the floodplain (positive impact) after 

the release of information on flood hazard. Pecuniary gains and losses of factors in the home 

construction and development industry can reduce the ability of the housing market to adjust to 

changes in consumer demand. The empirical model for Rochester did not significantly estimate 

the social value of flood hazard information or the distributional impacts of the NFIP on owners 

of existing homes and undeveloped residential land. The policy implications of the theoretical 

model and empirical tests conclude the analysis. 

Blanchard-Boehm, R.D., K.A. Berry, and P.S. Showalter. (2000). Should Flood Insurance 

Be Mandatory? Insights in the Wake of the 1997 New Year’s Day Flood in Reno-Sparks, 

Nevada. Applied Geography, 21, 199-221. 

Keywords: 

attitudes, awareness, compliance, disaster assistance, insurance, insurance coverage, insurance 

industry, insurance purchase decision, lending institutions, mandatory purchase, marketing, 

Nevada, NFIP, public policy, risk communication, risk perception 

Abstract: Though the NFIP has been in existence since the late 1960s, only a quarter of those 

eligible have purchased policies to reduce the effects of flooding. The study uses the 1997 New 

Year’s Day flood in Reno, Nevada to investigate why single-family homeowners purchase flood 

insurance. The flood caused $200 million in property damage to over 1,400 homes and 

businesses, as well as two deaths. Although 54 percent of respondents in the study area reported 

some level of damage from the flood, only 52 percent of residents in the SFHA had purchased 

flood insurance following the disaster. Lender compliance, personal perceptions of vulnerability 

to floods, concern for the adequacy of government assistance, and concern that flooding was a 

constant threat were the most significant variables in the insurance purchase decision. The 

authors question whether the Reform Act’s attempts to move responsibility for insuring from 

individuals to lending institutions will in fact increase flood damages by further reducing the 

homeowner’s sense of personal responsibility to minimize their own flood risk. 

Blocker, T. Jean, E. Burke Rochford, Jr., and Darren F. Sherkat. (1991). Political 

responses to natural hazards: Social movement participation following a flood disaster. 

International Journal of Mass Emergencies and Disasters, 9(3) 367-82. 

Keywords: 

natural disasters, socioeconomic impacts 

Abstract: While much research attention has been focused on understanding and interpreting 

social movements that emerge in response to technological hazards, comparatively little work 

has been directed toward the systematic examination of factors related to protest activity in the 

aftermath of natural hazards. The authors study community activism after a major flood 

mitigation project failed to provide the promised protection from storm water damage. They 

conclude that citizen response to natural events is becoming far less distinct from that witnessed 

in the aftermath of man-made events, because the technology to mitigate impacts of natural 

disasters is becoming more available. The results of the study show that solidarity is a necessary 
27

ingredient for social movement facilitation, particularly when the movement is loosely structured 

and urgently organized, and that the presence of solidarity aids in the communication of 

grievances, recruitment of members, and the coordination of activities.

Blong, Russell. (2004). Estimating Residential Flood Damage. Macquarie University, New 

South Wales, Australia: Natural Hazards Research Centre. 

Keywords: 

Australia, economic impacts, modeling 

Abstract: The report tests the Natural Hazards Research Centre (NHRC) Contents and Building 

loss estimation curves for residential property and examines their deficiencies. The existing 

NHRC Contents curve is based on potential, rather than actual losses. Testing indicates that the 

curve is likely to underestimate insured losses. The NHRC Building curve needs refinement for 

such issues as damage due to floodwater velocity and losses external to the structure. The 

combined NHRC Contents and Building curve produce higher loss estimates and indicate that 

insured flood losses are higher than suggested and that the benefits of floodplain management 

have been understated. The report recommends further development and testing of flood loss 

estimation curves and average annual damage estimates. 

Board of Governors of the Federal Reserve System. (1999). A Report to the United States 

Congress on Compliance with the National Flood Insurance Program. Washington, DC: 

Federal Reserve Board. 

Keywords: 

lending institutions, mandatory purchase 

Abstract: The Federal Reserve System has supervisory responsibility for approximately 1,000 

state member banks (SMBs). During the review period of July 1, 1997 to June, 30, 1999, the 

Federal Reserve System conducted 697 examinations of SMBs for compliance with the flood 

insurance provisions of Regulation H (12 CFR 208). Thirty-nine SMBs were examined twice 

during the reporting period. The frequency of examinations for compliance with consumer 

regulations, including the flood insurance requirements, is based on the size of an institution and 

its history of compliance. Of the SMBs examined during the 1997-99 reporting period, 223 had 

violations of at least one section of the flood insurance provisions of Regulation H. The three 

most commonly cited violations reported by the examiners included the required use of the 

Standard Flood Hazard Determination form, the requirement to purchase flood insurance where 

available, and the notice of special flood hazards and availability of federal disaster relief. 

Generally, the violations of the flood insurance requirements of Regulation H appear to be 

isolated or technical and not indicative of any pervasive patterns of noncompliance. 

Bollens, Scott A. (1990). Public policy and land conversion: Lessening urban growth 

pressure in river corridors. Growth & Change, 21(1), 40-59. 

Keywords:

Arizona, Colorado, development, floodplain management, Georgia, Illinois, Missouri, Nebraska, 

New Jersey, North Dakota, Ohio, Oklahoma. 

Abstract: The author examines the extent to which floodplain management programs influence 

the investment and predevelopment decisions of owners of vacant floodplain land in 10 cities: 

Arvada, CO; Cape Girardeau, MO; Fargo, ND; Omaha, NE; Palatine, IL; Savannah, GA; 

Scottsdale, AZ; Toledo, OH; Tulsa, OK; and Wayne, NJ. He discusses the role of landowners in 
28

the urban floodplain market, land acquisition, holding vacant land, the influence of local 

floodplain policy on land holding, property value expectations, and as targets of public policy. 

Bollens, Scott A., Edward J. Kaiser, and Raymond J. Burby. (1988). Evaluating the effects 

of local floodplain management policies on property owner behavior. Environmental 

Management, 12(3), 311-25. 

Keywords: 

development, floodplain management, risk perception, riverine areas 

Abstract: This article examines the degree to which riverine floodplain management affects 

purchase and mitigation decisions by owners of developed floodplain property. Based on a 

survey of 105 floodplain property owners in 10 U.S. cities with floodplain management 

programs, the authors find that the stringency of such policies does not lessen the purchase of 

properties in floodplain because of the overriding importance of site amenity factors. Indeed, 

flood protection measures incorporated into development projects appear to add to the 

attractiveness of floodplain location by increasing the perceived safety from the hazard. Property 

owners’ responses to a flood hazard after occupancy involve political action more often than 

individual on-site mitigation. It is suggested that floodplain programs will be more effective in 

meeting their objectives if they are directed at intervention points earlier in the land conversion 

process.

Booysen, H.J., M.F. Viljoen and G. de Villiers. (1999). Methodology for the Calculation of 

Industrial Flood Damage and Its Application to an Industry in Vereeniging. Water SA,

25(1), Gezina, South Africa: Water Research Commission. 

Available at: http://www.wrc.org.za/publications/watersa/1999/January/jan99_p41.pdf

Keywords: 

Economic impacts, methodology, South Africa 

Abstract: The report calculates flood damage to a plant in the Vereeniging floodplain in South 

Africa using combined estimates of the damages to four components; plant and equipment, raw 

materials, completed goods, and structure. The method of combined damage estimates is used 

because the research found that it is not possible to develop standard flood-damage functions for 

industries. Too many differences exist between and within industries to create accurate flooddamage curves. The paper reviews methodologies for the calculation of industrial flood damage. 

In the example of the Vereeniging flood, the authors estimated direct and indirect damage to the 

four industrial components. Indirect damages included the cost of business interruption and the 

effect of flood damage on long-term market share. 

Booz-Allen & Hamilton. (2000). Blueprint for the Future: Final Report. Washington, DC: 

FEMA. 

Keywords:

NFIP, strategic planning 

Abstract: From March through August 2000, FIA developed a strategic Blueprint for the Future 

for the NFIP through a series of leadership workshops attended by members of the FIA 

Executive Committee and through independent data gathering and analysis. This report 

incorporates the results of the workshops and supplemental analysis and includes a discussion of 

program mission, customer and stakeholder analysis, program vision, future scenarios, 

impediments to achieving strategy, goals and objectives, action plans, implementation guidance, 
29

and next steps. NFIP’s Program Vision for the next five years is threefold: (a) a program that 

efficiently delivers insurance products that are accessible, desired, and seamlessly provided to its 

customers and partners; (b) a program where communities not only meet, but exceed NFIP’s 

floodplain management standards; and (c) a program that is financially sound both as an agent of 

change and as a long-term insurance solution.

Bovard, James. (1999). The Floyd Fiasco. The American Spectator, X (1999): 13-15 

Keywords: 

disaster assistance, Florida, public assistance, South Carolina

Abstract: The article criticizes the implementation and consequences of FEMA’s evacuation 

efforts during Hurricane Floyd in 1999. The author focuses on the experiences of residents in 

Florida and South Carolina, which were predicted to bear the brunt of the storm before it veered 

north. His contention is that the actions of state and federal government officials in these two 

states were more disruptive than the hurricane itself. First, President Clinton declared federal 

emergencies in several states before the hurricane touched the continental United States. This 

action prompted the issuance of mandatory evacuation orders to nearly three million residents. 

Some drivers were trapped in traffic jams with no movement for 12 hours. State officials 

exacerbated the mass exodus by delaying opening eastbound lanes of major interstates to coastal 

evacuation traffic. Anecdotal interviews found residents who vowed not to evacuate their homes, 

preferring to face the hurricane than the traffic jams. The cost of the evacuation was estimated at 

$2 billion, borne almost entirely by evacuees. Second, the declaration of federal emergencies 

prompted state officials to seek compensation. The federal government covered 75 percent of 

overtime pay for police, firefighters, and other government workers in Florida, which suffered 

little damage. State officials had incentives to escalate spending in the expectation that 

Washington would cover costs. The author finds these practices especially troublesome in light 

of the federal government’s contribution to coastal and low-lying development through the NFIP 

and other programs. Disaster assistance to rebuild homes and reconstruct infrastructure 

undermines efforts to discourage unwise development. 

Boyet, Wayne E., Kenneth W. Hollman, and Wayne L. Sterling. (1976). The Impact of 

Flooding Upon Land Values in the Big Black River Basin. Mississippi State, MI: Water 

Resources Research Institute, Mississippi State University. 

Keywords: 

agriculture, Big Black River, economic modeling, Mississippi, property values 

Abstract: The primary purpose of this study was to determine the impact of flooding on the 

value of land in the Big Black River basin. Economic rent theory was extended and modified to 

explain how flooding influences land values. Two theoretical components of the overall effect of 

flooding were identified. First, flooding tends to cause shifts in land use to endeavors that yield 

lower returns. Second, flooding tends to increase production costs. The combined effect is to 

reduce realized earnings, thereby reducing land values. In order to obtain empirical estimates of 

these effects, sales price and other characteristics were ascertained for two independent samples 

of transfers, one flood-prone and one not subject to flooding. Regression analysis was used to 

develop a model to explain variation in transfer prices for each of the two samples. Different 

variables were important in explaining price variation, and there were significant differences in 

the coefficients of some variables between the two regressions. Additional regression analysis 
30

conducted on the flood-prone sample suggested that flooding that causes crop damage results in 

a reduction in value of $28 per acre or approximately 13 percent. 

Bozell Worldwide, Inc. (1998). Bozell Smart Targeting for the National Flood Insurance 

Program. New York, NY: Bozell Worldwide, Inc. 

Keywords: 

insurance purchase decision, risk perception 

Abstract: This study provides strategies for targeting efforts to increase flood insurance policies 

for FEMA and the NFIP. The research specifically addresses the effect of household income on 

the decision to purchase flood insurance. The study concluded that individuals with higher 

incomes are more likely to purchase flood insurance than those with lower incomes One of the 

consequence of this finding is that in comparison to homeowners, renters, who tend have lower 

incomes, and less education, are less likely to buy flood insurance. Renters were also found to be 

less informed about their flood coverage status: only 10 percent of renters indicated that they 

believed they have flood insurance coverage. 

Bozell Worldwide, Inc. (2001). The Cover America and Cover America II Campaigns: A 

History of Bozell's Efforts to Promote the National Flood Insurance Program. Washington, 

DC: FIMA. 

Keywords: flood awareness, Cover America, marketing 

Abstract: This report reviews all of Bozell’s efforts involving the Cover America campaigns 

and their work with the NFIP. The report summarizes all aspects of the Cover America and 

Cover America II campaigns, including types of advertising, the markets that were targeted, and 

when the ads ran. Bozell then presents the campaign results for the various types of media 

utilized and by each year of the campaigns. The overall results of the campaign show that both 

awareness and favorable opinions of flood insurance and the NFIP increased by 4 percentage 

points for each year of the campaigns. 

Bozell and KRC Research & Consulting. (2000). Cover America Campaign Evaluation 

(Draft). Washington, DC: FIA. 

NOTE: This report was in draft form at the time of it inclusion in this bibliography. 

Consequently, FEMA had not yet provided comments necessary for Bozell and KRC Research 

and Consulting to produce a final version.

Keywords:

Cover America, marketing 

Abstract: This report was prepared as an evaluation of the Cover America campaign, which ran 

from October 1995 to March 1999. The campaign incorporated television, radio, and print 

advertising, as well as direct mailings and public relations efforts such as media tours and 

articles, to increase knowledge about floods and flood insurance and to help generate sales of 

policies. The report outlines the entire campaign by area of advertising and presents the 

methodology and results for determining the campaign’s success. The report shows that the 

campaign was successful in increasing the awareness and favorability of FEMA and of the NFIP 

and outlines which methods were the most efficient way to reach potential buyers and agents. 

Brown, John Prather and Robert Clarence Lind. (1976). An Economic Impact Analysis of 

the National Flood Insurance Program. Washington, DC: FIA. 
31

Keywords: 

economic impacts, floodplain management, insurance premiums 

Abstract: This report evaluates the NFIP’s economic effects on property owners, the federal 

government, and the private insurance industry. The report finds that flood insurance is a more 

equitable and efficient way to cope with flood risks than relief programs and recommends using 

flood insurance premiums to finance grants and low-interest loans for temporary relief following 

flood disasters. Impediments to the purchase of flood insurance, namely the transaction costs that 

arise from selling flood insurance as a separate policy, could be reduced by bundling flood 

insurance with the traditional homeowner’s policy. With respect to floodplain management, the 

report endorses elevating structures to the point where benefits from reduced flood losses exceed 

the costs of raising the structure by the maximum amount, rather than the 1 percent annual 

chance flood level. The report advocates increased partnership with the private insurance 

industry and the elimination of government subsidies for reinsurance premiums. The proper role 

of the federal government should be to underwrite catastrophic risks, provide hydrological 

information, and subsidize premiums for existing homes. 

Browne, M.J. and R.E. Hoyt. (2000). The demand for flood insurance: Empirical evidence. 

Journal of Risk and Uncertainty, 20(3), 291-306. 

Available for purchase at: http://www.kluweronline.com/issn/0895-5646/contents

Keywords:

insurance coverage, insurance purchase decision, risk communication 

Abstract: Flood damages that occur worldwide remain largely uninsured losses despite the 

efforts of governmental programs that often provide insurance available at less than fair market 

cost. The current study focuses on the financial experience of the NFIP from 1983 through 1993 

to examine the hypothetical determinants of decisions to purchase flood insurance. The same set 

of factors is important for both individuals and businesses—price, probability of loss, and 

amount of loss. Additionally, there is a negative relationship between the amount of money the 

federal government spends on mitigation and both the number of policies purchased and the 

amount of insurance purchased. At the state level, purchase of flood insurance correlates highly 

with the level of flood losses during the previous year. 

Buckle, Philip and Rob Fleming. (2001). Flood Insurance, Is There A Problem? Is There A 

Solution? Australian Journal of Emergency Management, 16(1), 1-4. 

Available online at 

http://www.ema.gov.au/agd/ema/emaInternet.nsf/Page/RWP09887172D1F56BE2CA256C75007

EA6B9?OpenDocument

Keywords: 

Australia, insurance coverage, insurance industry 

Abstract: The paper details the proceedings of a 2001 meeting that reexamined Australia’s lack 

of comprehensive flood insurance and seeks to determine whether this adversely affected 

residents, and if so, what a potential solution might be. Issues from a prior meeting of the Centre 

for Resource and Environmental Studies in 1989 remained largely unresolved and there was 

considerable disagreement among insurance and floodplain management professionals regarding 

the potential costs and benefits of flood insurance. There was concern about adverse selection, 

the high cost of premiums, discouragement of flood mitigation activities, and even the definition 

of a flood. Based on research in other countries, the paper presents a pessimistic view of 
32

homeowners’ knowledge of flood risks and willingness to purchase insurance. The meeting’s 

participants agreed that insurance premiums might be reasonable, depending on the definition of 

risk. The paper recommends a balanced approach to flood insurance by private industry and 

government. Because of a longstanding political ideology that the government should avoid 

intervention in matters that can be left to the private sector, a flood insurance program solely 

sponsored by the government is unlikely. However, there is still a role for government in flood 

insurance, namely providing the overarching legislation for the insurance industry, providing the 

framework of goals, producing maps, and intervening when outcomes are not fair and 

transparent for consumers. 

Burby, Raymond J., Steven P. French, and Edward J. Kaiser. (1980). Managing Flood 

Hazard Areas: A Conceptual Framework for Evaluating Program Effectiveness. Chapel Hill, 

NC: Center for Urban and Regional Studies, University of North Carolina. 

Keywords: 

economic impacts, environmental impacts, floodplain management, methodology, public policy, 

socioeconomic impacts 

Abstract: This report takes a first step in the development of an improved capacity for 

evaluating the effectiveness of floodplain management and land use. It presents a conceptual 

framework for considering the context, role, objectives, components, and impacts of floodplain 

management. It discusses issues involved in measuring program effectiveness and develops an 

approach to explain why the impacts and effectiveness of programs to measure land use vary 

from one community to another. The research reported here is one part of a larger study of 

floodplain management. In addition to the development of this conceptual framework, other 

objectives of the research include: 1) determination of the state of floodplain management as it is 

practiced in the United States, 2) development of operational measures of effectiveness and a 

methodology for focusing them on monitoring and evaluating local floodplain management, and 

3) an assessment of the proposed measures and methods based on field-level trial applications in 

three communities. 

Burby, Raymond J. and Steven P. French. (1981). Coping with floods: The land use 

management paradox. Journal of the American Planning Association, 47(July), 289-300. 

Keywords: 

development, floodplain management 

Abstract: The authors surveyed 1,203 local political jurisdictions to measure their activities in 

floodplain management. The authors found that communities with the greatest exposure to the 

NFIP tend to have adopted the broadest, most stringent local programs. Yet, these very 

communities were often the ones that had allowed more development of floodplains in the past. 

The authors also found that the NFIP was not effective in slowing growth in the floodplains, 

partly because the communities that were experiencing the greatest growth were also inclined to 

join the program, causing adverse selection, which makes the paradox of the program apparent.

Burby, Raymond J. and Steven P. French with Beverly A. Cigler, Edward J. Kaiser, David 

H. Moreau, and Bruce Stiftel. (1985). Floodplain Land Use Management: A National 

Assessment. Boulder, CO: Westview Press. 

Keywords: 

floodplain management
33

Abstract: This book concentrates on floodplain management as a component of broader urban 

programs to control floods that might also include structural measures, floodproofing of existing 

buildings, participation in the NFIP, preferential tax treatment, density transfers, and public 

information programs. A major finding of the study is that management of land use in 

floodplains is most effective in communities that use a number of the aforementioned flood 

control instruments and in which the goal of flood control is integrated with other public 

objectives such as recreation, preservation of open space, and the protection of natural areas. 

Burby, Raymond. (1986). Floodplain Management Research Needs: Improving the 

Productivity of Floodplain Management. Chapel Hill, NC: Center for Urban and Regional 

Studies, University of North Carolina. 

Available at: http://www.ucowr.siu.edu/updates/pdf/V97_A11

Keywords: 

floodplain management, marketing 

Abstract: This report identifies important research for improving the productivity of floodplain 

managers in state and local government. The report represents the input of individuals and 

organizations that work directly with floodplain management policies. A list of 145 research 

needs was generated by asking members of the Association of State Floodplain Managers, “What 

do you need to know to do a better job of floodplain management?” The report approaches the 

task of improving the productivity of floodplain management as a product development and 

marketing problem, focusing on how best to persuade various groups to adopt a product or 

practice. In this case, the groups are individuals, local and state governments, and firms, and the 

products or practices are uses, or non-uses, for flood hazard areas. The report recommends 

specific research needs in the areas of background information, implementation, and program 

planning, management, and evaluation, as well as changes in federal policy. 

Burby, Raymond J., Scott A. Bollens, James M. Holway, Edward J. Kaiser, David Mullan, 

and John R. Sheaffer. (1988). Cities Under Water: A Comparative Evaluation of 10 Cities' 

Efforts to Manage Floodplain Land Use. Boulder, CO: Institute of Behavioral Science, 

University of Colorado. 

Keywords: 

flood damage, floodplain management 

Abstract: The authors studied the efforts of 10 cities to manage land use in floodplains and 

conclude that floodplain management has significantly reduced annual flood damage (a saving of 

$11 million per year in reduced losses). However, the authors believe that the NFIP, by making 

floodplain structures safer through building standards and flood control works and more 

financially secure through flood insurance, seems designed to stimulate rather than hinder 

consumers’ willingness to locate in floodplains.

Burby, Raymond J. (1994). Floodplain planning and management: Research needed for the 

twenty-first century. Water Resources Update, 97(Autumn), 44-51. 

Available at: http://www.ucowr.siu.edu/updates/pdf/V97_A11

Keywords: 

floodplain management

Abstract: This article acknowledges the progress in research on the management of floodplains 

but laments the gaps in what needs to be known to manage floodplains effectively. State and 
34

local floodplain managers, in particular, will have to develop more sophisticated tools for 

building the private sector’s commitment to and capacity for accomplishing flood-loss reduction. 

The major gaps that are highlighted include: (a) research on the effect of floodplain management 

on development decision making in the private sector and on the ultimate impacts of public 

policy on economic, social, and environmental well-being; (b) research on cost-effective 

programs that motivate individuals and firms to reduce risk to existing developments; (c) 

research on the impact of nonstructural flood-hazard mitigation programs on various accounts; 

and (d) research to identify the effects of existing floodplain management programs on 

communities’ economic, social, and environmental well-being and to develop usable policy 

analysis tools for local decision makers. 

Burby, Raymond J. (2001). Flood Insurance and Floodplain Management: Issues for 

Evaluation. Presented in Boulder, CO, July 2001. 

Keywords: 

floodplain management, hazard identification, mitigation, NFIP 

Abstract: To deal with the rising exposure to flood losses, the federal government provides 

flood insurance through the NFIP. The NFIP has three key elements: identification of flood 

hazard areas and risk; mitigation of flood losses through mandated local regulation of 

construction in floodplains; and provision of flood insurance. Evidence to date suggests that 

while its accomplishments are notable, in many respects the program has fallen short when 

measured against its primary objectives. Flood hazard identification is incomplete. Mitigation 

has failed to contain increasing exposure to property damage in floods and coastal storms. And, 

market penetration of flood insurance may be low, in spite of the availability of subsidized 

insurance rates for two-thirds of the buildings located in flood-hazard areas. These conclusions, 

however, are based on circumstantial evidence and need to be evaluated through systematic 

study.

Burby, Raymond J. (2001). Flood Insurance and Floodplain Management: Lessons from 

the United States. Journal of Environmental Hazards, 3(3), 111-22. 

Keywords: 

agency operations and management, floodplain management, hazard identification, insurance, 

insurance premiums, insurance purchase decision, mandatory purchase, mitigation, NFIP, public 

policy, Special Flood Hazard Areas, subsidies 

Abstract: With over six million buildings located within the boundaries of the 1 percent annual 

chance floodplain, flood losses are ubiquitous. To address damages, the federal government 

provides residential flood insurance through the NFIP. In this article the author describes the 

U.S. approach to flood insurance and notes what he believes to be a number of problems that 

have limited the program’s effectiveness. In the author’s estimation, these include that flood 

hazard identification is incomplete and methods used to determine flood zones are flawed. Also, 

he opines that mitigation has failed to contain or reduce exposure to property damage in floods 

and coastal storms or markedly reduce exposure to loss of existing buildings located in flood 

hazard areas. Market penetration of flood insurance is low, in spite of mandatory purchase 

requirements for new construction and the availability of subsidized insurance rates for twothirds of the buildings located in flood hazard areas. The experience of the United States with the 

provision of flood insurance, while not without obstacles, offers a number of useful lessons for 

other nations considering government-sponsored flood insurance programs. 
35

Burby, Raymond J. and James M. Holway. (1990). The National Flood Insurance 

Program’s impacts on the development of riverine floodplains. In Challenge Ahead: Flood 

Loss Reduction Strategies for the ’90s. Boulder, CO: Institute for Behavioral Science, 

University of Colorado. 

Keywords: 

floodplain management, riverine areas, development 

Abstract: The authors compared changes in floodplain development between 1976 and 1985 in 

10 cities and concluded that the NFIP and the floodplain management regulations it has fostered 

in communities across the United States are having a measurable effect in reducing new 

development in riverine flood hazard areas.

Burby, Raymond J. with Beverly A Cigler, Steven P., French, Edward J. Kaiser, Dale 

Roenigk, Dana Weist, and Dale Whittington. (1991). Sharing Environmental Risk: How to 

Control Governments’ Losses in Natural Disasters. Boulder, CO: Westview Press.

Keywords:

natural disasters, public policy 

Abstract: This book summarizes the results of an extensive study of public losses from natural 

disasters during the 1980s and how those losses can be controlled through reforms in federal, 

state, and local policy. The study, initiated in 1986, considered its objective to provide a 

carefully conducted study that documents the magnitude and character of public losses in over 

130 natural disasters, describes a range of policy options for dealing with those losses, and 

evaluates opportunities for and constraints on innovation and reform in this policy arena. The 

study uses data from federal records to investigate local losses due to natural disasters, a case 

study of the Whittier Narrows earthquake (October 1987) to demonstrate the wide variation in 

losses nearby governments experience in a large, Presidentially declared disaster, and several 

surveys to evaluate the impact of federal policies on local governments’ adoption of protective 

measures. 

Burby, Raymond J., Peter J. May, and Robert Paterson. (1997). Improving Compliance with 

Regulations: Choices and Outcomes for Local Government. Seattle, WA: Center for 

American Politics and Public Policy, University of Washington. 

Keywords: 

compliance, development, enforcement 

Abstract: Shortfalls in compliance have been found in a number of recent reviews of 

development and environmental programs. In this article, the authors examine critical choices 

planning administrators face if they are to improve compliance. They also offer suggestions 

about what can be done to ensure that regulations, once adopted, are subsequently followed by 

contractors, builders, and developers. Based on data collected from a national sample of cities 

and counties, the article finds that improving compliance is not simply a matter of enhancing 

capacity for detecting and correcting violations. It shows that improving compliance also 

requires an increase in the private sector’s willingness to comply with regulations voluntarily. 

The means for affecting this result include making greater use of incentives and employing 

facilitative enforcement techniques.
36

Burby, Raymond J. Hurricane Katrina and the Paradoxes of Government Disaster Policy: 

Bringing about Wise Governmental Decisions for Hazardous Areas. Invited paper for 

publication in the Annals of the American Academy of Political and Social Science, March 

2006. 

Available at: http://www.floods.org/PDF/Burby_Katrina_WiseGovernmentalDecisions.pdf

Keywords: 

Hurricane Katrina, disasters, public policy, hazard mitigation, building codes 

Abstract : The unprecedented losses from Hurricane Katrina can be explained by two 

paradoxes: the safe development paradox is that in trying to make hazardous areas safer the 

federal government has in fact substantially increased the potential for catastrophic property 

damages and economic loss. The local government paradox is that while their citizens bear the 

brunt of human suffering and financial loss in disasters, local officials pay insufficient attention 

to policies to limit vulnerability. This article demonstrates that in spite of the two paradoxes 

disaster losses can be blunted if local governments prepare comprehensive plans that pay 

attention to hazard mitigation. The federal government can take steps to increase local 

government commitment to planning and hazard mitigation by making relatively small 

adjustments to the Disaster Mitigation Act of 2000 and the Flood Insurance Act. However, to be 

more certain of achieving a reduction in disaster losses, a major reorientation of the National 

Flood Insurance Program from insuring individuals to insuring communities is likely to be 

needed. 

Bureau of Transport and Regional Economics. (2002). Benefits of Flood Mitigation in 

Australia. Canberra, Australia: Bureau of Transport and Regional Economics. 

Keywords: 

Australia, cost-benefit analysis, mitigation, nonstructural approaches, structural approaches 

Abstract: Floods have accounted for 29 percent of the total natural disaster costs in Australia 

over the past 30 years. This report examines the costs, benefits, and performance of flood 

mitigation measures (e.g., structural and nonstructural options) in Australia to develop a series of 

case studies. The case studies aid in the construction of a more complete picture on the benefits 

realized through Australian flood mitigation projects. To a lesser degree, the report discusses and 

quantifies where possible, social and environmental considerations. A number of findings 

specific to the cases studies are presented in addition to more universal conclusions including, 

but not limited to: the importance of considering flood mitigation options that address all three 

sources of risk—existing, future, and continuing; the importance of community awareness and 

preparedness together with reliable and timely flood warning systems; and the importance of 

tailoring mitigation solutions to the uniqueness of each community. The availability and 

reliability of data and the capture and quantification of indirect and intangible costs and benefits 

limited some parts of the analysis. 

Burges, Stephen J. (1979). Analyses of uncertainty in flood plain mapping. Water Resources 

Bulletin, 15(1), 227-43. 

Keywords:

mapping, modeling 

Abstract: Components contributing to uncertainty in the location of the fringe of a mapped 

floodplain are identified and examined to determine their relative importance. First-order 

uncertainty analysis is used to provide a procedure for quantifying the magnitude of uncertainty 
37

in the location of the fringe. Application of the procedure indicated that one standard deviation of 

uncertainty in floodplain inundation width is about one-third of the mean computed inundation 

width for several population-flood geometry combinations. Suggested mapping criteria, which 

directly incorporate uncertainty estimates, are given. While these criteria are more suitable for 

use in developing areas than in floodplains that have had extensive development, the analysis 

procedure can be used to accommodate property owners who challenge the validity of estimated 

flood fringe boundaries. Use of uncertainty analysis in floodplain mapping should enhance the 

credibility of the final plan.

Burkham, D.E. (1978). Accuracy of flood mapping. Journal of Research, U.S. Geological 

Survey, 6(4), 515-27. 

Keywords: 

hydrology and hydraulics, mapping, 1 percent annual chance flood standard 

Abstract: This report describes and compares the probable standard errors of estimate in terms 

of national average for three different methods that have been used recently by the USGS to 

define flood-boundary elevations for 25-, 50-, and 1 percent annual chance flood discharges in 

natural channels. The methods scrutinized by the author to determine the 1 percent annual 

chance flood-boundary elevations include detailed, historical, and physiographic. In addition to 

describing the implementation of each method, the author also considers their limitations and 

accuracy. Based on the analyses and using 3.9 m as a national average for the 100-yr flood depth, 

the detailed method has a probable standard error of 23 percent (0.9 m), the historical method 23 

percent (0.9 m), and the physiographic method 27 percent (1.1 m). The article also concludes 

that the detailed method has applicability to a wide range of hydraulic and topographic 

conditions, the historical method has similar applicability but only with the availability of 

specific data, and the physiographic method has the simplest applicability of the methods used. 

Burn, Donald H. (1999). Perceptions of flood risk: A case study of the Red River Flood of 

1997. Water Resources Research, 35(11), 3451-8.

Keywords:

awareness, Canada, disaster planning, Manitoba, Red River, risk communication, risk perception 

Abstract: The author examines issues that affect an individual’s perceptions of risk associated 

with national hazards in the context of the 1997 flood of the Red River in Manitoba, Canada. 

Information about risk perception came from 10 public meetings held by the Manitoba Water 

Commission to review actions taken during the flood. The response to the flood event varied 

between and within various locations in the Red River Valley. Flood damages were limited in 

areas that were adequately prepared for the flood, where there was good support from local 

government, and where recent experiences from the 1996 flood were relevant. Areas that 

experienced widespread flood damage were those that were unable to prepare in time because of 

misleading experience in 1996 and poor forecasts, or newly flooded areas that lacked relevant 

flood experience and received limited warning and minimal support from the local government. 

The greatest success occurred where planning for the flood started early. The paper concludes 

that warnings of flood events should be tailored to the experiences of the individuals in different 

areas since the unique experiences of the individuals will lead to different responses. However, 

because experience is a complex factor, there are limits to the benefits that can be derived from 

previous experience. Two recommendations are made: (a) the experience of individuals and local 

government officials should be used to revise and update the emergency flood response plan for 
38

an area and (b) public education immediately following a major flood event can increase 

awareness of flood risks and the importance of developing and following an emergency plan. 

California Department of Water Resources. (2002). National Flood Insurance Program: 

FEMA Elevation Certificate. Sacramento, CA: California Department of Water Resources. 

Keywords: 

California, compliance, elevation certificates, enforcement, floodplain management 

Abstract: This handbook accompanies a workshop on elevation certificates taught by the 

California Department of Water Resources (DWR) to local floodplain administrators. In the 

handbook, DWR emphasizes the three purposes of an elevation certificate: to properly rate a 

flood insurance policy, to determine compliance with NFIP regulations and the local floodplain 

management ordinance (when combined with other documentation), and to support requests for 

map changes. Four sections of the handbook present examples of elevation certificates, building 

diagrams, and photographs for structures located in AE, A, AO, and V Zones. The handbook also 

includes exercises to ensure local floodplain administrators can use a FIRM and can complete an 

elevation certificate. Overall, the workshop and handbook should give local floodplain 

administrators the information needed to better advise property owners regarding elevation 

certificates. 

California Department of Water Resources. (2002). National Flood Insurance Program: 

Floodplain Management and Duties of the Local Administrator. Sacramento, CA: California 

Department of Water Resources. 

Keywords: 

California, compliance, development, enforcement, floodplain management, insurance, mapping, 

mitigation, NFIP, substantial damage, substantial improvement 

Abstract: This handbook provides information on a broad range of issues related to floodplain 

management, mapping, mitigation, and insurance. Each section of the handbook contains 

PowerPoint slides used by the California Department of Water Resources (DWR) to train local 

floodplain administrators on the NFIP. In addition to the slides, the handbook contains reprints of 

technical bulletins (e.g., nonresidential floodproofing) and forms (e.g., elevation certificate) 

issued by FEMA. 

California Department of Water Resources. (2002). National Flood Insurance Program: 

Substantial Improvement & Substantial Damage. Sacramento, CA: California Department 

of Water Resources. 

Keywords: 

California, insurance, insurance coverage, mitigation, substantial damage, substantial 

improvement 

Abstract: This handbook accompanies an advanced workshop on substantial improvement and 

substantial damage taught by the California Department of Water Resources (DWR) to local 

floodplain administrators. The handbook covers several topics: improvement costs that must be 

included; rehabilitations, additions, and reconstructions; acceptable methods for determining 

improvement costs; acceptable methods for determining market value; post disaster 

considerations; and Increased Cost of Compliance (ICC) coverage. DWR also provides sample 

affidavits for improvements and repairs, sample notices to property owners regarding substantial 
39

improvement and substantial damage, and supplemental documents on ICC coverage in the 

handbook. 

California Floodplain Management Taskforce. (2002). California Floodplain Management 

Report. Sacramento, CA: California Floodplain Management Task Force. 

Keywords: 

California, compliance, floodplain management, strategic planning 

Abstract: In February 2002, Governor Gray Davis delegated authority to the Department of 

Water Resources to convene a Floodplain Management Task Force (the Task Force). The Task 

Force focused on the intent of Assembly Bill (AB) 1147, which mandated the Task Force to 

examine specific issues related to state and local floodplain management and make 

recommendations for more effective statewide policies. The Task Force found existing programs 

do not adequately accomplish the goals of reducing flood losses and maximizing the benefits of 

floodplains. Furthermore, the Task Force identified the need for the state to comply with the 

NFIP. Based on its research and consideration of literature, the Task Force developed 

recommendations along three basic themes: better understanding of and reducing risks from 

reasonably foreseeable flooding; multi-objective-management (M-O-M) for floodplains; and 

local assistance, funding, and legislation. For example, in the theme of better understanding of 

and reducing risks from reasonably foreseeable flooding, the Task Force recommends local 

communities adopt stricter regulations than those required by the NFIP (e.g., freeboard). Another 

recommendation asks the state to provide additional resources to continue and expand 

implementation of the state’s floodplain management programs, including full support of the 

Community Assistance Program. The report outlines and discusses additional recommendations. 

Camerer, Colin F. and Howard Kunreuther. (1989). Decision processes for low probability 

events: Policy implications. Journal of Policy Analysis and Management, 8(4), 565-92. 

Keywords: 

insurance purchase decision, public policy, risk assessment, risk communication, risk perception 

Abstract: This survey describes the impact that judgments and choices about low probability, 

high consequence events have on the policymaking process. Empirical evidence indicates that 

normative models of choice, such as expected utility theory, are inadequate descriptions of 

individual choices. The ambiguity of low probabilities also affects decisions in ways that are not 

normative. Further, people exhibit biases in judgments about risks and probabilities. These 

findings have stimulated development of new theories, such as prospect theory and generalized 

utility theories incorporating attributes such as regret. The authors survey many of these 

empirical results and explore their implications for policy. They consider the role of information, 

economic incentives, compensation, and regulation in inducing socially desirable effects through 

the reframing of outcomes. They suggest that surveys and experiments can help analysts better 

understand the decision process for low probability events and design more effective public 

policies. 

Campbell, W.A. and M.S. Heath, Jr. (1979). Legal Aspects of Floodplain Management. 

Chapel Hill, NC: Water Resources Research Institute, University of North Carolina. 

Keywords:

floodplain management, legal issues and litigation, legislation, North Carolina 
40

Abstract: The NFIP has made it possible for some landowners to obtain subsidized insurance 

protection against flood damages. As a condition of this protection, however, the local 

governments in which flood-prone land is located must adopt certain restrictions on the use of 

land in the floodway and flood hazard areas. North Carolina’s legislative centerpiece for 

authorizing local floodplain regulations is the Floodway Act. This act was deficient both in 

terminology and in scope of coverage when examined in light of the NFIP’s requirements. To 

remedy these deficiencies it is recommended that the act’s coverage be broadened to include 

flood hazard areas beyond the floodway, to include areas of coastal flooding, and to delete the 

uses automatically permitted in the floodway. It is important for the state to play a major 

coordination and advisory role in land-use regulation for flood protection. Local governments 

need technical assistance in preparing and administering the necessary regulatory measures, and 

the state has an important role to play in coordinating local efforts with FIA and in overseeing 

the program. In addition, state property must meet the federal requirements in order for the state 

to obtain insurance or to qualify as a self-insurer. Statutory changes are suggested to meet these 

needs. 

Cane, Marilyn and Paul A. Caldarelli. (1993). Apres le deluge: National flood insurance. 

Nova Law Review, 17(3), 1077-1091. 

Keywords: 

coastal areas, erosion, insurance, legal issues and litigation, legislation, lending institutions, 

mandatory purchase, mitigation, NFIP, takings 

Abstract: This article examines the background of the NFIP from its inception to 1993, reviews 

proposed changes to the program as a result of perceived problems with current operations, and 

discusses constitutional “takings” issues concerning flood insurance. After introducing the reader 

to the NFIP, the authors discuss proposals under consideration by Congress to change the 

program. For example, one of the most controversial and important proposals concerns the 

establishment of a program to reduce coastal erosion. Under the proposed program, FEMA 

would delineate 10-, 30-, and 60-year erosion setbacks along United States coastlines. In a 10-

year setback zone, existing buildings would presumably be “in danger of imminent collapse,” 

and owners could obtain grants to cover the cost of relocation (40 percent of the building’s 

value) or demolition (40 percent of the building’s value). (Note: these setback requirements were 

not included in the National Flood Insurance Reform Act of 1994.) Finally, the article discusses 

the “takings” issue as it relates to the NFIP. The courts have clearly held the constitutionality of 

the program as witnessed, for instance, in Texas Landowners Rights Association v. Harris. In 

that case the court ruled, among other things, that the NFIP did not violate sovereign powers of 

state and local government or the principles of federalism embodied in the Tenth Amendment. A 

survey of additional court cases provides a broader context to the “takings” issue. 

Carlozzi, Sinton and Vilkitis, Inc. (1978). Attitudes Toward Flood Management in 

Northampton, Massachusetts: A Case Study. Amherst, MA: Carlozzi, Sinton and Vilkitis, 

Inc. 

Keywords: 

awareness, Massachusetts, nonstructural approaches, risk perception, structural approaches 

Abstract: This study examines the attitudes of citizens and government officials toward various 

means of reducing flood damage in Northampton, MA. The study was part of an ongoing series 

of investigations into flooding in the Connecticut River Basin and into economical, effective, and 
41

environmentally sound approaches to reducing flood damages. Town residents, floodplain 

residents, local, state and federal officials, floodplain businesses, and local civic organization 

representatives were interviewed. The study compares public opinions on nonstructural and 

structural approaches to mitigation and finds that the former were generally supported while the 

latter were generally opposed, citing political infeasibility or environmental impact. 

Changnon, Stanley, A., Jr. (1985). Research agenda for floods to solve policy failure. 

Journal of Water Resources Planning and Management, 111, 54-64. Champaign, IL: Illinois 

State Water Survey Division. 

Keywords:

methodology, mitigation, nonstructural approaches, public policy 

Abstract: For the first 60 years of the twentieth century, U.S. policy regarding floods was aimed 

at flood control. In the next 20 years, policy shifted to a goal of mitigation. However, flood 

losses continued to rise, which prompted Congress and others to raise questions about the causes 

of policy failure. The answer is complicated because flood policy involves four changing issues, 

including the shift from federal to state and local responsibilities, the existence and form of the 

NFIP, the shift to nonstructural approaches for flood mitigation, and the developing programs for 

emergency assistance. A comprehensive assessment of research needs reveals that policy must 

have a view of efficient use of floodplains, not just loss reduction. The socioeconomic database 

is considered inadequate for many policy decisions, and the knowledge of floods is uneven, with 

much more known in the physical sciences than in the social sciences. Attention to 

interdisciplinary research involving economists, sociologists, political scientists, and geographers 

is needed to achieve better policymaking and flood hazard mitigation. 

Changnon, Stanley A., Jr. (1987). Future flood research agenda for the United States. In 

Flood Hydrology: Proceedings of the International Symposium on Flood Frequency and Risk 

Analyses. Louisiana State University, Baton Rouge, LA, May 1986. 

Keywords:

mitigation, nonstructural approaches, structural approaches 

Abstract: Flooding remains a major unresolved problem in the United States with losses 

mounting after 60 years of largely structural efforts to mitigate loss. Hence, a major two-year 

assessment of research needs to more effectively address flood mitigation was conducted within 

the context of our national shift to new federalism, the NFIP, the shift of emphasis from 

structural to nonstructural approaches for flood mitigation, and the evolution in national 

programs of emergency assistance where flooding is but one of many hazards treated. 

Recommendations for research centered around six general themes: (a) more attention to 

socioeconomic-political research; (b) a goal of efficient use of flood-prone lands, not loss 

reduction; (c) the importance of interdisciplinary research (70 percent of all 115 recommended 

tasks are multidisciplinary); (d) the need to develop comprehensive data banks and flood 

information centers; (e) orienting future research needs to user needs; and (f) the need for 

continuing re-assessment of flood research every three years. 

Changnon, Stanley A., Jr., ed. (1996). The Great Flood of 1993: Causes, Impacts, and 

Responses. Boulder, CO: Westview Press. 

Keywords:

disaster planning, Midwest floods of 1993, public policy, socioeconomic impacts 
42

Abstract: Through detailed case studies and sectoral analyses, this volume diagnoses the social 

and economic impacts of the Midwest floods of 1993, assessing how resource managers, flood 

forecasters, public institutions, the private sector, and millions of volunteers responded to it. This 

comprehensive evaluation of the 1993 flood examines the ways floods are forecasted and 

monitored, the effectiveness of existing recovery processes, and how the nation manages its 

floodplains. The flood offered major lessons for the public and private sectors for future flood 

disasters. The emphasis here is on the flood’s many impacts and the policy issues that they raise. 

Changnon, Stanley A., Jr., R. Schicht, and R. Semonin (1983). Plan for Research on Floods 

and their Mitigation in the United States. Final Report to the National Science Foundation. 

Champaign, IL: Illinois State Water Survey. 

Keywords:

hazard identification, mitigation, strategic planning 

Abstract: Recent assessments of flood problems and issues are used to compile a comprehensive 

assessment of the research needed relevant to flooding and flood mitigation. Experienced 

researchers identified four new major national issues or trends: (a) a shift in responsibilities from 

federal to state and local entities; (b) the policy of the NFIP; (c) the shift of emphasis from 

structural approaches to nonstructural approaches for flood mitigation, such as floodplain 

management and zoning, coastal zone management, flood warning systems, evacuation and 

relocation, flood insurance, and land acquisition; and (d) the recognition of the developing 

national programs in emergency assistance. The major conclusion of the assessment is that much 

flood-related research must be interdisciplinary in nature. It identifies 115 high-priority research 

tasks in the fields of meteorology, hydrology and hydraulics, ecology, public health, economics, 

sociology, political science, and interdisciplinary fields. All 115 tasks met the criteria for critical 

research, namely, that the problem being addressed will probably be solved by further research 

and that the cost of the research is justified by the benefits. 

Chao, Phillip T., James L. Floyd, and William Holliday. (1998). Empirical Studies of the 

Effect of Flood Risk on Housing Prices. Alexandria, VA: Institute for Water Resources, 

U.S. Army Corps of Engineers. 

Available at: http://www.iwr.usace.army.mil/iwr/plannersweb/docs/98ps2.pdf

Keywords: 

economic modeling, housing markets, Kentucky, property values, Texas 

Abstract: This study reviews existing academic literature on hedonic price models of the 

floodplain real estate market. In addition, two hedonic price model cases were studied to answer 

some of the questions raised in the literature review. The case studies used price data from 

USACE projects in Abilene, TX, and South Frankfort, KY. Findings from the literature review 

and the case studies do not satisfactorily conclude that the fair market value of floodplain 

properties either capitalizes or does not capitalize the flood damages borne by floodplain 

activities. The existing studies did not seek and the case studies lacked sufficient data to detect a 

discount for primary flood damages. In some cases a discount for location in the floodplain does 

not exist. In others, a discount for floodplain location does exist, but varies because of factors 

such as relative location within the floodplain, flood insurance, flood history, and positive 

floodplain attributes. The variability of these factors across floodplain markets around the 

country makes the assumption that all floodplain properties are discounted for primary flood 

damages unreasonable. The foremost issue is including positive and negative attributes of 
43

floodplain properties in the hedonic price model to separate the discount due to primary flood 

damages from the discount due to floodplain location. Identifying and measuring all these 

floodplain attributes presents many challenges. Future research may fail to identify all the 

attributes that buyers consider when purchasing a floodplain property. 

Chatham County, GA. (2000). Preparing a crisis communication plan. Paper presented at 

the Project Impact Summit 2000. Washington, DC, November 14-15, 2000. Washington, DC: 

FEMA. 

Keywords:

disaster planning, floodplain management, Georgia, media, risk communication 

Abstract: This presentation points out the need for communities to have a crisis communications 

plan to audit all vulnerabilities, establish guidelines for crisis communication coordination, state 

roles of key people and agencies, and precoordinate with other plans before a crisis occurs. 

When a crisis occurs, the document suggests that communities assess the incident, assemble a 

crisis team, communicate facts, and minimize rumors. It also suggests, among others, that 

communities should activate a crisis center, designate a lead spokesperson, develop a crisis fact 

sheet, contact critical players, open a media center, and establish guidelines for the news media.

Chatham Emergency Management Agency. (2000). Media guidelines. Paper presented at 

the Project Impact Summit 2000. Washington, DC, November 14-15, 2000. Washington, DC: 

FEMA. 

Keywords:

disaster planning, floodplain management , Georgia, media, risk communication 

Abstract: This presentation details the procedural guidelines to be employed whenever the 

Chatham County (GA) Emergency Operations Center (EOC) is activated. The goal of these 

guidelines is “to ensure the most rapid and comprehensive news coverage while permitting 

unimpeded emergency response operations.” Some of the suggested procedures include a 

preliminary media briefing prior to activation of the EOC; after the initial activation of the EOC, 

allow the media, one station or network at a time, to take file footage shots of the EOC; to make 

available a media office next to the press conference area in the basement; reserve parking space 

for media vehicles; as developing conditions permit, to conduct routine press conferences each 

hour according to pre-established schedules; and to accommodate specific requests for 

information whenever possible.

Cheatham, L.R. (1975). A Case Study of Some Economic Aspects of the National Flood 

Insurance Program. Starksville, MS: Water Resources Research Institute, Mississippi State 

University. 

Keywords:

development, Mississippi, property values 

Abstract: Based on a study of Columbus, MS, this research was designed to determine if 

subsidized, pre-FIRM insurance has been a cause of increases in capital investment on that 

community’s floodplains. The scope was limited primarily to determining the effect on new 

construction, on location decisions of businesses, and on land values. Analysis of flood insurance 

statistics, amounts of new construction, location decisions, and data on land values in Columbus 

revealed only insignificant evidence to substantiate the hypothesis that flood insurance has 

encouraged encroachment into floodplains. The results suggested that most firms did not view 
44

the flood hazard as being as great as other types of insurable hazards. Moreover, in general, both 

commercial and noncommercial properties subject to flooding had shown greater increases in 

value than those of negligible flood hazards. The only exceptions included those with extremely 

high-expected flood frequencies. The effects of subsidized flood insurance on land values were 

relatively insignificant. Economic growth factors were primarily responsible for increases in 

values of land in floodplains. Lastly, the study revealed little evidence to support the hypothesis 

that subsidized flood insurance stimulated encroachment. Federal disaster aid appeared to 

provide more inducement to locate and remain on lands where flood losses were likely to be 

sustained.

Cheatham, L.R. (1979). An Assessment of Some Economic Effects of FIA Land Use 

Requirements on Urban Coastal Zone Development. Starksville, MS: State Division of 

Business Research, Mississippi State University. 

Keywords:

coastal areas, economic impacts, Mississippi, property values, urban areas 

Abstract: Land-use requirements for eligibility in the early NFIP did not cause any significant 

decreases in total annual construction in urban coastal floodplains along the Mississippi Coast. 

Construction activity in A Zones continued at high levels. The relatively high cost of elevating 

residential structures, along with other factors unrelated to ordinances, caused some relocation of 

new construction to other areas of communities. The inability to construct commercial structures 

to comply with ordinances and maintain functional utility prevented some commercial 

construction. The impacts on construction employment were negligible. The value of land and 

existing structures increased in communities, but less so in A Zones. The county’s total 

construction employment and income were not affected by ordinances. In the community of 

Biloxi, MS, less than half of total new construction in A Zones was actually regulated due to 

exemptions for repairing, remodeling, and so on, not exceeding 50 percent of structure’s value. 

In this community, construction of regulated new structures decreased slightly, but patterns in 

nonresidential new structures did not confirm any decrease. Total construction in Biloxi 

increased since ordinances were implemented. 

Childers, Cheryl D., (1999). Elderly Female-Headed Households in the Disaster Loan 

Process. International Journal of Mass Emergencies and Disasters, 17(1), 99-110. 

Keywords: 

disaster assistance, Louisiana, socioeconomic impacts 

Abstract: The paper compares the income and approval rates of elderly single-female 

households and other types of households applying for disaster aid. Households from two 

parishes involved in the flooding in and around New Orleans, Louisiana, in May 1995 who 

applied for federal loans via the FEMA National Teleregistration Center were compared on 

demographics and outcomes. Data analysis showed that elderly single-female households were 

overrepresented in the population applying to FEMA; two and one-half times as likely as other 

elderly households or nonelderly households to have incomes of $11,000 or lower; and three 

times less likely than other elderly households to receive a low-interest loan. This study indicates 

that the current federal low-interest loan program does not adequately address the needs of poor 

elderly women. The author recommends special initiatives to target this population. 
45

Chivers, James and Nicholas Flores. (2001). Market Failure in Information: The National 

Flood Insurance Program. Discussion Paper in Economics, No. 01-6. Boulder, CO: 

University of Colorado. 

Available at: http://www.colorado.edu/Economics/CEA/papers01/wp01-5/wp01-5.pdf

Keywords: 

awareness, economic impacts, insurance premiums, insurance purchase decision, risk perception 

Abstract: The NFIP requires mandatory purchase of flood insurance for property owners who 

have federally backed mortgages. Krutilla (1966) noted that a compulsory national flood 

insurance program could greatly improve the economic efficiency of floodplain occupancy in the 

United States. However, in order to realize the efficiency gains suggested by Krutilla, property 

owners must have sufficient information about flood risk and insurance premiums to make wellinformed home purchase decisions. Using survey data from Boulder, CO, this report finds 

significant evidence of market failure in information in the NFIP. The majority of survey 

respondents, all of whom live a SFHA, report they did not fully understand the degree of flood 

risk or the cost of insuring against this risk when negotiating the purchase of their property. 

Moreover, respondents overwhelming stated that when they did learn the cost of insurance, it 

was higher than expected. The study found that information is acquired late in the negotiating 

and purchase process. Insufficient information or the inability to make well-informed decisions 

based on available information hampers the NFIP’s capability to realize its full benefits, 

including improving the economic efficiency of floodplain occupancy. The report recommends 

that potential buyers be fully informed of the cost of flood insurance prior to negotiation, perhaps 

by requiring sellers to obtain an NFIP flood insurance quote as a condition of listing a property. 

The Christian Science Monitor. (1998). Buying back beaches. The Christian Science 

Monitor, September 8. 

Available at: http://csmonitor.com/cgi-bin/durableRedirect.pl?/durable/1998/09/08/p20s1.htm

Keywords:

beach nourishment, erosion 

Abstract: This editorial discusses efforts in the United States to prevent further erosion of the 

country’s beaches and shorelines. It forecasts the percentage of people who will live near the 

shore by 2025 and hypothesizes why changes to the NFIP could be effective. It questions the 

validity of beach restoration projects, and discusses efforts by the federal government to shift the 

cost of erosion prevention programs to states and local communities. 

Clark, Michael, Sally Priest, Emma Treby, and David Crichton. (2002). Insurance and UK 

Floods: A Strategic Reassessment. Southampton, UK: University of Southampton. 

Keywords: 

flood damage, insurance industry, United Kingdom 

Abstract: The report addresses the present status of flood insurance-related professions in the 

United Kingdom and assesses the capabilities and limitations of the flood insurance industry as 

part of a comprehensive response to flood disasters. Included among insurance-related 

professionals are insurers, reinsurers, brokers, loss adjusters, loss assessors, insurance analysts, 

risk assessors, contractors, building regulators, mortgage lenders, and banks. The ability and 

willingness of insurers in the United Kingdom to carry financial responsibility for flood costs is 

being reduced by the increasing amount of floodprone assets, the increasing competitiveness of 

the industry, the decreasing commercial viability of general insurance, and tighter financial 
46

regulation. The report reveals that the relationship between flood insurance and floodplain 

development is complex. However, this complexity, in as much as it contributes to partnerships 

between the parties involved, may be the solution to problems in the flood insurance industry. 

The report recommends identifying the link between responsibility and liability, and the way in 

which it can be managed effectively. Without action, the report states that the viability of the 

flood insurance industry in the United Kingdom will continue to decline in the face of mounting 

costs and deteriorating industry structure and infrastructure. 

Clark, R.D. (1998). CAI Comments to FEMA Regarding the National Flood Insurance 

Program. Washington, DC: FEMA. 

Available at: http://www.caionline.org/govt/advoc/fed/fema-flood-comments.cfm

Keywords:

community associations, insurance premiums 

Abstract: The Community Associations Institute (CAI) represents the nation’s 205,000 

condominium associations, cooperatives, and homeowner associations. In the opinion of the 

CAI, FEMA’s residential condominium/association building policy (RCBAP) contains a 

coinsurance requirement that places an undue penalty on community associations and has 

skewed data for rate determinations. CAI further suggests that FEMA should eliminate the 

coinsurance requirement, as the NFIP does not require coinsurance for any other type of 

building. Eliminating the requirement will allow for affordable premiums by way of lower 

coverage limits. In turn, more associations would carry flood insurance allowing for a broader 

premium base to help FEMA absorb large shock losses and help minimize adverse selection. 

CAI also takes issue with FEMA’s policy deductibles (limited to $1,000 and $5,000), and 

suggested that FEMA allow for higher deductibles so that associations can afford to carry flood 

insurance. Increased coverage will reduce the risk of loss due to the perils of flood, heavy rains, 

or other water sources. Attendant to higher deductibles should be dramatic reductions in rates. 

Since the majority of flood claims occur in the first dollar layers of coverage, self-insuring 

associations (those that choose high deductibles) will be rewarded with significantly reduced 

premiums.

Clemens, Petra and Jennifer R. Hietala. (1999). Risk of domestic violence after flood 

impact: Effects of social support, age, and history of domestic violence. Applied Behavioral 

Science Review, 7(2), 199-207. 

Keywords:

domestic violence, health effects, North Dakota, socioeconomic impacts 

Abstract: Community professionals observed an increase in domestic violence during the 

aftermath of the 1997 Grand Forks flood. In the past, research has documented emotional 

symptoms that result from natural disasters, and separate studies have observed domestic 

violence to result from these same emotional symptoms. No research was found, however, 

specifically on the effects of natural disasters on domestic violence. The current study tested the 

effects of a model of variables on domestic violence, including flood impact, the emotional 

symptoms, as well as other intervening variables that might act as a buffer against the effects of 

flood impact. Results of this cross-sectional survey of 140 adults in Grand Forks, ND, indicate 

that domestic violence was significantly greater among respondents after the flood. Flood impact 

led to increased levels of anxiety, depression, and hostility. Whether these emotional symptoms 

subsequently led to increased domestic violence depended on the level of social support, the age 
47

of the respondent, and whether he/she had a history of domestic violence before the flood. Those 

with lower social support, the elderly, and those with a prior history of violence were most 

affected. The results have implications for work with the elderly, with domestic violence 

treatment and prevention programs, and with communities affected by floods.

Clement, Douglas. (2001). After The Flood. FedGazette, November 2001. Federal Reserve 

Bank of Minneapolis. 

Available at: http://minneapolisfed.org/pubs/fedgaz/01-11/flood.cfm

Keywords: 

NFIP 

Abstract: This report addresses the capability of flood insurance and wetlands restoration to 

reduce negative effects of flooding, in light of what it views as numerous problems with the 

NFIP. First, it notes that by design, the NFIP is not actuarially sound because it subsidizes 

premiums to increase program enrollment. Second, recent efforts to decrease premium subsidies 

have lead some policyholders to stop renewing their policies. FEMA recently estimated that 27 

percent of property owners who reside in the floodplain hold flood insurance policies. The 

problem of repetitive-loss properties has also damaged the viability of the NFIP. In Minnesota, 

for example, 46 properties have made 137 loss claims totaling over $1.6 million. Because of 

inaccurate or outdated maps, FEMA lacks a means of estimating NFIP participation rates 

because it does not know the total number of structures in floodplains. Without accurate maps, 

the NFIP cannot set premiums – subsidized or not – that correspond to risk. Map modernization 

efforts are underway, but the completion of new maps will take years. The author further notes 

that local authorities have been reluctant to enforce zoning and building regulations in 

compliance with NFIP minimum standards. The report adds that there are few incentives to pay 

for insurance in light of the multiple layers of assistance available to property owners. In all, the 

author praises the steps taken to improve the program but sees a number of persistent problems. 

Clement, Douglas. (2001). Subsidizing Sorrow. FedGazette, September 2001. Federal 

reserve Bank of Minneapolis. 

Available at: http://minneapolisfed.org/pubs/fedgaz/01-09/cover.cfm

Keywords: 

dams, flood control, North Dakota 

Abstract: The article explores the concept that man-made floodplain management solutions 

might be exacerbating flood losses by highlighting a proposed dam on the Maple River in North 

Dakota. Proponents of the dam argue that it will prevent flooding in downstream communities 

frequently subject to flood disasters. Opponents of the dam argue that it will divert watercourse 

and flood productive farmland and disturb Indian cultural sites. Also, the dam could contaminate 

the local water supply, an aquifer that supplies water for the residents and the Archer Daniels 

Midland oilseed processing plant, a large local employer. Without a clean water supply, the 

processing plant will leave, decimating the local economy. The effects of the proposed dam are 

unknown and some speculate that drainage tiling by farmers will negate the potential beneficial 

effects of the dam. 

Clinton, William J. (1995). Message to the Congress transmitting the report on floodplain 

management. Weekly Compilation of Presidential Documents, 31(10), 372-7. 

Keywords:
48

floodplain management, Mississippi River 

Abstract: This message focuses on the proposal to reform floodplain policy for the Mississippi 

River in the wake of the damage caused by massive floods in 1993. It discusses the impact of the 

flood on agricultural and urban property owners, the construction of mainstream levees, and the 

conversion of wetlands to agriculture. The message concludes that the conversion of floodplain 

and wetlands to agriculture throughout the Mississippi River Basin has been extensive. Eighty 

percent of the floodplain wetlands of the Lower Mississippi River have been cleared and 

converted to cropland. Clearing rates in much of the Upper Basin and the Missouri River system 

have been comparable. The message also suggests that the Mississippi River’s system of dams, 

levees, and river training works is tremendous but not sustainable over the long term: “People 

have gone too far in severing the river and its tributaries from their floodplains. The message 

from the floods is that the Mississippi wants to recapture the floodplains that historically were 

part of the river. It lies in wait for major flood events to do this.” The message concludes by 

noting that: “A program of floodplain restoration would go a long way towards creating a much 

more sustainable, low-cost flood management system in the Mississippi River Basin than exists 

today.” Finally, the President suggests that the Corps of Engineers must reform how it spends 

federal dollars on flood control works in the basin, while the federal government expands the 

Wetland Reserve Program created by the 1990 Farm Act in the Mississippi Basin.

Colegio de Ingenieros y Agrimensores de Puerto Rico, Agencia Estatal para el Manejo de 

Emergencias y Desastres, y FEMA. (2002). Inundaciones y Derrumbes en Puerto Rico: Guía 

de Mitigación de Daños. San Juan, PR: Agencia Estatal para el Manejo de Emergencias. 

Keywords: 

disaster planning, flood causes, mitigation, NFIP, Puerto Rico 

Abstract: This guide provides information to residents on serious problems that continually 

affect Puerto Rico: floods and landslides. The first and second sections of the guide discuss in 

detail the phenomena of floods and landslides including their histories in and consequences to 

the island. The third section focuses on the regulations that apply to construction in areas prone 

to flooding. Emphasis is given to the interpretation of FIRMs and Puerto Rico’s participation in 

the NFIP. The fourth section provides information on how to prepare for, confront, and cope 

with flooding. The fifth section focuses on alternatives and solutions to mitigate the effects of 

floods and landslides on residential construction. Finally, an appendix lists contact information 

for organizations and agencies involved with disaster planning and assistance. 

Comerio, Mary C. (2000). Paying for the Next Big One. Issues in Science and Technology, 

16(3), 65-72. 

Available for purchase at: 

http://www.findarticles.com/p/articles/mi_hb164/is_200003/ai_n5809277

Keywords:

California, Florida, Hawaii, Hurricane Andrew, Illinois, insurance, mitigation, Oklahoma, 

Wisconsin 

Abstract: The author states that private insurance companies were shocked by losses from 

natural disasters such as Hurricane Andrew. Consequently, most companies no longer offer 

disaster insurance along with a traditional homeowner policy in California, Florida, and Hawaii. 

Coverage is available only through state-managed disaster insurance pools with high premiums, 

high deductibles, and limited coverage. The author points out that until 1996, disaster 
49

appropriations were designated as emergency funds and were therefore exempt from budget 

limitations. The 104th Congress changed that rule, and now supplemental disaster appropriations 

require compensating cuts from other domestic programs. Thus, the author argues, although the 

public believes that insurance is unnecessary because FEMA will be there to pick up the pieces, 

the reality is that federal disaster recovery programs will be subject to political whims and 

partisan deals. To bolster disaster recovery, new policies that promote shared risk and 

responsibility are urgently needed. The author explains that, because of the limited availability of 

insurance and caps on federal spending, FEMA has advocated establishing “disaster resistant 

communities.” Under this strategy, seed funds would be provided to cities to promote mitigation 

of hurricane hazards by building owners before disaster strikes in order to limit federal and 

personal recovery costs. This program has enjoyed some success. However, the success of 

individual projects does not necessarily translate into regional or national programs. One of the 

limitations of this program is that, despite the fact that mitigation can reduce losses the real estate 

market does not reward a building owner for such expenditures in higher rents or higher property 

values. Similarly, FEMA has a program to buyout homes and property in flood-prone 

communities are purchased and converted to parks or wetlands. Although this program has been 

a success in a few small towns in Illinois, Wisconsin, and Oklahoma, most owners simply refuse 

to move or even elevate their homes. The author argues that the promotion of predisaster 

mitigation by the government will need a combination of regulation and incentives. Tax credits 

are an obvious incentive, she notes, but she also complains that they tend to go to those who 

would do the mitigation anyway. To reach a large number of homeowners and some apartment 

owners, it is important to devise a policy that taps into the real estate marketplace. The author 

concludes that, since FEMA wants to promote mitigation to reduce costs, the agency should 

promote policies to help insurance companies return to the market and promote programs that 

incorporate safety assessments into real estate transactions. 

Committee on Banking and Currency, House of Representatives. (1967). National Flood 

Insurance Act of 1967. Washington, DC: Government Printing Office. 

Keywords: 

insurance industry, legislation 

Abstract: The bill authorizes a national program under which flood insurance is made available 

to residents of flood-prone areas. The provision of flood insurance supplements infrastructure 

investment in structural mitigation and relief measures following flood disasters, neither of 

which has proven to be a permanent solution to the costs of flood disasters. The bill stipulates 

that flood insurance policies outstanding shall not exceed $2.5 billion initially. Discussion of the 

bill includes a demonstration of the performance of the flood insurance program in illustrative 

examples of minor and major floods. 

Committee on Banking and Currency, United States Senate. (1968). Housing and Urban 

Development Act of 1968. Washington, DC: Government Printing Office. 

Keywords: 

insurance industry, legislation 

Abstract: Title XII of the act establishes a flood insurance program under the direction of the 

Department of Housing and Urban Development (HUD). The act seeks to maximize the 

involvement of the private insurance industry and perceives a completely federal program as the 

least desirable form for a national flood insurance program. The objectives of the land-use 
50

criteria for protected land are to restrict development in flood hazard areas, reduce damage 

caused by floods, and improve long-term land management and use of flood-prone areas. 

Residents who pay premium rates below actuarial cost will be limited in the amount of liability 

in their insurance: to $15,000 per dwelling unit and $30,000 for any single structure. The act 

prescribes that rate studies be carried out by the Army Corps of Engineers, the U.S. Geological 

Survey, the Soil Conservation Service, and the Tennessee Valley Authority. Federal subsidies 

are justified as a temporary solution to the long-range readjustment of land-use patterns. The act 

also authorizes HUD to borrow money from the Department of the Treasury to cover program 

costs. 

Conners, John B. (1998). Coastal Exposure and Community Protection: Hurricane Andrew’s 

Legacy. Collingdale, PA: DIANE Publishing Company.

Keywords:

building codes, coastal areas, hurricanes, property values 

Abstract: This book examines problems raised by destructive hurricanes with respect to the 

growing concentrations of people and property in high-risk coastal areas. It also discusses the 

urgent need to provide better protection for people, buildings, and communities through more 

rigorous construction standards and better enforcement of building codes, flood insurance 

requirements, and land-use regulation in areas subject to hurricanes. It includes an appendix 

showing the value of insured coastal property exposures by state for counties bordering the 

Atlantic Ocean and the Gulf of Mexico.

Conrad, David R., Ben McNitt, and Martha Stout. (1998). Higher Ground: A Report on 

Voluntary Property Buyouts in the Nation’s Floodplains: A Common Ground Solution 

Serving People at Risk, Taxpayers and the Environment. Washington, DC: National Wildlife 

Federation. 

Available at: http://www.nwf.org/floodplain/higherground/exec.html

Keywords:

buyouts, floodplain management, nonstructural approaches, mitigation, Project Impact, 

relocation, repetitive losses, substantial damage 

Abstract: This report reviews the status of voluntary property buyouts and relocations as a 

strategy for floodplain management. In addition, the report analyzes the 18-year history of 

repetitive flood losses to identify communities that may have significant potential to utilize new 

nonstructural approaches to reduce flood hazards. The report provides recommendations for 

program and policy changes to improve floodplain management and to increase the utilization of 

nonstructural approaches to reduce flood damages. Some of the offered recommendations 

include: the need for federal, state, and local governments to coordinate and develop predisaster 

hazard-mitigation plans to facilitate timely, coordinated hazard-mitigation efforts before and 

after floods occur; the need for Congress and the Executive Branch to provide support for 

programs such as FEMA’s Project Impact and to develop a flexible, consolidated, and 

streamlined voluntary buyout and relocation assistance program; the need for FEMA and 

Congress to revise flood insurance rate schedules and community participation standards for the 

NFIP to provide increased incentives to reduce flood risks; the need for FEMA to enforce the 

NFIP’s substantial damage requirement for elevation or removal of substantially damaged 

buildings after floods; the need for Congress and the Executive Branch to eliminate the current 

bias in federal water resource project planning and evaluation procedures that favor structural 
51

approaches for flood damage prevention and mitigation over nonstructural approaches; the need 

for Congress to reduce the basic cost-share for federally supported flood control projects to 50 

percent, with incremental cost-share incentives to promote flood hazard mitigation ranging to a 

maximum 65 percent federal cost-share; and the need for Congress and the Executive Branch to 

increase levels of funding and support for programs that provide technical assistance to states 

and communities for improving floodplain management and flood loss reductions activities. 

Cordes, Joseph J. and Anthony M.J. Yezer. (1998). In harm’s way: Does federal spending 

on beach enhancement and protection induce excessive development in coastal areas? Land 

Economics, 74(1), 128-45. 

Available at: http://www.heinzctr.org/NEW_WEB/PDF/rprtbrf.pdf#zoom=100

Keywords:

coastal areas, development, economic modeling, insurance premiums, subsidies 

Abstract: Residential development on beaches grew faster in the past 32 years than residential 

development generally. In the 42 beachfront communities examined for this paper, the average 

annual rate of growth in housing units (3-9 percent) was well above the nation generally (2.4 

percent) between 1960 and 1992. The authors offer an econometric model to measure the extent 

to which this growth can be attributed to (a) demand for recreational property; (b) public 

investments in shore protection (such as USACE projects) and (c) the NFIP. They conclude that, 

on balance, “the growth in beach front communities has been prompted mainly by increased 

demand for recreation caused by rising income and employment in inland areas. Federal flood 

insurance also appears to have encouraged additional shoreline development. But public 

investments in shore protection seem to have had little or no effect.” The authors go on to say the 

NFIP’s effect depends on whether the insurance premium is subsidized. During the emergency 

phase of the program, before flood insurance rate maps are available, the authors’ model 

suggests that the NFIP had a significant positive effect on residential development, resulting in 

an increase of building permits of about 50 percent over what they otherwise would have been. 

This finding is in direct contrast to the conclusion of the General Accounting Office (1982) that 

said the program had only marginal effect on development. It supports the findings of Shilling, 

Sirmans, and Benjamin (1989) that during the NFIP’s emergency phase, the program created an 

incentive to develop as much land as possible before a FIRM was finished. Developers 

recognized that property built after the map was in place would not qualify for subsidized 

insurance rates. This is carried forward in the authors’ further finding that once a community 

moved into the regular (post-FIRM) phase of the program when insurance would be available 

only at actuarial rates, the program did not precipitate growth or development. 

Cordes, Joseph, Anthony Yezer and Alis Asadurian. (2000). Flood Insurance, Erosion, and 

Coastal Development. In Report Brief: Evaluation of Erosion Hazards. Washington, D.C.: 

The H. John Heinz III Center For Science, Economics, and the Environment. 

Keywords: 

coastal areas, Coastal Barrier Resources Act, development, erosion 

Abstract: The report uses the survey of structures from FEMA’s Erosion Hazards Study to 

examine whether federal flood insurance encourages economic development along coastal 

shorelines. The report used the development histories for seven sites in North Carolina, Georgia, 

Florida, South Carolina, Texas, and California to construct measures of development density. 

The study found that development density has increased over time, coinciding with a rising 
52

demand for beachfront recreation. In the absence of flood insurance, development density is 

roughly 20 to 30 percent less in areas that are prone to flood risk than in areas that are not prone 

to flood risk. The study found that federal flood insurance has had the effect of increasing 

development density in areas prone to flood risk between 11 and 18 percent. Areas designated as 

CBRA areas, where a variety of federal funding sources, including flood insurance, are 

unavailable, exhibited between 40 and 60 percent less development density. CBRA areas are 

typically less developable than other coastal areas. With respect to flood insurance, one might 

expect that better information about flood risk provided by flood maps might reduce 

development density. However, it is possible that the cost of higher building codes required by 

the NFIP might be exceeded by damages avoided, actually encouraging development. Also, 

subsidized flood insurance rates could allow property owners to underestimate flood risk, and 

encourage denser development. 

Correia, F.N., M.D. Saraiva, F.N. Da Silva, and I. Ramos. (1999). Floodplain management 

in urban developing areas. Part I - Urban growth scenarios and land-use controls. Water 

Resources Management, 13(1), 1-21. 

Keywords:

development, floodplain management, geographic information systems, Portugal, urban areas 

Abstract: Some of the most critical flood problems occur in urban areas where values at risk are 

higher and damages tend to be larger than in nonurban areas. Fast developing urban regions raise 

problems because of the unsteady situation of these regions in terms of catchment land-use and 

urban encroachment. A realistic approach to flood management in these situations requires the 

consideration of urban growth scenarios and the simulation of the corresponding flood 

conditions. Coastal towns are frequently located in floodplains and are subject to flood hazard. 

This is the case for many coastal areas in Southern Europe that are still developing fast due to inmigration. In such cases, flood management cannot be disassociated from land-use management, 

and non-structural measures for flood control can play a crucial role. It is important to make an 

ex-post evaluation of these measures in areas where they have been adopted. These issues are 

addressed in two Portuguese catchments, representative of urban growth and related to flood 

problems in Portugal and other Southern European regions. The Laje catchment is used for the 

ex-post evaluation of nonstructural measures, and the Livramento catchment is used for the 

modeling of urban growth scenarios. Quantitative results and policy recommendations are 

presented based on these two case studies. Floodplain management is better done with 

Geographic Information Systems (GIS), especially if it is linked to hydrologic and hydraulic 

modeling capabilities. The use of GIS for conducting these studies is presented in Part II of the 

article.

Correia, F.N., M.D. Saraiva, F.N. Da Silva, and I. Ramos. (1999). Floodplain management 

in urban developing areas. Part II - GIS-based flood analysis and urban growth modeling. 

Water Resources Management, 13(1), 23-37. 

Keywords:

development, floodplain management, geographic information systems, urban areas 

Abstract: In Part I of this article the very dynamic nature of floodplain management was 

discussed and the need for modeling the urban growth processes and formulating scenarios of 

urban development was emphasized. In this second part, the use of Geographic Information 

Systems (GIS) for addressing those problems is presented. GIS has been recognized as a 
53

powerful means to integrate and analyze data from various sources in the context of 

comprehensive floodplain management. Adequate information and prediction capability is vital 

to evaluate alternative scenarios for flood mitigation policies and to improve decision-making 

processes associated with floodplain management. A framework for the comprehensive 

evaluation of flood hazard management policies is also addressed in this article. This 

comprehensive approach to flood problems is more than an attitude or a philosophical starting 

point. It makes use of specific technological tools conceived to be used by different actors, some 

of them being non-experts in flood analysis. These tools, based on GIS, are appropriate for a 

participatory approach to the formulation of strategies for floodplain management because they 

help communicate with the public in a scientifically correct and yet rather simple manner. 

Coy, Peter. (1999). Don’t subsidize castles built on sand finance. BusinessWeek, September 

27. 

Available for purchase at: 

http://www.highbeam.com/library/doc0.asp?DOCID=1P1:29426503&num=1&ctrlInfo=Round9

a%3AProd%3ASR%3AResult&ao= 

Keywords: 

federal programs, flood damage, Hurricane Floyd, 

Abstract: Hurricane Floyd did more than destroy real estate. By the time the cleanup and 

rebuilding are complete, U.S. taxpayers will have paid for Floyd through subsidized flood 

insurance as well as grants and low-cost loans to people living in federally designated disaster 

areas. The author believes that government policies thwart sensible behavior. They make it too 

easy for people to live in beautiful but disaster-prone places such as barrier beaches, floodplains, 

cliff sides, tinder-dry canyons, and seismic fault zones. That is one reason why financial losses 

from natural disasters are growing at a rate faster than the economy itself is expanding. The 

solution is not an elaborate new government disaster-relief program. In most cases, the best thing 

the government can do is to get out of the way and let the free market do its work. James Lee 

Witt, Director of FEMA, advocates denying subsidized flood insurance to people who make 

repeated claims and refuse to take preventive measures, ranging from sealing their basements to 

raising their houses on stilts. A version of the proposal was introduced in the House of 

Representatives this summer as the “Two Floods and You Are Out of the Taxpayer’s Pocket 

Act.” Meanwhile, the Coastal Barrier Resources Act is up for reauthorization. A revamped 

disaster-insurance program would not only save money, it would save lives. With the proper 

incentives, people will choose to live in safe homes on safe ground and everyone will benefit. 

Crichton, David. (2003). Flood Risk & Insurance in England & Wales: Are There Lessons to 

be Learned from Scotland? London, England: Benfield Greig Hazard Research Centre. 

Available at: http://www.benfieldhrc.org/SiteRoot/floods/FloodReportV2.pdf

Keywords: 

England, flood disaster planning, floodplain management, insurance, legislation, mitigation, 

nonstructural approaches, public policy, risk management, Scotland, Wales 

Abstract: Since 1995, the author has been concentrating on nonstructural measures, such as 

planning controls and sustainable drainage. Through this report, he hopes to show that 

nonstructural approaches have been particularly successful in Scotland. Many experts around the 

world now see nonstructural measures as being a more sustainable, efficient way to tackle floodrelated problems. For example, years of meetings at the local level have given the author an 
54

opportunity to influence planning strategies for communities throughout Scotland. Current 

planning strategies for most of these communities now prohibit any new housing development 

where the flood risk exceeds the 200-year event. In addition, differences in legislation in 

Scotland have resulted in preparations being made for a test case for insurers to recover up to 

£70M in claims payments from a local authority in Scotland. If successful, it could have 

important implications for the flood risk and insurance in England and Wales. The author’s 

discussions with senior underwriters of many of the leading British insurance companies have 

indicated that they have little awareness of what Scotland has achieved. He hopes that this report 

will help to remedy that situation. While the solutions are working well in Scotland, it may 

already be too late for southeastern England, where some radical measure may be required in the 

future. The future outlook section at the end of this report lists some of these measures. 

Crichton, David. (2003). Temporary Local Flood Protection in the United Kingdom – An 

Independent Assessment. London: Benfield Hazard Research Centre. 

Available at: 

http://www.benfieldhrc.org/SiteRoot/activities/misc_papers/Temporary_local_flood_protection.p

df 

Keywords: 

insurance, NFIP, structural approaches, United Kingdom 

Abstract: Traditionally there have been two types of temporary flood protection, sandbags and 

flood boards. In recent years, numerous systems have been invented to improve on these 

methods and there are currently roughly 150 temporary flood protection products in the United 

Kingdom alone. Flood insurance in the United Kingdom is becoming more expensive and less 

available, primarily because of the cancellation of the insurance industry guarantee of universal 

cheap flood insurance in 2002. As a result, demand for temporary protection is growing rapidly. 

Temporary flood protections are not inexpensive, however. Consumers are increasingly looking 

to the insurance industry to provide discounts from their flood premium if temporary flood 

protection devices are used. While the paper is directed at insurers, it may also be beneficial to 

local authorities and property owners who are considering purchasing such products. It outlines 

and compares different types of systems according to performance characteristics, such as ease 

of deployment and effectiveness. It also describes the British Standards Institute tests introduced 

in 2003. 

Cross, John A. (1985). Flood Hazard Disclosure by Realtors. Natural Hazard Research 

Working paper # 52. Boulder, CO: Natural Hazards Research and Applications 

Information Center, Institute of Behavioral Science, University of Colorado. 

Keywords: 

Florida, insurance purchase decision, risk communication, risk perception 

Abstract: This study examines the effectiveness of realtors and mortgage bankers in 

communicating risk associated with flood zones to prospective homebuyers within the Lower 

Florida Keys. Different states have different laws regarding realtor obligations to inform 

homebuyers of natural hazard risk. However, courts may hold real estate agents and brokers 

liable for failure to disclose hazards even when the law does not explicitly require them to do so. 

The study found that only 52 percent of prospective homeowners reported being advised about 

the threat of hurricane flooding by realtors. Survey responses from realtors contradicted this 

figure. Nevertheless, the proportion of homebuyers who reported that they were informed of the 
55

threat of hurricane flooding has risen over the past few years. Methods of hazard disclosure were 

highly variable among real estate professionals, and only 27 percent reported having a personal 

or office policy concerning hazard disclosure. Conversely, realtors reported that few homebuyers 

asked about hurricane safety. The impact of realtors is limited for purchasers of mobile home 

residences, nearly half of who purchased their homes directly from a previous owner. Over one 

third of residences in the area studied are mobile homes. 

Cross, John A. (1989). Flood insurance and coastal development. The Florida Geographer, 

23, 22-45. 

Keywords: 

coastal areas, development, Florida, insurance

Abstract: Based on a survey of realtors in the lower Florida Keys, the author concludes that the 

availability of flood insurance might have contributed to an increased occupation of coastal flood 

zones. 

Cross, John A. (1990). Longitudinal changes in hurricane hazard perception. International 

Journal of Mass Emergencies and Disasters, 8(1), 31-7. 

Available for purchase at: http://www.usc.edu/schools/sppd/ijmed/purchase.html 

Keywords:

Florida, hurricanes, risk perception, 

Abstract: Data on perceptions of the hazards associated with hurricanes, periodically collected 

over a 12-year period from the same sample of Lower Florida Keys residents, were analyzed to 

determine what changes in hazard perception and mitigation behavior had occurred. Contrary to 

hypotheses that concerns about hazards decline with length of residence in hazard zones, overall 

perceptions that both hurricane winds and flooding are problems facing local residents have 

increased. Awareness of the hurricane threat remains high, with two-thirds of the residents 

stating that it is likely that the area will experience a damaging hurricane within the next 10 

years, even though a major hurricane has not occurred within the area for nearly three decades. 

Crowell, Mark. (1997). Coastal erosion and the National Flood Insurance Program. Shore 

and Beach, 65(1), 24-6. 

Keywords:

coastal areas, erosion, insurance premiums, mapping 

Abstract: The National Flood Insurance Reform Act (NFIRA) was enacted into law on 

September 23, 1994. Section 577 of the Act requires that FEMA to submit a report to Congress 

that evaluates the economic impact of erosion and erosion mapping on coastal communities and 

on the NFIP. Section 577 follows many years of debate concerning whether the effects of erosion 

should be considered in mapping flood risk zones and setting rates for flood insurance. 

Crowell, Mark, Stephen P. Leatherman, and M.K. Buckley. (1991). Historical shoreline 

change: Error analysis and mapping accuracy. Journal of Coastal Research, 7(3), 839. 

Available at: http://www.cerf-jcr.org/Historical_Shoreline_Change.pdf

Keywords:

coastal areas, erosion, mapping, Upton-Jones Amendment 

Abstract: FEMA is assessing technical methodologies and procedures for the collection, 

analysis, and computation of coastal erosion rates. This assessment is being performed to 
56

determine the feasibility of generating such data for use as a basis for administering Section 544 

of the Housing and Community Development Act of 1987 (commonly known as the UptonJones amendment to the NFIP). It is likely that the methodology selected will involve the use of 

historical data compared with current shoreline information. Several states use this fundamental 

approach to predict shoreline location based on extrapolation of past changes in developing data 

to support setback programs. Requirements contemplated for data development include: (a) 

standardization of a methodology for developing data on erosion rates; (b) consistency in 

application; (c) capability of being applied in a timely manner; and (d) accuracy commensurate 

with program needs. This paper addresses the last issue by examining sources of errors inherent 

in the raw data. Source data include historical and recent National Ocean Service (NOS) T-sheets 

(produced ca. 1840s to present) and air photos (taken ca. late 1930s to present) as well as any 

other types of accurate map and photographic data. A study of this nature requires extensive 

preparation of the required source material prior to digitization. For example, the high water line 

or bluff line must be identified and annotated on the air photos and maps. Furthermore, the 

source material must undergo extensive pre-digitization and post-data compilation accuracy 

checks and reliability assessments necessary to screen inaccurate maps and air photos. For 

example, older historical maps with obsolete coordinates must be updated to current standards 

and analyzed to insure that distortion has not rendered the map inaccurate and unusable. In 

addition, computerized techniques (e.g., metric mapping and analytical stereoplotter) or manual 

techniques (e.g., Zoom Transfer Scope) must be used to correct for distortion inherent in aerial 

photography. 

Crowell, Mark, Howard Leiken, and Michael K. Buckley. (1999). Evaluation of coastal 

erosion hazards study: An overview. In Mark Crowell and Stephen P. Leatherman, eds. 

Coastal Erosion Mapping and Management – Journal of Coastal Research Special Issue #28. 

Royal Palm Beach, FL: Coastal Education & Research Foundation. 

Keywords: 

coastal areas, cost-benefit analysis, economic impacts, erosion, hazard identification, legislation, 

mapping, Upton-Jones Amendment 

Abstract: This article reports on the background and details of a study to evaluate the impact of 

erosion and mapping of erosion on coastal communities and on the NFIP. The study known as 

the “Evaluation of Erosion Hazards” and required by the National Flood Insurance Reform Act 

of 1994 is being conducted in two phases. During Phase I, FEMA mapped 60-year erosion 

hazard areas in 27 counties distributed among 18 coastal and Great Lakes states. During Phase II, 

FEMA will conduct an inventory of structures that are located within the 60-year erosion hazard 

areas and current projected flood zones, analyze the economic impacts of erosion and erosion 

mapping and their impacts on the NFIP, and determine whether it is cost-beneficial for FEMA to 

map erosion hazard areas. The final report will be submitted to Congress in January 2000. 

Conclusions of the report will help provide closure to a long-standing debate and congressional 

concern as to whether FEMA should map coastal areas with erosion hazards and use these data 

in determining insurance premiums and land-use provisions through the NFIP. 

CRTF Evaluation Committee. (1994). Community Rating System Evaluation Planning 

Report. Washington, DC: FEMA. 

Keywords: 

Community Rating System, strategic planning 
57

Abstract: The Community Rating Task Force (CRTF) formed an Evaluation Committee in 

January 1994 to evaluate whether the CRS was on track with original expectations and to meet 

long-term goals. Members of the committee developed materials and reviewed preliminary 

analyses in order to prepare this planning report. Furthermore, the evaluation committee 

concentrated on laying the groundwork necessary to evaluate and answer critical questions about 

the CRS. This work entailed the development of components that provide the framework of a 

complete description of the CRS strategy, objectives, evaluation criteria, and plans for data 

collection. In addition to addressing the concerns of the CRTF and FEMA, the committee 

attempted to include concerns of other NFIP/CRS constituencies in developing evaluation plans. 

CRTF Evaluation Committee. (1995). Update to Community Rating System Evaluation 

Report. Washington, DC: FEMA. 

Keywords: 

Community Rating System, strategic planning 

Abstract: The purpose of this update to the CRS Evaluation Planning Report is to provide the 

latest schedule for carrying out the evaluation efforts, supply revisions and refinements to two 

major items discussed in the original document, and elaborate on some of the background of 

CRS and the reasoning that went into the evaluation plan. 

Cumming, W.R. and R. Sylves. (2004). FEMA’s path to Homeland Security: 1979-2003. 

Journal of Homeland Security and Emergency Management, 1(2), Article 11. 

Available at: http://www.bepress.com/jhsem/vol1/iss2/11/ 

Keywords: 

agency operations and management, disaster planning, federal programs, history, legislation, 

NFIP, public policy 

Abstract: The article addresses the roots of FEMA’s recent move to the Department of 

Homeland Security. The move was influenced by new legislation and executive influence, by the 

outcomes of the agency’s bureaucratic “turf wars” with other federal departments or agencies, by 

internal staffing decisions that relied on generalist managers more than technical managers, and 

by experience with human-caused disasters ranging from terror bombings to radiological and 

hazardous materials incidents. Also, the move to an all-hazards emergency management strategy 

made the incorporation of FEMA into the Department of Homeland Security logical. 

Cuny, Frederick C. (1991). Living with floods: Alternatives for riverine flood mitigation. In 

Kreimer, Alcira and Mohan Munasinghe eds. Managing Natural Disasters and the 

Environment: Selected Materials. Washington, DC: The World Bank, 62-73. 

Keywords: 

developing nations, mitigation, riverine areas, socioeconomic impacts, structural approaches 

Abstract: Most efforts designed to reduce the effects of floods have focused on such structural 

measures as the construction of dams and embankments (polders, levees, and the like). Many of 

these large-scale, capital-intensive projects had been questioned on both technical and 

environmental grounds. Development experts question whether large-scale flood control projects 

are economically suitable for the least-developed countries since they increase the country’s debt 

significantly for little economic return. Some flood control projects may be counterproductive. 

Embankments may foster unrealistic expectations that all flooding can be prevented and 

stimulate movement onto floodplains, thereby increasing total risk. In recent years, there has 
58

been increased interest in alternative strategies for protecting the floodplains, especially in rural 

areas. A key strategy has been to encourage people living in rural areas and in some small 

communities to adapt to floods and to capture their benefits for economic development. 

Traditional rural societies have developed many ways to adapt to floods and their consequences. 

These strategies can often be adopted or modified into a “living with floods” strategy. Where this 

strategy has been applied, it has been cost-effective, easy to implement, and compatible with the 

environment. These measures can be applied before and after floods. More important, they can 

be incorporated in long-term development programs at little cost

Dacy, Douglas C. and Howard Kunreuther. (1969). The Economics of Natural Disasters. 

New York, NY: The Free Press. 

Keywords: 

federal programs, insurance 

Abstract: This book formulates a clear-cut case for developing a comprehensive system of 

disaster insurance as an alternative to what the authors consider to be a paternalistic federal 

policy. To do so, the authors searched the literature relevant to insurance for disasters. These 

studies and reports were primarily concerned with organizational problems during the emergency 

postdisaster period and only occasionally referred to economic phenomena. The authors’ 

treatment of the economics of disaster can be conveniently divided into three parts: (a) the 

framework for analysis; (b) empirical evidence on short-term recuperation behavior; and (c) the 

capital and labor needs facing disaster areas. The authors also critically examine the federal 

government’s role in providing disaster relief to the private sector. The Small Business 

Administration (SBA) was the principal agency offering low-interest loans for replacing or 

repairing damaged homes and businesses. The authors explore the inequities of the SBA program 

and suggest alternative policies for eliminating these effects. They conclude that comprehensive 

disaster protection under the alternative system should lead not only to a more efficient and 

equitable recovery but would also curtail the growth of hazard-prone areas that resulted from the 

existing relief program. 

Daly, Christopher B. (1993). Federal flood insurance seen by critics as all wet. The 

Washington Post, February 18. 

Keywords: 

coastal areas, environmental protection, erosion, legislation, public policy, subsidies, takings 

Abstract: This article discusses proposals by Congress to strengthen the NFIP through 

restrictions on coastal construction and limitations on the federal government’s exposure to 

insurance claims. However, some critics of the NFIP would like to see the program abolished 

altogether. Many of these critics represent environmental concerns and believe the NFIP and 

other federal programs essentially subsidize beachfront housing for the affluent. Furthermore, 

they state that the National Flood Insurance Fund lacks the money to cover several serious 

storms in a short period of time. Recent debate centers on a bill that would increase pressure on 

banks to make certain property owners in flood-prone areas carry flood insurance. The bill would 

also use penalties and incentives to direct communities to create maps showing the projected 

effects of erosion over 10-, 30-, and 60-year periods. The maps would mark setback zones and 

flood insurance would not be available within the 10-year setback. This provision most alarms 

representatives of the real estate industry, who argue that setback zones are tantamount to the 

taking of private property. Supporters of the bill say it would not stop building on the beachfront 
59

but would stop the public subsidy for such building. (Note: these setback requirements were not 

included in the National Flood Insurance Reform Act of 1994.) 

Daniel, Heather Colleen. (2000). The Coastal Barrier Resources Act: Impact on Development 

in the Coastal Zone. (Master’s thesis, University of Delaware). 

Keywords: 

Coastal Barrier Resources Act, coastal barriers, Delaware, development, economic modeling, 

housing markets, insurance coverage 

Abstract: This thesis examines the effect of the Coastal Barrier Resources Act (CBRA) on 

development in coastal Delaware. Passed in 1982, CBRA was designed to minimize loss of 

human life by discouraging development in high-risk areas, reduce wasteful expenditures of 

federal resources, and protect natural resources associated with coastal barriers. Using data from 

an original survey and tax data from Sussex County, the thesis explores whether CBRA has 

affected development (i.e., the housing market) in terms of five variables. The variables include 

density of development, pace of development, value of housing, information on flood insurance, 

and protective measures taken against storms. From this study, CBRA appears to have no 

negative effect on the density or pace of development or on the value of housing. The amount of 

insurance coverage is similar in both the CBRA and non-CBRA areas examined. However, 

property owners in the CBRA area pay substantially higher insurance premiums. With regards to 

protective measures taken against storms, property owners in the CBRA area utilized more of 

them, but it is unknown whether CBRA influenced these decisions. Overall, the study finds that 

CBRA has had minimal effect on the housing market in coastal Delaware as measured by five 

explanatory variables. 

Daniels, R. Steven and Carolyn L. Clark-Daniels. (2000). Transforming Government: The 

Renewal and Revitalization of the Federal Emergency Management Agency. Arlington, VA: 

The PricewaterhouseCoopers Endowment for The Business of Government. 

Available at: http://www.fema.gov/pdf/rrr/danielsreport.pdf 

Keywords: 

agency operations and management, disaster assistance, federal programs, public policy, 

strategic planning 

Abstract: In this study, the researchers investigated the evolution of the disaster assistance 

programs of FEMA from the Bush Administration to the Clinton Administration. The federal 

response to Hurricane Hugo, the Loma Prieta earthquake, and Hurricane Andrew revealed 

serious flaws in FEMA’s structure and procedures. Extraordinary tensions existed between the 

secretive National Preparedness Directorate and the more public State and Local Programs and 

Support Directorate. The Bush Administration frequently bypassed FEMA and centralized 

response in the White House. The administration’s response to catastrophic disasters was largely 

reactive. Little of the funding went toward mitigation of future disasters. The media, Congress, 

and several evaluative organizations including the General Accounting Office, the National 

Academy of Public Administration, and FEMA’s OIG all underscored the shortcomings of 

FEMA’s structure and operations. Learning from the Bush experience, the Clinton 

Administration moved quickly to recast federal disaster response. President Clinton appointed 

James Lee Witt, Arkansas’s emergency services director as director of FEMA and elevated the 

FEMA’s director to cabinet-level status. Director Witt moved to redefine FEMA’s mission, 

reorganize the agency around basic emergency management functions, make FEMA more 
60

consumer oriented, rebuild the staff’s commitment to FEMA’s mission, and redirect the focus of 

disaster assistance toward mitigation. Consequently, media and political criticism has 

diminished. However, FEMA is not free from problems. The agency still needs to address issues 

regarding financial management and decision criteria. 

Daun, Margaret and David Clark. (2000). Flood Risk and Contingent Valuation Willingness 

to Pay Studies: A Methodological Review and Applied Analysis. Milwaukee, WI: Institute for 

Urban Environmental Risk Management. 

Available at: http://www.marquette.edu/environment/TR6.pdf 

Keywords: 

attitudes, economic modeling, methodology, risk perception 

Abstract: The study estimates the benefits of maintaining the current level of flood risk using 

the Contingent Valuation (CV) method, and specifically, Willingness to Pay (WTP) surveys. CV 

is a survey-based approach to valuing nonmarket goods that relies on questionnaires and is 

contingent on the characteristics of the scenario presented – in terms of spatial scope as well as 

frequency – and the effect of improvement in overall stream quality that reduce ecological risks. 

The survey takes into consideration private, public, direct, and indirect benefits of reducing flood 

risk: many environmental resources potentially affected by flooding are purely public goods, in 

that they are nonrivalrous and nonexcludable. The study found that a household’s willingness to 

pay for the maintenance of current levels of flood risk is positive relative to flood risk. In other 

words, those in greater danger of flooding are more willing to pay for their current level of flood 

protection. However, the survey also found that homeowners have considerable difficulty 

valuing more than one nonmarket good, in this case a combination of policy options for reducing 

flood risk. The report offers further recommendations for flood policy and survey methods. 

David, Sheila, Sarah Baish, and Betty Hearn Morrow. (1999). Uncovering the Hidden Costs 

of Coastal Hazards. Environment. October. 

Available for purchase at: 

static.highbeam.com/e/environment/october011999/uncoveringthehiddencostsofcoastalhazardshu

rricanes 

Keywords: 

coastal areas, disaster resistant communities, economic impacts, flood disaster planning, 

Hurricane Hugo, North Carolina, Project Impact, socioeconomic impacts, South Carolina 

Abstract: The article contends that current loss estimation from hurricanes neglects indirect and 

secondary costs – both quantifiable and non-quantifiable – including social impacts and natural 

resources costs, and thus do not reflect the true costs of the disaster. Among the “hidden” costs 

are business interruptions and failures, social problems such as family trauma, disruption of 

governmental and private social services, and damage to natural resources and ecosystems. There 

is often no mechanism for systematically identifying, evaluating, or reporting these costs. The 

authors use Hurricane Hugo, which battered the Carolinas in 1989 with losses estimated at $7 

billion, as an example of unmeasured costs. One unquantified social cost of the storm is 

homelessness, which prior to Hurricane Hugo was not a significant problem in the area. 

Vulnerability to a natural disaster is not equally distributed across socioeconomic categories. The 

authors note that all but two of Charleston County’s 275 public housing units were damaged, 

affecting 1,300 families. Households with the least ability to supplement federal and outside aid, 

and the least access to networks for support, were hardest hit. Damage to the natural environment 
61

resulted in the extinction of several species that were previously threatened or endangered and 

serious beach and dune erosion. Industries that rely on natural resources, such as timber, 

commercial fishing, and beach recreation were disrupted and damaged. The report recommends 

the development of accurate community vulnerability studies, estimates of benefits from 

mitigation measures that account for beneficial indirect and secondary effects, and the planning 

and siting of development and infrastructure in line with disaster scenarios. The authors describe 

disaster-resistant communities, or those containing provisions to reduce losses to humans, the 

environment, and property, as the best means of identifying, measuring, and mitigating the full 

costs of natural hazards. 

Davison, A. Todd. (1989). A Report on Structures Substantially Damaged by Floods in the 

United States (1978-1988). Washington, DC: FEMA. 

Keywords: 

compliance, mitigation, pre-FIRM structures, substantial damage, substantial improvement, 

Abstract: The Program Policy and Compliance Division of the Office of Loss Reduction 

prepared this internal report at the request of the Federal Insurance Administrator. The report 

summarizes data from the NFIP claims file on insured structures substantially damaged by floods 

between 1978 and 1988. For each substantially damaged structure, the claims file provided the 

owner’s name, address, dollar amount of damage, loss date, structure value, damage as a percent 

of structure value, dollar amount of claim paid, and flood zone designation. Analysis of these 

data reveals that 18,558 insured structures have been substantially damaged for a total loss of 

$438,730,198. Of this, the NFIP paid $332,305,065 in claims. Further, the average substantially 

damaged structure incurred damages equal to 72.5 percent of its value. Several other trends 

emerge from the analysis. For example, 67 communities experienced 50 or more substantial 

damages during the period from 1978 to 1988, accounting for over one-half of all substantial 

damages in the nation. According to the report, FEMA and the states should concentrate 

technical assistance in these communities with high numbers of substantial damages. In addition, 

data on substantial damage could serve as an effective tool for post-flood damage assessments 

and various hazard mitigation programs. 

Davison, A. Todd, Tim Keptner, and Mike Borengasser. (1989). A Report on the Results of a 

Questionnaire on Substantial Improvement. Madison, WI: Association of State Floodplain 

Managers. 

Available for purchase at: http://www.floods.org/PDF/PUBSLIST.pdf

Keywords: 

compliance, enforcement, substantial damage, substantial improvement 

Abstract: As part of a joint effort to evaluate the NFIP’s definition of substantial improvement 

and its enforcement at the local level, ASFPM and FIA distributed a questionnaire requesting 

comments on various issues related to substantial improvement. Seventy-three questionnaires 

were completed. The majority of respondents addressed the following themes related to 

substantial improvement in their comments: enforcement at the local level, threshold of 50 

percent, guidance and dissemination of information, definition of market value, inclusion and 

exclusion of items in calculating cost of improvement, rewording of definition to include 

substantial damage and cumulative permit tracking, consistency with building codes and building 

practices, acceptance of alternative techniques for mitigation, and reliance on objective and 
62

defendable methods in making determinations. The report concludes with commentary on 

general issues raised in the questionnaires by the respondents. 

Dawdy, David R. and Dennis P. Lettenmaier. (1987). Initiative for risk-based flood design. 

Journal of Hydraulic Engineering, 113(8). 

Keywords: 

modeling, risk assessment

Abstract: A recent report of the Interagency Advisory Committee on Water Data found that 

there is “no current procedure for assigning an exceedance probability to the probable maximum 

flood (PMF)...in a reliable, consistent, or credible manner.” This conclusion was used as 

justification for continuation of the current, quasideterministic, PMF-based spillway design 

methods used by all federal agencies. This is despite criticism by both researchers and 

practitioners that PMF-based methods tend to lead to a false sense of security and to 

misallocation of resources for dam safety improvements. As an alternative to perpetuation of the 

status quo, the writers outline four general areas in which research should be promoted for 

improved estimation of extreme floods, as well as research aimed at development of a method 

for incorporation of risk information into spillway design. The writers believe that if the federal 

agencies were to promote research in the areas suggested the current stagnation that has set in 

would be broken, and the self-fulfilling prophecy that there are no alternatives to current practice 

could no longer be justified. 

de Marcellis-Warin, Nathalie, and Erwann Michel-Kerjan. (2003). Catastrophe Risk 

Sharing and Public-Private Partnerships: From Natural Disasters to Terrorism. Paris, 

France: Ecole Polytechnique. 

Available at: http://ceco.polytechnique.fr/CAHIERS/pdf/2003-019.pdf 

Keywords: 

Europe, France, insurance, insurance industry, public policy, risk financing 

Abstract: The report addresses the consequences of recent catastrophic disaster events for 

insurers in Europe. It demonstrates how insurers, deprived of reinsurance capacity at an 

affordable price, could decide to stop covering specific extreme events. The consequences for 

individuals and firms would be immediate and significant. The solution lies in taking advantage 

of strengths of government and the insurance industry. Developing public-private partnerships 

could constitute one of the most appealing ways to solve the problem of financing the 

consequences of those extreme events. The paper analyzes policy issues related to risk sharing 

between insurers and a state-backed governmental re-insurer. 

Dean, Cornelia. (1992). Beachfront owners face possible insurance cuts. The New York 

Times, May 27. 

Keywords: 

coastal areas, erosion, insurance coverage, legislation, property values, public policy 

Abstract: This article reports on proposed federal legislation to limit flood insurance for coastal 

property at high risk from erosion. The measure has pitted environmental groups against property 

owners. Environmental groups assert that flood insurance has encouraged destructive and 

dangerous development on the nation’s shores. Property owners and developers call the proposal 

a veiled land grab by the federal government. In exchange for continued benefits from flood 

insurance, the legislation would outline areas prone to erosion where new construction or 
63

substantial improvements would be limited or prohibited. In the areas of imminent erosion, 

property owners would receive funds to relocate or raze their buildings. If they chose to stay, 

then they would receive limited benefits and would lose coverage after their next claim. No one 

can say with certainty how much land or how many buildings the measure would affect. This is 

because the areas prone to erosion have not been mapped, a process estimated to take at least five 

years. 

Decker, Richard. (1987). National Flood Insurance Program: Insurance Operating 

Alternatives. Washington, DC: FEMA. 

Keywords: 

agency operations and management, marketing, insurance, insurance agents, insurance 

premiums, risk financing, risk management, Write Your Own Program 

Abstract: This report reviews the current structure and activities of FIA, expansion of the WYO 

Program, geographical distribution of business, costs of the various services, use of servicing 

carriers in lieu of a Direct Servicing Agent, and other miscellaneous matters. Several 

observations made in the report warrant further consideration. For example, as of January 1, 

1987, 23 states had at least 10,000 policies-in-force. These states comprise 90 percent of the 

program’s business. With a large number of exposures subject to flooding from hurricanes in the 

Atlantic and Gulf Coasts, the NFIP needs a better geographic spread of risk. To that end, the 

author recommends a study to identify geographic areas to target and to consider the steps 

necessary to write more business in such areas. Another recommendation would involve the 

elimination of the Direct Servicing Agent and replacing it with one or more insurance companies 

to service agents not affiliated with a WYO company. Additional observations and 

recommendations appear in the report. 

Dei-Tutu, Viewu Afua. (2002). Flood Hazards, Insurance, and House Prices: A Hedonic 

Property Price Analysis. (M.S. research paper, East Carolina University). 

Available at: http://www.ecu.edu/econ/ecer/deitutu.pdf

Keywords: 

North Carolina, property values, risk perception 

Abstract: This study estimated a hedonic property price function using floodplain data coupled 

with extensive property sales records from Pitt County, North Carolina to estimate the effects of 

flood hazards on residential property values. Using a large data set of 5,122 single-family 

residential home sales between January 1998 and June 2002, the study found that the market 

value of a house located within a floodplain is significantly lower than an equivalent house 

located outside the floodplain. The price differentials range from $5,000 to $11,000 for houses 

sold between $50,000 and $225,000. Moreover, these price differentials are greater than the 

present value of the future flood insurance costs. The cost of a house in the floodplain is due to 

more than the cost of flood insurance. An average house located in a floodplain is discounted by 

6.6 percent of the property value, while the capitalized insurance premium value represents 

approximately 4 percent of the house’s selling price. The discounted value indicates that house 

buyers perceive substantial non-insurable costs associated with flooding events and location in 

SFHAs. 

Deloitte & Touche. (1999). Evaluation of the National Flood Insurance Program’s 

Underwriting and Loss Adjustment Processes. New York, NY: Deloitte and Touche. 
64

Keywords: 

insurance claims, insurance coverage, liability, NFIP

Abstract: This report provides recommendations to improve the NFIP’s operations by 

identifying practical changes to the underwriting/rating and claims processes and to FIA’s 

controls. Although the NFIP’s requirements and controls (and compliance with them) were 

found to be generally adequate to ensure effective management of the NFIP, and the degree of 

compliance with NFIP underwriting/rating and claims requirements is adequate, areas for 

improvement were noted in four major functional categories: operational/communications, 

underwriting, claim/loss adjusting, and financial reporting/audit. These functional areas 

correspond to areas in which opportunities for improvements in the process and controls areas 

were detected. 

Deloitte & Touche. (1999). NFIP Financial Stabilization Project. New York, NY: Deloitte 

and Touche. 

Keywords: 

economic modeling, NFIP, risk financing, strategic planning

Abstract: FEMA hired Deloitte & Touche to investigate alternatives to current financing from 

the Department of the Treasury for the NFIP. This report details the consultant’s findings on risk 

financing and options for risk transfer, including the identification and interviewing of 

organizations with relevant option and commercial financing experience. The report discusses 

the development of a stochastic model using underlying FIA assumptions to simulate the NFIP’s 

total financing costs over a ten-year period. The total financing activity and stabilization effect 

(i.e., variability) of the following eight scenarios are reviewed: (a) bank financing; (b) financial 

reinsurance; (c) catastrophe bonds – interest and principal at risk; (d) catastrophe bonds - interest 

at risk; (e) program capitalization; (f) funding the premium differential; (g) Treasury financing; 

and (h) capitalization from congressional appropriations. The document concludes that the first 

four scenarios, which involve commercial financing activities, add costs to the NFIP’s 

operations. It also concludes that scenario iii would be the least expensive (99 percent 

nonexceedence level). The economic value of scenarios i and ii varied depending on the 

nonexceedence level reviewed. Scenario i was the least expensive at low exceedence levels due 

to the 100 basis-point fee charged on the unused bank facility. Scenario ii is the least expensive 

at the mid-exceedence levels. The remaining scenarios include congressional appropriations and 

assume appropriations are provided on an interest-free basis.

Dewberry & Davis and URS Greiner Woodward Clyde Federal Services. (1999). Economic 

Evaluation of Substantially Damaged Structures Funded through the Hazard Mitigation 

Grant Program. Washington, DC: FEMA. 

Keywords: 

buyouts, cost-benefit analysis, Hazard Mitigation Grant Program, mitigation, substantial damage, 

Abstract: This report summarizes the results of cost-benefit analyses performed on structures 

declared as substantially damaged under FEMA’s Hazard Mitigation Grant Program (HMGP). 

These structures have been exempted from a cost-benefit analysis since FEMA issued a 

memorandum in late 1996. Cost-benefit analyses were performed for 1,979 acquired structures in 

all 10 of FEMA’s regions. The analyses show the cost effectiveness of FEMA’s exemption 

policy for each of FEMA’s 10 regions, with ratios of benefits to costs ranging from 1.06 to 6.10 

and averaging 2.21. A supplement to the report details the information and assumptions used to 
65

perform the cost-benefit analyses for the substantially damaged structures, presents the results of 

a theoretical study of the effect of storm frequency on cost-benefit analysis, and supports the 

findings of the theoretical study with data from the cost-benefit analyses for the substantially 

damaged structures. 

Di Silvestro, Roger. (1997). What’s Killing the Key Deer? National Wildlife Magazine, 

February/March 1997, 25-43. 

Available at: http://www.findarticles.com/p/articles/mi_m1169/is_n2_v35/ai_19046731

Keywords: 

environmental impacts, environmental policy, floodplain management, Florida, legal issues and 

litigation, subsidies 

Abstract: The article describes the arguments of the National Wildlife Federation for protection 

of the National Key Deer Refuge, home to an endangered subspecies of white-tailed deer in the 

Florida Keys, from development. In all, 16 endangered species inhabit the area facing 

development pressure. The controversy over the Key Deer’s habitat has existed for at least 60 

years. In the 1950’s, the species population had sunk to an estimated 50 animals, in part because 

of uncontrolled hunting. Since then, the population has fluctuated, but remains at no more than 

300 animals. Most recently, attorneys hired by the conservationists attempted to obtain an 

injunction to halt construction of a road approved by Monroe County commissioners. The main 

environmental hazards facing the Key Deer are roads and motor vehicles, mosquito ditches, 

fragmented habitat, housing developments, and dogs. In the opinion of the author, developers 

have not faced significant opposition from county commissioners when undertaking 

development activities harmful to the Key Deer population due to their political clout. The 

author also criticizes the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service (FWS) for failing to designate critical 

habitats for the deer, leaving commissioners without clear guidelines for action. The author cites 

the struggle of the Key Deer as an illustration of the consequences of weak implementation of 

the Endangered Species Act. Recently however, several positive developments have encouraged 

conservationists. The Florida Keys were designated an Area of Critical State Concern, making 

decisions by county commissioners subject to state scrutiny. The Florida Department of 

Community Affairs instructed the county to revise a proposed comprehensive plan to account for 

growth pressures. Finally, the National Wildlife Federation won a 1994 court case against FEMA 

for failing to consult with FWS to determine whether subsidies by the NFIP encouraged 

development that might harm deer. 

Diggins, William. (1980). Necessary decisions? Disaster mitigation policy on the local level. 

Paper presented at the American Sociological Association Annual Meeting, New York, NY, 

August 27-31. Washington, DC: American Sociological Association. 

Keywords:

attitudes, mitigation, public policy, risk communication 

Abstract: A model of administrative decision making in local communities is tested for the case 

of land-use and building regulations implemented to mitigate flood risks. This model implies that 

the extent of the problem in the community causes local decision makers to perceive the problem 

as being serious, this then causes appropriate decisions to be made to alleviate the problem. 

Multiple regression analysis of flood data from the Red Cross and interviews with 432 mayors 

and council members in 100 local communities shows that the extent of the flood problem in 

local communities has positive effects on the officials’ perceptions of the extent and seriousness 
66

of the local flood problem. However, these factors have little effect on the officials’ attitudes 

toward policies affecting the mitigation of flood risks. 

Disaster Mitigation Research Working Group. (2002). Benefits of flood mitigation in 

Australia: Report 106. Canberra, Australia: Bureau of Transport and Regional Economics. 

Available at: http://www.btre.gov.au/docs/reports/r106/r106.pdf

Keywords: 

Australia, cost-benefit analysis, economic impacts, mitigation 

Abstract: This working group examined the realized economic benefits of flood mitigation 

activities with a literature review, consultations with key planners, and case studies of areas with 

repeated past flooding. The case studies examined individual mitigation measures (land use 

planning, voluntary purchase, building controls, sealed roads, and levees) in specific locales and 

yielded quantitative data to suggest Australia’s various flood mitigation measures created 

substantial, tangible savings. The report includes dollar amounts for each measure in each locale. 

At the same time, the enumerated savings reported are likely to underestimate the full benefit of 

flood mitigation because intangible savings (like reduced stress) cannot be quantified. More 

broadly, the report identified a number of important points related to the benefits of mitigation: 

there is a trend toward nonstructural mitigation solutions; levees appear to have been effective in 

preventing substantial damage; altering the way infrastructure is designed and constructed can be 

very cost-effective; mitigation solutions must be tailored to their location in order to be 

successful; community awareness and preparedness play an important role in determining the 

success of mitigation; equity and perceived fairness are powerful factors in community 

acceptance; and finally that drainage and storm water issues are closely linked to other flood 

issues, regardless of the source of flooding (e.g., storm surge or cyclones). 

Dixon, L.S. (1990). Inclusion of wetlands in designated floodway studies. In 

Hydraulics/Hydrology of Arid Lands (H2AL). New York, NY: American Society of Civil 

Engineers. 

Keywords:

environmental protection, hydrology and hydraulics, wetlands 

Abstract: The traditional methods and procedures used by hydrologists and hydraulic engineers 

to define floodways and floodway fringe areas are changed so that designated floodways are 

adjusted to encompass wetlands, resulting in better protection of the nation’s diminishing 

wetlands and a reduction in development problems due to permit requirements pursuant to 

Section 404 of the Clean Water Act. Hydrologic studies to define floodways and floodway fringe 

areas are an important tool in the management of floodplains. A minimum standard for defining 

floodways has been developed under the NFIP. Implementation of more stringent standards is a 

local community decision. By proposing the inclusion of wetlands in the determination of 

designated floodways, hydrologists and hydraulic engineers have an opportunity to contribute to 

the protection of wetlands and to assist in better defining floodway fringe areas available for 

development.

Dlugolecki, Andrew. (2003). Challenging Insurability: An International Perspective. Paper 

presented at CARR Workshop on Flood Management and Insurance Regulation. London, 

December 4-5, 2003. London: London School of Economics. 

Keywords: 
67

climate change, insurance industry, public policy 

Abstract: The presentation compares insurance schemes in various European countries and the 

United States, assesses their strengths and weaknesses, and outlines options for both the 

insurance industry and floodplain management. Current arrangements vary widely between 

countries. In France for instance, flood insurance is provided by the government, but 

administered by the private market and activated only in the case of official disasters. The author 

sees the strength of flood insurance to be the efficient transfer of risk and the involvement of 

many public and private sectors parties. However, he points out that 80 percent of flood losses 

are uninsured, and the poor and those agricultural owners have little or no access to the flood 

insurance market. The author also sees climate change as having a drastic, long-term effect on 

the magnitude and variability of flood disasters, with implications for flood risk. The author 

favors an approach that emphasizes collaboration and layers of protection from flood risk. 

Donnelly, William A. (1989). Hedonic price analysis of the effect of a floodplain on 

property values. Water Resources Bulletin, 25(3), 581-6. 

Keywords:

economic modeling, housing markets, property values 

Abstract: The effects of a floodplain location on the market value for property are controversial, 

with the conventional wisdom being that buyers are myopic. Previous statistical tests have 

proven inconclusive in deciding the issue. Herein, a theoretical model, that of hedonic price 

indexes, is posited and tested, using housing sales characteristics data obtained from a Multiple 

Listing Service. This study suggests that home buyers do adjust the purchase price for houses 

within a floodplain, and this amounts to, on average, just over 12 percent. The data come from a 

small town in the Midwest where the last severe flooding occurred a decade ago. 

Douglas, James, M. and Brad Hail. (1986). Risk information for floodplain management. 

Journal of Water Resources Planning and Management, 112(4). 

Keywords

communication, risk assessment

Abstract: The United States began structural flood measures in the 1950s and added 

complementary nonstructural measures in the 1950s. Nevertheless, national flood damage totals 

continue to increase. Reversal of this trend will require better communication among regulatory 

agencies, experts assessing risk, and floodplain occupants. Modern technology provides tools to 

measure specific risks and communicate the hazards of property loss and personal dangers to 

individuals able to reduce the losses. One problem with the existing communication, based on a 

safety standard tied to the 1 percent annual chance floodplain, is that some locations in the 1 

percent annual chance floodplain are subject to only trivial damage by shallow flooding, while 

other locations outside that boundary are subject to major devastation and threats of drowning by 

floods that could be as common as the true 25-year event. Systematic estimation and 

dissemination of the risk of economic loss can reduce flood losses, vary community programs 

with the hazard to life and property, and help every floodplain occupant accommodate more 

effectively with his site-specific problem. 

Downton, Mary W. and Roger A. Pielke, Jr. (2001). Discretion without accountability: 

Politics, flood damage, and climate. Natural Hazards Review, 2(4) 157-66. 

Keywords: 
68

disaster assistance, public policy 

Abstract: Federal disaster assistance is one component of U.S. policy for coping with damaging 

floods. The president ultimately determines whether federal relief is provided to states and local 

communities following a disaster, yet guidelines governing the president’s discretion are vague

and the total federal cost of disaster assistance is difficult to determine. This study analyzes 

flood-related presidential disaster declarationsfrom 1965 to 1997. It compares the annual number 

of flood-related declarations to measures of precipitation and flood damage, finding that 

presidents have differed significantly in disaster declaration policy. Annual differences in 

declarations during seven presidential administrations do not correspond to the president’s 

political party affiliation. In addition, a state’s ability to pay has not been a major consideration 

in presidential decisions about whether a disaster warrants federal assistance. However,

presidential decisions are related to whether the president is running for reelection. Declarations 

are also related to changesin legislative and administrative policy. This article discusses the 

significance of these findings in the context of national policies governing floods and other 

disasters.

Driscoll, Paul and Michael B. Salwen. (1996). Riding out the storm: Public evaluations of 

news coverage of Hurricane Andrew. International Journal of Mass Emergencies and 

Disasters, 14(3), 293-303. 

Available for purchase at: http://www.usc.edu/schools/sppd/ijmed/purchase.html

Keywords:

Florida, Hurricane Andrew, media, risk communication, risk perception 

Abstract: Residents of South Florida who experienced Hurricane Andrew evaluated the 

credibility of the hurricane-related information from television as more trustworthy than that 

from other sources. Contrary to what was hypothesized, the broadcast medium of television (but 

not radio) was evaluated on the dimension of expertise as being higher than newspapers. As 

predicted, interpersonal sources were judged high on trustworthiness, but much lower on 

expertise than any of the mass media sources. The findings indicate that when people wanted 

factual information and self-help information, they expressed reservations about the credibility of 

other people (friends, neighbors, or relatives). In such cases, there was a marked tendency to 

place emphasis (or faith) in television. 

Dunn, S., R. Friedman, and S. Baish. (2000). Coastal erosion: Evaluating the risk. 

Environment, 42(7), 36-45. 

Available at: http://www.findarticles.com/p/articles/mi_m1076/is_7_42/ai_64718895

Keywords:

coastal areas, erosion, risk communication 

Abstract: This article discusses the risk to property in the United States from coastal erosion. 

Coastal erosion caused by rising sea levels, large storms, and powerful ocean waves is wearing 

away the 10,000 miles of shoreline along U.S. oceans and the Great Lakes and could destroy 

85,000 houses over the next 60 years. In March, the H. John Heinz III Center for Science, 

Economics, and the Environment completed a nationwide study of the effect of erosion on the 

NFIP and other federal programs and on coastal communities. The findings suggest that property 

owners must be informed of the erosion risks that they face. Furthermore, erosion risk must be 

included in local land-use planning, state coastal management, and private and public lending 

and insurance practices. 
69

Durrin, Robert. (1995). Proposal: Elevation Certificate Program – FEMA’s Best Option for 

NFIP Community Compliance. Atlanta, GA: FEMA Region IV. 

NOTE: A staff member from FEMA Region IV developed this paper and his views do not 

represent those of FEMA Region IV or FIMA. 

Keywords: 

compliance, elevation certificates, enforcement, insurance, insurance premiums, risk 

management, risk perception 

Abstract: Nearly 30 years since its inception, the NFIP has experienced a relatively low level of 

compliance and a high level of recurring problems. This report recommends the implementation 

of a program by FEMA and the states to collect and inventory data in order to establish 

compliance with the NFIP and reduce losses in flood-prone communities. Specifically, the 

program would involve the use of complete, current, and accurate elevation certificates on all 

buildings in a Special Flood Hazard Area (SFHA). An accurate and certified elevation certificate 

can indicate whether a community is correctly applying its ordinance and is complying with the 

NFIP. Furthermore, an accurate and certified elevation certificate explains the risk associated 

with the building so that it may be actuarially rated. The ultimate goal is for a building’s 

insurance rate to be commensurate with its risk. In order to achieve this goal, FEMA and the 

NFIP must reprioritize their resources by placing new emphasis on defining risk on a buildingby-building basis. In addition, the proposed program of elevation certificates will allow FEMA 

to identify where compliance problems exist and to solve those problems with relevant training. 

Attached to the report is a draft of a study on Expedient Elevation Certificates of pre-FIRM 

houses in Louisville and Jefferson County, KY, prepared by Dewberry & Davis. 

Dymon, Ute J. (1999). Effectiveness of Geographic Information Systems (GIS) Applications 

in Flood Management During and After Hurricane Fran. Quick Response Report #114. 

Boulder, CO: Natural Hazards Center. 

Available at: http://www.colorado.edu/hazards/qr/qr114.html

Keywords: 

geographic information systems, Hurricane Fran, North Carolina 

Abstract: The report presents Hurricane Fran in North Carolina as a successful case study of the 

use of GIS in a disaster management operation. Hurricane Fran hit the North Carolina coastline 

in September 1996, causing close to $4 billion in damages. Previous research has found that 

many emergency managers did not accept the use of GIS during Hurricane Andrew. GIS maps 

were used to show the historic extent of hurricane storm surge inundation for coastal counties in 

North Carolina and lands susceptible to flood inundation according to the severity of different 

hurricane categories. In the disaster field office, first responders, federal agencies, and the 

emergency community at large used GIS to monitor and report weather conditions, physical 

conditions, such as debris removal, and population conditions. GIS was also crucial to matching 

georeferenced addresses of people requesting funds for repairs to DFIRMs representing NFIP 

zones and coverage to determine the eligibility of those applying for NFIP funds. The report 

concludes that federal and state agencies have accepted the use of GIS since Hurricane Andrew 

and that the use of GIS has facilitated the efficient dissemination and coordination of field 

information. 
70

Ellig, Jerry. (2000). Learning from the Leaders: Results-Based Management at the Federal 

Emergency Management Agency. Arlington, VA: Mercatus Center, George Mason 

University. 

Available at: http://www.mercatus.org/pdf/materials/189.pdf

Keywords: 

agency operations and management, federal programs 

Abstract: FEMA has won widespread praise for its reinvention efforts. Lawmakers who once 

talked of abolishing the agency now compliment it. The results of specific measures also 

highlight the agency’s success. For example, in fiscal 1998, FEMA took an average of 8 days to 

get relief checks to disaster victims, down from 10 days in 1997 and a high of 20 days in 1992. 

Enforcement of the NFIP’s building standards prevents flood losses of $750 million annually. 

This document discusses FEMA’s organization and operations and how the agency undertook 

initiatives to better serve its customers. A careful analysis reveals that no single variable explains 

FEMA’s success. Rather, the agency improved its results through a collection of different but 

related management reforms. The agency did a number of things right at the same time, and the 

results for the whole exceeded the sum of the parts. 

Emani, Srinivas and Jeanne X. Kasperson. (1996). Disaster communication via the 

information superhighway: Data and observations on the 1995 hurricane season. 

International Journal of Mass Emergencies and Disasters, 14(3), 321-42. 

Keywords:

Florida, Hurricane Opal, media, risk communication, risk perception 

Abstract: Although researchers and practitioners have been using the Internet to communicate 

information on disasters, few systematic studies have assessed the type of information that is or 

should be communicated via this medium. This paper presents an exploratory, yet systematic, 

study of FEMA’s coverage of the 1995 hurricane season via e-mail and the Internet. An 

overview analysis of the 1995 season shows that FEMA distributed 184 e-mail messages of 

which 138 were hurricane-related and 46 were nonhurricane-related. Following this overview 

analysis, a case study is presented of FEMA’s coverage of Hurricane Opal, which was associated 

with significant impacts in Florida. The focus of analysis in the case study is a type of e-mail 

message called the situation report (sitrep), which FEMA used to communicate information on 

disasters. The number, timing, and content of sitreps that FEMA issued for Hurricane Opal are 

analyzed and the results used to discuss the agency's communication efforts via the Internet.

Emergency Management Australia. (1999). Guide 3: Managing the Floodplain. Australian 

Emergency Manuals Series. Canberra, Australia: Emergency Management Australia. 

Available at: 

http://www.ema.gov.au/agd/ema/rwpattach.nsf/viewasattachmentPersonal/0DABEFD18E48244

0CA256C8A001C0E2D/$file/MANAGING_THE_FLOODPLAIN.PDF

Keywords: 

Australia, flood causes, floodplain management 

Abstract: The guide is one of four Flood Guides sponsored by Emergency Management 

Australia to improve Australia’s reaction to flood hazard. The goal of this guide is to foster better 

integration of the floodplain management planning process and the flood emergency planning 

process. In particular, the Guide aims to acquaint personnel from local government, emergency 

service agencies, and other agencies with opportunities to contribute to and obtain useful 
71

information from the floodplain management planning process. This guide presents a variety of 

principles and practices concerning our current knowledge and understanding of how best to 

undertake floodplain management in Australia. 

Environment Agency. (2001). Lessons Learned: Autumn 2000 Floods. Bristol: Environment 

Agency. 

Keywords: 

disaster planning, England, flood control, risk communication, structural approaches, 

Abstract: The report evaluates the reaction of the Environment Agency (EA) to the autumn 

2000 floods, which affected 10,000 properties at 700 different locations, with a total cost of ₤1 

billion. The floods challenged the adequacy of existing building standards and demonstrated the 

need for improved coordination and increased contingency planning. Also, the public was 

confused by organizations responsible for different sources of flooding, such as surface water 

sewers, streams, and rivers, and needed a single source of reliable information. However, EA has 

made advances in flood forecasting, warning, and response. For instance, 280,000 properties 

benefited from structural flood mitigation, and an emergency effort to distribute sandbags 

protected another 37,000 properties. The report recommends EA consolidate flood warning 

messages into a single EA hotline, expand the ways in which to warn property owners in highrisk areas, engage in comprehensive disaster contingency planning, and increase investment in 

structural mitigation. 

The Environment, Transport and Regional Affairs Committee. Second Report: 

Development On, Or Affecting, The Floodplain. London: United Kingdom Parliament. 

Available at: 

http://www.publications.parliament.uk/pa/cm200001/cmselect/cmenvtra/64/6405.htm

Keywords: 

England, floodplain designation, floodplain management, public policy 

Abstract: Following the 1998 floods in England, the Agriculture Committee issued a report 

entitled Flood and Coastal Defence in which it made a number of recommendations about 

floodplain development, particularly that “clear presumption should be made against future 

developments in flood plain plan where the flooding risk attached to a particular development (as 

determined by the Environment Agency) is deemed to outweigh the benefits.” In response to this 

report, the Environment, Transport and Regional Affairs Committee strongly supported the 

minister’s proposal that building on the functional flood plain should be avoided. The report’s 

recommendation for the final report is that it should indicate clearly the thresholds which will 

determine the choice of one or another planning response. The most stringent planning response 

should stipulate that no facilities for emergency services be permitted in the floodplain and that 

only exceptional development should be allowed in the floodplain. 

European Environment Agency. (2001). Sustainable Water Use in Europe – Part 3: Extreme 

Hydrological Events: Flood and Droughts. Copenhagen, Denmark: European Environment 

Agency. 

Available at: http://reports.eea.eu.int/Environmental_Issues_No_21/en/enviissue21.pdf

Keywords: 

environmental policy, Europe, flood causes, mitigation, public policy 
72

Abstract: During the 25-year period between 1971 and 1995, there were 154 major floods in 

Europe, and in 1996 alone there were nine flooding events. This report presents an overview of 

the main natural and artificial causes and impacts of extreme hydrological events, such as floods 

and droughts, in European countries. Flooding and its impacts are often influenced by a 

combination of natural factors and human interference. The main driving forces (pressures) that 

induce or intensify floods and their impacts include climate change, land sealing, changes in the 

use of catchments and floodplains, population growth, urbanization and increasing settlement, 

roads and railways, and hydraulic engineering measures. In addition to a discussion of these 

aforementioned pressures, the European Environment Agency (EEA) reviews recent floods in 

Europe and the structural and nonstructural responses to those floods. An appendix details 

specific examples of flood prevention and alleviation measures applied in Europe. The report 

also discusses the driving forces, pressures, impacts, and responses concerning droughts. 

Evatt, Dixie Shipp. (1999). National Flood Insurance Program: Issues Assessment. 

Washington, DC: FEMA. 

Keywords: 

compliance, development, floodplain management, insurance, NFIP, public policy 

Abstract: After 30 years, is the NFIP fulfilling its dual missions of promoting positive decisions 

regarding land use and of reducing the overall public portion of recovery costs due to flooding? 

This evaluation examined 36 studies and reports published between 1976 and 1998, which 

explored the relationship between floodplain development and insurance availability. The 

studies, which often reach contradictory conclusions, represent products of various disciplines—

law, geography, sociology, and economics. None of the studies offers irrefutable evidence that 

the availability of flood insurance is a primary factor in floodplain development. Neither does the 

empirical evidence lend itself to the opposite conclusion. Taken as a whole, several themes 

emerge. For example, while the NFIP may not represent the primary cause of development in 

environmentally sensitive areas, the program does little to discourage development. Based on her 

review and analysis of the literature, the author recommends a comprehensive evaluation of the 

NFIP and a consideration of the program’s central questions in the larger context of public 

policy. 

Evatt, Dixie S. (2000). Does the National Flood Insurance Program Drive Floodplain 

Development? Journal of Insurance Regulation, 18(4), 497-523. 

NOTE: This article is adapted from a 1999 report National Flood Insurance Program: Issues 

Assessment, which also appears in the bibliography. 

Keywords: 

NFIP, development, floodplain management 

Abstract: This article reviews and summarizes 36 studies that assess whether the NFIP has 

influenced development in floodplains. The author provides an historical perspective of the 

NFIP, lists factors to be considered about the program, and identifies the consequences of 

outlawing federal insurance for units of the Coastal Barrier Resources System. Overall, the 

literature reviewed provides insufficient empirical evidence to support the popular belief that the 

NFIP is a primary factor in floodplain development today and does not lend itself to the opposite 

conclusion either. 
73

Eves, Chris. (2002). The Impact of Flooding on Residential Property Values in England. 

Paper presented at 9th European Real Estate Society Conference. Glasgow, Scotland, June 4-

7, 2002. 

Keywords: 

awareness, England, insurance industry, property values 

Abstract: 

Severe flooding throughout England in 1998 and 2000 saw an increase in the extent of flood 

prone areas, and the levels of flood damage. The increased cost of flooding has caused concern 

among residential insurance and housing finance industries, as well as property appraisal and 

leasing agency professionals. The report presents the results of a survey to determine the degree 

of flooding, the effect of flooding on residential property values, the impact of flooding on 

building insurance premiums and obstacles to financing property in floodprone areas. There are 

currently two million residential, commercial and rural properties in England in floodprone 

areas. More than 50 percent of residents of floodprone areas are unaware that their property may 

be threatened by flooding. Among the prospective homeowner, the chartered surveyor, and the 

financier, the prospective homeowner is the least likely party to consider the affect of flooding 

when purchasing a property in a floodprone area. As a result of the 2000 floods in England, 

residential property exposed to the flood hazard experienced a decline in value. However, the 

amount of the decline varied by community. In areas where flood insurance was difficult to 

obtain, the impact on residential values was more significant than in those areas in which it was 

easy to obtain. 

Eves, Chris. (2002). The Long-term Impact of Flooding on Residential Property Values. 

Property Management, 20(4), 214-27. 

Keywords: 

Australia, housing markets, property values 

Abstract: The study analyzes residential property sales in floodprone areas and compares prices 

between 1984 and 2000 with similar properties in immediately adjacent areas not affected by 

flooding. Similar to earlier studies, the study found that floodprone properties have less value 

than similar properties that are not floodprone. However, the difference in price was not constant 

over the 17-year period, but varied depending on how recently flooding had occurred: the 

difference in housing price was found to be greatest following a period of heavy flooding, and 

tended to diminish when flooding had been minimal. The study also found that in periods of 

strong or weak property markets, the percentage increases in prices were similar for floodprone 

and non-floodprone properties alike. 

Faber, Scott. (1996). Managing Watersheds to Reduce Flood Losses. In Proceedings of the 

Watershed 1996 Conference, Baltimore, MD, June 8-12, 1996. Washington, DC: U.S. 

Environmental Protection Agency. 

Available at http://www.epa.gov/owow/watershed/Proceed/proceed96all.pdf 

Keywords: 

floodplain management 

Abstract: The document contains the proceedings of the conference Watershed '96, with 

approximately 2,000 participants from public education, government, state and local groups, 

public and privately owned utilities, environmental groups, researchers, public policy experts, 

and more. The program included eight technical workshops to educate watershed professionals, a 
74

watershed festival that highlighted 30 activities that might be adapted for local festivals, an 

education symposium targeting the interests of both the professional and the public, and a series 

of stakeholder workshops that helped participants identify, prioritize, negotiate, and resolve a 

range of issues related to watershed management. Eighty technical sessions involving over 340 

speakers provided comprehensive technical information on the watershed approach, economic 

and social considerations, decision-making and management regimes, and watershed 

enhancement tools. The conference also included discussions with presenters, poster sessions, 

and a technology demonstration area. Field trips examined many local watershed efforts up-close 

at various locations including the Patuxent River Watershed, Chesapeake Farms Sustainable 

Agricultural Project, Kenilworth March Restoration, and Alexandria, Virginia’s Delaware Sand 

Filter, Underground Sand Filter, and Bio-Retention Filters. 

Faber, Scott. (1996). On Borrowed Land: Public Policies for Floodplains. Cambridge, MA: 

Lincoln Institute of Land Policy. 

Available for purchase at: http://www.lincolninst.edu/pubs/pub-detail.asp?id=13

Keywords: 

development, economic impacts, environmental policy, floodplain management, Midwest floods 

of 1993, mitigation, public policy, risk communication 

Abstract: Flooding is a natural hydrologic occurrence, but flood-related damage to property and 

the risks to human life are exacerbated by urban growth and other intensive development in 

floodplains. The conventional response has been to construct ever-larger flood control systems, 

but floodplains are not fixed and they defy simply structural solutions. This report summarizes 

key points from a conference of policy experts and local elected officials to draw land-related 

lessons from the disastrous experience of flooding. The report considers ecological, economic, 

and legal issues of land use in floodplains through case studies of local responses to the 

disastrous 1993 floods in the Midwest, as well as other river basin management programs around 

the country. 

Faber, Scott and Constance Hunt. (1994). River management post-1993: The choice is ours. 

Water Resources Update, 95(Spring), 21-5. 

Available at: http://www.ucowr.siu.edu/updates/pdf/V95_A4.pdf

Keywords: 

environmental restoration, Midwest floods of 1993, Mississippi River, riverine areas

Abstract: Largely the result of hydrologic alterations, the upper Mississippi River basin has 

become destabilized and is no longer physically compatible with its climate. The river is 

experiencing higher and more frequent flood stages and lower flows during dry seasons. The 

result is an unpredictable river that can flood farmhouses miles from its normal channels during 

floods and render barges marooned during droughts. Due to the Midwest floods of 1993, the 

opportunity is in hand to reverse current watershed management and restore some of the natural 

conditions that made the Mississippi River an unusually rich ecosystem. This article considers 

the policy implications of these floods focusing on changing the funding priorities on the federal 

level to favor programs that enhance the ability of the landscape to retain and filter water with 

their floodplains and programs that provide technical and financial assistance to landowners for 

wetland restoration. 
75

Faupel, Charles E., Susan P. Kelley, and Thomas Petee. (1992). The impact of disaster 

education on household preparedness for Hurricane Hugo. International Journal of Mass 

Emergencies and Disasters, 10(1), 5-24. 

Keywords:

Hurricane Hugo, risk communication, risk perception, South Carolina 

Abstract: This article studies the impact of disaster education on hurricane preparedness among 

residents in Charleston, SC. The article examines: (a) the impact of participation in disaster 

education programs generally; (b) the impact of hurricane experience as a type of education; and 

(c) the impact of participation in earthquake specific education programs to determine whether 

there is any transference of knowledge across agent types. Two indices of preparedness are used: 

household planning activities and adaptive response activities. Participation in some type of 

disaster education program was strongly related to the preparedness measures. Hurricane 

experience had some minimal effect on adaptive response but not on household planning. 

Participation in the earthquake specific education programs was not a significant predictor when 

controlling for other variables. 

FEMA. (1979). Economic Feasibility of Floodproofing: Analysis of a Small Commercial 

Building. Washington, DC: Government Printing Office. 

Keywords: 

economic impacts, floodproofing, Pennsylvania 

Abstract: The report examines the costs of floodproofing a new commercial building in Jersey 

Shore, PA, and concludes that floodproofing is not unduly costly. The study evaluated three 

potential floodproofing solutions – building raised on fill, building raised on columns, and 

building raised on fill with watertight enclosures – ranging in cost from $35,912 to $89,732. 

Floodproofing increased the cost of construction between 6 and 16 percent. By calculating the 

present value of the reduction in insurance premium over 20 years, the study was able to obtain 

benefit/cost ratios for each of the three floodproofing solutions. The benefit-cost ratios were 5.96 

for building raised on fill, 2.48 for building raised on columns, and 2.31 for the building that 

combined fill and watertight enclosures. Benefits were also estimated through the reduction in 

flood losses. Average annual flood losses – estimated at $13,834 prior to floodproofing – were 

reduced by from 85 to 92 percent through floodproofing solutions. The reduced need for federal 

flood disaster relief was not included in calculations. Findings from this case study can hopefully 

be approximated to the nation and provide solid evidence of the feasibility of floodproofing. 

FEMA. (1979). The Floodway: A Guide for Community Permit Officials. Washington, DC: 

Government Printing Office. 

Keywords: 

Base Flood Elevation, compliance, development, enforcement, floodplain management, 

floodway, mapping, mobile homes, permits 

Abstract: The purpose of the floodway is to reserve the central part of the floodplain, to ensure 

that some part of the floodplain will remain open to carry floodwaters efficiently. Floodway 

regulations are one of the most complex aspects of the NFIP. This guidebook is designed to 

provide community officials with an explanation of the floodway and provide guidance for 

regulating the floodway. Specific topics include the use of a Flood Boundary – Floodway Map, 

role of the development permit, evaluation of the permit, regulation of mobile homes in the 

floodway, and regulation of existing structures in the floodway. 
76

FEMA. (1980). Alternatives for Implementing Substantial Improvement Definitions. 

Washington, DC: FEMA. 

Keywords: 

economic impacts, enforcement, environmental impacts, substantial improvement 

Abstract: This study estimated the magnitude of activity related to substantial improvement and 

to examine the effectiveness of the regulatory approach under the NFIP in reducing flood risk to 

existing property. The study concludes that the magnitude of substantial improvement is quite 

small in relation to the magnitude of new construction. Vigorous enforcement of the NFIP’s 

substantial improvement regulations, therefore, will not have as significant an effect, in terms of 

overall reduction of flood damage, as will application of the NFIP’s regulations for new 

construction. The study also concludes that for a variety of reasons, participating communities 

have not enforced substantial improvement regulations in regard to non damage-related 

improvements. This conclusion raises questions about using a regulation to reduce the potential 

flood damage of existing structures. 

FEMA. (1980). Elevating to the wave crest level: A benefit-cost analysis. Washington, DC: 

FEMA. 

Keywords: 

Base Flood Elevation, building codes, coastal areas, cost-benefit analysis, Hurricane Frederic

Abstract: Prior to Hurricane Frederic, the NFIP required new construction in coastal high hazard 

areas to be elevated with the lowest floor at or above the storm surge stillwater level. Damage to 

new construction during Frederic led to an evaluation of elevating the lowest floor to the wave 

crest level. The engineering and economic analyses concluded that elevating a new house to the 

wave crest level associated with 1 percent annual chance flood storm surge reduces both flood 

loss potential and flood insurance premiums, each of which more than offsets the added costs to 

elevate to that height.

FEMA. (1981). Evaluation of Alternative Means of Implementing Section 1362 of the 

National Flood Insurance Act of 1968. Washington, DC: FEMA. 

Keywords: 

buyouts, federal programs, mitigation, Section 1362 

Abstract: This study focuses principally on Section 1362 (a) of the National Flood Insurance 

Act, undertaking to 1) identify and explore alternative means for its implementation; 2) estimate 

the number of structures potentially eligible for purchase under it; 3) identify the effects of 

Section 1362 on individuals and communities; 4) identify its relation to other federal policies and 

programs; and 5) estimate the federal costs associated with the purchase of flooded properties. 

Acquisition under Section 1362 can assist communities to achieve their comprehensive 

community development goals, while simultaneously making wise use of their floodplains, 

correcting past mistakes in development, as well as reducing losses from floods. It is estimated 

that the number of properties that will become eligible and available for acquisition through 

Section 1362 will rise from 1,600 in 1981 to about 2,000 in 2000. In 1979 dollars the federal cost 

of purchasing these properties would rise from $21 to $27 million. The program should be 

carried out in close cooperation with states and local communities and, for greatest effectiveness, 

should be closely coordinated with related federal programs. (Note: the National Flood Insurance 
77

Reform Act of 1994 repealed Section 1362 and replaced it with Section 1366, which established 

the current Flood Mitigation Assistance (FMA) Program.) 

FEMA. (1982). 1982 Flood Hazard Management Conference Summary Report: New State 

and Federal Directions in the Evolving Flood Program. Washington, DC: FEMA. 

Keywords: 

building codes, coastal areas, dams, development, floodplain management, insurance, insurance 

claims, levees, mitigation, nonstructural approaches, structural approaches 

Abstract: This third annual conference addressed the expanding role of states in implementing 

the floodplain management policies of the NFIP. In keeping with the theme “New State and 

Federal Directions in the Evolving Flood Program,” the conference endeavored to convey 

FEMA’s concept of the current state of the program as responsibilities devolve from the federal 

to the state level. The plenary sessions and workshops addressed such varied topics as the recent 

accomplishments and future direction of the State and Local Programs Directorate and FIA, 

coastal issues, interstate sharing of personnel during flood disasters, floodplain management in 

rural areas, and how insurance and hazard mitigation complement each other. For example, 

participants in the workshop on floodplain management in rural areas discussed the fact that rural 

communities have a high percentage of unnumbered A Zones that need to be determined for 

purposes of floodplain management. This publication presents the minutes or summaries, in 

various forms, of the addresses from the plenary sessions and workshops. 

FEMA. (1982). National Flood Insurance Programs Act. Washington, DC: FEMA. 

Keywords: 

federal programs, legislation, NFIP 

Abstract: This publication presents an update of the consolidated laws governing all aspects of 

the NFIP. The document covers the program responsibilities of both FIA (insurance) and the 

State and Local Programs and Support Directorate (floodplain management and engineering). 

FEMA. (1983). The 100-Year Base Flood Standard and the Floodplain Management 

Executive Order: A Review Prepared for the Office of Management and Budget by the Federal 

Emergency Management Agency. Washington, DC: FEMA. 

Keywords: 

compliance, federal programs, floodplain management, 1 percent annual chance flood standard 

Abstract: In 1982, the Office of Management and Budget (OMB) directed FEMA to investigate 

whether federal agencies are complying with the requirements of Executive Order 11988 and 

determine what impact the order is having on the level of federal support in SFHAs and to 

review the use of the 1 percent annual chance flood standard used in implementing the order and 

other federal flood hazard reduction programs. This report presents a historical overview of the 

need for and development of a national flood hazard reduction program and a standard for 

implementing that program, the findings of the review of the 1 percent annual chance flood 

standard and EO 11988, and FEMA’s conclusions and recommendations based upon that review. 

For example, FEMA concludes that the 1 percent annual chance -year flood standard is strongly 

supported and being applied successfully by all levels of government and recommends that the 

standard be retained. With regards to EO 11988, FEMA finds that implementation procedures 

have not been adopted by all agencies and some agencies have adopted procedures inconsistent 
78

with the order. FEMA recommends that these agencies with inconsistent implementation 

procedures should bring those into full compliance. 

FEMA. (1983). Effect of Floodplain Regulations on Inland Port Facilities. Washington, DC: 

FEMA. 

Keywords: 

federal programs, flood causes, flood control, Mississippi, Missouri, mitigation, NFIP, 

Oklahoma, ports, public policy 

Abstract: This study examines the relationship between the objectives of the NFIP and 

Executive Order (EO) 11988 and the need for the development of inland ports. The central issue 

investigated is that some structural components of river ports and terminals require siting within 

the floodplain in order for the port to function (i.e., functional dependence). The study is based 

on the collection and analysis of available data pertaining to legislation, flood insurance, flood 

losses, inland ports and their operations, mitigation, economics, and hydraulics, and both 

perceived and experienced conflicts. Furthermore, consultation with FEMA resulted in the 

selection of the ports of St. Louis, MO; Tulsa, OK; and Greenville, MS, as case studies. Several 

conclusions and recommendations emerge from the analysis. For example, the objectives of the 

NFIP and EO 11988 and the economic need for the development of facilities for inland ports are 

compatible. Numerous areas of potential conflict exist between the NFIP and the development of 

ports. These arise for the jurisdictional and administrative complexity of managing inland 

waterways, the competition for limited resources from the floodplain, the demonstrated 

functional need of some port-related activities on proximity to water, and the complexity of the 

regulatory process itself. 

FEMA. (1983). Improving the Flood Insurance Study Process. Washington, DC: FEMA. 

Keywords:

flood insurance studies, mapping 

Abstract: The Committee on Flood Insurance Studies Research of the National Research 

Council’s Advisory Board on the Built Environment reviewed the NFIP’s operations and 

concluded that considerable progress has been made but that there exist many operational 

concerns related to the need for: (a) continuation of flood insurance studies and mapping in areas 

not yet studied; (b) restudy of areas previously studied; (c) improved flood insurance study 

products; and (d) more economical and efficient methods for the preparation of flood insurance 

studies and restudies. 

FEMA. (1986). Closed-Basin Lake Flooding: Case Studies and Mitigation Opportunities. 

Denver, CO: FEMA Region VIII. 

Keywords: 

California, closed-basin lake flooding, hazard identification, mapping, Minnesota, mitigation, 

North Dakota, Oregon, Utah 

Abstract: The disaster declarations of 1983 and 1984 in Utah introduced FEMA Region VIII to 

the problems posed by closed-basin lakes. In the summer of 1985, FEMA Region VIII began an 

investigation of the causes, effects, and approaches to mitigating the problems caused by lakes 

with inadequate or no outlets. The region selected the best known and documented cases for 

analysis including Lake Pulaski, MN; the Great Salt Lake, UT; Devils Lake, ND; Lake Elsinore, 

CA; the Salton Sea, CA; and Malheur Lake, OR. Lake flooding poses problems across the 
79

nation—not solely to the West. Without a concerted management effort, losses attributable to 

closed-basin lakes will likely exceed $1 billion by 2000. Most important, successful mitigation 

programs have been developed and appear to be transferable. Recommendations are made for 

follow-up through a joint effort of FEMA Region VIII and the Association of State Floodplain 

Managers. The recommendations involve 1) continuing research into the most effective ways to 

identify the lake-rise hazard and mitigate its effects, especially as the lake is rising, but before 

serious damages occur; 2) determining the relationship between long-term climatic variations 

and lake-rises; 3) selecting additional case studies for analysis; and 4) assisting local decisionmakers in addressing lake-rise issues. 

FEMA. (1986). National Flood Insurance Program: Community Compliance Program 

Guidance. Washington, DC: FEMA. 

Keywords: 

compliance, enforcement, floodplain management 

Abstract: This manual provides guidance to FEMA personnel involved in ensuring that 

participating communities are administering their flood loss reduction programs in compliance 

with NFIP criteria. It offers procedures for taking enforcement actions against noncompliant 

participating communities as well as noncompliant individual structures. 

FEMA. (1988). Maine Lender Compliance With the Flood Disaster Protection Act of 1973: 

An Analysis of Flood Insurance Purchase Requirements for April 1987 Flood Disaster 

Victims. Boston, MA: FEMA Region I. 

Keywords: 

communication, lending institutions, Maine, mandatory purchase 

Abstract: On April 9, 1987, the President declared a disaster as the result of severe flooding in 

Maine. Following this declaration, 2,332 disaster victims applied for disaster assistance through 

FEMA Region I’s Disaster Assistance Program Division. Out of this total number, 613 

applications came from personal or commercial properties located in Special Flood Hazard Areas 

(SFHA). After paring down the sample, FEMA examined 94 properties and found that only 12 of 

them had flood insurance at the time of mortgage closing. FEMA cites the following reasons for 

lender noncompliance based on its analysis: 1) human error on the part of the lender when 

reading the FIRM; 2) legitimate differences in interpretation of the FIRM for borderline 

properties; 3) the lender opted not to require flood insurance for borderline properties out of 

consideration for the limited income of some of the property owners; 4) ignorance on the part of 

lender concerning the flood insurance purchase requirements; 5) the lender ignored the flood 

insurance purchase requirements; and 6) a lack of follow-up enforcement by the lender when 

policies expired. Furthermore, FEMA makes several policy proposals to improve lender 

compliance which include: 1) requiring property owners to provide mortgage information when 

they apply for disaster assistance; 2) widening NFIP’s information loop; 3) targeting lenders for 

participation in the Lender Workshop Program; 4) incorporating a “Lender Education Visit” into 

Community Assessment Visits; and 5) regularly updating, publishing, and distributing 

Community Status Lists.

FEMA. (1988). National Flood Insurance Program: Report on Existing Manufactured Home 

Parks and Subdivisions. Washington, DC: FEMA. 

Keywords: 
80

compliance, enforcement, mobile homes 

Abstract: This report addresses the impacts of an NFIP regulation that requires a manufactured 

home placed in an existing manufactured home park or subdivision be elevated to or above the 1 

percent annual chance flood elevation to reduce damages from flood and threats to public safety. 

Prior to October 1, 1986, these manufactured homes had been exempt from this requirement. The 

report evaluates alternatives to this requirement that would achieve the same purposes, but with 

lesser impacts on the manufactured home community. Based on the evaluation, FEMA selected 

an alternative that would 1) end the “grandfathering of new and replacement units in existing 

parks at the conclusion of a ten-year transition period (October 1, 1999); 2) during the transition 

period, require elevation of units placed on sites on which a manufactured home has been 

substantially damaged by a flood; 3) during the transition period, require development of 

evacuation plans for each existing flood-prone manufactured home park; 4) encourage 

communities to implement additional measures to reduce flood risks in existing parks through 

the deducting of insurance premiums; and 5) revise the definition of “manufactured home” to 

allow communities the option of excluding recreational vehicles, which are fully licensed and 

highway ready or which are on site for less than 180 consecutive days. FEMA projects this 

alternative will likely impact existing parks subject to the most frequent and/or severe flooding. 

FEMA. (1988). Review of FEMA’s Procedures and Practices for Awarding, Monitoring, and 

Closing Flood Insurance Study Contracts and Interagency Agreements. Washington, DC: 

Office of Inspector General, FEMA. 

Keywords: 

agency operations and management, flood insurance studies 

Abstract: The OIG conducted this review to determine if FEMA’s Office of Acquisition 

Management (OAM) and FIA complied with pertinent federal procurement regulations and 

procedures in awarding and administering contracts and interagency agreements for flood 

insurance studies. Other federal agencies and private architect-engineer (A/E) firms generally 

perform flood insurance studies. The audit reviewed the following areas: publicizing contractual 

actions, evaluating A/E proposals, negotiating A/E contracts, negotiating project orders under 

interagency agreements, monitoring study performance, and closing A/E contracts. Results 

indicate the need for improvement so that the awarding and administration of contracts for flood 

insurance studies and project orders under interagency agreements comply with applicable 

procurement regulations. For example, synopses of proposed contract actions did not contain 

specific information required by federal procurement regulations. To correct this situation, OAM 

should ensure that synopses for each proposed contractual action follow the publicity regulations 

of the Federal Acquisition Regulations System (FARS). Furthermore, FEMA failed to complete 

some A/E contracts in a timely manner. The OIG recommends OAM develop and implement a 

plan for eliminating the backlog of contracts requiring closeout. Additional findings and 

recommendations appear in the report. 

FEMA. (1989). Guidance for Conducting Community Assistance Contacts and Community 

Assistance Visits. Washington, DC: FEMA. 

Keywords:

floodplain management 

Abstract: This manual provides guidance to FEMA employees, states, and other federal 

departments and agencies conducting Community Assistance Contacts (CACs) and Community 
81

Assistance Visits (CAVs) under the NFIP’s Community Assistance Program (CAP). The major 

objective of the NFIP’s CAP is to ensure that communities participating are achieving the 

program’s objectives for the reduction of flood losses. FEMA uses CACs and CAVs to identify 

floodplain management issues and opportunities to assist communities’ management of their 

floodplains.

FEMA. (1989). National Flood Insurance Program: A Cost-Effective Plan for Flood Studies 

Maintenance. Washington, DC: FEMA. 

Keywords: 

agency operations and management, flood insurance studies, mapping, strategic planning 

Abstract: Historically, FIA has relied on the (flood insurance) restudy, map revisions, and map 

amendments to ensure that the data in studies and maps are up to date and that the studies and 

maps accurately reflect existing flood hazards. In preparation for entering the maintenance phase 

of the NFIP, the Office of Risk Assessment (ORA) has assessed future requirements for flood 

insurance restudies (RFISs) and for map revisions and amendments. From that assessment, ORA 

has developed a transition plan that will allow FIA to meet the needs of the maintenance phase of 

the NFIP through a smooth transition from the phase of initial studies. The plan consists of 

balancing the personnel and financial requirements for the transitional activities. By Fiscal Year 

1996, ORA estimates the budget for flood studies and mapping will stabilize at $26.5 million, a 

figure that is $10 million less than the current budget. Using historical statistics and empirical 

models, ORA has estimated the number of RFISs, revisions, and amendments that FIA must 

process under the full maintenance phase of the NFIP, which will begin in Fiscal Year 1992. The 

projected yearly totals for the various maintenance activities are 120 RFISs, 60 existing restudies 

of data, 210 Limited Map Maintenance Program (LMMP) revisions, 165 appellant-initiated 

physical map revisions, 1,740 Letters of Map Revision, and 455 Letters of Map Amendment. 

Furthermore, the total number of contractors required once the maintenance phase has fully 

begun is expected to decrease from 166 in Fiscal Year 1988 to 102 in Fiscal Year 1992. 

FEMA. (1991). Answers to Questions About Substantially Damaged Buildings. Washington, 

DC: FEMA. 

Keywords: 

building codes, compliance, enforcement, permits, property values, substantial damage, 

substantial improvement, zoning 

Abstract: The enforcement of the substantial improvement requirement as defined in the NFIP 

regulations (44 Code of Federal Regulations, 59.1) frequently becomes a major concern for local 

officials after a community has experienced serious damages as a result of a flood or other 

disaster. In particular, community officials ask many questions concerning permits issued for the 

repair of damaged structures. The purpose of this document is to answer many of the questions 

regarding FEMA regulations and policy on substantial improvement as it applies to damaged 

structures. The questions and answers in this booklet should serve as guidance for local building 

inspectors, zoning administrators, and other permit officials that enforce the floodplain 

management requirements of a community participating in the NFIP. 

FEMA. (1991). Detailed Chronology of Significant National Flood Insurance Program 

Events. Washington, DC: FEMA. 

Keywords:
82

history, legislation, NFIP 

Abstract: This document contains a comprehensive but concise chronology of significant events 

affecting the NFIP. Events appear briefly summarized in the document by month and year of 

occurrence. The chronology covers events beginning with the passage of the Federal Flood 

Insurance Act in August 1956 through the initiation of the Mortgage Portfolio Protection 

Program (MPPP) in January 1991.

FEMA. (1991). Flood Risk Directories: Applications for the NFIP. Washington, DC: FEMA. 

Keywords: 

agency operations and management, floodplain management, mapping 

Abstract: The Flood Risk Directory (FRID) represents a powerful information tool, providing 

the linkage between addresses and FIRMs. The benefits of FRID’s applications, both internal 

and external to FEMA, can be expected to far exceed the costs associated with the production of 

the system. Among the major benefits of FRID will be its application as a marketing tool. These 

applications will, for the first time, allow FIA to identify properties at risk from flooding but 

which do not have a flood insurance policy. This report, while set in the general framework of 

the conversion of the NFIP’s mapping and engineering to an automated format, focuses on the 

costs, benefits, and applications of FRID. The following applications of FRID are discussed in 

the report: processing of Letters of Map Amendment for single lots, risk inspection program, 

rating and actuarial functions, grandfathering, analysis of data on repetitive losses, marketing, 

CAVs and CACs, insurance agents, CRS, disaster assistance and disaster field offices, and 

regional offices. The Office of Risk Assessment (ORA) proposes to move ahead with the 

development of approximately 20 FRIDs during Fiscal Year 1992. Prior to the end of Fiscal Year 

1992, ORA will reevaluate the practicality and utility of FRIDs for the applications discussed in 

the report and will then, based on the reevaluation, make a recommendation to FIA’s Policy 

Committee to continue or abandon the production of FRIDs. 

FEMA. (1991). Projected Impact of Relative Sea Level Rise on the National Flood Insurance 

Program. Washington, DC: FEMA. 

Keywords: 

climate change, coastal areas, environmental impacts, floodplain management, insurance, 

mapping, 1 percent annual chance flood standard, sea-level rise 

Abstract: This report contains the findings and conclusions concerning how a rise in relative sea 

level would impact the NFIP. Based on information recently released by the United Nations on 

the range in the magnitude of potential rise in sea level, the report examines two primary 

scenarios: a 1-foot and a 3-foot increase by 2100. Under both scenarios, the elevation of the 1 

percent annual chance flood would be expected to increase by the amount of the change in sea 

level. Estimates indicate the area inundated by the 1 percent annual chance flood would increase 

from approximately 19,500 square miles to 23,000 square miles for the 1-foot scenario, and to 

27,000 square miles for the 3-foot scenario. The region most significantly affected would be the 

Louisiana coast, where subsidence rates of 3 feet per century would compound the impact of 

global changes in sea level. Assuming current trends of development continue, the increase in the 

expected annual flood damage by 2100 for a representative insured property subject to sea level 

rise is estimated to increase by 36-58 percent for a 1-foot rise, and by 102-200 percent for a 3-

foot rise in sea level. Given the possibility for significant impacts of sea level rise in the long 

term, the report recommends that FEMA should 1) continue to monitor progress in the scientific 
83

community regarding projections of future changes in sea level and consider future studies on 

potential impacts to the NFIP; 2) consider the formulation and implementation of measures that 

would reduce the impact of relative rise in sea level along the Louisiana coast; and 3) strengthen 

efforts to monitor development trends and incentives of the CRS that encourages measures 

which mitigate the impacts of sea level rise. 

FEMA. (1992). Audit of Flood Insurance Mapping Activities. Washington, DC: Office of 

Inspector General, FEMA. 

Keywords: 

agency operations and management, communication, mapping, risk communication 

Abstract: The OIG conducted this audit to determine the efficiency and effectiveness of FIA’s 

flood mapping activities. These activities include the 1) process for determining where to 

conduct restudies; 2) preparation of map information; and 3) distribution of maps and map 

changes. Findings from the audit suggest that FIA can improve the cost efficiency and cost 

effectiveness in developing data on flood risks, preparing map information, and providing this 

information to users. One problem encountered during the audit concerns FIA not receiving the 

most benefit from its selection of maps to restudy. A FIA policy requires regional offices to 

compute a benefit cost (B/C) ratio for each candidate to restudy and then rank each candidate 

based on its ratio. Generally, the regional offices have not followed the criteria to rank B/C 

ratios. The OIG recommends FIA reassess the policy for ranking priorities to ensure the restudy 

of areas with greatest need and monitor compliance with the restudy policy at headquarters. The 

audit also revealed that map users are not always aware of changes made to flood maps. This can 

result in erroneous flood zone determinations and incorrectly underwritten flood insurance 

policies. FIA did not publish over 10,200 map amendments made between 1984 and January 

1992. FIA has an obligation to publish current flood data, regardless of whether it includes or 

excludes structures. Recognizing this obligation, the OIG recommends that FIA publicize the 

availability of the data on amendments already developed and prepare a plan to provide data on 

amendments on a regular basis. 

FEMA. (1992). Audit of the Mortgage Portfolio Protection Program. Washington, DC: Office 

of Inspector General, FEMA. 

Keywords: 

floodplain designation, insurance coverage, lending institutions, mandatory purchase, Write 

Your Own Program 

Abstract: This report presents the results of an audit of the Mortgage Portfolio Protection 

Program (MPPP). FIA created the MPPP in January 1991 to provide mortgage lending and 

servicing companies with an additional tool to bring their portfolios into compliance with the 

mandatory purchase requirements of the Flood Disaster Protection Act of 1973. The goal of the 

MPPP is to encourage owners to buy a standard insurance policy through the NFIP. To conduct 

the audit, the OIG spoke with parties involved with flood insurance including officials from 

Write Your Own (WYO) insurance companies, lending institutions, federal mortgage regulators, 

and FEMA. Based on the information collected, the OIG concludes that the MPPP is a 

potentially valuable tool to bring mortgage portfolios into compliance with the Flood Disaster 

Protection Act of 1973. Nonetheless, questions remain regarding the legality of requiring flood 

insurance on structures remapped into a SFHA and the accuracy of flood zone determinations. 

To achieve the desired end, the OIG recommends FIA do the following: advocate a change in 
84

proposed legislation under consideration by the Congress to require the purchase of flood 

insurance whenever a structure, secured by a mortgage, is in a SFHA; proceed to develop and 

publish standards for flood zone determinations; and develop additional measures effectiveness 

of the MPPP, including the number of standard policies that are force placed into the NFIP as a 

result of MPPP notification letters. 

FEMA. (1993). Audit of Flood Insurance Reinspection Activities. Washington, DC: Office of 

Inspector General, FEMA. 

Keywords:

agency operations and management, insurance claims, Write Your Own Program 

Abstract: The primary goal of FIA’s reinspection program is to ensure that claims are properly 

paid. This report finds that the program is not accomplishing its goal. Specifically, procedures to 

reinspect claims written by Write Your Own (WYO) companies are much more lenient than 

those used for direct claims, and the number of WYO claims reinspected is much smaller than 

that for direct claims. Moreover, FIA does not have an effective internal control system to track 

or monitor the results of reinspections. The report therefore recommends that FIA use uniform 

reinspection procedures for a test period to demonstrate the effect of using different procedures, 

increase the number of WYO claims inspected, and have WYO companies notify FIA within a 

few days of a claim filing to allow FIA to reinspect the claim before payment. Furthermore, the 

report recommends that FIA develop policies and procedures to track recommended claim 

adjustments and any subsequent repayments.

FEMA. (1993). Building Performance: Hurricane Iniki in Hawaii – Observations, 

Recommendations, and Technical Guidance. Washington, DC and Kauai County: FEMA 

and State of Hawaii Office of Civil Defense. 

Keywords: 

Hurricane Iniki, Hawaii, building codes mitigation 

Abstract: This report presents FEMA’s Building Performance Assessment Team’s (BPAT) 

observations on the success and failure of buildings in Hawaii to withstand the wind and flood 

forces generated by Hurricane Iniki in 1992. Property damage from the storm approached $1.8 

billion. The BPAT found that buildings designed and constructed to accepted standards fared 

well: the majority of damage was due to incomplete or improper design and construction, 

including reliance on outdated methods and misapplication of building materials. These failures 

could be addressed with proper training. Lack of elevation was the primary determinant of flood 

damage in the observed area. Other factors included improperly embedded or constructed 

foundations, loose debris, and distance from shoreline. Buildings with elevated lowest floors 

performed better with respect to flood damage compared to buildings constructed directly on the 

ground surface. The report recommends that special consideration be given to the depth of 

structure foundations to account for erosion and that buildings be elevated above predicted flood 

heights in areas subject to flooding. Some of the recommendations would require changes in the 

administrative practices of the county government, while others are targeted at the construction 

industry. 

FEMA. (1993). Building Performance: Hurricane Andrew in Florida – Observations, 

Recommendations, and Technical Guidance. Washington, DC: FEMA. 

Keywords: 
85

Hurricane Andrew, Florida, building codes, mitigation 

Abstract: This report presents FEMA’s Building Performance Assessment Team’s (BPAT) 

observations on the success and failure of buildings in Florida to withstand the wind and flood 

forces generated by Hurricane Andrew in 1992. Flood damage accounted for a limited portion of 

Hurricane Andrew’s total damages, relative to its size and strength. Hydrostatic pressure and 

inundation by storm surge accounted for the majority of damages. The report recommends that 

Dade County focus on improving the quality of construction workmanship by providing training 

to persons in the construction industry, developing a certification program for inspectors and 

supervisors, and involving licensed design professionals in the inspection of construction. With 

respect to the county, the BPAT recommends that the substantial damage provisions be enforced, 

that citizen participation in the building code process be increased, and that retrofitting needs be 

identifying and promoted. 

FEMA. (1994). Audit of FEMA’s Mitigation Programs. Washington, DC: Office of Inspector 

General, FEMA. 

Keywords: 

agency operations and management, mitigation

Abstract: This report covers the audit of FEMA’s and selected states’ mitigation activities. It 

addresses initiatives to make mitigation a priority, obstacles to overcome, and suggestions for 

improving mitigation activities. The audit concludes that an effective mitigation strategy depends 

on state and local governments being willing and able to plan and fund such activities. All 

administrations and directorates within FEMA need to cooperate as do other federal agencies 

with responsibilities for mitigation. More streamlining of postdisaster grants can be achieved. 

Recovery programs need to emphasize mitigation. FEMA should develop measures of 

effectiveness for and encourage innovative approaches to mitigation programs.

FEMA. (1994). Mitigation of Flood and Erosion Damage to Residential Buildings in Coastal 

Areas. Washington, DC: FEMA. 

Available at: http://www.fema.gov/hazards/floods/lib257.shtm

Keywords: 

building codes, coastal areas, erosion, floodproofing, mitigation, nonstructural approaches, 

Upton-Jones Amendment 

Abstract: This report documents the broad range of nonstructural mitigation activities 

undertaken by communities exposed to coastal flooding and erosion and provides necessary 

documentation on which to base a federal, state, or local mitigation program. FEMA’s 

investigation revealed that many homeowners in coastal areas have floodproofed over the last 

several decades and, based on current construction activity, this trend continues. The elevation of 

homes in place and the relocation of homes to safer locations represent the primary means of 

floodproofing. FEMA found that in areas subject to significant wave action, elevation that keeps 

the lower area open and free of obstruction is the only in-place measure that can prevent 

structural damage. In areas subject to significant storm-induced scour (vertical erosion), 

residences whose foundations are not embedded well below the potential scour zone incur 

significant damage or total loss as a result of foundation failure. In areas subject to significant 

shoreline retreat over the long term (horizontal erosion), relocation and demolition are the only 

viable measures to floodproof unless actions are taken to forestall the erosion. Significantly, 
86

FEMA’s investigation confirmed that floodproofing can avert flood insurance claims and 

disaster assistance payments, thereby reducing federal expenditures. 

FEMA. (1995). Audit of the Enforcement of Flood Insurance Purchase Requirements for 

Disaster Aid Recipients. Washington, DC: Office of Inspector General, FEMA. 

Keywords: 

disaster assistance, enforcement, public assistance, mandatory purchase 

Abstract: FEMA’s OIG audited the enforcement of the mandatory purchase requirements for 

recipients of grants from the Individual and Family Grant (IFG) Program and the Public 

Assistance (PA) Program. The audit of two FEMA regions revealed a low compliance rate. 

According to the OIG, FEMA does not effectively identify and monitor those grant recipients 

required to purchase and maintain flood insurance because the agency does not have clear, 

consistent policies and procedures on how to identify and enforce the requirements. IFG and PA 

workers need better training and assistance from FEMA to help them enforce the purchase 

requirements, a responsibility primarily handled by the states. Furthermore, enforcement 

problems arise because the IFG and PA programs do not highly prioritize mandatory purchase. 

In addition to activities currently undertaken by FEMA to increase compliance, the audit offers 

the following recommendations, among several others: develop guidance to enforce the flood 

insurance requirement for both the IFG and PA programs, ensure adequate training for state IFG 

and PA staff to understand and implement enforcement procedures, and continue plans to 

implement group flood insurance. 

FEMA. (1995). Audit of the Accuracy of Flood Zone Ratings. Washington, DC: Office of 

Inspector General, FEMA. 

Available at: http://www.fema.gov/ig/h-01-95.shtm

Keywords:

agency operations and management, insurance premiums, mapping 

Abstract: This audit found that at least 27 percent of the policies in the sample had zone 

misratings and that 10 percent had incorrect premiums. Accordingly, the report concludes that 

FIA needs to improve its internal controls by expanding its review programs to include 

verification of rating factors. An obstacle to this is the complexity of the rating process, 

particularly the policy of administrative grandfathering. The report recommends assessing the 

impact of eliminating administrative grandfathering, and, if feasible, to begin phasing it out. It 

further recommends the establishment of a quality control program to monitor the accuracy of 

premium ratings and to identify problem areas. This will require improving the accuracy and 

content of FIA’s database on flood insurance policies. Lastly, the report recommends that the 

Mitigation Directorate establish a committee that includes map users to review mapping 

procedures and determine cost-effective ways to increase the detail on FIRMs to make them 

easier to use.

FEMA. (1995). Audit of FEMA’s Disaster Relief Fund. Washington, DC: Office of Inspector 

General, FEMA. 

Available at: http://www.fema.gov/ig/h-16-95.shtm

Keywords: 

agency operations and management, disaster assistance, public assistance 
87

Abstract: This report presents the results of the OIG’s audit of FEMA’s Disaster Relief Fund. 

The audit concentrated on the fund’s financial management and on issues that offer an 

opportunity for improving operations and reducing costs. Six chapters of the report examine 

reliability of financial data, appropriateness of expenditures, management of grants, management 

of disaster loan programs, economy and efficiency of operations, and effect of increased cost 

sharing. The audit revealed several flaws in FEMA’s management of the fund. For example, 

budget requests are flawed because they are based on unreliable financial data and on imprecise 

projections of disaster costs. The OIG recommends correcting this situation by developing a 

quality assurance program, including supervisory review, to ensure the support, accuracy, and 

reliability of data entered into and reported by the new Integrated Financial Management 

Information System. According to the audit, FEMA has awarded Public Assistance grants 

totaling billions of dollars to thousands of grantees without an adequate system to ensure the 

proper use of funds. Assigning certain administrative functions to agency’s Office of Financial 

Management would improve the management of grants. The Response and Recovery (R and R) 

Directorate would continue to have operational responsibility. 

FEMA. (1995). Community Rating System – Literature Review: Outreach Methods. 

Washington, DC: FEMA. 

Keywords: 

communication, Community Rating System, marketing, media 

Abstract: Through CRS outreach projects, communities earn credit for advising people of the 

flood hazard, the availability of flood insurance, and/or flood protection methods. Research has 

proven that awareness of the hazard is not enough; people need to be told what they can do about 

it. Credit for outreach projects is based on both the type of project and the topics covered. This 

report presents a literature review conducted by Human Technology, Inc. (HT) for FEMA. Based 

on HT’s research, effective public outreach materials must: be developed using simple, easily 

understood language; disclose factual information; be credible; be designed specifically for the 

targeted audience; involve the target audience; be positive; show that the audience has control 

over changing their behavior; and be presented in a meaningful way. 

FEMA. (1995). Disaster Assistance: A Guide to Recovery Programs. Washington, DC: 

FEMA. 

Keywords: 

Community Assistance Program, disaster assistance, federal programs, Flood Mitigation 

Assistance Program, Hazard Mitigation Grant Program, NFIP, Small Business Administration 

Abstract: In a major or catastrophic disaster, the Federal Response Plan (FRP) will likely be 

activated. The FRP describes resources federal agencies can mobilize to support emergency and 

live-saving functions if the response capabilities of state and local government are overwhelmed. 

It outlines planning assumptions, policies, operational concepts, and organizational structures. 

This interagency publication summarizes federal programs that provide recovery assistance. The 

information is intended to serve as a starting point for disaster workers and local, state, and 

federal officials to locate sources of help as they seek more definitive information, such as 

eligibility criteria and application processes. Included are programs that make financial 

assistance available, as well as those that provide technical assistance and/or goods and other 

services. Program summaries are organized in two sections: 1) specific agency programs that 

exist for the express purpose of aiding disaster victims (disaster-specific programs) and 2) 
88

regular agency programs that may be applied to disaster recovery under special circumstances 

(disaster-applicable programs). 

FEMA. (1995). The Fifty Percent Rule: The Eligibility of Facilities for Replacement Under 44 

CFR 206.226(d)(a). Washington, DC: FEMA. 

Available at: http://www.fema.gov/rrr/pa/9524_4a.shtm

Keywords:

legislation, substantial damage 

Abstract: This document covers the interpretation of FEMA’s regulations that govern the cost of 

replacement for damaged facilities. The regulation states that a facility is considered repairable 

when disaster damages do not exceed 50 percent of the cost of replacing a facility to its predisaster condition, and it is feasible to repair the facility so that it can perform the function for 

which it was being used as well as it did immediately prior to the disaster. According to FEMA, 

determining the eligibility of a facility for replacement will be calculated using the following 

formula: the cost of repair of the disaster damage (repair of the damaged components only, using 

present day materials and methods) divided by the cost of replacement of the facility with a 

facility of equivalent capacity, using current codes for new construction. If this calculation is 

greater than 50 percent, then replacement is considered to give a better return on the taxpayers’ 

investment and is thus eligible for funding. 

FEMA. (1995). Guidelines and Specifications for Wave Elevation Determination and V Zone 

Mapping. Washington, DC: FEMA. 

Available at: http://www.fema.gov/fhm/dl_vzn.shtm

Keywords:

coastal areas, mapping, modeling, zoning 

Abstract: Coastal communities generally have unique flood hazards because of storm surges and 

wave action from large open water bodies. Defining Coastal High Hazard Areas (V Zones) 

requires determination of wave elevations associated with the 1 percent annual chance flood. 

FEMA compiled these guidelines to specify technical policies and procedures to be employed in 

the preparation of coastal Flood Insurance Studies (FISs) and restudies. The guidelines provide 

unified instructions on the application of the methodologies used to determine the coastal 

flooding elevation hazards set forth in the FIS, and on the delineation of the flood elevations and 

hazards on the FIRM. The guidelines are not applicable to studies of the Great Lakes because 

those coastal areas require different analytical procedures and computer models. 

FEMA. (1995). Managing Floodplain Development in Approximate Zone A Areas: A Guide 

for Obtaining and Developing Base (100-year) Flood Elevations. Washington, DC: FEMA. 

Available at: http://www.fema.gov/pdf/fhm/frm_zna.pdf

Keywords:

Base Flood Elevation, mapping, riverine areas, Special Flood Hazard Areas, zoning 

Abstract: This guide was developed for use by community officials, property owners, 

developers, surveyors, and engineers who may need to determine Base Flood Elevations (BFEs) 

in special flood hazard areas (SFHAs) designated as approximate A Zones on Flood Insurance 

Rate Maps (FIRMs). One of the primary goals of this document is to provide a means to 

determine BFEs at a minimal cost. This guide is primarily intended for use in riverine and lake 

areas where flow conditions are fairly uniform (i.e., are not subject to unique flood hazards). The 
89

guide is not appropriate for use in V Zone (velocity) areas or coastal A Zone areas that are 

subject to flooding due to storm surge from hurricanes and other coastal storms. 

FEMA. (1995). Options for Reducing Public Assistance Program Costs. Washington, DC: 

Office of Inspector General, FEMA. 

Available at: http://www.fema.gov/ig/i-02-95.shtm

Keywords:

agency operations and management, public assistance 

Abstract: This inspection discusses potential cost reductions through changes to eligibility 

criteria for public assistance grants. Options are presented in the four primary areas: building 

codes and standards, repair versus replacement, private nonprofit organizations, and alternate 

projects. These options include amending the Stafford Act to limit funding to the federal 

estimated cost of returning a facility to its predisaster condition regardless of code requirements, 

to eliminate public assistance grants for private nonprofit organizations, and to eliminate the 

opportunity to accept reduced funding to use public assistance grants for alternate projects. The 

report also concludes that revising FEMA’s regulations to raise the cost repair threshold, which 

triggers replacement of a public facility, could reduce costs. In addition, the inspection identifies 

cost saving opportunities achieved from shortening the appeals process, depreciating building 

contents when calculating replacement costs, and converting eligibility for publicly owned parks, 

recreational facilities, and income producing facilities from public assistance grants to federal 

loans.

FEMA. (1996). CRS Study of Community Compliance (“No Cert” Draft). Washington, DC: 

FEMA. 

Keywords: 

Community Rating System, compliance, elevation certificates, insurance coverage 

Abstract: This study determines if certain types of buildings built in certain years have a high 

probability of being compliant, post-FIRM buildings, thereby making it feasible to implement an 

option to write a flood insurance policy without an elevation certificate (i.e., a “no cert” option). 

The project collected data from a random sample of over 1,400 buildings located in communities 

participating in CRS. GPS technology was used to obtain accurate information on the elevations 

of the lowest of floors on the buildings sampled. This information was then compared with the 

BFE currently in effect and in effect at the time of construction to determine rates of compliance. 

Construction built after the community joined CRS and buildings constructed on slabs, on open 

stilts, and on crawlspaces exhibited the best rates of compliance. The statistical analysis of 

compliance for buildings on slab showed a statistically significant difference between pre- and 

post-CRS construction. The other two building types did not show a significant difference. The 

possibility for “no cert” rating depends on whether FIA can devise underwriting procedures that 

prevent clearly noncompliant buildings from slipping into a rating class without receiving a 

standard rating (i.e., based on elevation) and whether adequate monitoring of community 

compliance exists to keep only the best performing communities in CRS. 

FEMA. (1996). Federal Insurance Administration: 1996 Stakeholder’s Report. Washington, 

DC: FEMA. 

Keywords: NFIP 
90

Abstract: This report provides an annual update on the status of the NFIP, detailing activities on 

policies, claims, and floodplain management. As of fiscal year 1996, the NFIP included 

3,546,050 policies in 18,550 communities. The NFIP has over $369 billion of flood insurance in 

force. One of the program initiatives developed in fiscal year 1996 was the Group Flood 

Insurance Policy (GFIP), a program for individuals who apply for disaster assistance following a 

Presidentially declared disaster. Recipients are required to purchase coverage as a condition of 

the grant. 1996 also marked the first year of the Cover America campaign, designed to increase 

awareness of flood insurance. In the first year of the campaign, Cover America reached close to 

135 million people through advertising and public relations efforts. 

FEMA. (1996). Hurricane Opal in Florida: A Building Performance Assessment. 

Washington, DC: FEMA. 

Keywords: 

building codes, Florida, Hurricane Opal, mitigation 

Abstract: This report presents the findings of the Building Performance Assessment Team 

(BPAT) regarding building successes and failures during Hurricane Opal in Florida in 1995. 

BPAT found that utilities, such as electrical meters, panels, boxes, and wiring were routinely 

placed below a building’s lowest habitable floor, rendering the equipment vulnerable to storm 

surge, wave, debris, and overwash. Furthermore, many new, single-family structures had been 

constructed above or adjacent to portions of older, pre-FIRM structures and probably resulted 

from efforts to expand and/or reconstruct older, smaller structures. Based on its findings and 

conclusions, BPAT makes several recommendations including but not limited to, the location of 

all utility components (including electric meters) on the landward side of the structure and the 

improvement of the quality of new construction through superior design, construction, 

permitting, plan review, and inspection. 

FEMA. (1996). The Community Rating System of the National Flood Insurance Program: A 

Report to the U.S. Congress from the Federal Emergency Management Agency. Washington, 

DC: FEMA. 

Keywords: 

Community Rating System 

Abstract: The CRS was implemented in 1990 with three goals: to reduce flood losses, to 

increase awareness of flood insurance, and to promote more accurate insurance rating. This 

biennial report is submitted pursuant to the National Flood Insurance Reform Act of 1994 and 

provides an analysis of the program’s cost-effectiveness, a description of the program’s 

accomplishments and shortcomings, and any recommendations for pertinent legislation. One 

section of the report discusses improvements made to the program in the area of customer 

service. For example, FEMA replaced the CRS Application with a Short Form Application to 

simplify the application process. FEMA also revised the 1995 version of the CRS Coordinator’s 

Manual to reflect additional goals established by the Reform Act of 1994. The final section of 

the report presents the various efforts undertaken by FEMA to evaluate the effectiveness of the 

program with extensive discussion on the survey of local officials in 1996. Overall, preliminary 

analysis indicates that CRS is working as intended and that the program is achieving its goals. 

FEMA. (1996). Unintended Consequences: The High Cost of Disaster Assistance for Park 

and Recreational Facilities. Washington, DC: Office of Inspector General, FEMA. 
91

Keywords:

agency operations and management, flood damage, park and recreation facilities 

Abstract: This report focuses on six areas that accounted for considerable disaster grants for 

park and recreational facilities between fiscal years 1989-95: debris removal, building damage, 

revenue-generating facilities, marinas, golf courses, and tree and shrub replacement. The report 

discusses options for reducing costs in these areas and the associated impacts their 

implementation would incur. The options discussed include: (a) limiting funding for park and 

recreational facilities to debris removal only; (b) limiting funding to the repair/replacement of 

recreational buildings only; (c) excluding revenue-generating facilities from receiving any grant 

funding; (d) eliminating funding for marinas and golf courses with the exception of debris 

removal; and (e) eliminating funding for trees, shrubs, and other planting replacement for all 

recreational facilities other than parks. The report makes no recommendations.

FEMA. (1997). CRS Floodplain Resident Protection Survey. Washington, DC: FEMA. 

Keywords: 

communication, Community Rating System, marketing, media 

Abstract: Residents from five CRS and five non-CRS communities were contacted to assess 

whether CRS credited outreach activities are educating residents about the flood hazard and 

motivating them to take action to protect themselves and their property. The survey matched the 

five CRS communities and five non-CRS communities based on similar demographics, flood 

history, and flooding hazards. A minimum of 50 floodplain residents from each of the 10 

communities was interviewed. This report presents findings from the 500 interviews. Overall, the 

findings indicate that residents are aware of flood hazards and are taking actions to protect their 

property from flood damage. Furthermore, results show that residents in CRS communities are 

more educated about these hazards and are therefore taking more proactive measures. Residents 

from CRS communities are more aware than residents from non-CRS communities that their 

home is located in a SFHA. Still, a large percentage of CRS residents indicated that they did not 

know whether their homes were in a SFHA. 

FEMA. (1997). Building Performance Assessment: Hurricane Fran in North Carolina – 

Observations, Recommendations, and Technical Guidance. Washington, DC, and Atlanta, 

GA: FEMA and FEMA Region IV. 

Keywords: 

building codes, Hurricane Fran, mitigation, North Carolina 

Abstract: This report presents the observations of FEMA’s Building Performance Assessment 

Team (BPAT) regarding the success and failures of buildings that experienced wind and flood 

effects of Hurricane Fran in North Carolina in 1996. During its evaluation BPAT found that on 

old and new oceanfront homes many porches, decks, and roof overhangs supported on vertical 

foundation members collapsed or became structurally unsound. The vast majority of vertical 

foundation members were found to have been embedded only 4 to 5 feet below existing grade 

without any regard for erosion or scour. Furthermore, the concrete slabs observed did not have a 

sufficient number of contraction joints to promote the slab’s breaking into small pieces. Based on 

its findings and conclusions, BPAT makes several recommendations including, but not limited 

to, the embedment of pilings for structures in areas subject to erosion and the presence of a 

sufficient number of contraction joints between pilings and in both directions on the surface of a 

concrete slab. 
92

FEMA. (1997). Federal Insurance Administration: 1997 Stakeholder’s Report. Washington, 

DC: FEMA. 

Keywords: 

NFIP, ICC coverage 

Abstract: This report provides an annual update on the status of the NFIP, detailing activities on 

policies, claims, and marketing. As of fiscal year 1997, the NFIP included 3,811,253 policies – 

an increase of 7.5 percent from the previous year – protecting $422.4 billion in flood insurance. 

Premiums for NFIP policies in force grew by 15 percent in fiscal year 1997. Several severe 

flooding events resulted in total claims payments of over $630 million. Between 1995 and 1997 

the NFIP made claims payments of more than $2.8 billion. FEMA initiated several new 

programs in 1997. First, Increased Cost of Compliance (ICC) coverage offers funding to 

homeowners to help cover the costs of bringing homes and businesses into compliance with 

community floodplain ordinances. To explain the new coverage, the NFIP offered 12 training 

workshops nationally, attended by more than 800 people, and published several brochures 

describing coverage availability. FEMA’s Project Impact, an initiative designed to foster predisaster mitigation for all hazards, is also described. 

FEMA. (1997). Flood Insurance Availability in Coastal Areas: The Role It Plays in 

Encouraging Development Decisions. Washington, DC: FEMA. 

Keywords: 

coastal areas, Coastal Barrier Resources System, coastal barriers, Delaware, development, 

insurance coverage, insurance purchase decision, risk perception 

Abstract: Over the last two decades, a question has arisen as to what role, if any, the availability 

of flood insurance has played in a local community’s decision to develop or not develop coastal, 

beachfront areas. One opinion is that the availability of flood insurance in these areas is either 

the deciding factor or at least a major factor that influences that decision. Another opinion is that 

the decision to develop or not develop is the result of the economic forces affecting the area in 

question at the time of the decision. This report uses the community of North Bethany Beach, 

DE, in an attempt to study this question. Interviews with local government officials, developers, 

realtors, insurers, and mortgage lenders show that the most important factors in promoting 

development at North Bethany Beach are proximity to major metropolitan areas, the supply and 

demand of oceanfront property, lifestyle, exclusivity, and the overall national economy. For 

high-end coastal property, such as North Bethany Beach, it appears that federal flood insurance 

plays a secondary or even tertiary role in coastal development. This report notes the importance 

of conducting similar studies in other coastal areas where real estate is considerably less 

expensive. 

FEMA. (1997). Flood Mitigation Assistance Guidance. Washington, DC: FEMA. 

Keywords: 

federal programs, flood disaster planning, Flood Mitigation Assistance Program, mitigation 

Abstract: Under the Flood Mitigation Assistance (FMA) Program, FEMA provides assistance to 

states and communities for activities that will reduce the risk of flood damages to structures 

insurable under the NFIP. FMA is a state-administered, cost-share program through which states 

and communities can receive grants for planning, technical assistance, and projects related to 

flood mitigation. The three goals of the program are 1) to reduce the number of repetitively or 
93

substantially damaged structures and the associated claims on the National Flood Insurance 

Fund; to encourage long-term, comprehensive mitigation planning; 2) to respond to the needs of 

communities participating in the NFIP by expanding their mitigation activities beyond the review 

of floodplain development and permitting; 3) and to complement other federal and state 

mitigation programs with similar, long-term goals. The chapters in this guidance provide an 

overview of FMA; the federal, state, and local roles in administering the program; planning 

grants; project grants; technical assistance grants, requirements for cost-sharing and limitations 

on funding; and management of grants. 

FEMA. (1997). Guidance on Estimating Substantial Damage Using the NFIP Residential 

Substantial Damage Estimator. Washington, DC: FEMA. 

Keywords: 

building codes, mitigation, substantial damage 

Abstract: Communities that participate in the NFIP often have difficulty determining whether 

structures meet the program’s definition of being substantially damaged. This is particularly true 

after a major flood or other disaster in which large numbers of buildings have suffered damage 

and there is a need to provide damage determinations so that reconstruction can begin. 

Substantially damaged structures in SFHAs must be brought into compliance with the minimum 

requirements of a community’s floodplain management ordinance and the NFIP. To assist 

communities in making determinations of substantial damage, FEMA developed the Residential 

Substantial Damage Estimator (RSDE) software, which provides guidance in estimating building 

value and damage costs for both single family and manufactured homes. Based on the NFIP’s 

regulatory requirements, the software is intended to be used in conjunction with industryaccepted, residential-cost estimating guides. This document provides information on how to use 

the software as well as how to collect data and conduct field inspections. FEMA updated the 

guidance in August 2001. 

FEMA. (1997). Modernizing FEMA’s Flood Hazard Mapping Program: A Progress Report. 

Washington, DC: FEMA. 

Keywords: 

agency operations and management, mapping, strategic planning

Abstract: This report represents the initial product of a task force convened to plan the future of 

FEMA’s Flood Hazard Mapping Program. It surveys the current state of the program, presents a 

visionary plan for the future, and details the strategies for implementing the plan. The 

cornerstones of the modernization plan are: (a) to develop accurate and complete flood hazard 

information for the entire nation; (b) to provide that information in a readily available, easy-touse format; and (c) to alert and educate the public regarding the risks of flood hazards. The plan 

will use existing digital engineering, mapping, information management, and electronic 

communication technologies to improve the program in four primary areas: map accuracy and 

completeness; map utility; map production; and public awareness and customer service. A costbenefit analysis is currently being conducted to determine if the benefits to the nation resulting 

from the plan will exceed the costs. 

FEMA. (1997). Multihazard Identification and Risk Assessment. Washington, DC: FEMA. 

Keywords:

hazard identification, risk assessment 
94

Abstract: This document summarizes the findings of a research project to clarify and document 

previous efforts to identify natural and technological hazards and to assess associated risks. The 

report is one part of an effort to develop a national approach to mitigating human and economic 

losses caused by disasters. The chapter on floods includes sections on hazard identification; risk 

assessment; research, data collection, and monitoring activities; and mitigation approaches. 

Among others, the report concludes that the large influx of people to coastal areas over the past 

30 years resulted in thousands of residents who are unaware of the hazard associated with 

hurricanes and floods in coastal high-hazard zones. Also, the report claims that in the immediate 

shorefront area affected by tropical cyclones, relocation of exposed utility lines, water mains, 

sewer lines, and roadways has been effective in mitigating damage. The report warns that landuse controls and regulatory setback programs in coastal high hazard zones can be difficult 

because of intense development pressure and high property values. The report states that the 

NFIP has probably been the most dominant positive influence on floodplain management over 

the past 15 years. However, the majority of buildings exposed to identified flood hazards remains 

uninsured.

FEMA. (1997). National Flood Insurance Program: Interim Guidance for Local and State 

Officials – Increased Cost of Compliance Coverage. Washington, DC: FEMA. 

Keywords: 

buyouts, floodproofing, insurance, insurance coverage, mitigation, relocation, substantial damage 

Abstract: This guidance document provides information on the Increased Cost of Compliance 

(ICC) coverage under the NFIP and how it relates to local administration of floodplain 

management laws or ordinances following a flood event. Specifically, the guidance discusses 

how insured buildings under the NFIP that are damaged by flooding will benefit from this 

coverage, how ICC coverage relates to local administration of floodplain management laws or 

ordinances, what types of mitigation measures are allowed under ICC, and what types of 

technical assistance are available for state and local officials. ICC coverage provides for the 

payment of a claim to help pay for the cost to comply with state or community floodplain 

management laws or ordinances after a flood event in which a building has been declared 

substantially or repetitively damaged. When a flood damages an insured building and the state or 

community declares the building to be substantially or repetitively damaged, ICC will help pay 

for the cost to elevated, floodproof, demolish, or relocate the building up to a maximum benefit 

of $15,000 ($30,000 as of May 1, 2003). This coverage is in addition to the building coverage for 

the repair of actual physical damages from the flood under the Standard Flood Insurance Policy 

(SFIP). 

FEMA. (1997). Partnership for a Safer Future: Strategic Plan Fiscal Year 1998 through 

Fiscal Year 2007 with Operational Objectives through Fiscal Year 2003. Washington, DC: 

FEMA. 

Available at: http://www.fema.gov/library/splan.pdf

Keywords:

agency operations and management, strategic planning 

Abstract: This update of FEMA’s 1994 strategic plan complies with the requirements of the 

Government Performance and Results Act. The plan describes FEMA’s role as leader for the 

Nation’s emergency management system and its specific responsibilities, mission, vision, eight 

core values, and strategic planning template. The plan then identifies the agency’s three strategic 
95

goals: (a) protect lives and prevent the loss of property from all hazards; (b) reduce human 

suffering and enhance the recovery of communities after disaster strikes; and (c) ensure that the 

public is served in a timely and efficient manner. For each goal, strategic objectives are 

identified, including performance measures, strategies to achieve each goal, five-year operational 

objectives, the legal authorities to support the strategy, the technology to implement the strategy, 

and the methods to evaluate performance. 

FEMA. (1998). Annual Performance Plan: Fiscal Year 1999. Washington, DC: FEMA. 

Keywords:

agency operations and management, strategic planning 

Abstract: This plan outlines how FEMA’s strategic goals and objectives will be pursued during 

Fiscal Year 1999. The annual performance goals presented in the plan support a five-year 

operational objective contributing to one of three strategic goals: to protect lives and prevent the 

loss of property from natural and technological hazards, to reduce human suffering and enhance 

the recovery of communities after disaster strikes, and to ensure the public is served in a timely 

and efficient manner. Some of the objectives within these goals include a reduction in expected 

annual flood disaster losses by $1 billion and the identification of the most critical 10-percent of 

weaknesses in state capability while maintaining the current capability of states and localities to 

respond to disasters. Other objectives seek to achieve training and education opportunities for the 

fire protection community and to use information technology upgrades to improve services and 

accessibility that reduce the costs for the response to and recovery from emergencies and 

disasters.

FEMA. (1998). An Evaluation of the National Flood Insurance Program’s Community 

Rating System. Washington, DC: FEMA. 

Keywords: 

Community Rating System, mitigation

Abstract: In 1994, a formal evaluation of the overall effectiveness of the Community Rating 

System (CRS) was initiated. Due to the technical and statistical nature of these evaluation 

analyses and the need for impartial expertise, FEMA retained Human Technology, Inc. to assist 

in this endeavor. The data collection and analytical techniques included questionnaires and 

surveys, technical studies, site visits, focus groups, and reviews by experts. As a result of the 

evaluation efforts, three general conclusions were reached with regard to changes in the CRS 

creditable activities: (a) certain elements deserve more credit based on a review of their 

effectiveness in reducing flood losses; (b) communities should be encouraged to design their 

own programs; and (c) scoring procedures and documentation requirements should be simplified. 

Overall, CRS has become an important tool for mitigation as well as a mechanism for integrating 

mitigation with insurance. 

FEMA. (1998). Community Rating System Survey. Washington, DC: FEMA. 

Keywords: 

Community Rating System 

Abstract: Four years after the implementation of the Community Rating System (CRS) in 1990, 

FEMA’s Community Rating System Task Force formed an Evaluation Committee to determine 

whether CRS is meeting its original expectations. If it is not, adjustments to the program, 

including training and nontraining interventions, may be necessary to ensure that the long-term 
96

goals will be achieved. The Local Official Survey was designed to determine CRS local 

officials’ opinions about the effectiveness of the CRS program and the usefulness of specific 

flood protection activities for which FEMA awards credit. This report provides the data collected 

from the Local Official Survey and is divided into the following components: overall responses, 

demographics, and statistical analysis. A total of 897 CRS Coordinators were sent surveys. This 

number represents every community participating in the CRS program from 1990 to 1994. Of the 

897 surveys, a total of 661 surveys were returned (return rate of 73.69 percent). Overall, findings 

from the survey indicate respondents hold positive opinions toward the program and its benefits; 

feel the program educates and protects the public; believe that the benefits of program may not 

outweigh the administrative costs, time, and effort required; and support a simple system for 

crediting program activities. Based on survey comments, two activities that warrant additional 

consideration by the Evaluation Committee are outreach and repetitive loss projects. 

FEMA. (1998). Federal Insurance Administration: 1998 Stakeholder’s Report. Washington, 

DC: FEMA. 

Keywords: 

NFIP 

Abstract: This report provides an annual update on the status of the NFIP and includes 

discussion of program growth, claims and flooding statistics, changes to the program, studies 

undertaken by FEMA, marketing and training, and future initiatives. At the close of fiscal year 

1998, the NFIP had more than 4.1 million flood insurance policies in effect. In 1998, the NFIP 

paid claims losses of over $670 million. The report also discussed the implementation of Project 

Impact, a multihazard mitigation program. Nearly 120 communities and 800 companies were 

involved with Project Impact, initiated in 1997. 

FEMA. (1998). Hazard Mitigation Funding under Section 406 (Stafford Act). Washington, 

DC: FEMA. 

Keywords: 

Hazard Mitigation Grant Program, mitigation, Stafford Act 

Abstract: This document is intended to guide personnel responsible for the administration of 

FEMA’s public assistance grant program. Its aim is to help ensure national consistency in the use 

of Section 406 mitigation funds, promote measures that reduce future loss to life and property, 

protect the federal investment in public infrastructure, and, ultimately, to help build disasterresistant communities. An appendix lists potential mitigation measures that can be considered 

cost effective. FEMA considers a mitigation measure to be cost-effective when the measure: (a) 

does not exceed 100 percent of the project’s cost; (b) is appropriate to the disaster damage; (c) 

will prevent future similar damage; (d) is directly related to the eligible damaged elements; (e) 

does not increase risks or cause adverse effects to the property or elsewhere; (f) meets standards 

of good professional judgment; and (g) otherwise meets requirements stipulated in the policy on 

hazard mitigation funding under Section 406 of the Stafford Act. 

FEMA. (1998). NFIP: Working Paper on Repetitive Loss Buildings. Washington, DC: 

FEMA. 

Keywords: 

compliance, enforcement, insurance coverage, mitigation, pre-FIRM structures, property values, 

repetitive losses 
97

Abstract: This paper characterizes the NFIP’s repetitive loss problem and discusses what FEMA 

has done to address the issue. A repetitive loss building is defined in this paper as one that has 

had at least two losses over $1,000 in any 10-year period since 1978. As of March 31, 1997, 

there were cumulatively 208,174 losses totaling $2.8 billion paid on 76,284 repetitive loss 

properties. Repetitive losses account for 32.4 percent of the number of losses incurred since 1978 

and 37.8 percent of all dollars paid. The $2.8 billion in losses includes $2 billion in building 

losses and $800 million in contents losses. In addition to detailed statistics and extensive 

discussion on repetitive loss properties, the paper also reviews initiatives undertaken by FEMA 

to address the problem. For example, FEMA has developed a series of manuals and courses 

aimed at providing information to design professionals and homeowners on retrofitting. The 

establishment of the Flood Mitigation Assistance (FMA) Program in 1994 secured funds to 

reduce losses to repetitive loss and substantially damaged properties. Finally, FEMA requires 

communities participating in the Community Rating System (CRS) and having 10 or more 

repetitive loss buildings to develop a repetitive loss plan as a condition of participation. 

FEMA. (1998). Proceedings in Preparation for the July 30, 1997, Report to the Honorable 

James L. Witt, Director, Federal Emergency Management Agency. Washington, DC: FEMA. 

Keywords: 

agency operations and management, mapping, strategic planning 

Abstract: This document compiles the reports from groups working to modernize FEMA’s 

Flood Hazard Mapping Program. The findings of the work groups became a report presented in 

1997 to FEMA’s director. The report surveys the current challenges facing the NFIP’s mapping 

program and presents a plan for an efficient transition to the electronic age. The document also 

includes a cost analysis and time frames for enacting the plan at various levels of funding. The 

Hazard Identification and Risk Assessment Division recommended the plan as the best means of 

addressing current challenges and enhancing the role of flood hazard maps as a valuable national 

resource for flood hazard mitigation and relief. A version of this report—Modernizing FEMA’s 

Flood Hazard Mapping Program, A Progress Report—was issued to constituents of the flood 

mapping program in November 1997. As a result of this plan, state and local officials, private 

property owners, and others will be made more aware of flood hazards nationwide. This 

awareness, it is hoped, will be realized through an increase in the sale of flood insurance policies 

and through the construction of safer communities. Thus, the plan will reduce the burden on the 

general taxpayer for disaster relief and maintain the maps as a valuable resource for mitigating 

flood hazards. The cornerstones of the plan are to use state-of-the-art technology to develop 

accurate and complete flood hazard information for the entire nation; to provide that information 

in a readily available, straightforward format; and to alert and educate that public regarding the 

risks of flood hazards. 

FEMA. (1998). Review of FEMA’s Implementation of Insurance Requirements in the Public 

Assistance Program. Washington, DC: Office of Inspector General, FEMA. 

Keywords:

mandatory purchase, public assistance 

Abstract: This review determines whether FEMA could improve its administration of the 

insurance coverage mandate in the Public Assistance Program. The review identified the 

following opportunities to streamline the application, review, and approval process for such 

assistance: (a) recruit a cadre of insurance specialists; (b) require all pertinent insurance 
98

information at the time of application for assistance; and (c) consider anticipated insurance 

proceeds in determining eligibility for funding at the beginning of the process. The review also 

recommends that FEMA clarify its rules governing waivers of requirements for insurance 

granted by state insurance commissioners. 

FEMA. (1999). Audit of the Effectiveness of the Substantial Damage Rule. Washington, DC: 

Office of Inspector General, FEMA. 

Keywords: 

insurance coverage, insurance premiums, mitigation, substantial damage, substantial 

improvement 

Abstract: This audit examines how well the substantial damage rule is working as a mitigation 

tool and how it can be strengthened to work more effectively in the future. The OIG concludes 

that the substantial damage rule could prove a more effective mitigation tool if communities in 

the NFIP did a better job of identifying potentially substantially damaged structures. For 

example, communities declared only 106 structures as substantially damaged from a sample of 

603 structures identified as substantially damaged using insurance claims data. As a result, 

mitigation efforts did not occur, which contributes to the problem of repetitive losses. Thirty-two 

percent of the structures included in the OIG’s sample had repetitive losses totaling $19 million. 

Furthermore, a test of 43 structures declared substantially damaged by communities revealed that 

only 11 received a reclassification of post-FIRM and an actuarial re-rating. Based on its findings, 

the OIG recommends FEMA should 1) implement processes to ensure communities, FEMA 

officials, and policyholders promptly receive insurance claims information that will assist them 

in identifying potentially substantially damaged structures; 2) require communities to use the 

most objective sources to estimate costs when calculating substantial damage; and 3) consistently 

manage and monitor community enforcement of the substantial damage rule. 

FEMA. (1999). Building Performance Assessment Report: Hurricane Georges in the Gulf 

Coast – Observations, Recommendations, and Technical Guidance. Washington, DC, and 

Atlanta, GA: FEMA and FEMA Region IV. 

Keywords: 

Alabama, building codes, Florida, Hurricane Georges, Mississippi, mitigation 

Abstract: This report presents FEMA’s Building Performance Assessment Team’s (BPAT) 

observations on the success and failure of buildings in the Florida Keys and Gulf Coast to 

withstand the wind and flood forces generated by Hurricane Georges in 1998. During its 

evaluation BPAT found that engineered structures constructed in accordance with current 

building codes, such as the Standard Building Code (SBC), requirements adopted at the local 

level to participate in the NFIP, and additional state and local standards performed well. 

Furthermore, publicly financed flood mitigation programs and planning activities clearly had a 

positive impact on the communities where they were implemented. Based on its findings and 

conclusions, BPAT makes several recommendations including, but not limited to, the adoption 

of a freeboard requirement (i.e., elevating a structure above BFE) by local communities and the 

continued development and maintenance of hazard mitigation plans at the state and local levels. 

FEMA. (1999). Building Performance Assessment Report: Hurricane Georges in Puerto Rico 

– Observations, Recommendations, and Technical Guidance. Washington, DC, and New 

York, NY: FEMA and FEMA Region II. 
99

Keywords: 

Hurricane Georges, Puerto Rico, building codes, mitigation 

Abstract: This report presents FEMA’s Building Performance Assessment Team’s (BPAT) 

observations on the success and failure of buildings in Puerto Rico to withstand the wind and 

flood forces generated by Hurricane Georges in 1998. The BPAT focused its investigation on the 

performance of single-family residential home construction and examined isolated examples of 

the damage to commercial and mid- and high-rise buildings. The BPAT found that a significant 

amount of the damage caused by Hurricane Georges could have been avoided if more buildings 

had been constructed in accordance with Puerto Rico’s existing building code. The majority of 

damages were observed in self-built homes, which are often constructed without a building 

permit or design services. The prevalence of this construction type potentially lessens the impact 

of revisions to the building code and permitting process. However, a lack of compliance with and 

enforcement of state floodplain management and too little attention to mitigation by the state 

contributed to the damages. Following the hurricane, Puerto Rico undertook several steps to 

reduce the risk of future flood damages including the adoption of a new building code and a 

strategic plan to provide training to officials. The results of the BPAT report provide an 

important tool for Puerto Rico to evaluate the vulnerability of residences, utilities, and 

commercial properties to disaster-related damages and target public education, mitigation, and 

regulatory revisions accordingly. 

FEMA. (1999). Cooperating Technical Community (CTC) Guidance Document Fiscal Year 

2000-2001. Washington, DC: FEMA. 

Keywords:

agency operations and management, floodplain management, mapping, strategic planning 

Abstract: FEMA has an ongoing program to update flood maps for flood-prone communities 

because flood conditions change over time due to natural and man-made changes in watersheds 

and floodplains. At the same time, however, the need for updated flood maps is increasing and 

federal funding is limited. As a result, a significant portion of the 100,000-panel flood map 

inventory is outdated. In 1997 FEMA designed a plan to modernize the inventory. Over time, the 

objective is to eliminate the existing backlog of outdated maps and to convert all the maps to a 

digital format. One of the key objectives of the modernization plan is to increase local 

involvement in, and ownership of, the mapping process. Therefore, the Cooperating Technical 

Community (CTC) concept was developed. As technologies have increased dramatically, many 

states, regional agencies, and local communities have become increasingly sophisticated and 

have invested significant resources in the identification of flood hazards. This document contains 

the initial guidance for the CTC initiative. Some of the objectives of the CTC initiative are: (a) to 

recognize the timely and accurate flood hazard information provided by CTC partners to FEMA, 

(b) to integrate contributing partners into the mapping process, and (c) to provide training and 

technical assistance. To implement these objectives, CTC partners need to enter into an overall 

partnership agreement with the appropriate FEMA Regional Mitigation Division. As the CTC 

partner and FEMA identify specific tasks to undertake, agreements will be developed and 

entered into under the umbrella of the overall CTC Partnership Agreement. 

FEMA. (1999). Cover America: FIA’s Marketing and Advertising Campaign. Washington, 

DC: FEMA. 

Available at: http://www.fema.gov/nfip/market2.htm#1
100

Keywords:

Cover America, marketing, NFIP, risk communication, Write Your Own Program 

Abstract: In October 1995, FIA started a national marketing and advertising campaign called 

Cover America. The campaign’s goals include improving awareness of and attitudes toward the 

NFIP and flood insurance, stimulating demand for flood insurance, and providing opportunities 

for insurance agents, Write Your Own (WYO) companies, and other NFIP stakeholders to 

participate in and build on the messages delivered. The Cover America campaign uses paid 

advertising and public relations to reach consumers, insurance agents, and other NFIP 

stakeholders. Market research is conducted throughout the year to assess how well the campaign 

is meeting its goals. Findings from this research and other tracking mechanisms are used to 

improve the campaign. This document describes the campaign and its different components: 

television, print and radio advertising, direct mail, and Yellow Pages. This document also 

describes the NFIP cooperative advertising program, which provides WYO companies and 

insurance agents the opportunity to split their advertising costs for any approved flood insurance 

print or Yellow Pages display ads with the NFIP as well as the development of public relations 

and of collateral materials such as brochures. This document also provides some results 

attributable to the Cover America campaign. Those results are in concordance to those produced 

for FEMA by Gallup and Robinson, Inc. (1999). 

FEMA. (1999). Environmental Policy Memoranda. Washington, DC: FEMA. 

Keywords:

environmental policy, federal programs, public assistance 

Abstract: This document compiles all environmental policy memoranda that have been issued 

by FEMA and in effect as of May 1999. The document should serve as an easy reference for 

program staff coordinating public assistance grant activities involving environmental issues. Five 

environmental memoranda are included: (a) Categorical Exclusion (CATEX) of Projects 

Involving the Acquisition of Damaged Properties and Implementation of E.O. 12898 Concerning 

Environmental Justice, April 18, 1994; (b) Other Federal Agency Clearance for Environmental 

Assessments, May 24, 1994; (c) Policy for Projects Completed Without Environmental Review 

Required by the National Environmental Policy Act (NEPA), March 24, 1995; (d) Availability 

and Use of the Updated List of Categorical Exclusions Published February 5, 1996, as a Revision 

of 44 CFR 10.8, February 27, 1996; and (e) Documentation of the National Environmental 

Policy Act (NEPA) Categorical Exclusions (CATEX), June 20, 1997. 

FEMA. (1999). Federal Insurance Administration: 1999 Stakeholder’s Report. Washington, 

DC: FEMA. 

Keywords: 

NFIP, map modernization 

Abstract: This report provides an annual update on the status of the NFIP. It details activities on 

policies, claims, marketing, communication, and training. As of fiscal year 1999, the NFIP had 

4,187,729 policies in 19,023 communities. Hurricanes Frances, Georges, and Floyd represented 

some of the major flood disasters of the year. Payments on insurance claims from Hurricane 

Floyd alone totaled nearly $398 million. Several important initiatives occurred in 1999. The 

number of communities participating in Project Impact reached 185, with more than 1,000 

business partners. Legislation was introduced in Congress to reduce the burden of repetitive 

flood losses. FEMA developed a Map Modernization Plan to update and digitize flood insurance 
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rate maps. In order to finance the cost of mapping, FEMA developed the Cooperating Technical 

Community (CTC) Program, in which FEMA establishes formal agreements with communities, 

regional agencies, and states to conduct mapping in a particular area. 

FEMA. (1999). Guidelines and Specifications for Flood Map Production Coordination 

Contractors. Washington, DC: FEMA. 

Keywords:

flood insurance studies, floodplain management, mapping, Special Flood Hazard Areas 

Abstract: These guidelines define the technical requirements, coordination and documentation 

activities, and product specifications for a variety of technical tasks such as reviewing the results 

of studies completed by FEMA’s study contractors; converting nonflood-prone and minimally 

flood-prone communities to the regular phase of the NFIP; processing requests for revisions to 

flood insurance studies and FIRMs; identifying letters of map change that are superseded when a 

revised FIRM becomes effective; processing community requests for map updates to reflect 

recent annexations; processing requests for FEMA’s review of determinations made by lending 

institutions whether buildings or manufactured homes are located in identified SFHAs; 

responding to inquiries from FEMA’s constituents about the NFIP; responding in writing to 

inquiries from Congress about mapping-related matters; processing map revisions under the 

Coastal Barrier legislation; performing riverine and coastal erosion studies; providing risk 

assessment activities; and others. 

FEMA. (1999). Hazard Mitigation at Work: Two Alabama Communities. Washington, DC: 

FEMA. 

Keywords:

Alabama, buyouts, cost-benefit analysis, Hazard Mitigation Grant Program, mitigation 

Abstract: This report tells the story of how the cities of Elba and Geneva, AL, with help from 

FEMA, reduced the impact of repeated flooding. The report begins with a discussion of the 

Hazard Mitigation Grant Program (HMGP) and provides an overview of the benefit-cost analysis 

used by FEMA to evaluate mitigation projects. An explanation of the hazard mitigation projects 

implemented in each community follows. FEMA funded the installation of a stormwater 

drainage system in Elba and the removal of flood-prone properties in Geneva. Both communities 

realized the benefits of mitigation when flooding occurred only a few years after the projects’ 

implementation. Results from the projects underscore the success of mitigation in hazard-prone 

communities. 

FEMA. (1999). Hazard Mitigation at Work: Two Georgia Communities. Washington, DC: 

FEMA. 

Keywords:

buyouts, cost-benefit analysis, Georgia, Hazard Mitigation Grant Program, mitigation 

Abstract: This report tells the story of how the cities of Newton and Albany, GA, with help from 

FEMA, reduced the impact of repeated flooding. The report begins with a discussion of the 

Hazard Mitigation Grant Program (HMGP) and provides an overview of the benefit-cost analysis 

used by FEMA to evaluate mitigation projects. An explanation of the hazard mitigation project 

implemented in each community follows. FEMA funded the removal of hundreds of flood-prone 

properties in both Newton and Albany. Both communities realized the benefits of mitigation 
102

when flooding occurred only a few years after the removal of the properties. Results from the 

project underscore the success of mitigation in hazard-prone communities. 

FEMA. (1999). Hazard Mitigation Grant Program Desk Reference. Washington, DC: FEMA. 

Keywords:

Hazard Mitigation Grant Program, legislation, mitigation, Stafford Act 

Abstract: Authorized under Section 404 of the Stafford Act, FEMA’s Hazard Mitigation Grant 

Program (HMGP) provides grants to state and local governments to implement long-term hazard 

mitigation measures after a major disaster declaration. The program aims to reduce the loss of 

life and property due to natural disasters and to enable the implementation of mitigation 

measures during the immediate recovery from a disaster. FEMA can fund up to 75 percent of the 

eligible costs of each project. Eligible applicants include state and local governments, Native 

American tribes, and certain nonprofit organizations. Although homeowners and businesses 

cannot apply directly to the program, a community can apply on their behalf. 

FEMA. (1999). Managing Development Through the National Flood Insurance Program. 

Washington, DC: FEMA. 

Keywords: 

Coastal Barrier Resources System, Community Rating System, compliance, disaster assistance, 

enforcement, floodplain management, insurance, mapping, mitigation, NFIP, substantial damage, 

substantial improvement, training, variances 

Abstract: All levels of government—local, state, and federal—and the private sector share 

responsibility for flood loss reduction. Fulfilling this responsibility depends on having the 

knowledge and skills to plan and implement needed floodplain management measures. The 

fundamental floodplain management program that others are built on is the NFIP. The purpose of 

this home study course is to enhance the knowledge and skills of local officials responsible for 

administering and enforcing local floodplain management regulations. It is also intended to 

broaden the understanding of floodplain management strategies that can be applied at the local 

level. The course is for the local official responsible for administering the community’s 

floodplain management program. Primary instructional material for the course includes 10 units 

on topics related to the NFIP and seven appendices. 

FEMA. (1999). Mandatory Purchase of Flood Insurance Guidelines. Washington, DC: 

FEMA. 

Keywords:

legislation, lending institutions, mandatory purchase 

Abstract: Title V of the Riegle Community Development and Regulatory Improvement Act of 

1994 (the Reform Act) substantially amended the National Flood Insurance Act of 1968 and the 

Flood Disaster Protection Act of 1973. The Reform Act tightened the mandatory purchase 

provisions that originated with the Flood Disaster Protection Act of 1973. As the result of the 

Reforms Act’s continuing impact upon lenders, FIA updated and reformatted the guidelines for 

mandatory purchase, previously issued in October 1989 and May 1997. These guidelines present 

an overview of the Reform Act as it amended the 1973 Act. They explain the applicable statutes 

or regulations. Several appendices contain the relevant statutes and regulations addressed in the 

guidelines as well as specific supplementary information referenced in the document. The 

guidelines also include process flowcharts, a glossary, and an index. 
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FEMA. (1999). Mapping Activity Statement Templates for Cooperative Technical Partners 

Initiative. Washington, DC: FEMA. 

Keywords:

mapping 

Abstract: The Mapping Activity Statements cover a range of products and services that depend 

on the partner’s interest, technical expertise, and available resources. The statements can cover 

simple activities, such as providing a digital base map, and more sophisticated activities, such as 

conducting flood hazard studies and preparing print-ready digital flood maps for distribution by 

FEMA. Nine templates for Mapping Activity Statements are included. These templates address 

the most common mapping activities and can be used directly or as guidelines for the 

development of specific agreements between FEMA and its local, regional, or state partners. 

According to FEMA, agreements other than the nine listed may also be possible.

FEMA. (1999). Model Programmatic Agreement: Historic Review. Washington, DC: FEMA. 

Keywords:

historic sites, legislation, public assistance 

Abstract: This document makes available the Model Programmatic Agreement to accomplish 

the requirements of Section 106 under the National Historic Preservation Act (NHPA) of 1966, 

as amended. It is intended for FEMA personnel who coordinate historic review for the agency’s 

undertakings using public assistance grants. Section 106 of NHPA requires all federal agencies 

to review the effect of an agency undertaking on historic properties prior to funding the project, 

activity, or program. FEMA developed this document to simplify and expedite coordination and 

to provide specific guidance to consulting parties in the historic review process. This document 

also exempts routine disaster-recovery activities with little potential of adversely affecting 

historic properties from the review mandated by NHPA. 

FEMA. (1999). Modernizing FEMA’s Flood Hazard Mapping Program: Recommendations 

for Using Future Conditions Hydrology for the NFIP. Washington, DC: FEMA. 

Keywords:

hydrology and hydraulics, mapping 

Abstract: This document describes FEMA’s plan to modernize its mapping program through 

cooperative agreements with state and/or local partners. FEMA will provide funds for mapping, 

technical assistance, and mentoring to the state or local partner, which will then develop and 

maintain all or a component of its flood map, thus maintaining the connection between mapping 

and managing flood hazard areas. One conclusion is that FEMA’s maps should display 

floodplains based on future conditions hydrology, as determined by the local partners, while 

FEMA will continue to require regulation of floodplain development based on existing 

conditions data. Topics discussed include the role of state and local partners; emphasis on local 

mapping needs; historical perspective on future conditions; defining future conditions; use of 

flood hazard maps for floodplain management, flood insurance rating, and other purposes; 

constraints and benefits of using future conditions data on NFIP maps; conclusions; and 

implementation through map specifications, Cooperating Technical Community agreements, 

revisions, rule making, and outreach. 
104

FEMA. (1999). Modernizing FEMA’s Flood Hazard Mapping Program: Fiscal Year 1999 

Progress Report. Washington, DC: FEMA.

Keywords:

agency operations and management, mapping, strategic planning 

Abstract: FEMA developed a plan in 1997 to modernize its program of mapping flood hazards. 

This report summarizes the progress made toward implementing the plan in Fiscal Year 1999. 

The plan is a seven-year effort to upgrade FEMA’s inventory of flood maps and enhance its 

products, services, and processes. It is anticipated that the map modernization plan will help 

prevent approximately $26 billion in flood damages to new buildings over a 50-year period. The 

major components of the process include an assessment of mapping needs, a tailored scope of 

work to be developed with FEMA’s mapping partners, and concurrent production processes. 

Based on accomplishments to date and current map modernization priorities, FEMA has updated 

the list of map modernization objectives. Some objectives identified on the original list are now 

fully developed, ongoing components of the flood mapping program and thus, have been 

removed from the list (e.g., FEMA Map Assistance Call Center). Others are no longer considered 

as map modernization objectives but rather, are continuing under normal operations of FEMA’s 

flood mapping programs. Finally, new objectives have been identified and initiated in the report. 

FEMA. (1999). Mutual Aid Agreement for Public Assistance. Washington, DC: FEMA. 

Keywords:

public assistance, Stafford Act 

Abstract: This document specifies criteria by which FEMA will recognize the eligibility of costs 

under the Public Assistance Program incurred through mutual aid agreements between applicants 

and other entities. It is intended for personnel involved in the administration of the Public 

Assistance Program and applies to emergency work authorized under Sections 403, 407, and 502 

of the Stafford Act. The motivation for this document is as follows: many state and local 

governments and private nonprofit organizations formulate mutual aid agreements to provide 

emergency assistance to each other in the event of disasters or other crises. The conditions of the 

agreements may be to provide reciprocal services or to receive direct payment through specific 

labor and equipment rates outlined in the agreements. These agreements usually are written but, 

occasionally, are by understanding or are arranged after a disaster occurs. The document 

addresses both written and unwritten mutual aid agreements. Among others, the document lists 

the conditions under which FEMA will reimburse the cost of mutual aid agreement associated 

with emergency assistance. For example, FEMA will not reimburse applicants who do not 

advertise and award competitive bid contracts for permanent repairs. Moreover, FEMA 

recognizes only mutual aid agreements between governments or private, nonprofit organizations 

in separate areas and does not recognize mutual aid agreements between agencies, departments 

or entities of the same town, county, or state government.

FEMA. (1999). The National Flood Insurance Program Community Status Book. 

Washington, DC: FEMA. 

Keywords:

lending institutions, mandatory purchase, NFIP, risk communication 

Abstract: This book provides information about communities participating in the NFIP as well 

as communities not participating in the program but that have special flood hazards identified by 

FEMA. The purpose of the book is to assist federally regulated lenders in determining whether 
105

flood insurance must be required as a condition of receiving a mortgage, to assist property 

owners and insurance agents in determining whether flood insurance is available in a particular 

community, and to determine the availability of a FIRM for a particular community. The book 

also contains several useful appendices on topics including mandatory purchase and regulations 

for lenders, the Mortgage Portfolio Protection Program (MPPP), guidelines and requirements for 

the Write Your Own (WYO) Program, and criteria for private flood insurance. FEMA updates 

the Community Status Book on a monthly basis. 

FEMA. (1999). Numerical Models Accepted by FEMA for NFIP Usage. Washington, DC: 

FEMA. 

Keywords:

hydrology and hydraulics, mapping, modeling 

Abstract: FEMA has developed a comprehensive listing of all numerical models acceptable for 

NFIP usage. This document is arranged under a chart format that provides essential references 

for coastal models (coastal storm surge, coastal wave height, and coastal wave effects models), 

hydrologic models (single event and continuous event models), statistical models, hydraulic 

models (one-dimensional steady flow, one-dimensional unsteady flow, two-dimensional 

steady/unsteady flow, and floodway analysis models), and sediment transport models.

FEMA. (1999). Partnership for a Safer Future: Annual Performance Report 1999.

Washington, DC: FEMA. 

Keywords:

agency operations and management, strategic planning 

Abstract: In Fiscal Year 1997, FEMA developed its strategic plan, Partnership for the Future, 

and the Fiscal Year 1999 Annual Performance Plan (APP) on which this report is based. These 

first planning efforts under the Government Performance and Results Act reflect FEMA’s 

commitment to produce comprehensive planning documents in support of effective and efficient 

government and are very ambitious. While each of the 66 APP activities leads toward the 

achievement of FEMA’s strategic goals, the agency believes that the detail and continuing 

measure of some of the activities is more meaningful at the program levels than it is at the 

strategic levels. For this reason, during Fiscal Year 1999, FEMA revised its strategic objectives 

to tighten the focus of its annual goals toward more measurable outcomes consistent with the 

agency’s mission. This report is divided into two sections. The first section highlights Fiscal 

Year 1999 activities, goals and measures that demonstrate the breadth of FEMA’s efforts and 

achievement toward its strategic goals. The second section is a comprehensive report of Fiscal 

Year 1999.

FEMA (1999). Public Assistance Guide. Washington, DC: FEMA. 

Keywords:

public assistance 

Abstract: FEMA’s Public Assistance (PA) Program provides grants to support the recovery of 

public infrastructure. Potential recipients of this funding include state and local governments and 

certain types of private, nonprofit organizations. This guide describes the program’s provisions 

and application procedures and replaces the guide issued in September 1996. 
106

FEMA. (1999). Riverine Erosion Hazard Areas: Mapping Feasibility Study. Washington, 

DC: FEMA. 

Keywords: 

erosion, mapping, modeling, riverine areas 

Abstract: Section 577 of the National Flood Insurance Reform Act of 1994 requires that FEMA 

submit a report to Congress that evaluates the technological feasibility of mapping Riverine 

Erosion Hazard Areas (REHAs) and assesses the economic impact of erosion and erosion 

mapping on the NFIP. This study determines whether it is technologically feasible to map 

riverine erosion hazards. Based on a literature review, an analysis of case studies, and input from 

experts, methodologies for analyzing and mapping REHAs were identified. Using cost data 

associated with existing case studies, FEMA estimated the approximate cost per river mile of 

conducting riverine erosion hazard studies and adding areas to existing FIRMs. The case studies 

indicated that there are scientifically sound procedures for delineating riverine erosion hazards, 

although for shorter time frames (30 years) than the 60 years specified in Section 577. Estimated 

average study values are $2,000-$3,000 per mile for geomorphic methods, $6,000-$7,000 per 

mile for engineering methods, and $10,000-$12,000 per mile for mathematical modeling 

methods. The report estimates that the implementation of this effort as part of the NFIP would 

cost between $200 and $300 million. This report does not include a cost-benefit analysis. 

FEMA. (1999). Vermont lender compliance with the Flood Disaster Protection Act of 1973 

and the Title V of the Riegle Community Development and Regulatory Improvement Act of 

1994. (Draft). Boston, MA: FEMA Region I. 

Keywords: 

lending institutions, mandatory purchase, Vermont 

Abstract: This post-disaster study assesses the rate of lender compliance following catastrophic 

flooding in Vermont during the summer of 1998. FEMA determined that out of the 1,549 

applications received for federal disaster assistance, 120 of them came from commercial or 

residential properties located in Special Flood Hazard Areas (SFHAs) designated as Flood Zone 

A. The study finds that 54 of these properties (45 percent) had mortgages from a federally 

regulated institution but did not have flood insurance as required by law. Moreover, the federal 

government provided approximately $500,000 in disaster assistance to these properties—money 

that would not have been provided had these properties maintained flood insurance.

FEMA. (2000). Annual Performance Plan: Fiscal Year 2001. Washington, DC: FEMA. 

Available at: http://www.fema.gov/library/pp2001.shtm 

Keywords:

agency operations and management, NFIP, strategic planning 

Abstract: The Annual Performance Plan outlines how FEMA’s strategic goals and objectives 

will be pursued during Fiscal Year 2001. The plan presents 30 annual performance goals for 

Fiscal Year 2001. Each of these supports a five-year operational objective contributing to one of 

the three FEMA strategic goals. Some of the objectives include an increase in the availability and 

effectiveness of natural hazards information and an increase in the availability of loss-estimation 

and risk-assessment methods and tools. Other activities include working with federal agencies 

that influence the built environment to develop and implement a consistent federal policy on 

natural-hazard mitigation; providing incentives and support to the nonfederal public sector to 

increase disaster resistance; increasing by 20 percent over 2000 baselines the private sector’s 
107

involvement in disaster resistance; and supporting states, tribes, and communities in their 

mitigation activities. FEMA will also collect and validate building and flood loss data; confirm 

that the reduction in estimated losses from NFIP activities exceeds $1 billion; continue a 

systematic assessment of the NFIP’s impact and effectiveness; increase the number of NFIP 

policies in-force by 5 percent; mitigate repetitive loss properties; and implement measures to 

reduce the subsidy for pre-FIRM properties to improve the program’s underwriting ratio. 

FEMA. (2000). Audit of FEMA’s Cost Estimate for Implementing the Flood Map 

Modernization Plan. Washington, DC: Office of Inspector General, FEMA. 

Keywords:

agency operations and management, mapping 

Abstract: This report concludes that FEMA can and should improve its estimates of the cost of 

the Flood Map Modernization Plan (MMP). In some instances, the agency did not verify data, 

use reliable cost data, or establish a sound basis for some assumptions. In addition, FEMA did 

not fully consider savings that could be realized from technology. The report recommends that 

FEMA validate its mapping needs for mapped and unmapped communities, determine the cost 

effectiveness of creating or updating maps, track costs related to map modernization so that 

actual cost data will be available to use in estimating future costs, and present the estimate as a 

range to better disclose the uncertainty in the assumptions and the financial impact of alternative 

assumptions. The OIG also recommends that the Mitigation Directorate expedite the 

incorporation of new flood-study and terrain data collection techniques and include in its MPP 

the financial impact of partnerships with state and local governments, new techniques for 

mapping, and technological advances. 

FEMA. (2000). Auditors’ Report on FEMA’s Fiscal Year 1999 Financial Statements. 

Washington, DC: Office of Inspector General, FEMA. 

Keywords: 

agency operations and management, federal programs, public assistance 

Abstract: The document communicates the financial statements and program activities of 

FEMA for Fiscal Year 1999 and includes the appraisal of an independent auditor. For disasters 

declared between 1989 and 1999, FEMA has obligations totaling over $26.8 billion, including 

public and individual assistance, mission assignments, mitigation, and FEMA administration. 

The report outlines FEMA organization, activities, and programs and evaluates progress to 

meeting goals. The auditor identified certain deficiencies involving the internal control over 

financial reporting that could adversely affect FEMA’s ability to record, process, summarize, and 

report accurate financial data. The OIG concluded that these deficiencies did not constitute 

substantial noncompliance with the Federal Financial Management Improvement Act (FFMIA) 

of 1996. 

FEMA. (2000). Call for Issues Status Report. Washington, DC: FEMA. 

Keywords:

NFIP, strategic planning 

Abstract: In 1998, as part of its ongoing efforts to achieve even higher levels of effectiveness, 

FEMA decided to solicit input on all facets of the NFIP from partners and customers of the 

program. The solicitation was implemented through a nationwide Call for Issues. This report

summarizes issues related to insurance coverage, public information, floodplain management, 
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and hazard identification, among others. FEMA responds to each issue submitted with a 

definitive decision and/or potential action. 

FEMA. (2000). Compendium of Flood Map Changes Archive. Washington, DC: FEMA. 

Keywords:

mapping 

Abstract: This compendium lists all the changes made to FIRMs including Physical Map 

Revisions, Letters of Map Revision, and Letters of Map Amendment during a given six-month 

period. For each Letter of Map Change, the listing provides the map panel(s) affected, the 

effective date of the change, case, number, and determination type. For each Physical Map 

Revision, the listing provides the map panel(s) affected and the effective date of the change. The 

listing is updated every six months and published in the Federal Register. 

FEMA. (2000). Cover America II. Washington, DC: FEMA. 

Available at: http://www.fema.gov/nfip/coverii.htm 

Keywords:

Cover America, marketing, NFIP, risk communication 

Abstract: This document describes the characteristics of the Cover America II campaign. This 

campaign started in 1999 and will continue until 2003. It replaces the Cover America I campaign 

(1995-1999). The document announces that to increase awareness, improve attitudes, and 

increase flood insurance sales, FEMA has “established a brand for the NFIP. It builds on the 

yellow diamond street sign, which we see everyday, used to warn drivers of upcoming dangers 

and to change their behavior as a result of the potential danger. Our new brand couples this sign 

with the message: ‘Be Flood Alert.’ To the right of the sign are the words: ‘National Flood 

Insurance Program.’ This brand aims to serve as the foundation for all components of the 

campaign, including advertising, co-op advertising, and public relations, and gives us the 

opportunity to talk about all aspects of the NFIP, from mitigation to flood insurance. This 

document describes the 1999 radio and TV campaign and the co-op advertising program. It also 

lists ‘mat stories’: stories written and distributed to newspapers across the country throughout the 

year. These articles provide tips about floods, flood insurance, and flood prevention.” The 

document contains samples of printed ads, testimony of some co-op advertising partners, and 

some recent mat stories.

FEMA. (2000). Digest and Guide on Litigation Concerning the National Flood Insurance 

Program. Washington, DC: Office of the General Counsel and FIA. 

Keywords: 

legal issues and litigation, legislation, NFIP 

Abstract: This digest summarizes the holdings of relevant cases that involve the NFIP and to 

which FEMA, HUD, FIA, the National Flood Insurers Association, companies participating in 

the WYO program, or local governments were parties. It consists of cases reported in the 

national (West) reporters, the Commerce Clearing House (CCH) Insurance reporters, and the 

electronic reporters, as well as significant unreported cases. There may be other significant 

unreported cases concerning WYO parties, that WYO counsel failed to bring to the attention of 

FEMA’s Office of the General Counsel (OGC) and FIA. The cases are digested under subject 

categories including threshold; coverage; underwriting; notice of loss; damages; attorney fees 

under the Equal Access to Justice Act (EAJA); fraud; subrogation; publication and marketing of 
109

the NFIP; constitutionality, statutory purpose, and structure of the NFIP; and floodplain 

management and mapping. The citations are to the bound reports, including CCH Insurance 

reporters if not found in the West reporters, and to one or more electronic reporters if not within 

the bound reporters. Parallel citations are given when it may be advantageous for the reader’s 

access. 

FEMA. (2000). Economic Impact Assessment Reports for Hurricane Floyd for New Jersey. 

Washington, DC: FEMA. 

Keywords:

economic impacts, Hurricane Floyd, New Jersey 

Abstract: This report, completed by the Department of Commerce’s Economic Development 

Administration at FEMA’s request, is intended to: (a) provide a comprehensive assessment of the 

economic impacts of Hurricane Floyd on the affected areas of New Jersey; (b) provide 

recommendations for businesses and state and community officials on how to accelerate the 

recovery process; (c) implement safer, stronger, and smarter building practices; and (d) create 

disaster-resistant businesses and jobs. Hurricane Floyd affected more than 76,000 residences and 

4,000 businesses in nine counties in New Jersey’s disaster declaration. The assessment focuses 

on six communities that were most at risk for long-term negative impacts from the storm: the 

boroughs of Lodi, Bound Brook, and Manville and the cities of Trenton, Passaic, and Paterson. 

FEMA. (2000). Economic Impact Assessment Reports for Hurricane Floyd for North 

Carolina. Washington, DC: FEMA. 

Keywords:

economic impacts, Hurricane Floyd, North Carolina 

Abstract: This report, completed by the Department of Commerce’s Economic Development 

Administration at FEMA’s request, is intended to: (a) provide a comprehensive assessment of the 

economic impacts of Hurricane Floyd on the affected areas of North Carolina; (b) provide 

recommendations for businesses and state and community officials on how to accelerate the 

recovery process; (c) implement safer, stronger, and smarter building practices; and (d) create 

disaster-resistant businesses and jobs. Hurricane Floyd caused approximately $6 billion in 

economic losses in North Carolina: $1 billion in business structural losses, $4 billion in business 

revenues; and $1 billion in agricultural losses. Sixty-six of the 100 counties in the state were 

declared disaster areas, with 44 counties suffering economic impacts ranging from minor to 

severe. The assessment focuses on these 44 counties. The analysis is divided into nonagricultural 

and agricultural business sectors. 

FEMA. (2000). Economic Impact Assessment of Hurricane Floyd for Virginia. Washington, 

DC: FEMA. 

Keywords: 

agriculture, compliance, disaster assistance, disaster planning, economic impacts, Hurricane 

Floyd, insurance purchase decision, mitigation, strategic planning, Virginia 

Abstract: In September 1999, Hurricane Floyd passed through southeastern Virginia causing 

severe inland flooding. Subsequent disaster declarations included 43 local jurisdictions. To assist 

the affected communities in their recovery, FEMA asked the Economic Development 

Administration (EDA) of the Department of Commerce to undertake a rapid assessment of the 

economic impacts on agriculture and businesses from Hurricane Floyd. More specifically, the 
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primary purpose of the assessment was two-fold: to accelerate business recovery and to support 

the creation of sustainable business enterprises and disaster resistant jobs. EDA estimated 

damages of approximately $35 million to businesses and $17 million to crops in the study area 

(City of Franklin and Isle of Wight and Southampton Counties). The report makes a number of 

recommendations for economic recovery and sustainability including, but not limited to: 

increasing flood risk awareness and facilitating the purchase of sufficient flood insurance, buying 

out and relocating vulnerable businesses from floodplains, and planning ahead for future 

disasters. 

FEMA. (2000). Feasibility and Justification of Reducing Buyout Assistance to Property 

Owners without Flood Insurance. Washington, DC: FEMA. 

Keywords: 

buyouts, insurance purchase decision, Missouri, North Carolina, property values, public policy 

Abstract: In 1999 Congress directed FEMA to report on the feasibility and justification of 

reducing buyout assistance to those who failed to purchase and maintain flood insurance. To 

examine the policy issues FEMA 1) reviewed research and data related to the factors influencing 

flood insurance purchase; 2) conducted a field study to evaluate the experience of large buyout 

programs in Missouri and North Carolina; and 3) sought feedback from the OIG and state 

emergency management officials. FEMA also assessed the feasibility of implementing a policy 

to reduce buyout assistance to those who fail to purchase and maintain flood insurance by 

examining its current procedures and assessing potential implications. Overall, the research and 

survey work done by FEMA led to the conclusion that no justification exists for reducing buyout 

assistance to those who fail to purchase and maintain flood insurance. Doing so will not result in 

any significant increase in the purchase of flood insurance, but will have the unintended 

consequences of effectively penalizing the low-income populations most in need of federal 

assistance to move out of harm’s way and of reducing the effectiveness of community’s activities 

for flood mitigation. FEMA does not recommend taking any action based on the report’s 

conclusions. 

FEMA. (2000). FEMA Launches Project Impact Disaster Prevention Radio PSA. 

Washington, DC: FEMA. 

Keywords:

media, mitigation, Project Impact 

Abstract: FEMA’s Project Impact: Building Disaster Resistant Communities launched a 

combined television and radio public service announcement (PSA) campaign encouraging 

Americans to ask what their community is doing to become disaster resistant. The PSA followed 

two recent surveys regarding tornado and hurricane seasons. Survey respondents said they felt 

well prepared for disasters, but that they had not taken any prevention measures to prepare for 

natural disasters. In hurricane-prone states, 76 percent of respondents in northern states and 58 

percent in southern states had not taken any prevention measures. The National Association of 

Broadcasters, which serves and represents America’s radio and television stations, has taken on 

FEMA’s Project Impact as a national campaign and will work to promote among its members the 

importance of prevention measures to reduce disaster damage. 

FEMA. (2000). NASA joins FEMA’s Project Impact Effort. Washington, DC: FEMA. 

Keywords:
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California, mapping, Minnesota, mitigation, North Dakota, Project Impact, Red River, Virginia 

Abstract: FEMA and the National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA) signed an 

agreement under which FEMA will use NASA science, technology, and remote-sensing research 

in emergency management and disaster prevention activities. FEMA expected that the 

cooperative agreement would result in updated and more accurate maps of floodplains, a better 

understanding of wildfires and maps to improve disaster recovery and mitigation by state and 

local communities throughout the United States. The first cooperative activity under the 

agreement involved mapping floodplains in Los Angeles, CA; Sacramento, CA; Virginia Beach, 

VA; the Red River along the North Dakota and Minnesota border, and San Francisco, CA. 

FEMA. (2000). National Flood Insurance Program Community Rating System: Biennial 

Report to Congress. Washington, DC: FEMA. 

Keywords:

Community Rating System, insurance premiums, mitigation

Abstract: This third biennial report submitted to Congress provides an overview of the 

Community Rating System (CRS) from inception to future directions. CRS was implemented in 

1990 to recognize and encourage community floodplain management activities that exceed the 

minimum NFIP standards. Under the program, flood insurance premium rates are adjusted to 

reflect the reduced flood risk resulting a community’s implementation of creditable activities. 

The report describes the 10 CRS classes (Class I requires the most credit points and gives the 

largest premium reduction). The report states that over 900 communities received discounted 

insurance premiums based on their implementation of measures that go beyond the NFIP’s 

minimum requirements. The report also points out that these communities account for over 66 

percent of the NFIP’s policy base. 

FEMA. (2000). Federal Insurance Administration: 2000 Stakeholders’ Report. Washington, 

DC: FEMA. 

Keywords:

NFIP, repetitive losses 

Abstract: This report provides an annual update on the status of the NFIP. It details activities on 

policies, marketing, claims, and mitigation. At the close of fiscal year 2000, the NFIP covered 

4.3 million policies in 19,117 communities. Claims payments on closed losses totaled over $192 

million to 19,627 recipients. FEMA’s Mitigation Directorate continued to address the issue of 

repetitive loss properties by identifying properties and targeting them for mitigation actions such 

as buyouts, relocation, and elevation. FIA provided a ranked list of more than 11,000 targeted 

properties to state officials for use in their own mitigation efforts. 

FEMA. (2000). Opportunities to Enhance Compliance with Homeowner Flood Insurance 

Purchase Requirements. Washington, DC: Office of Inspector General, FEMA. 

Keywords: 

compliance, floodplain designation, lending institutions, mandatory purchase, mapping, Special 

Flood Hazard Areas

Abstract: Of the 4,195 structures in the report’s judgmental sample, 416 or 10 percent of the 

structures did not have flood insurance despite meeting the requirements for mandatory 

purchase. The report finds 30 percent of structures in the sample did not have coverage and 

purchase requirements did not apply to 20 percent due to Letters of Map Amendment and Letters 
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of Map Revision, unregulated lenders, or no mortgage. Data from FIA suggests a noncompliance rate as high as 38 percent overall. The OIG recommends that to enhance compliance, 

FIA should study compliance levels in the post-disaster (flood) environment, should identify 

structures that are remapped into a SFHA, should follow-up on lapses of flood insurance 

policies, and should encourage standards for flood zone determinations. Furthermore, the report 

encourages FIA to assess the impact of Group Flood Insurance Policies (GFIPs), a mechanism 

created in 1996 to help disaster victims in SFHAs comply with mandatory purchase, on the 

reduction of disaster costs. 

FEMA. (2000). Partnership for a Safer Future: 2000 Annual Performance Report. 

Washington, DC: FEMA. 

Available at: http://www.fema.gov/pdf/library/fema5a.pdf

Keywords: 

agency operations and management, strategic planning 

Abstract: This report explains how performance goals for Fiscal Year 2000 contributed to 

FEMA’s three strategic goals: to protect lives and prevent the loss of property from all hazards, 

to reduce human suffering and enhance the recovery after disaster strikes, and to ensure that the 

public is served in a timely and efficient manner. For example, one performance goal calls for 

the implementation of a repetitive loss strategy to reduce repetitive losses to the NFIP 

significantly. This performance goal would contribute to the achievement of the agency’s first 

strategic goal. Some flood insurance-related performance goals include: evaluation of the 

effectiveness of the mitigation planning process and related initiatives at both the state and local 

levels, modernization of the floodplain-mapping program, and an increase in the number of flood 

insurance policies-in-force by 5 percent. The report also details management challenges 

identified in the Fiscal Year 2000 Annual Performance Plan and explains representative Fiscal 

Year 2000 evaluations. 

FEMA. (2000). Project Impact: Building Disaster Resistant Communities. Washington, DC: 

FEMA. 

Keywords:

awareness, disaster planning, mitigation, Project Impact, risk communication 

Abstract: With Project Impact: Building Disaster Resistant Communities, FEMA expects to 

change the way America manages disasters. Project Impact aims to help communities protect 

themselves from natural disasters. Project Impact bases its work and planning on three 

principles: preventive actions at the local level, private sector participation, and long-term efforts 

and investments in prevention measures. This report explains that in 1997, FEMA partnered with 

seven pilot communities across the country and was encouraged by the benefits realized and the 

local commitment that flourished. Project Impact quickly became a national initiative as more 

communities began to see the value in disaster planning and mitigation. Today there are nearly 

250 participating communities, as well as more than 2,500 businesses that have joined Project 

Impact as partners.

FEMA. (2000). Project Impact: Identifying and Reporting Partner Contributions. 

Washington, DC: Office of Inspector General, FEMA. 

Keywords:

disaster planning, federal programs, mitigation, Project Impact, 
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Abstract: This report assesses the community mitigation grant initiative of NFIP’s Project 

Impact and reveals several areas where the identification and reporting of partner contributions 

should be improved. The report recommends that FEMA take steps to increase the accuracy of 

reported partner contributions by issuing guidance to communities to identify contributions more 

accurately and consistently and to improve its strategy for reporting quantifiable and 

nonquantifiable contributions so that valuable attitudinal and behavioral changes in communities 

are not overlooked. As the number of Project Impact communities grows, the report recommends 

that “best practice” examples be disseminated to share successful ideas and exemplary tasks and 

that FEMA realign its resources to better meet the increasing workload placed on regional 

coordinators. The report further recommends that FEMA educate communities about grant 

procedures, ensure that communities are selecting viable projects, and more closely monitor 

mitigation projects using federal funds so that the current trend of communities’ slow spending 

of federal grant monies can be changed.

FEMA. (2000). Recommendations on the Pre-FIRM Subsidy. Washington, DC: FEMA. 

Keywords: 

insurance, pre-FIRM structures, repetitive losses, subsidies 

Abstract: The document provides background on the pre-FIRM subsidy, highlights the more 

important economic effects of subsidy elimination, and contains recommendations developed by 

FEMA for accelerating the reduction of the pre-FIRM subsidy. The document is a companion to 

the “Study of the Economic Effects of Charging Actuarially Based Premium Rates for Pre-FIRM 

Structures.” The study finds that elimination of the pre-FIRM subsidy would impact all NFIP 

communities, but would most greatly impact communities with relatively high proportions of 

high-risk, floodprone, pre-FIRM properties. In these communities, premium increases would be 

significant, property values would decline considerably, and fewer flood insurance policies 

would be purchased. Additionally, the structures most likely to drop their flood insurance would 

be the ones at greatest risk, because they would face the highest premium increases. For these 

reasons, and the potential of reduced savings from increased SBA loans and FEMA disaster 

assistance, FEMA recommends against an immediate move to actuarial rates. FEMA 

recommends that subsidies for principal residences be reduced over a long period of time, such 

as 20 years. However, subsidies for non-principal residences (rental properties, vacation homes) 

should be eliminated more aggressively over seven years. FEMA requests additional funding and 

resources to properly target repetitive loss properties, which will aid in reducing subsidies to preFIRM properties. 

FEMA. (2000). Report on Costs and Benefits of Natural Hazard Mitigation. Washington, 

DC: FEMA. 

Keywords:

cost-benefit analysis, mitigation, strategic planning 

Abstract: This report reviews the benefits of mitigation that can accrue to different segments of 

society, the costs incurred, the types of analyses needed to evaluate cost-effectiveness, the tools 

of hazard mitigation (including design and construction, land use planning, organizational plans, 

and hazard control and their implementation), and FEMA’s mitigation programs. Sixteen case 

studies illustrate the diversity of mitigation measures that can address risk situations. The cases 

demonstrate that mitigation is effective against several types of natural hazards and can be 

accomplished through the use different mitigation tools. The report concludes that the mitigation 
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of hazards is a long-term, community-based undertaking that relies on an investment from all 

sectors of the community, not just federal, state, and local governments. Mitigation often 

requires a structuring of incentives and relies on recognition of the risks of natural disasters and 

the development of new methods to reduce these risks. 

FEMA. (2000). Report of the Floodplain Management Forum. Washington, DC: FEMA. 

Keywords: 

floodplain management, strategic planning

Abstract: This report summarizes the proceedings of the Floodplain Management Forum, held 

on June 8, 2000, in Washington, DC. A diverse group of experts on floodplain management 

participated in discussions of the future of floodplain management in the United States. Some of 

the major themes presented (though not necessarily agreed upon) by the participants include: 

shifting focus from flood-loss reduction to sustainable communities and protection of 

natural/beneficial functions of floodplains, encouraging and providing incentives for 

communities to develop master plans and hazard mitigation plans, developing more effective 

ways to communicate risks to citizens, considering the incorporation of components of CRS into 

NFIP regulations, and developing methods to improve flood insurance and eliminate subsidies. 

FEMA. (2001). Audit of FEMA’s Debris Removal Programs. Washington, DC: Office of 

Inspector General, FEMA. 

Keywords: 

debris removal, disaster assistance, disaster planning 

Abstract: This report presents results of the OIG’s audit of debris management and identifies the 

major problems related to debris removal confronting FEMA, states, and communities and 

FEMA’s efforts to correct them. Local governments generally have responsibility for removing 

debris following a disaster. However, local governments face challenges to removing debris such 

as estimating the amount of debris and the cost to remove it, awarding effective contracts, and 

monitoring the performance of contractors. FEMA helps local government overcome such 

problems through technical assistance, training, and guidelines. Despite timely efforts, fraud, 

waste, and abuse do occur. For example, the OIG identified $2.5 million in duplicate payments 

for debris removal between October 1992 and March 2000. In another case, a subcontractor hired 

to remove debris in Omaha, NE, intended to increase the amount of debris hauled and thus profit 

by cutting healthy trees. The contractor then dumped this ineligible debris at official dumpsites. 

Based on results from the audit, the OIG recommends FEMA provide timely assistance 

following a disaster requiring debris removal, expand training in debris removal for emergency 

managers at all levels, explore ways to improve the delivery of technical assistance to state and 

local officials, develop a mechanism to enter data on debris into NEMIS, and provide relevant 

parties with written instructions to avoid duplication of payments or benefits. 

FEMA. (2001). Buyouts: Hurricane Floyd and Other Issues Relating to FEMA’s Hazard 

Mitigation Grant Program. Report to the Chairperson, Subcommittee on VA, HUD, and 

Independent Agencies, Committee on Appropriations, U.S. Senate. Washington, DC: Office 

of Inspector General, FEMA. 

Keywords: 

buyouts, cost-benefit analysis, Hazard Mitigation Grant Program, Hurricane Floyd, relocation 
115

Abstract: This report summarizes the Office of Inspector General’s findings concerning money 

allocated for buyout and relocation programs (P.L. 106-113 and P.L. 106-246) following 

Hurricane Floyd. Congress asked the OIG to determine whether FEMA’s buyout estimates are 

accurate and to provide an assessment of FEMA’s oversight procedures. The report’s first 

section focuses on: (a) the process used to identify buyout structures; (b) the method used to 

estimate the total cost of the buyout; (c) the impact of other sources of disaster assistance on 

buyout decisions; (d) the process developed for allocating funds; and (e) the procedures used for 

cost-benefit analysis. The second section addresses concerns regarding the implementation of the 

Hazard Grant Mitigation Program (HGMP) and develops recommendations for action and issues 

for further review. The final section of the report recommends ways to improve HMGP. 

FEMA. (2001). Changes to General Provision and Communities Eligible for the Sale of 

Insurance Required to Include Future Conditions Flood Hazard Information on Flood 

Maps. Federal Register, 66(228), 59166-70. 

Keywords: 

floodplain designation, 1 percent annual chance flood standard, hydrology and hydraulics, 

mapping 

Abstract: The final ruling revises the NFIP regulation to include definitions for future 

conditions hydrology and for FIRMs to display floodplains for community purposes. 

Historically, flood hazard information presented in FIRMs has been based on the existing 

conditions of the floodplain and watershed. However, FIRMs have not been updated as regularly 

as expected and flood hazards in areas experiencing urban growth may change significantly. The 

report cites the results of Modernizing FEMA’s Flood Hazard Mapping Program: 

Recommendations for Using Future Conditions Hydrology for the NFIP for specific 

recommendations. The inclusion of future conditions data is part of the larger Map 

Modernization initiative as well as an attempt by FEMA to facilitate local and state ownership of 

flood maps through increased involvement in the flood mapping process. The document also 

contains comments and recommendations submitted in response to the proposed change in 

regulation. 

FEMA. (2001). Coastal Barrier Resources System: FEMA’s Management Controls Governing 

the Prohibition of Flood Insurance. Washington, DC: Office of Inspector General, FEMA. 

Keywords: 

Alabama, Coastal Barrier Resources System, communication, Florida, legislation, Rhode Island, 

South Carolina, Write Your Own Program

Abstract: FEMA’s OIG conducted this review of internal controls to prevent the sale of flood 

insurance to properties within the Coastal Barrier Resources System (CBRS). The OIG reviewed 

relevant legislation and regulations governing CBRS and the prohibition on the sale of flood 

insurance to these properties. The OIG also examined files maintained for resolution of policies 

issued in CBRS and reviewed all policies indicated to be potentially within the CBRS in 

Alabama, Florida, Rhode Island, and South Carolina. Interviews with officials at FIMA as well 

as contractors who have a role in CBRS compliance requirements and Write Your Own (WYO) 

companies involved in the sale of insurance in or near CBRS areas were conducted. First, the 

OIG found that policies potentially in CBRS were not always fully processed or reported due to a 

lack of accurate community identification, a low level of confidence in addresses, and outdated 

data from FIRMs. The OIG recommends that all policies be fully processed using the 
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Geographic Policy Edit System even when only incomplete information is available and that 

policies for properties potentially in CBRS be reported to WYO companies and FIMA’s Direct 

Serving Agent for further clarification. Second, the OIG examined how policies for properties 

identified as potentially in CBRS are resolved. The OIG found that of the policies examined, 

about 46 percent had no record of determination. The report recommends that FIMA require 

resolution of all cases where there is no record and encourage use of the U.S. Fish and Wildlife 

Service to resolve unclear properties. Lastly, the OIG recommends that FIMA explore the 

possibility of requiring the resolution of a property potentially in CBRS prior to issuing a policy. 

FEMA. (2001). Compliance with Public Assistance Program’s Insurance Purchase 

Requirements. Washington, DC: Office of Inspector General, FEMA. 

Keywords:

mandatory purchase, public assistance 

Abstract: This inspection assesses compliance with the insurance purchase requirements 

required by FEMA’s Public Assistance Program, the insurance review process for the program, 

insurance applicability issues, and possible rule changes for insurance. With respect to 

compliance with insurance purchase and maintenance requirements, the inspection revealed that 

34 percent of the projects were not maintaining insurance, 39 percent of the project files did not 

contain acceptable evidence of insurance, and some projects were purchasing less insurance than 

required. With respect to the insurance review process, the report recommends that FEMA take 

specific steps to improve the quality of the documentation accepted as proof of insurance for 

projects in order to decrease the likelihood of FEMA providing unnecessary assistance. The 

report also recommends that FEMA regularly monitor public entities to ensure their maintenance 

of insurance on public buildings that previously received public assistance. The report proposes 

an option for a proposed rule that would help eliminate current disincentives, streamline 

insurance reviews, and encourage state and local governments to obtain insurance coverage. 

FEMA. (2001). Final Annual Performance Plan: Fiscal Year 2002. Washington, DC: 

FEMA. 

Keywords: 

agency operations and management, strategic planning

Abstract: This plan outlines the strategic goals and objectives that FEMA will pursue during 

Fiscal Year 2002. The plan illustrates how FEMA will execute its mission to “reduce the loss of 

life and property and protect our institutions from natural and technological hazards by leading 

and supporting the nation in a comprehensive, risk-based emergency management program of 

mitigation, preparedness, response, and recovery.” The following goals are identified: (a) support 

the development of disaster resistance in communities and states; (b) collect, validate, and refine 

building and flood-loss data and confirm that the reduction in estimated losses from NFIP 

activities exceeds $1 billion; (c) increase the number of NFIP policies in force by 5 percent, with 

the active assistance of new and existing program partners; and (d) improve the “bottom line” or 

combined loss and expense ratio by 1 percent.

FEMA. (2001). Modernizing FEMA’s Flood Hazard Mapping: A Progress Report. 

Washington, DC: FEMA. 

Keywords: 

agency operations and management, mapping, strategic planning 
117

Abstract: FEMA developed a plan in 1997 to modernize its program of mapping flood hazards. 

The plan outlined the steps necessary to update FEMA’s flood maps for the nation to digital 

format and to streamline FEMA’s operations in raising public awareness of the importance of the 

maps and responding to requests to revise them. This report summarizes the progress made 

toward implementing the plan during Fiscal Year 2000 and part of Fiscal Year 2001. Section I 

overviews the plan and summarizes its benefits and the funding requirements. Section 2 

discusses the Cooperating Technical Partners (CTP) initiative to increase formal relations with 

efforts at the federal, state, regional, and local levels. These relations will result in strengthened 

mapping and floodplain management programs and thus should reduce losses from floods and 

disaster assistance. Section 3 explains how technology plays a role in FEMA’s flood mapping 

program. Digital maps, for example, will allow FEMA to distribute DFIRMs on CD-ROM and 

through the Internet. The final section of the report discusses the progress made on the various 

objectives of the plan including the adoption and distribution of revised guidelines on 

determining flood hazards on alluvial fans. 

FEMA. (2001). Modernizing FEMA’s Flood Hazard Mapping Program: Recommendations 

for Using Future Conditions Hydrology for the NFIP. Washington, DC: FEMA. 

Keywords: 

mapping, hydrology and hydraulics 

Abstract: This document offers FEMA’s recommendations for the use of future conditions 

hydrology mapping to address current and potential flood risks. The document emphasizes the 

role of state and local partners in the map modernization plan. FEMA will provide funds for 

mapping, technical assistance, and mentoring to the state or local partner, which will then 

develop and maintain all or a component of its flood map, thus maintaining the connection 

between mapping and managing flood hazard areas. The report recommends displaying future 

conditions land use and hydrology on NFIP maps for informational purposes, but leaves 

decisions regarding their use and regulation to the local community. Specifically, the future 

conditions floodplain could replace the 0.2 percent annual chance (500-year) floodplain on 

locally adopted maps. Regarding floodplain management, FEMA will continue to require 

regulation of floodplain development based on data of existing conditions, while local floodplain 

managers can regulate development based on future conditions data. The document contains a 

detailed appendix of procedures for determining future conditions hydrology. 

FEMA. (2001). Status of Funds Awarded under the Hazard Mitigation Grant Program and 

Other Project Management Issues. Washington, DC: Office of Inspector General, FEMA. 

Keywords:

agency operations and management, Hazard Mitigation Grant Program, mitigation 

Abstract: This report evaluates the status of awards under the Hazard Mitigation and Grant 

Program (HMGP) and examines factors impacting timely distribution of funds and completion of 

mitigation projects. The report concludes that the large balance of undisturbed funds is due to the 

inability of FEMA, state, and local governments to spend available funds and implement projects 

in a timely manner and it is neither fiscally prudent nor responsible for FEMA to carry such large 

balances. Another factor is FEMA’s failure to consider state and local capacity before providing 

grants and the weakness of program designs. The report makes a series of recommendations 

about how the program could be more effectively implemented, including allocating funds on an 

annual basis, creating broader incentives for states to expedite mitigation projects, and 
118

establishing a competitive process for deobligated funds. The report finds that FEMA has 

addressed some of the recommendations made in the report and has made progress in shortening 

the project approval timeframes, however several recommendations remain unresolved. 

FEMA. (2002). A Nation Prepared: FEMA Strategic Plan Fiscal Years 2003-2008. 

Washington, DC: FEMA. 

Keywords: 

agency operations and management, dams, economic impacts, federal programs, flood disaster 

planning, floodplain management, hurricanes, insurance, mitigation, natural disasters, NFIP, 

relocation 

Abstract: This document outlines FEMA’s organizational vision and sets goals for Fiscal Year 

2003 through Fiscal Year 2008. It introduces a shift in focus to include not only natural disasters 

but also responses to terrorist attacks. A continued emphasis during this time will be on 

mitigation and insurance. FEMA presents its goals, objectives, and strategies that will allow the 

agency to realize its vision. The six main goals are to 1) reduce loss of life and property, 2) 

minimize suffering and disruption caused by disasters, 3) prepare the nation to address the 

consequences of terrorism, 4) serve as the nation’s portal for emergency management and 

expertise, 5) develop and support its workforce, and 6) continue to improve the agency through 

performance-based management and meeting customer needs. Appendices include an outline of 

the goals presented throughout the plan, an outline of FEMA’s core values, information on 

FEMA’s regional office, a summary of major authorities, crosscutting partnerships with other 

federal agencies (including many in floodplain management and insurance), and a glossary. 

FEMA. (2002). CRS Coordinator’s Manual. Washington, DC: FEMA. 

Keywords: 

Community Rating System, floodplain management 

Abstract: This edition provides an update to the manual released in 1999. It includes the CRS 

Schedule, which sets criteria for CRS classification, and CRS Commentary on the Schedule. 

Section 100 gives general background information on the system. Section 200 explains the 

procedures for applying for a CRS classification. Sections 300 through 700 explain the credit 

points and calculations used to verify CRS credit. A community uses procedures in these 

sections to submit a modification for a better CRS classification. Based on comments and 

recommendations received by FEMA and the Community Rating System Task Force, the 2002 

edition makes several major changes including but not limited to, the attainment of Class 1 status 

only through a community’s adoption of the “No Adverse Impact” approach to eliminate or 

minimize future flood losses and the receipt of credit for repetitive losses acquired, retrofitted, or 

relocated outside the SFHA and the receipt of double credit for those within the SFHA. 

FEMA. (2002). Community Rating System: Effectiveness and Other Issues. Washington, DC: 

Office of Inspector General, FEMA. 

Keywords: 

Community Rating System, floodplain management 

Abstract: This report presents findings from the OIG on the effectiveness of CRS as a tool to 

improve the policies and practices of local floodplain management. Data to confirm that CRS 

activities effectively reduce dollar exposure to the NFIP are currently unavailable. Nevertheless, 

CRS is a disciplined program with well-defined requirements, clearly written guidelines, and 
119

detailed rating processes and procedures. However, FEMA could further enhance the 

effectiveness of the CRS program by 1) performing Community Assistance Visits (CAVs) in all 

CRS communities; 2) marketing CRS to communities having greater exposure to the NFIP; 3) 

providing credit for increasing insurance coverage in the community; and 4) providing CRS 

Coordinators with access to claims data. Also, FEMA should consider 1) discontinuing discounts 

for pre-FIRM properties; 2) requiring insurance to the cumulative level of assistance provided; 

and 3) requiring a greater commitment to uniform building codes and measurable criteria for 

entry into CRS. According to the OIG, these actions would not only improve the effectiveness of 

CRS but also would reduce exposure to the NFIP and lessen disaster costs. 

FEMA. (2002). CRS Training Needs Assessment. Human Technology. 

Keywords: 

awareness, coastal areas, communication, Community Rating System, compliance, enforcement, 

floodplain management, insurance, NFIP, risk communication, training

Abstract: Human Technology conducted telephone interviews to determine the perceived 

training needs within CRS communities. Seven communities were contacted and interviewed 

from each of four categories (large and small coastal communities and large and small inland 

communities). The report presents a summary of initial findings and the questions and 

respondent’s verbatim answers. Overall, the survey found that the greatest challenges facing 

CRS coordinators in implementing floodplain management include compliance and enforcement, 

educating the public about risk and flood insurance, and inaccurate data. Most of the respondents 

had previous training in formal workshops, and 72 percent of respondents indicated training 

could improve CRS participation and floodplain management. Included in the topics they would 

like to receive training in was training designed to help with compliance issues. Respondents 

want short, focused workshops that are site-specific (tailored training) and conducted within their 

locality. 

FEMA. (2002). Duplication of Benefits: National Flood Insurance Program and the Disaster 

Housing Program’s Minimal Repair Grants. Washington, DC: Office of Inspector General, 

FEMA. 

Keywords: 

agency operations and management, disaster assistance, federal programs, public assistance 

Abstract: This report presents results regarding duplication of benefits (DOB) between the NFIP 

and the Disaster Housing Program’s Minimal Repair Grants. A sample of seven disasters 

revealed 863 cases of potential DOB totaling $3.5 million. Of these 863 cases of potential DOB, 

FEMA notified 156 to return funds and received full or partial payments from only 89. 

Furthermore, data inconsistencies between the NFIP and NEMIS databases impede the efficient 

and effective identification of potential DOB. Based on these results and observations, the 

reports makes the following recommendations to FEMA: 1) develop consistent data entry and 

maintenance standards for key data elements maintained in the NFIP and NEMIS databases; 2) 

develop an automated interface, data warehouse capability to query key data elements between 

the NFIP and NEMIS databases prior to paying for minimal repairs; 3) perform post-disaster 

database comparisons as an interim measure until an automated system is operational; 4) follow 

up on the DOB cases identified during this review and initiate recoupment action, as appropriate; 

and 5) enhance the debt collection process under the Disaster Housing Program to ensure the 

DOB is identified and recovered in a reasonable time frame. 
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FEMA. (2002). Extent that Mitigation Funds are Used to Address Repetitive Flood Loss and 

Other Related Issues. Washington, DC: Office of Inspector General, FEMA. 

Keywords: 

Hazard Mitigation Grant Program, Flood Mitigation Assistance Program, mitigation, repetitive 

losses 

Abstract: As incidents of widespread flooding persist, the number of insured properties 

suffering repetitive flood losses continues to cause financial hardship for the NFIP. This report 

assesses the extent to which mitigation funds are being used to address the problem of repetitive 

flood loss and makes recommendations in three areas. First, HMGP and the FMA Program 

cannot adequately address repetitive flood loss properties without exemption from or elimination 

of certain policies including time limits and formulas used for allocating funds. Second, the 

collection and dissemination of data on repetitive flood loss properties needs improvement with 

regards to accuracy, consistency, and usability. Finally, FEMA and state officials can better use 

NEMIS to manage the repetitive loss problem. The report also notes several impediments faced 

by property owners to mitigate including the inability to share the costs, a lack of knowledge 

about mitigation opportunities, and the availability of subsidized flood insurance. 

FEMA. (2002). Financial and Statistical Compendium: Fiscal Year 2001. Washington, DC: 

FEMA. 

Keywords: 

NFIP 

Abstract: Formerly called the Stakeholder’s Report, this compendium provides an annual update 

on the status of the NFIP. It details activities on policies, repetitive losses, claims, mitigation, and 

CRS. At the close of fiscal year 2001, the NFIP had 4,476,836 policies providing over $617 

billion in coverage. Total flood loss payments exceeded $1.2 billion. The report also includes an 

actuarial rate review that determines operating profit/deficit annually for 1978 through 2000. As 

part of FEMA’s strategy for targeting repetitive loss structures, payments on repetitive loss 

structures are reported for each state. The report also contains information on the number and 

distribution of CRS communities and examples of activities funded by the Flood Mitigation 

Assistance (FMA) Program and the Hazard Mitigation Grant Program (HMGP). 

FEMA. (2002). Guidelines and Specifications for Flood Hazard Mapping Partners.

Washington, DC: FEMA. 

Keywords: 

mapping 

Abstract: This report defines technical requirements, product specifications for FIRMs and 

products related to the NFIP, and associated coordination and documentation activities. These 

guidelines combine FEMA technical, programmatic, and administrative procedure publications, 

guidance documents (listed below), and memoranda regarding the mapping of flood hazards. The 

guidelines also reflect recent changes to processes and products associated with the 

implementation of MMP, including the Cooperating Technical Partners (CTPs) initiative and 

new procedures for scoping projects. Unless specifically indicated otherwise by FEMA for a 

particular contract or agreement, these guidelines supersede previous FEMA guidelines and 

documents regarding the preparation of FIRMs, including, but not limited to, the following: 
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 Flood Insurance Study Guidelines and Specifications for Study Contractors (FEMA 37, 

January 1995) and any previous revisions thereof; 

 Airborne Light Detection and Ranging Systems (Appendix 4B to FEMA 37, May 2000) 

 Guidelines and Specifications for Flood Map Production Coordination Contractors (Final 

Draft, February 17, 1999); 

 Guide for Preparing Technical Support Data Notebook (January 1990); 

 Guidelines for Determining Flood Hazards on Alluvial Fans (February 23, 2000); 

 Guidance for Scoping Flood Mapping Projects (January 12, 2001); 

 Guidelines and Specifications for Wave Elevation Determination and V Zone Mapping 

(March 1995); 

 Guidelines and Specifications for Wage Elevation and Determination and V Zone 

Mapping – Great Lakes (October 1994); 

 “Procedures for Collecting, Depositing, and Reporting Fees Under Part 72 of the NFIP 

Procedures” (undated); 

 “Procedures for the Administration of FEMA’s Fee-Charge System” (undated); 

 DFIRM Graphic Specifications (November 2000); and 

 Standard DFIRM Database Guidelines and Specifications (May 2001). 

FEMA. (2002). HAZUS Market Characterization Study. Washington, DC: FEMA. 

Keywords: 

disaster planning, hazard identification, HAZUS, marketing, risk assessment, risk 

communication, risk management 

Abstract: FEMA’s mission is to reduce loss of life and property and protect the nation’s built 

environment from a full range of hazards. To support that mission, FEMA created a risk-based 

management tool called Hazards U.S. (HAZUS). FEMA developed HAZUS in cooperation with 

the National Institute of Building Sciences (NIBS), as a nationwide, standardized computerbased tool to assist in planning for and estimating costs due to earthquakes. HAZUS has been 

expanded to include two new modules for flood and wind hazards. This study was designed to 

provide external, or “market pull,” and internal, or “market push,” analysis to better understand 

current and potential HAZUS users and their requirements and to provide a methodology and 

planning tool for developing training and projections for technical support. The market study 

considers both existing (earthquake) and evolving (wind and flood) HAZUS Multi-Hazard (MH) 

capabilities for estimating losses from disasters. The findings of the market study will provide 

the basis for the formation of a HAZUS MH marketing strategy. Major findings and 

recommendations include: an analysis of the potential effects of market pull and market push 

scenarios; insights provided by various user tiers defined by their roles, user organizations, user 

geography; top five findings from the HAZUS market study presented within the framework of 

the Four Ps of Marketing (Product, Price, Place, and Promotion); recommendations relating to 

training and technical support; findings regarding future needs and directions; and 

recommendations regarding next steps. 

FEMA. (2002). Invalid Preferred Risk Policies Based on Loss History. Washington, DC: 

Office of Inspector General, FEMA. 

Keywords: 

insurance coverage, insurance premiums, repetitive losses, Write Your Own Program 
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Abstract: A preferred risk policy (PRP) has a lower premium than a Standard Flood Insurance 

Policy and is available for structures located in low to moderate risk areas. A structure loses its 

eligibility for a PRP if it has received two flood insurance payments or two disaster relief 

payments, more than $1,000; three flood insurance payments or three disaster relief payments, 

regardless of the amount; or one flood insurance payment and one disaster relief payments more 

than $1,000. In this report, the OIG reviewed policies with a repetitive loss history in Florida, 

Louisiana, Mississippi, Missouri, North Carolina, and Texas to determine which were written as 

preferred risk. As of March 2002, there were 437 active PRPs providing flood insurance on 

repetitive loss structures in the sample examined. FIA had not identified 332 or 76 percent of 

these PRPs as invalid. Furthermore, of the 437 PRPs on structures with a repetitive loss history, 

56 or 13 percent had received enough disaster relief payments to make them ineligible to receive 

a PRP. Based on its findings, the OIG recommends FIMA should analyze the feasibility of using 

a unique property identifier such as the Tax Parcel Identification Number on paperwork, review 

monitoring procedures to ensure WYOs resolve errors in a timely manner, and develop 

consistent data entry and maintenance standards for elements maintained in the NFIP and 

NEMIS databases. 

FEMA. (2002). National Flood Insurance Program Community Rating System: Biennial 

Report to Congress. Washington, DC: FEMA. 

Available at: http://www.fema.gov/nfip/crs.shtm

Keywords: 

Community Rating System, insurance premiums, mitigation 

Abstract: As of October 2002, policyholders in 959 communities receive premium discounts on 

flood insurance because of implementation of local mitigation, outreach, and educational 

activities that exceed the NFIP’s minimum requirements. Although premium discounts are one 

of the benefits of participation in CRS, it is more important that these communities are 

implementing activities that save lives and reduce property damages. The 959 communities 

represent a significant portion of the nation’s flood risk; they account for 66 percent of the 

NFIP’s policy base. The program has been steadily growing over the past five years. CRS 

communities are improving their practices of floodplain management and receiving better CRS 

classifications in return. Part 1 of this report provides summary statistics on community 

participation in CRS and on the cost of administering the program. Part 2 reviews how CRS 

operates and how the program activities are implemented. Finally, Part 3 describes the progress 

toward the four strategic goals posed in prior reports: support for mitigation programs, 

improvement of classification for communities already participating in CRS, encouragement of 

communities to join CRS, and encouragement of local officials to use an all-hazards approach in 

planning. 

FEMA. (2002). National Flood Insurance Program Description. Washington, DC: FEMA. 

Available at: http://www.fema.gov/doc/library/nfipdescrip.doc

Keywords: 

agency operations and management, floodplain management, legislation, NFIP 

Abstract: The document provides a comprehensive description of the NFIP, intended for use by 

FEMA staff and NFIP stakeholders. It provides an overview and history of the program and 

covers all three aspects of the program: floodplain mapping; floodplain management; and flood 

insurance. Major legislative milestones in the history of floodplain management include the 
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Flood Control Act of 1936, the National Flood Insurance Act of 1968, the Flood Disaster 

Protection Act of 1973 and it Mandatory Purchase Requirement, and the National Flood 

Insurance Reform Act of 1994. The program description contains a step-by-step description of 

the processing of floodplain management, from the creation of a Flood Insurance Study (FIS) to 

community adoption of a compliant ordinance to monitoring of community compliance by 

FEMA and the state. The document also highlights specific initiatives and programs that support 

the program, including the Map Modernization initiative, the Community Rating System (CRS), 

the Coastal Barrier Resources System, and the Flood Mitigation Assistance (FMA) program. 

FEMA. (2002). National Flood Insurance Program: Specific Rating Guidelines. Washington, 

DC: FEMA. 

Keywords: 

insurance coverage, insurance premiums, risk assessment, submit-for-rate 

Abstract: There are certain properties at high flood risk that, because of peculiarities in their 

exposure to flooding, do not lend themselves to the pre-programmed insurance rates outlined in 

the Flood Insurance Manual. These risks require an in-depth underwriting analysis before a risk 

premium can be applied. Rates for these properties do not appear in the flood manual, but are 

referred to as submit-for-rates. This guide provides rules and rates for submit-for-rate risks 

organized into three sections: non-elevated buildings, elevated buildings, and miscellaneous. 

Overall, the procedures in the guide aim to meet the NFIP’s two-fold goal of establishing sound 

actuarial rates and obtaining information for enforcing floodplain management. 

FEMA. (2003). Audit of FEMA’s Use and Management of Flood Mapping Contractors. 

Washington, DC: Office of Inspector General, FEMA. 

Keywords: 

agency operations and management, mapping 

Abstract: This report addresses the work done by three Flood Map Production Coordination 

Contractors (mapping contractors). The OIG audited $71 million provided to mapping 

contractors to determine whether FEMA achieved critical mapping goals by using contractors 

and adequately managed and monitored mapping contracts and costs. The audit revealed that 

FEMA’s management of mapping contracts needs strengthening. For example, for one mapping 

contract, 13 invoices totaling $1.1 million were paid using the incorrect funds because 

accounting staff ignored accounting codes (i.e., funding information) provided by the project 

officer and assigned incorrect codes to the invoices. Furthermore, the audit also found that while 

the contractors met some requirements and achieved some goals for mapping, only 16 percent of 

contract funds were spent on a major goal: updating old maps. According to the OIG, FEMA 

may have the ability to update more maps if it reduces spending on processing Letters of Map 

Change, which accounted for 32 percent of contract spending over fiscal years 2000 and 2001, 

and revises contracting strategies to increase competition and give contractors incentives to 

control costs. FEMA should give special attention to contractual arrangements for administration 

and support, which accounted for 27 percent of contract spending. 

FEMA. Law Associates and Legal and Regulatory Consultants. (2003). Evaluation of 

Alternatives in Obtaining Structural Evaluation Data: Final Report on Legal Issues.

Washington, DC: Government Printing Office. 

Keywords: 
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elevation certificates, legal issues and litigation, liability 

Abstract: The report summarizes legal research and analysis by Dewberry & Davis on legal 

issues relevant to a determination of whether FEMA can develop a nationwide registry of 

structural elevation data for NFIP purposes. Specifically, the report identifies and evaluates the 

significance of potential legal obstacles: the Privacy Act of 1974 and other privacy issues; 

potential exposure to liability for inaccurate elevation information; and potential ownership 

rights that third parties may have to elevation data. Dewberry & Davis found no legal issues that 

would preclude FEMA from establishing and maintaining a national Elevation Registry and 

making it available to insurance companies and agents writing NFIP policies, or even to the 

general public. This assumes the Elevation Registry includes specific property addresses, but 

does not include personal identifiers such as names, policy numbers, or social security numbers. 

Regarding the contention by WYO companies that such a registry would compromise proprietary 

customer lists, the registry would contain all addresses for which FEMA had elevation data and 

would not disclose any company’s customer lists, nor identify whether a property is insured at 

all. The report adds that FEMA would be obligated by the Freedom of Information Act to make 

information in the registry available to any person on request. Liability exposure for distributing 

information about a property is limited to those with an actual relationship to the property or who 

suffer actual damage as a result of the release of information. The document also describes 

several strategies for acquiring elevation data. 

FEMA. (2003). Flood Insurance Manual. Washington, DC: FEMA. 

Available at: http://www.fema.gov/pdf/nfip/manual10_03/cvr1003.pdf

Keywords:

insurance agents, insurance coverage, NFIP 

Abstract: The Flood Insurance Manual provides information for use by those insurance 

companies and agents who write flood insurance policies. This edition, effective May 1, 2003, 

supersedes all previous editions of the Manual. Some of the changes in the edition include 

increases to the rates, elimination of the expense constant, an increase to the limit of liability 

under Increased Cost of Compliance (ICC), and an updated list of communities participating in 

the Community Rating System. The Manual also lists those communities where the 

identification of coastal barriers or Otherwise Protected Areas (OPAs) prohibits all federal 

expenditures or financial assistance, including flood insurance. 

FEMA. (2003). Floodplain Management Training Strategy. Human Technology. 

Keywords: 

awareness, Base Flood Elevation, coastal areas, communication, Community Rating System, 

compliance, disaster assistance, enforcement, floodplain management, insurance, mapping, 

media, training, repetitive losses, risk communication, riverine areas, Stafford Act, substantial 

damage, variances

Abstract: FEMA intends to use this report as a basis for future changes in training. The report 

summarizes the responses of nine FEMA regional staff members, 26 NFIP state floodplain 

coordinators, and 53 local floodplain management officials to questions about training needs at 

the regional, state and local level, and provides recommendations to improve training. 

Recommendations include offering training on-site (in addition to the resident course at EMI), 

dividing broader topics into smaller “modular” courses, providing training materials in multiple 

formats, sponsoring opportunities for regional and state floodplain coordinators to meet and 
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share ideas, developing an advanced NFIP course, mandating that each local community develop 

administrative procedures (provide training on developing procedures, and a regulation to ensure 

compliance), requiring training for local floodplain management officials, and providing 

resources to the communities including official communication from FEMA to local government 

officials to persuade them of the value of training; simple, visually appealing brochures for local 

use; and public service announcements for local communities to air on local television and radio. 

Specific questions addressed in the surveys include the type of training available, the type of 

training needed, how the need for basic training compares with the need for more advanced 

training, the barriers that exist to providing or attending training, and the benefits that have 

resulted from NFIP training. 

FEMA. (2003). The 1993 Great Midwest Flood: Voices 10 Years Later. Washington, DC: 

FEMA. 

Available at: http://www.fema.gov/pdf/nfip/voices_anthology.pdf

Keywords: 

floodplain management, Illinois, insurance coverage, insurance purchase decision, Kansas, 

Midwest floods of 1993, Minnesota, Missouri, mitigation, North Dakota, Nebraska, South 

Dakota, Wisconsin 

Abstract: The Great Midwest Flood of 1993 was among the most devastating natural disasters in 

the nation’s history. Flooding destroyed or damaged 50,000 homes and completely inundated 75 

communities. A study by the Interagency Floodplain Management Review Committee in 1994 

estimated property damages between $12 and $16 billion. This report contains a collection of 

success stories that document what effective mitigation can do to prevent future flood disasters. 

Most of these stories come from existing sources. The report also includes narratives from 

several “veterans” of the Great Midwest Flood of 1993 who had flood insurance policies and 

subsequently urged other property owners to purchase coverage. Remembering its devastation 

ten years later may help other property owners and communities at risk from flooding become 

more aware of the harm that floods can inflict on lives, property, and infrastructure. This tenthanniversary anthology should also serve as a source of inspiration and encouragement for those 

communities and property owners at risk from flooding. They can take measures today to reduce 

their physical and financial risk from flood hazards in the future. 

FEMA. (2004). Design Guide for Improving School Safety in Earthquakes, Floods, and High 

Winds. Washington, DC: FEMA. 

Available at: http://www.fema.gov/pdf/fima/424/fema424.pdf

Keywords: 

hazard identification, mitigation 

Abstract: The report provides guidance for the protection of schools against natural hazards. 

Currently, approximately 53 million children in grades kindergarten to 12 attend over 92,000 

public schools. The capabilities and needs of school districts vary greatly with respect to school 

construction and repair and the guidance seeks to take these variations into consideration. The 

guidance utilizes two core concepts: multihazard design and performance-based design. 

Multihazard design stipulates that designers understand the fundamental characteristics of 

hazards and how they interact, so that protection becomes integrated with other design elements. 

Performance-based design relies on investigation of the specific concerns of property owners and 

occupants to drive design. The guidance also emphasizes that consideration of hazards impacts 
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all phases of school construction, from site selection for new construction to repair of existing 

schools. The document considers general principles and perspectives of design protection against 

hazards and then addresses the specific threats of earthquakes, flood, and wind. For each threat, 

the scope, effectiveness, and limitations of current building codes are detailed. This is the first in 

a series of publications that address hospitals, higher education buildings, multifamily dwellings, 

commercial buildings, and light industrial facilities. 

FEMA. (No Date). National Flood Insurance Program Requirements for Substantial 

Improvement: Guidance Document for Community Officials. (Draft). Washington, DC: 

FEMA. NOTE: This document was never made final although policies from it have been 

incorporated into other guidance. Remaining policies will be incorporated into a guidance 

document currently underway. 

Keywords: 

building codes, compliance, enforcement, floodplain management, insurance premiums, mobile 

homes, permits, property values, substantial damage, substantial improvement, variances, zoning 

Abstract: This guidebook is designed to assist local floodplain management officials in 

administering the NFIP’s requirements for substantially improved structures. The document 

contains a detailed description of the various categories of substantially improved structures, the 

specific floodplain management regulations that apply to these structures, and how to determine 

whether a particular structure is considered a substantial improvement. The implications for 

flood insurance rates under various scenarios are also provided. Several appendices provide 

additional references and sources of information as well as a list of federal and state floodplain 

management contacts and a substantial improvement checklist. 

Federal Highway Administration. (1980). Assessment of the Impact of the National Flood 

Insurance Program on Highways. Washington, DC: Federal Highway Administration. 

Keywords: 

federal programs, hydrology and hydraulics 

Abstract: This report examines the impact of floodplain management programs and regulations 

on the Federal Highway Administration and highway agencies. Highway encroachment designs 

are evaluated for economic risk of regional hydrology, stream hydraulics, potential flood losses 

in terms of damage to structure, upstream flooding due to backwater, stream erosion, and costs 

due to loss of transportation route. The analysis found that NFIP regulations are reasonable in 

some instances and pose a barrier to hydraulic engineering and highway design in others. 

Executive Order 11296, Flood Hazard Evaluation, compels the Federal Highway Administration 

to design encroachments built with federal aid consistent with the standards of the NFIP where a 

floodway has been designated. The most significant problems the survey found were confusion 

resulting from the complexity of the NFIP, the perception that adherence to NFIP regulations 

would increase highway costs, and technical deficiencies in mapping to help enforce NFIP 

regulations. The study notes that the Federal Highway Administration and the NFIP have 

fundamentally different approaches to reducing flood damages: the former seeks cost-effective 

solutions to site-specific problems while the latter applies a single uniform definition of 

minimum standards for all floodplains. 

Federal Interagency Task Force on Floodplain Management. (1986). A Unified National 

Program for Floodplain Management. Washington, DC: FEMA. 
127

Keywords: 

environmental policy, federal programs, floodplain management, mitigation, public policy, 

Unified National Program 

Abstract: The status of federal, state, and local floodplain management activity as of mid-1985 

is reflected in this revised report and in its findings and recommendations. Like its predecessor, 

the revised report does not seek to provide specific guidance for meeting federal program 

requirements. Rather, the report seeks wise decisions and management for the nation’s 

floodplains to reduce losses of life and property from flooding and losses of natural and 

beneficial values from unwise land-use. A conceptual framework provides general guidance for 

decision making at the federal, state, and local levels as well as in the private sector. The 

strategies and tools for flood loss mitigation and for the preservation and restoration of natural 

floodplain values are presented in detail. Actions are recommended to facilitate the coordination 

of management programs dispersed among all levels of government. 

Federal Interagency Task Force on Floodplain Management. (1987). Further Advice on 

Executive Order 11988 Floodplain Management. Washington, DC: FEMA. 

Keywords: 

federal programs, floodplain management, Unified National Program 

Abstract: This document provides guidance by discussing specific and commonly recurring 

issues and by providing examples that show how to implement the provisions of Executive Order 

11988, Floodplain Management; it will not resolve all issues or questions. The guidance, directed 

at federal agencies, state, and local governments, supplements the still valid floodplain 

management guidelines issued by the Water Resources Council in 1978. The document is 

divided into two principal parts. The first provides an interpretation on several issues that 

continue to present problems to those responsible for implementing the order, and the second 

represents a series of scenarios that illustrate how to address those issues when implementing the 

order. Scenarios have been grouped together to provide a broad spectrum of federal actions in the 

context of the executive order. The categories of federal actions range from those over which a 

federal agency has direct control to those where responsibility has been delegated to the local 

level. While the scenarios may appear to be addressing an action undertaken by a specific 

agency, they are intended to be generic and applicable to federal agencies with similar 

responsibilities and programs. 

Federal Interagency Task Force on Floodplain Management. (1992). Floodplain 

Management in the United States: An Assessment Report, 2 volumes. Vol. I – Summary 

Report. Boulder, CO: University of Colorado Natural Hazards Information Center. Vol. II 

– Full report. Washington, DC: Government Printing Office. 

Available at: http://www.fema.gov/hazards/floods/lib17.shtm

Keywords:

awareness, floodplain management, Unified National Program 

Abstract: This assessment of floodplain management in the United States is a report to the 

public and to Congress on progress made toward implementing A Unified National Program for 

Floodplain Management. It states that although a truly unified national program to manage 

floodplains is not yet in place, great strides have been made in that direction. Awareness of flood 

hazards, particularly among public officials, has clearly increased, while loss of life and injury 

due to flooding has been curtailed. Nationwide mapping of flood-prone areas by FIA has resulted 
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in the initial mapping of more than 12,000 communities and the restudy of over 1,700 

communities since coordinated studies began in the 1960s. Eighty-two percent of all flood-prone 

communities in the United States have joined the NFIP. Computers are increasingly being 

incorporated into floodplain management and now facilitate such functions as hydrologic 

modeling, flood warning, and floodplain mapping. The study also declares that modifying 

flooding has traditionally been the most popular strategy for reducing floodplain losses because 

the states or federal government conduct most of the planning, funding, construction, and 

implementation for structural measures and because local and individual adjustments or 

sacrifices are minimal. Although there is increased recognition of possible adverse effects of 

these approaches, they are still needed, particularly to protect existing development. In contrast, 

the strategy of restoring and preserving the natural and cultural resources of floodplains has had 

little exposure to date and needs to be better integrated both with other floodplain management 

tools and strategies and with efforts in other fields, such as river corridor management and 

pollution control. 

Federal Interagency Task Force on Floodplain Management. (1994). A Unified National 

Program for Floodplain Management. Washington, DC: FEMA. 

Keywords:

floodplain management, public policy, Unified National Program 

Abstract: This report provides a conceptual framework for floodplain management that includes 

a statement of overall purpose, definitions, working and general principles, and managerial 

strategies and tools. The report also suggests setting national goals and a timetable for their 

achievement, providing for periodic evaluations of the status of floodplain management, defining 

the roles and responsibilities of each level of government and the private sector. Floodplain 

management aims to achieve a reduction in the loss of life, disruption, and damage caused by 

floods and the preservation and restoration of the natural resources and functions of floodplains 

(which, in turn, lessens damage potential). There are four main strategies for managing 

floodplains: (a) modifying human susceptibility to flood damage and disruption, (b) modifying 

the impact of flooding on individuals and the community, (c) modifying flooding, and (d) 

preserving and restoring the natural resources of floodplains. Under this framework, the 

decisions of floodplain managers involve choosing the best mixture of strategies and tools, 

balancing competing uses, weighing costs and benefits, and evaluating various alternatives. To 

ensure that the result of this ongoing decision-making process is improving the status of 

floodplains, four broad goals have been recommended, along with a list of objectives that must 

be accomplished to reach them. The goals include: (a) formalizing a national goal-setting and 

monitoring system for floodplain management; (b) reducing, by at least half, the risks to life, 

property, and the natural resources of floodplains; (c) developing and implementing a process to 

encourage positive attitudes toward floodplain management; and (d) establishing capacity for inhouse floodplain management. 

Federal Interagency Task Force on Floodplain Management. (1996). Protecting Floodplain 

Resources: A Guidebook for Communities. Washington, DC: FEMA. 

Keywords: 

environmental impacts, environmental protection, floodplain management, hydrology and 

hydraulics, strategic planning, wetlands 
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Abstract: This guidebook has been written to introduce officials and citizens at the local level to 

the basic understanding of natural resources in floodplains and to offer suggestions for creating 

strategies for wisely managing these areas. The overall objective is to educate community 

officials and citizens about issues in floodplain management so they can take action toward 

conserving and restoring the natural resources of floodplains. Whereas case studies will 

showcase communities that have successfully implemented such projects, a step-by-step formula 

for universal application to all communities would be unrealistic. Rather, the guidebook is 

intended as a starting point and a resource for ideas so communities can utilize current 

knowledge about the natural resources of floodplains in order to customize floodplain 

management projects to a unique local context. Chapters 2 and 3 provide an explanation of 

natural floodplains. Chapters 4 and 5 suggest ways to plan for and manage the natural resources 

of floodplains. The guidebook’s case studies illustrate the variety of approaches that can be taken 

to avoid future problems in floodplains and show how to take advantage of the assets that rivers 

and streams offer to a community. 

Flanigan, George, Rob Isaacs, David Marlett, and Elaine Sebald. (2000). Managing Flood 

Losses: An International Review of Mitigation and Financing Techniques. Illinois: Central 

Illinois Chapter of the Chartered Property Casualty Underwriters. 

Keywords: 

Australia, China, United Kingdom 

Abstract: In the United States, flooding caused more property damage than any other natural 

disaster in the 20th century. Compared to other countries like the United Kingdom, the United 

States has had particular difficulties creating an insurance scheme against flooding. Specifically, 

the NFIP continues to suffer serious adverse selection problems, and the private risk-bearing 

market has yet to find an effective way to insure flood risks. Thus the burden of relief payments 

to alleviate flood damage often falls to FEMA. The article examines methods for managing and 

mitigating flood disasters and makes recommendations for the U.S. government and private 

insurance industry to strengthen the flood risk “safety net.” The article profiles the flood 

insurance market in a number of other countries to glean insight into potentially beneficial 

reforms for the U.S. system. 

Flood Hazard Mitigation Advisory Committee with the Hazard Mitigation Technical 

Assistance Partnership, Inc. for the South Carolina Department of Natural Resources. 

(1999). Flood Hazard Mitigation: A Plan for South Carolina. Columbia, SC: South Carolina 

Department of Natural Resources. 

Available at: http://www.dnr.state.sc.us/water/envaff/flood/img/exsummary.pdf

Keywords: 

floodplain management, mitigation, South Carolina 

Abstract: This report discusses the effects of flooding on South Carolina and its citizens and 

outlines an appropriate strategy for mitigating flood hazards. The mitigation measures drafted 

and recommended by the South Carolina Flood Hazard Mitigation Advisory Committee take the 

form of seven general objectives listed in an action plan. The objectives include coordinating 

state and federal flood mitigation programs so they will operate more effectively and efficiently, 

providing flood data and maps to support mitigation programs, regulating future development to 

prevent increasing flood hazards and losses, protecting existing development from flood damage, 

providing of warning and emergency response activities to protect lives and property during a 
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flood, supporting and improving local mitigation programs, and providing flood protection 

information to property owners. 

Flood Hazard Team. (2000). Earth Observation Satellites for Flood Management, Flash 

Flood Analysis and Prediction. Washington, DC: Committee on Earth Observation 

Satellites, Disaster Management Support Group. 

Keywords:

mapping 

Abstract: The Committee on Earth Observation Satellites Disaster Management Support Group 

“supports natural and technological disaster management on a worldwide basis by fostering 

improved utilization of existing and planned Earth Observation (EO) satellite data.” This report 

addresses the use of Earth Observation satellites by floodplain managers and other users and for 

flash flood analysis and prediction. The report concludes that the potential of high and low 

resolution polar orbital Earth Resource Satellites have been shown to be an excellent tool for 

providing hydrological information. A family of satellite-derived products from the operational 

meteorological satellites (geostationary and polar) for application to general flood and flash flood 

analysis and prediction is also presented. Gaps in remote sensing capabilities are discussed and 

future improvements and requirements are presented. The ultimate goal is to integrate 

geostationary with polar orbital data and to have microwave onboard geostationary satellites 

early in the next millennium. 

Flood Insurance Interagency Task Force. (1998). Enforcement and Compliance Procedures 

Necessary to Carry Out the Provisions of the National Flood Insurance Reform Act (NFIRA): 

Final Report to Congress. Washington, DC: Flood Insurance Interagency Task Force. 

Keywords: 

enforcement, mandatory purchase 

Abstract: The Flood Insurance Interagency Task Force conducted several studies resulting in a 

series of actions, conclusions, and recommendations. These include (a) the development of a 

compliance model checklist to provide a general framework for the comparison of existing flood 

insurance compliance programs, (b) the development of a catalog of compliance assistance 

materials to ensure adequate compliance with the laws governing flood insurance, (c) the 

conclusion that a reasonable degree of standardization of enforcement exists within the 

organizations responsible for implementation, and (d) the assessment of the reasonableness of 

fees charged by the flood zone determination industry. 

Florida Department of Community Affairs. (2000). A Local Official’s Guide to 

Implementing the National Flood Insurance Program in Florida. Tallahassee, FL: Florida 

Department of Community Affairs. 

Available at: 

http://www.floridadisaster.org/brm/NFIP%20Study%20Course/Title%20Page%20i%20and%20ii

.pdf

Keywords: 

Community Rating System, compliance, development, enforcement, federal programs, Flood 

Mitigation Assistance Program, floodplain management, Florida, Hazard Mitigation Grant 

Program, mapping, mitigation, NFIP, substantial damage, substantial improvement, variances 
131

Abstract: Approximately 95 percent of all communities in Florida participate in the NFIP. This 

guidebook is intended to serve as an educational and informational document for local floodplain 

administrators. Chapter topics include mapping, regulations, local administration, administrative 

problems, substantial improvements, variances, enforcement, and related programs. Chapter 9 

discusses the Community Rating System (CRS), Flood Mitigation Assistance (FMA) Program, 

and Hazard Mitigation Grant Program (HMGP). The appendices provide sources of technical 

assistance and a bibliography. 

Fordham, Maureen. (1998). Participatory planning for flood mitigation: Models and 

approaches. Australian Journal of Emergency Management, 13(4), 27-34. 

Available at: 

http://www.ema.gov.au/agd/EMA/rwpattach.nsf/viewasattachmentpersonal/(85FE07930A2BB44

82E194CD03685A8EB)~Participatory_planning_for_flood_mitigation.pdf/$file/Participatory_pl

anning_for_flood_mitigation.pdf

Keywords: 

Bangladesh, Colorado, England, floodplain management, mitigation, Oklahoma, Portugal, 

socioeconomic impacts 

Abstract: Planning for floods is a complex endeavor. This paper critically examines the 

dominance of top-down, scientific, and technical modes of analysis in decision-making 

structures for flood hazard mitigation. It explores the possibilities of incorporating more diverse 

and contextual knowledge—emphasizing social and cultural, as well as scientific and technical, 

dimensions—and creating more democratic forms of decision-making. The community-based 

mitigation underscored by the author involves the participation of people in the analysis of 

problems and the development of proposals. Examples from the United States, England, 

Bangladesh, and Portugal illustrate various approaches, successful and otherwise, to floodplain 

management. 

Fordham, Maureen. (2000). Managing floods in a changing social environment. Paper 

presented at the Floods and Flooding in a Changing Environment Conference, 

Northampton, England, April 28-29, 2000. 

Available at: http://www.apu.ac.uk/geography/dsp/managing_floods.doc

Keywords: 

awareness, England, flood disaster planning, socioeconomic impacts 

Abstract: The author uses the Northampton (England) floods of Easter 1998 as a starting point 

for a discussion on the improvement of disaster management processes. In order to create 

sustainable, disaster-resilient communities, flood management must find a workable balance 

between technical expertise and social awareness. Specifically, the article makes the following 

recommendations: 1) ensure public awareness of flood risks is maintained in areas with existing 

structural flood defenses; 2) ensure emergency management procedures are also adequately 

addressed in areas with existing structural flood defenses; 3) ensure all social groups are 

adequately catered for, in all phases of disaster planning and management; 4) ensure 

emergency/disaster planning and management agencies maintain links with local communities; 

5) ensure socially inclusive, participatory disaster planning and management are developed; and 

6) ensure interagency liaison and communication procedures are working adequately.

Foresight. (2004). Future Flooding: Executive Summary. London: Foresight. 
132

Keywords: 

climate change, erosion, public policy, United Kingdom 

Abstract: The report summarizes a major study of the potential changes in flood risk over the 

next 100 years and offers options for government and the private sector to respond to them. The 

motivation underpinning the study is that continuing with existing policies will lead to 

unacceptable levels of risk in virtually every scenario. Flood damage and floodplain management 

cost the United Kingdom around ₤2.2 billion annually. The study examines the future of 

floodplain management the social, economic, and environmental costs under four scenarios – 

National Enterprise, Local Stewardship, Global Sustainability, and World Markets – which vary 

by system of governance and degree of public or private control. Scenarios that utilized topdown, intensive government or market involvement – the World Markets and National 

Enterprise scenarios – projected significantly higher average annual damages than the other 

scenarios and cost roughly three times as much to implement flood reduction approaches. The 

author’s considered the effects of nearly 80 different approaches to reducing flood risks under 

the four scenarios. The findings of the study are intended to aid stakeholders and the Department 

for Environment, Food and Rural Affairs in considering the implications for public policy, 

identifying research priorities, and furthering the climate change agenda. 

French, R.H. (1992). Preferred directions of flow on alluvial fans. Journal of Hydraulic 

Engineering, 118(7), 1002-13.

Keywords: 

alluvial fans, hazard identification, modeling 

Abstract: This paper suggests modifications of the method used to delineate floodplains on 

active alluvial fans for the NFIP, given new data regarding the deviations of channels from the 

medial radial line at the apex of the fan. The original methodology assumes that every point on 

an alluvial fan contour had an equal probability of being impacted during a flood event (i.e., a 

uniform probability distribution was assumed). Data now available imply that a normal 

distribution better describes the probability of points on an alluvial fan contour being hit during a 

flood event. Results from an example of the application of the modified methodology are 

compared with the results obtained using the original methodology.

French, Steven P. and Raymond J. Burby. (1980). Managing Flood Hazard Areas: The State 

of Practice. Chapel Hill, NC: Center for Urban and Regional Studies, University of North 

Carolina. 

Keywords: floodplain management 

Abstract: By 1979, many communities and regional agencies had become involved in floodplain 

management as a result of the NFIP, the Coastal Zone Management Program, numerous state 

programs, and the initiative of local citizens. This report describes current practices in floodplain 

management in these agencies. At the local level, low levels of public education among land 

developers and property owners were the largest obstacles to better land use management. Lack 

of state and federal financial support was the most serious obstacle for regional land use 

management in floodplains. However, state and federal agencies are significant providers of 

technical assistance to local and regional bodies. Eighty percent of local agencies reported that 

they had received technical assistance from the NFIP. The survey also includes data on how local 

communities judged the effectiveness of the program, highlighting encroachment on natural 

areas and exposure of existing development to flood damage as among the major problems 
133

faced. The data presented were derived mainly from two mail surveys conducted in 1979. The 

first survey was directed to a sample of local agencies involved in the NFIP. Members of the 

National Association of Regional Councils received the second survey. 

Fridgen, Patrick M. and Steven D. Shultz. (1999). The Influence of the Threat of Flooding 

on Housing Values in Fargo, North Dakota and Moorhead, Minnesota. Agricultural 

Economics Report No. 417. Fargo, ND: Department of Agricultural Economics, North 

Dakota State University. 

Available at: http://www.ijc.org/rel/pdf/housingshultz.pdf 

Keywords: 

development, economic modeling, housing markets, Minnesota, North Dakota, 1 percent annual 

chance flood standard, property values 

Abstract: This study uses the hedonic valuation method (HVM) to quantify the impact of the 

threat of flooding on housing values in Fargo, ND and Moorhead, MN. Prices of 3,783 FargoMoorhead homes sold between 1995 and 1998 were regressed against structural housing 

characteristics, neighborhood and environmental indicators, and three flood risk variables. It is 

difficult to assess the cost effectiveness of flood control projects because uncertainty regarding 

how flooding, or a reduction in the threat of flooding, influences housing values. Accounting for 

differences in structural housing characteristics, neighborhood and environmental indicators, and 

several flood risk variables, being located in the SFHA lowered the sale price of an average 

home by $8,990. The average sale price of a home was $100,139. Approximately 81 percent of 

the price depreciation was associated with the cost of required flood insurance premiums: fear of 

flooding risks accounted for the remaining 19 percent. After the extensive 1997 flood, homes in 

the 1 percent annual chance floodplain were on average priced $10,241 less than similar homes 

located outside the floodplain were before the 1997 flood event. Publicity subsequent to the 1997 

flood was responsible for average homes in the 1 percent annual chance floodplain being reduced 

by an additional $1,350. In contrast, homes in the 500-year floodplain on average sold for $3,100 

more than similar homes not in the floodplain. It was concluded that homebuyers in Fargo and 

Moorhead place a value on flooding risk, that more disclosure is needed regarding the location of 

the 500-year floodplain, and that substantial housing-related benefits are likely to be generated 

by various flood mitigation projects in the area that result in a redesignation and reduction of the 

1 percent annual chance floodplain. 

Friends of the Earth. (1998). Flood Funding Fiasco: National Flood Insurance Program. 

Washington, DC: Friends of the Earth. 

Available at: http://www.greenscissors.org/water/floodinsurance.htm

Keywords: 

Coastal Barrier Resources System, development, environmental impacts, Florida, NFIP 

Abstract: This memorandum states that the NFIP has more than 3.8 million policies along the 

nation’s coasts and rivers, with a potential liability of over $400 billion. This report argues that 

reforms to the NFIP enacted in 1994 have provided limited benefits. Furthermore, a provision 

included in the 1996 Omnibus Parks bill exempted eight Florida beaches from CBRS. This 

provision allowed developers to obtain flood insurance (which can cover storm damage) for 

disaster-prone beachfront properties. Thus, the NFIP hurts both taxpayers and the environment 

by inducing development in floodplains.
134

Fukuoka, Shoji, ed. (1998). Floodplain Risk Management. In Proceedings of an 

International Workshop on Floodplain Risk Management, Hiroshima, Japan, November 11-

13, 1996. Rotterdam, Netherlands: Balkema/Rotterdam/Brookfield. 

Keywords: 

disaster planning, flood control, levees, risk communication, risk management 

Abstract: This international workshop examined the risk management measures taken in the past 

to minimize loss of life and property damage in the event of large-scale flooding of a city by 

river or sea water, following partial or complete collapse of a levee. It was also intended to 

identify proper techniques and counter measures by discussing national and international risk 

management for floods in the context of actual cases of large-scale flooding in which the risk of 

flooding was minimized. The following topics were discussed in the workshop: floods (forecasts, 

analysis, and case studies); mechanisms of levee breach and design standards for levees; 

emergency management systems, including sharing roles by national and municipal 

governments; development of hazard maps and their usage; information release, evacuation, 

rescue, volunteer activities, and flood fighting; secondary damage; flood insurance and land 

acquisition; law suits against flood damage; use of floodplains and restrictions on their use; flood 

control without disturbing the natural environment; and basin-wide flood control and 

management. The papers fall into two categories: those written by senior engineers who have 

had responsibility for managing major floods in different countries and have experience in 

making decisions on mitigating flood risks and those written by researchers who investigate the 

management of floodplains.

Galloway, Gerald E., Jr. (1994). Floodplain management: A present and a 21st century 

imperative. Water Resources Update, 97(Autumn), 5-8. 

Available at: http://www.ucowr.siu.edu/updates/pdf/V97_A2.pdf

Keywords: 

floodplain management, floodproofing, relocation, structural approaches

Abstract: As a result of the development of the floodplain, both for agricultural and recreational 

purposes, the nation faces three major problems: (a) people and property remain at risk, not only 

in the floodplains of major rivers, but also throughout many other areas in the nation; (b) many 

regions face severe ecological consequences due to the loss of habitat in riverine areas; and (c) 

the division of responsibilities for floodplain management among federal, state, tribal, and local 

governments lacks clear definition. This article summarizes the conclusions and 

recommendations from Sharing the Challenge, issued by the Interagency Floodplain 

Management Review Committee in 1994. The committee recommended supporting a strategy 

that avoids unnecessary human use of the floodplain, supports permanent evacuation of floodprone areas, floodproofs structures remaining in the floodplain, creates additional natural and 

artificial storage, and provides adequately sized and maintained levees and other structures.

Galloway, Gerald E., Jr. (1993). Learning from the Mississippi Flood of 1993: Impacts, 

Management Issues, and Areas for Research. Paper presented at the United States-Italy 

Research Workshop on the Hydrometeorology, Impacts, and Management of Extreme Floods. 

Perugia, Italy, November 13-17, 1995. 

Available at: http://www.engr.colostate.edu/~jsalas/us-italy/papers/12galloway.pdf

Keywords: 

Midwest floods of 1993, floodplain management, flood damage, risk assessment 
135

Abstract: During the summer and fall of 1993, people throughout the world learned of the 

devastation brought on the Midwest of the United States by what became known as the “Great 

Mississippi Flood of 1993.” Since the early days of the twentieth century, the United States has 

labored to reduce the population’s vulnerability to flood damages and yet this flood destroyed 

tens of thousands of homes, flooded hundreds of thousands of acres of prime farmland, and 

disrupted the economic and social fabric of several million people. National leaders as well as 

private citizens not only raised questions about how such flood damages occurred, but demanded 

to know what should be done to prevent recurrences of these damages. This paper discusses the 

1993 flood in terms of its extent and its impacts on the affected region and its populace and 

describes the conclusions reached by the White House’s Interagency Floodplain Management 

Review Committee as to the causes of the flood, and regional and national efforts in floodplain 

management. It concludes with a discussion of the Review Committee’s recommendations 

concerning research that should be conducted to reduce the potential for repetition of similar 

natural disasters. 

Galloway, Gerald E., Jr. (1995). New directions in floodplain management. Water 

Resources Bulletin, 31(3), 351-7. 

Keywords:

economic impacts, environmental impacts, floodplain management, Midwest floods of 1993, 

public policy, riverine areas, socioeconomic impacts 

Abstract: Over the past 30 years, average annual riverine flood damages have exceed $2 billion. 

Damages associated with the Midwest floods of 1993 exceeded $12 billion and these costs do 

not include the nonquantifiable, human impacts of this disaster. In a report submitted to the 

White House in June 1994, a federal interagency floodplain management review committee 

proposed better ways to manage the nation’s floodplains. The committee indicated that the 1993 

flood was the result of a significant hydrometeorological event, that federal flood control efforts 

in the Mississippi basin had prevented nearly $20 billion in potential damages, and that, in spite 

of flood-damage reduction efforts, people and property remain at risk due to inevitable future 

flooding. The committee also recommended that the division of decision and cost-sharing 

responsibilities among federal, state, and local governments be more clearly defined and that the 

nation adopt a strategy of avoiding inappropriate use of the floodplain, minimizing vulnerability 

to damage through both nonstructural and structural means, and mitigating damages as they 

occur. The report did not call for abandonment of human use of the floodplain but argued for full 

consideration of the economic, social, and environmental costs and benefits of all future 

floodplain activity.

Gallup and Robinson, Inc. (1999). Cover America: A Campaign Evaluation Report. 

Pennington, NJ: FEMA. 

Keywords:

Cover America, marketing, NFIP, risk communication 

Abstract: In 1995, FIA contracted for the initiation and implementation of a nationwide 

marketing and advertising campaign called Cover America. The purposes of the program were to 

establish the importance and value of flood insurance in the minds of consumers, stimulate 

demand for flood insurance, and provide opportunities for other NFIP stakeholders to 

communicate with the market. The bulk of the 43-month program (May 1995 through December 

1998) consisted of media advertising, direct mail, and public relations. This report summarizes 
136

the results of an independent review that FEMA requested on the effectiveness of the Cover 

America campaign. The report concludes that the campaign has successfully met its objectives. 

More specifically, the report states that Cover America has positively influenced consumers. It 

has increased awareness, changed attitudes, generated intermediate actions like information 

requests, and produced desired outcomes, including sales. Awareness of NFIP has also increased. 

Before the campaign, 52 percent of respondents said they had never heard of NFIP. Most 

recently, 43 percent of respondents said they had never heard of NFIP. However, the proportion 

of respondents who have never heard of FEMA has remained generally unchanged since the 

Cover America program was launched. Similarly, the positive image of NFIP has improved 

during the advertising period, from 18 to 30 percent, while the positive image of FEMA has 

stayed the same. Among those aware of NFIP, positive image has improved 16 percentage points 

and among those aware of FEMA, positive image has improved 8 percentage points.

Garner, Anna C. (1996). The cost of fighting Mother Nature: News coverage of the 1993 

Midwest floods. Journal of Communication Inquiry, 20, 83-98. 

Keywords: 

communication, media, Midwest floods of 1993 

Abstract: This article contrasts national and local press coverage between July 1 and August 31, 

1993, of the “The Great Flood of 1993,” exploring major themes used to explain the disaster and 

to describe the impact of flooding on the people of the Midwest. Coverage in Time, Newsweek, 

and The New York Times focused on depersonalized economic costs of the flood, framing the 

flood in political terms such as entitlement programs, while the regional The Des Moines 

Register focused on the flood’s impact on individuals, families, and communities. The main 

theme of all the flood discourse was a fight with Mother Nature. Subthemes were (a) 

technological progress (especially in the national media), with a counter-theme of skepticism of 

technology; (b) national and personal cost, with a secondary theme of the cost to the taxpayer 

(the national media suggested that flood insurance is a federal bailout, while local media took a 

more positive approach); and (c) the politics of compassion (including the concern and support 

of elected officials and celebrities), which the national media regarded as undermining selfreliance. The author suggests that personal stories are important in covering disasters in that they 

help readers understand and relate to the event.

Geotrac. (1999). Lender Compliance Flood Study. Norwalk, OH: Geotrac. 

Keywords: 

insurance coverage, mandatory purchase, North Dakota, 

Abstract: This study determined that one-quarter to one-third of flood-damaged properties in 

Grand Forks, ND, required to have flood insurance did not have coverage. The outcome is 

significant in terms of the flood event and study timeframe because it follows the National Flood 

Insurance Reform Act (NFIRA) of 1994. NFIRA intended to strengthen the requirements for the 

mandatory purchase of flood insurance originally by the Flood Disaster Protection Act of 1973. 

Gersen, Jacob Ezra. (2001). Strategy and Cognition: Regulating Catastrophic Risk. (Ph.D. 

dissertation, University of Chicago). 

Keywords: 

disaster planning, Hurricane Andrew, Midwest floods of 1993, natural disasters, risk assessment, 

risk management, socioeconomic impacts 
137

Abstract: This project explores the political economy of catastrophic risk from natural disasters 

in the United States. Unlike previous work on disaster behavior, this dissertation highlights the 

importance of heterogeneous behaviors on the part of citizens. The project begins by surveying 

the dominant economic and psychological theories of individual choice about risk. Hypotheses 

about risk perception and decision-making are developed and quantitative analysis follows using 

data from disaster losses and hazard insurance. Findings indicate that individuals respond to risk 

exposure, use availability as a heuristic for evaluating risk, and tend to seek uncertainty with 

respect to disaster risk. A formal model of individual decision-making about risk management 

strategies is developed and psychologically realistic actors are introduced into the game. Using 

an informational cascade model, the analysis shows that communities facing similar objective 

risk exposure may respond in remarkably different ways. Allowing for biased actors in the game 

can either increase or decrease the probability that the group will adopt the optimal strategy, 

depending on the type and magnitude of the bias. Empirical testing of the cascade model relies 

on a regression equation and county-level data on risk management decisions, demographics, and 

natural hazard losses. Estimation proceeds using a mix of Maximum Likelihood (ML) and 

Markov Chain Monte Carlo (MCMC) methods, and the analysis offers preliminary support for 

the model. The project concludes by inquiring about the effect of citizen decision making on the 

evolution of political institutions. Using historical data and basic quantitative analysis, the 

project offers a positive account of the legislative framework for catastrophic risk regulation. The 

project highlights the importance and potential benefit of jointly analyzing cognitive bias and 

strategic environment. 

Gissing, Andrew. (2002). Business in the MacLeay: Commercial Flood Damage Kempsey 

2001. Paper presented at 42nd Annual New South Wales Floodplain Management 

Conference. Kempsey, Australia, April 30 to May 3, 2002. Macquarie University, New 

South Wales, Australia: Natural Hazards Research Centre. 

Available at: http://www.ses.nsw.gov.au/papers/gissing_2002.pdf

Keywords: 

Australia 

Abstract: The paper analyzes preparation, damage, and recovery for a flood in the central 

business district of Kempsey, Australia in 2001 that resulted in $2.5 million in damage to 94 

businesses. The author notes that greater damage potential exists in the commercial sector than 

among residential properties, though commercial flood damage theory is in its infancy. Thus 

there is a need for detailed studies of significant commercial flood damage. The study found that 

warning systems were effective in reducing tangible and intangible damage. However, businessowner satisfaction with warning systems was low: most individuals who were surveyed desired 

personal warnings, with a high degree of clarity and accuracy. Indirect damages were substantial 

as well. Thirty percent of businesses suffered prolonged hardship and lost sales total $2 million, 

with a net profit loss of $200,000. 

Gissing, Andrew. (2003). Flood Action Plans – Making Loss Reduction More Effective in 

the Commercial Sector. Australian Journal of Emergency Management, 18(3), 46-54. 

Available at: http://www.ses.nsw.gov.au/papers/gissing_2003.pdf

Keywords: 

Australia, awareness, disaster planning, economic impacts, flood disaster planning, risk 

assessment, risk management 
138

Abstract: Recent research suggests that flood warning systems frequently fail to produce 

maximum benefits, particularly among businesses. Commercial institutions exhibit a lack of 

flood preparedness. One method of increasing commercial flood preparedness is the 

development of comprehensive flood action plans that help businesses identify their flood risk, 

plan a course of action to reduce that risk, implement the various aspects of the risk-reduction 

plan, and continually review and update their awareness of flood risks and their risk-reduction 

plan. The article concludes that comprehensive flood action plans have a high potential to reduce 

the damage from flooding suffered by the commercial sector and should be used by businesses to 

reduce their flood risk and improve business continuity. 

Glick, Daniel. (1994). The flood insurance game. National Wildlife, 32, 44-5. 

Keywords:

liability, NFIP 

Abstract: The author argues that the NFIP, which has three goals—to limit government 

spending on disaster relief, to curb development in floodplains, and to provide insurance to 

residents of flood hazard areas—has not succeeded. The author argues that development in 

floodplains continues, while participation in the flood insurance program remains poor. 

Furthermore the NFIP, according to the author, may be one of the biggest domestic liabilities, 

next to Social Security.

Goddard, James E. (1963). Floodplain management improves man’s environment. Journal 

of the Waterways and Harbors Division, 3702(4), 67-84. 

Keywords: 

mapping, Tennessee Valley Authority 

Abstract: This report recommends mitigation of flood hazards through land-use and structural 

regulations. The report identifies the experiences of the Tennessee Valley Authority as an 

example of comprehensive planning for development of floodplains. Flood damage potential, 

tied to the rate of development, has outpaced the considerable spending for structural approaches 

to flood hazard mitigation. The study reports that $5 billion was spent between 1960 and 1963 to 

protect against floods and that an addition $10 billion would be needed to protect the remainder 

of the 2,000 cities subject to flood hazards. The experience of the Tennessee Valley Authority is 

particularly pertinent because of its exchanges of land use and flood damage data with local and 

state governments. 

Godschalk, David R. (1984). Impacts of the Coastal Barrier Resources: A Pilot Study. Chapel 

Hill, NC: Department of City and Regional Planning, University of North Carolina. 

Keywords: 

Coastal Barrier Resources System, development, Florida, legislation, North Carolina

Abstract: At the time of this study for the Department of Commerce, the Coastal Barrier 

Resources Act (CBRA) was two years old. The author sought to identify initial impacts of 

CBRA. He conducted two case studies, made inquiries directly to insurance and financial 

organizations, and sent a survey to authorities in three states. He says withdrawal of federal flood 

insurance from Topsail Island, NC, clearly deterred development, so much so that local 

developers tried unsuccessfully to sue to get their lands removed from the designation so they 

could regain access to flood insurance. Withholding federal funds for infrastructure was also 

having an effect. The author found that on Hutchinson Island, FL, local authorities placed a 
139

moratorium on new projects referred and denied several pending proposals when they found that 

federal help would not be forthcoming to improve the carrying capacity of bridges serving the 

barrier island. From his surveys, Godschalk predicts a range of possible effects of the CBRA’s 

limitations, including increased development in already developed areas or a shift from reliance 

on federal insurance coverage. The most common response, however, was that the effects of 

eliminating flood insurance and other federal assistance are not yet apparent, overall impacts 

have been either minor or neutral to date.

Godschalk, David R., David J. Brower, and Timothy Beatley. (1989). Catastrophic Coastal 

Storms: Hazard Mitigation and Development Management. Durham, NC: Duke University 

Press. 

Keywords:

coastal areas, Hurricane Alicia, Hurricane Camille, Hurricane Frederic, hurricanes, mitigation, 

public policy 

Abstract: This is a study of coastal storm hazards and related policies. The authors outline a 

strategy for overcoming obstacles to safeguarding people and property and conclude that federal 

policies encouraging development in vulnerable coastal hazard areas must stop. They advocate 

withholding disaster assistance and federal flood insurance from areas that have disregarded 

previous hazard-reduction requirements. The book discusses coastal storm risk as a policy 

problem; alternative approaches to mitigating coastal storm hazards; mitigation measures after 

hurricanes Camille, Frederic, and Alicia; federal and state mitigation programs and policies; 

local mitigation tools and techniques; mitigation practices in high-hazard coastal localities; and 

influences on mitigation priority, adoption, and effectiveness.

Godschalk, David R., Timothy Beatley, Philip Berke, David J. Brower, Edward J. Kaiser, 

Charles Bohl, and R. Matthew Goebel. (1999). Natural Hazard Mitigation: Recasting 

Disaster Policy and Planning. Washington, DC: Island Press. 

Keywords: 

California, Florida, Hazard Mitigation Grant Program, Hurricane Andrew, Hurricane Bob, Iowa, 

Massachusetts, Midwest floods of 1993, Missouri, mitigation, Tennessee

Abstract: This book begins by describing the importance of natural hazard mitigation and 

describing the history and evolution of mitigation and disaster assistance policy. Next, it 

describes in detail six natural disaster cases, including Florida after Hurricane Andrew, Missouri 

after the Midwest Floods of 1993, Iowa after the Midwest Floods of 1993, California after the 

Loma Prieta and Northridge earthquakes, Massachusetts after Hurricane Bob and other storms, 

and Tennessee after a series of floods and storms. The book also assesses the national mitigation 

system and FEMA’s Hazard Mitigation Grant Program. Finally, it provides ethical guidelines for 

hazard mitigation and planning for sustainable communities.

Grace, Martin, Robert W. Klein and Paul R. Kleindorfer. (2004). Homeowners Insurance 

with Bundled Catastrophic Coverage. The Journal of Risk and Insurance, 71(3) 351-79. 

Keywords: homeowners insurance, Florida, New York, catastrophic coverage

Abstract: The authors estimate the demand for homeowners insurance in Florida and New York, 

with indicated loss costs as a proxy for the quantity of real insurance services demanded. They 

analyze the demand for coverage of catastrophic peril coverage and the demand for 

noncatastrophic coverage separately. The results are relatively consistent in New York and 
140

Florida, including evidence that catastrophic coverage demand is more price-elastic than 

noncatastrophic coverage demand. They also find evidence that consumers value options that 

expand coverage, buy more insurance when subsidized through regulatory price constraints, and 

consider state guaranty fund provisions when purchasing insurance. 

Granger, Ken, Trevor Jones, Marion Leiba, and Greg Scott. (1999). Community Risk in 

Cairns. Australia: Australian Geological Survey Organization. 

Available at: http://www.ga.gov.au/image_cache/GA4164.pdf

Keywords: 

Australia, modeling 

Abstract: This chapter of the assessment of community risk in Cairns analyzes the flood risks 

facing the community and notes that there are many potential causes of floods in the area. 

Though the unique hydrology and topology of Cairns serve to protect the area from massive 

floods, the community is at risk of river catchment flooding. River catchment flooding in the 

area is influenced by the amount and intensity of rainfall, how much and which parts of the 

catchment receive rain, and the state of the catchment before the rain. The chapter proceeds to 

examine the Cairns flood experience, noting major floods that have occurred in the area’s 

history. The chapter describes a number of flood risk scenarios and notes the effect on the area in 

each scenario for floods of varying intensities. For example, the author notes that a 2 percent 

annual event probability flood scenario is likely to impact 755 buildings and 50 kilometers of 

road, whereas a 0.2 percent annual event probability flood scenario could effect as many as 3,000 

buildings and more than 10,000 people. 

Green, Colin. (2003). Flood Management in England and Wales. Paper presented at 

Precautionary Flood Protection in Europe International Workshop. Bonn, Germany, 

February 5-6, 2003. Berlin, Germany: Ecologic, Institute for International and European 

Environmental Policy. 

Keywords: 

England, flood control, floodplain management 

Abstract: Responsibility for flood management in England and Wales falls to a number of 

different companies and public authorities. Historically the linkage and interactions between 

water and land management have been weak and demonstrate little consideration for how land 

development impacts the water environment and flood risk. Ideally, flood management would be 

directed by a combination of climate characteristics, catchment characteristics, and the socioeconomic characteristics of the area being developed. However, institutional constraints on the 

governments of England and Wales have caused flood management based solely on the above 

factors impractical. The competing priorities of the authorities responsible for state and local 

rivers, the private companies responsible for sewage systems, and the land owners responsible 

for on-site drainage make coordinated efforts at responsible land use and development nearly 

impossible. In response to this problem, the author suggests creating catchment management 

committees that include all the flood management stakeholders to help facilitate coordination 

between them. He also endorses a flood management strategy that combines runoff control, 

storage, improvements, land-use control, and warnings to minimize potential flood damage in the 

future. 
141

Green, C.H., D.J. Parker, and S.M. Tunstall. (2000). Assessment of Flood Control and 

Management Options. Cape Town, South Africa: World Commission on Dams. 

Available at: http://www.dams.org/docs/kbase/thematic/tr44main.pdf

Keywords: 

Dams, economic impacts, environmental impacts, flood control, flood damage, floodplain 

management, risk communication, socioeconomic impacts, strategic planning 

Abstract: This report discusses the management of floods and the identification of appropriate 

strategies for local conditions. It also analyzes the role of dams as part of a comprehensive 

approach to managing the risks posed by floods. The appropriateness of a particular strategy 

varies according to the nature of the flooding and to the presence of other conditions in the local 

environment. The approach recommended in the report is necessarily comparative: the only way 

to identify the role of dams in floodplain management is in the context of the appropriate roles of 

all other options. Moreover, the most appropriate local strategy will often consist of a 

combination of measures, one of which may or may not involve a dam. A logical approach 

begins by analyzing the nature of flooding in an area, identifying available options, comparing 

these in terms of their contribution to the society’s objectives, and finally selecting the best 

options. Discussion on identifying and overcoming potential barriers to sustainable floodplain 

management appears in the last chapter of the report. 

Green, Colin and Edmund Penning-Roswell. (2002). Flood Risk and Insurance: Strategic 

Options for The Insurance Industry and for The Government. Enfield, England: Flood 

Hazard Research Centre, Middlesex University. 

Keywords: 

insurance industry, public policy, United Kingdom 

Abstract: The report addresses the relationship between government and the private insurance 

industry, a relationship that varies between countries from “parasitic” to “symbiotic.” The report 

describes the relationship between the insurance industry and government in the United States as 

the former: “the government bears the risks and the industry takes all the profits.” In the United 

Kingdom, there is mutual dissatisfaction with the informal relationship between government and 

the insurance industry. Proposed changes to either government policy or insurance industry 

practice must take into account the reactions of the other party, and seek to maximize that 

relationship for the benefit of society as a whole. Government is primarily concerned with 

holistic floodplain management and the evaluation of public expenditures in terms of economic, 

environmental, and social desirability. The insurance industry, in contrast, is concerned primarily 

with average annual losses, and the catastrophic loss potential: any public-private partnership 

needs to recognize their different goals and capacities. However, these differences may also 

serve as complementary strengths. Government possesses regulatory and land-use planning 

powers, while the insurance industry combines a risk-based perspective with customer-service 

experience. The report outlines potential consequences to both government and the insurance 

industry from; 1) changes in coverage provided for individual properties, 2) changes in the 

nature of insurance coverage, such as the creation of a tiered system with varying subsidy levels, 

or 3) changes in an aspect of government policy, such as building standards, or the adoption of 

higher standards of flood protection. 

Green, Robert H. (1999). Risk-Based Analysis for Flood Damage Reduction Studies Engineer 

Manual. Collingdale, PA: DIANE Publishing Company. 
142

Keywords:

Army Corps of Engineers, modeling, risk assessment 

Abstract: This book describes and provides procedures for flood-damage reduction studies 

conducted by the Army Corps of Engineers. The guidance presented and procedures described in 

this manual apply to all elements including major subordinate commands, labs, and field 

operating activities having civil works responsibilities. The procedures described herein lead to 

estimation of expected benefits of proposed plans to reduce flood damages using risk and 

uncertainty analysis. Quantitative and qualitative methods of representing the likelihood and 

consequences of exceedance of the capacity of selected measures are also included.

Griffith, Charles T. (1994). The National Flood Insurance Program: Unattained purposes. 

William & Mary Law Review, 35(2), 727-65. 

Keywords: 

history, NFIP 

Abstract: This article discusses the development and history of the NFIP, presents problems, 

and suggests solutions. The author reviews the three stages of implementing the program at the 

local level. The article also poses problems of the NFIP in the context of the Disaster Relief Act 

and examines the effects of three cases, known as the trilogy cases, to the NFIP. The author 

concludes with a discussion of other existing measures being implemented to improve the NFIP. 

Griffith, Rebecca Sue. (1994). The Impact of Mandatory Purchase Requirements for Flood 

Insurance on Real Estate Markets. (Ph.D. dissertation, University of Texas at Arlington). 

Keywords: 

economic modeling, housing markets, lending institutions, mandatory purchase, property values, 

Texas 

Abstract: This study examines how enforcement of the mandatory purchase provisions affects 

the selling price of homes and the residential real estate market. The author obtained data from 

4,686 home sales in Abilene, TX, between 1989 and 1992. Besides sale price, the dataset 

included sale date, size, age of house, percentage of high school graduates in neighborhood, 

flood frequency (10-, 25-, 50-, 100-, 200-, and 500-year frequencies), value of insurance 

premium, and whether the lending institution enforced the flood insurance purchase requirement. 

Of the 4,686 properties, 550 had flood insurance policies in effect in 1993. The author retained 

3,724 sales in the dataset because the remainder had incomplete data. Sale prices ranged from 

$1,500 to $450,000 with a mean of $51,000, which suggests a heterogeneous housing market. 

The author fit both linear and log-linear hedonic price models to the dataset. Results show the 

log-linear models had a higher R-squared than the linear models. The author then ran three loglinear models in which the flood-related variables differed: 1) only a dummy variable of whether 

the house was in the 1 percent annual chance floodplain, 2) flood frequency only, and 3) 

insurance premium index and whether the lending institution enforced the mandatory purchase 

requirement. All of these variables had significant coefficients. Enforcement of the insurance 

purchase requirement had the highest coefficient indicating it has the strongest influence of the 

flood variables considered. The regressions confirmed the original hypotheses. 

Grigg, Neil S. and Otto J. Helweg. (1975). State-of-the-art of estimating flood damage in 

urban areas. Water Resources Bulletin, 11(2), 379-91. 

Keywords:
143

economic impacts, flood damage, urban areas 

Abstract: Passage of the Flood Insurance Act of 1968 has prompted the consideration of local 

flood protection projects. Engineers and local agencies need consistent methods to estimate flood 

damage in order to perform feasibility studies. Federal agencies have a great deal of data and 

experience in making damage estimates, but no comprehensive guides are available at the local 

level. This article presents curves of flood damages for different types of residential structures. 

The relationships used by FIA are shown to be reasonable and are recommended for use as 

approximate guides. 

Grimm, Mike. (1998). Floodplain management. Civil Engineering, 68(3), 63-9. 

Keywords: 

Colorado, floodplain management, mitigation 

Abstract: The author describes how floodplain management efforts in Fort Collins, CO, reduced 

the loss of life and property damage after a massive flood struck the city on July 28, 1997. He 

discusses the background on the city’s floodplain management program, the positive effects of 

pre-disaster mitigation, the adoption of a storm-water basin map, and the identification of 

floodplains in the city’s Master Drainageway Plans. 

Gruntfest, Eve. (1995). Long term social and economic impacts of extreme floods. Paper 

presented at the United States-Italy Research Workshop on the Hydrometeorology, Impacts, 

and Management of Extreme Floods. Perugia, Italy, November 13-17, 1995. 

Available at: http://www.engr.colostate.edu/~jsalas/us-italy/papers/34gruntfest.pdf

Keywords:

California, Colorado, economic impacts, Midwest floods of 1993, North Dakota, Pennsylvania, 

socioeconomic impacts, South Dakota, West Virginia 

Abstract: This paper states that social science research following disasters is limited and 

outdated: most of the few longitudinal studies are 25 years old. The paper summarizes the 

existing research efforts on these impacts and reviews the actual impacts from nine extreme 

events (including: 1889 and 1997 Johnstown, PA; 1972 Buffalo Creek, WV; 1972 Rapid City, 

SD; 1976 Big Thompson, CO; the Midwest floods of 1993; 1990 Yuba City, Linda, and 

Olivehurst, CA; and 1997 Grand Forks, ND). The paper also provides recommendations for 

future research. Some of the most difficult questions that need to be addressed are: (a) What time 

frame constitutes long term? (b) How can the social and economic effects of a flood be isolated 

from other local, regional, and national factors? (c) How can the negative effects of a flood on a 

neighborhood be evaluated when they may be overshadowed by prosperity at the community 

level? Finally, the author suggests that disaster prevention needs to address economic and 

political issues, not only geological and meteorological aspects. Consequently, the links between 

social and physical science need to be developed. 

Gruntfest, Eve and Daniel Pollack. (1994). Warnings, mitigation, and litigation: Lessons 

for research from the 1993 floods. Water Resources Update, 95(Spring), 40-4. 

Available at: http://www.ucowr.siu.edu/updates/pdf/V95_A8.pdf

Keywords: 

Communication, Missouri, risk assessment 

Abstract: This article explores the relationship between warnings and litigation. It examines a 

case study in St. Louis to analyze where technological and scientific limits are reached and 
144

where legal liability begins. The authors make recommendations for future research concerning 

warnings. Four conclusions follow from their analysis: (a) forecasting accuracy is not precise; (b) 

natural and technological hazards are inextricably linked; (c) more precise forecasts and more 

confidence in the forecasts might have allowed the company studied (Phillips) to avoid the 

problems that ensued when its propane contaminated a river; and (d) the severity, frequency, and 

“fault line” of a flood are more predictable than other natural disasters and should be 

acknowledged. The article calls for research that addresses the links between technological and 

natural disasters, as well as the relationship between technological sophistication and forecasting 

accuracy.

Gruntfest, Eve and Marc Weber. (1998). Internet and emergency management: Prospects 

for the future. International Journal of Mass Emergencies and Disasters, 16(1), 55-72. 

Keywords: 

communication, media, risk communication 

Abstract: This article reports on the growing value of Internet resources for the emergency 

management profession. The analysis has six components: (a) a brief history of the field prior to 

the introduction of the Internet; (b) an overview of the changes in emergency management since 

the introduction of the Internet and a summary of the characteristics of Internet communications; 

(c) some descriptions of how the Internet is currently used in flood, earthquake, and volcano 

research; (d) examples of Internet use as a tool for education; (e) federal and state employment of 

the Internet in emergency management during disasters and for public education and awareness 

between disasters; and (f) conclusions and suggestions for future research.

Grzeda, Stan. (1996). FEMA digital flood mapping program. Earth Observation Magazine, 

5, 22-5. 

Available at: http://www.eomonline.com/Common/Archives/1996apr/96apr_grzeda.html

Keywords:

hydrology and hydraulics, mapping, Special Flood Hazard Areas 

Abstract: FEMA uses Flood Insurance Studies (FISs) to acquire flood risk data through 

hydrologic and hydraulic studies. Currently, FISs have been completed for virtually all of the 

21,400 communities with flood risks. The results of each FIS are utilized by FEMA’s Technical 

Evaluation Contractors to prepare FIRMs. These maps depict the spatial extent of Special Flood 

Hazard Areas (SFHAs), areas subject to inundation by the 1 percent annual chance flood, and 

other thematic features. The FIRM provides the basis for the NFIP’s activities related to 

floodplain management, mitigation, and insurance.

Haeuber, Richard A. and William K. Michener. (1998). Natural flood control. Science and 

Technology Online, 1998(Fall). 

Available at: http://www.issues.org/issues/15.1/haeube.htm

Keywords:

environmental impacts, environmental protection, floodplain management 

Abstract: The authors point out that, although we understand all too well the damage floods do, 

we have not, until recently, understood well the many beneficial aspects of flooding. Floods are 

critical for maintaining and restoring many of the important services provided to humans by 

riparian ecosystems. It has become apparent that floods present us with a paradox: we want to 

prevent them because they threaten our lives and ways of life yet we find ourselves searching for 
145

ways to allow or even reintroduce flooding, because it supports the biological infrastructure that 

makes valued aspects of our lives possible. Thus flood control as it currently stands cannot be 

effective over the long term. Rather, the key is a new, more informed kind of flood management 

that works with instead of against the forces of nature. 

Hallstrom, Daniel G., V. Kerry Smith (2004). Market Responses to Hurricanes: Using 

Nature’s ‘Natural Experiments’ to Evaluate Risk Preferences. Working paper. Raleigh, NC: 

Center for Environmental and Resource Economic Policy, North Carolina State University 

Keywords: 

hurricanes, Special Flood Hazard Areas, flood insurance, Florida, Hurricane Andrew, natural 

disasters

Abstract: This paper uses one of the strongest hurricanes ever to hit the U.S., Hurricane Andrew 

in 1992, to define a quasi-random experiment that permits estimation of homeowners’ 

incremental willingness to pay to reduce the risk of severe weather events. Lee County, Florida 

did not experience damage from Andrew. The storm was a near-miss. The authors hypothesize 

that Andrew conveyed risk information to homeowners in the county. A difference-indifferences (DND) framework identifies the effect of the information on property values for 

areas likely to experience significant flood damage. The DND findings indicate at least a 19 

percent decline in home property values. The authors also show that conventional hedonic 

estimates for the same home are incapable of distinguishing coastal amenities from the effects of 

the risks posed by hurricanes. 

Hamlin, M. (1994). Avoiding liabilities downstream. Mortgage Banking, 55, 111-26. 

Keywords:

compliance, geographic information systems, lending institutions, liability, mandatory purchase, 

mapping 

Abstract: New flood legislation not only exposes lenders to the risk of financial penalties for 

noncompliance but also now dramatically increases the risk of lawsuits by borrowers arising 

from inaccurate determinations. Thus, lenders must take the accuracy issue seriously. While 

there are many ways of determining whether a property is in a SFHA, accuracy can be improved 

by utilizing more specific sources for locating the property and by cross-checking data. Mapping 

determination processes range from strictly manual to fully automated. Three general categories 

of automated systems exist. First, the probability system assesses the probability that a given 

property is in a SFHA. Second, flood mapping systems that rely on GIS generally require two 

distinct layers of information: a flood map layer and a secondary source street map layer. Third, 

a process called digitizing converts paper FIRMs into digital flood maps for use on a computer. 

FEMA has begun to release some digital flood maps.

Hampson, Rick. (2000). So many people – And nowhere left to run. USA Today, July 25. 

Keywords:

disaster planning, Florida, hurricanes 

Abstract: The U.S. coastline has become too crowded to evacuate everyone safely when disaster 

strikes. Evacuations must begin earlier, when there is still uncertainty about a storm’s path 

(three-quarters of evacuations turn out to be unnecessary). A two-decade lull in hurricane activity 

may be ending, sea levels are rising, and a surprising number of people don’t flee hurricanes. Lee 

County, FL, has considered several unconventional and controversial approaches: (a) public 
146

storm shelters (not endorsed by the American Red Cross) in areas that could be inundated by 

strong hurricanes; (b) refuges of last resort (which some believe encourage people not to 

evacuate); (c) growth controls; (d) review of new construction; and (e) storm-proof parking 

garages. Lee County is also trying to develop an “evacuation culture,” in which the threat of 

disaster is taken seriously. This would involve an evacuation plan for each family, houses with 

“safe rooms” for sitting out weaker storms, and interstate highways with lanes that can be easily 

converted to move away from the storm. The article provides estimated evacuation times during 

peak tourist season for a Category 4 hurricane for 16 “problem areas.” Times range from 20-29 

hours in Myrtle Beach, SC, and Long Island, NY, to 50-60 hours in Ft. Myers, FL, and New 

Orleans, LA. 

Hampson, Rick. (2000). Where nature is an immovable object. USA Today, July 25 

Keywords:

coastal areas, development, disaster planning, environmental protection, erosion, Florida 

Abstract: Sanibel Island, FL, is relatively undeveloped, as a wildlife preserve comprises about 

two thirds of the land mass. The causeway that connects the island with the mainland threatened 

the island with over-development, and the city voted to adopt a growth cap restricting the 

number of new housing units. In part, it was unsafe to have more people on the island than could 

be evacuated in an emergency. The city’s image became synonymous with smart growth, a 

stringent building code, stringent zoning laws, conservation, and preservation. The city 

purchased land prone to erosion and replaced sand only after much debate. Residents want to 

save the coastal environment and see a problem with people who build too close to the beach. 

Handmer, John. (2002). Are flood warnings futile? Risk communication in emergencies. 

The Australasian Journal of Disaster and Trauma Studies, 2. 

Available at: http://www.massey.ac.nz/~trauma/issues/2000-2/handmer.htm

Keywords: 

Australia, awareness, risk communication 

Abstract: Flood warnings often don’t work well and too frequently fail completely – and this 

despite great effort by the responsible authorities. The reasons for this may be inherent in the 

methodology and definitions used to assess warnings, for example, higher standards may be 

applied to warnings than to other forms of risk communication, and the definition of failure will 

often determine the outcome of an evaluation. Aside from these methodological issues, warnings 

may fail for a range of reasons associated with the meshing of the warning message with those at 

risk; as well as institutional factors such as cooperation between the organizations involved, and 

how they conceptualize the warning task. The task may be conceptualized narrowly leaving out 

important elements of the risk. These factors are examined in the context of recent European and 

Australian research and experience of warnings. Despair is understandable; while resources 

devoted to warning systems are fairly static, the task is probably becoming more challenging by 

the day because of social evolution – and in turn this raises the issue of the validity of much 

earlier research. Although success with warnings may become more difficult to achieve, there 

are potential changes in the operating environment that may force higher performance. Other 

conclusions include: the importance of developing consensus over the aim of warning systems; a 

more negotiated approach to those at risk (rather than a monopolistic supplier approach); and 

targeting to ensure that no identifiable group is missed. 
147

Handmer, John. (2002). Flood Warning Reviews in North America and Europe: 

Statements and Silence. Australian Journal of Emergency Management. 17(3), 17-24. 

Available at: 

http://www.ema.gov.au/agd/EMA/rwpattach.nsf/viewasattachmentpersonal/(85FE07930A2BB44

82E194CD03685A8EB)~4handmerWEMA.pdf/$file/4handmerWEMA.pdf

Keywords: 

communication, Europe, risk communication 

Abstract: The paper examines recent reviews of flood warning systems in North America and 

Europe and identifies areas and issues not covered by the reviews. The author criticizes the flood 

warning systems for insufficiently recognizing that communities, businesses, and individuals 

must possess the initiative to reduce flood risk and property loss. The needs of those at risk 

should be the central consideration of flood warning systems. The author feels that floodplain 

management professionals are overly confident in the transferability of flood warning systems 

between and within countries. US flood warning systems are often used as models for Australian 

towns, and research conducted in rural towns is routinely applied to metropolitan areas without 

consideration of differences. The study identified common themes in the materials. First, flood 

warnings are an important part of flood risk management but are no substitute for effective risk 

management. Second, concerns over enforcement raise questions regarding the sole reliance on a 

regulatory approach for floodplain management. Reviews of warning systems generally 

emphasize the potential of modern technology in monitoring, modeling, and predicting floods. 

However, because local warning and response is the basis for effective flood warning 

management, the potential of these large-scale applications may be less than anticipated. 

Moreover, the main problems with existing flood warning systems relate to human and 

institutional failure and it is not clear how advanced technologies would remedy them. Similarly, 

nearly all post flood-disaster reports advocate pre-event public awareness and education. 

However, there is no conclusive evidence that public education makes a significant difference to 

human response to warnings. Without clear approaches to assessing success or failure, floodplain 

management professionals cannot be confident in the effectiveness of warning systems. 

Harrington, Scott E. (2000). Rethinking disaster policy. Regulation, 23(1), 40-6. 

Available at: https://www.cato.org/pubs/regulation/regv23n1/harrington.pdf

Keywords: 

disaster assistance, insurance industry, risk management, subsidies 

Abstract: The author explores the conventional view of disaster policy, which suggests that 

government programs reduce dependence on “free” disaster assistance and promote efficient risk 

management by property owners and farmers. He draws three conclusions from his analysis. 

First, the narrow scope of private-sector disaster insurance reflects in large part the low demand 

for coverage. Demand is low in part due to the availability of disaster assistance, which 

substitutes for insurance. Federal tax policy reduces supply by substantially increasing insurers’ 

costs of holding capital to cover large but infrequent losses. Second, government insurance 

programs fail to encourage efficient risk management because of subsidized rates and limited 

underwriting and risk classification. Third, the practice of subsidizing government insurance, 

while giving disaster assistance to people who eschew coverage and to some people who have it, 

is more likely to raise taxpayers’ costs than to reduce them. 
148

Hartill, Lane. (2000). Are We Drowning in Flood Insurance? The Christian Science 

Monitor, 16. 

Available at: http://csmonitor.com/cgi-bin/durableRedirect.pl?/durable/2000/03/30/f-p16s1.shtml

Keywords: 

NFIP, repetitive losses 

Abstract: The article addresses the current state of the NFIP in light of rising disaster cost and 

insurance payments. FEMA and others have identified repetitive loss properties as a significant 

factor in escalating disaster costs. The author gives the example of a property in Canton, MS, 

valued at $49,300, which had experienced 25 losses in an 18-year period and received over 

$160,000 in claims. FEMA estimates that the number of new repetitive loss properties increases 

by an average of more than 1,500 per year. Flood insurance fraud and the false sense of security 

created by structural improvement projects are among the other problems cited by the author. 

The driving force behind all these issues is an inherent desire among homeowners to live near 

water. 

Hayes, Thomas L. (2003). National Flood Insurance Program: Actuarial Rate Review. 

Washington, DC: FEMA. 

Available at: http://www.fema.gov/pdf/nfip/rate_rev03.pdf

Keywords: 

insurance premiums, insurance rates, NFIP 

Abstract: This report is part of an annual review of the NFIP underwriting experience. The 

annual review indicates the results of the most recent actuarial review of the NFIP’s rating 

structure. The report begins by analyzing aspects of the NFIP, including its financial structure, 

ratemaking considerations, and overall rate level indications. Based on cost projections, expected 

average written premiums, and the relationship of the written premium to past flood insurance 

premiums, the rate review determined that the premium for the upcoming year is 124 percent of 

the level needed to fund the historical average loss year. The premium represents an overall 

increase of 2.2 percent. 

Hayes, Thomas L. and Randall A. Jacobson. (2001). National Flood Insurance Program: 

Actuarial Rate Review. Washington, DC: FEMA. 

Available at: http://www.fema.gov/pdf/nfip/rate_rev01.pdf

Keywords: 

insurance premiums, subsidies 

Abstract: This document presents the results of the annual actuarial review, undertaken to 

maintain the NFIP’s goal of fiscally sound rating and coverage structure. The distribution of 

business written in 2002 is anticipated to be 29 percent at subsidized rates and 71 percent at fullrisk premiums. The most recent changes went into effect on May 1, 2001, with an average rate 

increase of 3.2 percent for actuarially rated policies and 2.7 percent for subsidized policies or an 

average increase of 3.0 percent across the program. The premium based on all rate and rule 

changes through May 2002 is expected to be 122 percent of the level needed to fund the 

historical average loss year. Finally, this year’s review recommends that the actuarial based rates 

increase 2.9 percent and the subsidized rates increase 2.3 percent. 

Hayes, Thomas L. and Randall A. Jacobson. (2002). National Flood Insurance Program: 

Actuarial Rate Review. Washington, DC: FEMA. 
149

Available at: http://www.fema.gov/pdf/nfip/rate_rev02.pdf

Keywords: 

insurance premiums, subsidies 

Abstract: This document presents the results of an annual actuarial review, undertaken to 

maintain the NFIP’s goal of fiscally sound rating and coverage structure. The distribution of 

business written in 2003 is anticipated to be 28 percent at subsidized rates and 72 percent at fullrisk premiums. The most recent changes went into effect on May 1, 2002, with an average rate 

increase of 2.9 percent for actuarially rated policies and 2.3 percent for subsidized policies or an 

average increase of 2.6 percent across the program. The premium based on all rate and rule 

changes through May 2003 is expected to be 120 percent of the level needed to fund the 

historical average loss year. Finally, this year’s review recommends that the program eliminate 

the Expense Constant, a flat fee paid by policyholders to cover certain acquisitions costs and 

general expenses, in a revenue-neutral manner. 

Hazard Mitigation Technical Assistance Partnership, Inc. and French & Associates, Ltd. 

(1998). Handbook for Post-Flood Evaluation of CRS Activities. Washington, DC: FEMA. 

Keywords: 

Community Rating System, floodplain management 

Abstract: Since 1990, CRS has provided flood insurance premium discounts in recognition of 

local floodplain management programs that exceed the minimum requirements of the NFIP. The 

amount of the discount depends on the number and importance of activities a community 

implements and the sum of the individual scores for each activity. This handbook discusses the 

process of evaluating the effectiveness of CRS activities based on actual performance during 

flood events. The recommended evaluation process covers both those items needed to measure 

effectiveness in CRS terms and those non-NFIP or non-CRS benefits that floodplain 

management activities provide to a community. 

Hazard Mitigation Technical Assistance Partnership, Inc. and French & Associates, Ltd. 

(1998). Review of the Impact of CRS Activities on Areas Impacted by Hurricanes Bertha and 

Fran in North Carolina. Washington, DC: FEMA. 

Keywords: 

building codes, Community Rating System, cost/benefit analysis, Hurricane Bertha, Hurricane 

Fran, North Carolina 

Abstract: For many in eastern North Carolina the combined effects of Hurricanes Bertha and 

Fran in 1996 set a new benchmark from which to measure future storms. FEMA commissioned 

this report in order to assess the benefits provided by selected mitigation activities implemented 

by communities and by CRS. The project aimed to put a dollar figure on the actual flood damage 

prevented by the mitigation activities in a real event, not theoretical calculations of benefits and 

costs. The project team reviewed nine CRS mitigation activities and elements in eleven 

communities that were hit by Hurricane Fran: six coastal and five inland. The team collected 

flood data and interviewed local officials. It estimated damage data and compared the data with 

available disaster assistance and claims payments from flood insurance. One conclusion (among 

several others) indicates that structures built with no flood protection standards suffered twice 

the damage as those built to NFIP standards, and four times the damage to those built to the 

newer state coastal construction standards. 
150

Hazard Mitigation Technical Assistance Partnership, Inc. and French & Associates, Ltd. 

(2000). Evaluation of CRS Credited Activities during Hurricane Floyd. Washington, DC: 

FEMA. 

Keywords:

Community Rating System, Hurricane Floyd, mitigation, North Carolina 

Abstract: This report reviews the performance of several communities’ activities as part of CRS 

during and after Hurricane Floyd in North Carolina in 1999. Using a combination of data 

collected in the field, data from flood insurance claims, and interviews with local officials and 

residents, this report evaluates the impact of several CRS activities and elements (e.g., public 

information activities, mapping and regulations, and flood damage reduction). The report finds 

that although residents of communities participating in CRS have a higher level of awareness of 

their exposure to a flood hazard, retain a higher level of flood insurance coverage, and 

implement more flood protection measures, these indicators cannot be statistically linked to 

public information programs undertaken at the local level. Also, the report estimates that the 

average savings from preserving flood-prone areas as open space ranged from $47,500 to 

$111,000 per acre. The report also finds that the acquisition and relocation of flood-prone 

buildings was more effective at reducing flood losses than any other approach and that CRS was 

the cause for starting or modifying some local activities. However, in many cases CRS was not 

the only cause and it was overshadowed by recent flooding and disaster assistance funds. 

Further, the report finds that CRS had a greater impact on activities that were inexpensive or 

could be implemented with current staff resources (e.g., public information and flood warning). 

Higney, Francis. (1999). Lucky escape for insurers. The Washington Post Magazine, 

September 23, 12. 

Keywords: 

Hurricane Floyd, insurance industry

Abstract: Insurers may have fared relatively well in the wake of Hurricane Floyd, which swept 

along the eastern seaboard of the United States in September 1999, wreaking havoc in many 

states. Property damage caused by flooding is expected to reach $2.5 billion but insured damages 

may only be in the area of $0.5 billion as most policies exclude flood damage, according to the 

Insurance Information Institute. A large part of insurers’ liability will be for damages to vehicles 

covered by comprehensive policies. Allstate and Nationwide said they had each received around 

10,000 claims. State Farm said it had received over 26,000 but expected this number to rise as 

flood waters subside. This latest catastrophe has thrown the viability of the catastrophe bond 

market, used by some insurers as an alternative to reinsurance, into stark relief. 

H. John Heinz III Center for Science, Economics, and the Environment. (2000). Evaluation 

of Erosion Hazards. Washington, DC: FEMA. 

Available at: http://www.heinzctr.org/publications.htm

Keywords:

coastal areas, erosion, insurance premiums 

Abstract: This study concludes that, despite facing higher risk, homeowners in erosion-prone 

areas currently are paying the same amount for flood insurance as are policyholders in 

nonerosion areas. The study suggests that FEMA incorporate the risk of erosion into the cost of 

insurance along the coasts. Otherwise, other NFIP policyholders will have to subsidize what is 

likely to become a substantial cost.
151

H. John Heinz III Center for Science, Economics, and the Environment. (2000). The Hidden 

Costs of Coastal Hazards: Implications for Risk Assessment and Mitigation. Washington, DC: 

Center for Science, Economics and the Environment, Island Press. 

Available for purchase at: 

http://www.islandpress.com/books/detail.html?cart=105242990048922&SKU=1-55963-756-0

Keywords:

coastal areas, mitigation, risk assessment 

Abstract: This book addresses the need for a broader understanding of the categories and extent 

of the costs of coastal hazards. It makes specific recommendations for the improvement of the 

estimation and reporting of the cost of coastal hazards, for the improvement of risk and 

vulnerability assessment, and for the development and evaluation of mitigation strategies. The 

recommendations for improvement in these areas demand efforts at the federal, state, and local 

levels, and they focus on expanding the conceptual framework—previously limited to economic 

considerations—to include social, business, and environmental costs. In addition to these 

recommendations, the report proposes a framework for community planning. This framework is 

organized around three principles: (a) the importance of developing a broad set of alternative 

mitigation and preparedness strategies, recognizing the relevance of the status quo but not being 

restricted by current policy; (b) the importance of characterizing the potential losses from 

disasters of different magnitudes by linking risk assessment with a region’s vulnerability; and (c) 

the need to incorporate a broad range of economic, business, social, and environmental costs 

(both immediate and over time) associated with weather-related hazard events when evaluating 

alternative mitigation and preparedness strategies. 

H. John Heinz Center for Science, Economics, and the Environment. (2000). Report Brief: 

Evaluation of Erosion Hazards. Washington, D.C.: The H. John Heinz III Center For 

Science, Economics, and the Environment. 

Available at: http://www.heinzctr.org/NEW_WEB/PDF/rprtbrf.pdf#zoom=100

Keywords: 

coastal areas, erosion 

Abstract: Erosion presents a significant hazard to waterfront houses, businesses and public 

facilities and over the next 60 years, erosion may claim one in four houses within 500 feet of the 

US shoreline. The NFIP does not map erosion hazard areas to inform homeowners of the risk 

they face, nor does it directly incorporate erosion risks into insurance rating procedures. The 

report suggests remedying both these deficiencies. To support this recommendation, the report 

analyzes policy options and evaluates the effectiveness of each in reducing erosion losses. Using 

detailed field measurements and mail survey information, data was collected for 11,000 

buildings located within 500 feet of the shoreline in 18 counties. The findings of this report are 

that property owners face as large a risk of damage from erosion as they do from coastal 

flooding, that roughly 1,500 homes will be lost to erosion each year on average, at a cost to 

coastal property owners of $530 million per year. Additionally, most of the damage from erosion 

will occur in low-lying areas also subject to the highest risk of flooding. With respect to the 

NFIP, most erosion-related losses sustained by policyholders are reimbursed by the program, 

though erosion damage is not reflected in flood insurance rates. The report finds that to fully 

reflect risk, insurance rates in the highest risk coastal areas must be twice current rates on 

average. The cost of identifying, mapping, and disseminating information on erosion hazards 
152

nationwide is about $5 million per year, what the report considers to be a worthwhile investment. 

The report recommends FEMA develop erosion hazards maps that display the location and 

extent of coastal areas subject to erosion and that FEMA include the cost of expected erosion 

losses when setting flood insurance rates in coastal areas. 

Holmes, Roland. (1961). Composition and Size of Flood Losses. In Papers on Flood 

Problems, 7-20. Chicago: The University of Chicago. 

Keywords: 

flood damage 

Abstract: The chapter addresses the composition and size of flood losses in the context of 

increasing losses despite structural mitigation by the federal and state governments. The author 

distinguishes between rare catastrophic flood losses and total flood losses between 1903 and 

1958. Catastrophic floods are defined as those at or above the 1 percent annual chance standard. 

The study finds that flood damages in the United States have averaged approximately $200 

million annually, but with significant fluctuation. Between 1903 and 1955, more than 50 percent 

of the years had damages –including catastrophic and noncatastrophic damages – under $100 

million and only two years had damages over $1 billion. Noncatastrophic flood losses ranged 

from $1.5 million to over $350 million. The variability of catastrophic flood losses was much 

greater: as high as $954 million. Sixty percent of the years examined did not experience a 

catastrophic flood. The research also finds that there has been a noticeable increase over the 

years in total flood losses and catastrophic floods accounted for a larger share of total floods over 

time. 

Holway, James M. and Raymond J. Burby. (1990). The effects of floodplain development 

controls on residential land values. Land Economics, 66(3), 259-71. 

Keywords: 

building codes, development, economic modeling, floodplain management, property values, 

zoning

Abstract: This paper considers the effect of floodplain management programs on the market for 

vacant residential land. The authors model the developers’ profits from housing production to 

illustrate the expected effects of parcel characteristics on land value. The hedonic method is 

utilized to analyze data on vacant floodplain parcels from nine communities that vary by type of 

flooding, regulatory programs, and geographic location. The authors’ results show that zoning 

floodplains for lower density development, implementing building regulations requiring 

elevation above the level of the flood, and providing clear local leadership of programs each 

contribute to the lowering of land values in the floodplain. 

Holway, James M. and Raymond J. Burby. (1993). Reducing flood losses through local 

planning and land use controls. Journal of the American Planning Association, 59(2), 205-

16. 

Available for purchase at: http://pqasb.pqarchiver.com/planning/search.html

Keywords:

Base Flood Elevation, floodplain management, mitigation 

Abstract: The NFIP emphasizes building elevation requirements to protect property from flood 

damage and to limit continued increases in flood losses. Economists believe that the cost to 

elevate buildings will shift some development to locations not prone to flooding. This article 
153

provides evidence that elevating buildings to NFIP standards does indeed reduce losses, but that 

adding additional elevation requirements will have little effect on the rate of increase in 

floodplain development. Instead, these requirements must be supplemented by regulating the use 

of land within floodplains. 

Houck, Oliver A. (1985). Rising water: The National Flood Insurance Program and 

Louisiana. Tulane Law Review, 60, 61-165. 

Available for purchase at: http://www.law.tulane.edu/lawreview/back.htm

Keywords:

enforcement, legal issues and litigation, liability, Louisiana, NFIP 

Abstract: This article discusses the evolution and operation of the NFIP and Louisiana’s stake in 

the program’s success. Louisiana is a major participant in the NFIP, representing almost 12 

percent of all policies in 260 participating communities. Research on the execution of the 

program in a number of specific inland and coastal Louisiana regions and communities illustrates 

both successes and problems in its implementation. The author notes that federal disaster relief 

payments might be lower if participation in the NFIP were required in high-risk areas. The article 

also considers the emerging problem of enforcement and the extent to which floodplain 

ordinances give rise to duties and liabilities. In United States v. Parish of St. Bernard, the United 

States sued for violations of obligations and ordinances under the NFIP. The impact of this case 

will determine whether litigation could become an enforcement tool. The article also examines 

the question of what the federal government can do to recover its losses. Recommendations for 

making the NFIP economically and politically viable include actions at the congressional level, 

such as structuring water project construction and disaster relief to aid rather than frustrate the 

NFIP; examining other federal assistance and disaster relief benefits to flood-prone areas; and 

mandating a study of the degree to which upstream levees and channelization affect water 

downstream. Other recommendations involve improvements available to FEMA and local 

authorities within the NFIP, suggestions for structural elevation and storm-proofing requirements 

for insurance eligibility, and suggestions for strengthening FEMA’s resources.

Houston, James. (1999). Myth of the Subsidized Beach Resident. Shore & Beach, 67(2-3). 

Also available at: http://web.tampabay.rr.com/ccha/myth1.pdf

Keywords: 

coastal areas, development, media, repetitive losses, subsidies

Abstract: The article addressed the common misconception that all coastal residents have, or are 

eligible for, subsidized flood insurance from the NFIP, at considerable cost to taxpayers. In 

reality, a small percentage of NFIP policies are in floodprone coastal areas and these areas have 

paid more in premiums than they have received in flood claims. Between 1978 and 1995, 

actuarially based NFIP policies in SFHAs have generated a $169 million surplus after claims and 

expenses were paid. Furthermore, NFIP officials state that policyholders are charged actuarially 

sound insurance rates that fully reflect the building’s risk of flooding. The percentage of 

subsidized policies is declining over time as well. The article blames the persistence of myths 

regarding flood insurance on media reporting that highlights structures that have been repeatedly 

flooded and received claims payments. While repetitive loss properties are a serious problem and 

one the NFIP is actively addressing, they comprise a small portion of the total program. 

Disproportionate media coverage creates the impression that all NFIP policies are heavily 

subsidized. The article concludes that the NFIP has been successful, despite bad press coverage. 
154

Hovey, S.T., C. Daniel, and P.E. Bryant. (1998). Complementing Remote Sensing Systems in 

Flood Mitigation and Preparation. Fort Belvoir, VA: Army Topographic Engineering 

Center. 

Keywords:

disaster planning, mapping, mitigation, Project Impact 

Abstract: As a result of FEMA’s response to the many natural disasters of the 1990s, Congress 

directed FEMA to make mitigation of impacts from future natural hazards its highest priority in 

working with state and local governments. The NFIP, and its related flood-risk studies and flood 

hazard mapping activities, are increasingly important functions to support mitigation. Current 

initiatives include modernizing flood hazard maps, lowering the cost of producing maps, and 

increasing the accuracy of mapping products. Emphasis of support to local areas is demonstrated 

by Project Impact, which seeks to mitigate disasters’ impacts by taking preventive actions.

Howard, JoAnn. (1999). National flood insurance compliance. Credit Union Magazine, 65, 

43-4. 

Keywords:

lending institutions, mandatory purchase 

Abstract: The Federal Insurance Administrator explains that mandatory purchase provisions of 

the National Flood Insurance Reform Act (NFIRA) of 1994 require owners of all structures 

located in SFHAs of communities participating in the NFIP to purchase and maintain flood 

insurance as a condition of receiving a federally related mortgage or home equity loan on that 

structure. Although policyholder growth has increased markedly since the effective date of the 

joint final rule, a considerable gap remains between the number of households that the program 

insures in hazard areas and the number at risk. By following the correct procedures to determine 

whether the structure to be refinanced is in a SFHA as shown on a FIRM, lenders will comply 

with the law. The basic approach to complying with flood insurance requirements for all 

mortgage-related personnel in any lending institution has four steps. First, understand the flood 

peril. It can and does flood throughout the United States and its territories, especially in SFHAs 

but also in non-hazard areas. Many lending institutions have outsourced the responsibility of 

performing flood zone determinations to a flood zone determination company. Second, know all 

the compliance issues. The Act and its accompanying regulations cite compliance provisions in 

the areas of coverage, escrow, force placement, determination fees, use and retention of required 

forms, dispute resolution, and proper notification procedures. Third, focus on retention. Have a 

process in place to monitor renewals; keep service information up-to-date on all policies so that 

expiration notices get to the proper entities; develop a diary system to verify that each policy 

does renew. Fourth, be a risk manager. Manage flood insurance issues beyond their compliance 

minimums and treat it similarly to all other risk-related issues in the loan process. 

Huber, Michael. (2004). Reforming the United Kingdom’s Flood Insurance Regime. 

Discussion Paper #18. London: Centre for Analysis of Risk and Regulation at the London 

School of Economics and Political Science. 

Available at: http://www.lse.ac.uk/collections/CARR/pdf/Disspaper18.pdf

Keywords: 

insurance, NFIP, United Kingdom 
155

Abstract: The floods of summer 2002 in Central Europe and China, along with various other 

natural disasters in recent years, illustrate the need for an insurance system that can adapt to new 

situations triggered by phenomena such as climate change. This paper analyzes whether a private 

insurance scheme could handle post-flood recovery more efficiently and equitably than a 

government-sponsored insurance scheme. The author focuses on the United Kingdom’s flood 

insurance scheme, which is one of the few systems where private insurance has traditionally 

been the primary tool for insuring against flood damage. The report addresses the quality of 

flood insurance and the processes for establishing the insurability of flood events in England. 

Hudgens, D. (1999). Adapting the National Flood Insurance Program to relative sea level 

rise. Coastal Management, 27(4), 367-75. 

Available for purchase at: http://titania.ingentaselect.com/vl=1093414/cl=24/nw=1/rpsv/cgibin/linker?ini=tandf&reqidx=/cw/tandf/08920753/v27n4/s7/p367

Keywords:

coastal areas, floodplain management, mitigation, 1 percent annual chance flood standard, sealevel rise 

Abstract: Congress created the NFIP to provide much-needed flood insurance to property 

owners and to decrease the nation’s susceptibility to flooding. Relative sea-level rise now poses a 

threat to the nation’s flood preparedness, with coastal property owners facing increasingly severe 

flooding. FEMA could address this vulnerability in several ways. By recalculating and extending 

the 1 percent annual chance floodplains to incorporate estimates of relative sea-level rise, the 

program would prepare coastal property owners for the near-future flood risks. Further 

adaptation approaches to improve the NFIP include requiring floodproofing, obtaining “rolling 

easements,” and conducting education campaigns. 

Hughes, Rebecca Quinn. (1990). Bailing out the victims: A look at federal programs 

affecting coastal development. In Focus on Maryland’s Forgotten Bays: Report on the 

Conference on the Outer Coastal Bays, May 5, 84-6, 92-101. 

Keywords: 

coastal areas, development, North Carolina

Abstract: In her capacity as legislative officer for the Association of State Floodplain Managers, 

Inc. and the Maryland Department of Natural Resources, Water Resources Administration, 

Hughes takes exception with the assumption that the NFIP represents a major factor in coastal 

development. She notes that much of the development occurred before the NFIP was established. 

Indeed, state coastal zone managers told the Congressional Research Service in 1988 that they 

could not document how the NFIP affects patterns of coastal development and the value of 

coastal property. She cites the example of Topsail Beach, NC, where privately funded 

infrastructure has led to development. 

Hunt, Constance E. (1994). Improving the effectiveness of flood damage reduction policies 

through an integrated approach to watershed management. Water Resources Update, 

97(Autumn), 21-4. 

Available at: http://www.uwin.siu.edu/ucowr/updates/pdf/V97_A6.pdf

Keywords: 

floodplain management, strategic planning
156

Abstract: The coordinator of the Coalition to Restore Aquatic Ecosystems (CRAE) highlights 

four findings from Sharing the Challenge with respect to floodplain management: (a) integration 

of multiple objectives; (b) interagency coordination; (c) local control; and (d) coordination 

mechanisms. Within CRAE, there exists general consensus that strategies to reduce flood 

damage should be integrated with strategies for achieving other objectives. Communities should 

take the lead in the development and implementation of these strategies for their subbasins while 

considering information on the relationship between their subbasins and the rest of the 

watershed. State and federal agencies should work at a regional level to develop the larger 

watershed context in which these strategies will operate, and provide data and technical and 

financial support to these local efforts. This well-integrated framework for making decisions on 

water resource management can realize economic and environmental objectives on a sustainable 

basis and cut the costs of flood control. 

Institute for Business and Home Safety. (1999). Flood Insurance and the 1997 Flood in 

Grand Forks, North Dakota: Homeowner Survey Results. IBHS Technical Report Series #1, 

Institute for Business and Home Safety (IHBS). Boston, MA: Institute for Business and 

Home Safety. 

Keywords:

awareness, insurance purchase decision, North Dakota, Red River, risk communication, risk 

perception 

Abstract: In 1997, devastating floods along the Red River of the North in North Dakota affected 

over 90 percent of the 50,000 residents in Grand Forks. Only 20 percent of damaged homes were 

covered by flood insurance, leaving taxpayers and victims to shoulder most of the costs of 

recovery. In an effort to improve awareness of the need for disaster protection, the “Grand Forks 

Flood Insurance Summit” was held, bringing together federal, state, and local government 

officials with the insurance industry. In preparation for the summit, IBHS and the University of 

North Dakota’s Bureau of Governmental Affairs conducted a survey of Grand Forks 

homeowners to determine which factors influenced their decision to purchase or not purchase 

flood insurance. Results indicate that most homeowners simply believed they were not at risk 

from flooding. This report also describes actions taken since the flood and provides 

recommendations to the insurance industry and government to improve flood awareness and the 

purchase and retention of flood insurance. 

Insurance Institute for Property Loss Reduction. (1995). Homes and Hurricanes: Public 

Opinion Concerning Various Issues Relating to Home Builders, Building Codes and Damage 

Mitigation. Boston, MA: Insurance Institute for Property Loss Reduction. 

Keywords: 

attitudes, building codes, hurricanes, insurance industry, mitigation 

Abstract: This report describes the results of a study designed to obtain information from 

Atlantic and Gulf coastal residents concerning their opinions about various issues related to 

building codes in geographic areas subject to damage from hurricanes and other strong storms. 

During July 1994, telephone interviews were completed with residents located in six coastal 

areas—Corpus Christi, TX; Biloxi, MS; Myrtle Beach, SC; and Tampa, Miami, and Jacksonville, 

FL. The final number of completed interviews totaled 1,241. More than nine out of every 10 

respondents (93 percent) indicated that they felt it was very important that homebuilders in their 

locale be required to follow building codes. Over one-third of residents (37 percent) indicated 
157

that they had made improvements to their residences in order to reduce the amount of damage 

that might occur as a result of another hurricane; 62 percent said they had not. Most respondents 

(85 percent) indicated that it was very important that local building departments conduct 

inspections of new residential construction. Finally, seven out of every 10 residents (71 percent) 

indicated that they felt insurance companies should have a role in trying to reduce hurricanerelated property losses; 22 percent felt they should not. The responses given most often as to 

what insurers should do included: inspect buildings to ensure that they meet existing codes 

before insuring, offer rebates or discounts for homes that meet the codes, work with buildings to 

ensure homes are built to code, and lobby for stricter building codes. 

Insurance Legislator’s Foundation. (2002). Rising Water, Mounting Challenge: Flood 

Prevention, Protection and Assistance – A Legislator’s Guide to Flood Insurance. Albany, 

NY: Insurance Legislator’s Foundation. 

Keywords: 

NFIP, public policy 

Abstract: This comprehensive guide provides information to state legislators and staff on the 

NFIP and ways in which state legislators can improve awareness of flood risks and flood 

insurance protection, promote sound floodplain management, and assist victims of flooding 

disasters. Chapter topics in the guide range from the availability of flood insurance to the role of 

states in the NFIP to the mapping of floodplains. Appendices provide statistics on the NFIP, 

samples of flood insurance-related communications from states, and key contacts. 

Insurance Research Council. (1986). Catastrophic Losses: How the Insurance System Would 

Handle Two $7 Billion Hurricanes. Malvern, PA: Insurance Research Council. 

Available for purchase at: http://www.ircweb.org/IRCProducts/abstract.htm#catlosses

Keywords:

economic modeling, hurricanes, liability 

Abstract: This study starts with two hypothetical hurricanes causing $7 billion each in insured 

property losses and tracks those losses through the insurance system to find out where they 

would fall. It also analyzes the financial impact two such losses would have on primary 

companies and reinsurers, as a group, in the United States and abroad. The study collected 

information on actual hurricane losses for 1983 and 1985, resulting in a substantial upward 

revision of earlier loss estimates for those storms. 

Insurance Research Council. (1990). The National Flood Insurance Program: Agency and 

Insurer Perspectives. Oak Brook, IL: Insurance Research Council. 

Available for purchase at: http://www.ircweb.org/IRCProducts/abstract.htm#flood

Keywords: 

insurance agents, insurance industry, insurance purchase decision, mandatory purchase, 

marketing, Write Your Own Program 

Abstract: The Insurance Research Council (IRC) conducted a series of surveys to review the 

organization, operation, challenges, and achievements of the NFIP and WYO from the 

perspectives of insurance companies and insurance agents in 1989. One of the purposes of this 

research was to examine whether WYO and the NFIP are structured to maintain and increase the 

involvement of insurers and agents in selling flood insurance. Of equal concern was the issue of 

whether the flood programs are designed to attract and enable property owners who need flood 
158

coverage to buy it. A total of 104 insurers responded to surveys on WYO and the NFIP. 

Participating insurers represented 63 percent of 1988 total industry volume for property 

insurance premium. Four hundred and seventy-eight insurance agencies doing business in the 11 

largest states for flood insurance policies completed the flood insurance surveys. A major finding 

from the surveys revealed agreement among insurers, agents, government officials, 

environmental, floodplain, and land-use organizations that mortgage lenders hold one of the keys 

to better compliance with the requirement for mandatory purchase of flood insurance. The 

surveys also found that 88 percent of both agents and insurers expressed some agreement with 

the statement that a more extensive public campaign to raise awareness about flood hazards and 

the availability of insurance would be effective in increasing the number of policies. The report 

provides discussion on additional findings from the surveys. 

Insurance Research Council. (1995). Coastal Exposure and Community Protection: 

Hurricane Andrew’s Legacy. Wheaton, IL: Insurance Research Council. 

Available for purchase at: http://www.ircweb.org/IRCProducts/abstract.htm#coastal

Keywords: coastal areas, compliance, building codes, enforcement, Hurricane Andrew, 

insurance claims, insurance coverage, insurance industry, mitigation 

Abstract: This report by the Insurance Institute for Property Loss Reduction (IIPLR) and the 

Insurance Research Council (IRC) examines problems raised by destructive hurricanes with 

respect to the growing concentrations of people and property in high-risk coastal areas. It also 

discusses the urgent need to provide better protection for people, buildings, and communities 

through more rigorous construction standards and better enforcement of building codes, flood 

insurance requirements, and land-use regulation in areas subject to hurricanes. The study 

provides current data on insured coastal exposures and coastal populations in the United States 

by state and county. It also includes estimates of potential losses from severe hurricanes at 

vulnerable points along the Gulf and Atlantic Coasts, underscoring the magnitude and rapid 

growth of coastal exposures. For example, Hurricane Andrew caused $15.5 billion in insured 

losses, exceeding previous understanding about the maximum damage a single hurricane could 

cause. Finally, the report discusses steps that coastal areas at risk can take to lessen the damage 

and prepare for the next catastrophic event. Market forces, consumer tastes, training and 

education in the construction industry, and the insurance industry could all serve to encourage 

coastal communities to improve and enforce building regulations. 

Insurance Research Council. (1999). Public Attitude Monitor 1999, Issue 1. Malvern, PA: 

Insurance Research Council. 

Available for purchase at: http://www.ircweb.org/IRCProducts/abstract.htm#pam99-1

Keywords: 

attitudes, building codes, disaster assistance, disaster planning, insurance coverage, natural 

disasters, risk perception

Abstract: This first issue of the Insurance Research Council’s (IRC) Public Attitude Monitor 

1999 (PAM) report examines public attitudes toward coping with the property damage caused by 

natural disasters. Recent disasters have caused unprecedented levels of property damages and 

insurance claims payments. Disasters events such Hurricane Andrew in 1992 and the Northridge 

earthquake in 1994 have served to increase public awareness of the threats posed by natural 

disasters. According to a survey by IRC, six in 10 Americans believe that a natural disaster will 

occur in their community in the next 10 years. Most homeowners (88 percent) said they have 
159

purchased a standard homeowners insurance policy to address the risk of loss from natural 

disasters, but few have purchased any supplementary coverage. For example, only 6 percent of 

homeowners said they have purchased a government-subsidized insurance policy such as flood 

insurance. More than a quarter of all respondents said they are primarily relying on disaster relief 

to help them recover from a natural disaster. Although the public strongly supports the federal 

disaster relief programs, seven of 10 would prefer that homeowners in areas with a high risk of 

natural disasters be required to purchase private insurance. Finally, eight of 10 respondents 

supported requiring new homes to be built to withstand damage in the event of a natural disaster. 

Nearly seven in 10 said they would willingly spend 6 percent or more on a new home built to 

withstand a natural disaster. The survey consisted of face-to-face interviews with 1,972 men and 

women 18 years of age and over. 

Insurance Research Council. (2003). Public Attitude Monitor 2003, Issue 1. Malvern, PA: 

Insurance Research Council. 

Available for purchase at: http://www.ircweb.org/IRCProducts/abstract.htm#20030603

Keywords: 

attitudes, building codes, flood disaster planning, insurance coverage, natural disasters, risk 

perception 

Abstract: According to a survey by the Insurance Research Council (IRC), 72 percent of 

homeowners believe that state and local requirements that new homes be built to withstand 

damage from natural disasters are an excellent or a good idea. Sixty-two percent say they would 

be very or somewhat willing to pay an additional 6 percent for a new home to meet the 

requirements. The report shows that support for building codes transcends geographic regions 

but is especially strong in the South, which historically has been vulnerable to hurricane damage. 

Among homeowners in the South, four of five people say that building codes are an excellent or 

a good idea, and over 68 percent maintain their support even when the codes add 6 percent to a 

new home’s cost. Even when not legally required, many homeowners have taken steps to protect 

their home from common household perils such as flooding caused by rain or snow (64 percent). 

For every peril, the percentage of homeowners who have taken steps to protect their home 

increases with household income. The survey also found that 95 percent of homeowners carry a 

homeowners or condominium owners’ insurance policy. Approximately 22 percent have 

purchased additional water back-up and flood coverage (20 percent). Homeowners who believe 

that a natural disaster will damage homes in their area are more likely than homeowners who do 

not believe they are in a disaster-prone area to purchase coverage for floods (31 percent). The 

survey consisted of telephone interviews with 1,000 male and female adults 18 years or age or 

older. The sample was screened to include homeowners only, and participants were selected to 

be representative of the population of the continental United States. 

Interagency Floodplain Management Review Committee. (1994). Sharing the Challenge: 

Floodplain Management into the 21st Century. Washington, DC: Government Printing 

Office. 

Keywords:

floodplain management, Midwest floods of 1993, mitigation, public policy 

Abstract: In January 1994 the Clinton Administration’s Floodplain Management Task Force 

assigned the Interagency Floodplain Management Review Committee (the Committee). Its 

mission was to delineate the major causes and consequences of the Midwest floods of 1993 and 
160

to evaluate the performance of existing floodplain management and related watershed 

management programs. The Committee was also asked to make recommendations to the Task 

Force on changes in current policies, programs, and activities of the federal government that 

most effectively would achieve risk reduction, economic efficiency, and environmental 

enhancement in the floodplain and related watersheds. This is the final report of the Committee. 

The thesis of the report is straightforward: floods will continue to occur. The goals for floodplain 

management are clear. The means to carry out effective floodplain management exist today but 

need improvement and refocusing. The report concludes that the United States has lacked the 

focus and the incentive to engage itself seriously in floodplain management. The 1993 flood 

managed to focus attention on the floodplain and provided the incentive for action. The 

Committee proposes “a better way” to manage the floodplains. It begins by recognizing that all 

levels of government, all businesses, and all citizens have a stake in properly managing the 

floodplain. The Committee supports a floodplain management strategy of avoiding inappropriate 

use of the floodplain, minimizing vulnerability to damage through both structural and 

nonstructural means, and mitigating flood damages when they do occur. To ensure a long-term, 

nationwide approach to floodplain management, the Committee proposes legislation to develop 

and fund a national program to manage floodplains with principal responsibility and 

accountability at the state level. It also proposes revitalization of the Water Resources Council to 

better coordinate federal activities, limited restoration of some basin commissions for basin-wide 

planning, and issuance of a presidential executive order requiring federal agencies to follow 

floodplain management principles in the execution of their programs. 

International Joint Commission. (2000). Living with the Red. Ottawa, ON, and Washington, 

DC: International Joint Commission. 

Available at: http://www.ijc.org/php/publications/html/living.html

Keywords: 

floodplain management, mitigation, public policy, Red River

Abstract: After the Red River Basin flood of 1997, the governments of the United States and 

Canada asked the International Joint Commission (IJC) to analyze the root causes of the flood 

and to make recommendations as to how damage from major Red River floods could be 

mitigated in the future. This final report endorses most of the International Red River Basin Task 

Force’s conclusions and recommendations, modifies some, and adds some new conclusions and 

recommendations of its own. For example, the IJC makes the following recommendation: to 

reduce vulnerability to flooding, all possible approaches, including both structural and 

nonstructural damage reduction measures, must be considered as part of a comprehensive plan. 

This would include, when environmentally, economically, and socially justified, development of 

additional reservoir storage, restoration of wetlands, microstorage, construction or improvement 

of levees and dikes, floodwalls and bypass channels, permanent evacuation of high-risk areas, 

flood-proofing, and the enhancement of flood forecasting and warning systems. 

International Red River Basin Task Force. (2000). The Next Flood: Getting Prepared. 

Ottawa, ON, and Washington, DC: International Joint Commission.

Keywords: 

floodplain management, mitigation, public policy, Red River

Abstract: The International Joint Commission asked the International Red River Basin Task 

Force to investigate the causes and effects of the disastrous Red River Basin flooding of 1997 
161

and to recommend ways to reduce the impact of major floods. This report summarizes the 

proposals of the Task Force, which range from stricter building standards in SFHAs to improved 

interagency coordination of flood management responsibilities. The following recommendations 

provide a sample of those presented: (Recommendation 3) communities in the United States 

portion of the Red River Basin should ensure that community-built flood damage reduction 

projects are certified by FEMA for 1 percent annual chance or greater protection, or should 

participate in the Non-Federal Flood Control Works Inspection Program; (Recommendation 15) 

the 500-year flood (0.2 percent flood) should be defined throughout the Red River Basin and 

used to inform the public of the potential risks of flooding from rare events, including the need to 

buy flood insurance in the United States, and as the basis of regulations for siting and 

floodproofing critical facilities; and (Recommendation 19) state, provincial, and other 

appropriate authorities should review the effectiveness of and compliance with the floodplain 

management regulations in the Basin and take steps as needed to improve enforcement. Many of 

the topics addressed by this report parallel those addressed by the evaluation of the NFIP. 

ISO Commercial Risk Services, Inc. and French & Associates, Ltd. (1992). ISO/CRS 

Substantial Damage Data Collection – Preliminary Findings. Washington, DC: Substantial 

Damage Subcommittee, Community Rating Task Force, FEMA. 

NOTE: This study represents the first part of an effort by FIA to reexamine its policies and 

procedures on substantial damage. The second part of the effort, a workshop held in Ocean City, 

MD, also appears in the bibliography. 

Keywords: 

Community Rating System, substantial damage, compliance, permits, mitigation 

Abstract: In order to measure the extent of compliance with the substantial damage provision, 

FIA asked ISO Commercial Risk Services, Inc., to review the disposition of a sample of 

buildings that, based on insurance claims, had incurred substantial damage. The sample consisted 

of 189 buildings in 15 communities and seven states. Damage to the buildings resulted from 

local drainage problems, high and low velocity overbank flooding, and coastal storms. The NFIP 

Bureau and Statistical Agent provided data on insurance claims and ISO contacted officials in 

the 15 communities to collect permits and to determine the disposition of the buildings. Based on 

a preliminary review of the data collected, ISO drew a number of conclusions. Due to various 

errors, ISO could obtain usable data for only 137 of the 189 buildings in the sample. Of these 

137 buildings, 23 percent had been removed, vacated, or replaced with compliant structures; 45 

percent had building permits showing no substantial damage; and 32 percent had no building 

permits. An average of 11 percent of the damage cost reported on flood insurance claims was 

attributed to items not related to structural damages incurred by the main building on the 

property. Finally, numerous items reported on claims forms do not appear on permits. Permit 

records show only 41 percent of the total structural damages that claims records show. 

ISO Commercial Risk Services, Inc. and French & Associates, Ltd. (1992). Report on the 

Substantial Damage Workshop – Ocean City, MD, December 11-13, 1991. Washington, DC: 

Substantial Damage Subcommittee, Community Rating Task Force, FEMA. 

NOTE: This workshop represents the second part of an effort by FIA to reexamine its policies 

and procedures on substantial damage. The first part of the effort, a study on substantially 

damaged structures, also appears in the bibliography. 

Keywords: 
162

floodplain management, insurance coverage, mitigation, substantial damage, substantial 

improvement 

Abstract: FEMA convened a workshop to review the extent to which substantially damaged 

buildings were not brought-up to post-FIRM standards or re-rated as post-FIRM buildings and to 

recommend changes to NFIP policies and procedures. The NFIP is faced with a large percentage 

of substantially damaged buildings that are neither rebuilt to post-FIRM standards nor re-rated as 

post-FIRM buildings. Furthermore, different actors use different methods to determine 

substantial damage. An actor can manipulate damage costs and building values to achieve a 

desired outcome. Based on these and similar conclusions, participants recommended several 

potential solutions. For example, participants would support intensive assistance and additional 

staff to permit officials following a flood. Participants would also support a simplification of the 

definition of substantial damage to make it more consistent with current practices. 

Jacob, Klaus H. (2000). Futuristic hazard and risk assessment: How do we learn to look 

ahead? Natural Hazards Observer, 24, 2-5. 

Available at: http://www.colorado.edu/hazards/o/julyo00/julyo00a.htm#jacobs

Keywords:

mapping, modeling, risk assessment 

Abstract: Quantitative, probabilistic hazard assessment is generally based on the record of past 

hazardous events and used to account for present and near future hazards. However, the catalog 

of hazardous events is not always the only input to the assessment. Sometimes, generalized 

models, based on the historic record that account for the physical processes in the region, are 

used. To be maximally effective, the latest scientific knowledge must be applied when estimating 

future hazards and risks. Take, for instance, NFIP maps. For most localities, flood zones were 

mapped many decades ago. Land use patterns have since drastically changed in many of the most 

rapidly developing regions of the United States, altering the ability of the land to absorb high 

amounts of precipitation and to extend the duration of runoff in rivers and floodplains. Flooding 

beyond designated flood zones appears to be increasing, although systematic surveys to confirm 

this notion are generally lacking. Hence, flood-zone mapping does not depict the present state of 

the hazard, nor has the evaluation of other increasing risk exposures threatening many parts of 

the United States occurred. 

Jensen, Ric. (1990). Finding answers to flooding woes: Federal policies, unsound 

development, and reservoir operations all contribute to flood problems. Texas Water 

Resources, 16(Fall), 1-12. 

Available at: http://twri.tamu.edu/newsletters/TexasWaterResources/twr-v16n3.pdf

Keywords:

dams, development, flood control, modeling, nonstructural approaches, Texas, structural 

approaches 

Abstract: This article asks the reader if building flood control dams and other structures are the 

best way to reduce flood damages. Structural measures like large dams provide a false sense of 

security that makes people feel they are safe from flooding. Structural measures are also 

expensive and can result in catastrophic losses if they fail. By contrast, nonstructural alternatives 

include managing existing dams to mitigate floods during emergencies, preventing construction 

in low-lying areas, lessening the impacts of urbanization, and increasing the effectiveness of 

flood insurance and floodplain management. The author summarizes efforts to alleviate flood 
163

risks posed by the upper Trinity River in North Central Texas. Studies are underway to assess the 

impact of floods based on the amount of development allowed in low-lying areas. Local officials 

are regulating development in the region’s floodplains by establishing uniform criteria. The U.S. 

Geological Survey is working with state agencies to improve models to simulate flows in the 

Trinity River basin and to identify high-risk areas. Further south, Harris County has started to 

build computer models to provide a better idea of how many homes and businesses have been 

built in low-lying areas. 

Johnson, A.A. (1990). Improvements to mapping of alluvial fan flooding. In Hydraulics/ 

Hydrology of Arid Lands (H2AL). New York, NY: American Society of Civil Engineers. 

Keywords:

alluvial fans, mapping, modeling 

Abstract: FEMA is working to refine its assistance to engineers and floodplain managers by 

issuing revised and simplified guidance and modeling to mapping regulated floodplains subject 

to alluvial fan flooding. FEMA has also developed and released a model to be used on a personal 

computer that is intended to simplify the application of FEMA’s alluvial fan flooding 

methodology. The timeliness and accuracy of mapping or remapping the flood risk for alluvial 

fan flooding sources shown as SFHAs on FIRMs have improved and will continue to improve. 

FEMA has taken steps in Fiscal Year 1990 to improve the quality of the draft flood insurance 

studies by revising the study guidelines and by releasing a PC version of the alluvial fan model. 

In Fiscal Year 1991, FEMA plans to work to revise the guidance and regulations to define more 

clearly the documentation that would demonstrate that the protection provided by natural or 

structural flood-control measures warrants removing areas from SFHAs with alluvial fans. 

Jones, E. and W. Stolzenburg. (1988). Building in the coastal barrier resources system. 

Paper Presented on behalf of the National Wildlife Federation to the Coastal Zone 1989 

Conference, July 13, 1988, Charleston, SC. Washington, DC: National Wildlife Federation. 

Keywords: 

Coastal Barrier Resources System, development, legislation

Abstract: The National Association of Realtors cited this study during a hearing held by the 

Senate Committee on Environmental and Public Works on S. 2729, which proposed amendments 

to the Coastal Barrier Resources Act (CBRA) of 1982. A copy of the paper is no longer 

available; therefore, the summary provided here represents the assessment of the realtors and 

should be viewed in that light. This paper assesses development on coastal barriers between 1982 

and 1988. Jones and Stolzenburg examined aerial photographs of coastal barriers concluding that 

the number of structures in these areas increased 40.7 percent. Half of the development occurred 

in Florida. Although one of the purposes of CBRA was to discourage development by denying 

the availability of flood insurance and federal financial assistance, the study finds that the 

prohibition of flood insurance in these areas did not preclude development. 

Kaiser, Edward J., Raymond J. Burby, Scott A. Bollens, and James M. Holway. (1987). 

Private sector land market decision agents as targets of floodplain policy. International 

Journal of Mass Emergencies and Disasters, 5(3), 311-35. 

Keywords:

awareness, development, floodplain management, public policy 
164

Abstract: This article examines the influence of floodplain land-use policy on land market 

decisions of three private-sector decision makers: owners of vacant land, developers, and 

building owners. It is based on a mail survey of 312 such decision makers in 10 cities across the 

United States. The findings imply that effective floodplain programs must target builders and 

developers and owners of vacant land because their decisions come earlier in the rural-to-urban 

land conversion process and they are more likely to avoid the hazard or take mitigation actions in 

response to information, incentives, and regulations. Nevertheless, policy should also target the 

consumer, emphasizing insurance and awareness of the risks of flood damage, something that 

current policy does not do adequately. 

Karlinger, M.R. and E.D. Attanasi. (1980). Flood risks and the willingness to purchase 

flood insurance. Water Resources Research, 16(4), 617-22.

Keywords:

economic modeling, insurance purchase decision 

Abstract: Computer simulation experiments were conducted to determine the effects of 

alternative sources of uncertainty on the willingness to pay for flood insurance. Two alternative 

insurance protection schemes were investigated: coinsurance and fixed coverage. The question 

investigated here is to what extent the insurance scheme influences how purchasers respond to 

flood risks. Floods were assumed to be the log of a normal distribution and the effects of 

uncertainties in the parameters of this distribution on the purchase of insurance were explored 

using response surface analysis. Results indicate that fixed coverage insurance provisions shift 

most of the uncertainty in the physical parameters governing natural disaster occurrences away 

from the insured and onto the insurer. The results also show that the form of the damage function 

has little effect on the demand for flood insurance. 

Karlsson, Per-Ola and Vacov Y. Haimes. (1989). Risk assessment of extreme events: 

Application. Journal of Water Resources Planning and Management, 115(3), 299-320. 

Keywords: 

dams, hydrology and hydraulics, modeling, risk assessment

Abstract: The safety of many existing dams could be improved by modifying them structurally 

in accordance with recent advances in statistical hydrology and improved availability of 

meteorological and hydrological data. Any increase in safety that might be gained by structural 

changes must be balanced against their costs. The risk analysis methodology known as the 

partitioned multiobjective risk method (PMRM) is explored in this paper through a dam-safety 

problem. The PMRM is well suited to the task of solving the probabilistic optimization problem 

posed by such risk-versus-cost considerations. With the PMRM, a number of conditional 

expected-damage functions are generated. Of these, one that represents events of a more extreme 

and catastrophic character is of particular interest. The close relationship that exists between the 

expectation of damage and the statistics of extremes is shown to simplify the implementation of 

the PMRM, and the relationship also permits the derivation of equations that determine (for any 

partitioning of the probability axis) the expected damage, given that a flood with a return period 

that equals or exceeds n years occurs. Finally, an analysis is made as to how the choice of the 

distribution function representing the annual flood peaks might affect the conditional 

expectations. 
165

Keeler, Andrew, Warren Kriesel, and Craig Landry. (2003). Expanding the National Flood 

Insurance Program to Cover Coastal Erosion Damage. Journal of Agricultural and Applied 

Economics, 35(3), 639-47. 

Keywords: 

beach nourishment, coastal areas, erosion, insurance coverage, insurance purchase decision, 

structural approaches 

Abstract: The paper uses the results of a nationwide survey of coastal property owners to 

estimate the demand for insurance against erosion damage. The survey found significant demand 

for insurance against erosion damage at prices in the range of current flood insurance premiums. 

The NFIP does not currently cover such damage, though in practice some damages may be 

covered: if coastal homes suffer damage from erosion during a flood-causing storm, the claim 

will likely be paid. However, if damage from erosion takes place in the absence of a flood, the 

claim will be denied. Insuring against coastal erosion losses has implications for coastal land-use 

management and the NFIP. The primary structural mitigation techniques for erosion damages – 

sea walls and groins – have been shown to have negative effects on recreational beach activities 

and property prices. The availability of insurance against erosion could decrease investments in 

these types of structural mitigation, and thus reduce their negative effects. The effects of 

mitigation projects on demand for erosion insurance were mixed. Property owners in proximity 

of a beach nourishment project were less likely to purchase erosion insurance. Property owners 

near structural mitigation projects such as sea walls were actually more likely to purchase 

erosion insurance, indicating a perception that those projects offered inadequate protection. The 

paper found that the demand for insurance against erosion damage was considerable and 

sensitive to price, income, and risk. Willingness to pay was high relative to flood insurance 

premiums, suggesting that mandatory erosion insurance in areas of high risk would be politically 

feasible. 

Keeney, Dennis R. and Robert H. Alexander. (1994). Droughts, floods, and sustainability. 

Water Resources Update, 95(Spring), 15-20. 

Available at: http://www.ucowr.siu.edu/updates/pdf/V95_A3.pdf

Keywords: 

floodplain management, Iowa, Midwest floods of 1993

Abstract: This article views the catastrophic rainfall and flooding in the Midwest in the larger 

context of regional sustainability. Converging strategies from different sources suggest that 

working cooperatively might achieve healthy environments and healthy economies, now and in 

the future, and minimize losses from disasters. The recommendations include: (a) creating 

demonstration projects within the area of intense 1993 flooding to illustrate ways that flood 

hazard mitigation and regional sustainability can advance together, (b) showcasing and 

monitoring exemplary programs that are already under way, and (c) considering such programs 

as centers of innovation waves and of voluntary adoption of sustainable land-management 

practices. The authors cite examples from Iowa. 

Kelman, Ilan. (2002). Physical Flood Vulnerability of Residential Properties in Coastal, 

Eastern England. (Doctor of Philosophy, University of Cambridge, UK.). 

Available at: http://www.arct.cam.ac.uk/curbe/ilanphd.html

Keywords: 

building codes, coastal areas, England, hydrology and hydraulics, modeling 
166

Abstract: The study addresses physical vulnerability of residences to flood disasters in coastal 

and eastern England. Specifically, the study uses examples of flooding on Canvey Island on the 

Thames Estuary and Kingston-upon-Hull on the Humber Estuary as case studies to examine 

lateral pressure from flood depth differential’s effect on structures. The author applied 

calculations of the rate of floodwater rise and glass and wall failure to developing a new form of 

vulnerability profiling: vulnerability matrices, with flood depth differential along one axis and 

flood velocity along the other axis. These matrices were used to illustrate the consequences of 

use of disaster management tools. 

Kelmelis, John A. (1994). Scientific river basin management. Water Resources Update, 

97(Autumn), 9-13. 

Available at: http://www.ucowr.siu.edu/updates/pdf/V97_A3.pdf

Keywords: 

communication, federal programs, methodology, Midwest floods of 1993

Abstract: In response to the Midwest floods of 1993, the Clinton Administration recognized the 

need to make scientific information readily available to planners, managers, and policy makers in 

the basin area. To acquire and begin analyzing the data, the Scientific Assessment and Strategy 

Team (SAST) was established in November 1993. SAST was an interdisciplinary, interagency 

group that also provided scientific support to the Interagency Floodplain Management Review 

Committee. This article discusses the major findings of SAST and a strategy to incorporate 

scientific information into river basin management more effectively. The findings of SAST show 

clearly that using scientific information when making decisions could help reduce the impact of 

floods. Such information and advice must be derived from a well-coordinated plan of activities 

that incorporates baseline information, detects changes to the system, determines the effects of 

changes, improves methods of predicting changes, and makes the knowledge available to the 

user community. 

Keptner, Tim and John Hamill. (1991). NFIP Regulations: What You’d Change If You 

Could. Madison, WI: Association of State Floodplain Managers. 

Available for purchase at: http://www.floods.org/PDF/PUBSLIST.pdf

Keywords: 

compliance, floodplain management 

Abstract: This report summarizes the results of a survey of local, state, and federal officials and 

private parties for recommendations for floodplain management regulations. The objective of the 

survey is to aid ASFPM in formulating positions to advocate for improving the NFIP. 

Respondents stated that current minimum regulations are inadequate and that NFIP regulations 

should be changed every five years. Officials were split over whether their own state or 

community would be willing to impose tougher restrictions on their own without federal 

mandate. Eighty-eight percent of respondents felt that requiring freeboard for new construction 

would reduce flood losses. Respondents supported prohibiting storage and disposal of hazardous 

materials and hazardous materials facilities in floodplains. Finally, state and local officials urged 

FEMA to change the practice of removing properties filled to BFE from the floodplain maps, 

based on the increased potential for flood damages. 
167

Kerns, Waldon R., Robert J. Byrne, and Carl H. Hobbs. (1980). An economic analysis 

strategy for management of shoreline erosion. Coastal Zone Management Journal, 8(2), 165-

84. 

Keywords: 

coastal areas, economic modeling, erosion, property values, Virginia 

Abstract: The report outlines an economic framework for making management decisions on 

tidal shoreline erosion by evaluating of the impacts of coastal erosion on shore-land property and 

structures. It determined coefficients for estimating erosion-induced loses to property and 

dwellings. Lots that contained a dwelling decreased in value by an average of $0.24 for each 

square foot of soil lost to erosion. Decreases in the value of a dwelling due to an erosion-induced 

loss of distance between the dwelling and the shoreline averaged $8.64 per foot of distance lost. 

These values plus other measures were applied to three coastal areas in Virginia. The evaluation 

procedure provided a realistic basis for comparing: (a) the benefits and costs of selected erosion 

control measures, (b) the various levels of control, and (c) the distribution of costs of controls 

among property owners and between the private and public sectors. 

Ketteridge, Anne-Michelle and Maureen Fordham. (1998). Flood evacuation in two 

Scottish communities: Lessons from European research. International Journal of Mass 

Emergencies and Disasters, 16(2) 119-43. 

Keywords: 

flood disaster planning, risk communication, Scotland 

Abstract: In January 1993 and December 1994, two areas of Scotland experienced extensive 

flooding and large-scale evacuation of a spontaneous and unstructured nature. Both the flooding 

and the evacuation left their traumatic mark on the householders. The research reported here was 

qualitative, with the objective of investigating the evacuation process inductively—how it 

operated on the ground, what were the problems, and how the process could be enhanced to 

maximize effectiveness for those who have to experience the consequences. This long-term or 

extended process of evacuation is discussed in this paper, where it is emphasized that evacuation 

is not complete until everyone has returned home. The elderly, children, and women are also 

identified by the research as groups that suffered particularly as a result of the poorly executed 

evacuation and which require special attention. Policy and practical recommendations are drawn 

from the research, which may be equally applicable to future floods in the United Kingdom and 

elsewhere.

Keys, Chas. (2000). The Revised New South Wales State Flood Plan. Paper presented at 

40th Annual Floodplain Management Authorities of New South Wales Conference.

Paramatta, Australia, 2000. Wollongong, Australia: State Emergency Service. 

Available at: http://www.ses.nsw.gov.au/papers/keys_2000a.pdf

Keywords: 

Australia, flood disaster planning, legislation, public policy 

Abstract: The plan describes arrangements for a variety of floodplain management functions 

and integrates those performed by the State Emergency Service (SES) with those performed by 

local councils. The first New South Wales State Flood Plan was issued in 1991: prior to that 

planning for the real-time management of flood events was largely nonexistent. The plan 

contains a detailed discussion of the state’s flood threat, the legislative basis for floodplain 

management, existing policies, and the elements of a successful floodplain management strategy. 
168

Currently, all council areas with significant flood problems have plans for managing the 

consequences of flooding. Along with the Floodplain Development Manual, the State Flood Plan 

has guided councils in decisions related to floodplains. The paper points out that in New South 

Wales, flooding is the most costly natural hazard, but also the most manageable. SES’s role in 

floodplain management has progressed considerably over the past decade, primarily because of 

increased education, formal planning, and the integration of local councils.

Keys, Chas. (2004). Warning People About Coming Floods: Recent Developments and 

Some Barriers to Improved Performance. Paper presented at 44th Annual Floodplain 

Management Authorities of New South Wales Conference. Coffs Harbor, Australia, 2004. 

Wollongong, Australia: State Emergency Service. 

Available at: http://www.ses.nsw.gov.au/papers/keys_2004.pdf

Keywords: 

Australia, awareness, media, risk communication, risk perception 

Abstract: The paper examines the role of the State Emergency Service (SES) in providing 

warnings of coming floods, describes the history of SES flood warnings, and addresses barriers 

to improvement. The SES was created following flooding that devastated much of New South 

Wales in the mid-1950s. Existing community warning and response initiatives were simple and 

informal. By the 1990s, considerable attention had been given to technical aspects of flood 

prediction, with less attention to the dissemination of predictions, their content, medium, and 

effectiveness in motivating property owners. Since then, SES has employed prewritten messages, 

dedicated media liaisons, and multiple dissemination techniques to improve the effectiveness of 

flood warnings. One barrier to further improvement is that floods occur relatively infrequently on 

most of the state’s rivers, meaning that SES personnel received little practice with actual flood 

disasters and floodprone communities are unaccustomed to the threat of flooding, making them 

less susceptible to warnings. Also, local officials lack confidence in flood prediction data and 

fear reprisals for unnecessary or insufficient predictions. 

Keys, Chas and Bruce Campbell. (1991). Preparing Communities for Flooding: Some 

Recent Lessons and Some Ways Forward. The Macedon Digest, 60(3), 1-5. 

Available at: http://www.ses.nsw.gov.au/papers/keys_campbell_1991.pdf

Keywords: 

Australia, awareness, disaster planning, levees, structural approaches 

Abstract: The paper compares the flood preparedness in two small Australian towns, Nyngan 

and Warren, which experienced flooding in 1990. Both towns were protected by levees. In 

Nyngan, residents perceived levee failure impossible and did not consider alternative means of 

protection. When the levee overtopped, the results were catastrophic - $50 million in damages 

after the entire town was evacuated by helicopter. The town had taken no serious preparatory 

measures. Warren (in part warned by the experience of Nyngan) launched a large-scale multifaceted, coordinated response effort at the threat of flooding. Public utilities were sandbagged, 

levee banks were raised using earthmoving equipment, and the public was informed of predicted 

flood heights. In light of these examples, the report recommends a multifaceted approach to 

flood preparedness, increased education of local citizens, and expanded emergency planning. 

King, David. (2002). Post disaster surveys: Experience and methodology. Australian 

Journal of Emergency Management, 17(3), 1-13. 
169

Available at: 

http://www.ema.gov.au/agd/EMA/rwpattach.nsf/viewasattachmentpersonal/(C86520E41F5EA5

C8AAB6E66B851038D8)~Post_disaster_surveys.pdf/$file/Post_disaster_surveys.pdf

Keywords: 

Australia, health effects, methodology, natural disasters 

Abstract: The article classifies the types of disaster research being conducted by various 

stakeholders throughout Australia and determines a common and reliable methodology for each 

type of study. The author differentiated between two general types of studies conducted in 

Australia – postdisaster and posttrauma studies. Each employs different methodologies because 

they measure different aspects of disaster management. 

King, Rawle O. (2005). Federal Flood Insurance: The Repetitive Loss Problem. Washington, 

DC: Congressional Research Service. 

Keywords: 

repetitive losses, Flood Mitigation Assistance Program, Flood Insurance Reform Act of 2004 

Abstract: This report traces the evolution of the NFIP and provides background information on 

the program. It discusses the problem of repetitively flooded properties and the FEMA mitigation 

program. It also discusses other issues in the NFIP, such as the adequacy of claims adjusting and 

the 2004 Flood Insurance Reform Act of 2004. 

King, Rawle O. (2005). Hurricane Katrina: Insurance Losses and National Capacities for 

Financing Disaster Risk. Washington, DC: Congressional Research Service. 

Keywords: 

Hurricane Katrina, disaster risk management 

Abstract: Hurricane Katrina is expected to the costliest insured loss from a single event in US 

history. Total losses, including insured and insured property losses, are expected to exceed $200 

billion. At the time Katrina hit, the insurance industry was well-equipped with financial reserves 

to absorb the financial impact of claims on such a scale, having profited from favorable market 

conditions in recent years. The insurance industry is expected to emerge largely intact from 

Hurricane Katrina, but insurers remain exposed to future catastrophic disasters in every state. 

The Congress may be called upon to consider federal policy alternatives to build national 

capabilities for disaster risk management, including pre-funding disaster costs with insurance or 

securities.

Kingsbury, Peter. (2000). Flood Warning and Awareness at Bandswood Peel Forest. 

Australian Journal of Emergency Management, 15(1), 33-35. 

Available at: 

http://www.ema.gov.au/agd/EMA/rwpattach.nsf/viewasattachmentpersonal/(C86520E41F5EA5

C8AAB6E66B851038D8)~Flood_warning_and_awareness_at_Blandswood_Peel_Forest.pdf/$fi

le/Flood_warning_and_awareness_at_Blandswood_Peel_Forest.pdf

Keywords: 

attitudes, Australia, awareness, communication, media, risk communication 

Abstract: This article lists the measures taken by the community of Blandswood to warn 

residents about flood dangers and to prepare them for flood damage. The article notes that the 

community has adopted a multifaceted flood warning and flood awareness strategy that includes 

flood warning notices, informational brochures, and flood level signs. The article concludes that 
170

using a variety of media that reinforce a message about flood danger is an effective means of 

evoking appropriate responses from at-risk populations. 

Kirschenbaum, Alan. (1996). Residential ambiguity and relocation decisions: Population 

and areas at risk. International Journal of Mass Emergencies and Disasters, 14(1), 79-96. 

Keywords: 

health effects, relocation 

Abstract: Residential relocation is one means of coping with living in a perceived high-risk area. 

An analysis of a sample of household members who live in such an area showed the extent to 

which fear of recurring emergency events affects attitudes toward seeking an alternative safer 

area in which to reside. Intent to relocate is linked to specific subgroups of families on the basis 

of how they comprehend the risks of remaining (educational level) and the extent of possible 

economic damage (level of assets). A series of independent variables reflected affective-emotive 

behavior during the disaster. Post crisis trauma related attitudes, and pre/post disaster 

neighborhood bonds were likewise linked with an intention to move to a safer neighborhood. A 

regression model focused the analysis on the degree to which concern of psychological damage 

to children played a decisive role in determining a decision to relocate. 

Klein, Robert. (1998). Regulation and catastrophe insurance. In Howard Kunreuther and 

Richard J. Roth, Jr., eds. Paying the Price: The Status and Role of Insurance Against 

Natural Disasters in the United States. Washington, DC: The Joseph Henry Press. 

Available for purchase at; http://www.rothstein.com/data/dr423a.htm

Keywords:

insurance 

Abstract: This chapter assesses the role that insurance regulation has played in society’s 

response to disaster risk and identifies the issues that must be addressed in evaluating how 

regulatory policy might be modified to help lower disaster costs and support a more efficient and 

equitable way to finance them. The chapter provides a brief overview of the structure of 

insurance regulation, focusing on its primary institutions and functions. The author also provides 

a detailed evaluation of the areas of regulation that most relevant to insuring disaster risk (e.g., 

regulation and its effect on availability and price and control of market entry and exit) and the 

options available to regulators to improve market conditions (e.g., financial regulations, policy 

forms and coverage requirements, rates, underwriting restrictions, and claims adjustment). 

Kleindorfer, Paul R. and Howard Kunreuther. (2000). Managing catastrophe risk. 

Regulation, 23(4), 26-31. 

Available at: http://www.cato.org/pubs/regulation/regv23n4/kleindorfer.pdf

Keywords: 

California, Florida, mitigation, modeling, risk communication

Abstract: In this article the authors utilize computerized risk-mitigation measures (RMMs) 

models to examine the effect that risk mitigation increases would have on property owners and 

insurers. With this technology, the authors constructed statistical models of two earthquakeprone cities mimicking Oakland, CA, and Miami-Dade County, FL. They examined the 

reduction in damages that increased use of RMMs would have on these areas. In addition, they 

studied the effect that increased use of RMMs would have on the performance of two 

prototypical insurance companies, one small and large insurance company. The computer models 
171

indicate that mitigation would reduce aggregate losses to the insurer and the homeowner in both 

Oakland and Miami. If all homeowners mitigate in Oakland, the expected annual loss is $2.38 

million. If all households in Miami employ RMMs it would reduce the total cost to homeowners 

by $1.46 million. Given the result that RMMs do save money for homeowners, insurers, and 

taxpayers, why are these groups of people not doing more to mitigate risk? The study suggests 

that homeowners do not invest voluntarily and insurers do not reward such investment behavior 

because of existing policies and decision-making limitations concerning their ability to judge and 

prepare for the consequences of rare events. Moreover, existing government programs dull the 

incentives for individuals and institutions to prepare for catastrophic natural disasters. A 

prescriptive approach would be to advocate insurance and mortgage reform so that the key 

players in the housing market would have the incentive to encourage homeowners to mitigate. 

Klitzke, Michael J. (1992). The Community Rating System: A True Story, Local Economic 

Application. Madison, WI: Association of State Floodplain Managers. 

Available for purchase at: http://www.floods.org/PDF/PUBSLIST.pdf

Keywords: 

Community Rating System, Illinois 

Abstract: The study documents the flood risk in the Village of Wheeling, IL, and prescribes its 

optimum level of participation in the CRS program. The community adopted a floodplain 

management ordinance in 1963 and became part of the regular NFIP in 1978. It had 478 policies 

at the time of the study. After applying to the CRS program in 1990, it obtained a Class 9 rating, 

the maximum for a first-year applicant. The study addresses what CRS creditable activities are 

economically feasible and viable for the Wheeling to implement, compares the village’s CRS 

application to others submitted nationwide, and finally prescribes activities for the village to 

optimize its CRS class rating. An evaluation of feasible activities found that there were 

additional points that could be obtained in three of four sets of activities. If all of the activities 

identified to be feasible for Wheeling were implemented, the village would qualify for a Class 7 

rating. By optimizing potential point totals in three activities – a Flood Warning Program, an 

outreach program directed at repetitive loss properties, and amendment of stormwater 

management requirements – Wheeling could boost its CRS rating to Class 7. The village was 

well over the national average in points obtained for the top six creditable activities, due in part 

to the large portion of the town in the SFHA and the high number of policies in force. 

Kochaniec, Joanne Wojcik. (1999). Flood of claims to come: Farms, businesses devastated 

by Floyd’s rains. Business Insurance, 33(39), 1. 

Keywords:

agriculture, flood damage, Hurricane Floyd, North Carolina 

Abstract: Industry sources say that although big commercial policyholders and agricultural 

operations in North Carolina are likely to be insured for damages resulting from the severe 

flooding caused by Hurricane Floyd, most small businesses and individual property owners will 

likely be uninsured for those losses. According to Scott Ellwanger, manager of claims at FM 

Global in Park Ridge, IL, most large commercial policyholders use flood insurance from FEMA 

as a primary layer and reinforce this with excess coverage from a commercial property insurer. 

However, JoAnn Howard, Federal Insurance Administrator, says that typically only 25 to 50 

percent of home and business owners in flood-prone areas buy flood insurance. This article also 
172

discusses the flood damage caused by Hurricane Floyd to farms and businesses in North 

Carolina. 

Kok, M., J.K. Vrijling, P.H.A.J.M. van Gelder, and M.P. Vogelstag. (2003). Risk of 

flooding and insurance in the Netherlands. Paper presented at The Second International 

Symposium on Flood Defence, Beijing, China, September 10-13, 2002. 

Available at: http://www.hkv.nl/nederlands/onderzoek/download/HKVPublicatiereeks/publicatie014.PDF

Keywords: 

Netherlands, flood control, insurance, flood damage 

Abstract: Potential losses resulting from flooding in the Netherlands are enormous. Estimates 

place losses in the order of 100 billion Euro (€) resulting from coastal flooding and €50 billion 

from riverine flooding. Recently, relatively small riverine flooding occurred in December 1993 

(loss of €100 million) and January 1995 (loss of €80 million). In September 1998, heavy rainfall 

occurred, causing losses of some €500 million. A combination of damage sharing and 

construction of flood defenses has traditionally been applied in the Netherlands. This paper 

examines the idea of whether flood insurance could be added to the current approach. Insurance 

of whatever form is a tool for spreading negative consequences rather than removing them. The 

authors conclude that insurance for catastrophic flood events seems to be unattractive but that 

insurance for smaller floods may be attractive. 

KRC Research & Consulting. (1995). Report on In-Depth Interviews Conducted with Direct 

Agents, Lenders, and WYO Agents. Washington, DC: FEMA. 

Keywords:

attitudes, California, communication, Florida, Iowa, lending institutions, marketing, Write Your 

Own Program 

Abstract: FEMA sponsored this research to ascertain public attitudes toward disaster planning, 

particularly in regards to insurance coverage. The report is based on in-depth telephone 

interviews with three Write Your Own (WYO) agents, four independent agents, and three 

lenders in Broward County, FL; Des Moines, IA; and Santa Clara County, CA. The report 

summarizes findings but does not detail methodology or results. It reveals that agents have a 

poor understanding of FEMA’s role and its relationship to the NFIP and few had direct contact 

with FEMA. Agents are generally satisfied with the status quo and do not prioritize flood 

insurance. Lenders feel like they know little about FEMA and the NFIP and they would like 

more contact with FEMA. The report concludes that communication between FEMA and lenders 

and agents merits improvement and lists suggestions from lenders and agents. Most of those 

interviewed agreed that the public is not well informed about flood insurance, what it covers, and 

why they need it. Lenders felt a national advertising campaign was the best way to increase 

awareness in the public and among lenders. Agents were less open to a public education 

campaign believing that the public would not trust the government to sell them insurance. The 

report concludes that if those stakeholders interviewed are not invested in the NFIP’s goals, then 

they will have only limited interest in selling flood insurance. Therefore, an effort should be 

made to develop and maintain a strong relationship with these groups to generate more interest in 

the purchase of flood insurance. 
173

KRC Research & Consulting. (1995). Quantitative Benchmark Report. Washington, DC: 

FEMA. 

Keywords:

communication, insurance purchase decision, marketing, risk communication 

Abstract: This document report looks at consumer and business decision-makers’ attitudes 

towards and understanding of flood insurance. KRC Research & Consulting conducted a 

quantitative research study during September and October of 1995 and surveyed 1,200 

consumers and 600 business decision-makers (1/3 of the total sample obtained from high-risk 

areas, 2/3 from a random national sample, in each case) by telephone. This report concludes that: 

(a) FEMA and NFIP are not well known among either consumers or business decision-makers; 

(b) 52 percent of consumers and 40 percent of business decision-makers who know FEMA view 

it favorably; (c) floods and hurricanes are top-of-the-mind natural disasters for most respondents, 

but few feel personally threatened by floods (even those who live in high-risk areas); (d) in the 

event of a flood, most would expect their insurance company to cover damages; (e) about half of 

each group think the government should pay for clean up and repair after a natural disaster; (f) 

about half of each group has taken precautions in the event of a natural disaster (efforts vary but 

most often include references to insurance: 24 percent of consumers and 43 percent of 

businesses); and (g) while most consumers think flood insurance is a wise investment (65 

percent), most business decision-makers don’t (37 percent). Based on these findings, this report 

recommends that FEMA: (a) get the NFIP on the map, using any and all means possible; (b) 

break through the assumption that fires are a greater danger than floods; (c) educate people about 

the measures of risk and convince them to ask their agents to make sure they have flood 

insurance; (d) educate the target audience as to exactly what flood insurance covers; (e) explain 

the concept of a federal disaster area; (f) tell the target audience that flood insurance is available 

through an insurance agent and that it is relatively inexpensive; and (g) use a flood victim as a 

spokesperson instead of a fictional character. 

KRC Research & Consulting. (1995). Qualitative Research Report: In-Depth Interviews with 

Community Officials, Lenders, Realtors, and Advisory Board Members. Washington, DC: 

FEMA. 

Keywords:

awareness, communication, insurance purchase decision, marketing 

Abstract: FEMA retained KRC Research to conduct qualitative research with four key 

audiences—lenders, realtors, community officials, and members of an advisory board—to help 

guide the development of strategies and creative messages to facilitate the sale of flood 

insurance. In August 1995, KRC conducted 27 in-depth interviews with these key audiences. 

This report summarizes general perceptions of the insurance industry, obstacles to understanding 

the flood insurance industry, perceptions of the NFIP, the public’s decision-making process, and 

suggestions for an awareness-raising campaign. Respondents felt that lack of knowledge about 

flooding, risk, and insurance is the primary reason people do not own flood insurance. Eligibility 

and coverage are major areas of confusion. While advisory board members have a good 

knowledge of the NFIP, the other respondents are largely ignorant about the program. The four 

constituencies agreed that the insurance industry does not have a good public image and that 

disaster insurance is generally unprofitable. They felt that retention is mainly the result of 

compliance with insurance requirements. All respondents felt that an education campaign is 

critical to improving the volume of flood insurance sold. They called for improved 
174

communication between the NFIP, themselves, and the public, and they expressed enthusiasm 

for an advertising campaign. 

KRC Research & Consulting. (1996). Qualitative report focus groups: Apathetics and 

proactives. Washington, DC: FEMA. 

Keywords: 

risk perception 

Abstract: This report evaluated risk perceptions among residential homeowners and the effect 

on flood insurance purchase decisions. Some of the results run counter to conventional wisdom 

about public education and awareness levels and the impact on flood insurance purchase. Flood 

insurance was not entirely tied to the perception of risk. The study found a considerable portion 

of uninsured consumers (over one-third) who felt threatened by the risk of flooding but did not 

carry flood insurance. Other factors must have impacted the insurance purchase, or non-purchase 

decision. The authors found a significant lack of awareness among survey respondents. Many 

consumers were simply unaware of flood insurance and the measures available to them for 

protection in the event of a flood. This factor constituted a significant factor in the failure to 

purchase flood insurance. .Also, many people who did not carry flood insurance believed they 

are covered under homeowners or other casualty insurance. Further questioning of residents 

unaware of the availability of flood insurance found a general consensus that if it was important 

or if they were at risk, their lender or insurance agent would have told them about it. 

However, not all insurance agents or lenders are familiar with flood insurance, and flood 

insurance agents may not have a realistic impression of their clients’ flood risk. Misconceptions 

and a lack of awareness were found in commercial decision-makers as well. They lacked 

accurate information about flood insurance and did not believe that they would experience a 

flood. Furthermore, many commercial decision-makers believed that business interruption 

insurance made flood insurance redundant. Increasing the knowledge level of consumers and 

insurance agents may help to overcome some of the barriers that keep people from understanding 

and purchasing flood insurance. Indeed, qualitative research indicates that people who are more 

knowledgeable about the costs and benefits of having flood insurance are more likely to find 

value in the product. Increasing consumer knowledge is accomplished primarily through public 

education, flood warning systems, and also exposure to floods. Further research is needed to 

quantify the extent to which education and training affects perceptions of risk. 

KRC Research & Consulting. (1998). Agent Quantitative Survey Results. Washington, DC: 

FEMA. 

Keywords:

communication, insurance agents, risk communication 

Abstract: KRC conducted a quantitative 20-minute telephone survey to investigate insurance 

agents’ knowledge, perceptions, practices, attitudes, and beliefs about what flood insurance 

covers; writing policies; and the benefits of flood insurance. The survey contained two 

components, one with a nationally representative sample of 300 agents who sell flood insurance 

(flood agents), and another with 100 agents who do not sell flood insurance (nonflood agents). 

The survey reveals that flood agents are much more aware of and favor FEMA and the NFIP 

than nonflood agents. Second, in both groups, the decision to sell flood insurance is closely 

related to the agents’ opinions of flood risk in the area where the client resides. Nine of 10 agents 

would be more inclined to recommend flood insurance if they learned their clients were in areas 
175

with a high risk of flooding or that a flood was predicted for their client’s area. Third, it may be 

difficult to sell flood insurance to clients who do not believe they are at risk or who think that the 

insurance is too expensive. Communications should continue to emphasize that virtually 

everyone is at risk for flooding, and that flood insurance is not as expensive as some might think. 

Fourth, flood agents are more likely to know that floods are likely to occur even in areas not 

designated as floodplains and therefore know that these people also need insurance. Fifth, the 

majority of flood agents believe that flood insurance is a wise investment, offering excellent 

coverage at a fair price. In contrast, nonflood agents do not think it is a wise investment given 

current levels of coverage and the price. Sixth, flood insurance is not seen as an overly difficult 

policy to write, but the rating system and the process of obtaining elevation certificates are seen 

as more difficult and time-consuming. Most agents indicate that learning that there is an easy-towrite policy available for 90 percent of homeowners would prompt them to recommend flood 

insurance. Agents aware of the Co-op Advertising Program believe it to be a good one. 

KRC Research & Consulting. (1999). Quantitative Evaluative Report IX, 1999. Washington, 

DC: FEMA. 

Keywords:

awareness, communication, marketing, NFIP 

Abstract: This report details the ninth wave of tracking research to assess the attitudes of 

consumers and business decision-makers (BDMs) regarding the need for, and understanding of, 

flood insurance and the success of an advertising campaign. Conducted from January through 

April 1999, FEMA Quantitative IX consisted of telephone interviews with 1,200 consumers and 

600 BDMs from a random national sample and from high-risk areas. The study assessed 

perceptions of natural disasters in general but floods represented the primary focus. The study 

considered flood risk, insurance companies and agents, awareness and perceptions of FEMA 

advertising, and knowledge of flood insurance. KRC found the percentage of consumers and 

BDMs who, in the last two months, saw or heard an ad for flood and/or disaster insurance. The 

firm then determined the messages these listeners received from the ad and ascertained the 

awareness of and favorability toward FEMA and the NFIP. The report concludes that the 

advertising campaign continues to increase familiarity and favorability toward FEMA and the 

NFIP among consumers and BDMs, but the percentage of respondents who are aware of the ads 

could be higher. KRC recommends that FEMA: (a) spend more on the campaign, (b) continue to 

emphasize that floods can happen anywhere and make the connection between flooding and 

permanent water damage, (c) make the point that flood insurance is a wise investment, (d) 

include a single response mechanism at the end of the ad, (e) communicate that floods often 

occur alongside hurricanes and that current coverage may be insufficient, and (f) inform 

insurance agents about the risk of flooding and about the ease with which flood insurance may be 

written and serviced. 

Kriesel, W. and C. Landry. (2000). Modeling the decision to buy flood insurance: Results 

from 62 coastal communities. Paper presented at the American Agricultural Economics 

Association Annual Meeting, Tampa, FL, July 29-August 3, 2000. 

Keywords:

coastal areas, economic modeling, insurance purchase decision, risk assessment 

Abstract: The authors analyze how a household decision to purchase flood insurance relates to 

other measures of risk reduction and particular aspects of flood and erosion risk. They argue five 
176

reasons why the NFIP does not have a higher rate of participation among property owners at risk 

of flooding: (a) government disaster relief programs provide a disincentive for purchasing flood 

insurance; (b) people tend to underestimate their chances of being a disaster victim; (c) the NFIP 

may undercompensate for losses; (d) coastal property owners regard the expected value of the 

potential loss as only a small part of their total wealth; and (e) the model’s results apply only to 

risk-averse individuals. Results indicate that the variables of income, waterfront (percent of 

properties that have frontage on the water), armor (percent of survey returns indicating the 

existence of coastal armoring at the nearest shore), elevation, post-FIRM status, mortgage, 

location in the Pacific Region, and location in the Gulf Region have significance (at the .05 level 

or below) in predicting the proportion of a community’s properties protected by flood insurance. 

Kriesel, Warren and Craig Landry. (2004). Participation in the National Flood Insurance 

Program: An Empirical Analysis for Coastal Properties. The Journal of Risk and 

Insurance, 71(3), 405-20. 

Available for purchase at: http://www.blackwellsynergy.com/servlet/useragent?func=synergy&synergyAction=showTOC&journalCode=jori&vo

lume=71&issue=3&year=2004&part=null

Keywords: 

coastal areas, insurance purchase decision, mandatory purchase 

Abstract: The report addresses NFIP participation in coastal areas. Its empirical analysis of data 

from a sample of nine coastal counties revealed that the participation rate in the NFIP is 49 

percent of eligible properties. Under current NFIP regulations there is no consideration of the 

added risk presented by coastal erosion. The operation of the NFIP in coastal areas deserves 

special attention because of several key differences with riverine flood zones, including the fact 

that coastal areas generally contain more valuable properties that can easily exceed the $250,000 

claim limit of the NFIP. This would raise the possibility of undercompensation, in which only 

part of a potential loss is covered. However, only 3.5 percent of homes in the author’s data set 

were valued at more than $250,000. Coastal property owners may also self-insure, by locating 

further away from the shoreline, foregoing upgrades to their structure, or employing artificial 

coastal protection, such as seawalls and beach renourishment. The analysis of NFIP participation 

in coastal areas utilized an on-site survey, FIA policies-in-force data, mail-survey questionnaires, 

and the FEMA website. The results suggest that the price of flood insurance has a negative effect 

on participation, though with a low degree of price responsiveness. Respondents with higher 

incomes were more likely to have flood insurance. Also, households located in the vicinity of 

artificial shoreline protection are 12 percent more likely to purchase flood insurance, suggesting 

that the presence of shoreline protection heightens owners’ awareness of the risk inherent in their 

location. Mortgaged property is 73 percent more likely than nonmortgaged property to have 

flood insurance. The conclusion of the report is that adjusting premiums for NFIP policies in 

coastal areas in the range of $0.08 to $1.18 per $100 coverage would probably not cause 

significant change in NFIP participation. Factors besides price, such as proximity to the 

shoreline, the existing community response to erosion and storm risk, and mortgage lender 

requirements, were important to the probability of participation. 

Kriesel, Warren, Craig Landry, and Andy Keeler (1999). Coastal Erosion Hazards: The 

University of Georgia’s Results. Working paper. Athens, GA: University of Georgia. 

Available at: http://www.agecon.uga.edu/faculty/wkriesel/PDFfiles/executive.PDF
177

Keywords: 

coastal areas, economic modeling, environmental impacts, erosion, insurance coverage, 

insurance purchase decision, public policy, property values, risk assessment 

Abstract: This study examines the economic effects of flood insurance pricing and availability, 

as they relate to housing values, the local community, and the coastal ecosystem. Three types of 

changes to the NFIP are being considered: 1) a change in the cost of insurance, 2) denial of flood 

insurance, 3) a change in the rules that apply to coverage of erosion-related damage. Five 

sections of the report describe general results of a mail survey, a hedonic price analysis, an 

empirical model of property owners’ decisions to buy flood insurance, an experiment on how 

property owners might respond if additional erosion-damage coverage were offered under the 

NFIP, and how property values decline if beach recreation is adversely affected by coastal 

armoring. Overall, the study finds that hazards from flooding and erosion, and the actions taken 

against them significantly determine property values in coastal areas. However, flood insurance 

was not found to have an important role in the real estate market. Furthermore, the demand for 

flood insurance was found to be unresponsive to price changes. A prohibition on new 

construction within the 60-year erosion hazard area would increase property values and perhaps 

reduce disruptions to the coastal ecosystem if the parcel of land is sufficiently large. Coastal 

armoring increases the value of waterfront properties but if the recreational beach is damaged, 

then the value of inland property will be reduced sharply. 

Krimm, R.W. (1978). The National Flood Insurance Program and wetland protection. In 

Proceedings of the National Wetland Protection Symposium, Reston, VA, June 6-8, 1977. 

Washington, DC: FEMA. 

Keywords:

environmental protection, floodplain management, wetlands 

Abstract: The NFIP was designed to reduce loss of life and property from floods. Part of the 

program’s responsibility involves the development and enforcement of floodplain management 

standards to reduce flood damages. Regulations recently adopted require that communities 

wishing to qualify for the program protect mangrove stands and dunes that act as barriers to 

storm surges. The program also indirectly protects wetlands in several ways: it establishes 

disincentives for location of structures in areas of known flood risk; it prohibits the use of fill for 

elevation purposes in identified coastal high hazard areas; and it encourages the use of columns 

for elevation to minimize the use of fill. The article also discusses recent executive orders 

concerning wetlands and floodplains and their relation to the NFIP. 

Kron, Wolfgang. (2003). Flood Catastrophes: Causes, Losses, and Prevention From an 

International Re-Insurer’s Viewpoint. Paper presented at Precautionary Flood Protection in 

Europe conference. Bonn, Germany, February 5-6, 200. Berlin, Germany: Institute for 

International and European Environmental Policy. 

Available at: http://www.ecologic-events.de/floods2003/de/documents/WolfgangKron.PDF

Keywords: 

Germany, insurance, insurance industry, NFIP 

Abstract: The report begins by differentiating types of floods, describing recent flood disasters 

worldwide, defining risk, and outlining some of the reasons for increasing flood risk. A 

partnership of public authorities, at-risk populations, and the insurance industry is necessary to 

reduce risk. In the case of catastrophic flood disasters, insurance companies may be unable to 
178

cover the losses generated by the event. For instance, roughly a dozen primary insurance 

companies were bankrupt following Hurricane Andrew in 1992. In these cases, reinsurance 

companies – insurance for insurance companies – play an important role worldwide. The paper 

describes tactics reinsurance companies use to reduce flood losses and overcome such problems 

at adverse selection. These tactics include the creation of hazard zones and the assessment of 

probable maximum loss (PML). Hazard zoning allows reinsurance companies to calculate the 

expected losses an insurance company would face as a result of a disaster. Munich Re developed 

the world’s first flood loss accumulation model for an entire country, utilizing hazard zone 

models. Similar models are being developed for the United Kingdom. 

Krutilla, John V. (1966). An economic approach to coping with flood damage. Water 

Resources Research, 2(2), 183-90. 

Keywords:

economic modeling, flood control, insurance premiums, mandatory purchase 

Abstract: A compulsory flood insurance scheme is one means of achieving efficient uses of 

floodplains. Insurance premiums proportional to risk and equal to both the private and social cost 

of floodplain occupancy will serve as a rationing device, eliminating economically unwarranted 

uses of floodplains on the one hand, while not prohibiting uses for which a floodplain location 

has merit on the other hand. In addition, reduction of flood insurance premiums can serve as a 

standard to measure the economic justification of alternative flood control measures and/or 

discrete increments in scale of protective works or other nonstructural flood control measures. A 

final advantage of flood insurance, which no alternative in flood management possesses, is 

indemnification for the residual damage potential against which it is not economical to seek 

protection. 

Kuczera, George. (1983). A Bayesian Surrogate for Regional Skew in Flood Frequency 

Analysis. Water Resources Research, 19(3), 821-32. 

Keywords:

modeling 

Abstract: The problem of how to best utilize site and regional flood data to infer the shape 

parameter of a flood distribution is considered. One approach to this problem is given in Bulletin 

17B of the U.S. Water Resources Council (1981) for the log-Pearson distribution. Here a lesser 

known distribution is considered, namely, the power normal which fits flood data as well as the 

log-Pearson and has a shape parameter denoted by lambda derived from a Box-Cox power 

transformation. The problem of regionalizing lambda is considered from an empirical Bayes 

perspective where site and regional flood data are used to infer lambda. The distortive effects of 

spatial correlation and heterogeneity of site sampling variance of lambda are explicitly studied 

with spatial correlation being found to be of secondary importance. The end product of this 

analysis is the posterior distribution of the power normal parameters expressing, in probabilistic 

terms, what is known about the parameters given site flood data and regional information on 

lambda. This distribution can be used to provide the designer with several types of information. 

The posterior distribution of the T-year flood is derived. The effect of nonlinearity in lambda on 

inference is illustrated. Because uncertainty in lambda is explicitly allowed for, the 

understatement in confidence limits due to fixing lambda (analogous to fixing log skew) is 

avoided. Finally, it is shown how to obtain the marginal flood distribution which can be used to 

select a design flood with specified exceedance probability. (Author 's abstract) 
179

Kunkel, Kenneth E., Stanley A. Changnon, and Steven E. Hollinger. (1995). A regional 

response to climate information needs during the 1993 flood. Bulletin of the American 

Meteorological Society, 76, 2415-21. 

Available at: http://ams.allenpress.com/pdfserv/10.1175%2F1520-

0477(1995)076%3C2415:ARRTCI%3E2.0.CO%3B2

Keywords: 

flood disaster planning, Midwest floods of 1993, modeling, weather

Abstract: Effective responses by government agencies, businesses, and private industry to 

climate disasters like the Mississippi River flood of 1993 hinge on the regional availability of upto-date weather, climate, and water information. In addition to the obvious need for accurate 

forecasts and warnings of severe weather and floods, other types of meteorologically based 

information can contribute to effective responses. Some examples of information requested 

during and after the 1993 flood include hydroclimatic assessments of the magnitude of the event, 

agricultural assessments of the impacts of heavy rains and flooding on corn and soybean 

production, and probabilistic outlooks of the recurrence of flooding based on soil moisture 

conditions. The authors conclude that quick responses to these needs necessitate: a real-time 

climate monitoring system, physical models to assess effects and impacts, and scientific 

expertise to address complex issues. 

Kunreuther, Howard. (1979). The changing societal consequences of risks from natural 

hazards. The Annals of the American Academy of Political and Social Science, 1979(443), 

104-16. 

Keywords:

disaster assistance, insurance purchase decision 

Abstract: This article points out that the federal government has given substantial relief to 

victims of natural disasters in recent years, largely because such individuals often are not 

protected by insurance. Standard insurance protects against fire, wind, and hail; flood and 

earthquake policies can also be purchased, but most residents of hazard-prone areas have not 

done so. Recent empirical findings support a bounded rationality model of individuals’ decisions 

about unlikely, though potentially severely harmful, events which indicates that individuals must 

be made graphically aware of the need for insurance to consider purchase. The author concludes 

that informal networks of friends and neighbors guide those who decide to do so. 

Kunreuther, H. (1993). Earthquake insurance as a hazard reduction strategy: The case of 

the homeowner. In Committee on Socioeconomic Impacts, ed. 1993 National Earthquake 

Conference: Socioeconomic Impacts. Memphis, TN: Central United States Earthquake 

Consortium. 

Keywords: 

insurance purchase decision, risk perception 

Abstract: This chapter addresses the impact of natural disasters on insurance purchase decisions, 

specifically hazard insurance purchase and renewal. The study found increases in the purchase of 

hazard insurance policies following a flood or earthquake. However, once the salience of the 

event dissipated some residents dropped the policies they purchased. Additionally, evidence 

shows that renewal rates for flood insurance policies are lower than for other types of coverage. 

One possible explanation for lower renewal rates for flood insurance is that responsibility for the 

cost of recovery following a flood falls only on those people who were directly involved in the 
180

event (i.e., those who live or have businesses in a floodplain). Those who have not been directly 

impacted are not forced to reassess their own flood hazard risk. 

Kunreuther, Howard. (1996). Mitigating disaster losses through insurance. Journal of Risk 

and Uncertainty, 12(2-3), 171-87. 

Keywords:

Hurricane Andrew, insurance industry, lending institutions, mitigation 

Abstract: Losses from natural disasters have increased in recent years due to population 

increases in hazard-prone areas and inadequate enforcement of building codes. This article 

contends that until recently, insurers viewed their role as a pass-through mechanism rather than 

as a promoter of safety. Following Hurricane Andrew, the insurance industry has taken a new 

view toward mitigation measures because of the severe losses that they incurred. The article 

proposes a disaster-management program that utilizes insurance coupled with well-enforced 

building codes to reduce future damage. Banks and financial institutions play a key role in this 

program by requiring inspections of homes as a condition for a mortgage. New forms of 

reinsurance coverage against catastrophic losses from natural disasters are necessary to protect 

insurers against potential insolvency from the next mega-disaster. 

Kunreuther, Howard. (1998). A program for reducing disaster losses though insurance. In 

Howard Kunreuther and Richard J. Roth, Jr., eds. Paying the Price: The Status and Role of 

Insurance against Natural Disasters in the United States. Washington, DC: The Joseph 

Henry Press. 

Keywords:

Hurricane Andrew, insurance purchase decision, risk communication 

Abstract: The author looks at the market for insurance against natural disasters by addressing 

the following questions: What are the factors influencing property owner’s demand for 

insurance? Why are insurers reluctant to provide coverage against hurricanes, floods, and 

earthquakes? Regarding the demand for insurance, the author concedes that what determines the 

demand for insurance when individuals have the freedom to specify coverage limits is still not 

well understood. Many homeowners at risk are not anxious to purchase insurance voluntarily 

because they feel the disaster will not happen to them. Others who have compared premiums 

with potential benefits may feel that insurance is not a good investment. The author also points 

out that the framing of the insurance decision process is relevant. For instance, some factors that 

may encourage individuals to buy an insurance policy against natural disasters are the vividness 

of the media’s reporting, the use of rebates so that policyholders feel they have experienced a 

gain if they do not collect their policies, and the use of the status quo as a reference point. On the 

supply side, the author argues that private insurers are averse both to risk and ambiguity, which 

make them follow a safety-first approach in their business decisions (in other words, the author 

suggests that insurers are first concerned with the safety of their firms, and then, with profit 

maximization). Therefore, the author concludes that private insurers have been reluctant to 

promote coverage against hurricanes, floods, and earthquakes because of uncertainty regarding 

the risk and because of concern with what the financial consequences of a natural disaster would 

be for their companies. Hurricane Andrew and the Northridge earthquake were wake-up calls for 

many firms, alerting them to the possibility of insolvency following another major event. The 

author suggests several measures to improve the market for insurance against natural disasters. 

He implicitly argues in favor of reducing the ambiguity insurers and individuals face. Some of 
181

the measures the author suggests are the provision of better information on cost-effective 

mitigation alternatives, as well as better enforcement of current policies (e.g., building codes). 

The author argues that public sector agencies have the role to assist low-income families in 

adopting cost-effective measures. Finally, because public sector damage from natural disasters 

results in a large cost to taxpayers, the author suggests that government officials should be 

encouraged to purchase insurance for public structures and invest in cost-effective risk reduction 

measures. 

Kunreuther, Howard and Louis Miller. (1985). Interactive computer modeling for policy 

analysis: The flood hazard problem. Water Resources Research, 21(2), 105-13. 

Keywords:

disaster planning, modeling 

Abstract: This paper discusses an interactive modeling system to support policy analysis for 

dealing with flood hazards. Policy analysis in this area is complex because there are diverse 

stakeholders with varying concerns, there are a variety of scenarios that might be considered, and 

there are similar alternative policy options. These conditions require that a modeling system be 

flexible and support users in a variety of ways. The system should be viewed as a decision aid 

rather than a burden. The modeling system described in the paper can achieve these goals for 

micro-analytic models and handle samples of homeowners in a flood-prone community. 

Kunreuther, Howard C. and Gilbert F. White. (1994). The role of the National Flood 

Insurance Program in reducing losses and promoting wise use of floodplains. Water 

Resources Update, 95(Spring), 31-5. 

Available at: http://www.ucowr.siu.edu/updates/pdf/V95_A6.pdf

Keywords: 

enforcement, insurance purchase decision, NFIP

Abstract: This paper discusses the NFIP’s objectives and accomplishments. Due to the NFIP’s 

apparent failure to meet its original objectives, the article provides several hypotheses that should 

be tested. Concerning the demand for insurance, the article hypothesizes that the failure of most 

floodplain dwellers to purchase insurance when not required to do so is due primarily to their 

belief that a damaging flood will not occur during their occupancy of the structure. It also 

conjectures that underinsurance is due to the limited enforcement by banks and other lending 

institutions of the required coverage. With respect to the supply of insurance, the article 

hypothesizes that there are limited financial incentives for private insurance agents to promote 

flood coverage. The authors make five recommendations related to increasing the coverage 

under the NFIP and increasing the quality and use of flood mitigation activities. 

Kunreuther, Howard and Richard J. Roth, Jr., eds. (1998). Paying the Price: The Status and 

Role of Insurance against Natural Disasters in the United States. Washington, DC: Joseph 

Henry Press. 

Keywords: 

Florida, Hurricane Andrew, insurance industry, insurance purchase decision, liability, mitigation 

Abstract: This book reviews reasons for consumer resistance to flood insurance purchase. It 

considers the effectiveness of insurance coverage for low-probability, high-consequence events 

such as natural disasters and how insurance programs can successfully be used with other policy 

tools, such as building codes and standards, to encourage effective loss reduction measures. The 
182

authors discuss the reasons for the dramatic increase in insured losses from natural disasters 

since 1989 and the concern that insurers have about their ability to provide coverage against 

more such events in the future. It addresses why there has been an increasing demand for hazards 

insurance, what types of coverage private insurers are willing to offer, and the role of reinsurance 

and public-/private-sector initiatives at the state and federal levels for providing protection to 

victims of natural disasters. Detailed case studies of Florida in the wake of Hurricane Andrew in 

1992 and California in the wake of the Northridge earthquake in 1994 reveal the challenges 

facing the insurance industry as well as other concerned stakeholders. The NFIP illustrates how a 

public-/private-sector partnership can mitigate damages and provide financial protection to 

victims. The book identifies new initiatives for reducing future losses and providing funds for 

recovery through cooperation by the relevant parties. 

Kusler, Jon A. (1982). Regulation of Flood Hazard Areas to Reduce Flood Losses: Volume 3. 

Boulder, CO: Natural Hazards and Applications Information Center, University of 

Colorado. 

Keywords: 

coastal barriers, development, floodplain management

Abstract: The author looks back to the 1970s at the use of federal regulations, including flood 

insurance, as one element of a national strategy to manage floodplains. The author has concern 

that during the NFIP’s emergency phase, the program had encouraged unwise floodplain and 

wetland development in coastal areas or barrier islands. The author also points out that, although 

it is difficult to separate the importance of insurance from other factors that foster development, 

most research tends to support the idea that the flood insurance program has encouraged 

development. 

Kusler, Jon A. (1994). Flood response and the restoration of wetlands, riparian areas, and 

broader floodplains: Lessons learned from the Great Flood of 1993. Water Resources 

Update, 97(Autumn), 25-8. 

Available at: http://www.ucowr.siu.edu/updates/pdf/V97_A7

Keywords: 

environmental restoration, Midwest floods of 1993

Abstract: Efforts by federal, state, and local governments to restore wetlands and floodplains 

after the flood of 1993 provided many lessons that should be applied in future efforts. Floods do 

create restorative opportunities. But, there are also severe impediments to restoration in postflood 

contexts given the limited statutory goals of post disaster programs that do not address the 

restoration of natural systems, the narrowly targeted funding, the lack of preflood assessments 

and plans, the lack of coordination of agency efforts, and the need to deal with immediate and 

real suffering and human needs. New institutional mechanisms are needed both to identify 

general restoration opportunities prior to flood events as part of broader ecosystem management 

planning and to rapidly assess specific restorative opportunities after a flood event. The article 

lists several specific recommendations (consistent with the overall recommendations of Sharing 

the Challenge) both for the Mississippi Basin and other future contexts. 

Kusler, Jon. (2004). No Adverse Impact Floodplain Management and the Courts. Madison, 

WI: Association of State Floodplain Managers. 

Available at: http://www.floods.org/NoAdverseImpact/NAI_AND_THE_COURTS.pdf
183

Keywords: 

floodplain management, legal issues and litigation, No Adverse Impact, takings 

Abstract: The paper examines legal issues concerning floodplain management, including the No 

Adverse Impact approach to floodplain management, in which a community implements a goal 

to not increase flood peaks, flood stage, flood velocity, erosion, and sedimentation in public 

works projects, regulatory permitting, and other activities. The paper considers the relationship 

between No Adverse Impact and property owner common law rights and duties regarding 

flooding and erosion. The author finds that the No Adverse Impact approach conforms to the 

standard used by courts; “so use your own property that you do not injure another’s property.” 

With regard to floodplain management, this standard means that no property owners have a right 

to use their land in a manner that substantially increases flood or erosion damages on adjacent 

lands. Communities that adhere to the No Adverse Impact approach will decrease the potential 

for successful liability suits from damage caused by development. The report also addresses the 

constitutionality of floodplain regulations that incorporate No Adverse Impact standards. It finds 

that courts are likely to uphold community regulations that adhere to the No Adverse Impact 

approach against claims of “takings.” Courts have consistently upheld floodplain regulations that 

exceed minimum NFIP requirements. The paper expects that the “takings” agreement will 

receive traction from courts only where floodplain regulations permanently deny all economic 

use of floodplain properties. 

Kusler, Jon A. and Patricia Bloomgren. (1984). Improving the Effectiveness of Floodplain 

Management in High Risk Areas. Madison, WI: Association of State Floodplain Managers. 

Keywords: 

alluvial fans, coastal areas, erosion, ice jams 

Abstract: This report identifies types of flood hazard areas, such as alluvial fan and ice jam 

flooding areas, where special risks are posed to life and property and existing floodplain 

management practices are inadequate. The report describes the federal, state, and local 

approaches to dealing with such areas, and recommends improvements. Flood hazard areas of 

special risk are widespread and prevalent and contribute greatly to insurance losses. Existing 

mapping, regulatory, and insurance approaches do not adequately account for characteristics of 

special risk areas, such as velocity, debris in the water, and flooding of extended duration. Lack 

of data on flood risks and insufficient dissemination of information are two obstacles to 

managing areas of special risk that may be overcome by programmatic improvements. 

Kusler, Jon A. and Larry Larson. (1993). Beyond the ark: A new approach to U.S. 

floodplain management. Environment, 35(5), 7-11, 31-4.

Available at: http://www.findarticles.com/p/articles/mi_m1076/is_n5_v35/ai_13996882

Keywords:

environmental impacts, floodplain management, nonstructural approaches 

Abstract: The authors point out that traditional floodplain management emphasizes structural 

changes such as dams, levees, channel alteration, and shoreline protection. Other impacts of 

flooding are ignored because approaches emphasize minimizing structural losses. These impacts 

include deterioration in water supply, erosion, sedimentation, nonpoint source water pollution, or 

damage to wetlands and natural habitats. The authors suggest bringing floodplain management 

under the umbrella of broad, multi-objective watershed management planning, and emphasize 

the importance of local community participation in such an approach. Their approach requires a 
184

change in the role of federal agencies from “supermanagers” of the nation’s floodplains to 

facilitators of state and local programs. The authors acknowledge that bureaucratic inertia and 

opposition from certain interest groups may make such an approach difficult to implement, but 

they maintain that the benefits would ultimately justify the effort. 

Kusler, Jon A. and Thomas M. Lee. (1972). Regulations for Flood Plains. Chicago, IL: 

American Society of Planning Officials. 

Keywords: 

floodplain management, public policy, zoning 

Abstract: Of the land-use controls required as prerequisites for participation in the NFIP, the 

local floodplain management ordinance receives primary attention in this report. The report 

describes the place of the zoning ordinance in comprehensive floodplain management by 

introducing planners to the major elements that should comprise a local ordinance. The central 

findings of case law on floodplain regulations to date are summarized in Part IV. In Part VI, the 

kinds and sources of hydraulic data are classified and then the utility of those data for developing 

legally valid ordinances is described in text and drawings. The report concludes with text for a 

local floodplain management ordinance, with modifications therein to fit the conditions of four 

hypothetical communities. 

Landman, Georgina B. and T.W. Ihloff. (1976). The legal aspects of floodplain zoning and 

management: An annotated bibliography. Council of Planning Librarians, 26. 

Keywords:

floodplain management, legal issues and litigation, legislation, zoning 

Abstract: This bibliography contains materials devoted primarily to the legal aspects of 

floodplain regulations including floodplain zoning and management. In addition, the 

bibliography covers the economic aspects of flood insurance; the planning, engineering, and 

geographic aspects of floodplain management; government documents and publications; as well 

as abstracts on land-use planning. 

Larsen, Steven and James Benoit. (2004). Report to the County Executive of Baltimore 

County, Maryland On the Response to Flood Victims of Hurricane Isabel By Insurance 

Companies and Agencies of the State and Federal Government. Baltimore, MD: Saul 

Ewing LLP. 

Available at: http://resources.co.ba.md.us/Documents/Executive/insurance_report040209.pdf

Keywords: 

awareness, Hurricane Isabel, insurance agents, insurance claims, insurance coverage, Maryland, 

Write Your Own Program 

Abstract: The report presents the results of an evaluation, commissioned by the County 

Executive for Baltimore County, to assess the responses of private insurers and state and federal 

agencies to victims of Hurricane Isabel in Baltimore County in 2003. The survey found a 

majority of respondents sustained damages greater than 50 percent of the assessed value of their 

home. Ninety-seven percent stated that the amount offered by their flood insurer to settle their 

flood claim was inadequate for the damage they had sustained. Respondents also ranked the 

distribution of information poorly: 85 percent stated they had not received sufficient information 

from their agent and/or insurer about the types of damage covered by the homeowner’s policy, 

the need for flood insurance, the type of damages covered under a flood insurance policy, and the 
185

amount of coverage needed. Insurance agents and federal, state, and community officials 

received low marks for their helpfulness and coordination. The authors recommend Congress 

reconsider the limits for coverage for flood policies, including linking contents coverage to 

building coverage. It was also apparent from the survey results that the NFIP ought to specify 

more rigorous requirements from WYO company training. Furthermore, homeowner outreach 

and education, through the production of comprehensive, informative literature, need to be 

improved. The issue of unsettled claims created significant public resentment and in the author’s 

opinion, requires the NFIP to conduct an inventory of unsettled claims and seek to close them. 

Larson, Larry A. (1993). The Mississippi flood. Environment, 35(10), 4-6. 

Keywords:

agriculture, Midwest floods of 1993 

Abstract: In this commentary, the author agrees with the analysis and conclusion of an article by 

Mary Fran Myers and Gilbert F. White dealing with the 1993 floods in the Midwest. He 

discusses farmers and the lack of levee protection, farmers’ concerns about environmental 

groups, and the desire to change farmland to protected wetlands. 

Larson, Larry A. and Doug Plasencia. (2001). No Adverse Impact: A New Direction in 

Floodplain Management Policy. Natural Hazards Review, 2(4), 167-81. 

Available at: http://www.floods.org/NoAdverseImpact/NAIjournal.pdf

Keywords:

development, economic impacts, floodplain management, mitigation, public policy 

Abstract: Annual flood losses in the nation continue to worsen despite 75 years of federal flood 

control and 30 years of the NFIP. This trend is due primarily to federal policies that have 

encouraged at-risk development, provided for insufficient consideration of the impact of that 

development on other properties and on future flood and erosion potentials, justified flood 

control projects based on a cost-benefit ratio that favors an intensification of land uses within the 

floodplain, and engendered an unhealthy reliance on federal resources by state and local 

governments. The authors propose a new “no adverse impact floodplain” approach that shifts the 

focus from the techniques and standards used for flood-prone development to how adverse 

impact resulting from those land-use changes can be planned for and mitigated. The proposed 

policy promotes community involvement and planning, sustainable development, and local landuse management, with consideration for private property rights. 

Laska, Shirley Bradway. (1986). Involving homeowners in flood mitigation. American 

Planning Association Journal, 52(4), 452-66. 

Keywords: 

Louisiana, mitigation 

Abstract: This article summarizes efforts by floodplain managers to encourage homeowners to 

take action on their own property to minimize flood damage. The author challenges earlier 

conclusions that homeowners would not be involved in mitigation efforts. Using case studies 

from Slidell, LA, in 1983, about 18 months after major flooding had occurred, the article shows 

that homeowners who had experienced recent flooding are interested and willing to participate in 

mitigation. The author than examines recommendations for improving homeowners’ 

involvement in mitigation and considers changes in the roles of federal, state, and local 

government. 
186

Lave, Tamara and Lester B. Lave. (1991). Public perception of the risks of floods: 

Implications for communication. Risk Analysis, 11(2), 255-67. 

Keywords: 

awareness, Pennsylvania, risk communication

Abstract: The authors point out that since the late 1960s, the federal government emphasized 

flood insurance as the primary tool for improving construction location, informing floodproofing decisions, and providing reimbursement for flood damage. Interviews conducted with 

22 residents of three flood-vulnerable communities in Pennsylvania reveal that most respondents 

had little knowledge of the cause of floods or of what could be done to protect themselves and 

their property. The authors conclude that there was little effective communication about the 

nature and magnitude of flood risks or of the measures people can take to lessen physical and 

economic loss. The authors suggest the need for a risk management program that emphasizes 

more adequate communication as well as the enforcement of the current (1991) law requiring 

people at risk and who hold federally funded loans to have flood insurance. 

Leatherman, Stephen. (1997). Flood Insurance Availability in Coastal Areas: The Role It 

Plays in Encouraging Development Decisions. Washington, DC: FEMA. 

Keywords:

coastal areas, Delaware, development 

Abstract: This report focuses on North Bethany Beach, a coastal community in Delaware. The 

author concludes that the availability of flood insurance has had no real impact on coastal 

development. In contrast, the availability, or lack thereof, of flood insurance has had a negative 

effect in the development of low-priced lots. The author argues that the main factors that 

promoted beachfront development among the affluent were, in order of importance: proximity to 

major metropolitan areas, limited supply of desirable property in the face of increasing demand, 

lifestyle issues, elite development with private beaches, and the strength of the economy. The 

availability of flood insurance is, according to the author, much less of a factor. 

Lecomte, Eugene and Karen Gahagan. (1998). Hurricane insurance protection in Florida. 

In Howard Kunreuther and Richard J. Roth, Jr., eds. Paying the Price: The Status and Role 

of Insurance Against Natural Disasters in the United States. Washington, DC: The Joseph 

Henry Press. 

Keywords:

Florida, Hurricane Andrew, insurance agents, liability, modeling 

Abstract: The authors contend that of hurricanes that struck Florida in the 1990s, Hurricane 

Andrew in particular, revealed the precarious financial position of many insurers in the state. 

Due to the magnitude of insured losses inflicted by Hurricane Andrew, the immediate post-storm 

reaction of several insurance companies was an attempt to reduce their underwriting exposure. 

Some of the factors that influenced such actions included: (a) the inability to obtain adequate 

reinsurance for new and existing risks in Florida, (b) the availability of new information from 

catastrophe risk models indicating that existing levels of exposure might be more significant than 

previously realized, (c) significant reductions in insurers’ policyholders surplus as a result of 

Hurricane Andrew, (d) concerns about rate adequacy, especially for coastal counties, and for 

certain classifications of risk such as condominiums, (e) “hidden” exposures resulting from 

potential assessments by various other mandated mechanisms (e.g., residual markets, catastrophe 
187

funds, etc.), and (f) fear that an unfavorable catastrophe exposure would negatively impact the 

rating by agencies such as A. M. Best and Standard and Poors. Some initiatives had been 

implemented to alleviate these problems. An initiative proposed by the Florida Insurance 

Council (FIC) called for an agreement establishing post-hurricane cooperation between the FIC, 

the state insurance department, and state and local emergency management officials. In addition, 

the governor created a Building Codes Study Commission to evaluate the effectiveness of the 

building code system. Finally, the Florida Commission on Hurricane Loss Projection 

Methodology examined the role of computer models in determining insurance rates. 

Leikin, Howard and Thomas Hayes. (1999). National Flood Insurance Program Flood: 

Insurance Rate Review. Washington, DC: FEMA. 

Keywords: 

insurance premiums, subsidies 

Abstract: This report reviews the NFIP’s rating structure. One of NFIP’s goals is to generate a 

target level of premium income at least sufficient to cover expenses and losses relative to what is 

called the “historical average loss year.” The estimate of rates accommodates the portion of 

NFIP customers who pay less than full risk premiums (a subsidy provided by statute) and the 

portion that pay full risk premiums. In 2000, the distribution is anticipated to be 32 percent at 

subsidized rates and 68 percent at full-risk premium rates. FIA estimates that, were the 

catastrophic contingency contemplated in establishing all rate levels, the pre-FIRM subsidized 

portion of the business would have to pay about two-and-one-half times the current premium and 

the overall target level for premiums would have to increase on the order of 50 to 100 percent. 

The rate review also discusses generally accepted actuarial principles of ratemaking, overall rate 

level indications, target level premium analysis, rate review results, increased cost of 

compliance, expense constants, and the federal policy fee. The rate review indicates that written 

premiums based on all rate and rule changes through May 2000 are expected to be 118 percent of 

the level needed to fund the historical average loss year. 

Leonard, Barry. (1999). Answers to Questions about the National Flood Insurance Program. 

Collingdale, PA: DIANE Publishing Company. 

Keywords:

awareness, NFIP 

Abstract: This book acquaints the reader with the NFIP. It is designed for persons who do not 

need a detailed history or refined technical or legal explanations, but who do need a basic 

understanding of the program and the answers to some frequently asked questions. This book 

includes an introduction to the NFIP, flood insurance information for prospective buyers, 

information on coverage, and directions on how to complete a flood insurance claim. It also 

includes floodplain management requirements, flood hazard assessments and mapping 

requirements, important addresses, a phone directory, a list of available publications, and the 

address for obtaining the coordinator’s manual for the Community Rating System. 

Leonard, Barry. (1999). Mandatory Purchase of Flood Insurance Guidelines. Collingdale, 

PA: DIANE Publishing Company. 

Keywords: 

lending institutions, mandatory purchase 
188

Abstract: This book includes a brief description of the mandatory purchase requirement. It uses 

flowcharts, details coverage availability, and outlines general provisions of mandatory purchase. 

The book also discusses the specificities of condominiums, cooperatives, and timeshares and 

mentions key provisions, legal references, lender regulations, statutory provisions, notice 

requirements, NFIP resources, the standard flood hazard determination form, the waiting period 

for policy issuance, private flood insurance criteria, and key terms. 

Leopold, Luna B. (1994). Flood hydrology and the floodplain. Water Resources Update, 

95(Spring), 11-4. 

Available at: http://www.ucowr.siu.edu/updates/pdf/V95_A2.pdf

Keywords: 

easements, floodplain management, hydrology and hydraulics, structural approaches

Abstract: This article considers the possibility of utilizing the natural function of floodplains in 

conjunction with engineering works such as levees and dams. The extent of flood damage 

reduction achieved by allowing some floodplain areas to flood, its potential benefits and costs, 

and the locations and distribution of such benefits and costs, have not been studied in an 

organized way. While valuable theory and practice are available to compute the efficacy of using 

temporary storage of floodwater to decrease the downstream peaks, this theory has not been put 

to use in flood control policy. Furthermore, the technology to make field measurements is 

available. Finally, the article suggests that the purchase of easements for temporary flooding of 

some areas would decrease the amount of future disaster relief and would be a more permanent 

solution to some flood control needs. 

Leopold, Luna B. and Thomas Maddock, Jr. (1954). The Flood Control Controversy. New 

York, NY: The Ronald Press Company. 

Keywords: 

flood control, hydrology and hydraulics, public policy, riverine areas

Abstract: This book examines the controversial aspects of flood control in terms of the technical 

problems present in 1954. Starting with concrete knowledge about the hydrology of rivers and 

floods, the authors show the possibilities and limitations both of engineering structures and land 

management. They demonstrate that flooding can never be completely eliminated in a river 

system. The major part of the book analyzes the effectiveness of upstream and downstream 

programs for flood control, as advocated by the Department of Agriculture and the Army Corps 

of Engineers. In discussing general problems of policy, the authors present cogent arguments for 

redefining the federal interest in flood control and for apportioning the costs and benefits more 

logically both for the groups who need flood protection and for the nation. Lastly, the authors 

provide an assessment of flood control measures in 1954 and a lucid presentation of the 

hydrologic facts that have been overlooked. 

Leuchtenburg, William E. (1972). Flood Control Politics: The Connecticut River Valley 

Problem, 1927-1950. New York, NY: Da Capo Press. 

Keywords: 

Connecticut River Valley, flood control

Abstract: This book considers the attempt to provide flood control in the Connecticut River 

Valley between 1927 and 1950 and outlines the conflicts that arose. The primary conflicts, which 

are thought of as microcosms of the political struggles of the period, occurred between the 
189

federal and state governments over the best uses for the resources in the valley and between 

competing special interests over the allocation of those resources. 

Lewis, Gary L. (1992). Jury verdict: Frequency versus risk-based culvert design. Journal of 

Water Resources Planning and Management, 118(2), 166-184. 

Keywords:

legal issues and litigation, liability, Wyoming

Abstract: A federal district court jury in Cheyenne, WY, ruled that an act-of-God defense could 

not be used when a railroad culvert backed water onto residential properties during a catastrophic 

“10,000-year” rainstorm. The culvert capacity not only met, but also exceeded, industry design 

standards, yet the jury decided that the railroad was negligent for not installing a structure large 

enough to accommodate the “monster” storm. The 5-ft-diameter culvert, installed to replace a 

larger, deteriorating trestle, was sized by frequency-based methods to discharge the 50-year peak 

flow rate, with a nominal surcharge anticipated during the 1 percent annual chance event. Both 

sides agreed that the selected structure could have safely passed a more than 500-year event, but 

was not able to discharge all the flows from the freak storm. Backwater pooled 9 ft over the top 

of the culvert, flooding more than 20 basements in one subdivision. This paper reviews several 

matters debated during the trial and in subsequent analyses, presented as a case study from the 

writer’s perspective. The writer provided expert analysis for the defense, but was called to the 

stand as a witness for the plaintiff. The jury held the defendant liable for the damages and cited 

the defendant as negligent for not anticipating the storm and for failing to consider the risks to 

homeowners. Under court order, a large structure is to be installed. The article also discusses the 

implications for improvements in drainage design and expert testimony. 

Lichtenberg, Erik. (1994). Sharing the challenge? An economist’s view. Water Resources 

Update, 97(Autumn), 39-43. 

Available at: http://www.ucowr.siu.edu/updates/pdf/V97_A10

Keywords: 

cost-benefit analysis, floodplain management, public policy

Abstract: This article addresses the following issues included in the recommendations of 

Sharing the Challenge: (a) economically efficient flood risk management; (b) preservation and 

enhancement of the natural resources and functions of floodplains; (c) organization of floodplain 

management through the coordination of federal, state, and local agencies; (d) use of flood 

insurance to internalize the costs of floodplain development; and (e) the role of the federal 

government in floodplain management. Several implications about floodplain management 

follow from the general economic perspective presented. First, reducing expected flood damage 

should not be a goal of floodplain management per se; rather, the appropriate level of protection 

from flooding should equate the marginal social benefits of expected damage reduction with its 

marginal social cost. Second, over time, some flood losses are certain to occur, even under 

optimal policy. Third, the concept of the Standard Project Flood should have little or no place in 

floodplain management. Instead, the level of protection for every location should equate 

marginal social benefit with marginal social cost. 

Lind, Robert C. (1967). Flood control alternatives and the economics of flood protection. 

Water Resources Research, 3(2), 345-57. 

Keywords:
190

economic impacts, flood control, insurance, structural approaches, zoning 

Abstract: This paper discusses and compares the economic effects of alternative programs for 

coping with flood losses (e.g., structural transformation of the river bed, which includes dams, 

levees, channel improvements, etc.; flood insurance; flood warning and evacuation systems; 

floodproofing; and flood zoning). The author argues that structural flood-control measures such 

as dams alter the stream flow so as to change the distribution function associated to flood losses. 

Thus, structural protection, by eliminating the smaller, more frequent floods that account for a 

large part of total flood losses, thereby reduces the expected value of losses. Floodproofing, 

flood warnings, and evacuation systems do not alter flood frequency but lower the level of flood 

damage associated with a given level of flooding. Flood insurance does not reduce the expected 

value of losses. Flood zoning may aim to reduce expected losses by affecting the pattern of 

development of the floodplain. However, the author states that it is very likely that in practice 

flood zoning will exclude some activities that could profitably locate in the floodplain. The 

author concludes that from an economic perspective, flood zoning is not a desirable method of 

coping with flood loses. Flood zoning could be justified only on the grounds that it is politically 

or administratively feasible, whereas other programs are not. Furthermore, flood insurance 

should be carefully considered as an integral part of any program for coping with flood losses. 

Finally, land-enhancement benefits, when properly measured, represent real gains that should be 

incorporated in benefit estimates. 

Lord, William B. (1994). Flood hazard delineation: The one-percent standard. Water 

Resources Update, 95(Spring), 36-9. 

Available at: http://www.ucowr.siu.edu/updates/pdf/V95_A7.pdf

Keywords: 

mapping, 1 percent annual chance flood standard, Special Flood Hazard Areas

Abstract: This article examines the NFIP’s one-percent standard. This standard, which describes 

an area with a one-percent probability of flood occurrence in any year, was established as the 

standard for defining Special Flood Hazard Areas (SFHAs) on FIRMs. The standard was useful 

for encouraging both community floodplain delineation studies and enrollment in the regular 

program. However, now that 85 percent of flood-prone communities are participating in the 

NFIP, the standard has become an obstacle to informed and efficient floodplain management 

programs. What was intended to be a politically acceptable minimum standard of protection has 

too frequently become the only standard. Along with the abolition of this standard, the article 

makes several recommendations for hydrologic and topographic studies, improved zoning, and 

the distinction between existing structures in the floodplain from prospective development in 

hazard zones. 

Lowry, G. Kem, Jr. (1980). Policy-relevant assessment of coastal zone management 

programs. Coastal Zone Management Journal, 8(3), 227-55. 

Keywords:

coastal areas, public policy 

Abstract: This policy evaluation provides information about the development, alteration, or 

termination of coastal zone management programs. Such evaluation should involve the analysis 

of the extent to which an organization’s goals have been achieved. In policy evaluation, the 

critical design issue is to anticipate the policy context in which the evaluative information will be 

used. Anticipating the policy context involves responding to several questions. Who will make 
191

policy decisions in regard to coastal zone management programs? What policy decisions need to 

be made? Do policy-makers require evaluative information to make these decisions? What types 

of evaluative information do they need? Can this information be provided in time to be used in 

the decision-making process? No single evaluative approach is likely to be appropriate for all 

situations because of the number of potential clients for such information and the variety of 

decisions that have to be made. Five general approaches are outlined: program logic, compliance, 

process, goal achievement, and impact assessment. The choice of a particular approach depends 

primarily on the issues faced by policy-makers. The choice of research design for policy-relevant 

evaluations of coastal zone management programs is affected by a host of factors. Two 

considerations are likely to be paramount, what types of policy decisions will the evaluations be 

used for? What are the stakes involved in the decision? The design and conduct of evaluative 

studies of coastal zone managements pose special problems. The causal analysis of the 

relationships among program interventions and coastal environmental conditions illustrates the 

research design problem. There are countless confounding factors that contribute to impacts on 

coastal resources. These factors represent rival explanations that can contribute to changing 

coastal conditions along with or instead of the program interventions. The ideal research design 

allows an evaluator to separate out spurious effects for true effects of the program intervention. 

Luloff, A.E. and K.P. Wilkinson. (1979). Participation in the National Flood Insurance 

Program: A study of community activeness (sociological perspective). Rural Sociology, 44, 

137-52. 

Keywords:

compliance, economic modeling, NFIP, Pennsylvania, socioeconomic impacts 

Abstract: This study analyzes the NFIP from a sociological perspective. The research identifies 

those factors that influence the adoption of flood insurance regulations by studying all floodprone municipalities in Pennsylvania. The study places emphasis on a community’s structural 

characteristics, typical patterns of response to previous issues, and past history with flooding. 

Through the use of multivariate analysis, the authors generate support for the utility of the field 

perspective of community action as an approach to the study of action. The study concludes with 

an interpretation and possible implementation of the findings. 

Lunan, Nick. (1995). Flood Damage and Reinstatement. Paper presented at COBRA 1995: 

Proceedings of the RICS Foundation Construction and Building Research Conference.

Glasgow Caledonian University. September 1995. London, UK: RICS Foundation. 

Available at: http://www.rics-foundation.org/publish/document.aspx?did=2492

Keywords: 

public assistance, Scotland 

Abstract: The article addresses the substantial costs of reinstatement – property assessment, 

planning, procurement, preliminary work, cost, and restoration – following flood disasters. It 

uses the experiences of district councils in Perth, Scotland in 1993 as justification for the 

consideration of a similar centralized source of expertise for flood damage and reinstatement 

work in the rest of Scotland. Estimates of damage from the January 1993 flood were ₤10 million, 

with more than 1,200 properties affected by floodwater. The body would advise property owners, 

local authorities, and insurance companies on appropriate technologies and strategies for 

effective and efficient flood disaster recovery. 
192

Lyons, Joseph K. and Robert L. Beschta. (1983). Land use, floods, and channel changes: 

Upper Middle Fork Willamette River, Oregon (1936-1980). Water Resources Research, 

19(2), 163-71. 

Keywords: 

development, modeling, Oregon 

Abstract: Flow trends and channel characteristics from 1936 to 1980 were evaluated for the 

Middle Fork of the Willamette River, which drains a 668-km2

 forested watershed in the Cascade 

Mountains of western Oregon. An inventory of aerial photographs from 1959 to 1972 shows that 

landslides associated with roads and in clearcuts were 27 and 23 times more frequent, 

respectively, than in forested areas. Numerous landslides unloaded sediments directly into the 

drainage system; most landslides appear to have been initiated during a large flood (return period 

greater than or equal to 100 years) of December 22, 1964. Analysis of precipitation and peak 

flows (greater than 100 m3 s

-1) from 1958 to 1980 by means of power function models suggests a 

trend of increasing flows as timber harvesting and road building expanded in the basin. Changes 

in channel pattern, documented from aerial photographs, show major increases in channel width 

from 1959 to 1967 and a trend of decreasing width from 1967 to 1980. During summer low 

flows in 1979 and 1980, 65 cross sections of the channel were surveyed to provide detailed 

measurements of existing channel conditions. Channel widths of 62 percent of the aggraded 

reaches were significantly greater (χ = 0.05) than those for nonaggraded reaches. 

MacDonald, Don M., James C. Murdoch, and Harry L. White. (1987). Uncertain hazards, 

insurance, and consumer choice: Evidence from housing markets. Land Economics, 63(4), 

361-71. 

Keywords:

economic modeling, housing markets, insurance premiums 

Abstract: This paper extends the option-price literature on uncertain housing characteristics to 

include insurance. The theoretical model predicts a relationship between housing price 

differentials and insurance premiums for housing located inside and outside of a hazard zone. 

The relationship is dependent on the consumer’s perception of the loss from hazard relative to 

reimbursement from an insurance company. The theory provides an exogenous test (the 

insurance premium) for using the hedonic method to measure willingness to pay for housing. 

The theory is tested using housing data inside and outside a flood hazard zone. 

MacDonald, Gordon J. (2000). A Note on Order Statistics and Property Losses from 

Catastrophic Hurricanes and Floods in the USA. Laxenburg, Austria: International 

Institute for Applied Systems Analysis. 

Available at: http://ideas.repec.org/p/wop/iasawp/ir00047.html

Keywords: 

Alabama, economic impacts, Florida, Hurricane Andrew, hurricanes

Abstract: The relative short time scale and limited spatial scales of hurricanes allow a 

normalization of damages at the present time. The most damaging hurricane in the period 1925-

1995 was one that hit South Florida and the Alabama coast in 1926, following a path north of 

that followed by Hurricane Andrew in 1992. The normalized losses from the 1926 hurricane 

totaled $72 billion compared to the normalized $33 billion caused by Andrew. The most 

probable loss for a hurricane causing a loss greater than the 1926 hurricane is $152 billion. In 

constant current dollars, the average yearly loss from flooding in the United States is $3.1 billion 
193

while losses exceeded $4 billion in 25 years. The largest yearly flood-related loss was from the 

Midwest floods of 1993, which caused a loss of $19.5 billion. The most probable value for 

yearly losses greater than that of 1993 is $32 billion. 

Maine Floodplain Management Program. (2002). Maine Floodplain Management 

Handbook. Augusta, ME: State Planning Office. 

Available at: http://www.state.me.us/spo/flood/handbook/coverintro.pdf

Keywords: 

Community Rating System, compliance, development, enforcement, federal programs, Flood 

Mitigation Assistance Program, floodplain management, Hazard Mitigation Grant Program, 

Maine, mapping, mitigation, NFIP, substantial damage, substantial improvement, variances 

Abstract: Maine’s Floodplain Management Program provides information for communities 

interested in joining the NFIP, participating communities, homeowners, realtors and others in the 

form of technical information, floodplain maps, model ordinances, and workshops. Additionally, 

the floodplain management program reviews local ordinances for compliance with the NFIP. The 

handbook explains the NFIP’s floodplain regulations to those responsible for floodplain 

management in Maine. Chapter topics include model floodplain ordinances, floodplain data, 

activities regulated, preventing increased damages (the floodway and hazardous materials 

storage), protecting structures from flood damage, administrative procedures, and related 

important information (including the Community Rating System and FEMA’s Emergency 

Management Institute). Appendices include technical information, related publications and 

videos, floodplain management articles, the biennial report, and a glossary of terms. 

Maloney, Frank E. and Dennis C. Dambly. (1976). The National Flood Insurance Program: 

A model ordinance for implementation of its land management criteria. National Resources 

Journal, 16(3), 665-736. 

Keywords: 

compliance, mandatory purchase, NFIP, takings 

Abstract: After passage of the Flood Disaster Protection Act in 1973, property owners in 

communities participating in the NFIP were required to purchase flood insurance to be eligible 

for any new or additional federal or federally financed assistance for any construction located in 

areas identified by HUD as having special flood hazards. All identified flood-prone communities 

must enter the program within one year after formal notification that they contain special flood 

hazard areas in order to qualify their citizens. To enter the program, communities must adopt and 

submit required land use controls that govern floodplain management and apply to all areas 

identified as flood plain areas having special flood hazards. However, such land use controls are 

not self-executing, they require the enactment of local ordinances for their implementation. This 

article offers a model ordinance by which communities can use as an example to craft their own 

legislation. In addition, the article offers background for better understanding the 1973 Act and 

the history of the NFIP. An analysis of the NFIP in its present form follows. Part three discusses 

the problem of regulation under the Flood Disaster Protection Act and whether implementing 

state and local legislation constitutes a taking of regulated property in violation of state and 

federal constitutional provisions. Finally, part four offers the model ordinance with commentary 

including citations of sources from which the various provisions of the model were developed. 

Managing Flooding. postnote. (2001). (169). 1-4. 
194

Available at: http://www.parliament.uk/post/pn169.pdf

Keywords: 

awareness, cost-benefit analysis, United Kingdom, structural approaches 

Abstract: Nearly five million people in the United Kingdom are at risk of flooding. Annual 

average damage from flooding is estimated at £800 million. The report outlines current 

floodplain management policies and practices and examines how they can be improved. Annual 

investment in floodplain management is $400 million per year. While capital works investment 

increased by 50 percent between 2000 and 2004, government agencies recognize that a 

substantially higher level of investment is required to preserve current levels of protection. 

Moreover, in the past two decades, there has been an acknowledgement that structural mitigation 

can harm the environment, can exacerbate flooding in other areas, and can require costs out of 

proportion to the risks faced. Agencies have begun to incorporate nonstructural mitigation and 

whole watershed evaluation. The report recommends that investments in floodplain management 

utilize formal cost-benefit analysis and improve methods for the assessment of flood risk. 

Mantese, Theresamarie and Gerard Mantese. (1993). Lender liability and flood insurance. 

Journal of the Missouri Bar, 207-13. 

Keywords: 

legal issues and litigation, lending institutions, liability, mandatory purchase 

Abstract: Most real estate transactions involving a commercial lender include the lender’s 

determination of whether flood insurance is required for loan approval. Even if flood insurance is 

not required, standard loan documentation usually specifies the costs for flood insurance. This 

article examines the status of law on the issue of lender liability for failure to determine 

accurately whether a property requires flood insurance. The Fourth, Fifth, Seventh, and Eighth 

U.S. Circuit Courts of Appeals have held the National Flood Insurance Act (the Act) does not 

provide an express or implied federal statutory cause of action against a lending institution for 

violations of the Act. Yet, while federal courts have been unwilling to imply a private cause of 

action against lenders under federal law, they have not precluded lender liability under state 

common law. Some state courts have upheld the right of plaintiffs to file suit against a lender for 

failing to require flood insurance while others have refused to impose liability on the lender on 

the basis of principles of federalism. Based on actions in federal and state courts, a mere 

violation of the federal statutes will probably not create liability on the part of the lender for 

failing to require flood insurance or to notify the home purchaser of the presence of a floodplain. 

Thus, a client would be well-advised to insist on a flood letter in every real estate transaction. 

Marchand, M., K.V. Heynert, H. van der Most, and W.E. Penning. (2003). Dealing with 

Flood Risk. Delft, The Netherlands: Delft University Press. 

Keywords: 

Bangladesh, flood disaster planning, floodplain management, Germany, insurance, Netherlands, 

risk perception 

Abstract: This book discusses the implementation of risk perception and floodplain management 

in a post-modern world. The papers feature examples of new approaches to managing flood risks 

in the United Kingdom, the Netherlands, Germany, and Bangladesh. Most important, the book 

tries to answer questions concerning 1) the role of technical, socioeconomic, and cultural 

conditions in science and policymaking; 2) the tools and methods necessary for effective risk and 
195

floodplain management; and 3) the implementation of general concepts and ideas at the regional 

and local levels. 

Marincioni, Fausto. (2001). A cross-cultural analysis of natural disaster response: The 

northwest Italy floods of 1994 compared to the U.S. Midwest floods of 1993. International 

Journal of Mass Emergencies and Disasters, 19(2) 209-36. 

Available for purchase at: http://www.usc.edu/schools/sppd/ijmed/purchase.html

Keywords: 

awareness, Italy, Midwest floods of 1993, socioeconomic impacts 

Abstract: The observation that similar types of natural disasters produce different reactions 

based on a particular culture and location demands a thorough and detailed analysis because the 

reasons are likely to be numerous and complex. Although the economic situation, political 

organization, and technological infrastructure of communities are fundamental factors, they do 

not offer a complete explanation of people’s behavior in the face of risk and disasters. This 

article uses a cross-cultural perspective to clarify the relationship between two cultures and their 

different patterns of response to extreme flood events. The research was carried out in the United 

States and Italy, both of which have similar socioeconomic characteristics, but distinctly 

different historical and cultural traditions. The disasters studied were the Po River Valley floods 

of November 1994 in northwest Italy and the Mississippi River-Missouri River floods in the 

upper Midwest of the United States during the summer of 1993. These two extreme floods were 

analyzed with respect to the pattern of human response during the preparation, rescue, recovery, 

and reconstruction phases. The study includes both human-response and cross-cultural analyses. 

A questionnaire was employed to gauge the perception of the flood disasters by the Italian and 

American disaster managers. The cross-cultural analysis was performed using an etic-emic 

contrast. The results show that the different human responses observed in the floods of 

northwestern Italy and of the United States Midwest were linked to basic differences in four 

cultural elements: 1) experience with floods, 2) sociopolitical traditions and organization, 3) 

level of integration within the community, and 4) perception of the physical environment. 

Marlowe, Howard. (2000). Coastal dwellers not to blame. USA Today, July 27. 

Keywords:

beach nourishment, coastal areas, environmental restoration, erosion, subsidies 

Abstract: The president of the American Coastal Coalition states that beach erosion is not due to 

homes built near the coast but to the development of ports, inland waterways, and dams that 

interfere with the natural flow of sand. He questions the allegation that coastal property owners 

are subsidized by the rest of the nation, noting that NFIP premiums paid by residents of coastal 

states exceed their claims, and that funds spent to restore and protect coastal America pay off 

handsomely for all Americans. While unchecked erosion can leave coastal communities more 

prone to damage caused by storm surges, studies such as a National Research Council report 

from 1995 show that erosion is controllable by cost-effective, environmentally benign measures 

such as beach renourishment. 

May, Peter J. (1985). Recovering from Catastrophes: Federal Disaster Relief Policy and 

Politics. Westport, CT: Greenwood Press. 

Available for purchase at: http://info.greenwood.com/books/0313246/031324698x.html

Keywords: 
196

disaster assistance, federal programs, legislation

Abstract: This book examines the evolution of disaster relief policy, assesses problems with the 

current policy, and provides an understanding of the issues that are likely to be involved in future 

deliberations about federal policy. Three interrelated aspects of the history and politics of 

disaster relief are examined in the book. The first is legislative history, involving considerable 

change in disaster relief legislation, congressional politics, and normative aspects of the federal 

role in providing assistance. A second aspect of the history of disaster relief policy examined is 

organizational history, as it mainly relates to repeated internal reorganizations of the disaster 

relief function in the executive branch. Finally, there is the history of what actually happened in 

the field in the aftermath of disasters concerning relationships among federal, state, and local 

officials. The book analyzes the way in which negotiations over disaster-specific relief 

provisions shape overall policy. 

Mayer, David, Elizabeth Mayer, and Judith Mayer. (1984). Comparing costs of alternative 

flood hazard mitigation plans: The case of Soldiers Grove, Wisconsin. Journal of the 

American Planning Association, 50, 22-35. 

Keywords: mitigation, relocation, Wisconsin 

Abstract: The authors compared the cost of relocating the business district of Soldiers Grove, 

WI, from its original site with cost estimates for raising traditional flood protection structures. 

The authors concluded that the town’s choice (relocation) was the correct one. The authors 

reached their conclusion, despite almost identical cost estimates for both alternatives, because of 

the implied modernization of the town and the environmental consequences that the traditional 

measures could have caused (these measures were coupled with a never-completed dam). The 

authors acknowledge that relocation may not be desirable or easy for larger communities. 

McClure, Robert. (2003). Environmentalists Sue Government To Safeguard Salmon. 

Seattle Post-Intelligencer Reporter, September 17. 

Available at: http://www.bluefish.org/safeguar.htm

Keywords: 

endangered species, environmental policy, Washington 

Abstract: The article discusses recent actions by environmentalists to sue the federal 

government for harm to salmon protected under the Endangered Species Act. The lawsuit 

addresses the negative effects of development on the salmon population. The author states that 

development creates more impervious surfaces that increase runoff during floods, increases the 

deposit of pollutants into streams, and concentrates water into fewer, faster-flowing channels. In 

the past, FEMA officials have argued that issuing flood insurance has such a limited effect on 

development that they are not required to consult on the effect on protected fish. If successful, 

the suit would compel FEMA to check with federal fisheries officials before offering 

government-backed flood insurance in SFHAs near streams. In the author’s opinion, the 

proposed action could affect tens of thousands of acres and set a precedent for much of the 

western United States. 

McShane, John H. (1996). A watershed approach to flood hazard mitigation and resource 

protection: The President’s floodplain management action plan. In Proceedings from 

Watershed 96, Baltimore, MD, June 8-12, 1996. 

Available at: http://www.epa.gov/OWOW/watershed/Proceed/mcshane.html
197

Keywords: 

environmental restoration, floodplain management 

Abstract: The author contends that until recently, federal policy encouraged and funded major 

flood-control projects, and thus contributed to the loss and degradation of resources from the 

nation’s floodplain. However in recent years, floodplain lands and waters have been recognized 

as ecologically productive, hydrologically important, and environmentally sensitive. Following 

the Midwest floods of 1993, the Federal Interagency Floodplain Management Task Force revised 

the Unified National Program for Floodplain Management to reflect the increased recognition of 

the importance of protecting and restoring the natural resources and functions of floodplains, as 

well as reducing the loss of life and property caused by floods. During that same time, the 

Executive Office of the President established the Floodplain Management Review Committee. 

The Committee prepared a report, Sharing the Challenge: Floodplain Management Into the 21st 

Century, which reinforced the findings of the Task Force. The author affirms his support for a 

Floodplain Management Action Plan for the nation. 

Michigan Department of Environmental Quality, Land Water Management Division. 

(1999). Floodplain Management for Local Officials with Related Regulations including the 

National Flood Insurance Program. Lansing, MI: Michigan Department of Environmental 

Quality. 

Keywords: 

building codes, Community Rating System, compliance, development, enforcement, federal 

programs, floodplain management, mapping, Michigan, mitigation, NFIP, substantial damage, 

substantial improvement, variances 

Abstract: Successful floodplain management depends on proper building construction in areas 

subject to flooding. This handbook is a tool for building inspectors, zoning administrators, and 

other floodplain managers to help guide construction in flood-prone areas and to meet the 

requirements of the NFIP, Michigan statutes, and local zoning and building codes. Chapter topics 

include building codes and permit coordination, plan review for the reduction of flood hazards, 

building inspectors’ duties, flood-hazard construction techniques, developments requiring special 

attention, variance criteria of the NFIP, the Community Rating System, and making changes in 

flood hazard maps. 

Middelmann, Miriam, Bruce Harper, and Rob Lacey. (2000). Chapter 9: Flood Risks. In 

Natural Hazards and The Risks They Pose to Southeast Queensland, ed. K. Granger and M. 

Hayne. Queensland, Australia: Australian Geological Survey Organization. 

Available at: http://www.ga.gov.au/image_cache/GA4200.pdf

Keywords: 

Australia, dams, flood causes, riverine areas 

Abstract: This report analyzes the flood risk associated with heavy rainfall and dam failure in 

Southeast Queensland. River flooding associated with heavy rainfall can be caused by a number 

of different factors. As a result, no two floods in the same catchment are ever identical. Using 

designs of flood events and historical rainfall and flood level information to examine flood risk 

and impact, the authors examine areas that suffer a high risk of floods due to heavy rainfall. They 

try to identify areas with particularly high flood risk and examine the flood risks due to potential 

dam breaks in these areas. The authors also use analysis of past flood experiences to provide 

potential insights into future incidences of flooding. 
198

Mileti, Dennis S. (1995). Factors related to flood warning response. Paper presented at the 

United States-Italy Research Workshop on the Hydrometeorology, Impacts, and Management 

of Extreme Floods, Perugia, Italy, November 13-17, 1995. 

Available at: http://www.engr.colostate.edu/~jsalas/us-italy/papers/46mileti.pdf

Keywords: 

awareness, risk communication 

Abstract: This paper synthesizes the social psychological process that explains how members of 

the public receive, process, and eventually come to take protective actions in response to the 

receipt of warnings of extreme floods. The author argues that effective public warnings must 

provide for public interaction and foster the search for information in addition to received 

warnings. Furthermore, according to the author, communicating risk to the public is an almost 

continual process when viewed globally. 

Mileti, Dennis S. (1999). Disaster by Design. Washington, DC: National Academy of 

Sciences, Joseph Henry Press. 

Available at: http://books.nap.edu/books/0309063604/html/5.html#pagetop

Keywords: 

mitigation, public policy 

Abstract: Disaster by Design is aimed at a general audience, including policymakers and 

practitioners. It synthesizes statements about hazards and human coping strategies. This book 

stemmed from the second national assessment on natural and related technological hazards and 

disasters and it contends that many disaster losses are the predictable result of interactions among 

three major systems: the physical environment; the social and demographic environments; and 

the buildings, roads, bridges, and other components of the constructed environment. Settlement 

of hazardous areas has destroyed local ecosystems that could have provided protection from 

floods and other natural perils (e.g., the draining of swamps in Florida). Furthermore, mitigation 

efforts themselves can degrade the environment and contribute to the next disaster (e.g., levees 

built to provide flood protection can destroy riparian habitat and heighten downstream floods) 

and some efforts to head off damages from natural hazards only postpone them (e.g., dams or 

levees). The book suggests six objectives for sustainable mitigation of hazard risks: (a) maintain 

and enhance environmental quality, (b) maintain and enhance people’s quality of life, (c) foster 

local resiliency and responsibility, (d) recognize that vibrant local economies are essential, (e) 

ensure inter- and intra-generational equity, and (f) adopt local consensus building. The book 

concludes that in order to support sustainable hazard mitigation, researchers and practitioners 

need to ask new questions as well as continue to investigate traditional topics. Important efforts 

will include interdisciplinary research and education, and the development of local hazard 

assessments, computer-generated decision-making aids, and holistic government policies. 

Future work must also focus on techniques for enlisting public and governmental support for 

making sustainable hazard mitigation a fundamental social value. Members of the hazards 

community will play a critical role in initiating the urgently needed nationwide conversation on 

attaining that goal. 

Millemann, Beth. (1993). The National Flood Insurance Program. Oceanus, 36, 6-8. 

Keywords: 

development, liability, NFIP 
199

Abstract: The author forecasts that the NFIP is going to be one of the biggest domestic liabilities 

in the United States. Scientists at the National Hurricane Center predict that another storm cycle 

of “super hurricanes” would mean claims of $3.5 billion to $4 billion. The National Flood 

Insurance Fund has less than $400 million, so any shortfall would have to be paid by the federal 

taxpayer. The author claims that the NFIP was originally intended to discourage 

overdevelopment of coastal areas, but it resulted in an explosion of coastal development in the 

1970s and 1980s. Congress attempted to overhaul the NFIP in 1992 but, according to the author, 

a coalition of powerful interest groups fought against it, and the legislation did not pass. 

Miller, B.A., A. Whitlock, and R.C. Hughes. (1996). Flood management: The TVA 

experience. Water International, 21(3), 119-30. 

Available for purchase at: http://www.iwra.siu.edu/win/win90s.html

Keywords: 

agency operations and management, floodplain management, nonstructural approaches, 

structural approaches, Tennessee Valley Authority 

Abstract: Increasing attention has been focused on the need for a more comprehensive approach 

to flood management that combines traditional structural approaches with elements of 

nonstructural floodplain management. For the past 50 years, the Tennessee Valley Authority 

(TVA) has met its responsibilities for flood control in the Tennessee River Basin through such a 

dual approach, combining a system of multipurpose dams and reservoirs with a floodplain 

management program to encourage appropriate shoreline development. This article provides an 

overview of TVA’s floodplain management program including a description of the hydrologic 

conditions in the region, an overview of the reservoir system and its flood control capabilities, 

and a description of forecasting procedures and flood control operating strategy. The 

development and implementation of TVA’s floodplain management program, and its role in 

reducing flood damages in the Tennessee Valley are also presented. The article closes with a 

discussion of the role of technological advances and agency streamlining of future operations. 

Miller, H. Crane. (1975). The National Flood Insurance Program and Coastal Real Estate 

Development: The Experience of Westerly, Charlestown, and South Kingstown, Rhode Island, 

1975. Putnam, CT: Cheney, Miller, Ellis and Associates, Inc. 

Keywords: 

coastal areas, development, Rhode Island 

Abstract: The predominant force influencing sales and development of beach properties in 

Westerly, Charlestown, and South Kingston, RI, is the availability of direct financing of such 

properties as a result of the availability of flood insurance. Bankers and realtors agree that the 

availability of flood insurance has created a broader base of property owners, particularly among 

middle income individuals who can now afford beach properties because of direct financing 

available up to 70 percent of the property value. There is a definite cause-and-effect relationship 

between flood insurance and available direct financing and a less definite relationship between 

accelerated sales and flood insurance. The low cost of flood insurance is both affordable and 

negligible when compared with the risks involved and the protection afforded property owners. 

Flood insurance premiums in the early 1970s did not act as economic disincentives to 

development on the barrier beaches of the three towns.
200

Miller, H. Crane. (1975). Coastal floodplain management and the National Flood Insurance 

Program: A case study of three Rhode Island communities. Environmental Comment, 3(2), 

2-14. 

Keywords: 

coastal areas, development, floodplain management, Rhode Island

Abstract: In this study of three communities, the author says that local banks voluntarily 

withdrew from the first mortgage market due to hurricane destruction in 1938 and 1954. 

Building, however, continued during this period since homeowners were able to get mortgages 

from lenders outside the local market. Once flood insurance was available to secure mortgages, 

however, local banks again began to issue mortgages on ocean front property. Because the 

demand for coastal property was high before enactment of the NFIP, the author argues that there 

was no clear evidence that the availability of flood insurance increased that demand. The author 

claims that most property owners in the area perceive flood insurance as a bonus. The author 

contends that some evidence implies the availability of flood insurance in coastal areas may 

work as a counter force against sound coastal management, by sustaining and even increasing 

property values. 

Miller, H. Crane. (1977/1981). Coastal Flood Hazards and the National Flood Insurance 

Program. Washington, DC: FIA. 

Keywords: 

development, property values, Rhode Island

Abstract: This research was an attempt to test whether the findings in Miller’s 1975 study of 

Rhode Island could be applied to the nation as a whole. The author chronicled a tremendous 

growth in coastal development in the 1960s and 1970s but the demand generally existed before 

the NFIP. The author concludes that: (a) adding the cost of insurance premiums to the property 

apparently neither increases nor decreases demand for coastal properties; (b) there was no 

evidence that floodplain management requirements on coastal development depressed demand 

for coastal property; (c) the greatest effect on property values during this period wasn’t the NFIP 

but rather market forces; and (d) in most coastal communities, the NFIP had not affected the 

basic investment decision on availability of financing.

Miller, H. Crane. (1983). Shifting sands of coastal barrier development subsidies. In 

Preventing Coastal Flood Disasters: The Role of the States and Federal Response. Madison, 

WI: Natural Hazards Research and Applications Information Center and Association of 

State Floodplain Managers. 

Available for purchase at: http://www.floods.org/PDF/PUBSLIST.pdf

Keywords: 

coastal areas, development, subsidies

Abstract: The author contends that federal subsidies for infrastructure and disaster assistance 

have played a significant role in coastal development since the end of the Korean War. In most 

cases, according to the author, flood insurance was not the main force behind such development. 

Subsidies for bridge access, roads, water supplies, water treatment, and wastewater treatment had 

a more profound impact on development. 

Miller, H. Crane. (1990). On the Brink: Coastal Location and Relocation Choices. 

Washington, DC: FEMA. 
201

Keywords: attitudes, awareness, coastal areas, relocation, Upton-Jones Amendment 

Abstract: The author uses data from two coastal communities to explain why the relocation 

provisions of the Upton-Jones Amendment are used infrequently. Interviews and other analysis 

of the two communities led him to conclude that owners generally buy oceanfront property with 

knowledge of the risk and of the history of storms and other hazards in the area. People buy on 

the oceanfront because they “want to be there,” find their risk acceptable, and often would locate 

there regardless of whether flood and wind insurance were available. Besides, coastal property 

owners are far more likely than their riverine counterparts to rebuild in the same location if a 

disaster destroys their home. Each of the owners that Miller interviewed carried high amounts of 

flood, wind, and homeowners insurance. All said they realized they might lose their investment 

to erosion but felt the possibility a small one. Retreating from the water’s edge, even with some 

government subsidy, was not economical for most of the owners since they enjoyed a good 

secondary income by renting the ocean front property to seasonal visitors. For many, rental 

incomes, even when offset with the cost of insurance and repairs, made the property a good 

personal investment. The amenities of an oceanfront location—view, beach access, water 

recreation, nearby wetlands, and general peace and quiet—seem to meet deeply felt emotional 

needs of people who own property there. 

Miller, John B. (1998). Floods People at Risk: Strategies for Prevention. Collingdale, PA: 

DIANE Publishing Company.

Keywords: 

floodplain management, Midwest floods of 1993, mitigation 

Abstract: This book draws on recent case examples and aims to provide authoritative scientific 

and technical information. It includes flood statistics; information on the Midwest floods of 

1993; causes of floods; floodplain management, strategies for reducing loss of life and property; 

floodplain mapping; flood insurance; structural counter measures (e.g., dikes, flood control 

reservoirs, flood detention basins, and river training); nonstructural defenses (e.g., floodproofing, 

soil and water conservation, flood forecasting; and dam safety); and emergency responses (e.g., 

flood precautions, post-flood recovery, and post-flood review). 

The Ministry of Agriculture, Fisheries and Food and the Environment Agency. Fifth 

Special Report: Government Response to the Agriculture Select Committee Report on Flood 

and Coastal Defence. London: The United Kingdom Parliament. 

Available at: 

http://www.publications.parliament.uk/pa/cm199798/cmselect/cmagric/1117/111703.htm

Keywords: 

England, floodplain management, public policy 

Abstract: Following the 1998 floods in England, the Agriculture Committee issued a report 

entitled Flood and Coastal Defence. In response to that report, the Ministry of Agriculture, 

Fisheries and Food and the Environment Agency issued a report entitled Fifth Special Report: 

Government Response to the Agriculture Select Committee Report on Flood and Coastal 

Defence. In this report, the government makes a number of recommendations regarding 

improvements to national flood management policy and urges national policymakers to 

“embrace more holistic management of [England’s] river systems and coastlines.” 
202

Minnesota Department of Public Safety. (2001). Minnesota Mitigation Success Stories. St. 

Paul, MN: Minnesota Department of Public Safety, Division of Emergency Management. 

Keywords: 

buyouts, Hazard Mitigation Grant Program, Minnesota, mitigation 

Abstract: Since 1988, the Division of Emergency Management through FEMA’s Hazard 

Mitigation Grant Program (HMGP) has committed more than $70 million to reduce future 

damages caused by natural disasters. This report explains some of the mitigation successes the 

state has recognized in recent years. Successes include a program to buyout flood-prone homes 

in Austin, an initiative to strengthen an electric cooperative against extreme weather in Mankato, 

and a project to create disaster-resistant manufactured homes in Owatonna. 

Missouri State Emergency Management Agency. (1995). Out of Harm’s Way: Missouri’s 

Flood Buyout Program. Jefferson City, MO: Missouri State Emergency Management 

Agency. 

Keywords: 

buyouts, Missouri, mitigation, relocation

Abstract: This report illustrates the success of the Missouri Buyout Program (MBP) and offers 

sufficient in-depth background for a public policy debate on continued funding of such 

programs. The MBP is a proactive and cost-effective program that stresses a collaborative effort 

among federal, state, and local governments. It is a voluntary program, providing residents a 

practical solution by relocating homes outside of the floodplain. Once the properties are cleared, 

the publicly owned land may then be used for purposes more consistent with the threat of repeat 

flooding (e.g., open space). The following recommendations are included in the report: establish 

a buyout and hazard mitigation program with funding authorities independent of disaster 

declarations; maintain flexibility in hazard mitigation programs to promote cost-effective and 

appropriate mitigation techniques, include the option of states receiving funds as a block grant; 

and develop common procedures for federal buyout and mitigation programs. 

Mittler, Elliott. (1996). Social consequences of flood mitigation. In 1996 International 

Conference and Exposition on Natural Disaster Reduction. Washington, DC: American 

Society of Civil Engineering. 

Keywords: 

buyouts, cost-benefit analysis, mitigation, socioeconomic impacts, structural approaches 

Abstract: The federal government has pursued both structural and nonstructural solutions to 

disastrous floods. The cost-benefit analyses that drive the choices of mitigation solutions, 

however, do not fully account for the social impacts of each decision. The NFIP’s buyout plan 

aims to remove at-risk structures within the floodplain, but the social consequences of this plan 

have not been studied. Consequences may include changes to the core urban structure, loss of 

farmlands, and loss of passive recreation areas. Ultimately, these decisions favor those with 

money over those without. Even voluntary buyouts give the property owner poor choices: move 

out of one’s home or stay and have the surrounding areas gradually reduced in economic and 

social value. This disproportionately affects those already living on the economic margin. 

Mittler, Elliott. (1997). An Assessment of Floodplain Management in Georgia’s Flint River 

Basin. Program on Environment and Behavior Monograph #59. Boulder, CO: Institute of 

Behavioral Science, University of Colorado. 
203

Available for purchase at: http://www.colorado.edu/hazards/pubs/publist.pdf

Keywords: 

awareness, building codes, buyouts, Flint River Basin, Georgia, relocation, substantial damage 

Abstract: This book, based on research funded by the FEMA and ASFPM, assesses federal, 

state, and local flood loss reduction efforts in the context of Georgia’s floods of 1994. The study 

finds that federal, state, and local governments worked successfully at implementing policies and 

programs to reduce future flood losses. Reasons for the positive outcome include the 

implementation and enforcement of preexisting federal recovery and mitigation policies; 

Georgia’s adoption of the federal policies as the main elements in its recovery plan and 

subsequent efforts to establish state guidelines for acceptable local recovery plans; and the state’s 

provision of trained local building inspectors to ensure the implementation and enforcement of 

state building codes. The book makes several other findings. First, FEMA’s buyout and 

relocation policy is too limited and inflexible to accommodate complex local issues like those 

that arose in Albany, GA, such as a failure to coordinate local and regional programs and a 

flawed method for determining buildings that were substantially damaged. Second, flood 

insurance was not widely purchased by property owners in the Flint River Basin. Those who 

purchased coverage tended to be underinsured, and disaster assistance was the primary source of 

federal funds to individual victims. Third, federal, state, and local officials made sub-optimal 

decisions because they did not share important data or effectively use data collected by others. 

Montz, Burrell E. (1983). The effects and effectiveness of flood insurance requirements: 

Agent perspectives. The Environmental Professional, 5, 116-23. 

Keywords: 

development, housing markets, property values 

Abstract: The author asked a local sample of diffusion agents (defined as mortgage lenders, real 

estate agents, and property insurance agents) a variety of questions about their interaction with 

consumers who had purchased or were considering purchasing property in flood hazard areas. 

One of the questions was whether the agents felt the NFIP and local floodplain regulations made 

a difference in the demand for land in the floodplain. Generally, those who responded felt there 

was little or no effect of the NFIP on the local housing market. In other words, it neither 

decreased nor increased demand. They reported that when consumers first learned that a piece of 

property was in the hazard area, it seemed to concern them but ultimately did not deter them 

from their purchase decision. The extent to which their decision to purchase was related to the 

comfort afforded by insurance availability is not clear from these findings. 

Montz, Burrell E. (1987). Floodplain delineation and housing submarkets: Two case 

studies. Professional Geographer, 39(1), 59-61. 

Keywords: 

floodplain designation, housing markets, New York, Pennsylvania 

Abstract: This study presents the effect of floodplain designation on the residential real estate 

market in Elmira, NY, and Wilkes-Barre, PA. Discriminant analysis differentiates between 

floodplain and nonfloodplain housing, using as independent variables characteristics of the 

houses sold. Several variables define submarkets, but they vary between the communities. Only 

selling price and lot size were significant for both communities. Distinct floodplain and 

nonfloodplain housing markets can be differentiated. This allows for isolation of socioeconomic 
204

and environmental variables that can contribute to the recovery of housing values following 

flooding or to the implementation of land-use controls associated with floodplain designation. 

Montz, Burrell and Eve C. Gruntfest. (1986). Changes in American urban floodplain 

occupancy since 1958: The experiences of nine cities. Applied Geography, 6, 325-38. 

Keywords: 

compliance, development, floodplain management, urban areas

Abstract: In 1958, researchers from the University of Chicago documented increases in the 

number of structures in the floodplains of 17 American cities, a phenomenon attributed to the 

prevalence of flood control structures. Because federal policies have shifted to managing 

floodplains, this paper updates the 1958 study for nine of the cities. Several trends are apparent. 

Development pressures determine floodplain encroachment; floodplain management regulations 

have been implemented where it was easiest to do so. Further, structural measures continue to 

dominate. Thus, while many local officials are becoming more aware of advantages of floodplain 

regulation, implementation and enforcement are inconsistent and uneven. 

Montz, Burrell E. and Graham A. Tobin. (1988). The spatial and temporal variability of 

residential real estate values in response to flooding. Disasters, 12(4), 345-55.

Keywords: 

California, economic modeling, housing markets, property values

Abstract: A case study of two communities in California that flooded following a levee break 

represents a relationship between residential property values and the incidence of flooding. 

Analysis of the real estate market before and after the flood shows that the flood was capitalized 

into housing values, whereby both list and selling prices dropped immediately but have recently 

begun to recover. However, recovery of the market is not uniform throughout the floodplain. 

Houses that suffered from 18 inches of water recovered to near preflood values in less than one 

year. In contrast, houses that had approximately 10 feet of water in them have not recovered to 

the same extent, indicating that capitalization and recovery do not occur evenly. These findings 

suggest that policies and programs should address these spatial and temporal differences in 

recovery, which are expected to vary with different flood frequencies and magnitudes. 

Montz, Burrell E. and Graham A. Tobin. (1999). The Effectiveness of the National Flood 

Insurance Program in Two Communities: Syracuse, NY, and Tampa, FL. Paper presented 

at the Annual Meeting of the Association of State Floodplain Managers, Portland, OR, May 

24-28, 1999. 

Keywords: 

cost-benefit analysis, development, Florida, New York, NFIP, property values 

Abstract: This study is based on a research design developed by Newton, Myers, and Monday 

(1996), which posed three questions related to floodplain activities over the last 30 years: (a) 

What has been the NFIP’s effect on human occupancy of floodplains?, (b) What has been the 

effect of the NFIP on net economic value of floodplain occupancy?, and (c) What has been the 

NFIP’s effect on the natural functions of watersheds? This two-city pilot project was aimed at 

obtaining a preliminary view of the impacts of NFIP and at refining a methodology for a broader 

national assessment. The results reported focus on the first two questions. The results suggest 

differences in occupancy and economic value of floodplain and nonfloodplain areas since 

communities joined the NFIP. Some differences can be attributed to economic and demographic 
205

characteristics, but others cannot. With all but multiple-family residences, there is a tendency 

toward decreased investment in floodplains, but patterns differ between the two cities. In 

Syracuse, a decrease in the number of structures was evident, except with multiple family 

residences. In Tampa, there were increases in all floodplain land uses, but the absolute change in 

number of structures was higher in the nonfloodplain area. Thus, even with growth, there is a 

tendency toward less economic activity in the floodplain. The timing of this differs between 

cities. In Syracuse, joining the NFIP coincided with a decrease in the number of structures, 

whereas in Tampa, the greatest increase in number of structures in the floodplain occurred at this 

time. While these changes could have come about before entrance into the NFIP, the pace of 

investment decreased in the floodplain as community experience with the NFIP increased, and 

this differs from nonfloodplain areas. It is clear, therefore, that these results are not removed 

from other forces that affect investment in development. In Syracuse, the study period includes 

times of economic downturn; decreases in the number of structures could be attributable to that 

condition. However, if that were the case, the differences between floodplain and nonfloodplain 

areas would probably not exist. It appears that the NFIP is making a difference, irrespective of 

the socioeconomic characteristics of communities. 

Moore, Jamie W. and Dorothy P. Moore. (1989). The Army Corps of Engineers and the 

Evolution of Federal Flood Plain Management Policy. Boulder, CO: Institute of Behavioral 

Science, University of Colorado. 

Keywords: 

Army Corps of Engineers, federal programs, floodplain management

Abstract: This study examines the relationship between the Army Corps of Engineers and the 

development of federal programs of floodplain management. While the narrative primarily 

focuses on the Corps, any study of floodplain management must embrace many subjects. The 

decisive players in the theory and practice of flood damage abatement include the evolution of 

associated engineering technologies; political, social, and economic impacts on the enactment of 

legislation; the workings of the political process; the organizational impulses directing agency 

decisions and practices; and changes in public opinion. 

Moore, Martha T. (1998) Line in the sand over beach rebuilding. USA Today, May 22. 

Keywords: 

Army Corps of Engineers, beach nourishment, development, erosion 

Abstract: Coastal states and towns say that beach replenishment is vital to attract tourists, to 

protect coastal property from storms, and to drive economies. Environmentalists, however, 

oppose beach replenishment, saying it does not last, is environmentally questionable, and is bad 

fiscal policy. The federal government, which pays for 65 percent of beach replenishment through 

the Army Corps of Engineers, wants to cut back. Opponents of beach replenishment argue that 

federal subsidies should not pay to protect coastal properties. Environmentalists oppose building 

seawalls to protect beachfront property and building groins and jetties to try to hold beaches in 

place. They say the real villain in erosion is development and recommend moving buildings back 

from the oceanfront. Since 1965, an estimated $3.5 billion has been spent on beach replacements 

according to a study by Duke University’s Program for the Study of Developed Shorelines. The 

Army Corps of Engineers cites much lower numbers but says it is spending $150 million a year 

on beach replacement. The Clinton Administration proposed cutting these funds in the Water 

Resources Development Act; it would pay for 65 percent of the initial cost but only 35 percent 
206

for the following 50 years of maintenance. With federal budget cuts, coastal communities would 

face tough decisions on whether they can or want to pay more of the bill. Local decisions in five 

states are described. 

Morris, Marya. (1997). Subdivision Design in Flood Hazard Areas. Chicago, IL: American 

Planning Association. 

Available for purchase at: http://www.planning.org/pas/reports.htm

Keywords: 

alluvial fans, coastal areas, development, environmental policy, floodplain management, 

mitigation, public policy, zoning 

Abstract: FEMA provided funding for this report and asked the American Planning Association 

(APA) to write and publish it as a form of outreach to the planning community. The report 

advocates an approach to residential subdivision design in flood hazard areas that uses the full 

range of available land-use planning techniques to reduce flood damages and minimize impacts 

on floodplains. It recognizes the dual goals of the Congress, FEMA, and many state and local 

governments to reduce the loss of life and property caused by floods and to protect and restore 

the natural resources of floodplains. Chapter 1 offers an overview of the environmental and 

policy context in which floodplain management and subdivision planning, regulation, and design 

takes place. It also describes the legal and constitutional framework for subdivision regulation 

and floodplain management. Chapter 2 addresses the natural functions of the floodplain and 

describes the range of tools that are available to protect these functions. Chapter 3 describes 

fundamental land-use planning activities—comprehensive planning, zoning, and subdivision 

control—and their relationship to floodplain management. It also describes other techniques that 

have been used to protect floodplains such as cluster development, transferable development 

rights, greenways, and setbacks. Finally, Chapter 4 provides a detailed description of site design 

and planning techniques to protect properties from flooding and to preserve the natural functions 

of floodplains. A design hierarchy is presented that recommends four approaches to subdivision 

development in or near floodplains. Additional detail on how NFIP requirements and CRS 

activities are related to land-use and site planning are also provided in Chapters 3 and 4. 

Morris-Oswald, Monica and Slobodon P. Simonovic. (1997). Assessment of the Social 

Impact of Flooding for Use in Flood Management in the Red River Basin. Ottawa, ON, and 

Washington, DC: International Joint Commission. 

Keywords: 

Canada, disaster planning, Manitoba, Red River, risk communication, risk management, 

socioeconomic impacts 

Abstract: Prepared at the request of the International Joint Commission’s Red River Basin Task 

Force, this report aims to assess the problems encountered by individuals and communities in 

coping with the 1997 flood. The report also presents a series of recommendations on how to plan 

more effectively to reduce human hardship in subsequent floods. Victims themselves provided 

information for the report. Fifty-four victims participated in interviews in several different 

communities both within Winnipeg and in surrounding rural areas. Interviewees answered 

questions on how the flood impacted them, their families, and their communities. In addition to a 

wide range of closed questions, many open-ended questions asked during the interviews 

permitted victims to better describe their perceptions and experiences. The authors analyzed 

qualitative and quantitative data from the interviews to identify the most prevalent and serious 
207

problems faced by victims. Based on the analysis, the report makes the following 

recommendations: develop a public information system using state-of-the-art technology, 

develop a comprehensive flood management plan involving all levels of government and local 

communities, improve flood warning and evacuation systems, identify local communities’ 

resource requirements and develop mobilization plans to get resources, and reorganize the claims 

process of the (Manitoba) Emergency Measures Organization. 

Morrissey, Wayne A. (2003). FEMA’s Flood Hazard Map Modernization Initiative. 

Washington, DC: Congressional Research Service. 

Keywords: 

flood insurance rate maps, FIRMs, DFIRMs 

Abstract: In 1999, FEMA announced it expected the conversion of flood insurance rate maps 

from paper to digital format would be complete by 2008. Many local governmental entities 

became concerned at this deadline because they do not have the equipment or the expertise to 

create the digital data needed to create DFIRMs. Also, property owners became concerned that 

the flood hazard boundaries may change on DFIRMs, because DFIRMs are supposed to be more 

accurate. The transfer of FEMA to the new Department of Homeland Security also caused 

concern to some homeowners who feared that privacy rights might be affected by aerial and 

ground data collection efforts for the DFIRM project. 

Mrazik, Brian R. (1987). Flood risk analysis for the National Flood Insurance Program, 

Application of frequency and risk in water resources. In Proceedings of the International 

Symposium on Flood Frequency and Risk Analysis. 

Keywords: 

floodplain management, mapping, modeling, risk assessment 

Abstract: Flood frequency and risk analysis play a fundamental role in the insurance, floodplain 

management, and hazard mapping aspects of the NFIP. The analytic procedures commonly 

utilized in flood insurance studies of riverine floodplains include flood frequency analysis for 

gauged and nongauged streams and stage-frequency determinations. Coastal flood insurance 

studies include synthetic storm surge modeling, statistical analyses, and wave analyses. 

Consistency in flood frequency estimates over both time and space is needed to effectively 

administer the NFIP at the national and local levels. Enhanced capability in risk analysis for ice 

jams, erosion, levee failure, shifting channels, long-term lake level fluctuations, and mudflows is 

also needed to support the program’s operations in these specialized hazard environments. 

Mrazik, Brian R. and Harriette A. Kinberg. (1991). National Flood Insurance Program—

Twenty years of progress toward decreasing nationwide flood losses. In National Water 

Summary 1988-89—Hydrologic Events and Floods and Droughts. Reston, VA: U.S. 

Geological Survey. 

Keywords: 

flood hazard mitigation; Community Rating System, minimum building standards, NFIP 

Abstract: This article presents an historical perspective on federal involvement with flood 

control and discusses basic concepts of the NFIP including its objectives, community 

participation and mitigation, flood hazard identification and risk assessment, the availability of 

insurance, and future directions for the program. Aside from conventional information on the 

program’s operations, the article notes some current assessments undertaken by FEMA including 
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a major effort to evaluate the effectiveness of floodplain management standards. According to 

the agency, experience as of the end of fiscal year 1987 indicates the adequacy of the NFIP’s 

minimal building standards. Plans for future activities include increased monitoring of 

community compliance with minimum criteria of the floodplain management program, 

integration of geographic information systems (GIS) into mapping techniques, creation of new 

products and services for users of flood-hazard data, and improved capabilities to analyze unique 

flood-related hazards. Finally, the article describes a framework for a community rating system. 

Muckleston, Keith W. (1983). The impact of floodplain regulations on residential land 

values in Oregon. Water Resources Bulletin, 19, 1-7. 

Keywords: 

development, mitigation, Oregon, property values 

Abstract: Ambiguities about the relationship between floodplain regulations and residential land 

values in Oregon were investigated. Clarification of this relationship should facilitate the longdelayed implementation of a more comprehensive and successful approach to flood hazard 

mitigation than is presently employed. The suggestion that current floodplain regulations 

significantly depress appreciation rates of regulated lands relative to those of similar unregulated 

lands was rejected in most cases. When this suggestion was accepted, the circumstances rendered 

the conclusions tenuous. Problems and issues facing this type of research are presented in case 

studies of two of the research study areas. However, conclusions should remain tentative because 

the research could not be carried out under ideal conditions. The criteria for establishing uniform 

study areas could not be fully met, even though much attention was paid to this step in the 

research process. One problem is that considerable development had taken place in some of the 

study areas prior to the implementation of floodplain regulations. Under these conditions, a valid 

question regarding the relation between regulation and land values appears to be whether any 

possible negative aspects of land-use regulations are not outweighed by the positive attributes of 

flood insurance, which becomes available concurrent with the local adoption of regulations. 

Mueller, R.H. (1988). Feasibility of predicting 100-year floodway width and depth in the 

Tennessee Valley by multiple linear regression. In Floodplain Harmony, 6. Boulder, CO: 

Natural Hazards Research and Applications Information Center, Institute of Behavioral 

Science, University of Colorado. 

Keywords: 

modeling, Tennessee Valley Authority 

Abstract: One of the most serious impediments to effective administration of local flood damage 

reduction programs cited by community officials and state NFIP coordinating agencies is the 

lack of detailed flood data (i.e., flood depth and floodway width). The Tennessee Valley 

Authority (TVA) is making an effort to develop equations for estimating flood depth and 

floodway width along natural, unobstructed stream reaches from common watershed 

characteristics using multiple linear regression. Results show that floodway width cannot be 

predicted with reasonable accuracy because of the inherent variability of floodway width along a 

given stream reach. The U.S. Geological Survey (USGS) and several state agencies have had 

success developing regional equations for predicting 1 percent annual chance flood depths. 

Depth regression equations adequately cover most of the Tennessee Valley. The inherent 

variability of floodway width discourages use of regional regression equations for predicting it. 

The need for an easy-to-use method for predicting floodway width remains. 
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Multihazard Mitigation Council of the National Institute of Building Sciences. (2002). 

Parameters for an Independent Study to Assess the Future Benefits of Hazard Mitigation 

Activities. Washington, DC: National Institute of Building Sciences. 

Available at: 

http://www.nibs.org/MMC/images/July%202002%20Phase%20I%20Final%20Report.pdf

Keywords: 

coastal areas, cost-benefit analysis, economic impacts, economic modeling, hurricanes, 

mitigation, natural disasters, nonstructural approaches, public policy, relocation, risk assessment, 

riverine areas, structural approaches, wind 

Abstract: This report establishes the parameters for a study, but does not include results from the 

study itself. Report 106-161 for the Fiscal Year 2000 House Appropriations Committee, 

Subcommittee for the Veterans Administration, Department of Housing and Urban 

Development, and Independent Agencies mandated that FEMA “fund an independent study to 

assess the future savings resulting from various types of mitigation activities” to determine 

which mitigation activities actually lead to savings. FEMA gave the assignment of defining the 

parameters of the study to the Multihazard Mitigation Council (MMC) of the National Institute 

of Building Sciences. The MMC convened a panel of experts who conferred with a variety of 

stakeholders to set the parameters for the study. The panel proposes two studies on representative 

mitigation activities and communities. Track A examines mitigation activities in varying 

contexts in a representative national sample of mitigation activities. Track B examines mitigation 

activities in specific community contexts in sample chosen to maximize variations in hazards and 

mitigation activities considered. In both studies empirical research will be used to examine 

savings resulting from the mitigation activities employed and will allow for generalizations to 

the nation as a whole. 

Murphy, David. (2003). Strategy for Flood Risk Management (Version 1.2). Bristol: 

Environment Agency. 

Available at: http://www.ukresilience.info/frm_strategy.pdf

Keywords: 

agency operations and management, communication, England, floodplain management, public 

policy, risk management, strategic planning, 

Abstract: The document contains the Strategy for Flood Risk Management, which describes 

what the Environment Agency (EA) and its Flood Defense Committee intend to do to reduce 

flood risk over the five-year period between 2003 and 2007. The plan sets performance targets 

for three years and five years and priorities for improvements in floodplain management. Within 

the first three years of implementation, EA intends to have no loss of life as a result of flooding 

and reduce the risk of flooding to life, major infrastructure, homes, and environmental assets. By 

2007, EA intends to improve the coverage of flood warning services to 77 percent of properties 

in flood-risk areas, reduce the percentage of properties in high-risk flood areas, and prevent all 

inappropriate development within floodplains. The principal methods of achieving these goals 

are to adopt a strategic planning approach to floodplain management, prevent inappropriate 

development, emphasis effective communications, and utilize resources efficiently. The report 

recognizes that through a combination of reducing the probability of flooding and the impact of 

flooding, flood risk can be reduced, but not eliminated. 
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Myers, Mary Fran. (1995). The National Flood Insurance Program As a Nonstructural 

Mitigation Measure. Boulder, CO: University of Colorado. 

Available at: http://www.engr.colostate.edu/~jsalas/us-italy/papers/45myers.pdf

Keywords: 

history, 1 percent annual chance flood standard, public policy 

Abstract: This paper reviews the rationale behind the creation of the NFIP, describes the 

purposes of the program and how it operates at the community level, highlights issues of concern 

that would impact effectiveness, and recommends research to improve the NFIP’s ability to 

reduce vulnerability to flood damages. Prior to the introduction of the NFIP, a structural 

approach – levees, dams, reservoirs – was favored for dealing with flooding. The NFIP marked a 

major departure from past policy. Though the paper acknowledges many of the successes of the 

NFIP, it highlights several areas of concern to the program’s effectiveness. First, minimum 

building standards allow for some flooding. Full development of the floodplain in line with NFIP 

regulations could result in substantial flood damage to properties. Second, the use of the 100-

year standard (1 percent annual chance of flooding) has lead to the widespread belief that a 

building protected from the 1 percent chance flood or outside the SFHA is “safe.” Third, 

financial and lending institutions have not been conscientious in ensuring property owners 

maintain flood insurance as a condition of their loan. As a result, only 25 to 30 percent of 

buildings located in SFHAs have proper insurance coverage. Fourth, the public has high 

expectations for the federal government’s ability to provide disaster relief, discouraging 

individuals and state and local governments from preparing for, responding to, or recovering 

from disasters. Myers recognizes that the NFIP has taken promising steps to achieving its goals, 

including the CRS and recent amendments to the NFIP and disaster relief laws. In terms of 

research needs for the improvement of the NFIP, Myers cites such basic data as the cost of 

disasters and disaster relief, and the cost and benefit of various mitigation strategies. She also 

states that floodplain research should be cited in the broader context of natural resource 

management. 

Myers, Mary Fran and Gilbert F. White. (1993). The challenge of the Mississippi floods. 

Environment, 35(10), 6-9, 25-35. 

Available at: http://www.findarticles.com/p/articles/mi_m1076/is_n10_v35/ai_14687892

Keywords:

floodplain management, levees, Midwest floods of 1993, Mississippi River 

Abstract: This article discusses the federal government’s participation in flood management 

since 1825; the flooding in the upper Mississippi and lower Missouri basins from mid June 

through early August 1993; the impact of the flood on urban and rural families; the dilemma of 

whether to repair or rebuild damaged buildings and levees; new recognition of the values of 

floodplain management; and the need to include the idea of mitigation in the disaster cycle of 

preparedness, response, and recovery. It questions why so many levees failed. Sidebars list 

recommendations for floodplain management and significant events in the development of U.S. 

flood control policy. Charts depict the area’s weather and water flow patterns and a table 

presents preliminary estimates of damage to levees in the Mississippi River Basin in 1993. 

Nakaya, Hiroaki. (2000). Policy Proposal: A Split for Unity. Washington, DC: FEMA. 

Keywords:
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Base Flood Elevation, insurance premiums, mapping, NFIP, pre-FIRM structures, post-FIRM 

structures, subsidies 

Abstract: This report analyzes the NFIP’s operating results. It first attempts to correct a 

widespread misconception about the NFIP, namely, that FIA gives taxpayer money to flood 

victims. Second, statutory background is examined concerning the concepts of moral hazard and 

adverse selection. Moral hazard is inherent in any insurance, and therefore must be accepted as a 

matter of degree. Third, financial analysis shows that post-FIRM policyholders living below BFE 

have been overpaying and both pre-FIRM and post-FIRM policyholders living above BFE have 

been underpaying. Thus, the problem arises of an internal transfer, or premium subsidy, within 

the NFIP. Fourth, two implications from this internal transfer problem are discussed. One is that 

the map modernization project needs much more attention. The other is that the lowest floor 

elevation information for pre-FIRM properties must be attained to determine the policyholder’s 

premium, thus taking potential losses from a catastrophic year into consideration and making this 

group of policyholders financially self-sufficient. Last, splitting NFIP policyholders into two 

groups, those with actuarially based policies and those with policies based on historical averages, 

is suggested. The split would set post-FIRM policyholders who are living below BFE free from 

the burden of overpaying premiums, and would more appropriately place this burden on those 

with historical average flood insurance, leading to a substantial premium hike. The only way out 

for those policyholders, under the participation requirement mentioned above, is to get elevation 

certificates, to conduct a thorough flood study, and to join actuarially based flood insurance. In 

the historical average method, people with less than average risk are forced to pay more than 

their fair share; by getting elevation certificates, they would move to an actuarially based 

program. This rationale leads to an elimination of historical average insurance and introduces 

flood mitigation loans based on risk information. Without information on lowest floor elevation 

and major leverage for map modernization, flood-related programs cannot achieve their goals. 

National Academy of Public Administration. (1999). Legal Limits on Access to and 

Disclosure of Disaster Information – Summary Report. Washington, DC: National Academy 

of Public Administration. 

Available at: 

http://209.183.198.6/NAPA/NAPAPubs.nsf/17bc036fe939efd685256951004e37f4/d8bdec12a82

8ddfa85256887007352f7/$FILE/fullGDIN.pdf

Keywords: 

disaster planning, legal issues and litigation, public policy, strategic planning 

Abstract: In November 1997, a high-level Disaster Information Task Force consisting of federal 

officials from several key agencies submitted to the vice president a report that recommended the 

federal government begin to create an electronic disaster information network for the nation that 

could become a leading component of a worldwide Global Disaster Information Network 

(GDIN). Under a cooperative agreement with the U.S. Geological Survey, the National Academy 

of Public Administration undertook a preliminary analysis of certain legal limitations on access 

to and disclosure of disaster management data within the United States that will be important to 

consider in developing a national component of the GDIN. The legal limitations involve 

intellectual property, privacy, liability, and security concerns. This summary report presents the 

findings and recommendations of the analysis. For example, the Academy found that the current 

array of federal, state, and local laws, regulations, and practices that limit data access and 

disclosure is highly complex, and the many separate provisions are not always consistent and 
212

often conflict with each other. The Academy recommends that a disaster information network 

incorporate a set of general principles for data access and disclosure from the beginning. 

National Academy of Sciences. (1977). Methodology for Calculating Wave Action Effects 

Associated with Storm Surges. Washington, DC: National Academy Press. 

Keywords: 

coastal areas, mapping, zoning

Abstract: This report discusses methods for the prediction of wave heights throughout the flood 

hazard areas of the Atlantic and Gulf Coasts. Methods are proposed for the estimation of wave 

heights at the shoreline during flood conditions in addition to methods for the estimation of wave 

dissipation and wave regeneration in coastal flood hazard areas. The methods presented in the 

report formed the basis for flood hazard mapping in V Zones and coastal A Zones. 

National Academy of Sciences, Committee on Coastal Erosion Zone Management. (1989). 

Managing Coastal Erosion through the National Flood Insurance Program. Washington, 

DC: National Academy Press. 

Keywords: 

coastal areas, erosion, hazard identification

Abstract: In 1988, FIA asked the National Research Council (NRC) for advice on appropriate 

erosion management strategies, supporting data needs, and applicable methodologies to 

administer these strategies through the NFIP. This report details the NRC’s conclusions and 

recommendations with respect to erosion hazard reduction, including: (a) hazard delineation, (b) 

recommended methodologies, (c) standards for development, (d) the impacts of navigational and 

flood control projects on shore stability, (e) erosion control through coastal engineering, (f) sand 

and gravel mining, and (g) subsidence. The report also includes recommendations for improving 

education, database development, and research. A key recommendation made in the report was 

the identification of coastlines subject to coastal erosion (E Zones) for the purposes of hazard 

delineation and determination of federal insurance ratings.

National Association of Flood and Stormwater Management Agencies. (2000). NAFSMA 

Position on Floodplain Management Issues Related to the NFIP and FEMA’s Administration 

of Same. Washington, DC: National Association of Flood and Stormwater Management 

Agencies. 

Keywords: 

Community Rating System, mapping, structural approaches

Abstract: The National Association of Flood and Stormwater Management Agencies’ 

(NAFSMA) mission is to advocate public policies that facilitate the achievement of the public 

service functions of its member agencies. NAFSMA has identified the following areas of 

concern with regard to the NFIP and how FEMA is managing this program as it affects the 

public service functions of its member agencies. NAFSMA’s concerns include: (a) mapping 

issues; (b) institutional bias against structural flood management projects; and (c) the 

Community Rating System. The member agencies of the NAFSMA want to work with FEMA on 

the common goal of protecting the lives and property of American citizens. NAFSMA would 

like FEMA to recognize the association’s commitment, its expertise, and its unique 

circumstances. In addition, NAFSMA would like its work products to be more readily accepted 

by FEMA. To do otherwise is to waste precious resources. 
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National Audit Office. (2001). Inland Flood Defence. London: National Audit Office. 

Available at: http://www.nao.org.uk/publications/nao_reports/00-01/0001299.pdf

Keywords: 

agency operations and management, dams, England, levees, structural approaches 

Abstract: The objective of flood defense is to reduce the risk to people and the developed and 

natural environment from flooding. In England, the Ministry of Agriculture, Fisheries, and Food 

has responsibility for establishing flood and coastal defense policy. The ministry administers 

enabling legislation, maintains an overview of flood defense investment, and prioritizes 

investment opportunities for other government agencies. However, the ministry’s flood defense 

responsibilities extent only to main rivers. Local authorities and Internal Drainage Boards hold 

permissive powers for ordinary watercourses. The report considers the adequacy of flood 

warning and public awareness systems, strategy and management of new flood defense, and the 

performance and maintenance of existing flood defenses. The report found that up to 2 million 

structures are in areas at risk of flooding. As evidenced by the floods in England in 2000, flood 

defenses can reduce the risk or extent of damage, but cannot prevent all flooding. A survey of 

flood defenses found that 43 percent of structures and 36 percent of linear barriers in England are 

categorized as fair, poor, or very poor. Moreover, collaboration among the numerous 

governmental and administrative bodies required to plan and implement flood defenses requires 

time and resources that could be spent more productively. The report recommends further 

research on the effects of the division of responsibility for flood defense. 

National Committee on Property Insurance. (1988). America’s Vanishing Coastlines: A New 

Concern for the Voluntary and Residual Property Insurance Markets. Tampa, FL: National 

Committee on Property Insurance. 

Keywords: 

building codes, coastal areas, Coastal Barrier Resources System, development, environmental 

policy, erosion, legislation, public policy, Upton-Jones Amendment 

Abstract: What has been common knowledge to a small group of dedicated coastal engineering 

professionals for some years is slowly reaching the awareness of the American public—the 

beaches and shorelines of the nation are washing away with relentless consistency and increasing 

speed. This report broadly examines the issues and problems associated with coastal erosion and 

windstorms, including the rising sea level and continued coastal development. The report also 

briefly discusses the provisions and potential impacts of the Upton-Jones Amendment of 1988, 

which provides funds for the relocation or removal, under the Standard Flood Insurance Policy, 

of buildings in imminent danger of collapse from erosion. However, coastal engineers, 

geologists, and environmentalists fear this measure will provide added incentive for coastal 

development by removing the financial risk to the property owner. (Note: the National Flood 

Insurance Reform Act of 1994 repealed the Upton-Jones Amendment.) 

National Credit Union Administration. (1995). Flood Insurance Compliance: Report to 

Congress 1994-1995. Alexandria, VA: National Credit Union Administration. 

Keywords: 

lending institutions, mandatory purchase, National Credit Union Administration

Abstract: As required by the Riegle Community Development and Regulatory Improvement Act 

of 1994, the National Credit Union Administration submitted this report on compliance by 
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insured credit unions with the requirements of the NFIP to Congress. The report includes a 

description of the methods used to determine compliance, the number of insured credit unions 

examined during the reporting year, a listing and total number of insured credit unions found not 

to be in compliance, actions taken to correct incidents of noncompliance, and an analysis of 

compliance, including a discussion of trends, patterns, problems, and recommendations 

regarding reasonable actions to improve the efficiency of the examination process. 

National Credit Union Administration. (1997). Flood Insurance Compliance: Report to 

Congress 1995-1997. Alexandria, VA: National Credit Union Administration. 

Keywords: 

lending institutions, mandatory purchase, National Credit Union Administration 

Abstract: As required by the Riegle Community Development and Regulatory Improvement Act 

of 1994, the National Credit Union Administration submitted this report on compliance by 

insured credit unions with the requirements of the NFIP to Congress. The report includes a 

description of the methods used to determine compliance, the number of insured credit unions 

examined during the reporting year, a listing and total number of insured credit unions found not 

to be in compliance, actions taken to correct incidents of noncompliance, and an analysis of 

compliance, including a discussion of trends, patterns, problems, and recommendations 

regarding reasonable actions to improve the efficiency of the examination process. 

National Credit Union Administration. (1999). Flood Insurance Compliance: Report to 

Congress 1997-1999. Alexandria, VA: National Credit Union Administration. 

Keywords: 

lending institutions, mandatory purchase, National Credit Union Administration 

Abstract: As required by the Riegle Community Development and Regulatory Improvement Act 

of 1994, the National Credit Union Administration (NCUA) submitted this report on compliance 

by insured credit unions with the requirements of the NFIP to Congress. The report includes a 

description of the methods used to determine compliance, the number of insured credit unions 

examined during the reporting year, a listing and total number of insured credit unions found not 

to be in compliance, actions taken to correct incidents of noncompliance, and an analysis of 

compliance, including a discussion of trends, patterns, problems, and recommendations 

regarding reasonable actions to improve the efficiency of the examination process. 

National Research Council. (1982). A Levee Policy for the National Flood Insurance 

Program. Washington, DC: National Academy Press. 

Keywords: 

flood control, flood disaster planning, floodplain management, insurance, levees, mapping, 

structural approaches 

Abstract: FEMA provided funding for this study and charged the National Research Council 

with making unbiased recommendations on levees. The document formulates principles for a 

levee policy that will provide equity for protected parties in terms of recognition for efforts spent 

in reducing their risk without encumbering program administration with an unwieldy number of 

variations in levels of recognition of levee efficacy. The committee defined six dimensions of 

levee recognition. The level of design protection appropriate for recognition depends on whether 

the application is for 1) reduction in insurance rates, 2) easing regulations for land occupancy, 3) 

eliminating requirements for the purchase of flood insurance, 4) permitting siting of critical 
215

facilities, 5) removing requirements for notifying occupants of the hazard, or 6) eliminating 

warning and evacuation programs. Each recommended distinction was based on the experience 

and judgment of the committee members integrating technical considerations with economic and 

administrative factors. Each recommendation is reasoned and presented in the body of the report, 

and all of them are listed for convenience in a final summary chapter. Table 1 in Chapter 2 

condenses the policy recommendations and mapping suggestions on one page. 

National Research Council. (1983). Evaluation of Flood-Level Prediction Using AlluvialRiver Models. Washington, DC: National Research Council. 

Keywords:

alluvial fans, Base Flood Elevation, erosion, modeling, 1 percent annual chance flood standard, 

riverine areas 

Abstract: Many communities, primarily in the western states, have experienced problems with 

computing flood-water elevations for flood insurance purposes under the NFIP. These problems 

focused on modeling channel erosion and sedimentation using fixed-bed models for flood 

insurance studies in communities affected by rivers with movable beds or channels. This study 

involved the application of six flow and sediment routing models for alluvial streams on reaches 

of selected rivers for which relatively complete data were available. The objective of the 

investigation was to determine whether degradation of the riverbed during flood passage has an 

effect on flood stage that should be incorporated into the calculation of floodzone limits. The 

authors conclude that, except in cases of rivers which have been severely disturbed by human 

intervention through local degradation or aggradation, the use of erodible river-bed models 

instead of fixed bed models cannot be justified in flood insurance studies. 

National Research Council. (1990). Managing Coastal Erosion. Washington, DC: National 

Academy Press. 

Available at: http://www.nap.edu/catalog/1446.html

Keywords: 

coastal areas, erosion, public policy

Abstract: More and more of the nation’s vast coastlines are being filled with homes and 

vacation resorts. The result is an increasing number of structures built on erosion-prone shores 

with many of these structures facing collapse or damage. In response to mounting property 

losses, Congress has given FEMA responsibility for incorporating coastal erosion into the NFIP. 

This book addresses the immediate question of how to develop an erosion insurance program as 

well as the larger issues introduced by the continually changing face of the nation’s shorelines. 

The National Research Council (NRC) explores major questions surrounding a national policy 

on coastal erosion: Should the federal government be in the business of protecting developers 

and individuals who build in erosion-prone coastal areas? How should such a program be 

implemented? Can it prompt more responsible management of coastal areas? The volume 

provides federal policymakers, state floodplain and resource managers, civil engineers, 

environmental groups, marine specialists, development companies, and researchers with 

invaluable information about the natural processes of coastal erosion and the effect of human 

activity on those processes. The book also details the workings of the NFIP and the lessons to be 

learned from numerous state coastal management programs. 
216

National Research Council, Committee on Flood Control Alternatives in the American 

River Basin. (1995). Flood Risk Management and the American River Basin: An Evaluation. 

Washington, DC: National Research Council. 

Available at: http://www.nap.edu/catalog/4969.html

Keywords:

American River, Army Corps of Engineers, California, flood control, risk management 

Abstract: This book reviews the Army Corps of Engineers’ investigations of flood control 

options for the American River Basin and evaluates flood control feasibility studies for the 

watershed, with attention to the contingency assumptions, hydrologic methods, and other 

analyses supporting the flood control options. This book provides detailed comments on many 

technical issues, including a careful review of the 1991 National Research Council report 

American River Watershed Investigation, and looks beyond the Sacramento case to broader 

questions about the nation’s approach to flood risk management. It discusses how to utilize 

information available about flood hazard reduction alternatives for the American River Basin, 

the potential benefits provided by various alternatives, the impacts of alternatives on 

environmental resources and ecosystems, and the trade-offs inherent in any choice among 

alternatives which does not lie in the realm of scientists and engineers, but in the arena of public 

decision making. 

National Research Council, Committee on Alluvial Fan Flooding. (1996). Alluvial Fan 

Flooding. Washington, DC: National Academy Press. 

Available at: http://www.nap.edu/books/0309055423/html/

Keywords: 

alluvial fans, Arizona, California, floodplain management, Utah 

Abstract: FEMA provided funding for this study and charged the National Research Council 

with making unbiased recommendations on alluvial fan flooding. The report addresses a wide 

range of issues related to alluvial fan flooding as considered by the Committee on Alluvial Fan 

Flooding. Chapter 1 discusses why the identification of hazards from alluvial fan flooding is 

controversial and the problems of definitions. Chapter 2 examines types of fans and flooding 

processes. Chapter 3 presents indicators developed to help delineate alluvial fans and alluvial fan 

flooding based on the committee’s definition and discusses methodologies to delineate flood 

hazards on alluvial fans. Chapter 4 contains seven examples of fans in light of the definition and 

field criteria. The sites represent a range of flood processes, from unconfined water flooding and 

debris flows on untrenched active fans to confined water flooding in fully trenched inactive 

alluvial fans. The examples also show variable amounts of study—from intensive to casual. 

Chapter 5 presents a summary of the committee’s conclusions and recommendations. One key 

conclusion states that the act of defining the type of flooding is independent from the act of 

deciding which methods are applicable for delineating the boundaries of the hazard. To that end, 

the committee recommends that FEMA expand the technical and regulatory input it receives in 

the delineation and regulation process, perhaps through the use of a technical advisory board 

composed of earth scientists, engineers, local regulating bodies, and those being regulated. 

National Research Council, Committee on Assessing the Costs of Natural Disasters. (1999). 

The Impacts of Natural Disasters: A Framework for Loss Estimation. Washington, DC: 

National Research Council. 

Available at: http://books.nap.edu/books/0309063949/html/R1.html#pagetop
217

Keywords:

coastal areas, development, erosion 

Abstract: This book explores major questions surrounding national policy on coastal erosion: 

Should the federal government be in the business of protecting developers and individuals who 

build in erosion-prone coastal areas? How should such a program be implemented? Can it 

prompt more responsible management of coastal areas? The volume provides federal 

policymakers, state floodplain and resource managers, civil engineers, environmental groups, 

marine specialists, development companies, and researchers with information about the natural 

processes of coastal erosion and the effect of human activity on those processes. The book also 

details the workings of the NFIP as well as lessons to be learned from state coastal management 

programs. 

National Research Council, Committee to Assess the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers Water 

Resources Project Planning Procedures. (1999). New Directions in Water Resources 

Planning for the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers. Washington, DC: National Academy Press. 

Available at: http://www.nap.edu/catalog/6128.html

Keywords:

Army Corps of Engineers, environmental restoration, federal programs, floodplain management, 

public policy 

Abstract: The Army Corps of Engineers (USACE) has long been one of the federal 

government’s key agencies in planning the uses of the nation’s waterways and water resources. 

Though responsible for a range of water-related programs, the USACE’s two traditional 

programs have been flood damage reduction and navigation enhancement. The water resource 

needs of the nation have been shifting away from engineered control of watersheds toward 

restoration of ecosystem services and natural hydrologic variability. In response to these shifting 

needs, legislation was enacted in 1990 that initiated the USACE’s involvement in ecological 

restoration, which is now on par with the USACE’s traditional flood damage reduction and 

navigation roles. This book analyzes the USACE’s efforts in ecological restoration, and provides 

broader recommendations on how USACE might streamline its planning process. The book also 

assesses the impacts of federal legislation on the USACE’s planning and projects, and provides 

recommendations on how relevant federal policies might be altered in order to improve USACE 

planning. Another important shift affecting USACE has been federal cost-sharing arrangements 

(enacted in 1986), which mandate greater financial participation in the USACE’s water projects 

by local cosponsors. The book describes how this has affected the USACE-sponsor relationship, 

and comments on how each group must adjust to new planning and political realities. 

National Research Council, Committee on American River Flood Frequencies. (1999). 

Improving American River Flood Frequency Analyses. Washington, DC: National Academy 

Press. 

Available at: http://books.nap.edu/catalog/6483.html

Keywords:

American River, Army Corps of Engineers, California, modeling, risk assessment 

Abstract: In 1996 the Army Corps of Engineers (USACE) completed a congressionally directed 

reevaluation of flood control options for California’s American River. In response, Congress 

authorized a component of the recommended plan but not an adequate plan for the reduction of 

flood risk in the Sacramento area. Thus, evaluations of alternatives are still required, in particular 
218

because the American River experienced a major flood in January 1997. The 1997 flood 

suggested that it may be necessary to re-compute flow frequency relationships for the American 

River at Sacramento. In February 1998, USACE published a revised unregulated rain flood flow 

frequency analysis for the American River at Fair Oaks. The analysis produced a flood frequency 

curve that indicates that large floods are appreciably more likely than previously thought. The 

report prompted controversy among local, state and federal government agencies, public interest 

groups, and others. This report provides an independent scientific assessment of flood frequency 

relationships for the American River at Sacramento. The 1 percent annual chance flood estimate 

recommended by this study would result in removal of some flood-prone areas of Sacramento 

from the AR Zone, which would result in suspension of building restrictions. However, the 

uncertainties in these estimates are large. The report recommends the establishment of a new 

interagency effort that would emphasize research focused on coordinated and cooperative flood 

risk reduction because the negative consequences of falsely designating certain flood-prone areas 

to be out of the regulatory floodplain would be catastrophic. 

National Research Council, Committee on Beach Nourishment and Protection. (1999). 

Beach Nourishment and Protection. Washington, DC: National Research Council. 

Available at: http://www.nap.edu/catalog/4984.html

Keywords:

Army Corps of Engineers, beach nourishment, federal programs 

Abstract: This book provides a basis for decision making with recommendations regarding the 

utility of beach nourishment and the appropriate role of federal agencies. It also examines the 

economic and social role of beaches, the history of beach nourishment projects, and management 

strategies for shore protection; discusses the role of the Army Corps of Engineers and other 

federal agencies, with a close-up look at the NFIP; explores the state of the art in project design 

and prediction of outcomes, including the controversy over the use of traditional and 

nontraditional shore protection devices; addresses what is known about the environmental 

impacts of beach nourishment; and identifies what outcomes should be targeted for continued 

monitoring by project officials. 

National Research Council, Committee on Risk-Based Analysis for Flood Damage 

Reduction. (2000). Risk Analysis and Uncertainty in Flood Damage Reduction Studies. 

Washington, DC: National Research Council. 

Available at: http://www.nap.edu/books/0309071364/html/

Keywords:

Army Corps of Engineers, hydrology and hydraulics, modeling, risk assessment 

Abstract: This study describes and evaluates the Army Corps of Engineers’ (USACE) use of 

risk-based analysis for the evaluation of hydrology, hydraulics, and economics in flood damage 

reduction studies. The study praises USACE for its adoption of risk analysis methods, but it also 

raises concern about several technical (modeling) issues. The committee recommended that 

USACE: (a) use annual exceedance probability as the performance measure of engineering risk; 

(b) improve its analysis of hydrologic, hydraulic, geotechnical, and economic uncertainties; (c) 

focus greater attention on the probabilistic issues of identifying, estimating, and combining 

uncertainties; (d) strive to reduce the considerable variation in the estimates of water surface 

elevation when using different models of river hydraulics; (e) evaluate the risk-based 

performance of a levee as a spatially distributed system; (f) undertake statistically ex-post studies 
219

to compare predictions of geotechnical levee failure probabilities as well as ex-post studies of 

other flood-damage reduction structures; (g) calculate the risks associated with flooding and the 

benefits of a flood damage reduction project structure by structure, rather than conducting risk 

analysis on damage aggregated over groups of structures in damage reaches; (h) adopt a 

consistent terminology for communicating risk analysis concepts within USACE and to the 

general public; (i) simplify and improve the complex and somewhat confusing criteria for 

certifying levees for inclusion in the NFIP, and (j) move toward a more comprehensive decisionmaking approach in flood damage reduction studies. 

National Review Committee. (1992). Action Agenda for Managing the Nation’s Floodplains 

– A Review of Floodplain Management in the United States: An Assessment Report. Boulder, 

CO: Natural Hazards Research and Applications Information Center, Institute of 

Behavioral Science, University of Colorado. 

Keywords: 

federal programs, floodplain management 

Abstract: This report supplements the committee’s comments on a draft of Floodplain 

Management in the United States: An Assessment Report. The report outlines what the 

committee regards as the present situation with respect to floodplain management, how federal 

aims and activities have evolved, and desirable next steps. Floodplain management goals are 

twofold and interrelated: to reduce the vulnerability of all Americans to the danger and damage 

of floods and to preserve and enhance the natural values of the nation’s floodplains. After listing 

the findings from the assessment, the committee recommends the following actions: (a) integrate 

flood loss vulnerability and protection of floodplain natural values into broader state and 

community development and resource management processes, (b) improve the data base for 

floodplain management, (c) give weight to local conditions, (d) minimize conflicts among 

federal programs, (e) reduce the vulnerability of existing buildings, and (f) improve professional 

skills and public education. The report provides a table of the federal agencies involved in 

floodplain management and the programs that each agency provides. 

National Science Foundation. (1980). A Report on Flood Hazard Mitigation. Washington, 

DC: National Science Foundation. 

Keywords: 

federal programs, flood causes, flood control, floodplain management, mitigation, public policy, 

risk assessment, risk management, risk perception 

Abstract: At the request of the House Committee on Science and Technology, the National 

Science Foundation studied policies and research related to the mitigation of flood hazards. This 

report deals with basic causes, approaches, responses, and issues, which should lead to policy 

changes related to the mitigation of flood hazards. It discusses successively the nature and causes 

of flooding and its geographical distribution, damages, and trends. It reviews available means for 

coping with floods and details existing public and private institutions involved with mitigation. 

Two chapters discuss basic human responses to stress, uncertainty, and risk. The subsequent 

chapters present detailed analyses of geographical areas at high risk from flooding and an outline 

of a broad conceptual plan for multidisciplinary studies of the impact of floodplain management 

on the national level. These highlight the necessity to measure the impact and effectiveness of 

the multiple programs being applied in real or simulated circumstances. Findings and 

conclusions emerge at numerous points in the report, and these are summarized in a final chapter 
220

on conclusions and recommendations. For example, the report concludes that an effective system 

of mitigating flood hazards cannot occur unless local governments take primary responsibility. 

Meeting this responsibility should involve, according to the report, the availability of flood 

insurance continuing to be contingent upon appropriate local land-use planning and 

implementation. Also, federal measures to control floods and financial assistance in the 

acquisition of flood-prone structures and relocation of occupants out of the floodplain should be 

contingent on similar factors. 

Natural and Beneficial Functions of the Floodplain Task Force. (2002). The Natural and 

Beneficial Functions of Floodplains: Reducing Flood Losses by Protecting and Restoring the 

Floodplain Environment. Washington, DC: Natural and Beneficial Functions of the 

Floodplain Task Force. 

Keywords: 

environmental protection, federal programs, floodplain management, mitigation

Abstract: Several federal agencies pooled their expertise to identify the natural functions of 

floodplains that reduce flood losses and recommend how the nation can further reduce flood 

losses through the protection and restoration of the natural functions of floodplains. Because 

floodplains reduce flooding and limit flood-related damages through their floodwater 

conveyance and storage functions, the task force advocates: 1) providing technical assistance to 

improve analytical approaches to floodplain management; 2) encouraging nonstructural solutions 

to reduce flood damage; 3) improving coordination and partnership among all levels of 

government and other stakeholders; and 4) ensuring that federal programs are working to achieve 

complementary floodplain management goals. The report concludes with eight case studies of 

successful floodplain management strategies around the United States. Successful strategies 

include cooperation of government bodies at all levels, restoration of open space in floodplains, 

and collaboration among funding agencies. The appendix lists all federal programs relating to the 

natural and beneficial functions of floodplains. 

Natural Hazards Research and Applications Center. (1985). Evaluating the Effectiveness of 

Floodplain Management Techniques and Community Programs. Proceedings of a Seminar 

conducted by the Tennessee Valley Authority in cooperation with the Interagency Task 

Force on Floodplain Management, Washington, DC, April 30-May 1, 1984. Boulder, CO: 

Natural Hazard Research and Applications Information Center. 

Keywords: 

compliance, enforcement, floodplain management, floodproofing, mitigation, NFIP, risk 

communication, strategic planning, structural approaches 

Abstract: Sponsored by the Tennessee Valley Authority with the cooperation of the Interagency 

Floodplain Management Task Force, the goal of this seminar was to examine existing and 

alternative cooperative approaches for evaluating and monitoring floodplain management 

techniques and community programs. The seminar was intended to assess the “state of 

knowledge” on this important topic and to suggest some priorities for future interagency research 

and action. Speakers, panelists, and other participants included university researchers, federal 

agency staff, state and local government employees, and private consultants who had 

investigated the feasibility and effectiveness of various techniques or community programs. This 

report is a collection of three products. Part I presents a brief overview of issues. Parts II and III 

are issue papers prepared prior to the seminar. Part IV contains papers presented by speakers and 
221

panelists in the seminar addressing specific issues. Finally, Part V provides conclusions and 

recommendations based on the issue papers, the papers presented at the seminar, and follow-up 

discussions with selected speakers and panelists. One of the recommendations from the seminar 

addresses the need for FEMA to improve the compatibility of the data it gathers from flood 

insurance policies, claims, biennial reports, and disaster assistance claims. 

Neal, David M. (1992). Hurricane Andrew churns up debate. Forum for Applied Research 

and Public Policy, 10(1), 26-9. 

Keywords:

federal programs, Hurricane Andrew, Hurricane Hugo, risk communication 

Abstract: In the wake of Hurricane Hugo and the Loma Prieta earthquake in 1989, the federal 

government developed a plan to guide future federal disaster response. The plan received final 

approval in April 1992 and received a full-scale test only four months later, when Hurricane 

Andrew struck south Florida in August. Despite the plan, Andrew’s landfall was attended by 

rampant confusion and miscommunication. FEMA bore the brunt of post-disaster criticism. 

FEMA’s performance in the days following Andrew resulted in part from imperfections in the 

plan, which proved overly bureaucratic and inflexible. To improve its emergency responsiveness, 

the federal government must simplify the presidential disaster-declaration process, continue to 

bolster the federal response plan, and help local governments boost their own preparedness while 

making them aware that federal disaster response can take several days even under the best 

circumstances. 

New York State Department of Environmental Conservation, Division of Water, Flood 

Protection Bureau. (1991). Floodplain Regulation and the National Flood Insurance 

Program: A Handbook for New York Communities. Albany, NY: New York State 

Department of Environmental Conservation. 

Keywords: 

building codes, compliance, development, enforcement, floodplain management, mapping, 

mitigation, New York, NFIP, substantial improvement, variances 

Abstract: This manual is designed for use by the person designated by the community as the 

local administrator of the NFIP. The manual provides guidance to the local administrator on how 

to understand NFIP requirements and how to apply the community’s floodplain regulations. 

Chapter I explains the NFIP’s purposes. Chapter II discusses the role of state government – 

particularly the Department of Environmental Conservation (DEC), the state coordinator for the 

NFIP. Chapter III discusses local responsibilities under the NFIP. Chapter IV explains the use of 

the Flood Insurance Study (FIS) and FIRMs. Chapter V contains the standards and regulations 

for development in a floodplain. Chapter VI concerns the duties of the local administrator, with 

emphasis on the procedure for issuing a floodplain development permit. Chapter VII briefly 

discusses other permits that might be needed for floodplain development. Finally, Chapter VIII 

contains information regarding procedures for amending or revising the flood maps. Appendices 

include a glossary of floodplain terminology, basics of flood insurance, a coastal construction 

code, and other useful information. 

Newton, John. (1996). Federal Legislation for Disaster Mitigation: A Comparative 

Assessment Between Canada and the United States. Ottawa, Canada: Evaluation and 

Analysis Directorate, Emergency Preparedness Canada. 
222

Available at: 

http://www.ocipep.gc.ca/research/resactivites/disMit/en_mitigat/NEWTON_1995D014_e.pdf

Keywords: 

Canada, federal programs, legislation, mitigation, public policy, 

Abstract: The report outlines components of a successful mitigation strategy for flood losses, 

using efforts by FEMA and the U.S. government as an example for Canadian policymakers. 

Canada has recently begun to shift from a policy of flood protection to one of flood mitigation. 

However, mitigation activities tend to be disaster-specific and at the post-recovery stage, without 

a long-term component. Also, Canada lacks formal federal policy statements or focused delivery 

systems for disaster mitigation. The report states that successful mitigation strategies require 

partnerships, clarity of purpose, awareness of context, and acknowledgement of limitations. The 

author finds these characteristics in FEMA’s mitigation strategies, which embrace public-private 

partnerships in long-term, comprehensive approaches to mitigation. FEMA’s devotion to 

mitigation strategies is demonstrated by the inclusion of mitigation in the Stafford Act, the 

establishment of the Mitigation Directorate in FEMA, and the announcement of a National 

Mitigation Strategy. However, the bulk of FEMA’s activities are still post-disaster, when 

funding, political will, and individual incentives are high. Budget issues are a driving force 

behind mitigation strategies. The report recommends further development of mitigation 

strategies through the development of a knowledge base for elected officials and citizens, the 

fostering of political will across jurisdictional boundaries, and the encouragement of publicprivate partnerships. The report contains an appendix of legislation in each country. 

Nicholas, J., G. Holt and D. Proverbs. (2001). Towards Standardizing the Assessment of 

Flood Damaged Properties in the UK. Structural Survey, 19(4), 163-72. 

Keywords: 

damage assessment, economic modeling, flood damage, repair costs, United Kingdom

Abstract: The report presents a conceptual model for assessing flood damage to domestic 

properties in the United Kingdom, building on the authors’ prior critique of damage surveying 

and repair estimation. Unlike past efforts, the model takes into account building characteristics as 

well as flood characteristics and includes an assessment of building components that need to be 

replaced or repaired and the procedures for drying out the flooded building. Location is also 

important to predicting flood damages. Somewhat counter-intuitively, frequently flooded 

properties tend to suffer less damage than those that are flooded infrequently because residents 

tend to be more prepared for flood disasters. The model is intended to assist surveyors and 

insurers alike and hopes to advance research toward a standardized means of assessing flood 

damaged properties. 

North, Carol S. and Barry A. Hong. (2000). Project CREST: A new model for mental 

health intervention after a community disaster. American Journal of Public Health, 90(7), 

1057-9. 

Available for purchase at: http://www.ajph.org/cgi/reprint/90/7/1057

Keywords:

health effects, Midwest floods of 1993, Missouri 

Abstract: When the Mississippi River and its tributaries flooded St. Louis, MO, in the spring 

and summer of 1993, 250 mental health professionals stood ready to help the thousands whose 

lives the floods would affect. It turned out, however, that most of the flood victims sought 
223

instead the support of community leaders they knew and trusted. To meet the need for 

community-based disaster support, disaster intervention training that had been offered to mental 

health professionals during the summer of 1993 was adapted to train community resource 

personnel, ranging from clergy to police. The result was Project CREST (Community Resources 

for Education, Support, and Training). CREST’s purpose is to maximize mental health resources 

within communities by equipping community leaders to provide initial crisis intervention and 

emotional relief services after community-wide disasters, when professional resources are often 

limited. CREST has also been adapted to other types of crisis intervention. Through Project 

CREST many people have received crisis intervention who otherwise might not have sought 

mental health care. 

Norton, Clark F. (1988). Federal Disaster Relief Legislation and Administration: A 

Summary. Washington, DC: Congressional Research Service. 

Keywords: 

disaster assistance, federal programs, history, legislation

Abstract: This report for Congress reviews provisions of federal disaster relief from the 

nineteenth century though April 1998. It discusses the ad hoc relief provided by Congress until 

the passage of the landmark “Major Disaster Relief Act of 1950.” Furthermore, the report 

describes the provisions of that act and reviews subsequent developments leading to the 1970 

and 1974 disaster relief acts and later amendments. It identifies the executive agencies that have 

administered federal disaster relief programs over the years. Appendices outline the emergency 

and major disaster relief powers of the president authorized by the 1974 Act and present the 

organization of FEMA, which administers the program. 

Nq, Y. (1992). Optimal investment in urban drainage: A framework for cost-benefit 

analysis. Australian Economic Review, 25(3), 19-28. 

Keywords:

cost-benefit analysis, mitigation, urban areas 

Abstract: This article addresses some basic issues including distributional weights, discount 

rates, and the value of life in a cost-benefit analysis of urban drainage and provides a framework 

for the estimation of the optimal amount of investment for flood mitigation. According to the 

author, such evaluation should involve: (a) estimating the expected total damage from flooding 

in present-value terms before flood mitigation; (b) computing the reduction in expected total 

damage as the average recurrent interval of flooding increases; (c) estimating how this interval 

increases with the amount of investment in flood mitigation; and (d) choosing the optimal 

investment by equating marginal benefit and marginal cost. 

O’Brien, Paul W. and James Payne. (1997). Public Response to the 1997 Northern California 

Floods. Quick Response Report #97. Boulder, CO: Natural Hazards Center. 

Available at: http://www.colorado.edu/hazards/qr/qr97.html

Keywords: 

California, levees, public assistance 

Abstract: This report details an investigation of flooding in the Central Valley area of northern 

California in January 1997. The study utilized field interviews with emergency response 

agencies and citizens to address the initial impacts of flooding on citizens, the immediate public 

response and evacuation behavior, the dissemination of emergency messages, and the 
224

effectiveness of those messages. The investigation found that emergency response was uneven 

and the need to coordinate a comprehensive message prior to and during a flood event. A lack of 

interagency coordination for the procurement of supplies and equipment, such as large 

earthmoving equipment lead to local agencies bypassing the state’s Office of Emergency 

Services’ authorization and informally exchanging equipment among themselves. While the 

strategy was successful in this event, there is considerable potential for misallocation of 

resources in future disasters. Public preparedness varied with experience with past flooding. The 

study recommends that reliance on levees be re-evaluated, and that governments strive for better 

interagency coordination and public information. 

O’Donnell, Joe. (2003). A Flooding Policy for Ireland: Redefining the Approach. Paper 

presented at Precautionary Flood Protection in Europe conference. Bonn, Germany, 

February 5-6, 2003. Berlin, Germany: Institute for International and European 

Environmental Policy. 

Keywords: 

federal programs, floodplain management, Ireland 

Abstract: The report describes floodplain management strategies in Ireland. Various state 

agencies are involved in floodplain management: the Office of Public Works, the Electricity 

Supply Board, local authorities, Met Eireann, and emergency response agencies. The author 

characterizes the current strategy as reactive, localized (rather than watershed-based, with 

inadequate resources, and a confusing division of responsibilities between state agencies). These 

difficulties are exacerbated by the public expectation for aid, the lack of adequate flood warning 

systems, and gaps in floodplain management data, such as flood maps. To address these 

problems, an Expert Review Group was established in January 2003 to examine the current 

approach to flood, clarify roles and responsibilities of various agencies, examine existing 

legislation, and make recommendations to redefine the approach to flood relief in Ireland. A 

report was expected from the group in August 2003. 

Office of Management and Budget (1998). Federal Programs Offering Non-structural Flood 

Recovery and Floodplain Management Alternatives. Washington, DC: Executive Office of 

the President. 

Available at: http://www.fema.gov/pdf/hazards/ombflood.pdf

Keywords:

buyouts, easements, environmental policy, federal programs, floodplain management, 

floodproofing, mitigation, nonstructural approaches, relocation, wetlands 

Abstract: This handbook, produced in cooperation with various federal agencies, provides 

information about federal programs that support nonstructural approaches to floodplain 

management, including broad strategies and specific federal programs that could form the basis 

for a nonstructural response to a flood event. Programs are grouped by three primary strategies: 

(a) acquisition, relocation, elevation, and floodproofing of existing structures; (b) rural land 

easements and acquisitions; and (c) restoration of wetlands. Programs offering technical 

assistance for floodplain management are also reviewed. Summaries of 36 federal programs 

include information about each program’s objective, agencies involved, form of assistance, 

program target, eligibility requirements, cost-sharing requirements, available funding, repayment 

requirements, application procedures, and contacts. The agencies that offer these programs 

include FEMA, the Army Corps of Engineers, National Park Service, Natural Resources 
225

Conservation Service, Environmental Protection Agency, HUD, SBA, Economic Development 

Administration, U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, and Commodity Credit Corporation. 

Office of Technology Assessment. (1984). Wetlands: Their Use and Regulation. Washington, 

DC: Office of Technology Assessment. 

Available at: http://www.wws.princeton.edu/~ota/disk3/1984/8433_n.html

Keywords: 

wetlands

Abstract: The Office of Technology Assessment (OTA) collected data from scientific literature; 

government reports; and responses to questionnaires about wetland use from 37 districts of the 

Army Corps of Engineers, 48 states, and from 11 trade associations. OTA also conducted case 

studies of wetland trends in 13 states, minor studies in eight states. These studies were 

supplemented with interviews of federal and state officials and industry representatives. As a 

result of its studies, OTA has identified three issues related to wetlands management. First, 

should federal involvement in protecting wetlands be increased or decreased? Second, should the 

federal government improve its policymaking capability through a systematic collection and 

analysis of additional information about wetlands? Finally, should the federal government 

develop a more integrated approach for managing the use of wetlands? 

Office of Thrift Supervision. (1995). Flood Insurance Compliance: Report to Congress for 

1994-95. Washington, DC: Office of Thrift Supervision, Department of the Treasury. 

Keywords: 

lending institutions, mandatory purchase, Office of Thrift Supervision

Abstract: This report was submitted to Congress in accordance with the requirements of the 

National Flood Insurance Reform Act of 1994. The report describes the methods used to 

determine compliance, the number of insured credit unions examined during the reporting year, a 

listing and total number of insured credit unions found not to be in compliance, actions taken to 

correct incidents of noncompliance, and an analysis of compliance, including a discussion of 

trends, patterns, problems, and recommendations regarding reasonable actions to improve the 

efficiency of the examination process. OTS conducted 631 compliance examinations during the 

reporting period of September 1, 1994, to August 31, 1995, and found a total of 451 violations of 

the flood insurance regulations at 98 institutions. Most of the violations involved the failure to 

provide flood insurance notice or the failure to comply with the timing provisions for these 

notices. Furthermore, OTS found that overall compliance levels, measured as a percent of the 

institutions examined where no flood insurance violations were cited, ranged from a low of 78 

percent in 1991 to a high of 88 percent in 1993. 

Office of Thrift Supervision. (1997). Flood Insurance Compliance: Report to Congress for 

1996-1997. Washington, DC: Office of Thrift Supervision, Department of the Treasury. 

Keywords: 

lending institutions, mandatory purchase, Office of Thrift Supervision 

Abstract: This report was submitted to Congress in accordance with the requirements of the 

National Flood Insurance Reform Act of 1994. The report describes the methods used to 

determine compliance, the number of insured credit unions examined during the reporting year, a 

listing and total number of insured credit unions found not to be in compliance, actions taken to 

correct incidents of noncompliance, and an analysis of compliance, including a discussion of 
226

trends, patterns, problems, and recommendations regarding reasonable actions to improve the 

efficiency of the examination process. OTS conducted 1,124 examinations during the reporting 

period of September 1, 1995, to August 31, 1997, and found a total of 398 violations of the flood 

insurance regulations at 131 institutions. Most of the violations involved the failure to provide 

flood insurance notices, the failure to comply with the content or timing provisions for these 

notices, and the failure to comply with the purchase requirements. Furthermore, OTS found that 

overall compliance during this reporting period increased by 4 percent over the prior reporting 

period (September 1, 1994, to August 31, 1995). 

Office of Thrift Supervision. (1999). Flood Insurance Compliance: Report to Congress for 

September 1997 to August 1999. Washington, DC: Office of Thrift Supervision, Department 

of the Treasury. 

Keywords: 

lending institutions, mandatory purchase, Office of Thrift Supervision 

Abstract: These reports were submitted to Congress in accordance with the requirements of the 

National Flood Insurance Reform Act of 1994. The report describes the methods used to 

determine compliance, the number of insured credit unions examined during the reporting year, a 

listing and total number of insured credit unions found not to be in compliance, actions taken to 

correct incidents of noncompliance, and an analysis of compliance, including a discussion of 

trends, patterns, problems, and recommendations regarding reasonable actions to improve the 

efficiency of the examination process. OTS conducted 950 compliance examinations during the 

reporting period of September 1, 1997, to August 31, 1999, and found a total 345 violations of 

the flood insurance regulations at 95 institutions. Most of the violations involved either the 

failure to provide, or the failure to complete the Standard Flood Hazard Determination Form; the 

failure to provide the flood insurance notice or to comply with the content or timing provisions 

for these notices; and the failure to comply with the purchase requirements. Furthermore, OTS 

observed that savings associations increased their overall compliance level from 84 to 90 percent 

from September 1, 1994, to August 31, 1999. OTS anticipates further increases in the future due 

to increased awareness of the importance of compliance with flood insurance regulations. 

Olsen, J.R., P.A. Beling, J.H. Lambert, and Y.Y. Haimes. (1998). Input-output economic 

evaluation of systems of levees. Journal of Water Resources Planning and Management—

ASCE, 124(5), 237-45. 

Available for purchase at: 

http://ascelibrary.aip.org/dbt/dbt.jsp?KEY=JWRMD5&Volume=124&Issue=5

Keywords:

California, economic impacts, economic modeling, levees, Midwest floods of 1993 

Abstract: Large-scale flooding in northern California and the Midwest floods of 1993 

demonstrate that floodplain management should be conducted for regions rather than for 

individual floodplains. Economic activities connect each floodplain to other floodplains and to 

areas not affected by flooding. A method is presented to estimate the economic effects of 

flooding over a region of interacting floodplains and other lands by incorporating a Leontief 

economic input-output model with a probabilistic description of the potential overtopping in a 

system of levees. Expected economic damages may be greater if flooding reduces the availability 

of floodplain products that are used as inputs to other sectors of the economy. The model is used 

to evaluate the economic risk for an example of a distributed system of levees.
227

Olsen, J. R., P.A. Beling, and J.H. Lambert. (2000). Dynamic models for floodplain 

management. Journal of Water Resources Planning and Management—ASCE, 126(3), 167-

75.

Available for purchase at: 

http://ascelibrary.aip.org/dbt/dbt.jsp?KEY=JWRMD5&Volume=126&Issue=3

Keywords:

buyouts, development, floodplain management, levees, modeling, Pennsylvania 

Abstract: A dynamic model of floodplain management is developed that addresses 

nonstationary conditions, including land-use changes, channel modifications, economic 

development, and climate change and variability. The dynamic approach permits zoning, levee 

construction, and other decisions to be made sequentially, rather than only at the present. The 

dynamic model is formulated as a Markov decision process. A single-floodplain, singleobjective, stationary model is extended to include multiple floodplains, nonstationarity, and 

multiple objectives. Linear programming is used for solution, though the problem may be large. 

The model is applied to a problem at Chester Creek, PA. The optimal policy for levee building or 

replacement depends on whether a flood has just occurred and on the costs of buying out 

properties and rebuilding homes and levees. Two cases of nonstationarity are examined—future 

bridge construction and future hydrologic changes. With nonstationarity, a buyout of properties 

following levee overtopping is an optimal policy since increased future flooding reduces the 

expected benefits of structural flood measures. When economic development is included with 

management costs and flood damages in a multiobjective formulation, the optimal policies 

include building larger levees and increasing floodplain development. 

Ouellette, Pierre, Daniel Leblanc, Nassir El-Jabi, and Jean Rousselle. (1988). Cost-benefit 

analysis of flood-plain zoning. Journal of Water Resources Planning and Management, 

114(3), 326-34. 

Available for purchase at: http://www.pubs.asce.org/WWWdisplay.cgi?8801589

Keywords: 

cost-benefit analysis, economic modeling, flood damage, methodology, zoning

Abstract: The economic yield of a floodplain-zoning program is measured by a cost-benefit 

analysis. The methodology entails the use of a probabilistic hydroeconomic model to evaluate 

expected flood damages with and without zoning. The application shows that this type of 

program, albeit cost-effective overall, may be unacceptable for various reasons to the various 

parties involved. While the program is cost-effective for all parties of the society, it is 

redistributive. Landowners are the main beneficiaries, while the cost-benefit ratio for 

governments is consistently less than one. Owing, however, to market imperfections, landowners 

gain no advantage from promoting such programs. This is an explanation why such programs are 

not implemented more widely. 

Ozdemir, O., & Kruse, J. B. (2000). Relationship between risk perception and willingness-topay for low probability, high consequence risk: A survey method. Lubbock, TX: Texas Tech 

University Working Paper Series. 

Available at: http://www3.tltc.ttu.edu/ecowp/

Keywords: 

insurance purchase decision, structural approaches 
228

Abstract: To address the extent to which specific risk perceptions affect consumer willingness 

to purchase personal insurance, the study examines the relations between perceived risks of 

tornadoes and the likelihood of purchasing a protective device. This research suggests that if an 

individual believes that he or she is at great risk of being affected by a tornado he or she may be 

more willing to purchase an in-home shelter for protection. However, the perceived risk of being 

affected did not appear to be related to the amount that someone would be willing to pay for a 

protective device. Those who perceived a high likelihood of being affected by a tornado were not 

willing to pay more money for a protective device than were those who perceived less likelihood 

of being affected. This suggests that greater perceived risk affected the desire for protection, but 

not at any cost. Methodological obstacles prevent the generalization of the results. While this 

research offers some insight into how risk perceptions of a specific natural disaster affect one’s 

willingness to purchase protection, the sample size was rather small. Furthermore, the research 

probed behavioral willingness to purchase a tangible device that protects against a specific 

hazard; it is unclear how these results might generalize to an intangible product such as flood 

insurance. 

Paklina, Nina. (2003) Flood Insurance. Paris: Organization for Economic Cooperation and 

Development. 

Available at: http://www.oecd.org/dataoecd/51/9/18074763.pdf

Keywords: 

economic impacts, Europe, insurance industry 

Abstract: The floods in Europe during the summer of 2002 resulted in considerable property 

damage and reopened the debate about whether to insure flood losses and how public authorities 

and private insurance actors should be involved in the management of flood risks and insurance 

claims. Many sectors of the European economy suffered financial losses, including private 

property, infrastructure, and agriculture. Yet only a small part of these losses (10 to 20 percent) 

were covered by insurance because flood damage is not included in standard insurance coverage 

in the affected regions. The article then goes on to explore ways of strengthening the European 

insurance industry so that it would be better able to pay for damages in the event of natural 

catastrophes. 

Park, W.M. and W.L. Miller. (1982). Flood risk perceptions and overdevelopment in the 

floodplain. Water Resources Bulletin, 18(1), 89-94. 

Keywords:

development, economic modeling, floodplain management, Indiana, property values 

Abstract: There is a long-standing hypothesis that imperfect information about potential flood 

hazards, an expectation of liberal disaster relief, and anticipation of future structural protection 

have resulted in overdevelopment of floodplains. Data for a case study from Logansport, IN, 

were analyzed using multiple regression techniques in an effort to investigate this hypothesis. 

The effect of the introduction of the NFIP on residential property values was investigated in 

order to determine whether property values in floodplains were fully discounted for expected 

flood damages. The case study analysis shows that property values in the floodplain were less 

than fully discounted for the existing flooding potential prior to the introduction of the NFIP. 

Low-cost information such as lot elevation and distance from the river were found to affect sale 

price, apparently due to its role in the formation of perceptions about the potential for flooding. 

Policy alternatives for floodplain management that would provide better information on flooding 
229

potential and eliminate the perverse incentives created by the expectation of liberal disaster relief 

include simple zoning and actuarial insurance. Simple delineation of the 1 percent annual chance 

floodplain with zoning restrictions would involve relatively low implementation costs, while the 

development of actuarially accurate premiums for flood insurance would be relatively costly. In 

any case, the study results indicate that unless policy changes eliminating the perverse incentives 

of past policies are adopted, overdevelopment of floodplains will continue. 

Partlow, Joshua. (2004). Insurance Chief Probes Flood Claims. The Washington Post, 

March 4. 

Keywords: 

Hurricane Isabel, insurance claims, Maryland

Abstract: The article concerns Maryland’s investigation of the handling of flood insurance 

claims filed by victims of Hurricane Isabel. The insurance commissioner’s office received more 

than 1,300 inquiries and 280 formal complaints following the 2003 hurricane. The most common 

complaints were that property owners did not realize their flood policies were more restrictive 

than typical homeowners’ insurance policies, and that claims adjusters provided lower estimates 

of repair costs than did independent contractors. According to FEMA, 24,066 flood claims from 

Hurricane Isabel were filed in five states. Sixteen percent of the over 21,600 claims closed to 

date were closed without payment. In response to complaints, FEMA officials stated that 

adjusters and private insurance companies do not have an incentive to undervalue estimates 

because of the way in which they are compensated by the NFIP. 

PartnerRe Ltd. (2002). Floods: Causes, Effects, and Risk Assessment. Bermuda: PartnerRe 

Ltd. 

Available at: http://www.partnerre.com/pdf/Flood-2002.pdf

Keywords: 

flood causes, flood control, floodplain management, hydrology and hydraulics, ice jams, 

insurance industry, risk assessment, reinsurance, structural approaches

Abstract: The report discusses and compares flood risk, vulnerability, floodplain management, 

and flood insurance schemes worldwide. It begins with a description of selected flood events of 

the past 30 years that have had countrywide impacts, including a special report on the Central 

European Floods of August 2002. The flood affected residents in Germany, the Czech Republic, 

Slovakia, and Austria, killing more than 100 people. From flood events, the report moves to risk 

and vulnerability, stating that risk is created by the placement of valuable assets in vulnerable 

locations. Estimations of risk depend on the methodology for assessment and hydrology and 

hydraulic data. The most important factors in hazard risk assessment are rainfall patterns and 

severity over the watershed area, flow patterns, soil type and vegetation, and the shape of the 

watershed. The report finds, however, that these factors are not always considered in floodplain 

management and mitigation activities. Future trends in land use, climate, and infiltration are 

incorporated into structural mitigation projects or in estimates of maximum flooding levels. 

Assessments are typically based on past events, using data for a limited amount of time. The 

report also identifies other causes of floods, including storm surges, estuarine floods, dam and 

dike failures, ice jams, rain-induced mudflows, tsunamis, and subsidence. Flood risks are 

considered in the context of residential, commercial, industrial, infrastructure, and civil 

engineering project vulnerability. The report opines that the factors that affect flood risk – 

frequency and severity – also affect the efficiency of public and private involvement in flood 
230

insurance. For instance, nationwide private insurance pools or government-sponsored schemes 

are suitable for countries with frequent flooding. Where properties are flooded with a recurrence 

period of less than 10 years, private insurance companies are unwilling to offer insurance. 

Floodplains with high severity and a low frequency of flooding are more difficult to manage. 

Property owners are unlikely to perceive correctly the risk of flooding, making them unwilling to 

pay an actuarially correct price for insurance. Governments may decide that providing postdisaster relief is more politically attractive than funding predisaster mitigation efforts. The report 

describes the flood insurance models used in the United States, France, Spain, and Norway. 

Pasterick, Edward T. (1998). The National Flood Insurance Program. In Howard 

Kunreuther and Richard J. Roth, Jr., eds. Paying the Price: The Status and Role of 

Insurance Against Natural Disasters in the United States. Washington, DC: The Joseph 

Henry Press. 

Available for purchase at: http://www.disastercenter.com/Rothstein/cd423.htm

Keywords:

agency operations and management, history, NFIP 

Abstract: The author overviews the NFIP, beginning with a short history. He then discusses the 

three components of the program’s structure (risk identification, hazard mitigation, and 

insurance), and explains how the components need to be integrated through the cooperation of 

the federal government, state and local governments, and the insurance industry. The next 

section of this chapter describes the various initiatives of the NFIP, including the National Flood 

Insurers Association, the Write-Your-Own (WYO) Program, and the Community Rating System. 

He concludes with a discussion of issues facing the NFIP and offers some solutions to those 

issues. Among others, Pasterick concludes that although the NFIP has been able to integrate its 

three critical components in the past, within the current structure of FEMA the risk identification 

and mitigation responsibilities are organizationally separated from the insurance operation. 

Continued coordination under this structure will require a level of effort beyond that needed 

when the three components were in the same office. Pasterick also notes that a major issue to be 

addressed in the area of mitigation is the matter of existing structures. Consensus on this issue is 

needed in order to make any policy effective. Furthermore, Pasterick discusses the NFIP’s low 

market penetration. He lists five reasons for this low market penetration: (a) many floodplain 

residents underestimate the seriousness and likelihood of flooding; (b) lenders have not been 

especially zealous in requiring the purchase of flood insurance as the law requires; (c) policies 

for flood insurance are difficult for insurance agents to write and, therefore, to market 

aggressively because they are single-peril policies and are viewed as more costly than other lines 

of coverage; (d) many potential consumers expect that federal disaster assistance will adequately 

provide for post-flood recovery; and (e) many people are simply misinformed or unaware of the 

availability of flood insurance. 

Patton, Ann. (1993). From Harm’s Way: Flood-Hazard Mitigation in Tulsa, Oklahoma. 

Tulsa, OK: City of Tulsa. 

Keywords: 

disaster assistance, flood disaster planning, mitigation, Oklahoma, substantial damage 

Abstract: On Memorial Day, 1984, more than a foot of rain fell on Tulsa. The resulting flood 

killed 14, injured 288, and left $188 million in damages citywide. On the day of the flood, city 

leaders met and agreed to approach the post-flood recovery from a new angle. This report 
231

focuses on Tulsa’s floodplain clearance activities – one aspect of the city’s comprehensive floodhazard mitigation program – with emphasis on acquisition projects following the 1984 flood. The 

scope of the project included the acquisition of 300 homes from nine sites. Two years later, the 

city bought 228 flood-prone pads at a flooded mobile home park. The report is based on the 

remarkable work of many people including proactive citizens; courageous political leaders and 

civil servants; a diligent local news media; generous national experts; and partners in FEMA and 

the Army Corps of Engineers. 

Paul, Bimal Kanti. (1999). Flash Flooding in Kansas: A Study of Emergency Response and 

Victims’ Perceptions. Quick Response Report #118. Boulder, CO: Natural Hazards Center. 

Available at: http://www.colorado.edu/hazards/qr/qr118.html

Keywords: 

Kansas 

Abstract: The study analyzes the performance of emergency actions taken by local governments 

in Augusta and Arkansas City, Kansas following a major flash flood in November 1998. The 

study used fieldwork and a questionnaire survey to gauge satisfaction with four emergency 

response measures: flash flood watches, the issuance of flash flood warnings, flood evacuation, 

and other emergency measures, such as sandbagging, traffic control and food distribution. Prior 

research has extensively documented individual response to disaster events, but little is known 

about the adequacy of the emergency response measures used by local governments. The 

analysis shows that emergency response efforts and support from external sources were rated 

poorly by flash flood victims, either because they were not implemented properly or in a timely 

manner. Satisfaction did not vary with respondents’ socioeconomic and demographic 

characteristics. Flood victims’ overall satisfaction with aid from external sources, such as the 

Red Cross, Salvation Army, Army National Guard, and area churches was higher than with the 

four emergency response measures analyzed in the report. The results suggest that improvements 

are needed in forecasting, warning, evacuating, and mitigating flash flood events, and that 

federal emergency agencies should be more sensitive to the needs of disaster victims. 

Peacock, Walter Gillis. (1997). Cross-national and comparative disaster research. 

International Journal of Mass Emergencies and Disasters, 15(1), 117-33. 

Keywords:

methodology, national disasters 

Abstract: Distinguishing characteristics and issues of comparative and cross-cultural research, 

problems and opportunities, and an assessment of future prospects are offered and related to 

disaster research. No single approach is advocated; rather, various approaches (case study to 

cross-national, contemporary to historical, and qualitative to quantitative) are recommended. 

Methodological issues including model specification, problems of aggregation, intra- versus 

international variation, and secondary versus primary data collection are addressed. Particular 

attention is devoted to issues of equivalence related to conceptualization, data comparability, 

operationalization and measurement, conversion, standardization, and units of observation. The 

need for systematic efforts to develop research tools that can be utilized to measure critical 

concepts such as recovery, restoration, risk, and mitigation is identified. Finally, disciplinebased, yet disaster relevant, cross-national and comparative research agendas consistent with a 

broader ecological perspective targeting disasters, development, and the social production of 

vulnerability are advocated. 
232

Pennsylvania Department of Community and Economic Development. (1998). Meeting the 

Minimum Requirements of The National Flood Insurance Program and the Pennsylvania 

Flood Plain Management Act (1978-166) Section 60.3 (d). Harrisburg, PA: Pennsylvania 

Department of Community and Economic Development. 

Available at: http://www.inventpa.com/docs/Document/application/pdf/3218d014-6b33-4851-

a6c3-1111fca100cb/natflood_d_1-2004.pdf

Keywords: 

compliance, enforcement, floodplain management, Pennsylvania 

Abstract: This suggested ordinance was prepared to help municipalities meet the requirements 

of the NFIP and the Pennsylvania Floodplain Management Act (Act 166 of 1978). More 

specifically, this ordinance contains all the provisions necessary to comply with the requirements 

of Section 60.3 (d) of 44 CFR (NFIP) as well as with the requirements of Act 166 of 1978 and 

the regulations adopted by the Department of Community and Economic Development pursuant 

to that Act. 

Pennsylvania Department of Community and Economic Development. (2001). Flood Plain 

Management Regulations. Harrisburg, PA: Pennsylvania Department of Community and 

Economic Development. 

Available at: http://www.inventpa.com/docs/Document/application/pdf/18d3d637-3de7-4aa9-

b669-4ef3fc216cce/floodplain_management_regs.pdf

Keywords: 

compliance, enforcement, floodplain management, Pennsylvania 

Abstract: This publication outlines the Commonwealth’s floodplain management regulations 

adopted pursuant to the Pennsylvania Floodplain Management Act (Act 166 of 1978). Topics 

addressed by the regulations include: municipal participation in the program, adoption of 

floodplain management by identified municipalities, municipal loss of eligibility to participate in 

the program, regulation of particular obstructions, coordination and uniform enforcement of 

municipal floodplain management regulations, inspections, enforcement by the department and 

appeals, and reimbursements and grants to municipalities. 

Pennsylvania Department of Community and Economic Development. (2001). Technical 

Information on Floodplain Management: Administrative Guidelines for Development. 

Harrisburg, PA: Pennsylvania Department of Community and Economic Development. 

Available at: http://www.landuseinpa.com/docs/docs_added_5_27_2003/Planning_Series_5.pdf

Keywords: 

compliance, development, enforcement, floodplain management, floodproofing, floodway, 

mobile homes, Pennsylvania, permits, substantial improvement, variances 

Abstract: To participate in the NFIP, a municipality must enact a code or ordinance, which at a 

minimum, meets FEMA’s floodplain management requirements. This means that a participating 

municipality must regulate all construction and development within those areas of the 

community identified by FEMA as being flood-prone. To accomplish this, a municipality must 

issue a building permit before any construction or development takes place. This ensures that the 

municipality has the opportunity to review all proposed activities for compliance with any 

applicable floodplain management regulations. While it may sound rather simple and 

straightforward, it is not always an easy matter to distinguish between those activities that 
233

require a permit and those that do not. The report provides information to help municipalities 

become more confident in making this determination. 

Perez-Lugo, Marla. (1999). The Mass Media, Political Fragmentation, and Environmental 

Injustice in Puerto Rico: A Case Study of the Floods in Barrio Tortugo. Quick Response 

Report #113. Boulder, CO: Natural Hazards Center. 

Available at: http://www.colorado.edu/hazards/qr/qr113.html

Keywords: 

awareness, media, Puerto Rico, risk communication, risk perception 

Abstract: The report involves a case study of the way in which the Puerto Rican media has 

influenced the development of risk perception and disaster awareness among residents of 

Tortuga, which was struck by four floods in a short period of time. This case study is used as a 

means of examining the gap between actual damages and the perception of risk by flood zone 

residents. The report cites a body of past literature that the mass media has a significant influence 

on risk perception and disaster awareness. However, the author argues that the media provides a 

standardized message to a widely diverse audience, which varies significantly by demographic 

characteristics, socio-economic status, political context, and cultural tradition. For media 

messages regarding natural disasters to be effective, they must not only be abundant but also 

provide specific, actionable messages, consistent across different mediums, and be backed by a 

credible source, such as scientists or government agencies. The paper is based on the idea that 

having access to and being exposed to information provided by the mass media about natural 

disasters does not necessarily increase disaster awareness, even assuming that the media portrays 

disasters and natural hazards accurately. This assumption is not always correct. In the survey, 

interview participants were questioned regarding their awareness of the possibility of 

experiencing a flood, if they received information about floods through the media or other 

sources before the disaster, and how useful they considered the media coverage of disasters to be 

in the event. The study found that virtually none of the interviewed residents recalled receiving 

warnings of heavy rain and that the role of the media was limited during the disaster. The 

residents of Tortugo did not receive any relief aid from FEMA, because, as the agency argued, it 

was a small-scale disaster and the residents did not have flood insurance on their properties. The 

lack of flood insurance was due to the fact that FEMA did not identify the area as vulnerable to 

flood. Also, most homes were built without mortgages, thus the mandatory purchase process was 

not triggered. But most important, most residents were not aware of the availability of flood 

insurance. The major finding of the study is that the influence of the mass media is mediated by 

the personal experience of the audience and the degree to which disaster information is targeted 

to a particular group of individuals. 

Perry, Ronald W. (1994). A model of evacuation compliance behavior. In Russell R. Dynes 

and Kathleen J. Tierney, eds. Disasters, Collective Behavior, and Social Organization, 85-98. 

Newark, DE: University of Delaware Press.

Keywords: 

disaster planning, modeling, risk communication, Texas, Washington

Abstract: This study develops a model of evacuation compliance behavior based on secondary 

empirical analyses of three disasters—a flood in Abilene, TX, a hazardous materials incident in 

Mt. Vernon, WA, and the eruption of Mt. St. Helens in Washington. Following a brief discussion 

of the theoretical modeling process, factors influencing individuals’ evacuation decisions are 
234

identified: warning confirmation, source credibility and content, perceived risk, possession of an 

adaptive plan, and family context. The data support the assertion that families evacuate only after 

all members are present or known to be safe. According to the author, the creation of an adaptive 

plan (through warning information, prior experience, and/or preplanning) would facilitate 

compliance with evacuation warnings, as does the belief that the impending disaster would result 

in direct personal harm. Furthermore, evacuation is promoted by the credibility of the source of 

information. Finally, the author concludes that the most effective warning messages are specific 

concerning the danger, consequences, timing, and response strategies in the face of disaster.

Perry, Ronald W., Michael K. Lindell, and Marjorie R. Greene. (1982). Crisis 

communications: Ethnic differentials in interpreting and acting on disaster warnings. 

Social Behavior and Personality, 10(1), 97-104. 

Available for purchase at: http://www.sbp-journal.com/journal_detail/862

Keywords: 

risk communication

Abstract: This article examines the problem of communicating information about floods to 

multiethnic communities. Data were gathered from interviews of a probability sample of 200 

recipients of flood evacuation warnings living in a small western U.S. town with a large 

population of Mexican-Americans. Analyses reveal that residents surveyed were more skeptical 

than whites about warning messages, no matter how specific the message; interpreted the same 

warning messages as indicating lower levels of personal danger; and were less likely to 

undertake a protective action (i.e., evacuate) than white residents. 

Petrascheck, Armin. (2003). Flood Protection: The Strategy of Switzerland. Paper 

presented at Precautionary Flood Protection in Europe conference. Bonn, Germany, 

February 5-6, 2003. Berlin, Germany: Institute for International and European 

Environmental Policy. 

Keywords: 

floodplain management, Switzerland 

Abstract: The document describes the components of flood protection in Switzerland: hazard 

mapping, setbacks, damage reduction, emergency planning, and compulsory insurance. Hazard 

zones are color-coded based on risk and correspond to building regulation. Accurate and 

complete hazard maps enable all floodplain management activities. Setbacks support flood 

protection objectives as well as ecological objectives, preserving flora and fauna in riparian 

areas. Emergency planning consists of weather forecasts, alarm systems, mobile protection 

devices, and emergency storage areas. In the majority of the country, insurance companies 

provide insurance for all natural disasters in a single package, making participation easier for 

homeowners. 

Pew Oceans Commission. (2003). America’s Living Oceans: Charting A Course for Sea 

Change. New York: Pew Charitable Trust. 

Available at: http://www.pewoceans.org/oceans/index.asp

Keywords: 

climate change, coastal areas, environmental impacts, environmental policy, environmental 

protection, federal programs, legislation 
235

Abstract: The United States depends on the health of its oceans. Yet ocean habitats face 

significant threats, in part because of increased development of coastal areas. More than half the 

U.S. population lives in coastal counties and their populations are expected to increase by 25 

million people by 2015. More than 60 percent of coastal rivers and bays are moderately to 

severely degraded by nutrient runoff, and many ecologically and commercially important fish 

species face overfishing and pollution threats. The report attributes the current crisis to a failure 

of perspective and governance and states that current human interactions with the oceans are 

unsustainable. Moreover, existing ocean policy is outdated and insufficient. The principal laws 

governing coastal zones, endangered marine mammals, ocean waters, and fisheries were enacted 

over 30 years ago on a crisis-by-crisis, sector-by-sector basis. Though some issues from that time 

are still relevant today, new environmental, economic, and policy challenges have emerged. The 

commission recommends that oceans be viewed as a public trust and that national ocean policy 

and governance be changed to reflect principles of ecosystem health, sustainability, and 

precaution. 

Pfister, Neil. (2002). Community response to flood warnings: The case of an evacuation 

from Grafton, March 2001. Australian Journal of Emergency Management, 17(2), 19-29. 

Available at: http://www.ses.nsw.gov.au/papers/pfister_2002.pdf

Keywords: 

attitudes, Australia, communication, risk communication, risk perception

Abstract: When the city of Grafton was threatened by severe flooding in March 2001, fewer 

than 10 percent of the population left the city when officials issued a flood evacuation order. The 

purpose of this research project was to estimate the extent of the evacuation from Grafton and to 

determine the reasons why people evacuated when the order was given. Data confirmed that few 

people evacuated from Grafton, although substantially more (47 percent) were ready to do so at a 

later time. The article also pointed out that although 97 percent of Grafton residents were aware 

of the evacuation order, three-quarters of the survey respondents who did not evacuate did not 

believe that they were truly in danger. After discussing the research findings, the article makes a 

number of suggestions for improving the public’s readiness to respond to an evacuation warning, 

including improving the planning and execution of door-knocking operations and ensuring that 

messages to the public are credible and consistent. 

Pfister, Neil and Allen Rutledge. (2002). Flood Warnings: Recent Lessons Learned and 

Developments Under Way. Paper presented at 42nd Annual Floodplain Management 

Authorities of New South Wales Conference. Kempsey, Australia, 2002. Wollongong, 

Australia: State Emergency Service. 

Keywords: 

Australia, awareness, flood disaster planning, media, risk communication 

Abstract: The paper examines some of the recent lessons learned by the State Emergency 

Service (SES) regarding flood warnings. The SES conducts postoperational reviews following 

major flooding, including public meetings and surveys. In New South Wales, the SES 

supplements flood warnings from the Bureau of Meteorology with other information, then issues 

them to media outlets as Flood Bulletins. Flood Bulletins are often overly long, containing lists 

of information ill suited to radio broadcasts. Their importance is integral to flood safety. In a 

survey of residents in Grafton following a 2001 flood, while only 13 percent of respondents 

evacuated, nearly a third of those who remained were prepared to evacuate, based on flood 
236

warnings. Thus, while a large portion of the population was receptive to evacuation, many 

delayed the decision until the last minute possible. Based on this information, the report 

recommends that future flood warnings focus on actionable details for their audience, describe a 

timetable of events for residents, and feature clear consequences for failure to evacuate. To 

address community education, SES has formulated a series of FloodSafe guides, tailored to 

individual towns, which describe local flood problems and give general flood safety advice. 

Philippi, Nancy S. (1994). Revisiting Flood Control: An Examination of Federal Flood 

Control Policy in Light of the 1993 Flood Event on the Upper Mississippi River. Chicago, IL: 

Wetland Research, Inc. 

Available at: http://www.wetlandsresearch.org/publication.htm#revisiting

Keywords:

federal programs, flood control, history, Midwest floods of 1993, mitigation 

Abstract: This article examines the Midwest floods of 1993 by providing a history and detailed 

description of the event and pertinent mitigation policies. It describes three case histories from 

which the author concludes that the programs that pursue the intended goals of the U.S. flood 

control policy are flawed. (Such intended goals are to protect development where it is 

economically justified, to prevent and reduce damageable development, and to compensate those 

who suffer blamelessly and excessively from flooding.) The author argues that mitigation 

programs to reduce flood damages are still a minor part of the NFIP. The author complains that 

the NFIP provides protection to private properties without calculating the cumulative costs of 

providing that protection, and that the “overly generous” payments in compensation for 

agricultural flood damages eliminate the risk and make it highly profitable to farm in a 

floodplain. However, the author warns the reader that the conclusions are general and were 

drawn from the three case histories described in the report. Whether these cases are merely 

anomalies or whether they are true reflections of these programs is beyond the scope of the work. 

Philippi, Nancy S. (1995). Plugging the gaps in flood-control policy. Issues in Science and 

Technology, 11(Winter), 71-8. 

Keywords: 

disaster assistance, environmental impacts, flood control, public policy

Abstract: The author claims that U.S. flood-control policy (as of 1995) wastes money, promotes 

behavior that exacerbates the problem, distributes relief disproportionately, and damages the 

environment. The author also claims that although better policies are neither expensive nor 

technologically difficult, they require the resolution of some sticky issues, equity and firmness in 

their execution, and, most important, the political backbone to make flood-control decisions 

before an emergency arises. New policy should reduce ad hoc disaster aid, establish a means test 

for distributing it, and use the savings to reduce damages and restore wetlands; incorporate 

disaster funding into the annual budget process; tighten existing flood- and crop-insurance 

programs; limit new structural protection to key facilities and examine the economic justification 

for repairing existing ones; and promote more and better flood research. 

Philippi, Nancy S. (1996). Flooding Management: Ecologic and Economic Perspectives. 

Austin, TX: Environmental Intelligence Unit, R.G. Landes Company. 

Keywords:

economic impacts, environmental impacts, floodplain management, history 
237

Abstract: This book synthesizes the past development and status of floodplain management in 

1995. It describes the nature of flooding, its causes, and its importance in the ecological cycle 

and defines the conflict of interest between ecological and economic values inherent in 

floodplain management. Philippi reviews the historical and logical development of floodplain 

management policy. She also identifies the problems encountered in the execution of agreedupon floodplain management objectives and it describes some scenarios, successful and 

otherwise, that future floodplain management may follow. 

Pielke, Roger A., Jr. and Mary W. Downton. (2000). Precipitation and damaging floods: 

Trends in the United States, 1932-97. Journal of Climate, 13, 3525-37. 

Keywords: 

flood causes, flood damage, modeling, weather

Abstract: This paper presents a conceptual framework for the systematic assessment of the 

factors that condition observed trends in flood damage. Using the framework, it assesses the role 

that variability in precipitation has in damaging floods in the United States at both the national 

and regional levels. Three measures of flood damage each lead to different conclusions about the 

nature of the flood problem. At a national level, the precipitation measures most closely related 

to flood damage are the number of two-day heavy rainfall events and the number of wet days. 

This study indicates that growth in recent decades in total damage is related to both climate 

factors and societal factors. At the regional level, this study reports a stronger relationship 

between precipitation measures and flood damage and indicates that different measures of 

precipitation are most closely related to damage in different regions. The study indicates that 

climate plays an important, but by no means determining, role in the growth of flooding in the 

United States in recent decades. 

Pielke, Jr., R.A., M.W. Downton, and J.Z. Barnard Miller. (2002). Flood Damage in the 

United States, 1926-2000: A Reanalysis of National Weather Service Estimates. Boulder, CO: 

University Corporation for Atmospheric Research. 

Available at: http://www.flooddamagedata.org/full_report.html

Keywords: 

flood damage, weather 

Abstract: This study is a reanalysis of flood damage estimates collected by the National Weather 

Service (NWS) between 1925 and 2000. The NWS data are estimates of direct physical damage 

due to flooding resulting from rainfall or snowmelt. They are obtained from diverse sources, 

compiled soon after each flood event, and not verified by comparison with actual expenditures. 

Therefore, a primary objective of the study was to examine the scope, accuracy, and consistency 

of the NWS damage estimates to improve the data sets and offer recommendations on how they 

can be appropriately used and interpreted. Evaluation of the accuracy of the estimates led to the 

following conclusions: individual damage estimates for small floods or for local jurisdictions 

within a larger flood area tend to be extremely inaccurate, damage estimates become more 

accurate at higher levels of aggregation, and floods causing moderate damage are occasionally 

omitted, or their damage greatly underestimated in the NWS data sets. In summary, the NWS 

flood damage estimates do not represent an accurate accounting of actual costs, nor do they 

include all of the losses that might be attributable to flooding. Rather, they are rough estimates of 

direct physical damage to property, crops, and public infrastructure. 
238

Plapp, Tina. (2001). Perception and Evaluation of Natural Risks. Karlsruhe, Germany: 

University of Karlsruhe, Institute for Insurance. 

Available at: http://www.gknk.uni-karlsruhe.de/tina/Plapp_WP1.pdf

Keywords: 

Germany, natural disasters, risk perception 

Abstract: The report begins with the assumption that perception and evaluation of risk are basic 

for our behavior in dangerous situations, as well as decisions concerning preventative, protective 

measures against risk. The study uses questionnaire data from 450 persons in six districts in 

Germany to evaluate perception of risk regarding several natural disasters, including flood, 

storms, and earthquakes. Respondents assigned varying levels of risk to different natural 

disasters. The respondent’s own experiences with damage from particular natural disasters 

seemed to heighten their perception of risk. 

Plasencia, Doug. (1994). Sharing the Challenge: Future impacts and next steps. Water 

Resources Update, 97 (Autumn), 14-6. 

Available at: http://www.ucowr.siu.edu/updates/pdf/V97_A4.pdf

Keywords: 

floodplain management

Abstract: This article highlights four recommendations from Sharing the Challenge (commonly 

called the Galloway report) that lay the framework for continued policy evolution and 

development. First, the author recommends improved federal coordination in floodplain 

management programs and policy. Second, a more strategic and managed system of delivering 

flood programs across a broad geographic region is needed to replace the current system. Third, 

the executive order on floodplain management, issued in 1977, should be revisited and modified 

to reflect policy developments, including the identification of a monitoring and enforcement 

mechanism. Finally, alternative means of quantifying federal interests in the environment and 

other policy areas are needed to resolve some of the confusion surrounding the criteria for 

justifying projects. 

Platt, Rutherford H. (1976). The National Flood Insurance Program: Some Midstream 

Perspectives. 

Keywords: 

floodplain management, legislation, takings 

Abstract: This report argues that the NFIP has been a necessary tool to supplement federal flood 

control works and disaster relief and looks at its progress to date. The number of communities 

participating in the NFIP has increased dramatically from four communities in its first year to 

13,000 in 1976. The increased participation is due in part to program amendments in the Flood 

Disaster Protection Act of 1973. However, the report warns that the most difficult step of fully 

implementing the NFIP is still ahead – the incorporation of local governments into the regular, as 

opposed to provisional, program. In the author’s estimation, the NFIP needs to overcome the 

hurdles of constitutional issues involved in takings without compensation, the technical 

challenges of mapping, the establishment of premium rates, and the determination of regulatory 

standards regarding floodways to fully implement floodplain management. 

Platt, Rutherford H. (1985). Congress and the coast. Environment, 27(6), 12-7, 34-40. 

Keywords: 
239

Coastal Barrier Resources Act, coastal barriers, development, legislation

Abstract: Written not long after passage of the Coastal Barrier Resources Act (CBRA), this 

article notes that CBRA did not expressly prohibit the right of private owners to develop their 

property on the coast. It simply denies some, but not all federal benefits (e.g., flood insurance) 

when property owners decide to develop. CBRA did not affect other forms of federal help such 

as federal disaster assistance to repair infrastructure and income tax write-offs for casualty losses 

and accelerated depreciation after a loss. The author argues that by increasing the risk in these 

areas, CBRA may have increased pressure for private development of adjoining areas that are 

still entitled to the full spectrum of federal benefits, such as flood insurance. 

Platt, Rutherford H. (1986). Metropolitan flood loss reduction through regional special 

districts. Journal of the American Planning Association, 52(4), 467-79. 

Keywords: 

floodplain management, public policy, urban areas 

Abstract: Flood damage is increasing in U.S. metropolitan areas because of urbanization in 

small watersheds and floodplains and because of inadequate storm drainage. The NFIP is a 

necessary but insufficient response to the problem. Additional measures and programs tailored to 

the particular region are needed since each area has different flood problems and operates in a 

different legal and political framework. Three regional districts were examined and their 

attempts at solving the problems associated with flooding are described. All three districts reflect 

a viewpoint that may be emulated elsewhere: metropolitan floods are an area-wide phenomenon 

requiring a regional response. Local floodplain management, state, and federal mitigation efforts 

are necessary, but regional districts fill a functional and administrative gap in the hierarchy of 

public authority. Regional districts interact with other governmental organizations as well as act 

independently, as exemplified by the described detention policies of the districts in Harris 

County, TX, and Chicago, IL. A regional district also may perform a particular function more 

competently than another unit of government as shown by the example of floodplain maps 

developed by the district in Denver, CO. The fiscal autonomy of the regional district allows it to 

take needed actions promptly and at no cost to the federal or state taxpayer. It is concluded that 

regional districts are effective in reducing flood losses. 

Platt, Rutherford H., ed. (1987). Regional Management of Metropolitan Floodplains. 

Boulder, CO: Institute of Behavioral Science, University of Colorado. 

Keywords: 

Australia, Canada, Germany, Japan, public policy, United Kingdom, urban areas 

Abstract: This report examines responses to metropolitan flooding at a regional level, that is, on 

a scale broader than individual municipalities, but narrower than the state. Unlike municipalities 

and states however, regions usually lack easily identifiable political surrogates. Governance of 

metropolitan regions is a patchwork quilt of traditional units of government—local, county, and 

state—supplemented by a variety of programmatic adjustments. Such adjustments include 

regional planning entities, special districts and authorities, intergovernmental agreements, 

boundary changes, and the modernizing of existing county units. Part one of this volume 

describes three stages of research on regional experiences in the United States. Part two consists 

of five case studies, conducted simultaneously with the domestic ones, concerning response to 

metropolitan flooding in Canada, Great Britain, Australia, Germany, and Japan. These studies 
240

illustrate the effects of differing legal and political contexts, as well as diverse hydrologic 

regimes, on governmental response to metropolitan flooding. 

Platt, Rutherford H. (1995). Sharing the Challenge: Floodplain management into the 21st 

century. Environment, 37(1), 25-9. 

Available at: http://www.findarticles.com/p/articles/mi_m1076/is_n1_v37/ai_16406739

Keywords:

floodplain management, levees, Midwest floods of 1993, Mississippi River 

Abstract: The author reports on the floodplain management policies of the Mississippi River 

Basin. He reexamines flood control policies and discusses the disaster brought about by improper 

floodplain management. The author asserts that filling wetlands for the agricultural construction 

of levees exacerbated the Midwest floods of 1993. Finally, the author discusses decisions about 

the rebuilding of levees and its stress on interagency and intergovernmental cooperation. 

Platt, Rutherford H. (1999). Disasters and Democracy: The Politics of Extreme Natural 

Events. Washington, DC: Island Press.

Keywords: 

natural disasters, public policy

Abstract: This book is concerned with the political response to natural disasters, however they 

may arise. Specifically, the author is interested in the changing role of the federal government 

from distant observer to immediate responder, principal financier of disaster costs, and, more 

recently, champion of hazard mitigation. The book raises the question as to whether federalizing 

the costs of disasters is helping lighten the overall burden of disasters or, perversely, whether it is 

making matters worse. Additionally, have the availability of federal disaster assistance, flood 

insurance, and other benefits inadvertently contributed to a false sense of security, roughly 

equivalent to the discovery in the 1960s that federal flood control projects were stimulating 

development in protected floodplains? 

Platt, Rutherford H., H. Crane Miller, Timothy Beatley, Jennifer Melville, and Brenda G. 

Mathenia. (1992). Coastal Erosion: Has Retreat Sounded? Boulder, CO: Institute of 

Behavioral Science, University of Colorado. 

Keywords: 

beach nourishment, coastal areas, development, erosion, Hurricane Hugo, nonstructural 

approaches, relocation 

Abstract: This text examines the extent and spatial distribution of coastal erosion and the role of 

human intervention in both accelerating and preventing further erosion. The authors go on to 

analyze the federal responses to coastal erosion, in the form of physical alterations and financial 

incentives, such as the NFIP. The legislative restrictions on coastal construction and responses to 

coastal erosion are examined in 10 states and compared for common approaches. The authors 

find that most states focus on prospective development, allowing existing homes to be 

“grandfathered” into regulations. With the exception of a defunct program in Michigan, no state 

has attempted to encourage or subsidize voluntary relocation of structures from eroding 

coastlines. Public acquisition of eroding areas and repetitively flood-damaged areas is not a 

major part of state environmental programs. The largest obstacle to the adoption and 

implementation of restrictions on coastal development is political considerations, perhaps 

exacerbated by the perception of a safety net from the NFIP and from FEMA’s disaster 
241

assistance programs. Where regulations do exist, they tend to be too narrowly defined, with 

significant loopholes: procedures in the wake of a catastrophic storm allow a lenient application 

of the substantial damage determination, and generally facilitate rebuilding in the same 

hazardous areas. 

Platt, Rutherford H, David Salvesen, and George H. Baldwin II. (2002). Did public 

regulations matter? Rebuilding the North Carolina Coast after Hurricane Fran. Coastal 

Management, 30(3), 249-69. 

Available for purchase at: http://iris.ingentaselect.com/vl=1315884/cl=83/nw=1/rpsv/cgibin/linker?ini=tandf&reqidx=/cw/tandf/08920753/v30n3/s5/p249

Keywords:

Hurricane Bertha, Hurricane Fran, mitigation, North Carolina, substantial damage 

Abstract: For a quarter century, North Carolina has sought to manage new oceanfront 

development under its 1974 Coastal Area Management Act. The results of these planning efforts 

were put to the test in 1996 when Hurricanes Bertha and Fran struck the state within a twomonth period. With beaches and dunes impaired by Bertha, Fran inflicted widespread 

devastation along the southern half of the state’s open ocean coast. The rebuilding process was 

fueled by federal disaster assistance of many kinds, including emergency dune replacement, 

flood insurance payments, and loans from the Small Business Administration to homeowners. 

This report looks at the rebuilding of the North Carolina coast after Hurricane Fran and reviews 

how well or poorly traditional approaches to coastal hazards management have worked and 

whether public regulations have discouraged or encouraged redevelopment in high hazard 

coastal areas. The author reports that as of 1998, there has been extensive rebuilding of pre-Fran 

structures at a larger scale, but in some cases with greater safety from future storms through 

higher architectural elevation and setbacks along eroding shores. Such mitigation, however, has 

been required only for structures determined by local officials as substantially damaged. Some 

perceive that politics and generous federal disaster benefits have undermined the effectiveness of 

the state’s longstanding commitment to coastal hazard mitigation. 

Pompe, J.J. and J. Rinehart. (1995). The value of beach nourishment to property owners: 

Storm damage reduction benefits. Review of Regional Studies, 25(3), 271-8.

Keywords:

beach nourishment, economic modeling, flood damage, South Carolina 

Abstract: This study offers a method for estimating the benefits to property owners from beach 

nourishment. The authors used a hedonic pricing model to estimate the increased protection 

value that wider beaches provide for single-family homes in two oceanfront communities in 

South Carolina. These benefits of reduced storm damages accrued not only for oceanfront 

property that suffers the most damage but also for properties farther back from the ocean. The 

authors find that a nourishment project proposed by the Army Corps of Engineers would produce 

approximately $63.8 million of cumulative benefits to owners of single-family houses, which 

translates into a cost-benefit ratio of 1.96. 

Potter, Kenneth W. (1994). Estimating potential reduction in flood benefits of restored 

wetlands. Water Resources Update, 97(Autumn), 34-7.

Available at: http://www.ucowr.siu.edu/updates/pdf/V97_A9

Keywords: 
242

environmental restoration, methodology, modeling, wetlands

Abstract: In the United States most flood-related analysis is based on the simulation of a small 

number of design events. This paper discusses the limitations of the use of design events to 

evaluate wetland restoration. For example, because design events are based on hydrologic 

modeling of discrete events rather than on continuous hydrologic modeling, they do not account 

for the prestorm water stored in the wetland system, for the wide variations that can occur in 

individual flood events in the spatial and temporal stormflow conveyance. The article outlines an 

alternative methodology for evaluating flood-mitigation benefits of specific restoration projects. 

Continuous simulation is an alternative approach that overcomes many of the drawbacks of 

design event methods. 

PR News. (1997). FEMA’s far-reaching public affairs efforts mitigate flood of concerns. PR 

News, 53. 

Keywords:

Cover America, marketing, risk communication 

Abstract: FIA launched a significant public affairs program to prepare for a period of high flood 

potential. Elements of the program include a television spot, messages on snow melt, radio 

announcements, news conferences, and roundtable symposia to address questions from 

individuals living in areas where policy coverage has been sparse. Previously, FIA relied on its 

“Cover America” ad campaign and mini-conferences designed for the public, regional press, 

local and state officials, and lenders in major floodplains. FIA’s new approach couples publicbased issues with industry concerns and includes devices from dispelling myths about flood 

insurance to offering commissions to insurers if they write policies on behalf of the federal 

government. The article also describes the Environmental Protection Agency’s public affairs 

campaign for its Superfund clean-up program for hazardous environmental sites. The EPA uses 

broadcast faxes, the Internet, hotlinks, and e-mail delivery of press releases to disseminate 

information about Superfund sites. In addition, community involvement coordinators at each 

Superfund site host local meetings, go door to door to talk to residents during emergency 

removals or long-term cleanups, set up community advisory groups, and make informational 

materials available. 

PricewaterhouseCoopers. (1999). Study of the Economic Effects of Charging Actuarially 

Based Premium Rates for Pre-FIRM Structures. Washington, DC: FEMA. 

Available at: http://www.fema.gov/pdf/nfip/execsumy.pdf

Keywords:

economic impacts, insurance premiums, pre-FIRM structures, property values, subsidies 

Abstract: This study attempts to determine the number and types of properties nationwide that 

would be affected by reducing or eliminating subsidies for pre-FIRM structures and estimating 

the subsequent effects on premiums, participation in the NFIP, property values, and property tax 

revenue. The study undertook field surveys and data collection and reviewed seven different 

policy scenarios for elimination of the subsidy. Results suggest that eliminating a majority of the 

subsidy for pre-FIRM structures would increase the average annual premium for these structures 

from $585 to about $2000 within a year. Furthermore, if FEMA eliminated the subsidy 

immediately, the participation rate for pre-FIRM structures in SFHAs would likely decrease 

from 26 percent in 1997 to 20 percent in 1998, and then increase to about 29 percent in 2022. 

According to estimates, immediate elimination of the subsidy would decrease property values for 
243

pre-FIRM, single-family structures by four percent in 1998 and property values of pre-FIRM, 

multiple family structures by seven percent in 1998. The higher property value declines 

associated with multiple family structures reflect that relatively higher concentrations of these 

structures are located in areas subject to coastal flooding. 

Proverbs, D., J. Nicholas, and G.D. Holt. (2000). Surveying Flood Damage To Domestic 

Dwellings: The Present State of Knowledge. West Midlands, UK: RICS Research 

Foundation. 3(8). 

Keywords: 

damage assessment, economic modeling, flood damage, repair costs 

Abstract: The document is a critical review of existing knowledge regarding surveying flood 

damage to properties and estimating repairs. The authors identify a need for standardization of 

survey and repair estimation based on the experience of nearly identical flood damage occurring 

to nearly identical properties insured by different insurers, with different estimates of damage 

and repair costs. The enormity of annual flood damages means that the standardization of flood 

damage surveying and repair estimation techniques would be highly beneficial. The document 

highlights past research, but finds that previous models (i.e., cost-damage curves) measure costs, 

rather than the details of physical flood repair work and overgeneralize a complex issue. 

Subsequent additions to this body of work have focused on the impact of flood warning time and 

preparedness on the extent of flood damages. The document concludes that assessment of flood 

damage is currently prone to individual perceptions and previous attempts to quantify repair 

work provide little consideration of the flood itself. 

Pynn, Ronald and Greta M Ljung. (1999). Flood insurance: A survey of Grand Forks, 

North Dakota, homeowners. Applied Behavioral Science Review, 7(2), 171-180. 

Keywords: 

flood insurance, FEMA, North Dakota, Red River 

Abstract: This article summarizes a survey by the Bureau of Governmental Affairs at the 

University of North Dakota among the homeowners in the Grand Forks area to find out why a 

large percentage of homeowners had not purchased flood insurance after warnings from various 

agencies that the area could be more prone to floods after the heavy winter snows of 1997. In 

April of 1997 Grand Forks experienced the worse flooding in history. The survey focused on 

homeowners who did and did not have insurance prior to the 1997 floods. In addition, 

respondents were questioned on whether they were required to have flood insurance by mortgage 

lenders, if not then what affected their decision to buy flood insurance and if flood insurance was 

not purchased what were the reasons. The survey also interprets data from the survey by 

demographics, age, family size, assessed value of home, and experiences with previous disasters. 

The article concludes that FEMA’s efforts to encourage homeowners to purchase a flood 

insurance policy were ineffective. Most of those that did purchase a policy did so based on what 

they saw happening with the increased flood potential in their area. It also finds that over a onethird of the uninsured residents made inquiries about purchasing a policy but then decided 

against it. Even though FEMA was encouraging residents to purchase flood insurance the 

National Weather Service was issuing conservative forecasts for flood potential. These findings 

were presented to the Flood Summit hasted by the North Dakota Insurance Department to learn 

from the mistakes of this disaster and to be able to prevent future ones. 
244

Quinn, Rebecca C. (1996). Floodplain management insures against losses. FORUM for 

Applied Research and Public Policy, 11. 

Keywords:

awareness, insurance, risk perception 

Abstract: The former NFIP coordinator for the state of Maryland says that flood insurance has 

failed because property owners think floods would not happen to them, and, even if insured, they 

often rebuild in the same flood-prone zones. The NFIP has proposed offering mitigation 

insurance, which would pay the owner of an insured, flood-damaged structure an additional 

settlement for mitigation measures to prevent and/or reduce future flood damage. 

Rasmussen, J.L. (1994). Floodplain management into the 21st century: A blueprint for 

change—Sharing the challenge. Water International, 19(4), 166-76. 

Keywords:

floodplain management, Midwest floods of 1993, Mississippi River, strategic planning 

Abstract: The article summarizes of the Interagency Floodplain Management Review 

Committee’s Report to the Clinton Administration’s Floodplain Management Task Force. The 

author was a member of the committee, which proposed a better way to manage the nation’s 

floodplains. The report not only describes the nature and extent of the Midwest floods of 1993 

and government efforts to cope with the event, but also presents a blueprint for change. This 

blueprint is directed at both the upper Mississippi River Basin and the nation as a whole. Its 

foundation is a sharing of responsibilities and accountability among all levels of government, 

business, and private citizens. It provides for a balance among the many competing river and 

floodplain uses; it recognizes, however, that all existing floodplain activity simply cannot be 

discarded as inappropriate. The committee believes that, if implemented, the recommended 

approach will bring about changes necessary to reduce flood vulnerability to both the infrequent 

major flood events and the more frequent smaller ones. Implementation also will reduce the 

environmental, social, and economic burdens imposed by current conditions on both public and 

private sectors. The committee’s report includes an action plan delineating proposed 

responsibilities and time lines for execution of recommendations, a fiscal impact statement, and 

the findings of the preliminary Scientific Assessment and Strategy Team’s report. 

Rasmussen, Jerry L. (1994). Environmental restoration – Floodplains vs. potholes. Water 

Resources Update, 97(Autumn), 29-33. 

Available at: http://www.ucowr.siu.edu/updates/pdf/V97_A8

Keywords: 

environmental protection, environmental restoration, floodplain management, Mississippi River, 

riverine areas

Abstract: Riverine habitats and ecosystems can be self-renewing and the integrity of an 

ecosystem can be effectively restored in the form of focus areas for aquatic habitat, aimed 

primarily at preserving native riverine species. Restoration and maintenance of habitats that 

simulate natural conditions are critical to the restoration and management of native aquatic 

species and may be the last best chance to address riverine endangered species needs. Specific 

features proposed by a floodplain management bill introduced by Montana Senator Max Baucus 

are described as critical to near-term aquatic ecosystem restoration in the Mississippi River 

Basin. Included are the following: (a) a comprehensive evaluation of the upper Mississippi 

River; (b) river basin management planning; (c) habitat projects and resource monitoring; (d) 
245

congressional recognition of environmental and recreational resources; (e) environmental 

improvement; and (f) restoration of aquatic habitats. 

Rettger, Michael J. (1977). An Economic Analysis of Alternative Federal Flood Damage 

Assistance Programs. Washington, DC: Office of Water Research and Technology. 

Keywords:

disaster assistance, economic modeling, federal programs, New York 

Abstract: An economic analysis of alternative flood relief programs is presented based on the 

simulated flooding experience of the Binghamton, NY, metropolitan area. The theory of 

consumer choice under conditions of uncertainty is used to develop evaluation criteria for flood 

insurance and disaster loan programs, based on the benefits and costs of each program to both 

the public and the private sectors. A simulation model provides data for empirical 

implementation of the program analysis. The flood relief simulator is applied to a variety of 

possible assistance programs, including the NFIP and SBA’s Disaster Loan Program. Model 

results suggest that program designs cause substantial variations in costs, not only in terms of 

total outlay but also in the distribution of costs between the government and individuals. 

Rettger, Michael J. and Richard N. Boisvert. (1979). Economics of Federal Flood Insurance 

and Loan Programs. Search Agriculture, 9(2), 1-39. 

Keywords: 

cost-benefit analysis, economic modeling, insurance purchase decision, subsidies 

Abstract: This study examines the economics of alternative federal flood insurance and disaster 

loan programs, the distribution of program costs and benefits among public and private entities, 

and the effect of cost distribution on relocation decisions. The four alternative flood insurance 

and disaster loan programs evaluated were the regular and emergency flood insurance programs, 

the Small Business Administration’s disaster loan program, and a subsidized loan program of 

experimental design. The study finds that from a theoretical perspective, a property owner would 

prefer an unsubsidized insurance or loan program to no assistance at all. The study also analyzes 

the variability of flood disasters. Average annual flood damages in the study area were estimated 

at $1.1 million but the damages varied between the two-year flood at $197,000 and the 500-year 

flood at $57 million. The vast majority of damages were also concentrated in several categories 

of residential and commercial properties. The implication is that targeting these few classes of 

properties can greatly reduce flood costs. The study found that the added costs of flood insurance 

premiums to maintaining property were minor and would be unlikely to induce a property owner 

to relocate. 

Rettger, Michael J. and Richard N. Boisvert. (1979). Flood insurance or disaster loans: An 

economic evaluation. American Journal of Agricultural Economics, 61(3), 496-505.

Keywords:

disaster assistance, economic modeling, federal programs 

Abstract: This study uses simulated data to perform an economic comparison between flood 

insurance and disaster loans. Disaster loans were the prevailing form of assistance in the 1950s, 

when SBA represented the primary source of federal aid. Results were inconclusive since they 

varied according to model assumptions. Variations in premium and interest rate subsidies had 

major effects on the distribution of total cost between the public and private sectors. 
246

Richardson, Harry W., Peter Gordon, and Myung-Jin Jun. (1991). The Economic Impact of 

FEMA Flood Protection and Insurance Requirements on 10 Cities in the Los Angeles County 

Floodplain. Los Angeles, CA: Planning Institute, University of Southern California. 

Keywords: 

California, compliance, development

Abstract: The authors analyze the expected economic repercussions during the period 1992-

2005 of new construction standards and flood insurance requirements on 10 cities in Los Angeles 

County’s floodplain. The authors looked at three variables they felt may cause adverse local and 

regional economic impact: deferred construction, higher costs associated with compliance 

requirements for development, and flood insurance premiums that may drain resources from 

other forms of spending (offset in part, by a stimulus to the insurance industry). The authors 

surmise that the program will significantly discourage development in the floodplain. They 

conclude that floodplain location and the insurance requirements have massive, adverse 

economic impacts on the 10 cities studied. 

Richman, Sheldon L. (1994). Federal flood insurance: Managing risk or creating it? 

Regulation, 16(3), 15-17. 

Available at: http://www.regulationmagazine.org/pubs/regulation/reg16n3h.html

Keywords:

development, subsidies 

Abstract: The author contends that the Midwest floods of 1993 demonstrate the self-defeating 

nature of the federal government’s handling of natural disasters and that federal policies 

subsidize the cost of living in risky areas such as floodplains. The NFIP runs a deficit, has not 

constricted coastal development, and pays a third of its payments to 3 percent of claimants. 

While federal officials and the insurance industry maintain that floods are not an insurable risk, 

some private, though expensive, policies are available. Deregulated private insurance is an 

alternative. Some insurers defend the NFIP because they make money but incur no risk by 

selling policies. Massachusetts Senator John Kerry introduced S. 1405, which would prohibit 

new federal insurance policies in high-risk erosion areas. However, this bill would perversely 

expand federal control and violate property rights. The author believes that citizens should be 

free to do what they wish with their property and should accept the consequences. 

Riley, Ann L. (1994). The greening of federal flood-control policies: The Wildcat-San Pablo 

Creeks case. In Rutherford H. Platt, Rowan A. Rowntree, and Pamela C. Muick, eds. The 

Ecological City: Preserving and Restoring Urban Biodiversity. Amherst, MA: University of 

Massachusetts Press. 

Available for purchase at: http://www.umass.edu/ecologicalcities/documents/ec_book.htm

Keywords: 

California, environmental restoration, flood control, urban areas

Abstract: Local flood-control projects along streams and rivers have long been dominated by 

designs that use concrete and hydraulic engineering that is rectilinear and non-ecological. 

However, an urban flood-control project may be designed to restore natural habitat and enhance 

the environment while reducing the threat from floods. The thirty-six year history of planning for 

the Wildcat and San Pablo Creeks in North Richmond, CA, may result in an environmentally 

sensitive flood control project if the current design is successfully implemented and managed 

over time. This experience offers many lessons for similar projects elsewhere. 
247

Robb, John A. (1994). Economic and environmental challenges. Water Resources Update, 97 

(Autumn), 17-20. 

Available at: http://www.ucowr.siu.edu/updates/pdf/V97_A5

Keywords: 

environmental protection, flood control

Abstract: The chairman of the Upper Mississippi Flood Control Association (UMFCA) writes 

that flood control is the cornerstone of a river transportation infrastructure that permits 

navigation, economic development, and environmental and social stability. The current 

environmental challenge is to find a way to provide for all four of these essential parts in a 

compatible way without destroying or preventing future enhancement and development of any of 

the others. The challenge is further complicated by pro-environmental politics and financial 

reality. The UMFCA remains a strong supporter of navigation improvements, the continued 

protection of private property, economic development, and environmental protection. It believes 

that the balanced system of flood control and natural flooding areas, now in place, along the 

navigable rivers is the best environmental and wildlife producing system that has ever existed. 

Robert, Benoit, Simon Forget, and Jean Rousselle. (2001). The Effectiveness of Flood 

Damage Reduction Measures in the Montreal Region. Montreal, Quebec: Risk and 

Performance Group, Department of Civil, Geological and Mining Engineering, Ecole 

Polytechnique de Montreal. 

Available for purchase at: http://www.kluweronline.com/article.asp?PIPS=5092043&PDF=1

Keywords:

Canada, economic impacts, floodplain management, mitigation, Quebec 

Abstract: This study assesses the effectiveness of two flood damage reduction measures -- 

designation and diking of floodplains. The study was carried out in four Quebec municipalities 

located on the shores of Lac des Deux-Montagnes and Rivière des Mille-Iles, namely SainteMarthe-sur-le-Lac, Saint-Eustache, Rosemère, and Bois-des-Filion. Criteria for selecting the 

study areas included area of the flood-risk zone, presence or absence of dikes, presence or 

absence of buildings, and availability of data. The study areas were selected with the help of 

flood risk maps of the Greater Montreal region. In each area, information on the number of 

buildings and their economic value was taken from the municipality’s property assessment 

database. Trends in the occupancy and value of floodplains were identified and compared. The 

results of the study show that, as in other regions of Canada, measures to reduce flood damage 

based on designation and mapping of floodplains have had no impact on occupancy, have failed 

to reduce flood damages, and have not halted increases in such damages. 

Robinson, Michael E. (1989). The National Flood Insurance Program and Floodplain 

Development. Unpublished working paper. Washington, DC: FEMA. 

Keywords: 

building codes, development, NFIP, wetlands

Abstract: Robinson identifies six points that are important in any discussion of the impact of the 

NFIP in development (a) because new construction is actuarially rated, there is no insurance 

“subsidy” for property that was not already in place when the community was first mapped; (b) 

added costs associated with NFIP building standards and insurance premiums should discourage 

floodplain development provided that alternative flood free locations are available; (c) in a few 
248

instances, the NFIP may “enable” development by making lenders more willing to loan or invest 

in development. However, given the added costs associated with the NFIP’s building standards, 

this would most likely occur only when the proposed development has high recreational value or 

where undeveloped flood free property is scarce; (d) wetland losses are primarily due to 

agricultural and commercial or industrial development neither of which are affected by the 

availability of flood insurance; (e) the NFIP’s requirement that communities designate a 

regulatory floodway and prohibit development within that floodway that would cause any 

increase in flood heights provides significant protection to river corridors; and (f) the NFIP’s 

building standards improve the overall quality of development when it does occur. Empirical 

evidence, according to the author, does not support a conclusion that flood insurance is critical to 

coastal development. 

Roenigk, Dale J. (1993). Federal disaster relief and local government financial condition. 

International Journal of Mass Emergencies and Disasters, 11(2), 207-25.

Keywords:

disaster assistance, public assistance 

Abstract: Federal relief for local governments following natural disasters is provided under the 

assumption that without aid disasters might overwhelm local resources thus slowing recovery. 

Using loss data for a sample of counties experiencing disasters in the mid-1980s, this paper 

provides evidence that the financial condition of local governments was not improved by 

receiving federal aid. Additionally, the paper shows that the initial financial impacts of disasters 

may be negative, but that within two years the net effect is positive. 

Rosen, H. and M. Reuss, eds. (1986). Flood Control in Urban Areas: Past, Present and 

Future. Proceedings of a National Symposium, New Orleans, LA, September 26, 1986. 

Chicago, IL: Public Works Historical Society. 

Keywords: 

flood control, history, urban areas 

Abstract: This book summarizes the proceedings of the National Symposium, Flood Control 

Challenge: Past, Present, and Future held on September 26, 1986. This symposium 

commemorated the fiftieth anniversary of the 1936 Flood Control Act and was sponsored by the 

Public Works Historical Society and the Army Corps of Engineers in cooperation with the 

American Public Works Association’s Institute of Water Resources and Council on Emergency 

Management. The proceedings are arranged in three parts; Part I: The 1936 Flood Control Act, 

Part II: Impact on Rural and Urban Areas, and Part III: The Economics of Flood Control. 

Chapters of particular interest are: “Evolution and Future of Flood Control,” by T.M. Schad; 

“Flood Control in Urban Areas: Past, Present, and Future,” by B. Steinberg; and “When May a 

Post-Audit Teach Lessons?” by Gilbert F. White. 

Rucker, Robert E. (1986). Rationality and legitimation: A study of the National Flood 

Insurance Program. Dissertation Abstracts International, 46(10). 

Keywords:

history, NFIP 

Abstract: This dissertation analyzes the historical development and present workings of the 

NFIP. The NFIP is the result of the federal government’s continued involvement in flood control, 

which dates back to the early 1800s. The NFIP is a response to the inability of structural 
249

measures to prevent increases in flood damages. Historical data were analyzed for themes and 

sensitizing concepts which were then used to guide the second stage of data gathering using field 

work based on interviews, observations of public and private meetings, and current periodicals. 

This primary data were analyzed using the themes, sensitizing concepts, and Jurgen Habermas’s 

theoretical work on late capitalism. The case demonstrated problems of rational administration, 

economics, and legitimation as the federal government has implemented the NFIP. 

Ryland, H. G. (2000). A piece of the puzzle: Insurance industry perspective on mitigation. 

Natural Hazards Review, 1(1), 43-49. 

Available for purchase at: 

http://ascelibrary.aip.org/dbt/dbt.jsp?KEY=NHREFO&Volume=1&Issue=1

Keywords: 

floodplain management, mitigation, risk perception 

Abstract: Asthe risk reduction community seeks to harness resources and mold them into 

effective mitigation programs, communication and understanding among stakeholders are more 

critical than ever. The insurance industry has a long history of loss-prevention successes and is 

applying this experience to the mitigation of natural disaster losses. While most stakeholders are 

familiar with insurance coverage, relatively few understand what drives the industry and what its 

unique tools, obstacles, and issues are in relation to natural disasters. The research finds that 

natural disasters are generally perceived as a distant threat, but that perceptions vary with 

insurance coverage: consumers who have flood insurance see floods as being more likely than 

consumers without flood insurance (65 percent vs. 40 percent). This paper offers an insider’s 

view of the industry’s approach to mitigation, focusing on why mitigation is important to this

business sector, what the industry is doing to promote preparedness, what some of the obstacles 

are in its work, and how it can better prepare itself for the challenges ahead. 

Salvesen, David and David R. Godschalk. (1998). Development on Coastal Barriers: Does 

the Coastal Barrier Resources Act Make a Difference? Washington, DC: The Coastal 

Alliance. 

Available at: http://www.coastalliance.org/cbra/cbrarep1.pdf

Keywords: 

Alabama, Coastal Barrier Resources Act, coastal barriers, development, environmental policy, 

Florida, North Carolina, public policy, South Carolina, subsidies 

Abstract: This report evaluates the impact of the Coastal Barrier Resources Act (CBRA) on 

development in coastal barriers and has three objectives: to determine whether the availability of 

federal funds encourages construction in coastal areas; to determine whether restrictions under 

CBRA have been adhered to by the federal government; and to determine what would be the 

real, unsubsidized cost of coastal development, i.e., the added cost of development when 

developers have to pay for private roads, water and sewer systems, insurance, and/or bridges. 

The report discusses the act’s purposes and history, reviews the relevant literature, and provides 

both a qualitative (case studies) and quantitative analysis of CBRA’s impact. To conduct the 

evaluation, the authors visited coastal barriers in four states—Alabama, Florida, North Carolina, 

and South Carolina. At each site, the authors conducted interviews with key stakeholders and 

selected a random sample of parcels from CBRS and non-CBRS areas. In addition, where 

possible, the authors estimated the total number of dwellings, single-family houses, and 

condominiums constructed since the adoption of the act. Overall, the report makes several 
250

important conclusions: 1) where state and local government actions and policies support the 

objectives of CBRA, little or no development occurred in the CBRS unit; 2) state and local 

government subsidies were often substituted for federal subsidies, thus undermining the intent of 

CBRA; 3) infrastructure investment by the private sector has enabled development to occur in 

CBRS units; and 4) in the areas sampled, parcels in CBRS were less likely to be developed than 

parcels in non-CBRS areas within the same coastal barrier. 

Salvesen, David Anton. (2002). Land Use Change in the Coastal Barrier Resources System: 

The Effects of Conservation and Development Advocacy Coalitions. (Ph.D. dissertation, 

University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill). 

Keywords: 

coastal areas, Coastal Barrier Resources System, development 

Abstract: Using five case studies of selected Coastal Barrier Resources System (CBRS) units as 

well as surveys of state coastal managers and key informants, the author asked (a) the extent to 

which the Coastal Barrier Resources Act (CBRA) has limited development in CBRS units, (b) 

the ways in which policies and actions of state and local governments affect the development of 

CBRS units, and (c) the extent to which advocacy coalitions account for the difference in the 

level of development among certain CBRS units. Salvesen concludes that CBRA, by itself, will 

not prevent development from occurring in CBRA-designated areas. In fact, it appears that 

development in CBRS units will occur if development pressure is strong enough to overcome the 

disincentives posed by CBRA and state and local governments facilitate development in CBRS 

units. On coastal barriers that are readily accessible, where the real estate market is strong, and 

where most of the non-CBRS units have already been developed, CBRA may only be delaying 

the inevitable. However, government policies and advocacy coalitions can play a crucial role in 

shaping development in CBRS units. The paper suggests the following policy revisions: (a) 

ensure that federal agency actions are consistent with the act’s objectives should be delegated to 

a single agency, (b) appoint an official arbiter for interagency disputes, (c) incorporate the 

CBRA’s goals into local coastal zone management plans, (d) improve outreach, and (e) limit 

federal spending for infrastructure on coastal barriers if it will encourage development in a 

CBRS unit. 

Scanlon, T. Joseph. (1988). Winners and losers: Some thoughts about the political economy 

of disaster. International Journal of Mass Emergencies and Disasters, 6(1), 47-63. 

Keywords:

disaster assistance, economic impacts, public policy 

Abstract: While it is obvious disasters are negative events causing injury and death, damage, 

and destruction, macroeconomic studies show little long-term economic effects from disaster. 

That is because disasters create both losers and winners, which balance out. Who loses and who 

wins is not random but a result of public policy decisions. The losers include individuals who are 

injured, lose their jobs, lose their homes, lose a wage earner, or lose a place of residence. The 

winners include individuals who earn extra money because they are involved in emergency 

response or restoration. They include wage earners and their families as well as some businesses, 

but not others. They include communities that, because of substantial assistance, end up better 

off because of the disaster. Winners and losers are created by decisions about where to build a 

dam or who should receive what sort of assistance. This article is not based on new research but 

on an analysis of existing material. The author concludes that more research is needed on the 
251

economic effects on individuals, businesses and communities, and on the economic impact of 

policy decisions. 

Schaefer, Karl A. (1990). The effect of floodplain designation/regulations on residential 

property values: A case study in North York, Ontario. Canadian Water Resources Journal, 

15(4), 319-32. 

Keywords: 

Canada, economic modeling, floodplain designation, Ontario, property values, socioeconomic 

impacts, urban areas 

Abstract: This study investigates the effect of floodplain designation and regulations on 

residential property values in an established residential neighborhood on the Don River in North 

York, Ontario. This area was designated under the National Flood Damage Reduction (FDR) 

Program in 1982, and adopted as a Special Policy Area (SPA) in 1984. Various forms of a 

hedonic regression price model are utilized to identify the influence of designation/regulations on 

selling price. The model employs individual property attribute data, available through the 

Multiple Listing Service. A preliminary model indicates that location and designation/SPA 

formulation contribute minimally to sale price. Conversely, under the land comparison 

technique, designation moderately depresses and SPA regulations positively influence property 

values. Overall, the results are mixed, inconclusive, and highly dependent on the specific 

analytical model. 

Schneider, William J. and James E. Goddard. (1974). Extent and Development of Urban 

Flood Plains. Washington, DC: U.S. Geological Survey. 

Keywords: 

development, urban areas 

Abstract: This study evaluates both the amount of floodplain in urban areas and the degree of 

development of these floodplains for 26 communities in the United States. The amount of urban 

area in floodplains ranges from 2.4 percent in Spokane, WA, to 81 percent for Monroe, LA. The 

median value is 10.5 percent, and the weighted average is 16.2 percent. The amount of 

development on these floodplains also varies widely, from 11.3 percent for Lorain-Elyria, OH, to 

97 percent for Great Falls, MT. The median value is 57 percent, and the weighted average is 52.8 

percent. Attempts to correlate either the extent of urban area in floodplain or amount of 

development with three readily available indices—depth of flooding, precipitation, and 

physiography—showed no strong relationships. Some correlation was found between the extent 

of urban area in floodplain and index depth of flooding. 

Schmidt, Charles W. (2000). Lessons from the flood: Will Floyd change livestock farming? 

Environmental Health Perspectives, 108(2), A74-7. 

Available at: http://ehp.niehs.nih.gov/docs/2000/108-2/108pa74.pdf

Keywords:

agriculture, environmental protection, Hurricane Floyd, North Carolina 

Abstract: This article discusses the regulatory and policy implications for the swine industry in 

North Carolina in the aftermath of Hurricane Floyd. The swine industry was responsible for most 

of the flood-related environmental damage sustained during Hurricane Floyd. As part of an 

emergency waste-management plan, waste-management systems that sustained more than 50 

percent damage will not be permitted to rebuild in the 1 percent annual chance floodplain. 
252

Environmentalists and others contend that a massive hog farm should not be located in a lowlying area that is vulnerable to flooding and ecologically sensitive, but state officials are 

unwilling to provide any definitive answers as to whether regulatory changes to swine farming 

will ensue to accommodate future flood conditions. 

Schwab, Jim, Kenneth C. Topping, Charles C. Eadie, Robert E. Deyle, and Richard A. 

Smith. (1998). Planning for Post-Disaster Recovery and Reconstruction. Chicago, IL: 

American Planning Association. 

Available at: http://www.fema.gov/fima/planresource.shtm

Keywords: 

disaster assistance, disaster planning, flood disaster planning, hazard identification, Midwest 

floods of 1993, mitigation, natural disasters, risk assessment 

Abstract: FEMA provided funding for this report and asked the American Planning Association 

(APA) to write and publish it as a form of outreach to the planning community. The document 

can help community leaders and planners educate their constituents on how informed decisions 

and choices can affect the rebuilding process and yield a safer, more sustainable community. The 

report introduces planners to their roles in post-disaster reconstruction and recovery, and 

provides guidance on how to plan for post-disaster reconstruction side by side with all the other 

players involved (city/county managers, business owners, and others). A key theme throughout 

this report, and one that should be equal in importance to community recovery, is the need to 

rebuild in such a way as to create a community that is more resistant to future disasters. Hazard 

mitigation is crucial to the long-term sustainability of communities, and therefore must be 

considered as important as other traditional planning considerations when making development 

decisions. This report is essentially divided into two parts. How-to information is presented in 

the first, and background information, cases studies, and appendices are presented in the second. 

Schwarze, Reimund. (2003). New Directions in German Flood Insurance. Paper presented 

at LSE/CARR and AON workshop, Challenging Insurability: Flood Management and 

Insurance Regulation. London, November 4-5, 2003. Berlin: Deutsches Institut für 

Wirtschaftsforschung. 

Available at: 

http://www.lse.ac.uk/collections/CARR/events/previousConferencesWorkshops/aon/Schwarze%

20Presentation.pdf

Keywords: 

Germany, insurance coverage, mandatory purchase 

Abstract: The presentation describes the state of German flood damage and the response of 

flood insurance to reducing costs. The number of flood disasters worldwide in the 1990s was 

more than four times the number of flood disasters in the 1950s. Damages – insured and 

uninsured – have risen tremendously over the past half century. The author estimates that 

infrastructure damage accounts for 40 percent of total flood damages, followed by agriculture 

and forestry (22 percent), and private households (20 percent). Flood insurance has become an 

increasingly less viable option because of higher than expected losses, rapidly increasing 

premiums, rising deductibles, and added risk factors. All of these factors have resulted in the 

withdrawal of coverage. The demand for flood insurance has decreased as well. The presentation 

outlines the components of a mandatory purchase program and examines the differences between 

French and German reinsurance pools. 
253

Scottish Executive. (2004). Scottish Planning Policy – Planning and flooding. Edinburgh: 

Scottish Executive. 

Available at: www.scotland.gov.uk/library5/planning/spp7-01.asp

Keywords: 

development, flood control, floodplain management, risk assessment 

Abstract: Many parts of Scotland are at risk of flooding due to watercourses, proximity to the 

ocean, groundwater, and inadequate drainage. Experts predict that climate change will worsen 

the situation in the future. The Scottish Executive expects developers and planning authorities to 

err on the side of caution in decision-making whenever flooding is possible. For instance, new 

development should not take place if it would be at significant risk of flooding or would 

materially increase the probability of flooding elsewhere. The document insists that the storage 

capacity of functional floodplains should be safeguarded: namely, elevation of the level of a site 

should not lead to a reduction in storage capacity. The guidance states that redevelopment of 

brownfield sites in developed areas with flood defenses is acceptable. However, developers 

should be cautioned that greenfield proposals will extend the area of built development at risk 

and water-resistant materials and forms of construction may be required. The guidance states that 

sustainable drainage will be required whenever practicable and that watercourses should not be 

culverted. In general, developers should take drainage characteristics into account when planning 

a structure. Flood prevention and alleviation measures should respect environmental concerns 

and the characteristics of the flood hazard. 

Seydlitz, Ruth J., William Spencer, Shirley Laska, and Elizabeth Triche. (1991). The effects 

of newspaper reports on the public’s response to a natural hazard event. International 

Journal of Mass Emergencies and Disasters, 9(1), 5-29. 

Keywords:

risk communication, risk perception, Louisiana, media, Mississippi River 

Abstract: The literature on environmental hazards suggests that media reports constitute a major 

source of information on which people base their responses. However, the effect of media reports 

on responses is neither direct nor simple. Variables such as prior experience, the responses of 

others, selectivity in attention, and characteristics of the content of media reports interact to 

influence responses. On the basis of the extant literature on media and hazards, the authors 

constructed a model of the effect of media reports on the public’s response to a natural hazard 

event. The authors test various hypotheses derived from this model by examining a salt water 

intrusion in the Mississippi River that affected drinking water in the New Orleans metropolitan 

area in the summer of 1988. Using time series analysis, the article examines the effect of various 

characteristics of local newspaper stories on bottled water sales throughout the intrusion period. 

The results suggest that in the absence of personal experience, people are more likely to respond 

to media reports regardless of personal relevance or seriousness of the consequences of the 

hazard events reported by the media. When people possess personal experience, they are more 

selective in their attention and response to media reports. The results also suggest that people 

used media reports of others’ behaviors as cues to appropriate responses. Finally, the report 

concludes with a discussion of the conceptual and methodological implications of these results 

for future research. 
254

Shabman, Leonard A. and Demetrois I. Damianos. (1976). Flood-hazard effects on 

residential property values. Journal of the Water Resources Planning and Management 

Division, 102(1), 151-62. 

Available for purchase at: http://www.pubs.asce.org/WWWdisplay.cgi?5012065

Keywords: 

economic modeling, nonstructural approaches, property values, risk perception, socioeconomic 

impacts, structural approaches, Virginia, zoning 

Abstract: This paper reports on the results of an investigation of the hypothesis that the 

existence of flooding has a detrimental effect on residential land values. No reason was found to 

reject this hypothesis. The hypothesis that structural measures (flood control) enhance property 

values was not rejected although the evidence was limited to one case study. Finally, attempts to 

assess the hypothesis that nonstructural measures like zoning depress property values were not 

conclusive. The results also suggest some possible general conclusions. In the case of Radford, 

VA, the estimated equations suggest that the elimination of flood risk is something that 

ultimately gets built into prices in a uniform way. However, the inability to develop a strong 

explanatory regression equation for sales of land in the floodplain in Alexandria, VA, suggests a 

high degree of unexplained variation in sale prices. Such variability may actually stem from 

purchasers’ ignorance of the flood risk in the area or from a difference in the willingness to take 

such risks, although the results show that average sale prices are lower in the floodplain than in 

comparable flood-free areas. Thus, the removal of uncertainty has a predictable effect on price. 

Shabman, Leonard and Kurt Stephenson. (1992). The possibility of community-wide flood 

control benefits evidence from voting behavior in a bond referendum. Water Resources 

Research, 28(4), 959-64. 

Available for purchase at: http://www.agu.org/journals/wr/

Keywords:

attitudes, flood control, Virginia 

Abstract: Voting behavior in a referendum on flood control in Roanoke, VA, provides evidence 

that people living and working outside the flood-prone area are willing to pay for the 

construction of flood control projects. This voting behavior supports the argument that flood 

control benefits exist at the community level. In providing the cost sharing required under recent 

federal legislation, local government financing that distributes project costs over the whole 

population of a local jurisdiction, and not just those persons living or working in protected areas, 

may increase both economic efficiency and expand communities’ financial capacity to pay for 

such projects. 

Shabman, Leonard. (1994). Responding to the 1993 flood: The restoration option. Water 

Resources Update, 95(Spring), 26-30. 

Available at: http://www.ucowr.siu.edu/updates/pdf/V95_A5.pdf

Keywords: 

environmental restoration, public policy, wetlands

Abstract: This article takes a critical perspective on the restoration of floodplains. It describes 

how the nation’s goals for its wetlands and floodplains have changed over time from 

development to preservation and, now, to ecosystem restoration. It states that effective policy 

analysis must go beyond the easy rhetoric of saying that the 1993 flood revealed “failed 

policies.” Analyses must demonstrate that continued agricultural land use imposes costs that are 
255

greater than their values, and that the society is willing and able to implement policies to restore 

the lands. It comments on analytic and financing challenges for advancing a national restoration 

agenda and concludes that the policy question posed by the 1993 flood is whether the nation 

wishes to reverse the long standing policies that have encouraged the occupancy of floodplains 

and the drainage of wetlands and pursue a restoration agenda. 

Shabman, Leonard and Kurt Stephenson. (1996). Searching for the correct benefit 

estimate: Empirical evidence for an alternative perspective. Land Economics, 72(4), 433-49. 

Available for purchase at: http://www.wisc.edu/wisconsinpress/journals/journals/le.html

Keywords:

cost-benefit analysis, economic modeling, property values, public policy 

Abstract: This paper contrasts the results of the valuation techniques of contingent valuation, 

hedonic price, and property damages avoided. Each technique was used to estimate the value of 

flood risk reduction from the construction of a flood control project. Voting behavior in a 

referendum called specifically for the provision of the project was used to further interpret the 

results from the three valuation studies. The authors found substantial differences between the 

estimates. The authors suggest economists should apply the estimation technique that best 

facilitates a collective choice process. An acceptable benefit estimation technique does not have 

to measure all possible effects in direct accord with theoretical willingness-to-pay logic, instead 

the decision-participants must believe that the estimate reflects some salient feature of a choice. 

It also means that the estimate needs to be understood to those who might use it. For instance, the 

Property Damages Avoided (PDA) technique could be a useful benefit estimation technique for a 

variety of reasons (understandable logic and limitations), none of which is based on the argument 

that it is an accurate or comprehensive measure of the benefits of flood control. In contrast, while 

contingent valuation methods (CVM) are theoretically capable of establishing the willingness-topay for the entire range of environmental use, CVM may provide little useful policy information, 

sometimes even generating more controversy than application in decision-making. The authors 

conclude that to be effective in public policy, economists have to become more attentive to what 

techniques, advice, and analyses are useful to those involved in making choices. Policy 

economists will be ineffective if they cling to the notion that there exists a “correct” benefit 

estimate and that their professional responsibility is to measure it under any circumstances. 

Sheaffer & Roland, Inc. (1976). Case study of Padre Island National Seashore: Supporting 

Study for Barrier Island Development Near Four National Seashores. Geneva, IL: Sheaffer 

& Roland, Inc. 

Keywords: 

development, Hurricane Beulah, subsidies, Texas, wind

Abstract: This study provides a chronology of events that influenced a surge of development in 

the most southern portions of Padre Island, TX. The availability of flood insurance is one of 

several factors identified in the growth of neighboring communities. At about the same time as 

the NFIP was enacted, the state legislature created the Texas Catastrophe Property Insurance 

Association (now known as the Texas Windstorm Insurance Association), which guaranteed 

windstorm and hail insurance to Texas coastal communities. Of the two programs, the windstorm 

pool coverage clearly presented the largest exposure. Also, the authors said that another large 

influence on development came in 1967 during the aftermath of Hurricane Beulah. This 

hurricane destroyed mostly substandard structures, clearing the way (literally) for more storm-
256

proof development. The authors conclude that while the NFIP represented the first occurrence of 

federal subsidization of development in South Padre Island, the impact of the availability of 

flood insurance is difficult to discriminate from the impact of the availability of wind and hail 

insurance and the impact of Hurricane Beulah. 

Sheaffer & Roland, Inc. (1981). Barrier Island Development Near Four National Seashores.

Washington, DC: Sheaffer & Roland, Inc. 

Keywords: 

coastal barriers, development, property values 

Abstract: This report focuses on the impact of public land acquisition on land values on adjacent 

barrier islands and mainland communities. To address the topic, the authors select and analyze 

four seashores on the southeast Atlantic and Gulf Coasts. The report found that increases in real 

estate values in communities adjacent to the seashores were not determinable. Also, convenient 

access by road, bridge, or causeway did not immediately lead in every case to extensive 

development in the adjacent community. In all of the case studies, initial development of road 

access was financed by private, local, and state interests. Federal participation came later. 

Wastewater management and freshwater supply were among the major constraints on further 

development. Acquisition costs of the seashores studied ranged from $75.35 to $4,950 per acre. 

However, even using an average purchase price of $5,000 per acre, acquisition costs could be 

one-fifth or less of the costs to the federal government of continuing current development 

programs on the undeveloped barrier islands. Cost-effectiveness will be maximized if public 

acquisition occurs before development, if possible. The report concludes that public acquisition 

of the islands is cost effective and the surest means to protect barrier islands from inappropriate 

development. 

Sheaffer, John R., J. David Mullan, and Nathan B. Hinch. (2002). Encouraging wise use of 

floodplains with market-based incentives. Environment, 44(1), 32-43. 

Available at: http://www.findarticles.com/p/articles/mi_m1076/is_1_44/ai_82492655

Keywords: 

Community Rating System, development, economic impacts, environmental impacts, 

environmental policy, flood control, floodplain management, NFIP, public policy, zoning 

Abstract: This article describes how market-based incentives can encourage private interests to 

implement sustainable development and ultimately achieve wise use of floodplains. After 

explaining the evolution of flood control policies and why these traditional approaches have 

failed, the authors discuss the need for a broader understanding of the wise use of floodplains. 

This approach emphasizes the economic, social, and environmental benefits of multipurpose 

floodplain management as well as the costs of correcting past mistakes of land-use. Marketbased incentives can be incorporated into overall floodplain management efforts to help create a 

more multipurpose approach and to attain the goal of wise use. An incentives-based approach to 

floodplain management seeks to identify relationships among regional and environmental factors 

and to incorporate solutions of multiple economic and environmental benefits. Development 

credits represent one way to incorporate market-based incentives into floodplain management. 

For example, the public benefits associated with the wise use of floodplains can be credited to 

owners and developers by allowing them to build more housing units in a development in an 

appropriate area. The authors then discuss examples of current programs and projects using 

incentives including CRS. 
257

Sheaffer, John R. (1967). Introduction to Floodproofing: An Outline of Principles and 

Methods. Chicago, IL: Center for Urban Studies, University of Chicago. 

Keywords: 

floodproofing, mitigation, nonstructural approaches, structural approaches 

Abstract: Floodproofing consists of those techniques for preventing flood damage to a structure 

and the contents of a building in an area subject to flood hazards. This publication is intended to 

acquaint public officials, building owners, and professionals with the essential principles and to 

outline and illustrate simple but effective measures for reducing the damages caused by flooding. 

The report can serve as an outline for engineers, architects, and other professionals of the 

problems associated with either preventing entry of water into buildings or minimizing the 

damages from flooding. Chapter topics include the uses and limitations of floodproofing, the 

physical environment and types of floodproofing, procedures for floodproofing, structural 

engineering aspects of floodproofing, and programs of floodproofing. 

Shepard, Richard C. (1994). Floodplain development: Lessons learned from the great flood 

of 1993. Urban Land, 53(3), 19-24, 42, 44. 

Keywords: 

Midwest floods of 1993, 1 percent annual chance flood standard, property values

Abstract: This article says that the Midwest floods of 1993 “caught many business executives 

off guard – unaware of the flooding danger, the need for flood insurance, or what steps they 

should take in a flood emergency.” The author takes exception with the use of the term “100-

year floodplain” saying it is misleading and creates a false sense of security. While it is difficult 

to quantify the effect of flood or fear of flooding on the real estate market, property values take a 

“major hit” after a flood. According to the author, it would take rebuilding levees to the 500-year 

floodplain level to reinstate market values of land to the levels prior to the Great Flood. 

Shilling, James D., C.E. Sirmans, and John D. Benjamin. (1989). Flood insurance, wealth 

redistribution, and urban property values. Journal of Urban Economics, 26(1), 43-53. 

Available for purchase at: http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/journal/00941190

Keywords:

economic modeling, Louisiana, pre-FIRM structures, property values, subsidies, urban areas 

Abstract: This paper examines the economics of the wealth transfer created by the NFIP. By its 

very nature, the NFIP is unique in that it subsidizes existing properties but not new construction. 

Thus for comparable properties, the gain captured by existing homeowners is the difference 

between selling prices of equivalent qualified and nonqualified properties. Using standard 

hedonic pricing models, the authors empirically test the impact of subsidized and nonsubsidized 

flood insurance on property values in Baton Rouge, LA. Results demonstrate that floodplain 

location causes a significant discount on properties eligible for subsidized flood insurance. This 

wealth redistribution simply adds to the total cost of transferring subsidized housing units. 

Shipley, Sarah. (2003). Missouri lacks rules on flood plain development. The St. Louis PostDispatch, July 27. 

Available at: 

http://www.stltoday.com/stltoday/news/special/flood93.nsf/front?openview&count=2000

Keywords: 
258

attitudes, awareness, buyouts, development, economic impacts, environmental impacts, flood 

control, flood damage, floodplain management, insurance purchase decision, levees, mapping, 

Midwest floods of 1993, Missouri, NFIP, 1 percent annual chance flood standard, public policy, 

risk perception, Special Flood Hazard Areas, zoning 

Abstract: This article addresses concerns about a lack of state oversight of floodplain 

development in communities. Missouri, like about 20 other states, does not have a statewide 

floodplain management program, but instead relies on communities to voluntarily participate in 

the NFIP and adopt the program’s standards. The article quotes representatives from 

organizations such as the Missouri Coalition for the Environment and the Great Rivers Habitat 

Alliance, which are critical of what they see as inadequate management of the state’s floodplains. 

The article points to other states that use regulations to control floodplain development. Some 

states mandate local participation in the NFIP, oversee levee construction, formulate policy 

based on anticipated or future development, and require standards that exceed those required by 

the NFIP such as freeboard or wider floodways. The article is part of a series of more than 20 

articles published by The St. Louis Post-Dispatch in July 2003 to examine the state of areas 

affected by the Midwest floods of 1993. Other articles address construction removed from the 

floodplain by levees, programs to buyout properties in the floodplain, increased development 

within the floodplain, and perception of flood risk.

Siedt, Debra George. (2003). Repeat Flooding Looses Plague Md. Counties; Rapid 

Development, Outdated Maps Expose Some Homes to Multiple Hits. Washington Post. 

December 25. 

Keywords: 

buyouts, Maryland, repetitive losses

Abstract: The article highlights an analysis of FEMA data regarding repetitive loss properties in 

Maryland. Maryland had 299 repetitive flood losses over a 10-year period with Worcester, 

Baltimore, and Washington counties reporting the most. Taxpayers typically pay for disaster 

assistance when flood occurs outside a mapped flood-zone area and the property is uninsured, or 

when a federal disaster is declared. Increased development has created new flood-prone areas not 

listed on outdated maps. FEMA is trying to mitigate the most egregious repetitive loss cases, 

primarily through buyouts. Since 1996, Maryland has had more than 360 buyout projects. 

Sierra Club. (2000). Permitting Disaster in America: How Reforming “Rubber Stamp” 

Wetland Destruction Permits Will Protect Your Family from More Flood Risks. Madison, WI: 

Sierra Club Midwest Office. 

Available at: http://www.sierraclub.org/wetlands/reports/flooding/ 

Keywords:

Army Corps of Engineers, environmental protection, flood control, flood damage, mitigation, 

permits, wetlands 

Abstract: This report shows that floodplain sprawl and wetland destruction are causing more 

flood deaths and damage across the country. According to the Sierra Club, the Army Corps of 

Engineers approved 99 percent of developers’ requests between 1988 and 1996 for permits to 

destroy wetlands. This rate of approval occurred even in states with high flood risks. Floods 

killed 957 and destroyed $45-90 billion in property from 1989 to 1998. North Dakota leads the 

nation with 15 counties declared disaster areas five times between 1989 and 1998. King County, 

WA, and Jefferson County, IN, had flood disasters on seven separate occasions. The report also 
259

shows that “rubber stamp” wetland permits allows developers to build on and destroy 78,000 

acres of wetlands, enough to store 78 billion gallons of floodwater or about 24,000 flood control 

dams, between 1988 and 1996. Meanwhile, FEMA and state agencies paid $500 million to move 

more than 17,000 residential and commercial structures out of floodplains after floods between 

1988 and 1998. Data from the Army Corps of Engineers show that 40 percent of the destruction 

of wetlands from 1988 to 1996 occurred with Nationwide Permit 26, which allows developers to 

destroy up to three acres of isolated wetlands. 

Siffin, William J. (1981). Bureaucracy, Entrepreneurship, and Natural Resources: Witless 

Policy and the Barrier Islands. Cato Journal, 1(1), 293-311. 

Available at: http://www.cato.org/pubs/journal/cj1n1/cj1n1-13.pdf

Keywords: 

coastal barriers, development, environmental impacts, environmental policy, federal programs

Abstract: This paper focuses on the often unintended consequences of federal development and 

grant programs by a number of agencies on barrier islands. There are about 300 barrier islands 

and spits containing roughly 1,605,000 acres in the United States, varying from units of 50 acres 

to islands of more than 100,000 acres. The author describes barrier islands as environmentally 

and economically important. Many barrier islands contain significant urban settlements, 

including such population centers as Virginia Beach and Miami Beach. Barrier islands also 

experience a high rate of urbanization, roughly three to four times faster than the mainland. 

Moreover, the national stock of undeveloped barrier islands – 480,000 acres – has tremendous 

development potential that will be affected by federal programs. The author’s concludes that a 

number of federal programs encourage – or at least, do not discourage – settlement of barrier 

islands. In its actions, the federal government presumes a right for citizen to settle wherever they 

please. The author states that many of the federal programs were established with no regard for 

their effect on barrier islands, and that today many people can afford to settle on barrier islands 

only because of conditions created by federal programs. For example, the federal flood insurance 

program was created to cover risks that are unacceptable in the private insurance market. The 

author likens the program to crop insurance for real estate brokers and mortgage lenders. The 

author also identifies EPA grants for public wastewater treatment as among the catalysts for 

expanding barrier island settlement. The report’s contention is that the confluence of effects of 

disparate federal programs is increasing urbanization on barrier islands and decreasing the risks 

of locating there. He sees this as a consequence of a bureaucratic system consisting of agencies 

whose mandates are remote from barrier island issues, yet which affect islands substantially. 

Simmons, K. M. and J.D. Kruse. (2000). Market value of mitigation and perceived risk: 

Empirical results. Journal of Economics, 26(1), 41-51. 

Keywords:

mitigation, Texas, wind 

Abstract: This paper explores the value of windstorm mitigation in a city on the Gulf Coast. 

Policymakers have long assumed that agents will not voluntarily mitigate for a natural disaster. 

Consequently, policy has focused on coercive measures. The study contains detailed information 

on the inclusion of storm-blinds, a specific hurricane mitigation feature. Homes with stormblinds command a premium compared to homes without this feature, thereby questioning the 

assumption held by policymakers. This result, however, is limited to homes located on the island 

portion of the community indicating that agents differentiate the risk from one area to another. 
260

Simmons, Malcolm. (1988). The Evolving National Flood Insurance Program. Washington, 

DC: Congressional Research Service. 

Keywords: 

coastal areas, coastal barriers, development, NFIP

Abstract: This brief overview of the NFIP explains that one of the more volatile issues for the 

NFIP has been whether it should provide any form of incentive for development of coastal 

barriers. It became apparent to Congress that a variety of factors were producing growing 

pressure for the development of these fragile areas. These factors not only included construction 

of infrastructure but also the availability of flood insurance through the NFIP. Eliminating the 

availability of federal flood insurance for new construction in these areas would remove one of 

these incentives to develop. 

Singer, Saul Jay. (1990). Flooding the Fifth Amendment: The National Flood Insurance 

Program and the “Takings” clause. Boston College Environmental Affairs Law Review, 

17(2), 323-71. 

Keywords:

legal issues and litigation, NFIP, takings 

Abstract: The author examines the potential impact of U.S. Supreme Court rulings on the 

constitutionality of the NFIP. Between early 1987 and 1990, the Supreme Court decided three 

important cases involving the key question of what constitutes a taking of interests in real 

property under the Constitution. The author discusses the Fifth Amendment debate over the 

NFIP’s takings clause, the nature and extent of flood hazards in the United States, and a brief 

history of the NFIP. The author concludes that there are few “new” practical results emerging 

from the Supreme Court’s “takings trilogy” of 1987 that impact on the NFIP. As the result of the 

takings trilogy, it is expected that the courts will scrutinize more closely both the regulatory 

purpose underlying laws affecting land use and the nexus relationship of statutes to purported 

regulatory goals. However, the NFIP has little cause for the constitutional fear engendered in 

some circles by the three decisions. Considering the hundreds of flood hazard-related land-use 

regulations upheld by the courts compared to the handful of those overturned, it is more than 

likely that the courts will continue to sustain soundly conceived and fairly administered 

floodplain regulations and loss-mitigation statutes. 

Skantz, Thomas R. and Thomas H. Strickland. (1987). House prices and a flood event: An 

empirical investigation of market efficiency. The Journal of Real Estate Research, 2(2), 75-

83. 

Available at: http://cbeweb1.fullerton.edu/finance/journal/papers/pdf/past/vol02n02/v02p075.pdf

Keywords: 

economic modeling, housing markets, insurance, property values, subsidies, Texas, urban areas 

Abstract: This paper provides evidence about the pricing efficiency of residential real estate 

markets by comparing home prices before and after a flood for two contiguous locations—a 

flooded and an unflooded (control) subdivision in Houston, TX. If the flood conveys the initial 

signal that the subdivision is flood-prone, then an efficient market will depress prices with no 

subsequent recovery. In contrast, if the flood simply confirms a recognized fact, no price 

response will ensue. Alternatively, as maintained by local real estate professionals, prices in the 
261

flooded subdivision will decline immediately after the flood. Then, as the market forgets the 

flood, prices gradually rise to original levels. This latter sort of price behavior is patently 

inefficient. The findings indicate that prices in the flooded subdivision do not decline relative to 

the local market immediately after the flood. Apparently the information conveyed by the event 

is already reflected in home prices. However, when insurance rates increase markedly 

approximately one year later, the higher rates are capitalized into home values and prices fall. 

This evidence is consistent with market efficiency. 

Slovic, P., B. Fischhoff, S. Lichtenstein, B. Corrigan, and B. Combs. (1977). Preferences for 

insuring against probable small losses: Insurance implications. Journal of Risk and 

Insurance, 44(2), 237-257. 

Keywords: 

insurance purchase decision, risk perception 

Abstract: The report documents the results of a series of laboratory experiments. The 

experiments measured the likelihood that participants would purchase insurance for specified 

hazards with varying probabilities and outcome costs. Results indicated that people are less 

likely to insure against relatively unlikely hazards with high outcome costs. Conversely, people 

showed more willingness to purchase insurance against hazards that had a high probability of 

occurrence, even if the outcome costs from such hazards were low. Thus the probability of an 

event occurring seems to be given greater weight in the decision making process than the 

possible outcome of the event. This conclusion has obvious implications for natural hazard and 

flood insurance. 

Smith, David J., John C. Purvis, and Arthur Felts. (1995). Risk communication: The role of 

the South Carolina State Climatology Office. Bulletin of the American Meteorological 

Society, 76, 2423-31. 

Keywords:

Hurricane Hugo, risk communication, South Carolina, weather 

Abstract: The federally supported state climatologist program ended in 1972. Thereafter, most 

states supported these endeavors in coordination with the National Climatic Data Center, but the 

current state programs vary widely. One of the functions of state climate programs that evolved 

since 1972 is acting as a liaison between the National Weather Service and various state 

agencies. This role was most apparent and controversial in coordinating state and local 

government response to severe weather and extreme climate anomalies such as droughts, floods, 

winter storms, and tropical cyclones. The activities of the climate office in South Carolina during 

Hurricane Hugo in September 1989 and the October 1990 floods revealed how these interactions 

occur in one state that mandated these activities. The state climate office had to react to shifting 

weather conditions and to variable political conditions that affect public organizations. The 

climate office in South Carolina acts to interpret weather information, develop scenarios and 

predictions, and assist in post-event damage surveys. This review acknowledges and documents 

the expanding role of the state climate office in South Carolina in response to state and local 

government needs for weather forecast interpretation and expert guidance in the event of severe 

weather. 

Smith, D.I. (1998). Urban flood damage under greenhouse conditions: What does it mean 

for policy? Australian Journal of Emergency Management, 13(2) 56-61. 
262

Available at: 

http://www.ema.gov.au/agd/EMA/rwpattach.nsf/viewasattachmentpersonal/(85FE07930A2BB44

82E194CD03685A8EB)~Urban_flood_damage_under_greenhouse_conditions_What_does_it_m

ean_for_policy+.pdf/$file/Urban_flood_damage_under_greenhouse_conditions_What_does_it_

mean_for_policy+.pdf

Keywords: 

Australia, environmental impacts, flood causes, flood damage, weather 

Abstract: The last decade has seen the first tentative steps to assess the socio-economic impacts 

of greenhouse-induced climates on communities. This article estimates possible flood damages 

for three flood prone urban communities in Australia using climate change scenarios adopted by 

the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) in 1996. According to the models, all 

three locations would see a marked increase in the average annual direct flood damage under the 

worst-case scenario (doubling of present-day CO2 levels). Furthermore, more frequent flooding 

could potentially cause a sharp increase in the number of flood prone structures. In response to 

these estimates, the authors discuss two possible approaches to greenhouse policy: the “no 

regrets” option and the “precautionary principle.” The “no regrets” option can be regarded as 

measures worth doing anyway, whereas the “precautionary principle” can be regarded as 

additional investment that would not have otherwise been invested. The authors recommend 

policy changes based on the “no regrets” and “precautionary principle” despite the uncertainties 

and lack of local detail in the greenhouse scenarios and the problems of estimating the frequency 

of extreme events. 

Smith, V. Kerry. (2004). Can Natural Experiments Measure Behavioral Responses to 

Environmental Risks? Paper presented at Risk Perception, Valuation, and Policy. Orlando, 

April 29 to May 1, 2004. Orlando: University of Central Florida. 

Available at: http://www4.ncsu.edu/~jccarbon/hurricanes.pdf

Keywords: 

economic modeling, Florida, housing markets, Hurricane Andrew, methodology, property 

values, risk perception 

Abstract: The paper presents a study of the effect of risk perceptions of property owners on 

housing prices in Florida before and after Hurricane Andrew. The study compares home sales in 

Dade County, which suffered the majority of Andrew’s damages and Lee County, which was 

close to the hurricane’s landfall, but suffered no structural damage. The study find that housing 

prices in Dade County fell between 20 and 30 percent, while housing prices in Lee County fell 

an average of 19 percent. The difference between counties intends to isolate the “information 

effects” of the hurricane – the change in housing prices as a result of increased awareness of the 

potential of a major disaster. The analysis distinguishes between models that include the effects 

of time on housing price and those that do not. Further research of the dynamic between risk 

perception and time from a natural disaster is recommended. 

Soetanto, Robby and David Proverbs. (2004). Impact of Flood Characteristics on Damage 

Caused to UK Domestic Properties: The Perceptions of Building Surveyors. West Yorkshire, 

England: Emerald Group Publishing Limited. 

Keywords: 

damage assessment, flood damage, repair costs, United Kingdom, 
263

Abstract: The paper presents the results of surveyor responses regarding flood characteristics as 

part of a two-year project to benchmark the assessment of flood-damaged properties in the 

United Kingdom. The research is based on the principle that flood damage is the function of 

flood characteristics and property characteristics. A review of previous research finds that little 

or no consideration is given to the characteristics of a flood when assessing flood-damaged 

properties. The survey finds that individual perceptions play a large role in damage estimation. 

The report recommends definitive guidance to minimize variations in claims and repair 

estimates. 

Soule, Don M. and Claude M. Vaughan. (1974). Flood protection benefits as reflected in 

property value changes. Water Resources Bulletin, 9(5), 918-22. 

Keywords: 

economic modeling, flood control, Kentucky, property values, urban areas 

Abstract: Measuring flood control benefits from estimated property damage in prior floods 

omits losses in the form of depressed values of land put to less valuable uses because of annual 

flooding. Covariance analysis of real property values in three urban areas differently situated 

around Lake Cumberland, KY, shows a much larger rate of increase, over a 15-year period, for 

the area receiving flood protection. This result suggests that the economic benefits from a flood 

protection facility (dam) include these additional property value increases as well as the 

prevented property damage. 

Sparks, Richard E. and Ruth Sparks. (1994). After floods: Restoring ecosystems. USA 

Today Magazine, 123, 40-3. 

Available at: http://www.findarticles.com/p/articles/mi_m1272/is_n2590_v123/ai_15594508

Keywords:

agriculture, cost-benefit analysis, environmental restoration, floodplain management, Mississippi 

River, riverine areas 

Abstract: This article focuses on the proposals for an aquatic ecosystem restoration of the 

floodplains in the United States. It offers an alternative to rebuilding of agricultural levees and 

discusses the restoration of the natural services of floodplains. It reviews the modification of 

federal programs to protect life, property, and the improvement of the ecosystems of the Upper 

Mississippi River. The article suggests that although floodplain agriculture may be profitable 

from a farmer’s perspective, no one really knows whether it is sustainable and cost-efficient from 

a national perspective. The article questions whether it is necessary to subsidize flood protection 

on flood-prone lands and irrigation on arid lands when production is so high on prime farmland 

with more moderate moisture conditions that farmers are paid not to grow crops. According to 

the article, most of the wetlands in the Midwest have been drained and virtually all the rivers 

have been degraded by excessive erosion or sedimentation, there is increasing public demand to 

preserve what is left and restore at least some of what has been lost. Finally, the article concludes 

that a revised and more effective national flood management program should include aquatic 

ecosystem restoration. 

Speyrer, J.F and W.R. Ragas. (1991). Housing prices and flood risk: An examination using 

spline regression. Journal of Real Estate Finance and Economics, 4(4), 395-407. 

Keywords:

economic modeling, housing markets, Louisiana, mandatory purchase, property values 
264

Abstract: This article examines the impact of flood risk and the mandatory purchase of flood 

insurance on property values. Using a large data set of almost 2,000 homes sold in the New 

Orleans, LA, area from 1971 through 1986, the analysis confirms the findings of earlier studies 

that location in a floodplain reduces property values. The present study, using spline variables to 

adjust for locational variation in the data and an improved measure of insurance cost, reveals that 

much of this reduction can be attributed to mandatory flood insurance coverage. Moreover, while 

unexpected flooding does increase the capitalization of insurance costs, repeated flooding does 

not seem to reduce property values further. 

Shipley, Sarah. (2003). Cities, states try new ways to live with floodplains. St. Louis PostDispatch, July 31. 

Keywords: 

floodplain, levees, Missouri, Midwest floods of 1993 

Abstract: This article presents the on-going conflict between conservation groups and 

development agencies in the Midwest, specifically Missouri. The author focuses on federal 

legislation and how it can be unclear in dealing with Floodplain regulation on a local level. She 

points out other cities and states, such as Charlotte, NC and Illinois that have adopted stricter 

regulations that will, in the long run, save money and hopefully, minimize destruction for future 

possible flooding disasters for communities. 

Stakhiv, Eugene Z. (1995). Floodplain planning and management for extreme floods. Paper 

presented at the United States-Italy Research Workshop on the Hydrometeorology, Impacts, 

and Management of Extreme Floods, Perugia, Italy, November 13-17, 1995. 

Available at: http://www.engr.colostate.edu/~jsalas/us-italy/papers/42stakhiv.pdf

Keywords:

floodplain management, Midwest floods of 1993, public policy 

Abstract: This paper presents a brief overview of the Midwest floods of 1993 as the context for 

understanding the Army Corps of Engineers’ responses to the policy and programmatic 

recommendations in the aftermath of the flood. The paper argues that generally, what is lacking 

for good decision making is basic information, rather than research. Public policies are being 

made in the absence of good information in the form of data about flood damages, degree of 

inundation, and severity and frequency of flooding. The author argues that research is needed to 

improve and refine existing methods rather than to create entirely new approaches or methods. 

Finally, much of the research and analysis that is required to act on the recommendations of the 

“Galloway Report” is to improve the administration and effectiveness of existing programs. 

Stedinger, Jery R. (1997). Expected probability and annual damage estimators. Journal of 

Water Resources Planning and Management, 123(2), 125-35. 

Keywords:

Army Corps of Engineers, modeling, risk assessment 

Abstract: Controversy continues over the relative merits of traditional frequency estimators and 

the “expected probability” estimator of flood risk that incorporates an adjustment for parameter 

uncertainty. Both have solid theoretical motivation, but address different concerns. The 

description of hydrologic risk and uncertainty provided by new risk and uncertainty procedures 

adopted by the Army Corps of Engineers, and risk-based design procedures developed by others, 

are shown to be equivalent to the expected probability model in simple cases. A 1995 National 
265

Research Council (NRC) report recommended against use of the expected probability model for 

evaluating expected annual damages and the probability of flooding. In particular, the NRC 

analysis and the 1989 Amell analysis demonstrated that expected probability estimators yield 

risk and damage estimators that generally have large positive biases. Historical arguments and 

related issues are reviewed. Resolution of this controversy and success of the new Army Corps 

of Engineers’ risk and uncertainty procedures require a clear framework for understanding what 

is meant by risk, variability, and uncertainty. Such risk analyses can better represent local 

vulnerability to flooding and the large uncertainty in estimates of expected damages and residual 

flood risk. 

Steele, Chuck and Chaz & Associates. (2001). A Summary of NFIP Policy for Local 

Officials: A Guide to Assist Local Governments in Their Floodplain Management Programs.

Bothell, WA: FEMA Region X. 

Keywords: 

legal issues and litigation, mitigation, NFIP, public policy 

Abstract: The NFIP has been in existence for over 30 years and nearly 20,000 communities 

participate in the program. Policy has been issued through a variety of sources, including Policy 

Notices, when the program was part of the U.S. Department of Housing and Urban Development 

in the 1970s, supplemented by policy memoranda, letters to communities and various FEMA 

publications. Thus, there is a significant amount of policy guidance available to communities, but 

not compiled in a single document, or widely accessible to most. The purpose of this document is 

to provide local officials with a summary of policy, applicable to FEMA Region X, based on 

Policy Notices, the NFIP Floodplain Management Guidance Handbook, policy letters, 

memoranda, publications, and related documents. The document is not meant to provide all 

available details on a particular policy, but includes references to original documents if 

additional information is needed. A sample of the topics covered in the document includes 

manufactured home elevation, freeboard, crawlspace construction, and community permitting. 

Suhayda, J.N. (1997). Modeling impacts of Louisiana barrier islands on wetland hydrology. 

Journal of Coastal Research, 13(3), 686-93. 

Keywords:

Base Flood Elevation, coastal areas, coastal barriers, development, Hurricane Andrew, 

Louisiana, modeling 

Abstract: Management and restoration of natural systems requires the quantitative assessment of 

the impact and cost effectiveness of management alternatives. This paper describes the 

methodology used in Louisiana to evaluate the role of barrier islands in influencing wetland 

hydrology and some preliminary results. The objective of the evaluation was to determine the 

effect of barrier island geometry on the duration and depth of inundation of coastal wetlands 

under average and extreme conditions. The model selected for use was the overland flooding 

model developed by FEMA to predict hurricane flood elevations for the NFIP. The model uses 

an explicit, two-dimensional, space-staggered, finite-difference scheme to simulate the flow of 

water caused by tides and wind systems. The current size of the inlets between the islands is 

several times the equilibrium area based upon the tidal prisms. Slight reductions in the cross 

sectional areas of the inlets between the islands had only a very minor effect on reducing the 

depth and duration of wetland flooding. If the barrier islands were removed from the model, the 

depth and duration of tidal flooding slightly increased. Under extreme conditions, the island 
266

height and inlet size had a significant effect on the depth and duration of wetland flooding. 

Hurricane Andrew produced a maximum surge elevation at Cocodrie of about 2.7 m. The 

predicted surge elevation at Cocodrie would have been about 0.3 m higher if the present barrier 

islands were destroyed and would have been as much as 1.2 to 1.5 m lower if the barrier islands 

were raised and the inlets narrowed. 

Susquehanna River Basin Commission. (1984). Changes in Flood Insurance in the 

Susquehanna River Basin 1978-1982. Harrisburg, PA: Susquehanna River Basin 

Commission. 

Keywords: 

floodplain management, Maryland, New York, Pennsylvania 

Abstract: This report provides statistical data on the population characteristics of the 

Susquehanna River Basin and the changes in NFIP participation and coverage in a five-year 

period. Between 1978 and 1982, flood insurance policies in the river basin decreased by over 

15,000 or 22.6 percent. In contrast, the amount of insurance coverage per policy increased in the 

five-year period. Detailed statistics on policy coverage are provided by state, county, and 

subbasin. The Susquehanna River Basin Commission is an independent water resources agency 

created amongst the states of Maryland, New York, the Commonwealth of Pennsylvania, and the 

federal government. 

Swiss Reinsurance Company. (2004). Floods – An Insurable Risk? A Market Survey. Zurich: 

Swiss Reinsurance Company. 

Available at: 

http://www.swissre.com/INTERNET/pwswpspr.nsf/fmBookMarkFrameSet?ReadForm&BM=../

vwAllbyIDKeyLu/WWIN-4V2BPU?OpenDocument

Keywords: 

flood causes, insurance industry, NFIP 

Abstract: The report presents the results of a survey of flood insurance schemes in various 

countries. The survey revealed that different countries approach the insurance of flood hazards in 

different ways, with varying involvement of the reinsurance industry, different insurance 

penetration levels, and a wide range of coverage levels. The survey concludes that given countryspecific market structures and flood hazards, the widely different approaches are all feasible. The 

report goes on to note that there is room for improvement of flood insurance worldwide. 

Insurance penetration can be improved in many markets, as can the terms and conditions of 

coverage. The report also recommends an improvement in data collection to more effectively 

address flood hazards. 

Tapsell, Sue M. (1999). The Health Effects of Floods: The Easter 1998 Floods in England. 

Enfield, England: Flood Hazard Research Centre. 

Available at: http://www.fhrc.mdx.ac.uk/publics.html

Keywords: 

England, health effects, socioeconomic impacts

Abstract: This report examines the health effects of the 1998 Easter flood, a small-scale flood in 

England, to develop a conceptual model to illustrate a flood’s effects on overall well being. To 

create the model, a list of factors that contribute to the total effects of the flood on health is 

devised. The report includes a list of all health effects reported by victims. In addition to health 
267

effects, the report points out a loss of confidence in authorities following a flood event and says 

that this further contributes to stress and ill health. The conclusion reached is that the flood 

disrupted many people’s lives, caused stress, and often impacted both physical and mental 

health. The report states these negative impacts are exacerbated by lack of warning before a 

flood, and so recommends “a new perspective on flooding” that gives more focus to flood 

warnings. The report also recommends enhancing support systems for victims. 

Task Force on Federal Flood Control Policy. (1966). A Unified National Program for 

Managing Flood Losses, Communication from the President of the United States.

Washington, DC: Government Printing Office. 

Keywords: 

federal programs, Unified National Program 

Abstract: This report advocates a unified national program for managing flood losses utilizing 

federal agencies such as the Army Corps of Engineers, the Department of Agriculture, the 

Department of Housing and Urban Development, the Geological Survey, and the Environmental 

Science Services Administration. Federal expenditures in flood protection and prevention by the 

Army Corps of Engineers and the Soil Conservation Service total $7 billion since 1936 and 

nearly $500 million annually in 1966. The report states that in its current form, federal flood 

programs cannot adapt to the increased costs of flood disasters. It recommends improvements in 

knowledge about flood hazards through standardization of the definition of a flood hazard, 

determination of the frequency of floods, and collection of flood damage data. Data collection 

would focus on mapping flood hazard areas, their physical boundaries, and at-risk populations 

and structures. Federal programs that impact land use in floodplains, such as transportation and 

regulation of lending institutions should be modified to reflect the goal of decreasing flood 

hazards. 

Technical Mapping Advisory Council. (1997). Technical Mapping Advisory Council 1996 

Annual Report to the Honorable James Lee Witt, Director, Federal Emergency Management 

Agency. Washington, DC: FEMA. 

Keywords: 

agency operations and management, mapping, strategic planning 

Abstract: In 1994 Congress passed the National Flood Insurance Reform Act and directed 

FEMA to establish the Technical Mapping Advisory Council. The Council began its work in 

1996 and is charged with providing recommendations to FEMA on ways to improve FIRMs and 

the mapping process. In this report, the Council set goals in five areas: general, preparation of 

maps, map determinations, distribution of maps and other information, and communication and 

public education. These goals reflect the needs and concerns of the customers for NFIP maps and 

mapping products. The Council also makes several recommendations to FEMA: 1) establish an 

archival system for maintaining in perpetuity for historic and legal purposes all FIRMs and 

supporting technical data; 2) distribute all letters of map change with each map ordered; 3) 

distribute, in digital form, all certification forms required to be submitted with map revision 

requests; 4) develop a position on any proposed legislation that delegates letters of map change 

to entities other than FEMA, and 5) implement newer technologies for the production and 

dissemination of FIRMs. 
268

Technical Mapping Advisory Council. (1998). Technical Mapping Advisory Council 1997 

Annual Report to the Honorable James Lee Witt, Director, Federal Emergency Management 

Agency. Washington, DC: FEMA. 

Keywords: 

agency operations and management, mapping, strategic planning 

Abstract: In 1994 Congress passed the National Flood Insurance Reform Act and directed 

FEMA to establish the Technical Mapping Advisory Council. The Council began its work in 

1996 and is charged with providing recommendations to FEMA on ways to improve FIRMs and 

the mapping process. In this report, the Council recommends that FEMA improve the process of 

conducting Flood Insurance Studies (FISs) by streamlining its work with study contractors; 

improve base maps and review update existing methods, in consultation with the Federal 

Geographic Data Committee (FGDC); pursue base mapping partnerships with public, private, 

and nonprofit entities; digitally prepare, produce, and make available all new map products 

resulting from studies or restudies and physical map revisions; and hold community meetings 

before, during, and after preparation of a new map product to enable state and local input to and 

participation in issues and activities related to mapping. 

Technical Mapping Advisory Council. (1999). Technical Mapping Advisory Council 1998 

Annual Report to the Honorable James Lee Witt, Director, Federal Emergency Management 

Agency. Washington, DC: FEMA. 

Available at: http://www.fema.gov/fhm/dl_tmc98.shtm#info

Keywords:

agency operations and management, mapping, strategic planning 

Abstract: In 1994 Congress passed the National Flood Insurance Reform Act and directed 

FEMA to establish the Technical Mapping Advisory Council (the Council). The Council began 

its work in 1996 and is charged with providing recommendations to FEMA on ways to improve 

FIRMs and the mapping process. In this report, the Council recommends that FEMA implement 

programmatic changes that will improve the accuracy, reliability, and availability of map data; 

institutionalize the process of assessing 5-year mapping needs; increase efforts aimed to inform 

the public about the potential for flooding; support the need to improve the national network of 

stream gages, collaborate with the Army Corps of Engineers to expedite the permit process to 

comply with Section 404 of the Clean Water Act for maintaining federally-recognized floodcontrol projects; and focus more attention on the state and local involvement in the mapping 

process. The Council also discussed FEMA’s Map Modernization Plan (MMP) and the 

relationship of the plan to the Council’s congressional mandate. 

Technical Mapping Advisory Council. (2000). Technical Mapping Advisory Council 1999 

Annual Report to the Honorable James Lee Witt, Director, Federal Emergency Management 

Agency. Washington, DC: FEMA. 

Available at: http://www.fema.gov/fhm/dl_tmc99.shtm#download

Keywords:

agency operations and management, mapping, strategic planning 

Abstract: In 1994 Congress passed the National Flood Insurance Reform Act and directed 

FEMA to establish the Technical Mapping Advisory Council (the Council). The Council began 

its work in 1996 and is charged with providing recommendations to FEMA on ways to improve 

FIRMs and the mapping process. In this report, the Council recommends that FEMA take the 
269

following steps: (a) encourage and support use of future land-use conditions in calculating floods 

and delineating floodplain limits; (b) improve floodplain delineations that were derived by 

approximate study methods and mapped as Unnumbered A Zones; (c) support the use of the 

recently issued study guidelines for mapping alluvial fans; (d) develop and implement 

procedures for including data in products about multiple hazards that pose flood risks and 

continue to participate in the Open GIS Consortium to provide links to other sites containing 

retrievable data affecting flood risks; and (e) establish an indexing and retrieval system for 

archived data. 

Technical Mapping Advisory Council. (2001). Final Report to the Honorable James Lee 

Witt, Director, Federal Emergency Management Agency: A Summary of Accomplishments 

and Recommendations 1995-2000. Washington, DC: FEMA. 

Available at: http://www.fema.gov/pdf/fhm/tmc_fr.pdf

Keywords: 

agency operations and management, mapping, strategic planning 

Abstract: This report encapsulates five years of work done by the Technical Mapping Advisory 

Council (the Council). It responds to a congressional mandate to evaluate and recommend 

improvements to the production, distribution, and use of FIRMs and other mapping products 

prepared by FEMA in support of the NFIP. Although the report makes numerous 

recommendations, the Council deemed the following recommendations as the most important: 

(a) acquiring additional financial and technical resources for map programs; (b) building 

constituent interest and public support for modernizing the mapping program using a process that 

includes public education and public outreach; (c) building partnerships among various federal, 

state, and local governments, universities, and the private sector to accomplish NFIP objectives; 

and (d) creating a fully digital environment for floodplain mapping and all related information. 

Technical Mapping Advisory Council. (2001). Technical Mapping Advisory Council 2000 

Annual Report to the Honorable James Lee Witt, Director, Federal Emergency Management 

Agency. Washington, DC: FEMA. 

Available at: http://www.fema.gov/pdf/fhm/tmc_00r.pdf

Keywords: 

agency operations and management, mapping, strategic planning 

Abstract: In 1994 Congress passed the National Flood Insurance Reform Act and directed 

FEMA to establish the Technical Mapping Advisory Council. The Council began its work in 

1996 and is charged with providing recommendations to FEMA on ways to improve FIRMs and 

the mapping process. In this report, the Council recommends that FEMA fund a study leading to 

recommendations for effective nomenclature to be used in referring to flood potential and 

severity; develop and support partnerships with other federal agencies, states, local, and regional 

governments, citizens, and other organizations in the development, updating, and revision of 

FIRMs; develop and distribute standards, in collaboration with federal and state agencies, on 

techniques for mapping coastal erosion rates to ensure the credibility of erosion maps; continue 

to provide specific technical guidance for contractors studying flood risk in communities where 

ice jam flooding is a concern; and reinvent the Flood Insurance Study (FIS) in various ways. 

Finally, the Council noted that fiscal budget limitations continue to constrain implementation of 

its recommendations and requests that they not be subjected to dormancy. 
270

Tennessee Valley Authority. (1985). A Guide to Evaluate a Community’s Floodplain 

Management Program. Knoxville, TN: Tennessee Valley Authority. 

Keywords: 

floodplain management, methodology, Tennessee Valley Authority 

Abstract: The document is a resource developed by the Tennessee Valley Authority to aid 

assessment of communities that have limited floodplain management experience. It describes the 

process used to obtain, record, interpret, summarize, and use information gathered during an 

evaluation. The document emphasizes a comprehensive and well-documented set of procedures. 

The procedures contained in the guide have been field-tested in 16 communities in the Tennessee 

Valley watershed, ranging in population from 4,800 to 170,000. Researchers conducted 

community evaluations in two-person teams, consisting of a community specialist and a civil 

engineer. Later evaluation attempted different combinations of evaluator teams to test the 

transferability of evaluation procedures. The evaluation found that procedures were readily 

transferable to staffs of regional, state, and federal floodplain management agencies. One 

evaluator with limited assistance from a community staff person could adequately perform the 

evaluation. The report concludes that the average time needed to perform a community 

evaluation was 40 hours for the evaluator, four hours for the local staff person, six hours for 

clerical support, and two hours for the program manager. 

Thampapillai, Dodo and Warren F. Musgrave. (1985). Flood damage mitigation: A review 

of structural and nonstructural measures and alternative decision frameworks. Water 

Resources Research, 21(4), 411-24. 

Keywords:

mitigation 

Abstract: Literature from diverse sources such as public expenditure economics, management 

science, geography, agriculture, and engineering reveals a wide range of decision frameworks for 

deriving strategies for flood mitigation. This paper reviews these different types of decision 

frameworks aiming to provide an understanding of these frameworks, along with their relative 

adequacies and inadequacies. Such an understanding reveals the directions along which the 

formulation of a more adequate framework should proceed. However, the formulation of a given 

decision framework is influenced by the types of economic benefits associated with the flood 

mitigation measures considered in that framework. Hence, the paper reviews the various flood 

mitigation measures prior to discussing the various decision frameworks. 

Thompson, Kay D., Jery R. Stedinger, and David C. Heath. (1997). Evaluation and 

presentation of dam failure and flood risks. Journal of Water Resources Planning and 

Management, 123(July/August), 216-27. 

Keywords:

dams, modeling, risk assessment 

Abstract: Safety studies for existing dams have found that some do not satisfy current estimates 

of the probable maximum flood. An event or influence diagram can describe the random factors 

that contribute to major inflow floods and that determine reservoir operation and possible 

downstream damages during a flood event. This allows calculation of the probability of dam 

failure and the distributions of damages and loss of life using combinations of various analytical 

and Monte Carlo methods. This paper discusses the efficiency of different evaluation methods: 

event trees, simple Monte Carlo sampling, Latin hypercube sampling, importance sampling, and 
271

an analytical/stratified Monte Carlo (A/SMC) method. The analysis suggests that the A/SMC 

method and importance sampling have great potential for the efficient estimation of dam failure 

risks. Numerical examples employ the distributions of damages and loss of life to show the 

character of trade-offs presented by different decisions and illustrate problems with the 

partitioned multi-objective risk method. The use of partial expected damage and loss of life 

functions is recommended to show the importance of low-probability/high-consequence events. 

Thompson, Mark E. and Herbert H. Stoevener. (1983). Estimating residential flood control 

benefits using implicit price equations. Water Resources Bulletin, 19(6), 889-95. 

Keywords: 

economic modeling, flood control, Oregon, property values 

Abstract: An implicit price model relating residential lot value to price-determining 

characteristics is developed to measure the benefits of a structural flood control project in 

Sutherlin, OR. Special attention is given to the selection of relevant price determining 

characteristics of residential lots. Implicit price equations are used to estimate damages with and 

without flood protection. A dummy variable indicating location in the floodplain quantifies flood 

damages for the equations. The regression results indicate that residential lots exposed to flood 

hazards are valued less than lots not exposed to the threat of flooding. Furthermore, the analysis 

shows that annual flood damages were reduced by $15,275 as a result of the structural flood 

control project. 

Thunberg, E. and Leonard Shabman. (1991). Determinants of landowner’s willingness to 

pay for flood hazard reduction. Water Resources Bulletin, 27, 657-65. 

Keywords: 

attitudes, flood control, Virginia 

Abstract: Estimated benefits of flood control projects are typically limited to avoided property 

damages. However, the possibility that there are benefits from reduced psychological stress 

among floodplain occupants and benefits to the community has long been recognized. A survey 

of landowners residing in a floodplain in Roanoke, VA, found that nonproperty considerations 

helped explain their expressed willingness to pay for flood control. Of particular importance was 

the respondents’ concern for disruption of the community caused by possible flooding. 

Throupe, Ron, Bob Freitag and Rhonda Montgomery. (2002). A Reconnaissance Study on 

the Market Impacts on Elevated Homes in Known Floodplains. Paper presented at the 

June 2002 Association of State Floodplain Managers Conference. 

Available at: http://depts.washington.edu/mitigate/Snoqualmie%20Home%20Elevation.htm

Keywords: 

cost-benefit analysis, economic impacts, property values, structural approaches, Washington 

Abstract: This study evaluates the effect of elevating a home on its selling price and time on 

market, compared to nonelevated homes in Snoqualmie, WA. The study concludes that the 

market price penalized nonelevated homes within the floodplain and that the market price of 

elevated homes exceeded that of nonelevated homes by 25 to 70 percent of the cost of the 

retrofit. The difference is a substantial return when compared to the initial investment in 

retrofitting of 12 to 25 percent and greater than the reduced cost of flood insurance for an 

elevated home. While there is some financial gain to the property owner of elevated his home, 

this gain does not equal the cost of elevating the home. Absent intervention by the state, 
272

individual property owners would not elevate flood-prone homes. The implication is that the 

gains for the community from the reduced need for disaster response and recovery assistance 

outweigh the individual benefits to the homeowner. 

Tiedemann, Herbert. (1999). Flood Causes, Effects and Risk Assessment. Collingdale, PA: 

DIANE Publishing Company. 

Keywords: 

risk assessment 

Abstract: This book provides a descriptive guide to assessing the risk of the flood peril, 

particularly focusing on river floods. It is designed to help insurers evaluate and differentiate the 

risks to be covered. The necessary capability in risk assessment requires an understanding of the 

phenomena and the essential parameters that lead to flooding and that influence damage and 

losses. This book includes discussion on recent significant flood events, methodology of risk 

assessment, hazards, vulnerability, flood protection, insurance and reinsurance aspects, other 

causes of flooding, rainfall data for selected places, a list of major historical floods, and a list of 

flood related web sites. 

Tobin, Graham A. (1995). The levee love-affair: A stormy relationship. Water Resources 

Bulletin, 31(3), 359-67. 

Available for purchase at: http://www.awra.org/jawra/papers/J95011.html

Keywords:

floodplain management, levees, Midwest floods of 1993 

Abstract: A history of flood control in the United States shows an undying affair with levees. 

This love affair, however, was put to the test by the record flooding in the summer of 1993. 

About 70 percent of levees in the upper Midwest failed during this time, leading to extensive 

damage to both farmland and urban areas. Consequently, there were repeated calls to reassess 

policies for floodplain management. The report of the Interagency Floodplain Management 

Review Committee is one outcome of this and it forms the basis of this commentary on levees. In 

many respects, levees are effective flood control measures, being relatively cheap to implement 

and easy to build. At the same time, levees have negative impacts, affecting the hydrological 

regime both up and down stream, and often exacerbating flooding in other places. Furthermore, 

technical weaknesses in design, planning, construction, and maintenance have all contributed to 

the failure of some levees. While the report recommends changes in floodplain management to 

address some of these issues, it is difficult to see how these will materialize given the current 

political, economic, and social climate. 

Tobin, Graham A. and Burrell E. Montz. (1988). Catastrophic flooding and the response of 

the real estate market. Social Science Journal, 25(2), 167-77. 

Keywords:

California, property values 

Abstract: This study examines the impact of flooding on residential property values. It reviews 

the literature and produces a theoretical conceptualization which is then applied to the analysis of 

the 1986 flood in Linda and Oliverhurst, in Yuba County, CA. The authors found support for the 

premise that flood frequency affects the capitalization process. In other words, the flood is 

initially capitalized into housing values but, because of the infrequent nature of the hazard, 

values are expected to rise, although the time for recovery is not certain. 
273

Tobin, Graham A. and Burrell E. Montz. (1990). Response of the real estate market to 

frequent flooding: The case of Des Plaines, Illinois. Bulletin of the Illinois Geographical 

Society, Fall, 11-21. 

Keywords:

housing markets, Illinois, property values

Abstract: This article investigates two questions: How does the residential real estate market 

respond to a high probability of flooding? Is there an identifiable pattern that might result in a 

predictive model of changing floodplain and land values? The authors contend that the more 

floods experienced the greater is the impact on the housing market and use Des Plaines, IL, as a 

case study. Using flood histories, impacts of recent flooding, and longer-term trends in the 

housing market, the researchers found that flood frequency is a valid spatial variable, 

demonstrated by variation in the recovery periods of housing prices consistent with variation in 

the flood frequency in those markets. Thus, the researchers conclude that flood frequency is an 

important variable to consider in evaluating property values. 

Tobin, Graham A. and Burrell E. Montz. (1994). The flood hazard and dynamics of the 

urban residential land market. Water Resources Bulletin, 30(4), 673-85. 

Available for purchase at: http://www.awra.org/jawra/papers/J93095.html

Keywords:

California, economic modeling, Illinois, Pennsylvania, property values, urban areas 

Abstract: Literature on the flood hazard/residential land market relationship is full of 

contradictory findings, many of which are counterintuitive to the belief that flooding has a 

negative impact on house prices. This research advances a conceptual framework through which 

these relationships might be reexamined. Based on the expected utility model, the theoretical 

framework integrates the economic notion of capitalization with spatial and temporal 

characteristics of the flood hazard. Four communities with different flood regimes are used to 

test the effect of flooding on the residential real estate market. Results show that: (a) there is an 

identifiable relationship between characteristics of the flood hazard and changes in house values; 

(b) the length of the recovery period is dependent on characteristics and expectations of flooding, 

attributes of the real estate market, and the availability of capital to fuel recovery; and (c) 

dynamics of the urban market and spatial extent of the flood hazard influence these relationships. 

Further research is now necessary to examine these findings under different spatial, temporal, 

hydrologic, and socioeconomic conditions. 

Tobin, Graham A. and Burrell E. Montz. (1997). The impacts of a second catastrophic flood 

on property values in Linda and Olivehurst, California. Boulder, CO: Natural Hazards 

Center, University of Colorado. 

Available at: http://www.colorado.edu/hazards/qr/qr95.html 

Keywords:

California, property values 

Abstract: The authors assess the relationship between flooding and property values in Linda and 

Olivehurst, CA, an area that suffered several floods (with impacts first studied in 1986). 

Following a theoretical framework developed by Tobin and Newton (1986), the authors find that 

properties that experienced the first flood did eventually recover to near preflood levels, but the 

length of time required for recovery varied with depth of flooding (houses with lower flood 
274

levels recovered more quickly). Thus, the flood created submarkets that remained identifiable 

over the long term in part because not all properties in the areas with the greatest flood depths 

were repaired (the remainders that exist in the communities influence recovery and this 

perpetuates the submarkets). The 1997 flood further compounded the situation. 

Tobin, Graham A. and Thomas G. Newton. (1986). A theoretical framework of flood 

induced changes in urban land values. Water Resources Bulletin, 22(1), 67-71.

Keywords:

property values, urban areas 

Abstract: By integrating literature from flood hazard research and urban economics, the authors 

developed a theoretical structure to explain changes in residential land values following flood 

events. The negative aspects of the flood hazard are shown to be capitalized in the value of the 

property. Land values will vary both spatially across the floodplain and temporally depending on 

the frequency, severity, and spatial characteristics of the flood event. This approach allows for 

the recovery of the land market value, a novelty at that time. This theoretical approach was later 

applied in several studies (e.g., Tobin and Montz, 1988). 

Todhunter, Paul E. and Bradley C. Rundquist. (2003). Flood Damage Assessment and 

Survey of Mitigation Efforts at Stump Lake, North Dakota: A Study of a Closed-Basin Lake 

Flood. Quick Response Report #164. Boulder, CO: Natural Hazards Research and 

Applications Information Center. 

Available at: http://www.colorado.edu/hazards/qr/qr164/qr164.html

Keywords: 

closed-basin lake flooding, North Dakota 

Abstract: The report provides a case history of a pervasive flood hazard not routinely addressed 

by federal flood mitigation programs – closed-basin lake flooding, caused by runoff from local 

flooding, at Stump Lake in Nelson County, North Dakota. The research addressed the extent and 

distribution of costs arising from closed-basin flooding, the adequacy of existing mitigation 

programs, and unmet needs for mitigation assistance. The research found that flood damages 

from the rising levels of Stump Lake were primarily related to transportation infrastructure and 

that rural wetland flooding was more pervasive than closed-basin flooding in the research area. 

Direct payment for flood damages and infrastructure costs, borne primarily by the federal 

government, were a significant percentage of total damage costs. Indirect costs, such as reduced 

production capability arising from the large amount of land taken out of production were nearly 

as large as direct federal payments, and were borne entirely by the county and region. A reduced 

county tax base and income, declining rural population, and increase local cost share on 

infrastructure projects placed a sizable strain on the county and regional economy. The report 

concluded that because FEMA flood policy is written with riverine or coastal flooding in mind, 

there are significant unmet mitigation needs for closed-basin floods. 

Toulmin, Llewellyn M., Charles J. Givans, and Deborah L. Steel. (1989). The impact of 

intergovernmental distance on disaster communications. International Journal of Mass 

Emergencies and Disasters, 7(2), 116-32. 

Available for purchase at: http://www.usc.edu/schools/sppd/ijmed/purchase.html

Keywords:

communication, disaster planning, public policy 
275

Abstract: Previous research into disaster communications, while fairly extensive, has been 

limited primarily to sociological analysis and organizational theory. This body of research, 

however, has not explored disaster communications in a federal, international, or other multilevel 

governmental response system. This paper expands upon existing research to present a new 

theory of intergovernmental disaster communications based on the concept of intergovernmental 

distance. Intergovernmental distance refers to distance in terms of differing procedures and 

approaches used by organizations in different functional areas at various levels of government. 

The theory postulates that the organizational distance created by these differences becomes a 

critical factor that must be addressed during a disaster. The study employs three sets of 

dimensions. The first uses two subdimensions and examines distances between functional areas 

at various levels of government. The second uses three dimensions and considers distances 

between functional area and central management. The third is multidimensional. It uses a 

multiple regression equation to analyze intergovernmental distance. The study concludes by 

addressing the policy implications of the findings, especially the need to overcome inherent 

intergovernmental distance through disaster planning, the need to recognize the exponential 

increase in communications problems caused by increases in the number of disaster responders, 

and the need to determine whether the marginal benefits contributed by each new responder 

exceed the marginal communications and coordination costs each responder imposes. 

Tripp, James T.B. (1994). Flooding: Who is to blame? USA Today Magazine, 123, 30-3. 

Keywords:

agriculture, flood control, floodplain management, levees, Midwest floods of 1993, Mississippi 

River, wetlands 

Abstract: This article focuses on the proposal to reform policies affecting the Mississippi 

River’s floodplains in the wake of the damage caused by the Midwest floods of 1993. It 

discusses the impact of the flood on agricultural and urban property owners, the construction of 

mainstream levees, and the conversion of floodplain wetlands to agriculture. The article 

concludes that the conversion of floodplain wetlands to agriculture throughout the Mississippi 

River Basin has been extensive. Eighty percent of the floodplain wetlands of the Lower 

Mississippi River have been cleared and converted to cropland. Clearing rates in much of the 

Upper Basin and the Missouri River system have been comparable. Furthermore, the Mississippi 

River’s flood control system of dams, levees, and river training works is tremendous, but not 

sustainable over the long term: “People have gone too far in severing the river and its tributaries 

from their floodplains. The message from the floods is that the Mississippi River wants to 

recapture the floodplains that were historically part of the river. It lies in wait for major flood 

events to do this.” The article concludes: “A program of floodplain restoration would go a long 

way towards creating a much more sustainable, low-cost flood management system in the 

Mississippi River Basin than exists today.” The article also focuses on the economics behind 

such a floodplain policy. It suggests that the Army Corps of Engineers must reform how it 

spends federal dollars on flood control works in the basin, while the federal government expands 

the Wetland Reserve Program created by the 1990 Farm Act in the Mississippi Basin. 

Troy, Austin and Jeff Romm. (2004). Assessing the Price Effects of Flood Hazard 

Disclosure under the California Natural Hazard Disclosure Law (AB 1195). Journal of 

Environmental Planning and Management. 47 (1): 137-162 

Available at: http://www.uvm.edu/~atroy/CPRC-03.pdf
276

Keywords: 

California, insurance purchase decision, lending institutions, property values 

Abstract: This study analyzes the effect of flood hazard disclosure under the 1998 California 

Natural Hazard Disclosure Law (AB 1195) on property values throughout California. It found 

that the average floodplain home sold for 4.3 percent less than a comparable non-floodplain 

home after the passage of the law. Prior to the law, there was no significant price differential 

between floodplain and non-floodplain homes. The law particularly affected housing prices in 

Hispanic neighborhoods. Differences in mortgage origination mechanisms between whites and 

Hispanics appear to account for the effect of racial composition on housing prices. Hispanic 

homebuyers obtain financing disproportionately from unregulated sources that are not required 

by FEMA to make flood determinations, or from “subprime” lenders who specialize in highinterest loans to homebuyers with impaired credit histories. Also, Hispanics are more likely to 

live in floodplains than any other racial group. The results suggest that homebuyers in Hispanic 

neighborhoods are better informed under the California Natural Hazard Disclosure Law than 

they were under the NFIP. In terms of national significance, the negative price effect of flood 

disclosure following the law suggests that NFIP flood disclosure requirements are inadequate. 

Tucker, L. Scott. (1979). Flood Insurance and Flood Plain Zoning: Water Problems of 

Urbanizing Areas. Henniker, NH: New England College. 

Keywords:

compliance, enforcement, floodplain management, mapping, mitigation, risk assessment 

Abstract: A review of the NFIP concludes that sufficient progress is being made and that, in the 

opinion of the author, both regulation and insurance should continue. The regulatory program in 

developed floodplains has had a limited effect on flooding, erosion control, and water supply; 

results have been more successful in developing floodplains. Persistent problems with respect to 

the protection of floodplains include: (a) the lack of awareness of flood problems by residents, 

(b) the lack of adequate data on numbers of people living in floodplains; (c) the effectiveness of 

floodplain regulations; (d) the difficulty in administering an effective local program in the face of 

local politics; and (e) the definition of floodplains using existing hydrology when urbanization 

will influence future flows. Though generally successful, the NFIP has some mixed results. 

Ways have not been found to manage risk in the fringe areas or areas without special flood 

hazards. Some 30 to 50 percent of flood damage may occur in these areas. Additional issues 

requiring attention include mapping flood hazards, economic modeling in the analysis of 

alternatives, differences between communities and among building types, questions about 

different levels of reducing flood risk, and alternative approaches to mitigation. 

Turner, Michael T. (2003). NFIP Cost-Benefit Analysis. The Turner Network. 

Available at: http://turnernetwork.com/online/documents/floodinsurance.shtml

Keywords: 

cost-benefit analysis, NFIP 

Abstract: The report questions the costs and benefits of the current NFIP model, in which the 

government rather than the private insurance market supports the bulk of the implementation of 

flood insurance in floodprone areas. The author uses the program’s operating budget losses of 

fiscal years 1996 and 1997 as evidence of the fiscal unsoundness, or at least, vulnerability of the 

NFIP. FEMA has attempted to correct this situation with such programs as the Community 

Rating System (CRS), which provides an incentive for floodplain management beyond the 
277

NFIP’s minimum requirements and recent actions to target repetitive-loss structures, which cost 

the NFIP up to $200 million per year. However, after more than three decades of the NFIP, and 

more than 10 of the CRS, the NFIP seems not to have attained long-term cost efficiency. The 

author calls for a clear examination of costs and benefits, based on a reexamination of the 

priorities of the program. If the premise of the NFIP is that the government has an obligation to 

use taxpayer dollars to provide aid to disaster-stricken areas, current standards are likely to 

satisfy a cost-benefit analysis. In contrast, if actuarial soundness is the goal of the program, 

significant improvements must be made. 

Tyler, Kimberly A. (2000). The effects of an acute stressor on depressive symptoms among 

older adults. Research on Aging, 22(2), 143-65.

Keywords:

health effects, Midwest floods of 1993 

Abstract: This study uses longitudinal data to examine the potential moderating effects of social 

support and age among older adults exposed to an acute stressor. Using a sample of 651 older 

persons, data were gathered in the spring of 1992 and in the fall of 1993, approximately 60 days 

after the peak impact of flooding in the Midwest. Results indicate a positive association between 

pre- and post-flood depression and a negative association between social support and post-flood 

depression. For the younger of the two older age groups, there is also a positive association 

between flood exposure and post-flood depression, controlling for prior levels of depression. Age 

interactions reveal that social support moderates the effects of flood exposure on depression only 

for the younger age group. 

Ullmann, Owen. (2000). High-risk life, high expense to taxpayers, federal disaster aid 

makes it feasible to build in harm’s way. USA Today, July 24. 

Keywords:

coastal areas, Coastal Barrier Resources System, development, mitigation, repetitive losses 

Abstract: Federal disaster programs inadvertently encourage people to build in high-risk coastal 

areas, and taxpayers pay most of the cost ($5 billion a year). FEMA has tried to block federal 

spending, but Congress has been reluctant to make reforms. Congress also rejected FEMA’s 

request for more funds for a project that requires property owners to elevate properties to make 

them less flood-prone. One proposal would allow no more than two claims (repetitive claims 

account for 36 percent of all payments), and others would bar insurance for vacation homes and 

rental properties. Environmentalists want to ban people from building close to the shore, but the 

U.S. Supreme Court ruled that states must compensate owners by paying the market value of 

their land if they ban development on private property. The Coastal Barrier Resources Act of 

1982 was designed to discourage development on sections of barrier islands, but it spurred 

development in other coastal locations, creating expensive communities. 

Ullmann, Owen, Paul Overberg, and Rick Hampson. (2000). Growth reshapes coasts: A 

wave of development overwhelms the shore. USA Today, July 21. 

Available for purchase at: 

http://pqasb.pqarchiver.com/USAToday/results.html?num=25&st=basic&QryTxt=Growth+resha

pes+coasts%3A+A+wave+of+development+overwhelms+the+shore&sortby=RELEVANCE&da

tetype=0&x=79&y=10

Keywords:
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coastal areas, development, Massachusetts, South Carolina 

Abstract: USA Today examined development in 1,000 counties along the Gulf and East Coasts 

and found these counties growing significantly faster than the rest of the country in population, 

employment, and gross domestic product. One in seven Americans lives along the East or Gulf 

Coasts, and beach economies are growing fast as jobs, businesses, and services follow this 

migration. Urban planners say that growth along these coasts will continue for 10 to 20 years and 

will be fed by demographic, economic, and social trends, such as the aging of the baby boomers 

with financial resources to fulfill their retirement dreams, telecommuting opportunities, 

improved transportation, and the quest for a better lifestyle. The article discusses the changing 

character of Cape Cod, MA, and Beaufort County, SC, with some attendant problems such as 

lack of affordable housing, water pollution, and strains on local government. 

U.S. Army Corps of Engineers. (1975). Guidelines for Identifying Coastal High Hazard 

Zones. Galveston, TX: U.S. Army Corps of Engineers. 

Keywords: 

coastal areas, hurricanes, mapping, zoning

Abstract: The experience and analytical methods of USACE provided the impetus for these 

guidelines. The guidelines outline a suggested procedure for identifying areas along the Atlantic 

and Gulf Coasts subject to inundation by a hurricane surge and to significant wave action. Both 

of these conditions warrant specific building restrictions and special flood insurance rates. Most 

important, the guidelines identify the “3-foot breaking wave” as having the capability for 

damaging buildings. FEMA subsequently used this type of wave to distinguish V Zones from A 

Zones for the NFIP. 

U.S. Army Corps of Engineers. (1989). Summary Report: Assessment of Floodplain 

Management Activities, Hattiesburg, Mississippi. Mobile, AL: U.S. Army Corps of 

Engineers. 

Keywords: 

compliance, development, floodplain management, Mississippi, modeling, property values 

Abstract: This study assesses and analyzes the floodplain management activities that have 

occurred in Hattiesburg, MS. FEMA requested the study to determine the long-term impacts of a 

floodplain management program in a community. Using a computer model to quantify flood 

damages for 13 simulated conditions, the Army Corps of Engineers studied the city’s three 

primary sources of flooding—the Leaf and Bowie Rivers and Gordons Creek—for the period 

from 1968 to 1989. Based on the analysis, the Corps of Engineers concluded that the floodplain 

in the city has grown over time in terms of both the number of structures and property values. 

For example, during the first 14 years of Hattiesburg’s participation in the NFIP average annual 

damages increased by $299,500 due to development in the floodplain. However, in the absence 

of the city’s participation in the NFIP and the completion of projects by the Army Corps of 

Engineers, flood damages would have increased by $1,519,800. The net effect of NFIP 

regulations when compared to no regulations (i.e., an unregulated floodplain), represents on 

average an annual savings of $605,000. 

U.S. Army Corps of Engineers. (1993). Annual Flood Damage Report to Congress for Fiscal 

Year 1992. Washington, DC: Government Printing Office. 

Keywords: 
279

Army Corps of Engineers, mitigation, structural approaches 

Abstract: This report provides statistical information on storm events and flood damages 

nationwide, as well as flood damages prevented by projects controlled by the U.S. Army Corps 

of Engineers. In fiscal year 1992, the Army Corps of Engineers’ flood control projects and 

emergency activities prevented an estimated $8.1 billion in flood damages, or 91 percent of the 

potential flood damage to the nation. Total damages prevented between fiscal years 1982 and 

1991 averaged $13.3 billion annually. The majority of flood damages suffered and flood 

damages prevented were concentrated in just a few states. The report contains detailed narrative 

accounts of storm events and other disasters nationwide in fiscal year 1992. 

U.S. Army Corps of Engineers. (1994). Procedures for Evaluating Wetlands Non-Market 

Values and Functions. Washington, DC: U.S. Army Corps of Engineers. 

Available at: http://el.erdc.usace.army.mil/elpubs/pdf/wgev2-1.pdf 

Keywords:

Army Corps of Engineers, property values, wetlands 

Abstract: This technical note provides a framework for evaluating the economic value of 

wetlands. More precisely, the note provides a guide for determining the effects of a proposed 

action on a wetland site. It emphasizes the importance of estimating the value of establishing the 

relationship and significance of the economic services of a wetlands site within a larger 

economic context. The note points out that the evaluation of flood control benefits requires 

estimating flood damages with and without the wetland’s flood control capacity. These benefits 

can be determined by establishing the relationships between wetland flood storage capacity and 

flood damages downstream and the cost of providing alternative flood control structures or 

provisions for flood control. 

U.S. Army Corps of Engineers. (1995). Flood Proofing Regulations. Washington, DC: U.S. 

Army Corps of Engineers.

Available at: http://www.usace.army.mil/inet/functions/cw/cecwp/NFPC/fpreg/Ace6TOC.htm

Keywords:

Army Corps of Engineers, building codes, floodproofing 

Abstract: This publication supercedes the two previously published editions (1972, 1992) that 

have been distributed worldwide as an administrative and technical model for code design and 

enforcement of floodproofing. This version of the report includes updates made in 1992, which 

reflect almost 20 years of field experience, research, and advances in engineering and building 

practices. The 1992 revision made numerous technical and editorial changes to requirements for 

floodplain management. The publication makes some clarifying changes to the 1992 edition, but 

retains the format of the 1972 edition. It specifies the floodproofing measures and techniques that 

can be followed to regulate private and public building construction in flood hazard areas. The 

publication also contains implications for changes in existing building and house codes and 

provides for a diversity of floodproofing methods and techniques. 

U.S. Army Corps of Engineers. (1995). Floodplain Management Assessment of the Upper 

Mississippi River and Lower Missouri River and Tributaries. Washington, DC: U.S. Army 

Corps of Engineers. 

Keywords: 

floodplain management, Midwest floods of 1993, Mississippi River, Missouri River
280

Abstract: This report compares impacts and costs of implementing a wide array of alternative 

policies, programs, and structural measures by assuming they had been in place at the time of the 

Midwest Floods of 1993. The analysis explores three scenarios of changes in flood insurance, 

state and local floodplain regulation, flood hazard mitigation and disaster assistance, wetland 

restoration, and agricultural support policies. Data collected for the report, such as the economic 

damages from the 1993 flood, came from various sources. Feedback received during the 

coordination of this assessment presents contrasting views regarding the use of floodplains. 

However, the report does not resolve all of the issues or recommend an overall best plan. Rather, 

it serves as another tool in understanding the relative impacts of various potential actions. 

U.S. Army Corps of Engineers. (1996). Risk-Based Analysis for Flood Damage Reduction 

Studies. Hyattsville, MD: U.S. Army Corps of Engineers. 

Available at: http://www.usace.army.mil/inet/usace-docs/eng-manuals/em1110-2-1619/entire.pdf

Keywords:

Army Corps of Engineers, cost-benefit analysis, mitigation, risk communication 

Abstract: Procedures described in this manual lead to the estimation of expected costs and 

benefits of proposed flood damage reduction measures, a description of the uncertainty in those 

estimates, and quantitative and qualitative representations of the likelihood and consequences of 

exceeding capacity of selected measures. The Army Corps of Engineers suggests that the careful 

communication of analysis results will better inform the public about what to expect from 

projects to reduce flood damage and thus ultimately lead to better decision making. 

U.S. Army Corps of Engineers, National Floodproofing Committee. (1984). Floodproofing 

Systems & Techniques: Examples of Floodproofed Structures in the United States. 

Washington, DC: U.S. Army Corps of Engineers. 

Available at: http://www.usace.army.mil/inet/functions/cw/cecwp/cecwp_temp/nfpc.htm

Keywords: 

Army Corps of Engineers, floodproofing, mitigation, nonstructural approaches 

Abstract: The Flood Plain Management Services (FPMS) Program of the Army Corps of 

Engineers prepared this report. The FPMS Program uses its technical expertise in floodplain 

management to help parties outside the Corps of Engineers, both federal and nonfederal, deal 

with matters related to floods and floodplains. Most of the examples in the report come from a 

national survey developed and administered by USACE to document the various floodproofing 

techniques used around the nation. The Army Corps of Engineers collected additional 

information for the survey from local, state, and federal agencies involved in water resources 

planning. Results of the survey revealed innovative floodproofing efforts by people in their effort 

to reduce flood damages. The survey found many commonplace efforts, such as elevating 

structures and building levees and floodwalls. In addition, the survey noted several ingenious and 

complicated techniques, such as floatable houses and floodproofing stations controlled by 

computers. Most examples feature residential structures, but the report documents commercial 

structures as well. Of the structures tested by actual flooding conditions, USACE classifies 

approximately 50 percent as effectively floodproofed. Furthermore, the report provides 

conceptual ideas for formulating individual floodproofing plans. 
281

U.S. Army Corps of Engineers, National Floodproofing Committee. (1988). Floodproofing 

Tests: Tests of Materials and Systems for Floodproofing Structures. Washington, DC: U.S. 

Army Corps of Engineers. 

Available at: http://www.usace.army.mil/inet/functions/cw/cecwp/cecwp_temp/nfpc.htm

Keywords: 

Army Corps of Engineers, floodproofing, mitigation, nonstructural approaches 

Abstract: This report presents results from a series tests on floodproofing conducted by the 

Army Corps of Engineers. USACE analyzed closures, materials, and systems to determine their 

effectiveness in protecting both residential and commercial properties from floodwaters. The 

experimental tests in the report deal with the treatment of brick-veneer and concrete-block 

walls—two commonly used building materials. Based on testing, the Army Corps of Engineers 

reached a number of conclusions including, but not limited to, the ability of two layers of brick 

to allow a brick-veneer wall to support greater water depths and the unreliability of epoxy, 

polyurethane, and asphalt coatings to keep water from penetrating a brick-veneer wall. 

U.S. Army Corps of Engineers, National Floodproofing Committee. (1990). Raising and 

Moving a Slab-on-Grade House with Slab Attached. Washington, DC: U.S. Army Corps of 

Engineers. 

Available at: http://www.usace.army.mil/inet/functions/cw/cecwp/cecwp_temp/nfpc.htm

Keywords: 

floodproofing, mitigation, nonstructural approaches 

Abstract: Many approaches to flood protection and flood loss reduction including the elevation 

or relocation of existing structures have not gained recognition as economically viable practices 

for structures on concrete slab foundations. In the case of slab foundations, two practical 

possibilities exist: detaching the structure from the floor slab or moving the entire structure with 

the slab attached. The latter method is not widely known and understood and is often believed to 

be infeasible. In practice, moving an entire structure with slab attached has proven both 

technically and economically feasible and has presented many advantages in the hands of an 

experienced structural mover. This report discusses the procedures for raising or relocating 

“slab-on-grade” structures with the slab attached, to identify some of the advantages and 

disadvantages, to suggest some factors to consider, and to indicate the possible costs involved. 

The procedures and techniques described here come primarily from those employed by a 

professional structural mover in Tampa, FL. Other professionals in the field can employ different 

but equally effective methods. No undertaking of this magnitude should be attempted without the 

advice and assistance of professional structural movers and structural engineers or architects. 

U.S. Army Corps of Engineers, National Floodproofing Committee. (1993). A 

Floodproofing Success Story Along Dry Creek at Goodlettsville, Tennessee. Washington, DC: 

U.S. Army Corps of Engineers. 

Available at: http://www.usace.army.mil/inet/functions/cw/cecwp/cecwp_temp/nfpc.htm

Keywords: 

Army Corps of Engineers, floodproofing, mitigation, nonstructural approaches, Tennessee 

Abstract: This report documents a successful floodproofing project in Goodlettsville, TN, where 

USACE elevated 19 homes. The report provides background on the project and gives a detailed 

description of the homes involved, the implementation procedure used, and the project costs 

incurred. The Nashville District of the Army Corps of Engineers used a nonstandard approach 
282

that reduced administrative costs by minimizing the involvement of the Corps and maximizing 

the involvement of homeowners. Homeowners had the opportunity to control many aspects of 

the work to ensure their satisfaction with the project. Appendix A discusses the economics of the 

floodproofing project. Appendix B presents samples of documents (information packages, 

agreements, covenants, etc.) used in the program. Finally, Appendix C summarizes the cost data 

and offers an equation that can be used to estimate costs during the early planning stages on 

similar projects. 

U.S. Army Corps of Engineers, National Floodproofing Committee. (1993). Floodproofing: 

How to Evaluate Your Options. Washington, DC: U.S. Army Corps of Engineers. 

Available at: http://www.usace.army.mil/inet/functions/cw/cecwp/cecwp_temp/nfpc.htm

Keywords: 

floodproofing, mitigation, nonstructural approaches 

Abstract: This document provides discussion to assist property owners, engineers, and 

contractors make a preliminary evaluation on the appropriateness of floodproofing and determine 

what floodproofing technique has the greatest effectiveness for the given conditions. Chapter 1

describes how floodproofing can reduce flood damage to buildings and their contents. Chapter 2

addresses factors to consider when contemplating floodproofing, such as local building codes, 

high costs associated with some types of floodproofing, and the inability to floodproof certain 

types of buildings. Chapter 3 provides brief descriptions of various floodproofing measures and 

refers the reader to sources providing more detail on techniques suitable for the structure under 

evaluation. Chapter 4 assesses the characteristics of flood situations. Chapter 5 summarizes the 

thought process behind evaluating physical, economic, and other factors involved in determining 

the viability of floodproofing for a structure that has experienced flood damage or has a 

significant potential for being flooded. Appendix A presents a detailed explanation of how to 

evaluate floodproofing options. Appendix B contains worksheet forms and graphs and Appendix 

C addresses hypothetical cases and illustrates factors that influence decisions about whether to 

floodproof. 

U.S. Army Corps of Engineers, National Floodproofing Committee. (1994). Floodproofing 

Technology in the Tug Fork Valley. Washington, DC: U.S. Army Corps of Engineers. 

Available at: http://www.usace.army.mil/inet/functions/cw/cecwp/cecwp_temp/nfpc.htm

Keywords: 

Army Corps of Engineers, floodproofing, Kentucky, mitigation, nonstructural approaches, 

structural approaches, West Virginia 

Abstract: For three days in April 1977, torrential rains and a subsequent flood caused 

monumental damage in the Tug Fork Valley of southern West Virginia and northeastern 

Kentucky. During a 50-year period, the Valley had experienced 37 damaging flood events. 

However, the April 1977 flood exceeded the 500-year event in many of the heavily populated 

areas of the Tug Fork Valley. In a few hours, the floodwaters destroyed 600 homes and heavily 

damaged another 5,000 structures. As the Valley’s residents struggled to regain their foothold on 

life, the Huntington District of the Army Corps of Engineers began sowing the seeds of a plan to 

reduce flood damages. Aided by the passage of unique legislation, USACE waded into the floodsoaked Tug Fork Valley and developed a multifaceted plan destined to change the Valley’s 

development pattern forever. This report presents the features of the plan and concentrates on the 

application of floodproofing technology in the Tug Fork Valley to reduce future flood damages. 
283

The report also discusses the lessons learned by the Army Corps of Engineers during its mission 

to achieve a cost effective and socially acceptable solution to flooding problems in the Valley. 

U.S. Army Corps of Engineers, National Floodproofing Committee. (1994). Local 

Floodproofing Programs. Washington, DC: U.S. Army Corps of Engineers. 

Available at: http://www.usace.army.mil/inet/functions/cw/cecwp/cecwp_temp/nfpc.htm

Keywords: 

floodproofing, mitigation, nonstructural approaches 

Abstract: Floodproofing involves altering an existing building or its immediate area to prevent 

or minimize damage during a flood. Alterations can range from minor changes to the utilities, to 

waterproofing walls, to elevating the building above flood levels. Floodproofing has significant 

potential to reduce flood losses. Many people have floodproofed their homes or businesses, often 

by using common sense or self-taught approaches. During the last decade, federal, state, and 

local agencies have researched techniques, promoted floodproofing as a viable flood protection 

measure, and assisted property owners in implementing projects. This report provides advice for 

local communities interested in financing floodproofing projects. It does not represent a formula 

for developing a model program, because each community must design its own approach based 

on local flood hazards, building conditions, financial needs and resources. The report provides 

examples and photographs of projects financed by local governments. Appendix A summarizes 

local programs that have funded multiple floodproofing projects and mentions contact 

information for communities that have investigated and/or designed financing programs for 

floodproofing. 

U.S. Army Corps of Engineers, National Floodproofing Committee. (1996). Floodproofing: 

Techniques, Programs, and References. Washington, DC: U.S. Army Corps of Engineers. 

Available at: http://www.usace.army.mil/inet/functions/cw/cecwp/NFPC/fptpr/chap3.htm

Keywords: 

federal programs, floodproofing, mitigation, nonstructural approaches 

Abstract: This report addresses various approaches to floodproofing and the programs, 

references, and terminology of federal efforts in floodproofing. It presents a general overview of 

floodproofing techniques and provides the reader with information on government agencies that 

offer assistance and on publications that detail relevant information. The first chapter introduces 

the reader to floodproofing by explaining its basic concept, general approaches, and specific 

techniques. Chapter 2 describes floodproofing activities undertaken by the federal government, 

and Chapter 3 discusses specific floodproofing programs of government agencies. Chapter 4 

presents reference publications on floodproofing, and Chapter 5 explains how to locate 

additional publications on floodproofing from the Floodplain Management Resource Center at 

the Natural Hazards Center in Boulder, CO. The final chapter provides a glossary of terms 

related to floodproofing, flood insurance, and floodplain management. 

U.S. Army Corps of Engineers, National Flood Proofing Committee. (1998). Flood Proofing 

Performance: Successes & Failures. Washington, DC: U.S. Army Corps of Engineers.

Available for purchase at: http://www.civilbookstore.com/index/book/0788189883.html

Keywords: 

Army Corps of Engineers, building codes, floodproofing, mitigation, nonstructural approaches
284

Abstract: This report examines how structural floodproofing measures have performed when 

tested by actual floods. Researchers collected data from 12 flood events throughout the United 

States between 1986 and 1997 and then reviewed the damage and building performance data on 

each structure. The report identifies specific floodproofing measures and whether they failed or 

succeeded. In most cases the lessons from failed measures have more educational value than the 

lessons from successful ones. Chapter 4 of the report summarizes several lessons learned in 

floodproofing structures such as minimizing the amount of obstruction beneath an elevated 

structure in hurricane and high-velocity riverine areas and purchasing flood insurance for 

floodproofed structures and contents. 

U.S. Army Corps of Engineers, National Floodproofing Committee. (2001). Nonstructural 

Flood Damage Reduction Projects: What Districts Are Doing. Washington, DC: U.S. Army 

Corps of Engineers. 

Available at: http://www.usace.army.mil/civilworks/cecwp/NFPC/Nsfdr/NSFDR_Report.pdf

Keywords: 

Army Corps of Engineers, floodproofing, mitigation, nonstructural approaches 

Abstract: Nonstructural techniques for the reduction of flood damages consist of measures such 

as relocation, acquisition, floodproofing, flood insurance, flood preparedness/warning/response, 

and public education. Nonstructural techniques have proven to be extremely viable in 

alternatives consisting of total nonstructural or a combination of structural and nonstructural. The 

National Floodproofing Committee (NFPC) of the Army Corps of Engineers has recognized that 

sharing the successes of nonstructural techniques within the Army Corps of Engineers may help 

those districts considering these alternatives. The NFPC has compiled into this document 

applicable portions of reports developed by various districts that show the formulation, 

justification, and implementation of nonstructural projects. The formulation and justification of 

some projects comply with criteria established by USACE. Other projects documented do not but 

respond to a specific request from Congress. Examples of both kinds show the wide range of 

procedures and authorities used by districts to ensure the success of nonstructural projects. 

U.S. Congress. (1992). A Descriptive Analysis of Federal Relief, Insurance, and Loss 

Reduction Programs for Natural Hazards. Report to the Subcommittee on Policy Research 

and Insurance of the Committee on Banking, Finance, and Urban Affairs. Washington, 

DC: Government Printing Office. 

Keywords: 

cost-benefit analysis, disaster assistance, federal programs

Abstract: This report summarizes current federal disaster relief policies, existing and proposed 

insurance and loss control programs, and briefly discusses their evolution. A major theme in the 

report is whether the federal programs for dealing with natural disasters are operating in costeffective manners. Disaster relief policies present relatively straightforward issues for debate, 

including eligibility for assistance and the parameters of that assistance. Proposed insurance 

options, by comparison, require the consideration of additional issues, for example, the 

achievement of actuarial soundness. Actuarial soundness is one measure of the insurance 

program’s cost-effectiveness. Insurance programs must also consider the issue of participation 

and whether the availability of disaster relief may serve as a disincentive to some to participate in 

insurance programs. 
285

U.S. Department of Housing and Urban Development (HUD). (1977). National Conference 

on Coastal Erosion. Proceedings of the National Conference on Coastal Erosion, July 6-8, 

1977, Cape May, New Jersey. Washington, DC: HUD and FIA. 

Keywords: 

coastal areas, erosion 

Abstract: Participants of the National Conference on Coastal Erosion came from federal 

agencies, state government, local communities, and private institutions to provide insight into the 

problems of studying, mapping, regulating, and insuring areas with erosion hazards. The main 

body of this document consists of the transcript of the conference’s final day. Comments 

submitted to FIA following the conference varied greatly in length and specificity yet identified 

three common themes: 1) NFIP legislation should be changed to eliminate the need to distinguish 

between anticipated and unanticipated erosion; 2) regulations concerning land use should be 

emphasized in any program addressing erosion hazards; and 3) methods of analyzing recession 

rates should be evaluated further and any overall standards should accommodate state or regional 

differences. Correspondence from participants, a list of participants, and a bibliography of 

documents submitted in conjunction with the conference also appear in the document. 

U.S. Department of Housing and Urban Development (HUD) and FEMA. (1981). 

Evaluation of the Economic, Social and Environmental Effects of Floodplain Regulations. 

Washington, DC: HUD and FEMA. 

Keywords:

development, floodplain management, 1 percent annual chance flood standard 

Abstract: This study quantifies the economic, social, and environmental effects of regulating the 

1 percent annual chance floodplain. Twenty-three communities were selected for analysis 

according to location, flood hazard type, community size, and economic condition. Effects of 

floodplain regulations were evaluated by projecting development for 1980 and 1990 under three 

regulatory scenarios: (I) no regulations, allowing the free market to determine the 1 percent 

annual chance floodplain use; (II) moderate regulations similar to the current (1981) FIA 

regulations; and (III) stringent regulations forbidding new development and substantial 

improvements to existing structures and “correcting” past land-use decisions that interfere with 

natural functions of the 1 percent annual chance floodplain. The study places findings under the 

three major categories of effects: economic (flood losses), social (housing units and population), 

and environmental (land use). Under scenario I, average annual flood losses would increase 

sharply (29 percent by 1980; 71 percent by 1990). In scenario II, the losses projected in scenario 

I would be decreased by 87 percent in 1980, and by 85 percent in 1990. Scenario III would 

produce a small, but measurable absolute decline in average annual flood losses (1 percent by 

1990). Under scenario I, the total number of housing units in the 1 percent annual chance 

floodplain would increase 13 percent by 1980 and 35 percent by 1990. In scenario II, the 

increase in housing units projected in scenario I would be decreased by 37 percent in 1980 and 

by 78 percent in 1990. Scenario III would decrease the number of housing units in the 1 percent 

annual chance floodplain 1 percent by 1980 and 6 percent by 1990. Under scenario I, population 

in the 1 percent annual chance floodplain would increase 12 percent by 1980 and 29 percent by 

1990. In scenario II, the increase in population projected in scenario I would be decreased by 43 

percent in 1980 and by 41 percent in 1990. Scenario III would produce decreases population 

similar to those of scenario II. Finally under scenario I, there would be a continuing, unlimited 

conversion of open floodplain to urban uses, an additional 37 percent rise by 1990. In scenario II, 
286

the increase projected in scenario I would be decreased 36 percent by 1990. Scenario III would 

not allow any further development of the floodplain, would begin to remove existing 

development, and would result in a 2-percent reduction of developed acres. 

U.S. Department of the Interior. (1994). The Impact of Federal Programs on Wetlands – Vol. 

II. The Everglades, Coastal Louisiana, Galveston Bay, Puerto Rico, California’s Central 

Valley, Western Riparian Areas, Southeastern and Western Alaska, The Delmarva Peninsula, 

North Carolina, Northeastern New Jersey, Michigan, and Nebraska. Washington, DC: U.S. 

Department of the Interior. 

Available at: http://www.doi.gov/oepc/wetlands2/

Keywords: 

agriculture, Alaska, California, Coastal Barrier Resources System, Delaware, development, 

economic impacts, federal programs, floodplain management, Florida, Louisiana, Maryland, 

Michigan, Nebraska, New Jersey, North Carolina, Puerto Rico, Texas, urban areas, Virginia, 

wetlands 

Abstract: Wetlands are a vital element in the biosphere and produce numerous benefits for 

society. They provide critical nursery habitat for many species of fish and wildlife. By 

temporarily storing large quantities of water, wetlands play an important role in reducing 

flooding problems and recharging ground water. This is the second of two reports to Congress on 

how federal programs impact wetlands. Volume I, submitted to Congress in 1988, examined how 

federal programs have affected wetlands in the bottomland hardwoods of the Lower Mississippi 

Alluvial Plain and the prairie potholes of the Upper Midwest. Volume II focuses on 17 additional 

study areas, selected because they reflect the broad array of problems facing wetlands 

nationwide: Florida’s Everglades, coastal Louisiana, Texas’s Galveston Bay, the Puerto Rican 

mangroves and coastal wetlands, California’s Central Valley, western riparian wetlands, 

southeastern and western Alaska, the Delmarva Peninsula (comprising parts of Delaware, 

Maryland, and Virginia), North Carolina’s pocosins and other freshwater wetlands, northeastern 

New Jersey, Michigan’s coastal and northern forested wetlands, and Nebraska’s Rainwater 

Basin. Volume II contains five parts. The four chapters in Part I describe the federal programs 

affecting wetlands: agriculture; water development and management; infrastructure, local 

development, and housing; and resource use, extraction, and development. Parts II through V are 

organized regionally and examine the 17 study areas. 

U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. (2004). National Wetlands Inventory. Washington, 

DC: National Fish and Wildlife Service. 

Available at: http://wetlands.fws.gov

Keywords: 

environmental impacts, environmental policy, wetlands 

Abstract: The National Wetland Inventory is a portal of information on the characteristics and 

status of the nation’s wetlands. Graphical maps present maps of wetlands, digital data, and 

wetlands codes, and regulations. The Wetlands Mapper allows users to view and print maps or 

download custom wetland maps data. With regard to wetlands flora, the Wetlands Inventory 

develops, maintains, and distributes data and information on plants found in wetlands. Though 

wetlands comprise 5 percent of the land area of the continental United States, they contain over 

30 percent of the nation’s vascular flora. The site also includes links to other plant-related 

websites. As directed by the Emergency Wetlands Resources Act of 1986, the U.S. Fish and 
287

Wildlife Service monitors and reports changes in wetlands acreage through maps of their 

characteristics, extent, and status. The National Wetlands Status and Trends Report, a summary 

and analysis of wetlands data, was last published in 2000 and is available online. The report 

provides the most recent and comprehensive estimates of the current status and trends of the 

105.5 million acres of wetlands on public and private lands. Wetlands loss was estimated at 

58,500 acres annually, an 80 percent reduction from the previous decade. The primary causes of 

wetlands loss are urban and rural development and agriculture. 

U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service. (2002). The Coastal Barrier Resources Act: Harnessing the 

Power of Market Forces to Conserve America’s Coasts and Save Taxpayers’ Money. 

Washington, DC: U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service. 

Keywords: 

Coastal Barrier Resources Act, coastal barriers, development, disaster assistance, economic 

impacts, environmental policy, federal programs, public policy 

Abstract: According to the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, the Coastal Barrier Resources Act 

has saved taxpayers approximately $1.3 billion since its passage in 1982. This report investigates 

four areas of federal savings: roads, wastewater systems, potable water supply, and disaster 

assistance from the Stafford Act. For example in disaster assistance alone, which includes both 

disaster relief and development assistance from the Stafford Act, the report estimates a combined 

savings of about $1.279 billion from 1983 through 2010. While evidence indicates the Act has 

saved taxpayers’ money, uncertainty still exists as to whether the Act has met other fundamental 

objectives including the reduction of development in risky and biologically rich coastal barriers. 

Some units in the CBRS have developed significantly despite the Act’s restrictions. Future 

studies should investigate the nature of and extent of development that has occurred in coastal 

barriers within and outside the System. Furthermore, the report recommends implementation of 

appropriate state and local policies to bolster the Act’s impact. 

U.S. General Accounting Office (GAO). (1975). National Attempts to Reduce Losses from 

Floods by Planning for and Controlling the Uses of Flood-Prone Lands. Report to the 

Congress. Washington, DC: GAO.

Keywords: 

Unified National Program 

Abstract: This review was conducted to inform Congress about the effectiveness of a unified 

national program for reducing losses due to floods, as proposed by a task force established by the 

President in 1966. GAO found that little progress has been made toward curtailing disastrous 

flood losses by planning for and controlling the uses of flood-prone lands. Development of such 

lands has continued, making the program’s objective more difficult to achieve. The main reasons 

cited for the lack of progress are: (a) the lack of adequate evaluation of federal agencies, (b) the 

lack of adequate technical assistance from federal agencies on planning and regulating the use of 

flood-prone lands, (c) the need for better monitoring and leadership for federal flood control 

efforts, and (d) the need for more cooperation between federal, state and local governments to 

minimize flood losses. 

U.S. General Accounting Office (GAO). (1975). Tulsa, Oklahoma’s Participation in the 

National Flood Insurance Program. Report to the Honorable James R. Jones, House of 

Representatives. Washington, DC: GAO. 
288

Keywords: 

compliance, development, enforcement, legislation, mandatory purchase, Oklahoma 

Abstract: GAO evaluated the nature and extent of development in Tulsa’s Mingo Creek 

floodplain between February 15, 1972 (when the city adopted floodplain management 

regulations) and December 15, 1974. This report examines the effectiveness of federal, state, and 

local monitoring procedures designed to prevent improper development. GAO identified all 

loans for acquisition or construction of property in the Mingo Creek floodplain to determine 

whether mandatory flood insurance was required and had been obtained. GAO also examined 

NFIP policies, procedures, and legislative history. The final aspect of the study included 

interviews with federal, state, and local officials responsible for implementing the program as 

well as officials at financial institutions and the National Flood Insurers Association Serving 

Office. GAO recommends five changes to increase the NFIP’s effectiveness: (a) approve 

legislation that would prohibit federally regulated financial institutions from purchasing 

mortgages in the secondary market on properties that are required to but do not have flood 

insurance; (b) require communities to demonstrate adequate procedures for enforcing floodplain 

management regulations as part of admission into the NFIP; (c) establish a monitoring system to 

ensure that communities comply with adopted regulations; (d) clarify FIA regulations on 

communities proposing changes to floodplain levels; and (e) require future development in 

floodplains to be 1 foot above the 1 percent annual chance flood level. This report includes FIA’s 

response to each of the recommendations and actions to be taken.

U.S. General Accounting Office (GAO). (1976). Formidable Administrative Problems 

Challenge Achieving National Flood Insurance Program Objectives. Report to the Congress. 

Washington, DC: GAO. 

Keywords: 

compliance, legislation, mandatory purchase, mapping, NFIP 

Abstract: This report examines efforts of the Department of Housing and Urban Development 

(HUD) to implement the Flood Disaster Protection Act of 1973. GAO’s extensive analysis of the 

NFIP for this report included: a review of pertinent policies, procedures, studies, and legislative 

history; interviews with federal, state, and local officials and FIA contractors responsible for 

implementing the NFIP; and visits to nine communities in five states to review local efforts to 

implement program requirements. GAO found that: (a) flood insurance studies and rate maps 

were not being produced at a rate to meet the August 1, 1983, deadline for having all flood-prone 

communities participating in the regular phase of the NFIP; (b) FIA needs to better monitor 

community efforts to adopt and enforce floodplain management regulations; (c) flood insurance 

was generally being obtained when any federal financial assistance was required (about 90 

percent of mortgage transactions tested); (d) federal policy on secondary market purchases is 

often inconsistent and needs to be clarified. The report includes responses from HUD, FIA, and 

other federal agencies impacted by the recommendations in the report. 

U.S. General Accounting Office (GAO). (1979). How do Federal Agencies Assure that 

Disaster Loan Recipients Maintain Mandatory Flood Insurance? Report to the Chairman, 

Subcommittee on Oversight and Review, Committee on Public Works and Transportation, 

House of Representatives. Washington, DC: GAO. 

Keywords: 
289

disaster assistance, enforcement, Farmers Home Administration (FmHA), mandatory purchase, 

Small Business Administration 

Abstract: GAO reviewed the disaster loan programs of the Farmers Home Administration 

(FmHA) and the Small Business Administration (SBA) to examine the procedures used by 

federal agencies to ensure that disaster loan recipients maintain flood insurance when required as 

a condition for such loans. GAO reviewed legislation, agency policies, procedures, regulations, 

and guidelines in addition to gathering statistics on repeat flooding, flood insurance policies, and 

FmHA and SBA flood disaster loan activities since Fiscal Year 1975. Neither of these agencies 

nor FEMA had adequate information concerning the number of communities suffering repeat 

flooding, the number of loans requiring mandatory flood insurance made in SFHAs, and the 

number of borrowers required to buy flood insurance who had failed to renew or had their 

insurance cancelled before the final repayments of their loan. Therefore, GAO could not 

determine the extent of actual or potential losses to the government and to borrowers from failure 

to maintain flood insurance. Since neither of the legislative acts covering flood and disaster relief 

specifically addresses second loans to individuals failing to maintain required insurance on 

previous loans, FEMA, FmHA, and SBA have established their own policies and regulations on 

subsequent assistance. Some inconsistency in the practices of the three agencies exists. FEMA 

has certain corrective actions planned to combat the current lack of adequate information at the 

community and borrower levels. FmHA had adequate procedures to protect the government's 

interest by ensuring that flood insurance is maintained where required. SBA practices appear to 

be less than adequate in that the agency does not have contingency procedures that allow it to 

pay the insurance premium if the borrower fails to renew. 

U.S. General Accounting Office (GAO). (1979). Improvements Are Still Needed in the 

Administration of the Flood Insurance Program. Report to the Honorable Patricia Roberts 

Harris, Secretary of Housing and Urban Development. Washington, DC: GAO. 

Available at: http://161.203.16.4/f0302/108865.pdf

Keywords: 

compliance, floodplain management, mapping, NFIP, 1 percent annual chance flood standard

Abstract: This report was conducted to identify problems affecting program administration and 

the attainment of legislative objectives. GAO interviewed FIA staff at headquarters and three 

regional offices, met with state and local floodplain officials, and obtained information from 

federal agencies and several private sector experts. The report makes several key findings: the 

mapping program continues to have problems, floodplain management needs more emphasis, 

communities require more assistance to implement the program, the 1 percent annual chance 

flood standard needs evaluation, and the monitoring program requires improvements. 

Furthermore, some FIA policies, such as permitting the replacement of structures in the 

floodway, appear to be contrary to the objective of minimizing future flood damages. GAO 

recommends possible programmatic changes in response to each of the problems identified. For 

example, FIA should establish a cost-sharing arrangement with localities for (re)mapping work. 

In almost all cases FIA agreed to investigate the feasibility of implementing the report’s 

recommendations. 

U.S. General Accounting Office (GAO). (1980). Federal Disaster Assistance: What Should 

the Policy Be? Report to the Chairman and Ranking Minority Member, Committee on the 

Budget, U.S. Senate. Washington, DC: GAO. 
290

Available at: http://161.203.16.4/d46t13/112776.pdf

Keywords: 

agriculture, disaster assistance, federal programs

Abstract: This report examines the federal government’s financial role in disaster assistance to 

determine what the role and the relevant guiding principles should be. It discusses the five major 

disaster assistance programs, which include: the Small Business Administration’s disaster loan 

program, the Farmer Home Administration’s emergency loan program, the Disaster Payments 

Program (Department of Agriculture), the Federal Crop Insurance Program (administered by the 

Federal Crop Insurance Corporation), and the NFIP. These five program provide three generic 

forms of subsidized assistance: loans, grants, and insurance. GAO believes the following general 

criteria should be recognized in designing disaster assistance programs: (a) incentives should be 

minimized for poor locational decisions; (b) likes should be treated alike within programs, across 

programs, and over time; and (c) no individual or group should be able to improve on their 

predisaster condition unless it would reduce future government cost. 

U.S. General Accounting Office (GAO). (1981). Requests for Federal Disaster Assistance 

Need Better Evaluation. Report to the Congress. Washington, DC: GAO. 

Available at: http://161.203.16.4/d47t13/116995.pdf

Keywords: 

disaster assistance, federal programs, public assistance 

Abstract: Since 1970, the President’s Disaster Relief Fund has provided $3.8 billion to 

individuals and state and local governments. FEMA, in assessing the eligibility for disaster 

assistance, has had difficulty in determining whether state and local governments are capable of 

handling their own disasters and whether they are committing a reasonable amount of their 

available funds for disaster relief. GAO also found that FEMA has adopted a controversial costsharing policy and has funded disasters other than natural ones. GAO recommends that Congress 

clarify the extent of supplemental federal assistance to be given and the kinds of disasters that are 

eligible for federal assistance. FEMA should analyze the impact potential state inequities have on 

federal disaster assistance and submit a detailed plan and legislative changes to Congress to 

correct such weaknesses. 

U.S. General Accounting Office (GAO). (1982). National Flood Insurance: Marginal Impact 

on Floodplain Development, Administrative Improvements Needed. Report to the 

Subcommittee on Consumer Affairs, Committee on Banking, Housing, and Urban Affairs, 

U.S. Senate. Washington, DC: GAO. 

Available at: http://161.203.16.4/d44t15/119428.pdf

Keywords: 

coastal areas, coastal barriers, development

Abstract: This report compares the rate of community development and availability of flood 

insurance in six communities. GAO looked at 10 years of data on the number of new housing 

units authorized for each community and interviewed 115 people. None of the interviewees said 

they viewed flood insurance as the principal factor in development but almost all said it aided 

development since it was a “sweetener” in lessening investment risks. Many of those interviewed 

said that the availability of flood insurance had affected their community by increasing financial 

security and by forcing higher construction standards. Both factors were viewed as “enhancing” 

development. Nothing in the program effectively discourages new development. With increasing 
291

growth in coastal areas, GAO felt the risk of loss was inevitably growing and concluded that 

there is no assurance that the structures would safely survive a major storm, so it may be bad 

public policy to continue to provide coverage in coastal areas. The report also notes that a 

multitude of factors influences a builder to construct, an individual to occupy a structure, or a 

businessman to locate in a coastal or barrier island community. These factors include demand for 

location on highly desirable beach property, viability of local economies, and availability of 

community infrastructure. The report observes that the NFIP offers a “marginal added incentive” 

to development. 

U.S. General Accounting Office (GAO). (1983). Alternative Approaches for Converting 

National Flood Insurance Program Communities from the Emergency Phase to the Regular 

Phase. Testimony before the Subcommittee on Insurance, Committee on Banking, Housing, 

and Urban Affairs, U.S. Senate. Washington, DC: GAO. 

Available at: http://161.203.16.4/d40t12/121046.pdf

Keywords: 

agency operations and management, mapping

Abstract: GAO reports that FEMA will not meet the August 1983 deadline contained in the 

National Flood Insurance Act of 1968 for mapping flood hazards for all flood-prone 

communities. The primary reasons for such a failure include the unexpected magnitude of the 

undertaking and the nonuse of less costly and time-consuming alternative techniques for 

producing rate maps. GAO concluded that Congress should consider and select an optimal 

approach to complete the mapping project. 

U.S. General Accounting Office (GAO). (1983). Effect of Premium Increases on Achieving 

the National Flood Insurance Program’s Objectives. Report to the Subcommittee on 

Department of Housing and Urban Development-Independent Agencies, Committee on 

Appropriations, House of Representatives. Washington, DC: GAO. 

Available at: http://161.203.16.4/d40t12/120892.pdf

Keywords: 

insurance premiums, insurance purchase decision

Abstract: In response to a congressional request, GAO reviewed the impact that recent rate 

increases had on individual and community participation in the NFIP. GAO found that in the first 

two years after FEMA raised rates in January 1981, individual participation declined. 

Participation fell from a peak of about 2,014,500 policies in December 1980 to about 1,860,400 

in November 1982. GAO identified several factors in addition to the rate increases that could 

have contributed to the decline in individual participation. These factors include: (a) the decline 

in the housing market during the last few years; (b) the smaller number of floods and flood losses 

experienced in the last few years; and (c) the general economic recession. During this period, six 

small communities left the program. GAO found that none of the six communities left the 

program because of the rate increases. Rather, their reasons for leaving the program included the 

building restrictions imposed by the floodplain management criteria, a belief that there was not a 

need for flood insurance, and communities’ dislike of having the federal government tell them 

what they could and could not do in their flood-prone areas. 

U.S. General Accounting Office (GAO). (1983). National Flood Insurance: Major Changes 

Needed if It is to Operate without a Federal Subsidy. Report to the Subcommittee on 
292

Consumer Affairs, Committee on Banking, Housing, and Urban Affairs, U.S. Senate. 

Washington, DC: GAO. 

Available at: http://161.203.16.4/f0302/120349.pdf

Keywords: 

economic modeling, insurance premiums, subsidies

Abstract: GAO reports that the NFIP has not collected sufficient premiums to cover the cost of 

providing the insurance of about 1.9 million policyholders living in flood-prone areas. To 

compensate for the inadequate premium income, FIA borrowed $854 million from the U.S. 

Treasury between 1970 and 1980. This report says that FEMA has relied on a combination of 

models and judgment to set the insurance rates, but methodological and data weaknesses in this 

approach have produced an overly complex rate structure that has not generated sufficient 

income to cover the costs of providing insurance or build up a reserve. The report notes FEMA’s 

intention to eliminate the federal subsidy by 1988. GAO recommends that Congress consider 

telling FEMA whether it agrees with the agency’s shift toward rate increases or coverage 

reductions. GAO also recommends that FEMA establish a monitoring program to detect any 

adverse impact that increases in chargeable rates or decreases in coverage may have on the 

program’s objectives. 

U.S. General Accounting Office (GAO). (1986). Flood Insurance: Federal Emergency 

Management Agency’s Basement Coverage Liability. Fact Sheet for Congressional 

Requesters. Washington, DC: GAO. 

Available at: http://161.203.16.4/d12t3/129009.pdf

Keywords: 

basements, insurance coverage 

Abstract: Effective October 1983, FIA limited insurance coverage for basements to reduce the 

NFIP’s payment of future claims. The limitation was initiated because FIA believed that flooding 

of basements represents a risk inconsistent with a sound insurance program and that the program 

should respond only to the basic needs of its policyholders. This fact sheet was written in 

response to congressional requests about: (a) FIA’s authority to make such a policy change; (b) 

the procedure used to justify the policy; (c) the legality of the notification process; and (d) why 

other alternatives were rejected. GAO found that FEMA had authority to decide what should be 

insured, the nature and limits of loss or damage, the classification of risks by type, and risk 

limitations and rejections. After reviewing the analysis used to make the decision about limiting 

basement coverage, GAO found that two of the three reports used did not mention basement 

flooding and while the examination of claims data may not have overstated losses due to 

basement coverage, FIA should have used more complete methods, including a survey of closed 

claims. GAO then examined the notification of policyholders about the new limitations placed on 

basement coverage, finding that federal courts had ruled the procedure was legally adequate. The 

fact sheet also presents information about why FIA did not select one of five other alternatives 

for modifying basement coverage. 

U.S. General Accounting Office (GAO). (1987). Flood Insurance: Private Companies’ 

Participation in the Write Your Own Program. Report to the Subcommittee on Legislation 

and National Security, Committee on Government Operations, House of Representatives. 

Washington, DC: GAO. 

Available at: http://161.203.16.4/d28t5/133335.pdf
293

Keywords: 

insurance industry, Write Your Own Program 

Abstract: In response to a congressional request, GAO reviewed the status of the Write Your 

Own (WYO) Program. GAO conducted interviews with officials at FIA, FEMA’s Office of 

Inspector General, Computer Sciences Corporation (the contractor that manages WYO 

companies), and WYO companies as well as a reviewed legislative history and program files. 

GAO determined that: (a) as of September 1986, there were over 1 million WYO policies, about 

half of all NFIP policies; (b) the relationship between allowances retained from policy premiums 

for administrative costs and benefits to the federal government is uncertain (FIA does not require 

WYO companies to keep records of their actual costs to implement the program, but most 

indicated that they incurred administrative expenses for various activities, including marketing.); 

and (c) FIA is still in the process of implementing statistical reporting requirements, on-site 

reviews, and audits to ensure that WYO companies sell and service policies in accordance with 

program requirements. GAO found that FIA’s monitoring indicates that most companies have 

satisfactorily implemented the program. WYO companies expressed concern about the WYO 

program. For example, WYO companies did not want to compete with FIA’s direct sales 

program. The companies also felt that FIA did not provide enough advance notice on insurance 

premium changes and that FIA would need to increase insurance rates in order to meet the 

program’s long-range goal of having them share claims costs. 

US General Accounting Office (GAO). (1988). Disaster Assistance: Response to West 

Virginia’s November 1985 Flood Shows Need for Improvements. Washington, DC: GAO. 

Available at: http://161.203.16.4/d30t5/135213.pdf

Keywords: 

disaster planning, floodplain management, public assistance, risk communication, West Virginia 

Abstract: In 1985, flooding in West Virginia killed 47 people; damaged or destroyed 

approximately 9,000 homes; damaged forest, farm, and park lands; and destroyed businesses and 

public facilities. The federal government declared 29 counties a major disaster area. The report 

provides information on the extent of local disaster planning and preparedness, the effectiveness 

of existing warning systems and plans to improve them, and the federal government’s 

responsiveness to victims’ needs. The report found that many West Virginia counties’ disaster 

plans did not meet FEMA’s emergency preparedness criteria because of insufficient staff and 

funds. Half of the state’s jurisdictions had emergency plans dated before 1975: FEMA guidance 

states that local emergency plans should be updated at least once every three years. More than 

two-thirds of the plans in the disaster counties were rated poor or very poor by the GAO review. 

Warning systems did not advise residents of hazards in adequate time to take safety precautions. 

Following the flood, the National Weather Service funded a system to improve flood predictions 

in the designated disaster counties. However, counties may lack the funds to maintain the 

system. GAO recommends that FEMA consider the merits of regional, rather than local, 

emergency planning and define limits for the length of time the public assistance application 

process should take. The document also contains comments from FEMA.

U.S. General Accounting Office (GAO). (1988). Flood Insurance: Statistics on the National 

Flood Insurance Program. Fact Sheet for Congressional Requesters. Washington, DC: 

GAO. 

Available at: http://161.203.16.4/d34t11/135702.pdf
294

Keywords: 

agency operations and management, coastal areas, insurance premiums, liability, mitigation, 

repetitive losses 

Abstract: GAO compiled this fact sheet in response to a request for more information about the 

federal government’s role in protecting coastal resources and the exposure of the government to 

undesired levels of liability. GAO produced the statistics based on numbers provided by FEMA; 

the numbers were not independently verified. The statistics presented fall into six categories: (a) 

NFIP’s annual operating income/deficit, (b) number of policies in coastal areas and Great Lakes’ 

states, (c) total and repetitive losses, (d) flood-damaged property purchases by FEMA, (e) 

damages in excess of the maximum flood insurance available, and (f) annual average premiums 

and losses on policies for properties in coastal high-hazard areas. In 1987 the NFIP had about 2.1 

million policies in-force, worth about $162 billion. In the period from 1978 to 1987 the NFIP had 

a cumulative net operating deficit of about $652 million, with losses totaling about $2.4 billion. 

U.S. General Accounting Office (GAO). (1990). Flood Insurance: Information on the 

Mandatory Purchase Requirement. Fact Sheet for Congressional Requesters. Washington, 

DC: GAO. 

Available at: http://161.203.16.4/d23t8/142248.pdf

Keywords: 

enforcement, lending institutions, Maine, mandatory purchase, Texas 

Abstract: This fact sheet addresses the views of FIA, regulatory agencies, and lenders on issues 

related to compliance with the mandatory purchase provision of the Flood Disaster Protection 

Act of 1973, the level of compliance in certain areas of Texas and Maine, and efforts to increase 

compliance. FIA and regulatory agencies disagree about the level of compliance with the 

mandatory purchase requirement. FIA believes the noncompliance rate may be substantial while 

regulatory agencies such as the Federal Deposit Insurance Corporation and Federal Reserve 

System report noncompliance as a relatively minor problem, chiefly involving technical matters. 

To measure the level of compliance in certain areas of Texas and Maine, GAO obtained 

information on all personal residences in SFHAs for which disaster assistance was requested. 

The analysis estimates that in Texas and Maine about 79 percent and 22 percent, respectively, of 

these residences did not have the required flood insurance. One reason cited by lenders, among 

others, for not requiring flood insurance involved policies lapsing on properties requiring flood 

insurance at loan origination. Finally, GAO provides information on efforts to increase 

compliance including regulatory agencies following up with lenders reviewed in Texas and 

Maine that did not require flood insurance. The fact sheet also outlines actions FIA and lending 

institutions take to decrease rates of noncompliance. 

U.S. General Accounting Office (GAO). (1991). Federal, State, and Local Responses to 

Natural Disasters Need Improvement. Report to Congressional Requesters. Washington, 

DC: GAO. 

Available at: http://161.203.16.4/t2pbat8/143524.pdf

Keywords: 

disaster planning, Hurricane Hugo

Abstract: This report examines how FEMA and other federal agencies responded to California’s 

Loma Prieta earthquake and to Hurricane Hugo, which struck the U.S. Virgin Islands, Puerto 

Rico, and the Carolinas. The report contends that preparedness is the most critical aspect of 
295

emergency management because it affects states’ ability to respond to disaster. Problems with 

preparedness were linked to weaknesses in state and local programs, as well as in FEMA’s 

assistance and overall guidance. These problems included inadequate planning and training for 

recovery, low participation by elected officials in training exercises, inadequate or no standard 

operating procedures for response and recovery activities, failure to correct problems identified 

during earlier training exercises, a limited number of staff having the necessary disaster 

assistance skills, and inadequate coordination between several federal agencies. 

U.S. General Accounting Office (GAO). (1991). Wetlands Overview: Federal and State 

Policies, Legislation, and Programs. Fact Sheet to Congressional Requesters. Washington, 

DC: GAO. 

Available at: http://161.203.16.4/d31t10/145384.pdf

Keywords: 

environmental policy, federal programs, legislation, wetlands 

Abstract: In recent years, the benefits of wetlands—such as providing habitat for fish and 

wildlife and abating erosion—have become better known. Unfortunately, an estimated 50 

percent of all wetlands in the lower 48 states have already been filled or drained, and another 

290,000 acres are being lost annually to agriculture and development. This fact sheet provides an 

overview of federal and state wetlands-related policies, legislation, and programs. 

U.S. General Accounting Office (GAO). (1992). Coastal Barriers: Development Occurring 

Despite Prohibitions against Federal Assistance. Report to the Committee on Environment 

and Public Works, U.S. Senate. Washington, DC: GAO. 

Available at: http://161.203.16.4/d33t10/147342.pdf

Keywords: 

Coastal Barrier Resources Act, Coastal Barrier Resources System, development, legislation, 

insurance coverage

Abstract: GAO states that while the Coastal Barrier Resources Act (CBRA) of 1982 and its 

successor, the Coastal Barrier Improvement Act of 1990 had effectively discouraged 

development in some areas, other areas had undergone significant new development and more 

was planned. The report notes that one part of the problem was lax compliance, noting that the 

NFIP did not have controls in place to assure that private insurers under the Write Your Own 

(WYO) Program were complying. Based on sampling in five units, GAO projected that the NFIP 

had written coverage for 9 percent of the homeowners in units of CBRS. 

U.S. General Accounting Office (GAO). (1993). Disaster Management: Improving the 

Nation’s Response to Catastrophic Disasters. Report to Congressional Requesters. 

Washington, DC: GAO. 

Available at: http://161.203.16.4/t2pbat5/149631.pdf

Keywords: 

disaster assistance, disaster planning, federal programs, Florida, Hawaii, Hurricane Andrew, 

Hurricane Hugo, Hurricane Iniki

Abstract: The nation’s management of disasters was strongly criticized after Hurricane Andrew 

leveled much of South Florida and Hurricane Iniki devastated Kauai in 1992. Even before these 

storms, the federal government’s response to major disasters like Hurricane Hugo and the Loma 

Prieta earthquake drew intense criticism. The government’s response to Hurricane Andrew, in 
296

particular, raised doubts about whether FEMA was capable of responding to such catastrophes 

and whether it had learned any lessons from Hurricane Hugo and the Loma Prieta earthquake. 

GAO has testified repeatedly in 1993 on the inadequacy of the federal strategy for responding to 

disasters. This report summarizes GAO’s analyses, conclusions, and recommendations. 

U.S. General Accounting Office (GAO). (1994). Federal Disaster Assistance: Goals are 

Good, but Insurance Programs Would Expose the Federal Government to Large Potential 

Losses. Testimony before the Committee on Commerce, Science, and Transportation, U.S. 

Senate. Washington, DC: GAO. 

Available at: http://161.203.16.4/t2pbat3/151757.pdf

Keywords: 

disaster assistance, federal programs, insurance industry, insurance, legislation, liability, 

mitigation 

Abstract: Although the insurance industry has absorbed losses from recent natural disasters 

without systemic failures, concerns exist about its ability to handle losses from potentially larger 

disasters. The federal government has absorbed a large portion of the losses from past disasters 

and is likely to pay out even larger amounts in the future. Proposed legislation in the Senate (S. 

1350) would establish three interrelated programs: a multihazard disaster mitigation program, a 

primary insurance program for earthquakes and volcanic eruptions, and a reinsurance program to 

cap insurers’ losses when major disasters occur. This testimony explains in detail the provisions 

of S. 1350 and provides GAO’s analysis and concerns about the legislation. For example, GAO 

has great concern about the way the proposed federal reinsurance fund and the insurance industry 

would share losses. The basis for determining when the fund becomes liable for payment of 

disaster losses could be subject to insurer manipulation that could result in substantial increases 

to the fund’s liability. 

U.S. General Accounting Office (GAO). (1994). Flood Insurance: Financial Resources May 

Not Be Sufficient to Meet Future Expected Losses. Report to Congressional Requesters. 

Washington, DC: GAO. 

Available at: http://161.203.16.4/t2pbat3/151362.pdf

Keywords: 

agency operations and management, insurance premiums, liability, subsidies

Abstract: This report addresses the actuarial soundness of the NFIP. GAO found that the 

program is intentionally not actuarially sound because Congress authorized subsidized insurance 

rates to be made available for policies covering certain structures, and, as of 1993, about 41 

percent of policies were subsidized. With respect to the potential financial impacts of increasing 

subsidized flood insurance rates and enhancing program participation, both were determined to 

be potentially harmful. Increasing premiums would encourage policyholders to cancel their 

insurance and seek assistance through other federal disaster relief programs. However, 

encouraging participation in the flood insurance program would increase the amount of 

subsidized insurance rates, thereby worsening the NFIP’s financial condition. Finally, GAO 

describes the procedures used to set the program’s insurance rates. 

U.S. General Accounting Office (GAO). (1995). Disaster Assistance: Information on 

Expenditures and Proposals to Improve Effectiveness and Reduce Future Costs. Testimony 
297

before the Subcommittee on VA, HUD, and Independent Agencies, Committee on 

Appropriations, U.S. Senate. Washington, DC: GAO. 

Available at: http://161.203.16.4/t2pbat1/153758.pdf

Keywords: 

agency operations and management, disaster assistance

Abstract: This report discusses ways to enhance the effectiveness of a number of federal disaster 

assistance programs, identifies proposals to lower future federal costs, and addresses the 

accuracy of financial information in FEMA’s Disaster Relief Fund. Three main conclusions 

emerge. First, there are ways to improve federal disaster assistance programs, including greater 

flexibility on FEMA’s part in providing grant funding, enabling military reserve components to 

provide disaster assistance, and clarifying the conditions under which FEMA would pay more 

than the replacement cost to restore certain structures. Second, proposals have been made to 

modify and lower the costs of federal disaster assistance, including more explicit and/or stringent 

criteria for disaster assistance, emphasizing hazard mitigation through incentives, and relying 

more on insurance. Third, problems exist with FEMA’s current accounting systems, such as field 

office systems that are neither integrated nor linked to FEMA’s central accounting system. 

U.S. General Accounting Office (GAO). (1995). Midwest Flood: Information on the 

Performance, Effects, and Control of Levees. Report to Congressional Requesters. 

Washington, DC: GAO. 

Available at: http://www.gao.gov/archive/1995/rc95125.pdf

Keywords: 

Army Corps of Engineers, levees, Midwest floods of 1993

Abstract: In response to the Midwest floods of 1993 in nine states, Congress asked GAO to 

examine the operation of levees. This report addresses the extent to which: (a) the Army Corps 

of Engineers’ flood control levees prevented flooding and reduced damage during the event; (b) 

the federal levees increased the height of the flooding and added to the damage; and (c) federal, 

state, and local governments exercise control over the design, construction, placement, and 

maintenance of nonfederal levees. GAO found that most Army Corps of Engineers’ levees 

prevented flooding and reduced damage; levees increased flood levels but represented one of 

many factors affecting the extent of flooding; and federal, state, and local governments exercise 

some control over nonfederal levees. 

U.S. General Accounting Office (GAO). (1996). Disaster Assistance: Improvements Needed 

in Determining Eligibility for Public Assistance. Testimony before the Subcommittee on VA, 

HUD, and Independent Agencies, Committee on Appropriations, U.S. Senate. Washington, 

DC: GAO. 

Available at: http://www.gao.gov/archive/1996/rc96166t.pdf

Keywords: 

cost-benefit analysis, disaster assistance, public assistance 

Abstract: This report reviews FEMA’s public assistance program, which funds the repair of 

eligible public facilities – such as roads, government buildings and utilities – that are damaged in 

natural disasters. This report evaluates FEMA’s criteria for determining eligibility for public 

assistance, FEMA’s monitoring of public assistance expenditures, and potential changes in 

eligibility that could lower the costs of public assistance. FEMA’s criteria for determining 

eligibility of certain nonprofit facilities were deemed ambiguous and regional officials were not 
298

systematically updated of policy changes. States are largely responsible for ensuring that 

expenditures are limited to eligible items. Independent audits by FEMA’s OIG and some state 

audit staff provide an additional check on eligibility. When surveyed, public assistance program 

officials at FEMA’s regional offices recommended limiting the time period and number of 

appeals for building restoration, eliminating the eligibility of facilities owned by redevelopment 

agencies, and restricting eligible public facilities to only those being actively used for public 

purposes. 

U.S. General Accounting Office (GAO). (1996). Disaster Assistance: Improvements Needed 

in Determining Eligibility for Public Assistance. Report to the Chairman, Subcommittee on 

VA, HUD and Independent Agencies, Committee on Appropriations, U.S. Senate. 

Washington, DC: GAO. 

Available at: http://frwebgate.access.gpo.gov/cgibin/useftp.cgi?IPaddress=162.140.64.21&filename=rc96113.pdf&directory=/diskb/wais/data/gao

Keywords: 

agency operations and management, public assistance

Abstract: In this report, GAO reviews FEMA’s criteria for determining eligibility for public 

assistance, determines how FEMA ensures that public assistance funds are expended only for 

eligible items, and identifies changes in eligibility that could lower the costs of public assistance 

in the future. GAO reports that FEMA’s criteria for determining public assistance are ambiguous 

and that FEMA has systematically updated or disseminated to regional officials its policy 

changes affecting eligibility. FEMA relies principally on states to ensure that expenditures are 

limited to eligible items. Program officials in FEMA’s 10 regional offices identified a variety of 

options that, if implemented, could reduce the cost of the public assistance program, including 

placing limits on the appeals process; eliminating eligibility for some facilities that generate 

revenue, lack required insurance, or do not deliver government services; and limiting the impact 

of codes and standards. 

U.S. General Accounting Office (GAO). (1998). Disaster Assistance: Information on Federal 

Disaster Mitigation Efforts. Testimony before the Subcommittee on Water Resources and 

Environment, Committee on Transportation and Infrastructure, House of Representatives. 

Washington, DC: GAO. 

Available at: http://www.gao.gov/archive/1998/rc98067t.pdf

Keywords: 

enforcement, federal programs, mitigation, risk assessment

Abstract: This testimony briefly discusses why state and local governments and individuals do 

not always undertake disaster mitigation efforts. Reasons include local sensitivity to measures 

such as building codes enforcement and land-use planning, conflict between mitigation and 

developmental goals, and individuals’ perceptions that a disaster has a low possibility of 

occurring. FEMA’s efforts to encourage mitigation include grants and training for state and local 

governments, funding for mitigating damage to public facilities and purchasing and converting 

flood-prone properties to open space, federal flood insurance, and programs targeted at reducing 

the loss of life and property from earthquakes and fires. The effort for ensuring the cost-effective 

use of federal dollars for hazard mitigation is hampered by the need for better data to estimate 

risks and by the fact that funds for hazard mitigation are provided through a number of different 

programs and agencies—some limited to particular hazards. However, savings from such 
299

programs depends upon the incidence of future disasters and the extent to which the federal 

government would bear the resulting losses. 

U.S. General Accounting Office (GAO). (1998). EPA’s and States’ Efforts to Focus State 

Enforcement Programs on Results. Report to Committee on Commerce, US House of 

Representatives, Washington, DC: GAO. 

Available at: http://www.gao.gov/archive/1998/rc98233t.pdf

Keywords: 

agency operations and management, compliance, Environmental Protection Agency, floodplain 

management, legislation 

Abstract: Environmental statutes allow the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) to delegate 

responsibility for key enforcement programs to qualified states. States may supplement these 

programs with other approaches to improve compliance through technical assistance and 

incentives. The report addresses what alternative compliance strategies states are practicing, how 

states are measuring the effectiveness of these strategies, and the influence of the EPA. The EPA 

has historically measured the success of states’ enforcement programs by the number of 

inspections conducted and the number of enforcement actions taken against violators. Recently, 

however, states have cited these “output-measures” as inappropriate indicators of a program’s 

success that ignore needs for technical assistance and education. GAO found that states typically 

implemented programs to aid in compliance with environmental regulations, or programs that 

promote more flexible enforcement than is practiced under the current system. State and EPA 

officials agreed that alternative compliance strategies should be measured and assessed. 

However, there are several obstacles to measuring performance outcomes, such as the absence of 

baseline data. EPA has initiated several activities to aid states’ efforts but has also encountered 

differences between its own legal and policy approaches and those of states. GAO found that 

different EPA offices assessed state enforcement programs differently as well, making 

cooperation difficult. Despite quarterly meetings between management staff in headquarters and 

regional offices and the implementation of the National Performance Measures Strategy, officials 

acknowledged that states are still receiving inconsistent messages. 

U.S. General Accounting Office (GAO). (1998). Wetlands Overview: Problems With Acreage 

Data Persist. Report to Congress, Washington, DC: GAO. 

Available at: http://frwebgate.access.gpo.gov/cgibin/useftp.cgi?IPaddress=162.140.64.21&filename=rc98150.pdf&directory=/diskb/wais/data/gao

Keywords: 

federal programs, wetlands 

Abstract: The report is the response to a request to develop an inventory of federal agencies 

involved in wetlands-related activities between fiscal years 1990 and 1997 and to determine if 

data on wetlands acreage reported by these agencies are consistent and reliable. GAO found that 

36 federal agencies, to varying degree, conducted wetlands-related activities during the time 

period, including acquiring, regulating, restoring, enhancing, mapping, delineating, and 

researching wetlands. Funding associated with these activities ranged from $508 million to $787 

million and staffing ranged from 3,271 FTEs to 4,308 FTEs. Six agencies – the Army Corps of 

Engineers, the Department of Agriculture’s Farm Service Agency and the Natural Resources 

Conservation Service, the Department of the Interior’s Fish and Wildlife Service, the Department 

of Commerce’s National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration, and the Environmental 
300

Protection Agency – were the primary agencies involved in and responsible for implementing 

wetlands-related programs. These six agencies accounted for more than 70 percent of the funding 

and 65 percent of the staffing associated each year with such activities. GAO found that the 

consistency and reliability of wetlands acreage data reported by federal agencies were 

questionable. The consequence of this is that no single set of wetland acreage figures could be 

used to evaluate the progress made in achieving the goal of no net loss. Current reporting 

practices do not allow the number of acres restored or enhanced to be determined. Programs 

intended to improve on wetlands management and data have been proposed, but not fully 

developed and implemented. 

U.S. General Accounting Office (GAO). (1999). Disaster Assistance: FEMA Can Improve its 

Cost-Effectiveness Determination for Mitigation Grants. Testimony before the Subcommittee 

on Oversight, Investigations, and Emergency Management, Committee on Transportation 

and Infrastructure, House of Representatives. Washington, DC: GAO. 

Available at: http://www.gao.gov/archive/1999/rc99274t.pdf

Keywords: 

cost-benefit analysis, Hazard Mitigation Grant Program, mitigation

Abstract: This statement describes the approaches FEMA and the states use to ensure that the 

Hazard Mitigation Grant Program’s awards are targeted to cost-effective mitigation projects. It 

presents GAO’s findings as to whether the approaches ensure that the mitigation measures are 

cost-effective. GAO found that not all the states conducted cost-benefit analyses to determine 

projects’ cost-effectiveness. Although FEMA does use cost-benefit analysis as its primary 

approach for ensuring cost-effectiveness, it also exempts certain types of projects from this 

analysis because of difficulties in quantifying their benefits and the time needed to gather data 

for conducting the analyses. GAO determined that the hazard mitigation projects receiving the 

majority of the funding are cost effective. However, projects receiving one-third of the funding 

were exempt from cost-benefit analysis, despite the absence of the established analytical basis 

supporting the exemption of a majority of these projects. 

U.S. General Accounting Office (GAO). (1999). Disaster Assistance: Opportunities to 

Improve Cost-Effectiveness Determinations for Mitigation Grants. Report to Congressional 

Committees. Washington, DC: GAO. 

Available at: http://frwebgate.access.gpo.gov/cgibin/useftp.cgi?IPaddress=162.140.64.88&filename=rc99236.pdf&directory=/diskb/wais/data/gao

Keywords: 

cost-benefit analysis, Hazard Mitigation Grant Program, mitigation

Abstract: GAO reviewed how FEMA, together with individual states, ensures the costeffectiveness of projects under the mitigation grant program. GAO found that the states and 

FEMA work together to help ensure that program grants are awarded for cost-effective projects. 

The states, according to GAO’s review, established procedures and priorities for identifying and 

selecting mitigation projects, but not all of them conducted a formal analysis of a project’s costeffectiveness before submitting an application for the project to FEMA. 

U.S. General Accounting Office (GAO). (1999). Flood Insurance: Information on Financial 

Aspects of the National Flood Insurance Program. Testimony before the Subcommittee on 
301

Housing and Community Opportunity, Committee on Banking and Financial Services, 

House of Representatives. Washington, DC: GAO. 

Available at: http://www.gao.gov/new.items/d01992t.pdf

NOTE: GAO gave similar testimony before the Committee on Banking, Housing, and Urban 

Affairs, U.S. Senate, in August 1999. This testimony appears in a separate GAO document not 

cited in the bibliography. 

Keywords: 

insurance premiums, liability, NFIP, subsidies 

Abstract: In this testimony, GAO discusses the factors contributing to financial difficulties of 

the NFIP as of 1998 and the potential effects of corrective actions by FIA. A GAO report from 

March 1994 found that NFIP funds were sufficient to cover current program expenses but were 

susceptible to future flood losses. Between 1993 and 1998, claims increased as a result of losses 

from a series of storms, including the 1997 floods in the Red River Valley. Program losses 

totaled $1.6 billion. To cover this cost, FIA borrowed funds from the U.S. Treasury and owes 

$738 million as of March 31, 1999. The GAO report finds several reasons for the deficit. 

Dependence on premiums for funding prevents the NFIP from anticipating the cost of future 

losses. Repetitive loss properties account for claims disproportionate to their number or 

premiums. Annual premiums on subsidized policies, though nearly twice the annual premiums 

on actuarial policies, represent only 38 percent of the true risk premium of the policy. FIA aims 

to collect sufficient revenue to meet the expected losses and expenses of the average historical 

loss year, as well as cover the program administration. However, the calculation of the average 

historical loss year is based only on experience under the program since 1978. To address the 

financial health of the NFIP, FIA has studies underway to assess the potential effects of 

eliminating subsidized properties and targeting the repetitive loss properties that pose the greatest 

cost. The report recognizes that losses experienced by the program have gradually declined since 

fiscal year 1995 and that financial status is an imperfect indicator of the value of the program. 

Standards for new construction reduce the potential cost of future losses and subsidized 

premiums encourage program enrollment, decreasing taxpayer-funded disaster relief. 

U.S. General Accounting Office (GAO). (1999). Food and Drug Administration Facility: 

Requirements for Building on a Floodplain Met. Report to Congressional Requester.

Washington, DC: GAO. 

Available at: http://www.gao.gov/new.items/gg00017.pdf

Keywords: 

federal programs, Maryland 

Abstract: This report is in response to a request for information about a new facility for the Food 

and Drug Administration in College Park, MD, located in a floodplain. The report found that the 

facility met the minimum requirements set by the state of Maryland for a building with a 

basement in a flood plain. The total cost of the building and land is estimated to be about $86 

million. The basement contains the building’s main computer facilities, which stores for the 

Center for Food Safety and Applied Nutrition. Flooding of the computer facility would result in 

damages close to $4 million. 

U.S. General Accounting Office (GAO). (1999). Tennessee Valley Authority: Future Study of 

Lake Levels Should Involve Public and Consider Costs and Benefits. Report to the Honorable 

Van Hilleary, House of Representatives. Washington, DC: GAO. 
302

Available at: http://www.gao.gov/archive/1999/rc99154.pdf

Keywords: 

agency operations and management, cost-benefit analysis, dams, strategic planning, Tennessee 

Valley Authority

Abstract: The Tennessee Valley Authority (TVA), a government corporation, has harnessed the 

Tennessee River and its tributaries to serve various purposes from recreation to flood control to 

hydroelectric power production. Thirteen of TVA’s projects along the river, known as 

multipurpose tributary projects, consist of dams and lakes on the river’s tributaries, such as the 

Douglas and Cherokee projects and provide multiple public benefits. In operating its integrated 

system, TVA often finds that the multiple purposes served by the project can conflict and/or 

compete with each other. This report discusses: (a) the purposes served by TVA’s multipurpose 

tributary projects and how TVA operates them within its integrated system; (b) the operational 

changes TVA made to these projects as a result of its December 1990 review of its project 

operations and the major factors influencing these changes; (c) the steps TVA has taken since 

1990 to address requests for changes in the way it operates these projects; and (d) TVA’s plans 

for future changes in the way it operates these projects. 

U.S. General Accounting Office (GAO). (2000). Disaster Assistance: Issues Related to the 

Development of FEMA’s Insurance Requirements. Report to Congressional Committees. 

Washington, DC: GAO. 

Available at: http://frwebgate.access.gpo.gov/cgibin/useftp.cgi?IPaddress=162.140.64.21&filename=g800062.pdf&directory=/diskb/wais/data/ga

Keywords:

agency operations and management, disaster assistance, public assistance 

Abstract: FEMA has proposed that funding under the Public Assistance Program for buildings 

damaged in a disaster be limited to those state and local agencies and other public entities that 

maintain specified minimum levels of insurance coverage. According to FEMA, the draft 

regulation is intended to remove a disincentive under current rules for such entities to both carry 

insurance and manage their risk of disasters. This report evaluates the agency’s efforts to develop 

its draft insurance regulations. GAO 1) determines the extent to which FEMA obtained and 

incorporated input for state and local agencies and public entities likely to be affected by the 

draft regulation; 2) evaluates FEMA’s compliance with Executive Order 12866, the Regulatory 

Flexibility Act, and applicable guidance governing the rulemaking process; and 3) assesses 

FEMA’s internal rulemaking processes and procedures. Based on its review, GAO found that 

FEMA took a number of steps to obtain and incorporate input on the content of its draft and, 

based on this input, made changes to its draft regulation, but the agency failed to fully comply 

with Executive Order 12866 because it had not performed an analysis of the expected costs and 

benefits of the draft regulation and had not prepared a comprehensive analysis of other 

alternatives. Many of problems observed by GAO appeared to come from weaknesses in 

FEMA’s internal rulemaking processes and procedures. For example, FEMA had not designated 

a regulatory policy officer and had not updated its internal guidance and procedures governing 

the formulation of proposed rulemaking in more than 10 years. 

U.S. General Accounting Office (GAO). (2000). More Consistency Needed Among EPA 

Regions in Approach to Enforcement. Report to the Senate. Washington, DC: GAO.

Available at: http://www.gao.gov/new.items/rc00108.pdf
303

Keywords: 

agency operations and management, compliance, enforcement, Environmental Protection 

Agency 

Abstract: The report addresses the extent to which variations exist among the Environmental 

Protection Agency’s (EPA) 10 regional offices in their enforcement of environmental 

regulations, what factors contribute to variations, and what is being done to achieve consistency. 

Enforcement of environmental regulations is administered through the Office of Enforcement 

and Compliance Assurance (OECA). OECA expects the regions to take a systematic approach to 

administering and overseeing enforcement programs, in accordance with EPA regulations. 

Consistency among regions has implications for the application of comparable enforcement 

responses to like violations. However, EPA acknowledges that some variation among regions is 

expected because of available resources and the level of regional oversight for state enforcement 

programs. GAO found variations in inspection coverage of facilities discharging pollutants, the 

number and type of enforcement actions taken, the size of penalties assessed, and the criteria 

used in determining penalties assessed. Nor are these variations new or unknown: the results 

corroborate earlier findings by EPA’s Office of the Inspector General (OIG) and others. 

Interviews with regional officials confirmed the lack of consistency. EPA headquarters and 

regional officials have a number of efforts underway to achieve greater consistency. For 

example, headquarters is organizing a series of “Program Status Reports” to communicate 

regional performance information. However, EPA predicts that the absence of reliable data will 

continue to hamper consistency.

U.S. General Accounting Office (GAO). (2000). Observations on FEMA’s Fiscal Year 1999 

Performance Report and Fiscal Year 2001 Performance Plan. Report to Congressional 

Committee. Washington, DC: GAO. 

Available at: http://www.gao.gov/new.items/rc00210r.pdf

Keywords: 

FEMA management 

Abstract: The review examines each of FEMA’s performance goals related to key outcomes, 

assesses whether it has been met, what progress has been made to meet it, whether systems are in 

place to measure progress, and what obstacles exist to achievement of goals. Based on review of 

FEMA’s 1999 annual performance report, GAO found that FEMA is making progress to 

addressing its goals, but that the reasons for not meeting some goals were not clear, and FEMA 

did not describe a strategy to meet those goals in the future. FEMA had recently developed a 

quarterly reporting system for tracing progress to meeting performance goals. FEMA officials 

stated that the system is used to influence decision-making. GAO also noted that some FEMA 

goals are described in qualitative terminology that makes progress difficult to determine and 

measure. The report concludes that FEMA has made considerable progress to resolving 

management challenges. 

U.S. General Accounting Office (GAO). (2001). Disaster Assistance: Improvement Needed in 

Disaster Declaration Criteria and Eligibility Assurance Procedures. Report to the 

Subcommittee on VA, HUD, and Independent Agencies, Committee on Appropriations, 

U.S. Senate. Washington, DC, GAO. 

Available at: http://frwebgate.access.gpo.gov/cgibin/useftp.cgi?IPaddress=162.140.64.21&filename=d01837.pdf&directory=/diskb/wais/data/gao
304

Keywords: 

disaster assistance, public assistance 

Abstract: The report analyzes FEMA’s criteria for determining eligibility for disaster assistance, 

and the effect of implementation of changes in eligibility requirements. Since 1990 FEMA has 

expended over $27 billion in disaster assistance. Federal funds for disaster assistance are 

provided on the basis of whether costs exceed a fixed cost per capita statewide. The report finds 

that these criteria are not indicative of a state’s financial capacity to respond to a disaster, merely 

the impact of the disaster in relation to population. Also, while FEMA has continued to develop 

clear criteria for determining the eligibility of individual projects, difficulties in applying these 

criteria persist because of the temporary nature of many of the field staff and the lack of 

sufficient training. FEMA has delayed implementing a credentialing program because of 

budgetary and programmatic factors. The lack of centralized, quantified, reliable data also 

hampers the ability of FEMA officials to conduct program-wide analysis of the public assistance 

program. 

U.S. General Accounting Office (GAO). (2001). FEMA: Status of Achieving Key Outcomes 

and Addressing Major Management Challenges. Report to the Ranking Minority Member, 

Committee on Governmental Affairs, U.S. Senate. Washington, DC. GAO. 

Available at: 

http://frwebgate.access.gpo.gov/cgibin/useftp.cgi?IPaddress=162.140.64.21&filename=d01832.pdf&directory=/diskb/wais/data/gao

Keywords: 

agency operations and management, disaster assistance, disaster planning, mitigation, strategic 

planning 

Abstract: FEMA’s performance in achieving key outcomes in fiscal year 2000 was analyzed as 

required by the Government Performance and Results Act of 1993. The report finds continued 

improvement in the selected key outcomes: to minimize human suffering and property losses 

after natural disasters, provide timely responses to disaster aid requests, and prevent or reduce 

harm and losses from future disaster through mitigation efforts. The report concludes that the 

performance goals that FEMA uses to measure progress in these three areas are largely accurate 

and effective in encouraging program improvement. The report also reviews FEMA’s projected 

handling of strategic human capital management and information security through its 2002 

performance plan. 

U.S. General Accounting Office (GAO). (2001). Flood Insurance: Emerging Opportunity to 

Better Measure Certain Results of the National Flood Insurance Program. Testimony before 

the Subcommittee on VA, HUD, and Independent Agencies, Committee on Appropriations, 

U.S. Senate. Washington, DC: GAO. 

Available at: http://frwebgate.access.gpo.gov/cgibin/useftp.cgi?IPaddress=162.140.64.21&filename=d01736t.pdf&directory=/diskb/wais/data/gao

Keywords: 

agency operations and management, compliance, mapping, Special Flood Hazard Areas, 

strategic planning 

Abstract: In this prepared statement, GAO specifically addresses whether FEMA could better 

evaluate the NFIP’s results by adding a goal tied to rates of participation in the program—the 

percentage of structures in SFHAs that have insurance; and what obstacles and opportunities 
305

exist for measuring these participation rates. While FEMA does have several performance goals 

used to evaluate the NFIP’s effectiveness, the agency does not assess participation rates of 

residents living in flood-prone areas. By collecting data on the number of insured and uninsured 

structures in flood-prone areas, FEMA could assess how effectively the program penetrates areas 

at risk for flood damage and could better target its marketing efforts. However, before 

participation rates can be used to measure the success of the NFIP, better data are needed on the 

total number of structures in flood-prone areas. Currently, data on the number of structures are 

incomplete and inaccurate. GAO notes that FEMA is working to improve the quality of these 

data with the use of, for example, new mapping technologies. 

U.S. General Accounting Office (GAO). (2001). Flood Insurance: Information on the 

Financial Condition of the National Flood Insurance Program. Testimony before the 

Subcommittee on Housing and Community Opportunity, Committee on Financial Services, 

House of Representatives. Washington, DC: GAO. 

Available at: http://frwebgate.access.gpo.gov/cgibin/useftp.cgi?IPaddress=162.140.64.21&filename=d01992t.pdf&directory=/diskb/wais/data/gao

Keywords: 

insurance premiums, NFIP, repetitive losses, subsidies 

Abstract: In this prepared statement, GAO addresses three issues: 1) the financial results of the 

program’s operations since Fiscal Year 1993, 2) the program’s actuarial soundness, and 3) the 

impact of repetitive loss properties and FEMA’s strategies for reducing those losses. GAO 

reports that the NFIP operated “in the black” for past two fiscal years, which enabled the 

program to repay funds it had borrowed from the U.S. Treasury to finance earlier losses. With 

regards to actuarial soundness, the report finds the NFIP does not collect sufficient premium to 

build reserves to meet future expected flood losses. As of 2000, approximately 30 percent of 

policies received subsidized rates. Furthermore, repetitive loss properties have a major 

disproportionate impact on the program, currently accounting for about $200 million in losses 

annually. Based on its findings, GAO presents policies FIA could adopt to correct programmatic 

deficiencies. For example, the NFIP could achieve actuarial soundness through a rate-setting 

process that would to consider the monetary risk exposure of the program or the dollar value of 

expected flood losses over the long run. In addition, GAO also supports FIA’s efforts to identify 

target repetitive loss properties and transfer their servicing to a special facility designed to better 

oversee claims and coordinate and facilitate insurance and mitigation actions and to develop and 

implement proposals to reduce the subsidy provided to pre-FIRM repetitive loss properties. 

U.S. General Accounting Office (GAO). (2002). Flood Insurance: Extent of Noncompliance 

with Purchase Requirements is Unknown. Report to Congressional Committees. 

Washington, DC: GAO. 

Available at: http://www.gao.gov/new.items/d02396.pdf

Keywords: 

lending institutions, mandatory purchase 

Abstract: This report presents the opposing perspectives held by bank regulators and 

government-sponsored enterprises (GSEs) and FEMA regarding lender compliance with flood 

insurance purchase requirements. Federal agencies responsible for overseeing lenders have 

uncovered few significant violations of lender noncompliance in their reviews of loan portfolios. 

Meanwhile, FEMA suspects significant lender noncompliance rates based on data, past studies, 
306

and anecdotal evidence. GAO obtained and analyzed 1999 data on new loans and new flood 

insurance policies for 471 highly flood-prone areas in 17 states. The data do not indicate a major 

noncompliance problem at loan origination. For example, only 9 percent of the locations 

included in the study revealed a higher number of mortgages originated than flood insurance 

policies sold. According to GAO, a full measure of compliance would require property-specific 

data on mortgages, flood zone determinations, and flood insurance polices compiled at loan 

origination and at subsequent points during the life of the loan. However, several technical and 

political challenges encumber the achievement of such a measure. 

U.S. General Accounting Office (GAO). (2002). Hazard Mitigation: Proposed Changes to 

FEMA’s Multihazard Mitigation Programs Present Challenges. Report to the Chairman, 

Subcommittee on International Security, Proliferation, and Federal Services, Committee 

on Governmental Affairs, U.S. Senate. Washington, DC: GAO. 

Available at: http://www.gao.gov/new.items/d021035.pdf

Keywords: 

federal programs, Hazard Mitigation Grant Program, mitigation, Project Impact 

Abstract: As the lead agency for providing federal disaster relief, FEMA has provided the bulk 

of the assistance to help those in need respond to and recover from disasters. The most 

significant of the agency’s mitigation programs are the postdisaster Hazard Mitigation Grant 

Program (HMGP) and Project Impact. Some criticism has emerged in recent years about the 

impact of these FEMA programs. In response, FEMA’s Fiscal Year 2003 budget request 

proposes changes to the multihazard mitigation programs that are intended to improve the 

effectiveness of mitigation efforts. These changes would combine the programs into a single 

predisaster mitigation program that awards grants for mitigation activities on a nationwide, 

competitive basis. Based on its analysis, GAO raises the following concerns about the proposal: 

1) FEMA might not be able to take advantage of interest in participating in mitigation activities 

that often emerges after a disaster, 2) some states might be entirely excluded from mitigation 

funding, 3) outreach and planning activities that help increase participation in mitigation might 

be curtailed, and 4) FEMA might face challenges, such as establishing a process for comparing 

the costs and benefits of projects, in implementing the new program. Furthermore, some people 

are concerned that heightened focus on homeland security will result in less focus on natural 

hazard mitigation activities. 

U.S. General Accounting Office (GAO). (2002). Results-Oriented Management: Agency 

Crosscutting Actions and Plans in Border Control, Flood Mitigation and Insurance, 

Wetlands, and Wildland Fire Management. Report to the Ranking Minority Member, 

Committee on Governmental Affairs, U.S. Senate. Washington, DC: GAO. 

Available at: http://www.gao.gov/new.items/d03321.pdf

Keywords: 

federal programs, insurance, mitigation, NFIP, strategic planning 

Abstract: GAO reviewed the Fiscal Year 2001 performance reports and the Fiscal Year 2003 

performance plans of two agencies—Agriculture and FEMA—both of which generally address 

coordination efforts regarding the issue of flood mitigation. Agriculture reported that it did not 

meet its only Fiscal Year 2001 goal related to flood mitigation—providing benefits to property 

and safety through flood damage reduction by completing 81 watershed protection structures. 

One reason cited for this failure involves the complex engineering required to complete such 
307

structures. FEMA reported meeting all but one of its Fiscal Year 2001 goals and indicators 

related to flood mitigation and insurance. FEMA did not increase the number of NFIP policies in 

force by 5 percent in Fiscal Year 2001 because retention rates for existing policies were not 

maintained. In its Fiscal Year 2003 plan, FEMA adopted a new goal related to modernizing its 

floodplain mapping. Agriculture appears to have dropped its target for completing new 

watershed protection structures and instead plans to implement a new program of rehabilitating 

aging dams. Overall, the strategies Agriculture and FEMA plan to use appear to be reasonably 

linked to achieving their Fiscal Year 2003 goals. 

U.S. General Accounting Office (GAO). (2003). Flood Insurance: Challenges Facing the 

National Flood Insurance Program. Testimony before the Subcommittee on Housing and 

Community Opportunity, Committee on Financial Services, House of Representatives. 

Washington, DC: GAO. 

Available at: http://www.gao.gov/new.items/d03606t.pdf

Keywords: 

mandatory purchase, mapping, NFIP, repetitive losses, subsidies 

Abstract: In this report, GAO finds the NFIP faces several challenges in operating the program 

effectively and protecting property owners from flood losses. For example, to improve 

information on the NFIP’s financial condition, GAO recommends the program abandon its 

current cash-based budgeting and adopt accrual-based budgeting. Accrual-based budgeting better 

matches revenues and expenses, recognizes the risk assumed by the government, and has the 

potential to overcome the deficiencies of cash-based budgeting. GAO also comments on how 

policy subsidies and repetitive loss properties adversely affect the NFIP’s financial condition. 

About 29 percent of policies in force receive subsidies but none of these subsidies receives 

appropriated funds. Further, repetitive loss properties account for 2 percent of insured properties 

but represent 38 percent of claims losses. Finally, the NFIP needs to increase property owner 

participation rates. The administration estimates less than 50 percent of eligible properties 

participate in the program. Increasing participation rates may pose difficulties because the recent 

placement of the NFIP within the Department of Homeland Security has the potential to decrease 

the attention, visibility, and support the program receives. 

U.S. General Accounting Office (GAO). (2003). Major Management Challenges and 

Program Risks: Federal Emergency Management Agency. Performance and Accountability 

Series. Washington, DC: GAO. 

Available at: http://www.gao.gov/pas/2003/d03113.pdf

Keywords: 

federal programs, Hazard Mitigation Grant Program, insurance, mandatory purchase, mitigation, 

NFIP, Project Impact 

Abstract: This report is part of a special GAO series entitled the Performance And 

Accountability Series: Major Management Challenges and Program Risks. The 2003 series 

includes the first report on FEMA since the series began in 1999. FEMA’s mission will be 

absorbed into the Department of Homeland Security. As FEMA moves to integrate its mission 

into this department, the agency faces several management challenges including the condition of 

its mitigation and flood insurance programs. Specifically, GAO reports on FEMA’s Fiscal Year 

2003 budget request, which proposes a consolidation of the Hazard Mitigation Grant Program 

(HMGP) and the former Project Impact. The proposed consolidation could raise additional 
308

challenges to participation in and implementation of the mitigation program. Concerning flood 

insurance, GAO notes the actuarial unsoundness of the NFIP and the program’s failure to collect 

sufficient premium income to build reserves to meet the long-term future expected flood losses. 

In addition to these concerns, the level of compliance with the requirements for the mandatory 

purchase of flood insurance is unknown. Nevertheless, GAO believes FEMA can reduce the 

impact of natural hazards by improving the efficiency of its mitigation and flood programs. 

U.S. General Accounting Office (GAO). (2003). Results-Oriented Government: Using GPRA 

to Address 21st Century Challenges. Testimony before the Committee on Government 

Reform, House of Representatives. Washington, DC: GAO. 

Available at: http://www.gao.gov/new.items/d031166t.pdf

Keywords: 

agency operations and management, federal programs, legislation 

Abstract: The report addresses the success of the Government Performance and Results Act 

(GPRA) in shifting the focus of government operations from process to results and the extent to 

which agency managers have embraced GPRA as a management tool. GPRA was enacted in 

1993 and provides a foundation for examining agency missions, performance goals and 

objectives, and results. GAO finds that GPRA has built the necessary infrastructure to generate 

meaningful performance information. For example, GPRA has required federal agencies to 

consult with Congress and key stakeholders to reassess their missions and long-term goals and 

the strategies and resources to achieve them. The federal government is in the process of moving 

toward a more difficult phase of GPRA implementation – using results-oriented performance 

information as a part of agencies’ day-to-day management and decision-making. This will 

require transforming agencies’ organizational cultures, developing performance goals and 

collecting performance data, and addressing fragmentation and overlap. The report suggests 

options for improving the use of GPRA, including developing government-wide strategic 

performance plans and establishing chief operating officers within agencies. 

U.S. General Accounting Office (GAO). (2004). Flood Map Modernization: Program 

Strategy Shows Promise, But Challenges Remain. Washington, DC: GAO. 

Available at: http://www.gao.gov/new.items/d04417.pdf

Keywords: 

map modernization, mapping 

Abstract: GAO was asked to review the progress of FEMA’s map modernization program, a $1 

billion, 5-year update of floodmaps. GAO found that FEMA needs to take steps to differences 

between communities that may affect the program’s implementation. For instance, though 

FEMA has ranked the nation’s 3,146 counties from highest to lowest risk, it has not established 

data standards that designate the appropriate level of detail accuracy and analysis for the 

development of digital maps. Without clear standards, FEMA cannot ensure that it uses the same 

level of data collection and analysis for communities facing similar risks. Additionally, FEMA 

has not yet developed a clear strategy for partnering with communities with few resources and 

little or no experience in flood mapping. FEMA’s success in implementing the Map 

Modernization program depends on its ability to utilize communities’ resources and account for 

deficiencies. 
309

U.S. General Accounting Office (GAO). (2004). National Flood Insurance Program: Actions 

to Address Repetitive Loss Properties. Washington, DC: GAO. 

Available at: http://www.gao.gov/new.items/d04401t.pdf

Keywords: 

legislation, repetitive losses 

Abstract: The report documents FEMA’s recent actions to reduce program losses related to 

repetitive loss properties. These include FEMA’s strategy to target severe repetitive loss 

properties for mitigation and congressional proposals to phase out coverage or begin charging 

full and actuarially based rates for property owners who refuse to accept FEMA’s offer to 

mitigate their structures. The proposal would increase premium rates by 50 percent if the 

property owners subsequently made a claim to the program exceeding $1,500. In the opinion of 

GAO, these steps have the potential to reduce the number and vulnerability of repetitive loss 

properties, as well as the number of flood insurance claims. The appendices include data on the 

number and amount of losses for repetitive loss properties by state. 

U.S. Government Accountability Office (GAO). (2005). Federal Emergency Management 

Agency: Challenges Facing the National Flood Insurance Program. Testimony before the 

Committee on Banking, Housing and Urban Affairs, U.S. Senate. Washington, DC: GAO. 

NOTE: GAO gave similar testimony during the same month before the Subcommittee on 

Housing and Community Opportunity, Committee on Financial Services, U.S. House of 

Representatives, in October 2005. This testimony appears in a separate GAO document not cited 

in the bibliography. 

Keywords: 

Hurricane Katrina, actuarially sound, repetitive losses, mandatory purchase 

Abstract: By design, the NFIP is not actuarially sound. The program does not collect enough 

premium income to build reserves for long-term future flood losses; however, FEMA kept the 

NFIP generally financially sound until the four Florida hurricanes of 2004 and the resulting 

catastrophic flooding. To pay 2004 claims, FEMA borrowed $300 million to help pay an 

estimated $1.8 billion in 2004 claims. Now after Katrina, FEMA’s borrowing authority has been 

increased by $2 billion. Repetitive loss properties are a significant drain on NFIP resources. 

Future studies should analyze the reduction in the inventory of subsidized repetitive loss 

properties. Mandatory homeowner purchase of flood insurance legislation was enacted in 1973 

and 1994; however, GAO reported in 2002 that they were not able to determine the extent of 

compliance with the law. 

U.S. Government Accountability Office (GAO). (2005). Federal Emergency Management 

Agency: Improvements Needed to Enhance Oversight and Management of the National Flood 

Insurance Program. Washington, DC: GAO. 

Keywords: 

Flood Insurance Reform Act of 2004 

Abstract: FEMA had not yet implemented provisions of the Flood Insurance Reform Act of 

2004 that required the agency to provide policyholders with a flood insurance claims handbook, 

to establish a regulatory appeals process, and to ensure that insurance agents meet minimum 

NFIP education and training requirements. Efforts to implement the provisions are underway, but 

not complete. Statutory and other limits to NFIP coverage may result in insurance payments that 

do not cover the full costs of repairing or replacing flood-damaged property. FEMA did not use a 
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statistically valid method for sampling insurance files for oversight review of insurance 

companies that sell NFIP flood insurance, so therefore FEMA could not fully assess the overall 

performance of the companies and adjusters to make sure they are complying with NFIP 

program goals.

U.S. Government Accountability Office (GAO). (2005). Flood Map Modernization: Federal 

Emergency Management Agency’s Implementation of a National Strategy.. Testimony before 

the Subcommittee on Housing and Community Opportunity, Committee on Financial 

Services, U.S. House of Representatives. Washington, DC: GAO. 

Keywords: 

flood map modernization 

Abstract: FEMA is planning to modernize flood mapping by using advanced technology to 

gather accurate data and to publish the maps on the Internet. FEMA expects that more accurate 

and accessible flood maps will enable communities to reduce floodplain flood risk; will help 

homeowners identify their flood risk; and help government officials mitigate and manage risk. 

However, FEMA has not yet established clear standards for the data needed to establish different 

levels of flood risk. FEMA’s 2004 Multi-Year Flood Hazard Identification Plan contains 

FEMA’s strategy for using varying types of flood hazard data collection and analysis techniques.

U.S. Government Accountability Office (GAO). (2005). National Flood Insurance Program: 

Oversight of Policy Issuance and Claims.. Testimony before the Subcommittee on Housing 

and Community Opportunity, Committee on Financial Services, U.S. House of 

Representatives. Washington, DC: GAO. 

Keywords: 

flood insurance agents 

Abstract: As a result of policy limits, restrictions and exclusions, insurance payments to 

claimants for flood damage may not cover all the costs of repairing or replacing damaged 

property. Selling and servicing NFIP policies and adjusting NFIP claims is carried out by private 

sector insurance agents and adjusters, subject to FEMA oversight. Flood insurance adjusters have 

mandatory training requirements, but agents do not. FEMA has oversight mechanisms in place to 

review the operations and work of insurance companies and adjusters.

U.S. Geological Survey. (2004). Land Use and Land Cover. Washington, DC: US Geological 

Survey. 

Available at: http://edc.usgs.gov/products/landcover/lulc.html#description

Keywords: 

mapping, land use 

Abstract: Land Use and Land Cover (LULC) data consists of historical land use and land cover 

classification data based primarily on the manual interpretation of 1970s and 1980s aerial 

photography. Along with the LULC files, associated maps are included which provide additional 

information on political units, hydrologic units, census county subdivisions, and Federal and 

State land ownership. LULC data is available for the conterminous U.S. and Hawaii, but 

coverage is not complete for all areas. LULC data and maps are available to the public at no 

charge. 
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U.S. House of Representatives, Committee on Banking and Financial Services, 

Subcommittee on Housing and Community Opportunity. (1999). Hearing on H.R. 2728 

“Two Floods and You Are Out of the Taxpayer’s Pocket Act” and the NFIP. 106th Cong., 

2nd Sess. Washington, DC: Government Printing Office. 

Keywords: 

legislation, NFIP, public policy, repetitive losses 

Abstract: The purpose of the legislation is to amend the National Flood Insurance Program Act 

of 1968 to focus on reducing claim payments to repetitive loss properties. The legislation inserts 

the objective of reducing repetitive loss claims into nearly every aspect of the NFIP. For 

instance, the legislation prioritizes mitigation grants to repetitive loss properties. Post-FIRM 

properties, repetitive claim payment properties, and certain leased coastal and river properties are 

included in the structures that should be charged an actuarial rate for flood insurance. Repetitive 

claim payment properties are also exempted from limitations on annual premium increases. The 

legislation withholds federal disaster assistance for properties to which repetitive flood insurance 

claim payments have been made. However, funding for mitigation activities may be provided if 

it is found to be in the best interest of the NFIP. Similar versions of the legislation were 

presented to the 107th and 108th Congress. 

U.S. House of Representatives, Committee on Financial Services. Subcommittee on 

Housing and Community Opportunity. (2003). The National Flood Insurance Program: 

Review and Reauthorization. 108th Cong., 1st Sess. Washington, DC: Government Printing 

Office. 

Available at: http://commdocs.house.gov/committees/bank/hba89082.000/hba89082_0.htm

Keywords: 

legislation, NFIP, repetitive losses

Abstract: The hearings address the one-year reauthorization of the NFIP. The hearing focus on 

the problem of repetitive loss properties and contain testimony from congressmen and 

representatives of FEMA, ASFPM, and insurance and banking associations. FEMA has 

identified over 48,000 properties currently insured under the NFIP as repetitive loss properties. 

They cost the program approximately $200 million annually and are found in nearly every state. 

It should be noted that presenters defined repetitive loss properties with slightly different criteria. 

For instance, one of the congressmen defines repetitive loss properties as those properties that 

have been flooded twice or more since 1978 with each claim exceeding $1,000. Another defines 

them as properties that have been flooded twice or more in a ten-year period with each claim 

exceeding $1,000. The proposals generally provide enabling legislation for FEMA to mitigate 

repetitive loss properties or impose consequences for those who refuse mitigation, such as 

increasing insurance premiums or refusing insurance.

U.S. Senate Bipartisan Task Force on Funding Disaster Relief (1995). Final Report of 

Senate Bipartisan Task Force on Funding Disaster Relief. Washington, DC. Government 

Printing Office. 

Keywords: 

disaster assistance, federal programs, history, insurance industry, public assistance

Abstract: This report chronicles the history of federal disaster relief and recovery funding and 

evaluates the types and amounts of federal financial assistance provided to individuals, state and 

local governments, and nonprofit organizations. The report contains comprehensive calculations 
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of federal expenditures for disaster assistance, low interest loans to individual disaster victims 

and communities, and federal disaster insurance programs between 1977 and 1993. The report 

also discusses nonfederal entities – state and local governments, private insurance companies, 

and nonprofit disaster relief agencies – and their role in disaster relief. Particular attention in the 

historical analysis is given to the dual challenges produced by exceptionally severe catastrophes 

in the early 1990s and constraints of the Budget Enforcement Act of 1990, which has intensified 

debate over disaster-related appropriations. The report outlines three means for meeting 

budgetary constraints. The first is making more assistance contingent on a presidential 

declaration of an emergency or major disaster. To accomplish this, the criteria and informational 

sources for such a declaration must be defined better. Second, the NFIP should emphasize hazard 

mitigation with incentives for cooperation with private entities. The third approach is to rely 

more heavily on insurance to “prefund” disasters. The report includes appendices on the 

evolution of federal disaster assistance policies and programs and profiles of major federal 

disaster assistance programs. 

U.S. Senate, Committee on Banking and Currency. (1966). Insurance and Other Programs 

for Financial Assistance to Flood Victims. Washington, DC: Government Printing Office. 

NOTE: This report reproduces “A Report from the Secretary of the Department of Housing and 

Urban Development to the President, as required by the Southeast Hurricane Disaster Relief Act 

of 1965 (P.L. 89-339), 89th Congress, H.R. 11539, November 8, 1965. 

Keywords: 

history, insurance, legislation, NFIP, public policy

Abstract: In response to a directive of the Hurricane Disaster Relief Act of 1965, a report was 

compiled to address the need to provide flood insurance or other assistance following floods and 

other natural disasters. This report describes specific characteristics of floods that require 

consideration for any proposed program. The report finds that floods are identifiable by specified 

local areas but unpredictable in terms of timing and magnitude and ultimately inevitable. Any 

potential flood insurance program should consist of basic elements including accurate 

assessment of risks, compensation of risk bearers, subsidy of premiums, if publicly desirable, 

incentives to policyholders to reduce risks, incentives to states and local governments for wise 

management of flood-prone areas, and continuous appraisals. The four program administrative 

options include a wholly private system, a private industry program with major federal help, a 

private industry operating government program, and an all-federal program. Final 

recommendations of the committee include the establishment of a national flood insurance 

program with “government assistance or participation to the extent necessary to assure a 

workable method of pooling risks, minimizing costs and distributing burdens equally among the 

property owners protected by such insurance and the general taxpayers” in cooperation with state 

and local governments and private industry. Furthermore, the report recommends modification of 

the existing federal flood program to meet the necessary elements reviewed by the committee. 

U.S. Senate, Committee on Banking and Currency. (1967). National Flood Insurance Act of 

1967. Washington, DC: Government Printing Office. 

Keywords: 

insurance industry, legislation, NFIP 

Abstract: The report constitutes the Senate Banking Committee’s analysis of proposed 

legislation S1985, which would create a national program of flood insurance. The report notes 
313

that the increasing financial cost of flood losses has created a need for flood insurance. The 

proposed flood insurance program would require the government to make payments into a pool 

of risk capital created by private risk-sharing insurance companies in order to help cover industry 

losses and to provide reinsurance coverage to the pool in the event of exceptionally high losses. 

The program would also encourage state and local governments to adopt and enforce provisions 

that would restrict land development in areas that are particularly prone to flooding. 

U.S. Small Business Administration (SBA). (1998). Audit of Declined Disaster Loans. 

Washington, DC: Office of Inspector General, SBA. 

Available at: http://www.sba.gov/ig/8-6-F-005-016.pdf

Keywords: 

disaster assistance, Small Business Administration 

Abstract: SBA’s Office of the Inspector General (OIG) audited declined applications for disaster 

loans to determine whether the decline rate was higher than necessary due to inappropriate 

decline decisions. The audit reviewed a random sample of 97 disaster loan applications declined 

between October 1, 1994, and September 30, 1995. Decisions to decline loan applications were 

generally appropriate. SBA’s OIG identified only one of 97 declined applications that could have 

received approval. SBA declined the application because the loan officer decided that available 

cash was insufficient to service the additional debt. A higher than necessary decline rate occurred 

because SBA did not consistently apply summary decline procedure to applications that did not 

meet minimum income and/or repayment ability criteria. Of the 97 declined applications in the 

sample, SBA could have summarily declined 16 of them without processing. If SBA followed 

summary decline procedures consistently, the number of applications accepted for processing 

would have decreased, thereby reducing the decline rate and increasing the percentage of 

approved applications. Furthermore, SBA unnecessarily incurred costs due to loss verification 

and increased its processing workload. When SBA summarily declines an application, the loan 

officer does not have to evaluate creditworthiness or perform detailed analysis on repayment 

ability. In addition, summary declined applications do not require visits by loss verifiers to 

determine the extent of property damage. The average costs to verify the loss for an application 

was about $121. Based on its analysis, SBA’s OIG recommends SBA institute procedures to 

ensure loan officers follow procedures for summary declines when appropriate. 

U.S. Small Business Administration (SBA). (1999). Audit Report: Disaster Home Loan 

Servicing Centers. Washington, DC: Office of Inspector General, SBA. 

Keywords: 

disaster assistance, Small Business Administration 

Abstract: SBA’s Office of the Inspector General (OIG) audited the agency’s disaster home loan 

servicing centers in Birmingham, AL; El Paso, TX; New York, NY; and Santa Ana, CA. As of 

September 30, 1997, SBA’s portfolio of disaster home loans at the servicing centers consisted of 

185,417 loans valued at $3 billion, of which 12,843 loans valued at $179 million were in a past 

due, delinquent, or in-liquidation status. SBA’s OIG statistically sampled 432 of these loans 

valued at $4.8 million to determine whether SBA followed collection procedures or performed 

liquidation actions intended to minimize losses. Collections actions on past due disaster loans 

were untimely, not done weekly, and continued beyond recommended time limits. Although 

specific losses cannot be identified, SBA did not maximize collection efforts for outstanding loan 

balances totaling $79.2 million. Furthermore, the audit reveals that disaster home loans were 
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charged off (i.e., no reasonable expectation that borrower will repay the loan) without litigation 

or collection agency referrals. SBA’s OIG estimates that $4.8 million charged off for 928 loans 

could have been potentially recoverable had the agency used various liquidation tools. Based on 

its analysis, SBA’s OIG recommends the agency improve collection actions on past due loans, 

conduct a study on staffing requirements, and use available collection tools to liquidate loans. 

U.S. Water Resources Council. (1981). Floodplain Management Handbook. Washington, 

DC: U.S. Water Resources Council. 

Keywords: 

environmental impacts, environmental policy, flood causes, floodplain management, 

nonstructural approaches, public policy, structural approaches 

Abstract: This handbook summarizes the problem of losses from floods and suggests potential 

solutions. It is intended to help local officials, public interest groups, and concerned citizens to 

assess the problems in their area and initiate appropriate and effective management of the 

floodplain. The handbook treats both riverine and coastal floodplains and describes a full range 

of structural and nonstructural measures to reduce losses from floods and to maintain the natural 

values of the floodplain. The handbook provides step-by-step guidance for developing a 

floodplain management program and identifies the range of technical and financial assistance 

available for preparing and implementing such programs. 

USA Today. (2000). How your dollars let others live at the beach. USA Today, July 27. 

Available for purchase at: 

http://pqasb.pqarchiver.com/USAToday/57031983.html?did=57031983&FMT=ABS&FMTS=&

date=Jul+27%2C+2000&author=&desc=How+your+dollars+let+others+live+at+the+beach

Keywords:

beach nourishment, coastal areas, development, repetitive losses 

Abstract: This editorial frames the series of articles in USA Today on the growth of the 

population on the Atlantic and Gulf Coasts, with the view that federal aid helps drive migration 

to these areas and taxpayers are left with increasing disaster-relief costs when the weather turns 

bad. Efforts to reduce subsidies have been met with stiff resistance from lawmakers representing 

coastal areas. The Clinton Administration’s effort to eliminate disaster relief for beaches was 

blocked, and FEMA’s effort to get Congress to stop spending money on replacing beaches and 

dunes was also defeated. FEMA is taking steps to stop rampant abuse of the NFIP. A bill in 

Congress that would limit property owners to two flood claims has little chance of passing. 

Van Putten, Mark. (1997). Seeking Solutions to the Floods of Tears. National Wildlife. 78-

81. 

Available at: http://www.findarticles.com/p/articles/mi_m1169/is_n5_v35/ai_19635762

Keywords: 

buyouts, levees, repetitive losses 

Abstract: National public disaster policy fosters development and reconstruction in areas at high 

risk of future disaster and fosters a long-term reliance on government. Despite annual 

expenditures of $4 billion, flood disasters still cause considerable loss of life and property each 

year. Levees and flood walls, some of the most frequently used methods of flood control, may 

worsen flood conditions downstream or cause catastrophic damage when they fail. The author 

also notes that global climate change may lead to even more severe flooding. However, there are 
315

solutions. Buyouts that remove repeatedly flood-damaged properties from flood zones are a 

permanent solution to flooding and its costs. Voluntary buyouts make the most fiscally 

responsible use of insurance premium and disaster relief tax dollars and provide real economic 

benefits. 

Van Schoubroeck, Caroline. (1999). Flood Insurance Systems in Selected European 

Countries. Paper presented at Flood Risks in Europe: EuroConference on Global Change 

and Catastrophe Risk Management. Laxenburg, Austria, June 6-9, 1999. Belgium: K.U. 

Leuven University. 

Keywords: 

Europe, insurance industry, legislation, natural disasters 

Abstract: The paper provides an overview of the way in which damages caused by natural 

disasters are compensated by private insurance in several European countries. The article 

provides an overview of legislative rules on private insurance, the various manners in which 

insurance is offered, and discusses whether the private insurance systems resemble traditional 

insurance or government compensation. Research found that even in the absence of any specific 

regulation, in most European countries the danger of flood, earthquake, and landslide can be, and 

is commonly, insured. Furthermore, the private insurance of damage caused by flood and 

earthquake is widespread in the United Kingdom, Portugal, Greece, and Germany, compared 

with other countries studied. However, no European country requires insurance protection 

against natural disasters and discrete insurance policies for “natural catastrophes,” “earthquakes,” 

or “floods” are not offered: natural disasters can usually be covered only in either multirisk 

insurance contracts covering damage to goods, or in a fire insurance contract. The paper 

recommends further study of the law and practice of disaster insurance in the hopes of creating 

effective regulation to deal with the costs of natural disasters. 

Vermont Agency of Natural Resources. (1999). Options for State Flood Control Policies and 

a Flood Control Program. Waterbury, VT: Vermont General Assembly, Vermont Agency of 

Natural Resources, Vermont Department of Environmental Conservation, and Vermont 

Water Quality Division. 

Available at: http://www.anr.state.vt.us/dec/waterq/rivers/docs/rv_act137.pdf

Keywords:

flood control, floodplain management, Vermont 

Abstract: This report focuses on how Vermont should prepare for floods, prevent flood damage, 

and clean up after flooding has ended. The NFIP has worked well in the state as little flood 

damage has occurred to structures built in compliance with local floodplain regulations. 

However, not all Vermont communities have joined the NFIP and thus, some flood-prone areas 

do not have flood insurance coverage. The program does well with mapping flood-prone areas 

adjacent to larger rivers and streams, but it insufficiently accounts for flooding in smaller 

tributaries and flooding that results from the formation of ice or debris jams. The report 

recommends a more aggressive application of the FEMA’s 1995 mitigation policy that provides 

federal funding for building more expensive, but properly designed, replacements for inadequate 

structures (e.g., undersized culverts, etc.) lost or damaged during floods. 

Vermont Department of Housing and Community Affairs. (1998). Community Planning for 

Flood Hazards. Montpelier, VT: Vermont Department of Housing & Community Affairs. 
316

Available at: http://www.anr.state.vt.us/dec/waterq/rivers/docs/rv_floodhazard.pdf

Keywords: 

Community Rating System, compliance, disaster assistance, enforcement, environmental 

impacts, floodplain management, mapping, NFIP, Vermont 

Abstract: Over the past decade flood damage costs have risen dramatically in Vermont, due to 

the increasing occurrences of flooding. From 1989 to 1997, FEMA allocated over $20 million, 

administered by the Department of Housing and Community Affairs (DHCA), for assistance to 

repair public works in Vermont’s municipalities. Recently, a majority of flood damage in the 

state has occurred along upland streams, damaging private property and infrastructure such as 

bridges, roads, and culverts. Furthermore, DHCA’s responsibility for assisting municipalities in 

making responsible land-use decisions depends on an understanding of flood hazards, mapping, 

mitigation, and management. This guide presents information on flooding and floodplains in 

Vermont, the NFIP, disaster assistance, mapping, CRS, state and local regulations, and potential 

impacts of weather and climate change. 

Washtendorf, Tricia. (2000). When Disasters Defy Borders: What We Can Learn From the 

Red River Flood About Transnational Disasters. Australian Journal of Emergency 

Management. 15(3), 36-41. 

Available at: http://desastres.usac.edu.gt/documentos/pdf/eng/doc13164/doc13164.htm

Keywords: 

Canada, communication, disaster planning, Manitoba, North Dakota, Minnesota, Red River 

Abstract: The report analyzes formal and informal interactions between the United States and 

Canada during the 1997 Red River Basin flood, which forced the evacuation of more than 80,000 

people from their homes and caused billions of dollars in damages. The Red River Basin is a 

45,000 square mile area spanning Manitoba, Canada and North Dakota and Minnesota in the 

United States. Significant flooding occurs approximately every 10 years. The study used in-depth 

interviews with key government officials and nongovernmental representatives in both countries. 

The study found that informal and formal networks of information sharing and cooperation were 

strong prior to the flood – organizations and governments on both sides of the border interacted 

routinely – and that this aided in preparation, management, and recovery for the flood. The 

Manitoba Department of Natural Resources relied on the U.S. Geological Survey and the 

National Weather Service for data regarding precipitation, soil moisture, snow cover, stream 

flow, and water level. The city of Winnipeg offered temporary housing to American evacuees. 

Cross-border agreements, such as the one signed in 1986 that outlines comprehensive civil 

emergency planning and management assurances, also aided in floodplain management. Informal 

interactions consisted primarily of telephone calls between border communities to share 

prediction data or coordinate preparatory and recovery efforts. Following the flood, several 

transnational organizations were created to assess the threat and provide recommendations to 

reduce future flooding and prevent harm. The International Red River Task Force developed an 

informational network of stakeholders who meet regularly and exchange information. The report 

notes some inconsistencies between organizations that made a coordinated response slightly 

more difficult, but stops short of recommending international standardization: floodplain 

management may vary by country and by combination of countries in the case of transnational 

disasters. Inconsistencies do not necessarily lead to problems in disaster response if 

organizations are aware of the differences and take adequate steps to prevent problems that may 

arise from them. 
317

Wahl, Richard W. (1994). The Mississippi flood. Environment, 36(5), 2-4.

Keywords:

disaster assistance, floodplain management, insurance, Midwest floods of 1993 

Abstract: The author comments on the “The Challenge of the Mississippi Flood,” by Myers and 

White (1993) in Environment. He contends that unless the incentives associated with floodplain 

management and assistance are modified, the public is doomed to revisit expensive relief efforts 

as often as disasters occur. The author points out that implicit in much of Myers and White’s 

article is that, although federal objectives should be different (more focus on nonstructural 

measures and restoration of wildlife habitat), federal expenditures should play a prominent role. 

However, if incentives are properly structured, many of these programs would not be federally 

funded at all. The author claims that “most of the structures and lands affected by last summer’s 

floods are privately owned, and private insurance should be priced to cover the appropriate level 

of risk. Forcing the adoption of private insurance would likely spawn entirely new creative 

approaches to reducing risks.” 

Warrick, Joby. (1999). Seeking an end to a flood of claims. National Wildlife, 37(4), 30-4. 

Available at: http://www.nwf.org/nationalwildlife/article.cfm?articleId=537&issueId=45

Keywords:

buyouts, environmental restoration, relocation, repetitive losses 

Abstract: The author reports that some communities in the United States, after years of 

repeatedly incurring flood damages and rebuilding houses, are opting to move homeowners to 

higher ground. He identifies states and communities with repetitive flood-damage claims, and 

discusses criticisms against the NFIP. The author draws on Higher Ground, a study conducted by 

the National Wildlife Federation, to contend that restoring floodplains to their natural function 

helps limit the damage from future floods, while protecting water quality and creating prime 

space for recreation and wildlife. The author complains that “old habits are dying slowly,” but 

argues that things are changing. For example, the Army Corps of Engineers recently broke with 

tradition by announcing plans to promote buyouts and restoration of wetlands. 

Waterstone, Marvin. (1978). Hazard Mitigation Behavior of Urban Flood Plain Residents. 

Working paper #35. Boulder, CO: Institute of Behavioral Science, University of Colorado. 

Keywords: 

attitudes, awareness, Colorado, risk communication, risk perception, urban areas 

Abstract: This study reports on an examination of various characteristics of residents of flood 

hazard areas in an effort to determine which factors have the most significance in explaining 

behavior to mitigate potential hazards. The study endeavors to illuminate a two-level process 

thought to be relevant to the behavior of mitigation. First, analyses were conducted to determine 

which characteristics play the most significant role in creating an overall awareness of the flood 

hazard. Second, analyses identified which factors, including hazard awareness, are likely to 

produce mitigation. Demographic, perceptual, experiential, and knowledge parameters were 

examined through telephone interviews administered to 249 residents of two similar floodplains 

in Denver’s metropolitan area. The analyses indicate that five characteristics have significant 

association with variation in hazard awareness: 1) prior experience with hazards; 2) previous 

damage from flooding; 3) respondent’s age (with the younger respondents being more aware); 4) 

respondent’s tenure at his or her present address (the longer, the more aware); and 5) the 
318

proximity of residence to the creek (the closer, the more aware). The analyses of mitigation 

behavior identified three major variables, which are important for motivating mitigation action. 

These include: 1) a general concern about the possibility of flooding, 2) knowledge that the creek 

had previously flooded, and 3) owning as opposed to renting a home. The analyses also generally 

showed that respondents who have taken action are older, have lived at their present address 

longer, live closer to the creek, have greater awareness of hazards, and have previous experience 

with hazards. 

Weber, Eugene W. and Walter G. Sutton. (1965). Environmental Effects of Floodplain 

Regulations. Journal of the Hydraulics Division, Army Corps of Engineers, 4402(4), 59-70. 

Keywords: 

building codes, environmental impacts, Tennessee Valley Authority, zoning 

Abstract: This report addresses the increase in flood damages and the continued development of 

floodplain lands. Land-use regulations in floodplains are present in most states, but insufficient 

to fully address the costs of flood damage and prevent future development. Enabling legislation 

for local governments limits their regulatory authority to municipal boundaries, while most 

development occurs in unincorporated or fringe areas. The report examines the potential for 

zoning ordinances, subdivision regulations, building and housing codes and encroachment line 

statutes to regulate floodplain development. The report concludes that different land-use 

regulation tools are suitable for different communities and should be applied locally. State and 

regional authorities, such as the Tennessee Valley Authority and the Delaware River Basin 

Commission, can collect data and share best practice information. 

Welsh Assembly Government Planning Division. (2004). Planning Policy Wales: Technical 

Advisory Note 15 – Development and Flood Risk. Cardiff, Wales: The Welsh Assembly 

Government. 

Keywords: 

development, disaster planning, floodplain designation, strategic planning, Wales, 

Abstract: The Technical Advisory Note provides technical assistance to supplement policy 

described in Planning Policy Wales in relation to development and flooding. The document 

incorporates sustainability principles and provides a framework for assessing riverine, coastal, 

and runoff flooding. The guidance prefers to direct new development away from floodprone 

areas. Where development must be considered, the guidance provides a series of building 

practices to provide adequate flood protection. The plan places the burden on developers to 

provide documentation and assurance that adequate flood protection is provided. The guidance 

provides a ranking system for land zones – based on such factors as risk of flooding – but also a 

ranking system for development –emergency services, highly vulnerable development, and less 

vulnerable development. The document includes an appendix on assessing flood consequences. 

West, Carol T. and David G. Lenze. (1994). Modeling the regional impact of natural 

disaster and recovery: A general framework and an application to Hurricane Andrew. 

International Regional Science Review, 17(2), 121-50. 

Keywords: 

economic impacts, economic modeling, Florida, Hurricane Andrew, natural disasters

Abstract: Two common features of natural disasters are intense regional impact and the call 

immediately after the event to estimate the economic impact of recovery and reconstruction. The 
319

broad purpose of this paper is to help fill the gap in the regional science literature that addresses 

this issue. Initially, the impact estimation problem is presented conceptually. Using a general 

regional model, direct disaster impacts on exogenous variables, endogenous variables, and model 

linkages are identified. The conceptual problem is adapted for practical application. This 

translation has two aspects: (a) modifying the direct impacts for a specific model (common 

variants from the schematic are considered) and (b) estimating those impacts from available data. 

One component of the latter identifies primary sources of information typically available at the 

time of a natural disaster and indicates how secondary data may be used to complement, crosscheck, and expand those data. A second component identifies areas of no information or high 

uncertainty and discusses treatment of that information gap in empirical analysis. A final section 

applies the research to the problem of estimating the impact of Hurricane Andrew on Florida’s 

economy. 

Whipple, William J. (1969). Optimizing investment in flood control and floodplain zoning. 

Water Resources Research, 5(4), 761-6. 

Keywords: 

cost-benefit analysis, structural approaches, zoning

Abstract: This article compares floodplain zoning against structural flood control. The author 

observes that optimization of investment between these alternatives requires consideration of 

project-induced development (economic development that would not occur if the project were 

not built) and site income (the return to the owner of new construction in the floodplain net of the 

cost of development). According to the author, previously existing methods that do not account 

for damages to project-induced growth may give unduly high cost-benefit ratios. A combination 

of flood control and zoning is expected to be the most productive scenario. 

White, Gilbert F. (1994). Decision or procrastination in floodplain management. Water 

Resources Update, 97(Autumn) 52-5. 

Available at: http://www.ucowr.siu.edu/updates/pdf/V97_A12

Keywords: 

disaster assistance, federal programs, insurance, Midwest floods of 1993, mitigation

Abstract: In order to avoid a repetition of the Midwest floods of 1993 or in other regions of the 

nation, positive action will have to be taken on at least five major issues. First, the operating 

policies of federal agencies must be coordinated with each other and with the integrating role on 

the ground of appropriate state agencies. Second, the present policies of providing federal 

disaster relief will need to be revised to emphasize mitigation. Third, government and private 

insurance against flood losses must be offered in a more coherent fashion. Fourth, the 

prosecution of federal and cooperative programs for management of the floodplains and 

watersheds must be planned upon the basis of integrated criteria and studies that take account of 

the natural values of wetlands and floodplains. Finally, more discerning and continuing executive 

and legislative audits of how well policy directives are translated into action are needed. 

White, Gilbert F. (1999) Water Science and Technology: Some Lessons from the 20th 

Century. Abel Wolman Memorial Lecture. Washington, DC: National Academy of Sciences 

and National Research Council. 

Available at: http://sflwww.er.usgs.gov/publications/lectures/wstlessons/

Keywords:
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environmental policy, public policy, Unified National Program 

Abstract: The author presents criteria that he believes would, if applied, lead to the selection of 

high-priority goals for achieving wise management of water resources. He states that the science 

and technology community needs to address systematically, and with increasing intensity, at 

least four deficiencies in water and related environmental management. First, there is a need to 

fully recognize the complex social aims that are inherent in managing any one resource or 

combination of resources. While public policy is slowly coming to take account of the many 

social and environmental relationships, it still largely ignores some of them, particularly at the 

intersection of social and environmental systems. Second, the criteria used to evaluate those 

relationships are frequently narrow, and while measures such as flood damage reduction of the 

magnitude of communicable diseases are used, they do not reflect other important costs and 

benefits needed to guide public policy. Third, notwithstanding continued interest in 

comprehensive river basin planning and watershed studies, there still is no widely accepted 

national framework for planning and carrying out such studies in suitably delimited areas with 

responsible participation by representatives of a full range of concerned stakeholders, including 

citizens and local, state, and national agencies. Fourth, even after a century of vigorous and 

promising activity in the study and management of human interactions with water and other 

elements of the environment, the United States still lacks a program to appraise the results of 

such efforts rigorously in the lives of people and ecosystems. Severe problems of social 

organization and process stand in the way of achieving such improvements in each segment of 

water management. In each there is need for imaginative research to extend the limiting 

conditions of both organization and knowledge. The time is ripe for a unified effort. 

White, Gilbert F. and E.J. Haas. (1975). Assessment of Research on Natural Hazards. 

Cambridge, Massachusetts: MIT Press. 

Available at:http://www.countrybookshop.co.uk/books/index.phtml?whatfor=0262230712 

Keywords:

disaster planning, natural disasters, risk assessment 

Abstract: This book focuses on natural hazards. It summarizes research on natural disasters in 

the United States, discusses future disasters, the nation’s response to extreme geophysical events, 

acceptable levels of risk, adjustment choices, possible improvements, application of research, 

methods of estimating research results, common adjustment research themes, new research 

strategies, and last, hazards and their distinctive opportunities.

White House Office on Environmental Policy. (1993). Protecting America’s Wetlands: A 

Fair, Flexible, and Effective Approach. Washington, DC: White House Office on 

Environmental Policy. 

Available at: http://www.wetlands.com/fed/aug93wet.htm

Keywords: 

environmental protection, environmental restoration, federal programs, wetlands 

Abstract: The positions contained in this paper strongly support the effective protection and 

restoration of the nation’s wetlands, while advocating much-needed reforms to increase the 

fairness and flexibility of federal regulatory programs. The Clinton Administration supports the 

interim goal of no overall net loss of the nation’s remaining wetlands and the long-term goal of 

increasing the quality and quantity of the nation’s resource base from wetlands. Additional 

principles for federal wetlands policy are proposed: (a) regulatory programs should be fair, 
321

flexible, and predictable and should be administered in a way that avoids unnecessary impacts on 

private property and the regulated public; (b) non-regulatory programs should be encouraged; (c) 

federal partnerships with state, tribal, and local governments, the private sector, and individual 

citizens should be expanded and should approach wetlands protection and restoration from the 

context of an ecosystem/watershed; and (d) federal policy on wetlands should be based on the 

best scientific information available. 

White, W.R., ed. (1990). International Conference on River Flood Hydraulics. Wallingford, 

Oxon, UK: Hydraulics Research Limited. 

Available for purchase at: 

http://www.bookfinder.com/dir/i/International_Conference_on_River_Flood_Hydraulics,_Vol._

1/0471927139/

Keywords: 

hydrology and hydraulics, modeling, riverine areas 

Abstract: This book documents the proceedings of the International Conference on River Flood 

Hydraulics in Wallingford, England. The purpose of the conference was to promulgate new ideas 

and to bring together international experts in the field. The aim of the conference was to link 

current experimental and analytical research to the needs of engineering practice. The topics 

selected for the conference covered areas of international research interest and practical 

importance with a view to providing a forum for advancing the art of river engineering. The 

major topics covered by the conference were: (a) flood analysis and prediction; (b) field data; (c) 

hydraulics of flood flows; (d) sediment transport and morphological effects; (e) physical and 

numerical modeling; and (f) engineering design, maintenance, and operation of schemes. 

Whiteman, David. (1997). Coastal Development and the National Flood Insurance Program. 

Report 97-588RNT. Washington, DC: Congressional Research Service. 

Available at: http://www.ncseonline.org/nle/crsreports/briefingbooks/oceans/p.cfm

Keywords: 

coastal areas, Coastal Barrier Resources Act, legislation 

Abstract: Coastal development is influenced in part by incentives – actual and perceived – 

resulting from federal government actions. The report examines two current efforts by the NFIP 

to address those incentives: the National Flood Insurance Reform Act of 1994 and coordination 

of the NFIP with the Coastal Barrier Resources Act (CBRA). The National Flood Insurance 

Reform Act of 1994 recommended studies of communities subject to coastal erosion, to result in 

an economic impact analysis that would assess the costs and benefits of mapping, regulating, and 

insuring them. The studies will also determine the effect of such regulation and insurance on 

property values, tax revenues, employment, economic development, and the need for future 

federal and state disaster assistance. Five million dollars was authorized for mapping erosion 

hazards in a representative sample of at-risk communities throughout the United States, 

including coastal, Great Lakes, and riverine areas. Early versions of the legislation had proposed 

curtailing federally provided flood insurance in coastal erosion zones, but those provisions were 

scrapped in the face of opposition from coastal communities. The author notes, however, that the 

new law strengthens enforcement of the mandatory purchase requirement and lengthens the 

waiting period from 5 to 30 days for coverage to become effective after purchase. CBRA relies 

on NFIP-provided disincentives to discourage building in vulnerable coastal areas, by prohibiting 

the sale of flood insurance in designated CBRA. The financial risk is transferred from federal 
322

taxpayers to those who choose to live or invest in CBRA areas. Some critics contend that the 

federal government has not established strong enough disincentives for coastal construction and 

that additional legislation such as national minimum erosion setback requirements is needed. 

Wild, Richard A. (1989). Disseminating flood hazard information at the local level: An 

approach for the 1990s. In Floodplain Harmony. Boulder, CO: Natural Hazards Research 

and Applications Information Center, Institute of Behavioral Science, University of 

Colorado. 

Keywords:

awareness, floodplain management, mapping, risk assessment 

Abstract: This report proposes achieving community awareness-development through a stateby-state database to coordinate flood hazard information to facilitate dissemination of that 

information. The NFIP was created to mitigate future flood losses and to provide protection for 

property owners from potential losses. As a risk assessment and mapping program, the NFIP has 

generated and used data to develop actuarial flood insurance rates and local floodplain 

management programs. Technological advances in the field of computer science have facilitated 

the cost-effective accumulation, manipulation, and transfer of database information and the 

production of reports by noncomputer-literate people. An inventory of Letters of Map 

Amendment and Letters of Map Revision was prepared based on fill, which is an example of the 

type of information that could be included in the comprehensive database. The inventory was 

developed as FEMA investigated information that could be merged into a digital system of street 

addresses. In the future, additional mechanisms will be developed for identifying, compiling, and 

disseminating available flood-hazard-related information that will be included in the proposed 

comprehensive database of flood hazard information from federal, state, and local sources. At the 

discretion of FEMA, the databases will be compiled in the following order: (a) Letters of Map 

Revision not based on fill; (b) physical map revisions; and (c) flood insurance studies. 

Wind, H.G., T.M. Nierop, C.J. de Blois, and J.L. de Kok. (1999). Analysis of flood damages 

from the 1993 and 1995 Meuse floods. Water Resources Research, 35(11), 3459-65. 

Keywords: 

flood damage, Meuse River, modeling 

Abstract: This paper addresses uncertainties pertaining to damage assessments made for the 

flooding of the Meuse River in 1993 and 1995. The analysis is based on flood damage data that 

were collected by damage experts and consist of large sample sizes within each municipality. 

The most interesting aspect of these two floods is that although the volume of flooding and the 

inundated area were comparable in order of magnitude, the flood damage estimates in 1995 were 

35 percent lower than in 1993. The authors concluded that part of the reduction in flood damage 

during the 1995 flood was due to a reduction in the damage to household goods. This may be 

explained by a marginal increase in flood warning time and experiences gained from the flood of 

1993. As flood damage assessments are the cornerstone in the evaluation of mitigation schemes, 

empirical data of previous floods should be used to improve the foundations of the methods to 

assess flood damages. 

Wisconsin Department of Natural Resources, Bureau of Water Regulation and Zoning. 

(1983). Effectiveness Study of Wisconsin’s Floodplain Management Program, Final Report. 

Madison, WI: Wisconsin Department of Natural Resources. 
323

Keywords: 

floodplain management, Wisconsin 

Abstract: This report analyzes the contribution of local programs to the overall goals and 

objectives of Wisconsin’s floodplain management programs using a community-based data 

system. The Wisconsin Department of Natural Resources conducts community floodplain audits 

to collect data onsite. Auditors perform field inspections and review zoning ordinances and 

program files with local program administrators. The authors conclude that program priorities 

ought to be expanded beyond zoning to include activities aimed at mitigating existing flood 

hazards prior to flood disasters. Also, local program monitoring and community assistance and 

education were deemed essential to the success of the program. This goal could be accomplished 

by more clearly defined objectives and definitions at the state level and more intensive follow-up 

and data collection efforts by the state agency. 

Wordsworth, Paul and David Bithell. (2002). Flooding in Buildings: Assessment, 

Limitation, and Rehabilitation. Paper presented at COBRA 2002: Proceedings of the RICS 

Foundation Construction and Building Research Conference. Nottingham Trent University. 

September 5-6, 2002. London, UK: RICS Foundation. 

Available at: http://www.rics-foundation.org/publish/document.aspx?did=3099

Keywords: 

insurance industry, Wales 

Abstract: The paper presents the findings of a questionnaire of surveyors and a case study of a 

flood disaster in Rossett, North Wales. The survey found that surveyors are generally not 

concerned with flooding, and the issue has little presence in the profession. There is no generally 

recognized framework for the individual assessment of risk, with negative effects for insurability 

and repair strategies. The report proposes that the Royal Institute of Chartered Surveyors (RICS) 

Foundation develop guidance for surveyors in the form of a checklist procedure using approved 

information sources, and a structured on-site survey. The degree of damage in a particular 

instance is the product of the severity of the flood, the building’s construction, and the 

preparedness of property owners. The case study of the flood disaster in Rossett in 2001 found 

that responses to the flood were varied and uncoordinated. 

Wright, James M. (1994). Coping with the flood: The next phase. Water Resources Update, 

95(Spring), 5-10. 

Available at: http://www.ucowr.siu.edu/updates/pdf/V95_A1.pdf

Keywords:

floodplain management, history, strategic planning 

Abstract: This article describes the evolution of approaches to floodplain management in the 

United States. The evolution has come from the gradual merger of three policy streams—flood 

control, resources protection, and disaster assistance—and it includes a shifting of responsibility 

from the state and local level to the federal level. Recent accomplishments include the 

employment of new approaches and programs to deal with flood problems, the emergence of the 

NFIP as the dominant federal activity for dealing with floods, and growing public awareness. 

The author recommends six general areas for improvement in the future: (a) achieve a proper 

accounting of flood risk in decision making, (b) investigate flood loss reduction and resource 

protection strategies further, (c) build floodplain management capability at all government levels, 
324

(d) achieve the intent of the NFIP, (e) avoid political responses to flood disasters, and (f) employ 

new approaches. 

Wright, James M. (2000). The Nation’s Responses to Flood Disasters: A Historical Account. 

Madison, WI: Association of State Floodplain Managers. 

Available at: http://www.floods.org/Publications/free.asp

Keywords:

history, legislation 

Abstract: This report explores the forces and events that have shaped floodplain management 

policy and practice. It begins in the early nineteenth century, with the debates about federal 

involvement in flood control and then documents the Flood Control Acts of 1917, 1928, and 

1936, which demonstrate an increasing federal role in flood control. As the nation became more 

urbanized, the potential for flood damage increased faster than it could be controlled, and a 

broader approach to the problem became necessary. The Tennessee Valley Authority, Army 

Corps of Engineers, U.S. Geological Survey, and several states all played roles in establishing 

regulations for floodplain management. In 1968 Congress established the NFIP, and with it 

began, among other things, national floodplain mapping, stricter land-use regulations, buyout 

programs, and the privatization of some flood insurance policies. In 1987 the Federal 

Interagency Floodplain Management Task Force initiated an assessment of the nation’s program 

for floodplain management. The assessment was completed in 1992 with the publication of a 

two-volume report, Floodplain Management in the United States: An Assessment Report, and 

based on the report, the Task Force developed a revised Unified National Program for Floodplain 

Management in 1993 to reflect trends affecting floodplain management, and to include findings 

in the 1992 assessment. Many observers in the 1990s believed even more changes in national 

policies were necessary, as well as public awareness of the risks of living in flood-prone areas. 

WWF Scotland. (2002). Turning the Tide on Flooding: A WWF Scotland Report. Perthshire, 

Scotland: WWF Scotland. 

Available at: http://www.wwf.org.uk/filelibrary/pdf/turning(final).pdf

Keywords: 

agency operations and management, climate change, development, flood causes, flood control, 

mitigation, risk management, Scotland, structural approaches, urban areas 

Abstract: This article finds that flood risk is increasing in Scotland due to a variety of factors, 

including climate change and urban development. Because different organizations are charged 

with managing flood risk, there is no comprehensive or coordinated approach to flood abatement 

and prevention. The report proposes that floodplain management professionals pursue 

sustainable flood management principles that incorporate measures for equally protecting all 

communities against flooding through appropriate floodwater storage and movement. 

Yakowitz, Sidney. (1985). Markov flow models and the flood warning problem. Water 

Resources Research, 21(1), 81-8. 

Keywords:

modeling, riverine areas 

Abstract: Let {Yj} represent periodically sampled river discharge values. For simplicity, a flood 

occurs at epoch n+1 if, for some fixed T, Y n+1 > T. Assume that at epoch n, the decision maker 

must decide whether or not to issue a flood warning, this decision being based on the past flow 
325

record {Y j} j,< n. Finally, assume that costs have been assigned to the two types of mistakes: 

the “false alarm” event and the event that a flood occurs when no warning was issued. It is 

argued that outside the Gaussian assumption, standard time series methodology is inappropriate 

for the flood-warning problem. This paper relates recent progress based on alternate principles. 

A noparametric inference procedure is described that converges to the optimal decision function 

for the flood warning problem as the length of the historical record increases for any stationary 

G2-ergodic Markov process. Under additional assumptions, rates can be established and shown 

to be optimal in a certain sense. The new methodology is compared with autoregressive moving 

average predictors on simulated and actual river flow data. 

Yang, Haiyan. (2003). The Influence of National Flood Insurance Program to Coastal 

Development in Texas. Paper presented at Association of American Geographers Annual 

Meeting. March 6-7, 2003. Washington DC: AAG. 

Keywords: 

coastal areas, development, insurance, NFIP, Texas 

Abstract: Texas is a flood-prone state. On average, a hurricane or storm will strike the Texas 

coast every 2.6 years, causing significant property damage and numerous lives lost. The Gulf of 

Mexico areas are experiencing considerable development despite the damage caused by 

hurricanes and floods. FEMA estimates that 675,000 Texas households reside in the 1 percent 

annual chance floodplain, most in coastal areas. Following hurricanes, most damaged structures 

are rebuilt in their original location, even if the damage to the property was more than half of the 

total value of the property. In addition, buildings are increasingly being constructed along the 

coast. Some argue that the rate and pattern of beachfront development has been shaped by 

“fundamental” economic factors, implying the coastal development cannot be deterred. Others 

insist that the availability of flood insurance might have been a major factor in encouraging 

shoreline development since the inception of the NFIP in 1968. For the analysis, series of 

historical aerial photographs from 1958 to 2002 were obtained for Jamaica beach on Galveston 

Island in Galveston county and Surfside Beach on Follets Island of Brazoria County, Texas. By 

analyzing and comparing these remote sensing data, this research examines how exposure to 

flood hazards and the availability of federal flood insurance affects the pattern of development in 

the Gulf of Mexico area. 

Yeo, Stephen. (2003). Effects of Disclosure of Flood Liability on Residential Property 

Values. Australian Journal of Emergency Management, 18(1), 35-44. 

Available at: 

http://www.ema.gov.au/agd/EMA/rwpattach.nsf/viewasattachmentpersonal/(C86520E41F5EA5

C8AAB6E66B851038D8)~flood_liability_on_residential_property_values.pdf/$file/flood_liabili

ty_on_residential_property_values.pdf

Keywords: 

Australia, awareness, communication, housing markets, liability, property values, risk 

communication

Abstract: Floodplain mapping is an essential activity for sensible floodplain management. 

Floodplain mapping incorporates land-use planning, warning systems, and public education. 

However, disclosure of flood risk information has led to opposition from those who perceive that 

such disclosure may reduce property values. The study finds that evidence of the effects of 

disclosure of flood liability on residential property values is mixed. The paper explores how 
326

public disclosure of flood liability affects property values by examining research done 

internationally on this subject, and applying that research to conditions in Australia. Studies from 

the United States determined that flood-liable properties are valued between 4 and 12 percent 

less than comparable properties outside of flood zones. Studies in Canada and New Zealand have 

found no distinction in property values between structures in SFHAs and non-SFHAs. In 

conclusion, the study determines that the balance of evidence suggests that the grounds for 

refusing disclosure are weak. The article notes that overall, slightly more research indicates that 

disclosure has no significant impact on property value, and that the advantages of flood liability 

disclosure outweigh the potential drawbacks. 

Zhao, B. and L.W. Mays. (1996). Uncertainty and risk analyses for FEMA alluvial-fan 

method. Journal of Hydraulic Engineering, 122(6). 

Available for purchase at: http://www.pubs.asce.org/WWWdisplay.cgi?9603323

Keywords:

alluvial fans, Arizona, hydrology and hydraulics, modeling, 1 percent annual chance flood 

standard, risk assessment 

Abstract: Alluvial fans along mountain bases pose quite interesting problems for the design of 

hydraulic structures and highway crossings and for flood insurance studies. FEMA’s alluvial fan 

method is subject to uncertainties because it is an approximate method. In this paper, 

Rosenblueth’s point-estimate is applied to the alluvial fan method to compute the mean and 

standard deviation for the 1 percent annual chance flood discharge at any point on the fan and the 

mean and standard deviation for the width of the fan area. The mean and standard deviation for 

the 1 percent annual chance flood discharge are used to obtain the risk that the 1 percent annual 

chance flood discharge will exceed the discharge capacity of hydraulic structures on the fan. The 

mean and standard deviation for the width of the fan area are used to estimate the risk that a 

given location on the fan will be within the hazard flood zone. The HEC-1 rainfall-runoff 

computer model is used to compute inputs to the FEMA method. The proposed uncertainty and 

risk analyses are applied to an alluvial fan in north Scottsdale, AZ. 

Zimmerman, Rae. (1979). The effect of floodplain location on property values: Three towns 

in northeastern New Jersey. Water Resources Bulletin, 15(6), 1653-65. 

Keywords: 

development, economic modeling, New Jersey, property values

Abstract: The persistence of development and settlement in floodplains and continued damages 

from flooding, raises the question of how property owners respond to floodplain location and 

whether property values reflect this response. Existing studies disagree on the significance of 

flood hazard for property values. This study evaluates the effect of floodplain location on 

assessed valuation and home value in three towns in New Jersey. A t-test on mean assessed value 

and value of owner-occupied units at block levels showed no statistically significant variation for 

flood-prone and nonflood-prone lands. Possible explanations are that homeowners do not know 

or perceive the risk of living in floodplains, assessors do not incorporate flooding into 

assessment criteria, and flood insurance and broadened financial markets may equalize property 

values. 

 
327

Index of Keywords 

1 percent annual chance flood standard, 18, 

37, 77, 82, 115, 133, 155, 190, 210, 215, 

257, 258, 285, 289, 326 

actuarially sound, 309 

agency operations and management, 34, 57, 

59, 63, 70, 80, 81, 82, 83, 84, 85, 86, 89, 

91, 93, 94, 95, 97, 99, 104, 105, 106, 107, 

112, 116, 117, 118, 119, 122, 123, 199, 

209, 213, 230, 267, 268, 269, 291, 294, 

296, 297, 298, 299, 302, 303, 304, 308, 

324 

agriculture, 29, 109, 171, 185, 251, 263, 

275, 286, 290 

Alabama, 3, 12, 14, 24, 98, 101, 115, 192, 

249 

Alaska, 16, 286 

alluvial fans, 8, 132, 163, 183, 206, 215, 

216, 326 

American River, 216, 217 

Arizona, 8, 16, 27, 216, 326 

Army Corps of Engineers, 11, 13, 19, 142, 

205, 216, 217, 218, 258, 264, 279, 280, 

281, 282, 283, 284, 297 

attitudes, 19, 21, 26, 60, 65, 156, 158, 159, 

169, 172, 201, 235, 254, 258, 271, 317 

Australia, 23, 27, 31, 36, 66, 70, 73, 129, 

137, 140, 146, 167, 168, 169, 197, 235, 

239, 262, 325 

awareness, 21, 26, 37, 40, 45, 73, 112, 119, 

124, 127, 131, 137, 146, 156, 163, 168, 

169, 173, 175, 184, 186, 187, 194, 195, 

198, 201, 203, 233, 235, 244, 258, 317, 

322, 325 

Bangladesh, 131, 194 

Base Flood Elevation, 17, 75, 76, 88, 124, 

152, 211, 215, 265 

basements, 292 

beach nourishment, 45, 165, 195, 205, 218, 

240, 241, 314 

Big Black River, 29 

building codes, 4, 5, 10, 36, 50, 76, 77, 81, 

84, 85, 90, 91, 93, 98, 99, 126, 149, 152, 

156, 158, 159, 165, 197, 203, 213, 221, 

247, 279, 283, 318 

buyouts, 13, 17, 50, 64, 76, 94, 101, 110, 

114, 202, 203, 224, 227, 258, 314, 317 

California, 7, 8, 16, 38, 39, 48, 78, 111, 139, 

143, 170, 172, 204, 216, 217, 223, 226, 

246, 272, 273, 276, 286 

Canada, 37, 206, 222, 239, 247, 251, 316 

catastrophic coverage, 139 

China, 129 

climate change, 67, 82, 132, 234, 324 

closed-basin lake flooding, 78, 274 

coastal areas, 6, 8, 10, 11, 13, 17, 22, 40, 44, 

50, 51, 55, 56, 58, 60, 62, 68, 76, 77, 82, 

85, 88, 92, 119, 124, 139, 146, 150, 151, 

153, 155, 158, 165, 167, 175, 176, 177, 

183, 186, 190, 195, 199, 200, 201, 206, 

209, 212, 213, 215, 217, 234, 240, 250, 

260, 265, 277, 278, 285, 290, 294, 314, 

321, 325 

Coastal Barrier Resources Act, 51, 59, 239, 

249, 287, 295, 321 

Coastal Barrier Resources System, 92, 102, 

115, 133, 138, 163, 213, 250, 277, 286, 

295 

coastal barriers, 59, 92, 182, 239, 249, 256, 

259, 260, 265, 287, 290 

Colorado, 12, 14, 16, 27, 131, 143, 317 

communication, 5, 67, 79, 83, 87, 91, 115, 

119, 124, 136, 143, 144, 147, 166, 169, 

172, 173, 174, 175, 209, 235, 274, 316, 

325 

Community Assistance Program, 87 

community associations, 16, 46 

Community Rating System, 3, 13, 15, 56, 

57, 87, 89, 90, 91, 95, 102, 111, 118, 119, 

122, 124, 130, 149, 150, 161, 171, 193, 

197, 207, 212, 256, 316 

compliance, 3, 4, 10, 12, 13, 15, 17, 21, 26, 

35, 38, 39, 61, 69, 72, 75, 77, 79, 80, 81, 

89, 96, 102, 109, 111, 119, 124, 126, 130, 

145, 158, 161, 166, 191, 193, 197, 204, 

220, 221, 232, 246, 276, 278, 288, 289, 

299, 303, 304, 316 

Connecticut, 14 

Connecticut River Valley, 188 
328

cost-benefit analysis, 6, 11, 23, 36, 56, 64, 

66, 76, 101, 113, 114, 149, 189, 194, 202, 

204, 209, 223, 227, 245, 255, 263, 271, 

276, 280, 284, 297, 300, 302, 319 

Cover America, 30, 100, 108, 135, 242 

damage assessment, 222, 243, 262 

dams, 8, 47, 77, 118, 141, 162, 164, 197, 

213, 270, 302 

debris removal, 114 

Delaware, 12, 14, 16, 59, 92, 186, 286 

developing nations, 57 

development, 3, 4, 5, 7, 8, 9, 10, 12, 16, 17, 

19, 21, 22, 23, 24, 25, 27, 28, 29, 32, 33, 

34, 35, 37, 38, 43, 51, 52, 55, 59, 72, 74, 

75, 77, 78, 80, 82, 92, 130, 133, 138, 146, 

152, 153, 155, 162, 163, 182, 185, 186, 

192, 193, 197, 198, 199, 200, 203, 204, 

205, 206, 208, 213, 217, 221, 227, 228, 

232, 239, 240, 246, 247, 249, 250, 251, 

253, 255, 256, 258, 259, 260, 265, 277, 

278, 285, 286, 287, 288, 290, 295, 314, 

318, 324, 325, 326 

DFIRMs, 207 

disaster assistance, 3, 7, 9, 21, 26, 29, 44, 

59, 68, 86, 87, 102, 109, 114, 119, 124, 

147, 158, 179, 196, 223, 230, 236, 245, 

248, 250, 252, 284, 287, 289, 290, 295, 

296, 297, 302, 304, 311, 313, 316, 317, 

319 

disaster planning, 9, 15, 17, 23, 37, 41, 43, 

48, 57, 71, 109, 112, 114, 121, 134, 136, 

137, 145, 146, 154, 158, 168, 181, 206, 

211, 233, 252, 274, 293, 294, 295, 304, 

316, 318, 320 

disaster resistant communities, 60 

disaster risk management, 169 

disasters, 36 

domestic violence, 46 

easements, 188, 224 

economic impacts, 23, 27, 28, 31, 32, 44, 45, 

56, 60, 66, 74, 75, 76, 109, 118, 135, 137, 

141, 143, 185, 190, 192, 209, 226, 228, 

236, 242, 247, 250, 256, 258, 271, 286, 

287, 318 

economic modeling, 18, 23, 24, 25, 29, 42, 

51, 59, 60, 64, 67, 133, 142, 152, 157, 

164, 167, 175, 177, 178, 191, 192, 204, 

209, 222, 226, 227, 228, 241, 243, 245, 

251, 254, 255, 257, 260, 262, 263, 271, 

273, 292, 318, 326 

elevation certificates, 38, 69, 89, 124 

endangered species, 196 

enforcement, 3, 4, 12, 13, 15, 17, 35, 38, 61, 

69, 75, 76, 79, 80, 81, 86, 96, 102, 119, 

124, 126, 130, 153, 158, 181, 193, 197, 

220, 221, 232, 276, 288, 289, 294, 298, 

303, 316 

England, 7, 24, 53, 71, 73, 131, 140, 165, 

201, 209, 213, 266 

environmental impacts, 32, 65, 76, 82, 128, 

133, 135, 141, 144, 177, 183, 234, 236, 

256, 258, 259, 262, 286, 314, 316, 318 

environmental policy, 12, 13, 17, 25, 65, 71, 

74, 100, 127, 196, 206, 213, 224, 234, 

249, 256, 259, 286, 287, 295, 314, 320 

environmental protection, 58, 66, 128, 144, 

146, 177, 220, 234, 244, 247, 251, 258, 

320 

Environmental Protection Agency, 299, 303 

environmental restoration, 22, 74, 182, 195, 

197, 217, 242, 244, 246, 254, 263, 317, 

320 

erosion, 6, 8, 13, 17, 40, 45, 51, 55, 56, 58, 

62, 68, 85, 106, 132, 146, 150, 151, 165, 

167, 177, 183, 195, 205, 212, 213, 215, 

217, 240, 285 

Europe, 62, 71, 147, 228, 315 

Farmers Home Administration (FmHA), 289 

federal programs, 3, 9, 12, 21, 53, 57, 58, 

59, 70, 76, 77, 78, 87, 92, 100, 107, 112, 

118, 119, 126, 127, 130, 166, 193, 196, 

197, 205, 217, 218, 219, 220, 221, 222, 

223, 224, 234, 236, 245, 259, 267, 283, 

284, 286, 287, 290, 295, 296, 298, 299, 

301, 306, 307, 308, 311, 319, 320 

FEMA, 243 

FEMA management, 303 

FIRMs, 207 

Flint River Basin, 203 

flood awareness, 30 

flood causes, 48, 70, 71, 78, 197, 219, 229, 

237, 262, 266, 314, 324 
329

flood control, 17, 24, 47, 71, 78, 134, 140, 

141, 162, 172, 178, 188, 190, 214, 216, 

219, 229, 236, 246, 247, 248, 253, 254, 

256, 258, 263, 271, 275, 315, 324 

flood damage, 19, 20, 22, 33, 45, 53, 91, 

134, 141, 143, 152, 171, 172, 222, 227, 

237, 241, 243, 258, 262, 322 

flood disaster planning, 9, 53, 60, 92, 118, 

131, 137, 159, 167, 179, 194, 214, 230, 

235, 252 

flood hazard mitigation, 207 

flood insurance, 145, 243 

flood insurance agents, 310 

flood insurance rate maps, 207 

Flood Insurance Reform Act of 2004, 169, 

309 

flood insurance studies, 78, 80, 81, 101 

flood map modernization, 310 

Flood Mitigation Assistance Program, 3, 10, 

12, 14, 16, 87, 92, 120, 130, 169, 193 

floodplain, 25, 264 

floodplain designation, 7, 71, 83, 111, 115, 

203, 251, 318 

floodplain management, 3, 5, 7, 9, 10, 11, 

12, 13, 15, 17, 20, 21, 25, 27, 28, 31, 32, 

33, 34, 35, 38, 39, 43, 48, 50, 52, 53, 65, 

70, 71, 72, 73, 74, 75, 77, 79, 80, 82, 99, 

101, 102, 114, 118, 119, 122, 124, 125, 

126, 127, 128, 129, 130, 131, 132, 134, 

135, 140, 141, 143, 144, 149, 152, 155, 

159, 160, 162, 163, 165, 166, 177, 182, 

183, 184, 185, 188, 189, 193, 194, 197, 

199, 200, 201, 204, 205, 206, 207, 209, 

210, 214, 216, 217, 219, 220, 221, 224, 

227, 228, 229, 232, 234, 236, 238, 239, 

240, 244, 247, 249, 253, 256, 258, 263, 

264, 266, 270, 272, 275, 276, 278, 279, 

285, 286, 289, 293, 299, 314, 315, 316, 

317, 322, 323 

floodproofing, 75, 85, 94, 134, 220, 224, 

232, 257, 279, 280, 281, 282, 283, 284 

floodway, 75, 232 

Florida, 7, 16, 29, 48, 54, 55, 65, 68, 70, 85, 

90, 98, 115, 130, 133, 138, 139, 145, 146, 

170, 172, 181, 186, 192, 204, 249, 262, 

286, 295, 318 

France, 20, 62 

geographic information systems, 11, 12, 13, 

15, 17, 23, 52, 69, 145 

Georgetown County, 20 

Georgia, 12, 14, 16, 27, 43, 101, 203 

Germany, 177, 194, 238, 239, 252 

Hawaii, 48, 84, 295 

hazard identification, 34, 42, 56, 78, 93, 121, 

125, 132, 212, 252 

hazard mitigation, 36 

Hazard Mitigation Grant Program, 3, 12, 14, 

16, 17, 64, 87, 96, 101, 102, 114, 117, 

120, 130, 139, 193, 202, 300, 306, 307 

HAZUS, 14, 121 

health effects, 46, 169, 170, 222, 266, 277 

historic sites, 103 

history, 3, 15, 16, 57, 82, 142, 210, 223, 

230, 236, 248, 311, 312, 323, 324 

homeowners insurance, 139 

housing markets, 19, 24, 25, 42, 59, 67, 73, 

133, 142, 192, 203, 204, 260, 262, 263, 

273, 325 

Hurricane Alicia, 139 

Hurricane Andrew, 18, 48, 68, 85, 136, 139, 

145, 158, 180, 181, 186, 192, 221, 262, 

265, 295, 318 

Hurricane Bertha, 149, 241 

Hurricane Beulah, 255 

Hurricane Bob, 139 

Hurricane Camille, 139 

Hurricane Floyd, 53, 109, 114, 150, 171, 

251 

Hurricane Fran, 11, 69, 91, 149, 241 

Hurricane Frederic, 76, 139 

Hurricane Georges, 98, 99 

Hurricane Hugo, 4, 18, 60, 75, 221, 240, 

261, 294, 295 

Hurricane Iniki, 18, 84, 295 

Hurricane Isabel, 184, 229 

Hurricane Katrina, 36, 169, 309 

Hurricane Opal, 70, 90 

hurricanes, 4, 18, 50, 55, 118, 139, 145, 156, 

157, 192, 209, 278 

hydrology and hydraulics, 6, 10, 11, 12, 13, 

14, 15, 17, 19, 37, 66, 103, 105, 115, 117, 
330

126, 128, 144, 164, 165, 188, 218, 229, 

321, 326 

ICC coverage, 92 

ice jams, 8, 183, 229 

Illinois, 12, 14, 16, 27, 48, 125, 171, 273 

Indiana, 228 

insurance, 6, 12, 25, 26, 34, 38, 40, 48, 53, 

54, 55, 58, 62, 63, 69, 72, 77, 82, 94, 102, 

113, 118, 119, 124, 154, 170, 172, 177, 

190, 194, 214, 244, 260, 296, 306, 307, 

312, 317, 319, 325 

insurance agents, 63, 124, 157, 174, 184, 

186 

insurance claims, 8, 64, 77, 84, 158, 184, 

229 

insurance coverage, 4, 7, 8, 26, 31, 38, 59, 

62, 64, 83, 89, 92, 94, 96, 98, 121, 123, 

124, 125, 136, 158, 159, 162, 165, 177, 

184, 252, 292, 295 

insurance industry, 4, 7, 26, 31, 45, 49, 62, 

67, 73, 141, 147, 150, 156, 157, 158, 177, 

180, 181, 228, 229, 266, 293, 296, 311, 

312, 315, 323 

insurance premiums, 7, 31, 34, 45, 46, 51, 

55, 63, 69, 86, 98, 111, 121, 122, 123, 

126, 148, 149, 150, 178, 187, 192, 211, 

242, 291, 292, 294, 296, 301, 305 

insurance purchase decision, 18, 26, 30, 31, 

34, 39, 45, 54, 92, 109, 110, 125, 156, 

157, 164, 165, 173, 175, 176, 177, 179, 

180, 181, 227, 245, 258, 261, 276, 291 

insurance rates, 148 

International Code Series, 5, 17 

Iowa, 16, 139, 165, 172 

Ireland, 224 

Italy, 6, 195 

Japan, 239 

Kansas, 125, 231 

Kentucky, 42, 263, 282 

land use, 310 

legal issues and litigation, 39, 40, 65, 108, 

124, 153, 183, 184, 189, 194, 211, 260, 

265 

legislation, 3, 4, 21, 39, 40, 49, 53, 56, 57, 

58, 62, 77, 82, 88, 102, 103, 108, 115, 

122, 138, 163, 167, 184, 196, 213, 222, 

223, 234, 238, 239, 288, 295, 296, 299, 

308, 309, 311, 312, 315, 321, 324 

lending institutions, 26, 27, 40, 79, 83, 102, 

104, 106, 111, 142, 145, 154, 172, 180, 

187, 194, 213, 214, 225, 226, 276, 294, 

305 

levees, 8, 77, 134, 168, 210, 213, 214, 223, 

226, 227, 240, 258, 264, 272, 275, 297, 

314 

liability, 64, 124, 138, 145, 153, 157, 181, 

186, 189, 194, 198, 294, 296, 301, 325 

Louisiana, 3, 14, 16, 17, 41, 44, 82, 122, 

153, 185, 253, 257, 263, 265, 286 

Maine, 79, 193, 294 

mandatory purchase, 25, 26, 27, 34, 40, 79, 

83, 86, 97, 102, 104, 106, 111, 116, 130, 

136, 142, 145, 154, 157, 176, 178, 187, 

193, 194, 213, 214, 225, 226, 252, 263, 

288, 289, 294, 305, 307, 309 

Manitoba, 37, 206, 316 

map modernization, 100, 308 

mapping, 3, 8, 10, 11, 12, 13, 14, 15, 17, 36, 

37, 38, 55, 56, 75, 78, 81, 82, 83, 86, 88, 

93, 97, 99, 101, 102, 103, 104, 105, 106, 

107, 108, 111, 115, 116, 117, 120, 123, 

124, 130, 138, 144, 145, 154, 162, 163, 

190, 193, 197, 207, 211, 212, 214, 221, 

258, 267, 268, 269, 276, 278, 288, 289, 

291, 304, 307, 308, 310, 316, 322 

marketing, 5, 9, 26, 30, 33, 63, 87, 91, 100, 

108, 121, 135, 157, 172, 173, 175, 242 

Maryland, 12, 14, 16, 184, 229, 258, 266, 

286, 301 

Massachusetts, 40, 139, 278 

media, 43, 68, 70, 87, 91, 110, 124, 136, 

144, 153, 168, 169, 233, 235, 253 

methodology, 28, 32, 41, 60, 166, 169, 227, 

231, 242, 262, 270 

Meuse River, 322 

Michigan, 16, 197, 286 

Midwest floods of 1993, 22, 41, 74, 125, 

134, 135, 136, 139, 143, 159, 165, 166, 

179, 182, 185, 195, 201, 210, 222, 226, 

236, 240, 244, 252, 257, 258, 264, 272, 

275, 277, 279, 297, 317, 319 

minimum building standards, 207 
331

Minnesota, 12, 14, 16, 25, 78, 111, 125, 133, 

202, 316 

Mississippi, 14, 16, 29, 43, 44, 78, 98, 278 

Mississippi River, 48, 74, 210, 240, 244, 

253, 263, 275, 279 

Missouri, 12, 14, 16, 27, 78, 110, 125, 139, 

143, 202, 222, 258, 264 

Missouri River, 22, 279 

mitigation, 3, 4, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12, 13, 14, 15, 

16, 17, 23, 34, 36, 38, 40, 41, 42, 48, 50, 

53, 57, 61, 64, 65, 66, 71, 74, 76, 77, 78, 

84, 85, 90, 91, 92, 93, 94, 95, 96, 98, 99, 

101, 102, 109, 110, 111, 112, 113, 117, 

118, 120, 122, 125, 127, 129, 130, 131, 

139, 143, 150, 151, 152, 154, 155, 156, 

158, 159, 160, 161, 162, 170, 180, 181, 

185, 193, 196, 197, 198, 201, 202, 206, 

208, 209, 219, 220, 221, 222, 223, 224, 

230, 236, 241, 247, 249, 252, 257, 258, 

259, 265, 270, 276, 277, 279, 280, 281, 

282, 283, 284, 294, 296, 298, 300, 304, 

306, 307, 319, 324 

mobile homes, 75, 80, 126, 232 

modeling, 6, 10, 12, 13, 14, 15, 19, 22, 23, 

24, 27, 36, 62, 88, 105, 106, 132, 140, 

142, 162, 163, 164, 165, 170, 178, 179, 

181, 186, 192, 207, 208, 215, 217, 218, 

227, 233, 237, 242, 264, 265, 270, 278, 

321, 322, 324, 326 

Montana, 12, 14, 16 

mudflows, 8 

National Credit Union Administration, 213, 

214 

natural disasters, 15, 26, 35, 118, 136, 145, 

158, 159, 169, 209, 231, 238, 240, 252, 

315, 318, 320 

Nebraska, 16, 27, 125, 286 

Netherlands, 24, 172, 194 

Nevada, 8, 26 

New Jersey, 16, 27, 109, 286, 326 

New York, 139, 203, 204, 221, 245, 266 

NFIP, 3, 5, 7, 25, 26, 28, 34, 38, 40, 47, 48, 

54, 57, 64, 72, 77, 78, 82, 87, 89, 92, 96, 

100, 102, 104, 106, 107, 108, 111, 118, 

119, 120, 122, 124, 130, 133, 135, 138, 

142, 148, 153, 154, 157, 175, 177, 181, 

187, 191, 193, 197, 198, 204, 207, 211, 

220, 221, 230, 247, 248, 256, 258, 260, 

265, 266, 276, 288, 289, 301, 305, 306, 

307, 311, 312, 316, 325 

No Adverse Impact, 183 

nonstructural approaches, 7, 36, 40, 41, 50, 

53, 77, 85, 162, 183, 199, 209, 224, 240, 

254, 257, 280, 281, 282, 283, 284, 314 

North Carolina, 25, 39, 60, 63, 69, 91, 109, 

110, 138, 149, 150, 155, 171, 241, 249, 

251, 286 

North Dakota, 12, 14, 16, 27, 46, 47, 78, 

111, 125, 133, 136, 143, 156, 243, 274, 

316 

Office of Thrift Supervision, 225, 226 

Ohio, 16, 27 

Oklahoma, 27, 48, 78, 131, 230, 288 

Ontario, 19, 251 

Oregon, 8, 16, 21, 78, 192, 208, 271 

park and recreation facilities, 91 

Pennsylvania, 14, 75, 143, 186, 191, 203, 

227, 232, 266, 273 

permits, 75, 81, 126, 161, 232, 258 

ports, 78 

Portugal, 52, 131 

post-FIRM structures, 211 

pre-FIRM structures, 61, 96, 113, 211, 242, 

257 

Project Impact, 14, 16, 50, 60, 110, 111, 

112, 154, 306, 307 

property values, 6, 19, 24, 25, 29, 42, 43, 44, 

50, 62, 63, 67, 73, 81, 96, 110, 126, 133, 

142, 152, 167, 177, 200, 203, 204, 208, 

228, 242, 251, 254, 255, 256, 257, 260, 

262, 263, 271, 272, 273, 274, 276, 278, 

279, 325, 326 

public assistance, 29, 86, 89, 97, 100, 103, 

104, 105, 107, 116, 119, 191, 223, 248, 

290, 293, 297, 298, 302, 304, 311 

public policy, 10, 11, 13, 14, 17, 20, 23, 25, 

26, 32, 34, 35, 36, 39, 41, 53, 57, 58, 59, 

62, 65, 67, 68, 71, 72, 74, 78, 110, 127, 

128, 132, 135, 139, 141, 157, 159, 160, 

163, 167, 177, 184, 185, 188, 189, 190, 

198, 201, 206, 209, 210, 211, 213, 215, 

217, 219, 222, 236, 239, 240, 249, 250, 
332

254, 255, 256, 258, 264, 265, 274, 287, 

311, 312, 314, 320 

Puerto Rico, 48, 99, 233, 286 

Quebec, 247 

Red River, 37, 111, 156, 160, 206, 243, 316 

reinsurance, 229 

relocation, 50, 94, 114, 118, 134, 170, 196, 

201, 202, 203, 209, 224, 240, 317 

repair costs, 222, 243, 262 

repetitive losses, 14, 15, 17, 50, 96, 111, 

113, 120, 121, 124, 148, 153, 169, 258, 

277, 294, 305, 307, 309, 311, 314, 317 

Rhode Island, 115, 199, 200 

risk assessment, 6, 8, 15, 18, 23, 39, 62, 67, 

93, 121, 123, 134, 136, 137, 142, 143, 

151, 162, 164, 175, 177, 207, 209, 217, 

218, 219, 229, 252, 253, 264, 270, 272, 

276, 298, 320, 322, 326 

risk communication, 26, 31, 37, 39, 43, 54, 

65, 68, 70, 71, 74, 75, 83, 100, 104, 108, 

112, 119, 121, 124, 134, 135, 144, 146, 

147, 156, 167, 168, 169, 170, 173, 174, 

180, 186, 198, 206, 220, 221, 233, 234, 

235, 242, 253, 261, 280, 293, 317, 325 

risk financing, 62, 63, 64 

risk management, 8, 53, 63, 69, 121, 134, 

136, 137, 147, 206, 209, 216, 219, 324 

risk perception, 19, 21, 25, 26, 28, 30, 37, 

39, 40, 45, 54, 55, 60, 63, 68, 69, 70, 75, 

92, 156, 158, 159, 168, 174, 179, 194, 

219, 233, 235, 238, 244, 249, 253, 254, 

258, 261, 262, 317 

riverine areas, 28, 35, 57, 74, 88, 106, 124, 

135, 188, 197, 209, 215, 244, 263, 321, 

324 

Scotland, 53, 167, 191, 324 

sea-level rise, 82, 155 

Section 1362, 76 

Small Business Administration, 87, 289, 313 

socioeconomic impacts, 3, 26, 32, 41, 44, 

46, 57, 60, 131, 135, 136, 141, 143, 191, 

195, 202, 206, 251, 254, 266 

South Africa, 28 

South Carolina, 16, 20, 29, 60, 75, 115, 129, 

241, 249, 261, 278 

South Dakota, 12, 14, 16, 125, 143 

Special Flood Hazard Areas, 17, 34, 88, 101, 

111, 144, 145, 190, 258, 304 

Stafford Act, 4, 21, 96, 102, 104, 124 

strategic planning, 28, 39, 42, 56, 57, 59, 64, 

81, 93, 94, 95, 97, 99, 104, 105, 106, 107, 

109, 112, 113, 114, 116, 128, 155, 209, 

211, 220, 244, 267, 268, 269, 302, 304, 

306, 318, 323 

structural approaches, 7, 20, 36, 40, 41, 54, 

57, 71, 77, 134, 162, 165, 168, 188, 190, 

194, 199, 202, 209, 212, 213, 214, 220, 

227, 229, 254, 257, 271, 279, 282, 314, 

319, 324 

submit-for-rate, 123 

subsidence, 8 

subsidies, 22, 34, 51, 58, 65, 113, 147, 148, 

149, 153, 187, 195, 200, 211, 242, 245, 

246, 249, 255, 257, 260, 292, 296, 301, 

305, 307 

substantial damage, 3, 11, 13, 38, 50, 61, 64, 

81, 88, 93, 94, 98, 102, 124, 126, 130, 

161, 162, 193, 197, 203, 230, 241 

substantial improvement, 3, 38, 61, 76, 81, 

98, 102, 126, 130, 162, 193, 197, 221, 232 

Switzerland, 234 

takings, 40, 58, 183, 193, 238, 260 

Tennessee, 139, 281 

Tennessee Valley Authority, 138, 199, 208, 

270, 302, 318 

Texas, 14, 21, 42, 142, 162, 233, 255, 259, 

260, 286, 294, 325 

training, 13, 102, 119, 124 

Tropical Storm Allison, 3 

Unified National Program, 10, 127, 128, 

267, 287, 320 

United Kingdom, 7, 45, 54, 129, 132, 141, 

154, 194, 222, 239, 262 

Upton-Jones Amendment, 55, 56, 85, 201, 

213 

urban areas, 10, 12, 19, 44, 52, 143, 204, 

223, 239, 246, 248, 251, 257, 260, 263, 

273, 274, 286, 317, 324 

Utah, 14, 78, 216 

variances, 3, 102, 124, 126, 130, 193, 197, 

221, 232 

Vermont, 106, 315, 316 
333

Virginia, 109, 111, 167, 254, 271, 286 

Wales, 53, 318, 323 

Washington, 16, 196, 233, 271 

weather, 179, 237, 261, 262 

West Virginia, 143, 282, 293 

wetlands, 25, 66, 128, 177, 224, 225, 242, 

247, 254, 258, 275, 279, 286, 295, 299, 

320 

wind, 18, 209, 255, 259 

Wisconsin, 48, 125, 196, 323 

Write Your Own Program, 63, 83, 84, 100, 

115, 121, 157, 172, 184, 293 

Wyoming, 12, 14, 189 

zoning, 25, 81, 88, 126, 152, 184, 190, 206, 

212, 227, 254, 256, 258, 278, 318, 319