Suitable Body Locations and Vibrotactile Cueing Types for 

Dismounted Soldiers 

by Timothy L. White 

ARL-TR-5186 May 2010 

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Army Research Laboratory 

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ARL-TR-5186 May 2010 

Suitable Body Locations and Vibrotactile Cueing Types for 

Dismounted Soldiers 

Timothy L. White 

Human Research and Engineering Directorate, ARL

Approved for public release; distribution is unlimited. 
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14. ABSTRACT 

Although research has shown the potential of tactile displays as a means for providing information, there are several factors that 

must be taken into consideration in order to maximize the benefits of tactile cueing. The proper body location and tactile cue

type must be carefully identified for specific types of users. This is due to the varying mission requirements and environments 

in which users must operate. For example, dismounted Soldiers perform maneuvers such as walking, running, crawling, and 

climbing. They must also remain attentive so that they can engage enemy threats as well as negotiate terrain obstacles. It is

imperative that tactile stimulation be provided to the appropriate body locations and that the proper tactile cue types (i.e., 

signals or patterns) are provided to dismounted Soldiers. This summary report discusses the skin, the perceptual resolution and 

sensitivity of humans, and the suitable body locations and tactile cueing types for dismounted Soldiers. 

15. SUBJECT TERMS

tactile, vibrotactile, dismounted, signals, patterns, cues, messages 

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iii 

Contents 

List of Figures iv

List of Tables v

1. Introduction 1

2. The Skin 3

3. Perceptual Resolution and Sensitivity 5

4. Dismounted Soldier Body Locations and Tactile Cueing 7

4.1 Tactile Utility of Upper Limbs ........................................................................................9

4.1.1 Signals .................................................................................................................9

4.1.2 Patterns ................................................................................................................9

4.2 Tactile Utility of Torso ....................................................................................................9

4.2.1 Signals .................................................................................................................9

4.2.2 Patterns ..............................................................................................................10

5. Conclusions 12

6. References 13

Appendix. Pressure Sensitivity, Two-Point Discrimination, and Point Localization 

Thresholds 23

Distribution List 27 
iv 

List of Figures 

Figure 1. Cross section of the human skin. (Reprinted with permission from Schiffman 

[2000]. Copyright 2000 John Wiley & Sons, Inc.) ...................................................................4

Figure 2. Placement areas for tactile display (Gemperle et al., 2003). ...........................................8 

Figure A-1. Pressure sensitivity thresholds for females. ..............................................................24

Figure A-2. Pressure sensitivity thresholds for males. .................................................................24

Figure A-3. Two-point discrimination thresholds for females. ....................................................25

Figure A-4. Two-point discrimination thresholds for males. .......................................................25

Figure A-5. Point localization thresholds for females. .................................................................26

Figure A-6. Point localization thresholds for males. ....................................................................26
v 

List of Tables 

Table 1. Mechanoreceptor characteristics in glabrous skin. ...........................................................4

Table 2. Body location × cue type. ...............................................................................................11
vi 

INTENTIONALLY LEFT BLANK. 
1

1. Introduction 

Dismounted Soldiers are a vital component of the U.S. Army, and as a result of continuous 

technological advances, they are being inundated with complex battlefield information. Much of 

this information is being presented through the visual and auditory sensory channels. Receiving 

such an abundance of information can result in cognitive overload and performance degradation. 

Therefore, researchers are exploring different techniques of displaying this vital information and 

mitigating the grave consequences of cognitive overload and performance degradation. 

Wickens’ multiple resource theory suggests that offloading information from overtaxed sensory 

modalities to other modalities can reduce workload (Wickens, 2002). Furthermore, Van Erp’s 

prenav theory suggests that the performance of a human operator using an intuitive display is not 

affected by external stressors because the display does not rely on effortful cognitive resources 

(Van Erp, 2007). Therefore, if properly implemented, tactile displays may be a viable, intuitive 

solution in reducing sensory and cognitive overload from the visual and audio channels, thereby 

improving situation awareness and survivability on the battlefield. A tactile display can be 

defined as a device that presents information to the user by stimulating the skin (Gemperle et al., 

2001). Offloading information to the tactile channel in an effective manner depends on the 

nature of the cognitive and sensory demands within the mission environment (Redden, 2006). In 

regard to dismounted Soldiers, careful consideration must be given to the body locations best 

suited to receive tactile information as well as the types of information (i.e., signals or patterns) 

that can be provided. 

In recent years, there has been an increased interest in the use of tactile displays as an alternative 

means of effectively communicating information to military personnel. Some applications of 

interest include spatial orientation, navigation, vehicle control, directional warning and attention 

allocation, synthetic environments, and nonverbal communication (Van Erp and Self, 2008). For 

example, in the aviation arena, researchers explored using tactile displays as countermeasures for 

spatial disorientation. The Tactile Situation Awareness System (TSAS), developed by the U.S. 

Navy, and the Spatial Orientation Retention Device, developed by the U.S. Air Force, have both 

shown potential in aiding pilots in maintaining spatial orientation (Bles, 2008; McGrath et al., 

2004; Rupert et al., 2002). Similar spatial orientation research findings were reported by Craig et 

al. (2004), Van Erp et al. (2002), and Van Erp et al. (2006). 

Vehicle control is another mounted application in which tactile displays have been found to be 

useful. In one study, helicopter pilots were able to successfully monitor a simulated instrument 

panel to detect failed instruments and gauges (Diamond et al., 2002). Research has also 

examined the use of tactile display systems in moving ground vehicles (Krausman and White, 

2008). Additional vehicle control research has been investigated by Ferris and Sarter (2008), 

Ferris et al. (2006), and Tilak et al. (2008). A wealth of research has been conducted in the area 
2

of navigation. In maritime environments, the U.S. Navy has successfully demonstrated the use 

of TSAS in providing navigational cues in undersea diving operations (Dobbins and Samways, 

2002; Van Erp and Self, 2008). In regard to land environments, dismounted Soldiers were able 

to successfully navigate using the Personal Tactical Navigator developed by the Netherlands 

Organisation for Applied Scientific Research Human Factors (Elliott et al., 2006; Elliott et al., 

2010). Other navigation investigations have been reported by Davis (2006), Davis (2007), 

Dorneich et al. (2006), Elliott et al. (2007), Savick et al. (2008), Smets et al. (2008), and Van Erp 

et al. (2005). Utilizing tactile displays to provide directional warning and attention allocation 

information has shown great promise in a number of studies. For example, Carlander and 

Eriksson (2006) found that tactile displays were useful in mitigating the localization errors and 

high reaction times that resulted from the front-back confusion of three-dimensional (3-D) audio 

cues about enemy threats. Other directional warning and attention allocation findings have been 

reported by Asseman et al. (2008), Brill et al. (2004), Calhoun et al. (2002), Calhoun et al. 

(2003), Calhoun et al. (2004), Calhoun et al. (2005), Glumm et al. (2006), Glumm et al. (2007), 

Krausman et al. (2005), Krausman et al. (2007), Lindeman et al. (2003), Lindeman et al. (2005), 

McKinley et al. (2005), Mohebbi et al. (2009), Oskarsson et al. (2008), Redden et al. (2006), 

Sklar and Sarter (1999), Tan et al. (2003), Terrence et al. (2005), Van Erp (2005), Van Erp 

(2008), and White et al. (2009). Regarding synthetic environments, Van Erp (2000) suggests 

that tactile displays can be used to present navigation information to aid users in orientating 

themselves in virtual environments. 

Communication is another emerging application of tactile displays. Brill et al. (2006) 

highlighted some advantages of utilizing tactile displays as a means for communicating U.S. 

Army hand-arm signals. For example, communication can be executed without maintaining 

visual contact (Brill et al., 2006). The feasibility of communicating with tactile displays is 

evident in the findings of Brewster and King (2005), Brown et al. (2006), Fuchs et al. (2008), 

Hoggan and Brewster (2007), Jones et al. (2006), Jones et al. (2009), Krausman and White 

(2006a), Krausman and White (2006b), Merlo et al. (2006), Merlo et al. (2008), Pettitt et al. 

(2006), and Rothenberg et al. (1977). Tactile displays have also been found useful in the area of 

robotics. In one investigation they were helpful in aiding Soldiers in monitoring robotic swarm 

status (Haas et al., 2009a). Other robotic findings have been reported by Chen and Terrence 

(2007), Chen and Terrence (2008), Haas and Stachowiak (2007), and Haas et al. (2009b). In 

summary, research has shown the potential of tactile displays in aiding military personnel in air, 

sea, and land environments in a variety of applications. 

The purpose of this review is to identify the types of information that can be presented using the 

tactile modality, body areas suitable of receiving tactile information, and the types of information 

best suited for particular body locations of dismounted Soldiers. 
3

2. The Skin 

Humans habitually tend to think of the eyes and ears as the primary communication channels, 

with limited understanding of other sensory modalities as potential communication channels 

(Geldard, 1957). As a result, for many years, the skin was not considered as a potential channel 

for communication. Though the perceptual resolution of the skin was first examined by Ernst 

Heinrich Weber (1834/1978) in the early 1800s, Geldard (1957) explored the sense of touch as a 

means of communication. Comparisons of eyes and ears revealed that the eyes are more suitable 

for spatial discriminations and the ears are more suitable for temporal information (Geldard, 

1960). However, the skin has the ability to make both spatial and temporal discriminations 

(Geldard, 1960). Geldard foresaw the sense of touch as a potential means for communication, 

and he designed the first tactile language, called “Vibratese,” a tactile language composed of 

45 basic elements by which the entire English alphabet and several numerals could be 

communicated. Each of the 45 elements was developed by varying intensity (three levels), 

duration (three levels), and body location (five loci) (Geldard, 1957). Geldard (1957) found that 

after 12 h of training, a participant was able to receive around 35 words/min, indicating that 

tactile stimulation can be a feasible means of communicating information. 

The sense of touch comprises sensations caused by the stimulation of the skin (Levine and 

Shefner, 1991; Stevens and Green, 1996). However, painful or tissue-damaging stimuli are not 

regarded as a part of the sense of touch. The skin is the largest organ of the human body and, for 

the average adult, has a surface area of about 1.8 m2

 (Sherrick and Cholewiak, 1986). The skin 

is part of the integumentary system, which consists of skin, hair, and nails. It is made up of two 

layers: the epidermis and the dermis. The epidermis is the outer layer that is made of scale-like 

cells, and the dermis is the inner layer that contains blood vessels, lymph vessels, hair follicles, 

and sweat glands. There are three types of skin: glabrous, hairy, and mucocutaneous 

(Greenspan and Bolanowski, 1996). Glabrous skin refers to the hairless skin that is found on the 

palms and soles, and mucocutaneous skin (e.g., lips) refers to the skin that borders entrances to 

the body’s interior (Greenspan and Bolanowski, 1996). Of the three types of skin, hairy skin 

covers most of the human body. 

The skin has many sensory receptors for receiving sensations like vibration, pressure, texture, 

temperature, and pain. The mechanoreceptors of the skin are sensitive to mechanical pressure or 

deformation of the skin (Sekuler and Blake, 1990). A cross section of human skin is shown in 

figure 1. There are four types of mechanoreceptive afferents in glabrous skin: the fast-adapting 

type 1 (FAI) afferents that end in Meissner corpuscles, the fast-adapting type 2 (FAII) afferents 

that end in Pacinian corpuscles, the slow-adapting type 1 (SAI) afferents that end in Merkel 

disks, and the slow-adapting type 2 (SAII) afferents that end in Ruffini endings (Greenspan and 

Bolanowski, 1996; Johnson, 2001). As shown in table 1, they are each defined by their rate of 
4

Figure 1. Cross section of the human skin. (Reprinted with permission from 

Schiffman [2000]. Copyright 2000 John Wiley & Sons, Inc.) 

Table 1. Mechanoreceptor characteristics in glabrous skin. 

Mechanoreceptor FAI 

(Meissner) 

FAII 

(Pacinian) 

SAI 

(Merkel) 

SAII 

(Ruffini) 

Receptive Field Size Small Large Small Large 

Adaptational Property Rapid Rapid Slow Slow 

adaptation and receptive field size (Greenspan and Bolanowski, 1996). Adaptation refers to how 

mechanoreceptors respond to sustained skin indentation (Greenspan and Bolanowski, 1996). 

The rapidly adapting mechanoreceptors respond when the skin is actively being indented, while 

the slow-adapting mechanoreceptors respond when the skin is being stretched and during 

sustained indentation (Greenspan and Bolanowski, 1996). The receptive field refers to the area 

of skin that will generate a response in a sensory neuron when stimulated, and this area is 

dependent on the intensity of the stimulus (Greenspan and Bolanowski, 1996). The receptive 

fields of Pacinian corpuscles and the Ruffini endings are larger than the receptive fields of the 

Meissner corpuscles and the Merkel disks. 
5

Hairy skin has five types of mechanoreceptive afferents: the fast-adapting hair follicle, field, and 

Pacinian afferents and the slow-adapting Merkel disk (SAI) and Ruffini ending (SAII) afferents 

(Macefield, 2005; Vallbo et al., 1995). Additionally, research indicates that the hair follicle and 

field afferents possess subtypes (Brown and Iggo, 1967). Though both the hair follicle and field 

afferents have high-sensitivity spots, they differ in that the hair follicle afferents respond to hair 

movements, and the field afferents respond to actual skin contact. The Pacinian afferents differ 

from the field afferents because they can be activated by remote stimuli and the field afferents 

cannot (Macefield, 2005). An investigation of the receptive field characteristics of hairy skin on 

the forearm indicated that the hair follicle, field, and Pacininan afferents had larger receptive 

fields than the SAI and SAII afferents (Vallbo et al., 1995). The findings of this research may 

also be representative of the hairy skin that covers other parts of the body excluding the face and 

hands (Vallbo et al., 1995). 

The skin is a very complex organ of the human body. However, the characteristics of the 

mechanoreceptive afferents and their distribution throughout the skin reveal why the perceptual 

resolution and sensitivity of the skin vary at different body locations. Because of mission 

requirements, operational environment, and body-worn equipment of dismounted Soldiers, body 

locations covered with glabrous skin are not feasible locations for tactor placement. Therefore, it 

is important to identify body locations covered with hairy skin for optimal placement. 

3. Perceptual Resolution and Sensitivity 

In order to optimally utilize tactile displays to communicate information, perceptual resolution 

and sensitivity must be taken into consideration. The perceptual resolution and sensitivity of the 

skin vary because the perceptibility and the density of the receptors vary across the skin surface 

(Cholewiak and Collins, 2003; Gemperle et al., 2003). This was evident in the findings of 

Weber’s research on perceptual resolution. Weber utilized two methodologies for his research: 

the compass test and the error of localization test (Stevens and Green, 1996). The compass test 

or two-point discrimination test measured the smallest distance at which two points of 

stimulation can be discriminated (Stevens and Green, 1996). The error of localization test was 

used to measure the accuracy with which a person can localize tactile stimuli (Stevens and 

Green, 1996). Weber’s (1834/1978) research showed that perceptual resolution was best on the 

fingertips and the tip of the tongue (Stevens and Green, 1996). Further research on the 

discrimination of pressure of the skin revealed that the just-perceptible increase in pressure of the 

skin is proportional to the pressure of the original stimulus (Stevens and Green, 1996). Over 

time, this finding was generalized to other sensory modalities. It became known as Weber’s law, 

which states that the change in a stimulus intensity required for a just noticeable difference is a 

constant ratio of the original stimulus (Levine and Shefner, 1991; Matlin, 1983; Stevens and 
6

Green, 1996). Another notable finding by Vierordt (1870) indicated that two-point 

discrimination thresholds are inversely proportioned to the mobility of the body part for which it 

is measured. This finding became known as Vierordt’s (1870) law of mobility (Cholewiak et al., 

2004; Stevens and Green, 1996). 

Weinstein (1968) extended previous research conducted in the areas of perceptual resolution and 

sensitivity. He assessed the ability to detect, discriminate, and localize pressure stimuli applied 

to different areas of the male and female body (Sorkin, 1987; Weinstein, 1968). Two notable 

findings by Weinstein (1968) are (1) that body locations with accurate localization seem to 

correspond with good two-point discrimination and (2) that body locations with accurate 

localization and good two-point discrimination do not imply good tactile sensitivity to pressure 

(Stevens and Green, 1996; Van Erp, 2007). In regard to tactile sensitivity, women were 

generally more sensitive than men. The findings of his research agreed with the findings of 

Weber and Vierordt. The figures in the appendix illustrate his findings on pressure sensitivity, 

two-point discrimination, and point localization thresholds. 

Since the work of Weinstein (1968), Stevens and Choo (1996) investigated spatial acuity of the 

body from childhood to advanced age. Contrary to Weinstein’s research, which utilized the 

two-point discrimination task, this research employed a gap detection task (Stevens and Choo, 

1996). The gap detection task was employed because Johnson and Phillips (1981) found that, 

with sufficient practice, humans are able to discriminate two points with very small or zero 

separation from a single point using the two-point discrimination task (Johnson and Phillips, 

1981). Discrimination of such small or even nonexistent separation cannot be a result of spatial 

resolution. Since length discrimination is superior to two-point discrimination, the gap detection 

task was used (Jones and Vierck, 1973). These tasks differ in that a tactile line broken by a gap 

is used instead of two points (Stevens and Choo, 1996). The results of this investigation were 

consistent with the previous findings of Weber and Weinstein. An additional finding of this 

research was that spatial acuity declines with age, particularly on the hands and feet (Stevens and 

Choo, 1996). 

The previously discussed research on perceptual resolution and sensitivity was conducted by 

applying pressure to the skin. However, the majority of the tactile display systems that are 

currently being used employ vibrotactile stimuli (Cholewiak and Collins, 2003). The responses 

of mechanoreceptive afferents in the skin depend on the frequency, amplitude, and duration of 

the vibrotactile stimuli as well as the location of the stimuli (Jones and Sarter, 2008). Though 

vibrations with frequencies between 20 and 500 Hz can be perceived, Jones and Sarter (2008) 

identify optimal sensitivity with frequencies between 150 and 300 Hz. At a given frequency, the 

amplitude level required for detection varies across body sites (Von Békésy, 1959). Amplitude 

and frequency parameters must be chosen carefully, especially when encoding information 

because of their interactions; it is not recommended that they be manipulated simultaneously 

during vibrotactile communications (Jones and Sarter, 2008). If the amplitude provided at a 

given body location is increased at a constant frequency, the perceived amplitude as well as the 
7

perceived frequency increases (Jones and Sarter, 2008). With regard to duration, results from 

one investigation showed that participants prefer that the duration of vibrotactile alerts be 

between 50 and 200 ms (Kaaresoja and Linjama, 2005). The flexibility to manipulate parameters 

like frequency and amplitude depend on the design of the tactors used to provide stimulation. 

There are two main categories of tactors: inertial shakers and linear actuators (Mortimer et al., 

2007). Inertial shakers employ the motion of an internal eccentric mass to produce vibration, 

and linear actuators employ a contactor that is driven against the skin (Mortimer et al., 2007). 

Although the operating characteristics of these two types of tactors differ, they both have been 

successfully utilized in stimulating the receptors of the skin. Due to the varying distribution of 

the receptors in the skin and the overlapping frequency ranges at which they respond, it is not 

possible to target one particular receptor type. Unlike linear actuators, the manipulation of 

frequency and amplitude is limited when inertial shakers are utilized (Mortimer et al., 2007). 

Designers should make sure that tactors operate at levels consistent with the previously 

mentioned optimal sensitivity levels of the human body. However, there may be other reasons 

beyond the sensitivity of the receptors to explore new tactor designs, such as reducing power 

consumption or physical discomfort. 

4. Dismounted Soldier Body Locations and Tactile Cueing 

As mentioned previously, research has shown the variability of the perceptual resolution and 

sensitivity of the skin. Vibrotactile cues have been successfully utilized in a number of 

applications. In regard to dismounted Soldiers, careful consideration must be given to the types 

of vibrotactile cues and body locations at which they can be best perceived. When utilizing 

tactile displays, dismounted Soldiers must be ready to move their weapons to engage an enemy 

and be attentive to the terrain and enemy threats (Van Erp and Self, 2008). There are a number 

of body locations that have low perceptual resolution thresholds and low-sensitivity thresholds. 

Myles and Kalb (2009) found the forehead, temples, and the lower part of the back of the head to 

be very sensitive. In figure 2, the bordered areas highlight several suggested areas for tactor 

placement. In general, most tactile research has focused on the upper limbs, hands, and torso. 

Because mission requirements, operational environment, or body-worn equipment of dismounted 

Soldiers may interfere with placement or perception of vibrotactile signals, some body locations 

are less feasible for the placement of tactors. For example, the hands are not a feasible location 

because tasks that depend on the use and the mobility of the hands may interfere with the tactile 

stimuli. Placement of tactors on the legs or front of the torso may be infeasible because Soldiers 

are sometimes required to crawl. From an environmental perspective, Soldiers in moving ground 

vehicles are more likely to be subject to ongoing high vibrations and noise as opposed to 
8

Figure 2. Placement areas for tactile display (Gemperle et al., 

2003). 

dismounted Soldiers (Van Erp and Self, 2008). The external vibrations of a moving ground 

vehicle can possibly interfere with vibrotactile perception (Van Erp and Self, 2008). It is 

therefore imperative that the mission requirements and operational environment be considered 

when identifying suitable body locations for vibrotactile stimulation. Tactile cues must be easily 

perceived under operating conditions (Elliott et al., 2009). 

Tactile stimuli or cues can be provided as signals (i.e., a single discrete cue) or patterns. Signals 

are normally used to provide an alert or direction. The appropriate tactile stimuli type depends 

on the type of information that is being provided to the user. A pattern is normally used to 

communicate more complex communication or orientation information. Tactile patterns 

typically consist of multiple tactors firing one at a time or sequentially. Some useful dismounted 

applications of tactile cues include that of location cues (e.g., waypoint navigation, avoidance of 

terrain obstacles, off-limit area warnings, threat locations), attention management (e.g., alerts on 

command decision making), and critical communications (e.g., tactile commands as substitutes 

for visual arm and hand signals (Van Erp and Self, 2008; Pettitt et al., 2006). A number of 

research efforts have shown the potential of both tactile signals and tactile patterns with regard to 

dismounted Soldiers. These efforts will be described in the next few paragraphs. 
9

4.1 Tactile Utility of Upper Limbs 

There are a few tactile research efforts that utilize the upper limbs. Though none of these 

research efforts have focused specifically on the dismounted Soldier, their findings may be 

relevant to the dismounted Soldier. Most of these efforts have focused on mounted Soldiers. 

4.1.1 Signals 

In a laboratory investigation, Krausman et al. (2005) found that providing simple vibrotactile 

signals to the upper arm was helpful in alerting mounted platoon leaders of incoming messages. 

In a follow-on study, a vibrotactile cue paired with a visual cue was helpful in providing alerts to 

mounted platoon leaders as well (Krausman et al., 2007). In a multimodal experiment, tactile 

signals worn on the wrists have shown potential for improving operator performance on 

monitoring tasks in complex systems, such as control stations for unmanned aerial vehicles 

(Calhoun et al., 2002). Given the various dismounted Soldier maneuvers that specifically require 

movement of the arms, vibrotactile signals on the arm may be better suited for mounted or 

stationary applications. 

4.1.2 Patterns 

In a laboratory experiment, Piateski and Jones (2005) found that identification rates for 

vibrotactile patterns on the forearm were about 90%. However, due to spatial resolution issues, 

the arm may not provide the accuracy needed for military applications (Piateski and Jones, 

2005). Providing tactile patterns to dismounted Soldiers can be difficult because patterns may be 

perceived incorrectly if the orientation of the arm changes. For example, a pattern that sweeps 

up the arm when the arm is positioned at the side of a person may be perceived as a downward 

sweep when the arm is raised. In this respect, unless an intelligent system that is capable of 

providing tactile patterns based on body or body part orientation is implemented, the arms would 

not be a feasible location for providing tactile patterns to dismounted Soldiers. Although 

uncommon for dismounted Soldiers, applications in which the arms remain stationary may be 

better suited for providing tactile patterns. 

4.2 Tactile Utility of Torso

The torso has been utilized for tactile cueing more than any other body location on dismounted 

Soldiers. It has been determined to be a stable and an effective reception area for tactile cueing 

(Gilson et al., 2007; Van Erp, 2007). The torso is 3-D and body-centered (Van Erp, 2007). A 

belt worn around the torso that is made up of an array of tactors has been utilized for most 

dismounted research efforts. Cholewiak et al. (2004) also determined that a belt that is made up 

of an array of eight equally separated tactors yields optimal localization performance. 

4.2.1 Signals 

Research findings have shown the potential of providing tactile signals to the torso. An eighttactor belt is particularly useful for providing directional cues for navigation and target 
10

acquisition because the stimulation sites can be mapped to compass points. Van Erp (2007) and 

Cholewiak et al. (2004) found the torso to be a suitable location for tactile stimulation when the 

navel and the spine anchor points are included as stimulation sites within the tactile array. 

Research driven by Van Erp’s Prenav theory has shown that tactors on the torso can aid in 

navigation tasks and reduce workload (Van Erp and Werkhoven, 2006). In one investigation that 

employed a tactile belt, participants were able to successfully navigate waypoints without any 

training (Van Erp et al., 2005). In another series of studies, dismounted Soldiers were able to 

successfully navigate with a tactile belt display during both day and night operations (Elliott et 

al., 2007). 

4.2.2 Patterns 

The torso has also been shown to be a feasible location to provide tactile patterns. Its large 

surface makes it particularly suitable for tactile patterns. A significant amount of this research as 

it pertains to the military has focused on assisting pilots in maintaining their spatial orientation 

during flight by providing vibrotactile patterns to the torso with a tactile vest. During an 

operational assessment, the TSAS was found to be effective in improving aircrew performance 

by reducing workload and improving situational awareness (Rupert et al., 2002). In a pilot 

investigation, another system known as the System for Tactile Reception of Advanced Patterns, 

investigators found that participants were able to learn a tactile grammar consisting of 56 tactile 

patterns in under 3.5 h (Fuchs et al., 2008). In regard to dismounted applications, in one study, 

Pettitt et al. (2006) utilized a tactile belt on the torso to provide vibrotactile patterns that were 

derived from conventional Army arm and hand signals. Dismounted Soldiers were able to 

receive, interpret, and respond to the tactile patterns faster than the conventional signals provided 

by a leader (Pettitt et al., 2006). 

In a series of studies, Jones et al. (2006) provided participants with vibrotactile patterns using a 

geometrically symmetrical 4 × 4 matrix of tactors on the back. In a laboratory experiment, 

participants were able to identify patterns with 100% accuracy, and in a field experiment, 

participants were able to navigate with almost perfect accuracy (Jones et al., 2006). Krausman 

and White (2006a) performed an investigation to compare providing vibrotactile patterns with a 

4 × 4 matrix of tactors on the back and an eight-tactor belt around the torso. Because the sample 

size was small, no significant differences were found between the two displays (Krausman and 

White, 2006a; Krausman and White, 2006b). Additional research should be conducted to 

highlight potential differences between the two torso display types. Table 2 contains a listing of 

the reviewed literature that employ tactile signals and patterns on the upper limbs and the torso. 

Though all of the literature in table 2 is not focused on dismounted applications, the findings 

may still be applicable. 
11

Table 2. Body location × cue type. 

Upper Limbs

Calhoun et al. (2005) Asseman et al. (2008) Krausman & White (2008)

Calhoun et al. (2002) Brill et al. (2004) Lindeman et al. (2003)

Calhoun et al. (2003) Carlander & Eriksson (2006) Lindeman et al. (2005)

Calhoun et al. (2004) Chen & Terrence (2007) McKinley et al. (2005)

Dobbins & Samways (2002) Chen & Terrence (2008) Merlo et al. (2006)

Ferris & Sarter (2008) Cholewiak et al. (2004) Mohebbi et al. (2009)

Ferris et al. (2006) Davis (2006) Oskarsson et al. (2008)

Jones et al. (2009) Davis (2007) Redden et al. (2006)

Krausman et al. (2005) Diamond et al. (2002) Savick et al. (2008)

Krausman et al. (2007) Dorneich et al. (2006) Smets et al. (2008)

Sklar & Sarter (1999) Elliott et al. (2006) Tan et al. (2003)

Tilak (2008) Elliott et al. (2007) Terrence et al. (2005)

Elliott et al. (in prep) Van Erp (2000)

Gilson et al. (2007) Van Erp (2007)

Glumm et al. (2006) Van Erp (2008)

Glumm et al. (2007) Van Erp et al. (2005)

Haas & Stachowiak (2007) White et al. (2009)

Haas et al. (2009a)

Haas et al. (2009b)

Brewster & King (2005) Bles (2008) Van Erp et al. (2002)

Brown et al. (2006) Brill et al. (2006) Van Erp et al. (2006)

Jones et al. (2009) Craig et al. (2004) Van Erp et al. (2007)

Piateski & Jones (2005) Fuchs et al. (2008)

Rothenberg et al. (1977) Gilson et al. (2007)

Hoggan & Brewster (2007)

Jones et al. (2006)

Jones et al. (2009)

Krausman & White (2006a)

Krausman & White (2006b)

McGrath et al. (2004)

Merlo et al. (2008)

Pettitt et al. (2006)

Piateski & Jones (2005)

Rupert et al. (2002)

Van Erp & Self (2008)

Torso

Simple 

Signals

Patterns / 

Rhythms
12

5. Conclusions 

Research has indicated the feasibility of vibrotactile communications for dismounted Soldiers. 

However, due to the complexity of the skin and dismounted Soldier mission requirements, 

researchers must carefully examine the appropriate tactile cue types and body locations in order 

to maximize the benefits of vibrotactile communications for dismounted Soldiers. Vibrotactile 

communications can be utilized in combination with other sensory communications and as an 

alternate sensory communication with other sensory channels that may be limited or lost (Gilson 

et al., 2007). If implemented properly, vibrotactile communications can reduce cognitive 

overload and performance degradation. Consequently, Soldiers will be provided with critical 

information that is essential for improving situational awareness and survivability on the 

battlefield. 

Tactile stimuli can either be provided as signals or patterns depending on the type of information 

that is being provided to the user. Although a number of research efforts have shown the success 

of vibrotactile signals, research that employs vibrotactile patterns to communicate complex 

messages is very limited. Most Army-relevant vibrotactile research has focused on the upper 

limbs and the torso. Based on the reviewed literature, the torso is the most feasible body location 

to provide dismounted Soldiers with vibrotactile stimulation. It is stable, body-centered, and 3-D 

(Gilson et al., 2007; Van Erp, 2007). The torso has shown promise in receiving simple signals as 

well as more complex patterns. In regard to dismounted Soldiers, the use of vibrotactile patterns 

on the torso should be further explored. 

In military environments, some signals or messages may need to be encoded with some level of 

urgency. Urgency can be encoded by manipulating parameters such as frequency, amplitude, 

and duration (Brewster and Brown, 2004; Van Erp, 2002; Van Erp and Van Den Dobbelsteen, 

1998). Research has shown significance in the perceived urgency of auditory signals by varying 

parameters. In one study, interpulse intervals had a consistent effect on the perceived urgency of 

auditory signals, in that signals with shorter interpulse intervals and higher sound pressure levels 

were rated as more urgent (Haas and Edworthy, 1996). Similarly, varying interstimulus intervals 

in vibrotactile patterns may also be a possible method of displaying urgency. The findings of 

another study that employed “tactons” that were created from a combination of spatial location, 

rhythm, and roughness suggest that varying tactor intensity may also be a feasible alternative for 

displaying urgency (Brown et al., 2004). One area that future work should focus on is the 

perceived urgency of vibrotactile patterns. Pairing urgency with more complex tactile messages 

can potentially aid dismounted Soldiers in making better decisions by enabling them to prioritize 

tasks within their overall mission. 
13

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23

Appendix. Pressure Sensitivity, Two-Point Discrimination, and Point 

Localization Thresholds*

 *

 The figures in this appendix were reprinted with permission from Weinstein, S. Intensive and Extensive Aspects of Tactile 

Sensitivity as a Function of Body Part, Sex, and Laterality. In The Skin Senses; Kenshalo, D. R., Ed.; Charles C. Thomas: 

Springfield, IL, 1968; pp 195–222. Copyright 1968 Charles C. Thomas. 
24

Figure A-1. Pressure sensitivity thresholds for females. 

Figure A-2. Pressure sensitivity thresholds for males.
25

Figure A-3. Two-point discrimination thresholds for females. 

Figure A-4. Two-point discrimination thresholds for males.
26

Figure A-5. Point localization thresholds for females. 

Figure A-6. Point localization thresholds for males.
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