ANNUAL REPORT

OF THE

DIRECTOR OF THE BUREAU OF STANDARDS

TO THE

SECRETARY OF COMMERCE

FOR THE

FISCAL YEAR ENDED JUNE 30, 1923

(MiKellaneous Publications—No. 53)

WASHINGTON

GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE

1923

1 1 w iltiiiHii^ i

ANNUAL REPORT

OF THE

DIRECTOR OF THE BUREAU OF STANDARDS

TO THE

SECRETARY OF COMMERCE

FOR THE

FISCAL YEAR ENDED JUNE 30, 1923

(Miscellaneous Publications—^No. 53)

WASHINGTON

GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE

1923
Persons on a regular mailing list of the Department of Commerce should give

prompt notice to the "Division of Publications, Department of Commerce,

Washington, D. C," of any change of address, stating specifically the form of

address in which the publication has previously been received, as well as the

new address. The department should also be advised promptly when a publication is no longer desired.
CONTENTS.

I. INTRODUCTION.

Face. Functions 1

Classes of standards 1

Organization 1

Divisions of tlie bureau 2

Tests and investigations 2

Organization chart of the bureau 3

Relation of the bureau to American industries 3

Cooperative investigations 4

Conferences held during the year 4

Research associates 4

Publications- 5

Location 5

Branch laboratories i 6

Map of the bureau's grounds . 6

II. REPORTS OF THE SCIENTIFIC AND TECHNICAL DIVISIONS.

Weights and measures 7

Functions 7

Sections 7

General statistics 7

Work chart 8

Detailed report of the year's work 14

1. Length 14

Tests 14

Calibration of laboratory equipment 14

Study of methods and equipment used in European labora-

. tories 14

Return of the United States primary standard of length 15

Need of new apparatus 15

2. Mass 16

Standards of the bureau 16

Study of lacquer for weights 16

Materials for weights 16

Assistance to manufacturers 17

Handling sets that contain inaccurate weights 17

Tests 17

3. Time : 17

Committee work ; 17

Correlation of results of tests 18

Standard time 18

Diurnal variation in clock rates 18

Time signals received by radio 18

New time service in bureau 18

History of weights and measures 18

4. Capacity and density 19

Tests 19

Researches on density 19

Visitors 20

5. Gas-measuring instruments 20

Research in connection with orifice meters s — 20

Work of consumers' meters committee 21

III
IV CONTENTS.

- Weights and measures—Continued.

Detailed report of the year's work—Continued. Page.

6. Thermal expansivity of solids 21 Research in thermal expansion 21

Research in precision screws and graduated scales 21

Research in dental inlay technique, 21

Need for new equipment 22

7. Weights and measures laws' administration 22

Enforcement of Federal standard barrel law , 22

Investigation of type and performance of commercial

weighing and measuring devices 23

Federal legislation proposed 24

The need for fundamental weights and measures legislation 25

Annual conference on weights and measures 27

State conferences 28

State weights and measures laws 28

Investigations 29

Foreign weights and measures 31

Legal weights per bushel 31

Miscellaneous activities 31

8. Investigations and tests on commercial scales and related

work 32

Investigation of railroad track scales 32

Calibration of privately-owned test cars 36

Calibration of master scales 36

Bureau of Standards master scale , 36

Track scales for weighing grain 37

Cooperation with outside agencies 38

Investigation of mine scales 38

Conveyor weighers 39

9. Gauge standardization 39

Development and construction of apparatus and gauges 39

Standardization of stock sizes and dimensions 40

Cooperation with engineering societies and the National

Screw Thread Commission 40

Researches 40

Publications 42

Electricity . 43

Functions 43

Sections 1 43

General statistics 43

Work chart : 44

Detailed report of the year's work 53

General 53

Scope of electrical work 53

Public utility investigations 53

Conference of engineers of State utility commissions 55

1. Resistance measurements 55

Fundamental measurements of resistance 55

Regulation of speed of motor 55

Measurement of low resistance by Wheatstone bridge 56

Errors caused by gi'ounding bridge connections 56

Salinity of sea water 56

2. Inductance and capacitance 57

Inductance and capacitance laboratory : 57

Inductance research .57 Capacitance research 57

Methods of measuring dielectric loss 57

Properties of insulators for submarine cables 57

Determination of the ratio of the international henry to the absolute henry 58

Movements and stresses in turrets and turret struc- tures 58

Velocity of the projectile inside the bore of a gun 58

Photographs of projectiles in flight 58
CONTENTS, V

Electricity—Continued.

Detailed report of the year's work—-Continued.

2. Inductance and capacitance—Continued. Page.

Torsional vibrations of crank shafts 58

The temperature of a short wire heated electrically 58

Specti'um analysis of radio signals 59

3. Electrical instruments 59

Testing of electrical instruments 59

Cooperation with associations 59

Federal standard specifications 59

Development of apparatus 59

4. Magnetic measurements 60

General magnetic measurements 60

Magnetometric measurements 60

Correlation of properties 60

Magnet steel 61

Rifle barrel testing 61

Pull of solenoids 61

Cooperation with technical committees 61

5. Photometry and illuminating engineering . 61

Calibration of standard lamps 61

Photometric methods 62

Inspection and life tests of electric lamps purchased by

the Government , , 62

Specifications for incandescent electric "lamps 63

Reflection factor measurements 63

Motor vehicle lighting 63

Miscellaneous illumination problems 64

6. Radio communication 64

Radio interference 64

Statistical study of distance range 65

Radio fog signaling 65

Radio recorders 66

Aircraft radio problems 66

Radio wave phenomena 66

Short wave radio communication 66

Electron tubes 67

Insulating materials 67

Radio measurements 67

Design of radio standards 67

Improvements in frequency standard 68

Standard frequency transmission 68

Receiving sets and amplifiers 69

Radio testing 69

Standardization of radio equipment 69

Radio information

Second national radio conference 'JP Interdepartment radio advisory committee '^^ International union of scientific radio telegraphy

General radio work '^^

7. Electrolysis prevention '^^ Electrolysis work "i^l Soil corrosion 72

Electric telemeter 72

8. Safety engineering 73

National electrical safety code ''3 Electrical safety conference 74

Safety code for lightning protection 74

Industrial safety standards 75

Code for head and eye protection 75

Logging and sawmill code 76

Aeronautical safety code 76

Elevator safety code 76

Publications and addresses 76

imnnim
VI CONTENTS.

Electricity—Continued.

Detailed report of tiie year's work—Continued. Page.

9. Gas engineering 77 Standards for gas service 77

Utilization of gas 77

Investigation of gas poisoning in Baltimore 78

Gas safety code 78

10. Electrical service standards 79

Standards for electric service 79

Street lighting service 79

Electrical Standardization 79

11. Telephone service standards 80

Quantity and quality of telephone service 80

General survey of the Government's telephone facilities SO

Standard specifications for Government purchase of tele- phone equipment 81

Telephone transmission 81

Submarine cable theory : , 81

Standard cells 82

12. 'Electrochemistry 82

Tests of batteries 82

Properties of dry cells 82

Specifications for storage batteries and sulphuric acid 82

Airplane batteries 8.3 Impurities in storage-battery electrolytes 83

Jelly electrolytes 83

Patent electrolytes 83

Lead-antimony alloys for batteries 84

Porosity of storage-battery plates 84

Storage-battery seoarators 84

Rectifiers 84

Crank-shaft acceleration 85

Detarnishing of silver 85

Cooperation with outside committees 85

13. Radioactivity and X-ray measurements 86

General testing 86

Emanation measurements 86

Standards and standardization 87

Absorption measurements 87

Carnotite mines survey 87

Public Health Service investigation 87

Publications 87

Heat and power 91

Functions 91 Sections 91

General statistics 91

Work chart 92

Detailed report of the year's work 96

General 96

1. Thermometer laboratory 97

2. High temperatures .' 98

Industrial pyrometry 98

Research in pyrometry^ 98

Atomic properties 99

3. Heat measurements 100

Thermodynamic properties of ammonia 100

Properties of steam 100

Heat transmission and thermal conductivity 101

Miscellaneous 101

5. Cryogenic laboratory 101

Liquid air plant 101

Carbon dioxide plant 101

Special vacuum-walled containers 101

Liquid hydrogen 101
CONTENTS, VII

• Heat and power—Continued.

Detailed report of the year's work—Continued. Page.

6. Fire-resistive properties of building materials 102

Fire tests of brick walls 102

Hollow tile investigation 102

Standardization and interpretation of fire tests 103

Theater curtains 103

Building and safety codes 103

New investigations 103

Fire tests of concrete columns 103

Miscellaneous fire-resistance activities 103

7. Automotive power plants, fuels, and lubricants 104

Altitude laboratory 104

Ignition 104

Carburetion 105

Fuels for internal combustion engines 106

Lubrication 107

Cooling problems 109

Automobile brake linings 110

Road performance of engines and cars 110

Mechanical eflSciency of truck rear axles 111

Phenomena of combustion 111

Miscellaneous . 111

Information, tests, and publications 112

Information, cooperation with societies, etc 112

Publications 112

Optics 115

Functions 115

Sections 115

General statistics 115

Work chart 116

Detailed report of the year's work 121

General 121

Outstanding accomplishments 121

1. Spectroscopy 122

Standard wave lengths—secondary standards in the

visible and ultra-violet arc spectrum of iron 122

Secondary standards in the red and infra-red arc spec- trum of ii-on 123

New table of solar wave lengths 123

Investigation of arc spectra 123

Spectral regularities 124

Specti'o-chemical analyses 124

2. Polarimetry 125

Utilization of molasses—patent resume 125

Utilization of molasses—experimental 125

Cooperation with United States customs laboratories 125

Crystallization 126

Rotation and rotatory-dispersion of sugars 126

Adjustment and standardization of polariscopes and sac- charimeters 1 26

Thermal properties of glass 127

Double refraction in strained materials 127

Refractometric estimation of solids 128

Molasses and the tariff 128

Determination of malic acid in maple sugar sand 128

Testing of molasses, sirups, etc 128

Polarimetric analysis of crude beet products 129

Saturation relations in sugar mixtures 129

Preparation of levulose 130

Analysis of sugar by enzymes 130

Densities of invert sugar solutions 130

Color standardization of commercial sugars 131

Color and the manufacture of sugar 131

Ultrafiltration 132

Acidity measurements of sugars 132
VIII CONTENTS.

Optics—Continued.

Detailed report of tlie year's work-—Continued.

2. Polarimetry—Continued. Page.

Molasses formation 133

Standardization of commercial sugars 134

Elimination of nonsugars 134

Laboratories for sugar technology 134

Calibration of flasks 135

Development of sugar balance 135

3. Colorimetry 136

Spectrophotometric and spectroradiometric methods 136

Visibility of radiant energy 137

Spectral transmissive properties of dyes 137

Miscellaneous spectral transmission measurements 137

Spectral reflection of enamels 137

Cooperative investigations virith the Munsell Color Co., March, 1922-February, 1923 137

.4. Refractometry and optical instruments 138

Testing of photographic lenses 139

Tables for the design of a telescopic system 139

Letter circular on the design of telescope objectives 140

A 12-inch telescope objective 140

Laboratory telescopes 140

Design of lens for camera obscura 140

Auto-collimating device for Geneva spectrometer 140

Direct vision spectroscope prisms 140

Apparatus for measuring transmission of optical glass. 140

A magnifying stereoscope -.^ 141

Field telemeter 141

Small camera obscura for Aberdeen Proving Ground 141

5. Radiometry 141

Optical specifications of glass for balloon hangars 141

Emissivity of cotton tent cloth 142

Germicidal action of ultra-violet radiation 143

Application for radiometry to astronomical problems 143

Photo-electrical investigations 143

Some new photo-electrical and thermoelectrical properties of molybdenite 144

7. Photographic technology 144

Action of charred paper on the photographic plate 144

Design of apparatus for investigating the reciprocity law_ 144

Standard lamps for sensitometry 144

Sensitometric tests 145

Camera design 145

8. Interferometry 145

Thermal expansion 145

Calibration of end standards 145

Ruling of line standards 145

Precision determination of refractive indices 146

Dimensional changes of materials 146

Testing, information, and publications 146

Tests completed during the year 146

Information, cooperation with societies, etc 146

Publications 147

Chemistry 149

Functions 149

Sections 149

General statistics 149

Work chart 150

Detailed report of the year's work 156

General 156

1. Paint, varnish, and bituminous materials 156

Cooperation with outside agencies 157

Paint and paint materials 157

Varnish and varnish materials 157

Bituminous materials 158
CONTENTS. IX

Chemistry—Continued.

Detailed report of tlie year's work—Continued. Page.

2. Detergents, cements, corrosion, etc 158

Soap specifications 158

Cements, etc 158

Corrosion, waters, etc 159

3. Miscellaneous organic materials 160

Airplane dopes 160

Balloon fabrics 160

Rubber chemistry 160

Dye chemistry 1 160

Textile chemistry 161

Inks, ribbons, carbon paper 161

Adhesives 161

Finger-printing device 161

Lubricants 161

4. Metal and ore analysis and standard samples 162

Standard analyzed samples 162

Cooperation in the analysis of British chemical standards - 163

Cooperation in the development of standard analytical

methods 163

Umpire analysis and standardization of various metallurgical materials 163

Analysis of ferrous and nonferrous materials 163

5. Platinum metals, reagents, and apparatus 164

Platinum metals 164

Chemical reagents and apparatus 165

6. Electrocliemistry 165

General electrodeposition 166

Nickel deposition 166

Platinum deposition 167

Electrolytic alteration of copper map plates 167

7. Gas chemistry 167

Assembling technical information 168

General gas analysis 168

L^^^^^^. Automatic gas analysis 168

j^^^^K Absorption of gases 169

H^^^^^K Hydrogen production 169

^^^^^k Water detector 170

n^^^^^K Apparatus for fractionation and low temperature ex- ^^^^^B periments 170

H^^^^^H Gasoline in natural gas 170

^^^^^^H. Miscellaneous 170

^^^^^^^K. Important problems upon which preliminary work has

^^BHUP been done 171 ^P^^^ Chemical teisting 171

Jj^P' Publications 172

Mechanics and sound 175

Functions 175

Sections ^ 175

General statistics 175

Work chart 176

Detailed report of the year's work 180

General 180

1. Engineering instruments and appliances 181

Current meter rating station 181

Calibration of instruments ' ' 181

Performance tests of odometers 181

Radiator return line valves 181

Fire extinguishers 182

Miscellaneous engineering tests 182

Investigation of elevator safety devices 182

Safety release devices for hydrogen cylinders 182
X CONTENTS,

Mechanics and sound—Continued.

Detailed report of the year's work—^Continued. Page.

2. Sound measurements 183

Sound-intensity measurements 183

Sound chamber 183

Auditorium acoustics 184

Voice tube experiments 184

Radio acoustic ranging 184

Electric clock fork 184

Tuning fork calibrations 185

Radio time signal recorders 185

Oscillograph developments 185

Apparatus for ballistic measurements 186

Piezo-electric pressure measurements 186

Chronograph for ballistic measurements 186

Small arms retardation chronograph 187

Homopolar velocimeter 187

3. Aeronautic instruments 188

Investigation of Bourdon tubes 188

Investigation Ot metallic diaphragms 188

Investigation of nonmetallic diaphragms 189

Investigation of barometric sylphon diaphragms 189

Investigation of gasoline flow meters 189

Investigation of aircraft sextants 190

Bimetallic bars 190

Theory of rate-of-climb indicators 190

Design of springs for instruments 190

Methods of reducing astronomical observations in aerial

navigation 191

Reports on aerial navigation 191

Report on aircraft compasses 191

Ground speed and drift indicator 191

Distant indicating tachometer 191

Turn indicators 192

Electric turn meter 192

Horizontal angle indicator 192

Precision barometer 192

Precision altimeter 192

Precision barograph 193

Temperature-compensated altimeter with expansion thermal element 193

Temperature-compensated thermobarograph 193

Open-scale landing altimeters 193

Surveying aneroid 194

Mercurial barometer design 194

Mechanical statoscope 194

Improved mechanical rate-of-climb indicator 194

Improved liquid rate-of-limb indicator 194

Combined statoscopes and rate-of-climb indicators 194

High-speed air speed indicators 195

Suspended head electric air speed indicators 195

Gas pressure alarm 195

Ballonet volume indicator 195

Fabric tension meter 196

Mine depth recording instrument 196

. Aircraft compasses 196

Flight-history tests of barographs 196

Sphygmomanometer testing 196

Routine testing 197

Flight tests on aeronautic instruments 197

4. Aerodynamical physics 197

Researches on airship models 197

Researches on aircraft bombs ^ 198

Researches on roof ventilators 198

Studies of wind tunnel air streams 199

Resistance measurements in a high-speed air stream 399
CONTENTS, XI

Moohanics and sound—Continued.

Detailed report of the year's work—Continued. Page.

Special investigations 100

Theory of dimensions 100

Earth-inductor compass 200

Gravitation and the Einstein theory 200

Orifice meters 200

Hardware standardization 201

Plumbing investigations 202

Publications 202

Structural, engineering, and miscellaneous materials 208

Functions 203

Sections 203

<jeneral statistics 203

Work chart 204

Detailed report of the year's work 200

1. Structural and engineering materials 209

Telemeters 209

Physical properties of materials 210

Optical strain gauge 210

Test of reinforced concrete floor of the Arlington Building. 210

Federal Specifications Board's specifications for wire rope. 211

Fatigue of woods and metals . 211

Hydrostatic and strain gauge measurements on welded

and riveted tanks 212

Ideal walls 212

Delaware River Bridge Joint Commission tests 212

Comparative tests of notched specimens in Izod impact

and Humfrey slow bending machines 213

Strength of large columns of H-shaped cross sections 213

Strength of corrugated zinc roofing 213

Girder hooks 213

Investigation of strength of welded rail joints 213

Crinkling stresses in steel tubing 214

Riveted joints 214

Bibliography on riveted joints 214

Tests of members of Fleet Airship No. 1 214

Riveted and welded joints 215

Investigation of a process for seasoning v/ood 215

Investigation of strength of welded pressure vessels 215

Cement, concrete, concrete materials, building stone 216

General concrete investigations 216

Improved flow table for measuring consistency of concrete. 216

Inundation method of measuring sand 217

Tests of accelerators 217

Disintegration of concrete due to altered feldspar aggregate 217

Workability of concrete mixtures 218

Durability of sewer pipe 218

Cement stucco 218

Concrete house construction 218

Durability of concrete in alkali soils 210

Fineness investigations 219

Standard fineness samples 210

Standard cement samples 220

General work in reinforced concrete 220

Test of reinforced gypsum roof slab 220

Bond tests of Dudley deformed bars and plain round bars. 221

General investigation of building stones 221

Exposure tests on colorless waterproofing materials 222

Weathering tests 222

Elastic pointing and calking materials 223

Discoloration of stone masonry 223

Caustic magnesia cements 223

Constitution of Portland cement 223

Cement inspection 224

Miscellaneous tests 224

/
XII CONTENTS.

Structural, engineering, and miscellaneous materials—Continued.

Detailed report of tlie year's work—Continued. Page.

3. Leather, rubber, etc 225

Chrome sole leather 225

Synthetic tanning materials 225

Leather from hogskins 226

Colon leather for diaphragms 226

Shoes 226

Power losses in automobile tires 226

Endurance tire-testing machine 226

Accelerated aging test for rubber goods 227

Jar rings for canning 227

Milking machine rubbers 227

Insulated wire investigation 227

Specially prepared rubbers , 227

Insulating tape 227

Rubber analysis 227

4. Textiles 228

Heat-retaining properties of fabrics 228

Pima cotton 228

Sheeting 228

Appraisal of textiles 228

Fish lines 22S

Abrasion 229

Stress/strain relations of balloon fabrics 229

Standard method of testing fastness of color 229

Conveyor belts ^ 229

Brattice cloth 229

Electrical cotton yarn 230

Sandbags 230

Specifications for Federal Specifications Board 230

Research and standardization 231

5. Paper 231

Thickness of paper _ 231

Color of paper 232

Relation between bursting and breaking strength 232

Breaking strength test 233

Brittleness of paper 233

Effect of humidity on paper 233

Sizing quality of paper 233

Waterproof test 234

Rubber latex in paper 234

Aging of rubber latex paper 234

Antitarnish paper 235

Photomicrography of paper fibers ^ 235

Colored micrographs 235

Methods of fiber analysis 236

Chemical hydration of pulp 236

White water waste and recovery 236

Domestic and foreign clays 236

Condenser paper 236

Glue for coating paper 237

Flax straw for paper 237

Barograph and siphon cable paper 237

Proposed standard siibstance for paper 238

Technical standardization 238

Sizes of paper • 238

Classification and definitions of paper 238

Case lining paper 239'

7. Lime, gypsum, and sand-Fme brick 239

Use of hydrated lim.e in Poi-tland cement mortar 2.39 Improvement of plasticity of bydi'ated lime 2.S0 Use of lime in chemical industries 2-)0 Cause of unsoundness of lime plasters 240

Investigation of the physical properties of calcined gypsum

and gypsum products 241

\
CONTENTS. XIII

Structural, engineeriug, and miscellaneous materials—Continued.

Detailed report of the year's work—Continued.

7. Lime, gypsum, and sand-lime brick—Continued. Page.

Grading of sand for sand-lime brick 241

Improvement of gypsum block 241

Adhesion of gypsum plaster to concrete 242

How to make lime set quickly 242

Testing, information, and publications 242

Tests completed during the year 242

Cooperation 243

Specifications 244

Publications 244

Metallurgy 247

Functions 247

Sections 247

General statistics ^_ 247

Work chart 248

Detailed report of the year's work 253

General 253

Cooperative investigations with technical committees 254

Investigation of the effect of sulphur and phosphorus in steel_ 254

Welded rail joints 255

Mine-drill steel 255

Molding sand investigations 255

Gauge steels 255

Corrosion 256

Federal Specifications Board, metals committee 256

Railway materials 257

Conferences 257

Metallurgical definitions 258

Circulars of information 258

1. Optical metallurgy 258

General 2-58 Etching reagents for alloy steels 258

Corrosion of chromium steels 259

Corrosion of metals by alco gas 260

Crystallinity in wrought iron 260

Inclusions in steel 260

Standard grain size for condenser-tube brass 261

Microhardness 261

Cold working of metals 261

Crystalline form of electrodeposited metals 261

Structural effect of manganese in carbon steels 262

Welded pressure tanks 262

New investigations 262

2. Thermal metallurgy 263

Mechanical properties of metals at elevated temperatures- 263

High-speed steels 264

Dimensional changes in hardening steels 264

Study of quenching media 264

Annealing of high-carbon steels 265

Nitrogen in iron 265

Thermoelectric measurements of critical ranges in pure

iron-carbon alloys 265

Heat treatment of steels for permanent magnets 265

Continued and new investigations 265

^. Mechanical metallurgy 266

Bearing metals 266

Car-wheel investigations 266

Cast iron for car wheels 266

Wear testing 266

Titanium treated and silicon treated rails 267

Invar tapes and shapes 267

Properties of single crystals of metals 267

Miscellaneous 267

Proposed investigations 267
XIV CONTENTS.

Metallurgy—Continued.

Detailed report of the year's work—Continued. Page.

4. Chemical metallurgy 268

Preparation and properties of pure iron alloys 268

Effects of sulphur on the properties of pure iron alloys 268

Investigations on the platinum metals 268

Platinum-platinum rhodium thermocouples 268

Alloy for balls for Briuell hardness test 269

Special alloys and pure metals 269

Determination of oxygen and hydrogen in metals 269

Oxygen and oxides in steels 269

Vacuum fusion method for nitrogen in metals 269

5. Experimental foundry 270

Production of castings l 270

New foundry equipment 270

Molding sands 270

Problems of military interest 270

Erosion of steels for machine-gun barrels 270

Development of light armor plate 270

Development of metals resistant to hot ammonia gases 271

Research associates 271

Nickel investigations 271

Intercrystalline deterioration of nickel 271

Equilibrium of the nickel-nickel oxide system 272

Effect of common impurities on the malleability of nickel

and Monel metal 272

Open-hearth iron investigation 272

Galvanizing and brass foundry problems 273

Molding sand investigation 273

Tests 273

Corroded material 274

Tungsten lamp filaments 274

Tool steel graphitization 274

Deterioration of steel by brazing 275

Defective lead cable sheathing ^ 275

Platinum gauze catalyzer 275

"Aluminized " steel tie bolts 275

Special process of heat treatment of tubes 275

Miscellaneous 275

Fusible plugs 276

Summary of tests 276

Publications 277

Ceramics : 281

Functions 281

Sections 281

General statistics 281

Wor^ chart 282

Detailed report of the year's work 285

1. Pottery and fine ceramics 285

Physical properties of vitreous china bodies lired at dif- ferent temperatures 285

Development of a one-fire porcelain 285

Tests of porcelain sanitary china 285

Specifications for tableware 280

Bonding power of ball clays in fired bodies 28G

Cement for setting tile 286

Zinc matt glazes 287

Potters' flint 287

Study of humidity problems 287

United States Potters' Association Research Associate 287

A study of clay suspensions 287

Thermocouple protection tubes 288

Study of physical properties of architectural terra cotta 288
CONTENTS. XV

Ceramics—Continued.

Detailed report of the year's work—Continued. Vage.

2. Glass—Optical glass 289

General 289

Methods of testing 289

Scumming or weathering of bottles 289

Specifications for glazing glass 290

Specifications for milk bottles 290

Work for Federal Specifications Board 290

Optical glass 290

Viscosity of glass 292

Classification and identification of "stones" in glass 292

3. Heavy clay products—refractories 292

Study of refractories 292

Brick for rotary cement kilns 293

Investigation of the resistance of various types of glass

pots to the corrosive action of glass 293

Sagger investigation 294

Heavy clay products investigation 294

Behavior of refractories in glass tanks 295

4. Enameled metals 295

Sheet steel enamels for kitchen ware , 295

Warpage of sheet iron and steel 295

Cast iron for enameling purposes 295

Some substitutes for tin oxide in white enamels for sheet

isteel 296

Specking of ground-coat enamels 296

Testing, information, and publications 296

Tests completed during the year 297

Optical glass production 297

Cooperation with technical societies 297

Publications 298

Simplified practice 299

Functions 299

General 299

Simplified practice recommendations 299

Eecommendations printed 299

Recommendations in process of acceptance 299

Services of the division of simplified practice being used by

many large industries 300

Lumbefi- 300

Farm implements 300

Eetail hardware 300

Glass, paper, metal, and wood containers 301

Flags 301

Hollow building tile 301

Concrete products 301

American Marine Standards Committee 301

Surveys in process 302

List of industries served 802

Building and housing _ 303

Functions 303

General 303

Scope of the work on building and housing 303

' General condition in the division 304

Technical service for municipalities 305

Building codes 305

Plumbing codes 307

Zoning for towns and cities 307

Current statistics 308

Economic and statistical studies 309

Miscellaneous work on elimination of waste 309

Service to individual home ovmers 310

Cooperation, information, and publications 310

Publications 310
XVI CONTENTS,

III. REPORTS. OF THE OFFICE, OPERATION, AND CONSTRUCTION DIVISIONS.

Page.

The Office 313

Functions 313

General 313

Scope 314

Present status of the division's work 314

1. Finance 314

Functions 314

Funds 314

Appropi'iatiou statements 316

2. Personnel 316

Staff 316

Personnel changes 317

Salaries 317

Leave of absence 318

Reclaf'Siflcation 318

3. Purchase 319

Orders 319

Vouchers 319

Catalogues 319

4; Property and stores 319

Stores 319

Property 320

Shipphig ^ 320

Transportation 320

5. Mail and files 320

Communications 320

Schedules 321

ImproA'ement and use of flies 321

Standard correspondence practice 321

General service 321

6. Library 322

Accessions 322

Periodicals 322

Library service 322

7. Information section 323

Scope 323

Special reports 323

Directing inquiries 323

Publications issued during the year 323

Tests 323

Operation and construction 325

Functions 325

General 325

Construction and repair 325

Mechanical plant 325

Electrical work 326

Plumbing and steam fitting 326

Miscellaneous 326

Buildings and grounds 327

Care of buildings 327

Guarding L 327

Grounds : ; 327

Transfer of custodial work and personnel 327

Larger custodial force needed : 328

IV. RECOMMENDATIONS.

Personnel 329

Additional land 329

Power plant ^ 329

Care of buildings 329

Printing and publications 330

New legislation 330

Additional funds for research 330
REPORT

OF THE

DIRECTOR OF THE BUREAU

OF STANDARDS.

Department of Commerce,

Bureau of Standards,

Washington, July 2, 1923,

Sir: In transmitting this report of the work of the Bureau of

Standards for the fiscal year ended June 30, 1923, it seems appropriate to call attention to the fact that the work of the first half of

the year—that is, until January 1-—was carried out imder the direction of Dr. Samuel W. Stratton. Doctor Stratton was the first

director of the bureau and served continuously from 1901 until the

date above mentioned, when he resigned to accept the presidency

of the Massachusetts Institute of Technology. From January 1

until April 21 Dr. Fay C. Brown served as acting director. On

that date my appointment became effective.

I. INTRODUCTION.

FUNCTIONS.

Before considering in detail the work of the various divisions of

the bureau it may be of interest to describe very briefly its functions

and organization. The bureau is charged with the development,

construction, custody, and maintenance of reference and working

standards and their intercomparison, improvenient, and application

in science, engineering, industry, and commerce.

Classes of Standards.

Standards are divided into five classes, as follows: (1) Standards of measurement (measurements of length, mass, time, heat,

electricity, etc.) ; (2) standard constants (the fixed relations between

physical quantities which underlie scientific research and industrial

processes, such as the mechanical equivalent of heat, velocity of

light, ratio of electrical units, and the constant of gravitation) ; (3) standards of quality (specifications for material) ; (4) standards of performance (specification of operative efficiency of machines and devices) ; (5) standards of practice (codes for technical

regulation of construction, installation, and operation of machines

and devices, and for increasing the efficiency and safety of industrial

processes)

ORGANIZATION.

The work of the bureau is necessarily of an extremely varied

character, and for purposes of organization it has been found con- 65077—23 2 1
2 REPORT OF DIRECTOR OF BUREAU OF STANDARDS.

venient to group together experts in similar lines of work irrespective

of the class of standards dealt with. The bureau is therefore made

up of 11 scientific and technical divisions, besides those concerned

with the administration of the central office, the operation of the

bureau's plant and construction work. Each of these divisions is

under the direction of a division chief, and the work is further subdivided into sections, each section dealing with a particular class

of problems. ^

Divisions of the Bureau. ' ^

The plan of organization will be evident upon inspection of the

accompanying chart. From this it will be seen that the scientific

and technical divisions of the bureau deal with weights and measures; electricity; heat and power; optics; cliemistry; mechanics and

sound; structural, engineering, and miscellaneous materials; metallurgy; ceramics; simplified practice; and building and housing.

Besides these scientific and technical divisions there will be noticed

the office, operation, and construction divisions, and the work in

connection with specifications, which includes the fields of Federal

specifications and cooperation with States, municipalities, institutions, and industries. The Director of the Bureau of Standards is ex officio chairman of the Federal Specifications Board, organized

by direction of the President and made a part of the Bureau of the

Budget. Many members of the bureau's staff serve on the various

committees of the Federal Specifications Board, and the results of

their work during the past year will be found treated in reports of

the various divisions. For further details of this aspect of specifications the annual report of the Director of the Bureau of the

Budget should be consulted.

TESTS AND INVESTIGATIONS.

The bureau is required by law to carry out tests or investigations

for the National or State Governments without charge, and in this

connection it may be mentioned that the bureau has served for

many years as a testing and research laboratory for practically

every branch of the Government service.

In the case of individuals or firms, certain investigations are undertaken where the results would seem to be of benefit to the ^

public, the bureau reserving the right to use the data thus found

as it sees fit. Some routine testing is likewise conducted for private

individuals or manufacturers where no commercial laboratory is

fitted to perform the work, or where a dispute has arisen, all parties

to the controversy having decided to refer the matter to the Bureau

of Standards as a referee. In the case of test work performed for

private parties, nominal fees are charged, which are turned in to the

Treasury. With the exception above noted, nearly all the investigational work is carried out in cooperation with other Government

departments or with industrial, technical, and scientific organizations, and very largely at the request of those for whom the investigations are made. This cooperative work is described in the following paragraphs. A list of tests and researches completed during the

year will be found in the work chart immediately preceding the

detailed reports of the different divisions, except, of course, those
REPORT OF DIRECTOR OF BUREAU OF STANDARDS. 3

divisions which from the nature of their functions do not carry

on work of this kind.

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RELATION OF THE BUREAU TO AMERICAN INDUSTRIES.

It is particularly gratifying to note the closer relations which

are groAving each year between the bureau and the industries of the

\
4 REPORT OF DIRECTOR OE BUREAU OF STANDARDS.

country. Not long ago it was a matter of considerable difficulty to

obtain the cooperation of industrial groups in the small amount of

research work then carried on by the Govermnent. Now problems

are presented to us by almost every industry, and their successful

solution depends xevj largely on the degree of cooperation between

those presenting the problem and the bureau. The former are the

best judges of the commercial aspects of the question and can give

invaluable advice on the practicability of suggested processes, while

the latter is best qualified to lay the sound foundation of scientific

and technical data upon which the solution of such questions depends.

Cooperative Investigations.

As an illustration of the desire of industry to cooperate with the

bureau, the investigation of welded rail joints may be cited. The

American Electric Railway Association has raised $23,000 for an

investigation of this problem and has chosen the director of the

bureau as the chairman of a joint committee having this work in

charge. A test track and other apparatus with Avhich to carry on the

work are being installed at the bureau. The director has also been

chosen chairman of the joint committee for the investigation of the

effects of sulj)hur and phosphorus in steel, a problem of great

economic as well as industrial importance; chairman of the annual

conference of instrument manufacturers and users, and the annual

conference on weights and measures. The engineering public has also shown its confidence in the bureau

by electing the director president of the American Society for Testing Materials and also of the Society for Steel Treating, and has

made him an honorary member of the American Foundrymen's

Association.

Conferences Held During the Year.

Approximately 100 conferences were held during the year, at- tended by representatives of industrial associations, the various

branches of the Government, and the Bureau of Standards for 'the

solution of fundamental prolblems and for the purpose of mapping

out and directing cooperative research programs. Several of these

meetings were held at the bureau, and in this way, besides discussing

the immediate questions at issue, an excellent opportunity was

afforded manufacturers and others to become acquainted with the

bureau's research facilities.

Research Associates.

In line with this policy of closer cooperation a system of research

associates has been worked out, and several of the most important

industries are maintaining such associates at the bureau for carrying

out particular investigations in which they are interested. In nearly

every case these research associates are supported not by a single

manufacturer but by a group through their trade association; and

the results, whicli are published by the bureau, are available to the

public at large. In this way the facilities of the bureau's laboratories and the experience of its scientific staff are made of benefit

to the maximum number of people throughout the country, and incidentally men are trained for the industries in research methods.

(There are at present stationed at the bureau 21 associates, representing 18 industries. A list of these research associates, together with
REPORT OF DIRECTOR OF BUREAU OF STA27DARDS. 5

the divisions to which they are assigned, the problems on which they

are working, and the industrial associations represented by them, is given below.

Reseakch Associates at Bureau of Standards.

Name. Assignment. Duties. Representing.

Coleman, Richard

L., jr. Birdsell, Roger. ..

Eisinger, J. O.

Foster, H. D.. Osbom, Nathan S

Prebble, M. E....

Munsell, A. E. O. Brown, W. B

Button, H. H....

Gottschalk, V. H.

Porter, J. M

Schenke, E. M.

Stockett, J. W..

Aungst, W. M..

Cain, J. R

Ruh, E. W

Waltenberg, R. G. Ford, K. L

FuUer, D. H

Gaardsmoe, H. L.

Roehm, V. J

Weights and measures.

Heat and power

.do.

-do.

.do.

.do.

Optics

Structural engineering

and miscellaneous

materials. do

.do.

.do. .do.

do

Metallurgy.

.do.

do... do...

Ceramics.

.do.

.do.

.do.

Dental materials.

Fuel research

.do. Investigation of fire resist- ance of hollow tile. Steam-table research

Fuel research

Color research Loading tests of corrugated

zinc roofing.

Researches on limestone.

Glue investigations

Gypsum investigations

Hosiery and underwear in- vestigations.

Researches on lime Researches on molding sands

Metallurgical researches

Niokel-aUoy researches .

Malleability of nickel Glass mvestigations

Terra-cotta researches Investigation of cement wall

tile. Study of raw materials in

potters' manufacture.

Weinstein Research Laboratory. Society of Automotive Engineers. Do. Hollow Building Tile Association. American Society of Mechanical Engineers.

Society of Automotive Engineers. Munsell Research Laboratory.

American Zinc Institute.

Indiana Limestone Quarry- men's Association. National Association of Glue and Gelatine Manufacturers. National Gypsum Association. National Association Hosiery

and Underwear Manufacturers. National Lime Association. National Foundrymen's Association. (Trent Process Corporation.

{American Rolling Mill Co. iMetal & Thermit Co. International Nickel Co. Do.

National Glass and Containers

Association. National Terra Cotta Society. Associated tUe Manufacturers.

Homer-Laughlin China Co.

PUBLICATIONS.

The results of the bureau's work are made available through its

publications. Those issued during the past year in the various series

of the bureau, as well as articles prepared by members of the bureau's

staff and published in outside journals, will be found listed at the end

of each divisional report and, where the publication ties up with

some particular investigation conducted during the past year, in the

work chart above mentioned. Consultation of these publications is

recommended in cases where the reader desires more detailed information concerning the work. The publications of the Bureau of

Standards are listed in Circular 24 with its supplement, and they can

be obtained from the Superintendent of Documents, Government

Printing Office, Washington, D. C.

LOCATION.

The bureau is located near the corner of Van Ness Street and Connecticut Avenue NW., and is reached by the Chevy Chase car line. It is made up of a number of buildings, each designed for some particular class of work. A map of the bureau's grounds, showing the

location of the various buildings, is given herewith.
6 EEPORT OF DIRECTOR OF BUREAU OF STANDARDS.

Branch Laboratories.

The bureau maintains branch laboratories for the inspection and

testing of cement and miscellaneous building materials at San Francisco, Calif. ; Denver, Colo. ; and Northampton, Pa., in order to ex- pedite the work in the territory in which they are located. These

laboratories have been functioning efficiently during the past year.

«
II. REPORTS OF THE SCIENTIFIC AND TECHNICAL DIVISIONS.

WEIGHTS AND MEASURES.

, H. W. Bearce, F. S. Holbrook.

FUNCTIONS.

The division of weights and measures is charged with the custody

of the National Standards of the United States and with the task of

spreading abroad their influence and of carrying them to as great an

extent as is necessary into the scientific, industrial, and commercial

life of the Nation. The division is thus concerned with research and

measurements involving the fundamental units of length, mass, and

time, and with derived or secondary units, such as area, volume,

density, and pressure. The activities of the division also include the

enforcement of certain Federal weights and measures laws, the preparation of specifications and tolerances for use in connection with

standardization of weighing and measuring apparatus, gauges, and

screw threads ; cooperation with States in the preparation and en- forcement of weights and measures legislation, and in administration of weights and measures departments ; the design, improvement,

inspection, and method of test of weighing and measuring apparatus,

both precise and commercial ; the carrying out of researches designed

to result in more accurate knowledge of physical constants; and

improvements in engineering practice.

SECTIONS.

1. Length.

2. Mass.

3. Time.

4. Capacity and density.

5. Gas measuring instruments.

6. Thermal expansivity.

7. Weights and measures laws and administration.

8. Investigation and testing of scales.

9. Gauges.

GENERAL STATISTICS.

Staff Expenditures (1922-23) Tests completed

Researches completed

Bureau publications issuedOther technical publications

$117, 000

30, 431

8

4

2

7
WORK CHART.

I. LENGTH.

SCOPE.

Preservation and comparison of the national prototype meter and its copies.

Development of methods and apparatus for length measurement.

Comparison of State, municipal, and other standards of length with the national standards.

Preparation of specifications for instruments and materials requiring linear

dimensions of a definite and stated accuracy.

Test of instruments and materials to determine conformity to specifications.

Measurements of length of a miscellaneous and varied character, including

study of conditions of use of apparatus and precision and nature of test required.

Obtaining, compiling, and distributing to manufacturers and others information regarding methods of length measurement

TESTS.

Nature of test.

Number completed.

1921-22

Cover glasses for heemacytometers. .

Haemacytometers

liivar base line tapes , Invar strips Length standards and precision scales Level rods , "Metallic" tapes (cloth) MisceUaneous articles Sieves (for cement, sand, etc.) Sieve cloth , Steel tapes

540 244

276 388

19 62

20 13 9 9

34 61 104 74

73 45

111 385

14 5

157 136

RESEARCHES.

Subject. In cooperation with

Status June 30, 1923.

Per cent completed.

Publication

issued.

Methods of precision length measurement employed

in Europe

Investigation of character of surfaces and defining

lines on yard and meter bars

Investigation of methods of graduating invar tapes

90

100 100

2. MASS.

SCOPE.

Custody of national standards of mass. Testing standard weights.

Testing precise balances.

Improvement of standards of mass. Improved metliods of weighing.
KEPORT OF DIRECTOR OF BUREAU OF STANDARDS.

TESTS.

Nature of test.

Number completed.

1921-22 1922-23

Weights:

Class A 98

51 156

182 4,488

395

10

572$

172

616

5, 259- 57333

Class B

Class C

Class M

Class S

Special Balances

RESEARCHES.

Subject. In cooperation

with^

Status

Per cent completed.

June 30, 1923.

Publication

issued.

Lacquered weights: Changes with humidity and

50

10 Metals suitable for weights: Stainless steel, steUite,

3. TIME.

SCOPE.

Test and certification of time-measuring device.s. Researches on time-measuring devices.

Service on committees of organization whose object is improvement in the

construction, test, use, and repair of time-measuring devices.

Answering inquiries witli reference to time-measuring devices and related

and miscellaneous subjects, such as standard time belts, calendar reform, etc.

TESTS.

Natui'e of test.

Number completed.

1921-22 1922-23

Watches (railroad precision test) Stop watches Chronometers

Miscellaneous

Special war work (completed during 1922).

181 551

51 20

7 2 1 1,819

RESEARCHES.

Subject. In cooperation with

status June 30, 1923.

Per cent completed.

PubUcation

issued.

Designing and experimenting with new types of time- measuring instruments

Study of results of tests of watches with a view to cor- relating time-keeping qualities with type, grade,

and retail price.

Continuing. ...do
10 EEPOKT OF DIRECTOR OF BUREAU OF STANDARDS.

4. CAPACITY AND DENSITY.

SCOPE.

Testing of capacitj' and density apparatus.

Design, improvement, and calibration of special volumetric apparatus.

Determination of density and volume coefiicients of liquids, and the preparation of tables based thereon.

Assistance to manufacturers of apparatus by conference and by corre- spondence.

TESTS.

Nature of test.

N.umber completed.

1921-22 1922-23

Apparatus:

Volumetric glassware.

Hydrometers

Capacity measure^; Density

Miscellaneous Weight of samples ,

14,3-28 9,115

5fi3 925

85 77

114 303

152 377

. 72

RESEARCHES.

Subject. In cooperation with

Status

Per cent completed.

June 30, 1923.

Publication

issued.

Density and thermal expansion of sodium chloride 90

75

25

10

Density changes produced in glass by various heat

Density and thennal expansion of denatured alcohol

5. GAS-MEASURING INSTRUMENTS.

SCOPE.

Tests of gas-measuring instruments.

Conduct of researclies on gas-measuring instruments.

Service on committees whose functions are to specify standards for the

construction, testing, and using of gas meters. Preparation of publications on gas-measuring instruments and methods.

TESTS.

Nature of test.

Number completed.

1921-22 1922-23

Portable cubic-foot bottles Dry meters Wet meters

Spirometers

Special devices

8385

929
EEPORT OF DIRECTOR OF BUREAU OF STANDARDS. 11

RESEARCHES.

Subject. In cooperation with

Status

Per cent completed.

June 30, 1923.

Publication

issued.

Army 33

6. THERMAL EXPANSIVITY.

SCOPE.

Experimental determination of thermal expansivity of solids. Study of transformation regions when accompanied by length changes.

Determination of dimensional variations incident to heat treatment ; for ex- ample, distortion with time or temperature or both.

To advise regarding the propriety of combining different materials in structures, apparatus, etc. The ruling of scales and production of screws of high precision.

TESTS.

Nature of test.

Number completed.

1921-22 1922-23

Aluminum alloys Nickel steel Dental investments and waxes.

Valves and miscellaneous steels. Enamels and glasses Lead-antimony alloys Gold alloys Miscellaneous

32

10

248

17

32

19

2

343S

1311

16

RESEARCHES.

Subject.

The effect of mechanical working and heat treatment on the structiu"e and the thermal expansion of molybdenum.

The thermal expansion of aluminum and some of its important aUoys. The thermal expansion of lead-antimony alloys Designing and installing equipment for testing errors in screw threads. Designing and installing apparatus for cutting screws

to an accuracy of one-millionth of an inch. Testing the effects of lubrication upon moving parts

of a dividing engine.

Designing, assembling, and testing bearings suitable

for use in precision apparatus. Determining the effect of cumulative errors Designing and installing equipment for determinations of: Shrinkage of cast alloys, effects of pressure on castings, setting changes of investments, porosity

of investments, distortion and elimination of wax

patterns, flexure-life tests of wire, clasps, etc. Determinations of melting points, thermal expansion,

elasticity.

In cooperation

with—

Status Jime 30, 1923.

Per cent completed.

100

50

25

25

25

25

25

25

10

50

Publication

issued.
12 EEPOET OF DIRECTOR OF BUREAU OF STANDARDS.

7. WEIGHTS AND MEASURES LAWS AND ADMINISTRATION.

SCOPE.

Cooperation with State and local weights and measures departments.

Cooperation with manufacturers of weighing and measuring devices.

Conduct of investigations and surveys on weights and measures matters.

TESTS.

Nature of test.

Liquid-measuring devices and attachments. Heavy-duty automatic scales Postal and other scales Scale-testing devices Leather-measuring devices Barrels

Filling of milk and cream bottles Weighings of loaves of bread

Number completed.

1921-22 1922-23

7 107

10

7

29

14

38 3,610

2,613

RESEARCHES.

Subject.

Types of commercial weighing and measuring de\'ices. Enforcement of Federal standard barrel law

Filling of milk bottles in commercial practice

Weight variations and shrinkage of loaves of bread. . .

Leather-measuring machines

Spring balances for tape stretching

Specifications and tolerances for household measuring

cups.

Specifications and tolerances for heavy-capacity auto- matic scales, vehicle tanks, and fabric-measuring

devices. Hysteresis effect on coiled springs for weighing scales.

In cooperation

with—

Status June 30, 1923.

Per cent completed.

Continuing

Continuing

100

100

5060

85

60

15

Publication

issued.

8. INVESTIGATION AND TESTING OF SCALES.

SCOPE.

Calibration and maintenance of accuracy of master track scales. Investigation of railroad track scales. Calibration of test cars. Investigation of mine scales. Development of specifications and tolerances and methods of tests for, and

capacity rating of, master track, railroad track, grain hopper, and other heavycapacity scales, and of testing machines.

Development of weighing methods for heavy-capacity scales. Calibration of heavy weights.

Cooperation with railroads, weighing bureaus, etc., on heavy-capacity scale

and weighing problems.

1

%
REPORT OF DIRECTOR OF BUREAU OF STAIfDARDS. 13

TESTS.

Nature of test.

Number completed.

Master track scales Railroad track scales , Railroad test cars , Mine scales : •Other heavj'-duty scales Spring scales, dynamometers, etc Devices for determining wlaeel loads on automobile trucks Testing machines

Film-measuring devices

1921-22 1922-23

17 89438

12928

214

3

19 636

16 140

37

16

2

3

RESEARCHES.

Subject.

Master track scales Railroad track scales and test cars Mine scales Conveying weighing scales Specifications and tolerances on motor truck biult-in, self-contained, and portable scales. Specifications and tolerances for hand-operated grain

hopper scales. Methods for testing heavy-capacity hopper scales -Analysis of existing tolerances on track scales Discrepancy between mine scale and railroad trackscale weights. Nature of reactions in 4-section track scales

In cooperation

with—

Status June 30, 1923.

Per cent completed.

Continuing

Continuing

Continuing,

20

100

75

50

100

10

50

Publication

issued.

9. GAUGE STANDARDIZATION.

SCOPE.

li

Determination of dimensions of master, inspection, and working gauges used

in intercliangeaWe manufacture.

Development and construction of apparatus for measuring or checking gauges

and the manufacture of gauges for experimental purposes.

Collection of data on stock sizes, standard dimensions, and tolerances for

common metal shapes and machine elements.

Cooperation with engineering committees or commissions engaged in standardizing sizes of and tolerances for machine elements, such as the American

Kngineering Standards Sectional Committee on Plain Limit Gauges, The GaugeSteel Committee, and National Screw Thread Commission.

TESTS.

Number completed Nature of test.

Plain plug, ring, snap, and flush pin gauges

Thread gauges

Profile gauges Instnunents measuring by contact

Precision gauge blocks Test specimens for gauge-steel investigation.
14 REPORT OF DIRECTOR OF BUREAU OF STANDARDS.

RESEARCHES.

Subject. In cooperation with

Status June 30, 1923.

Per cent completed.

Publication

issued.

Gauge-steel investigation: Measurement of dimensional changes in specimens made of several grades of

steel to determine changes due to annealing, hardening, tempering, and with time.

Investigation of the effect of errors in thread form, lead, and taper on the tightness and strength of pipe joints. Investigation of the suitability of stelllte as a material

for gauges. Search for a suitable method of checking the light in- terference method of comparing and determining

parallelism of precision gauge blocks: Study of con- denser plate micrometer for this purpose. Study of commercial dial micrometers used in the measurement of the thickness of paper.

40

90

90

10

100

Special reports.

T22G.

Detailed Report of the Year's Work.

I. LENGTH.

L. V. Judson.

The work carried on by this section during the past year has inchided a large amount of routine testing, the caHbration of laboratory equipment, and an extended study of the apparatus and methods

employed in foreign standardizing laboratories similar to the Bureau of Standards, especially the International Bureau of Weights

and Measures.

Tests.

Among the tests of major importance may be mentioned the following: (a) Tests of invar base-line tapes of the United States Coast

and Geodetic Survey, especially the graduation, calibration, and

determination of coefficient of expansion of a series of tapes used in

measuring a base line to be used by Prof. A. A. Michelson in a re- determination of the velocity of light; (&) tests of 12 invar baseline tapes submitted by the Argentine Naval Commission; (c) meas- urement and selection of a standard set of sieves for the Bureau of

Standards; (d) measurement of rulings and standardization of

measuring apparatus used by a manufacturer of haemacytometer

counting chambers who was having difficulty in duplicating results.

Calibration of Laboratory Equipment.

During the year much time and attention were devoted to the re- calibration of the laboratory's testing equipment. As a result, the

work turned out by the section is of a higher average accuracy than

ever before. The work on geodetic tapes has been especially gratifying, the probable error in the certified lengths of these tapes being

only about one-fourth that of a few jea.vs ago.

Study of Methods and Equipment Used in European Laboratories

(Judson).

The chief of the length section, spent the greater part of the

year abroad in studying the methods and equipment used in other
EEPORT OF DIRECTOR OF BUREAU OF STANDARDS. 15

standardizing laboratories similar to the Bureau of Standards. His

time was largely spent at the International Bui'eau of Weights and

Measures at Sevres, near Paris, with visits also to the national standardizing institutions at Teddington, England; Berlin, Brussels,

Berne, and Eome.

Methods of precision measurement as well as the design and use of precision instruments were carefully studied, and the information

and experience gained should be of the greatest value to the bureau.

Return of the United States Primary Standard of Length.

National prototype meter No. 27, the primary standard of length

of the United States, was brought back from the International Bureau of Weights and Measures, where it had been taken for recomparison with the international standards.

It is extremely gratifying to note that the recent recomparison of

this primary standard of length with the international standard

shows that our national standard has remained constant in length

within the errors of the most precise measurements since its original

comparison in 1889, before it was alloted to the United States. A

slight apparent change reported in 1903 has been found to have been

due, in part, to a change in the laboratory standards with which it

was then compared, and in part to the use of a coefficient of expansion which was slightly in error. Need of New Apparatus.

The apparatus most urgently needed in order more effectively to

carry on the work in the field of precise measurement of length is

listed below in what is considered to be the order of urgency

1. Longitudinal comparator.—The need of a longitudinal comparator for calibrating the intervals of line standards up to 1 meter

in length has been emphasized in the annual reports for several years.

Various makeshift methods have been used for this work, which by

their very nature introduce slight en'ors, and thus prevent work of

the highest precision on the bureau's own standards. This is an apparatus which would be in almost constant use, and one which is found in nearly every national standardizing laboratory. During

the past year a large amount of information has been obtained which

will enable the bureau to draw up specifications covering an instrument equal in accuracy and convenience to any now in use. The increasing demands for high accuracy from commercial concerns make

the need for this instrument more imperative than ever.

^. Linear dividing engine.—In connection with the researches of

this bureau and of other Government laboratories there is often a demand for special scales and line standards of a character which

commercial concerns are not in position to produce. This work is

often of an experimental nature and in many cases requires high precision. For investigational work of the length section itself there_ is also the need for such an apparatus. With the present tendencies

toward higher precision in the industries this need increases. Fundamental researches now being carried on in this division and_ described under section 6, on the basic problems underlying dividingengine design will be continued with the object of constructing a

precise dividing engine of this type.
16 REPORT OF DIRECTOR OF BUREAU OF STANDARDS.

3._ Circular dividing engine.—The need for a circular dividing

engine is very similar to that for the linear engine. Indeed much

of what has been said of the linear engine applies equally in the case of the circular engine. It is believed, however, that the linear en- gine is somewhat more urgently needed than the circular.

4. Circle testing device.—-As a preliminary requisite to the circular dividing engine, there should be provided a circle testing device.

This will be required to thoroughly test a specimen circle of any

dividing engine manufacturer before it would be advisable to place

an order for the dividing apparatus. The need for this apparatus

is a very concx'ete one—two precision circles are now on order by

other divisions of the bureau, and on delivery these will require a precision test for acceptance. The graduating and testing of circles

required by the Coast and Geodetic Survey also emphasize the need

for both the circular dividing engine and the circle testing device.

2. MASS.

A. T. Pienkowsky.

Standards of the Bureau.

The testing of the standards of the mass section, begun last year by

comparisons with the fundamental mass standards of the United

States, Avas actively continued during this year, and tests upon all

of the more important working standards have laeen completed.

Study of Lacquer for Weights (Pienkowsky).

During the year there has been carried on an extended study of

the lacquers which may be employed for coating weights, in relation

to the constancy of the weights. Three kinds of material have

already been studied—a nitrocellulose lacquer, a bakelite preparation,

and a spar varnish. An attempt to use linseed oil as a lacquer substit\;te was not successful, because the oil used could not be made

properly to cover the polished metal.

It has been determined that it is necessary to bake weights coated

with any of the above lacquers in order to prevent progressive

changes that othewise would take place over a long period of time.

It is also necessary to use thin coatings because thick coatings are found to be too much affected by changes in the humidity of the air.

Sets that have been prepared in various ways have now been in use

for over a year and are being retested. The experience of another

year should yield information that will be of great value to makers

and users of this class of weights.

The relacquering and readjusting of weights used by the chemistry

division has been continued, and 27 such sets have been put in good

condition during the year.

Materials for Weights (PienkoAvsky).

An investigation is now in progress of various alloys to determine

their suitability for making weights of different classes. One sample

of stainless steel was found to be unsatisfactory, especially for the

more precise Aveights, because it was magnetic and also corroded to

such an extent that it was of doubtful A^alue. A number of samples

have noAv been prepared from other alloys, and some tests as to con- stancy in ordinary atmosphere and also in the somewhat acid air

of one of the chemistry laboratories have been begun.
REPORT OF DIRECTOR OF BUREAU OF STANDARDS, 17

Assistance to Manufacturers (Pienkowsky).

The bureau is able to be of very great assistance to manufacturers of weights in helping them to improve their product. In a typical case a careful tabulation of all weights tested for one manufacturer during about six months was made and studied in order to

locate the source of inaccuracies experienced for some time. On the

basis of this study suggestions were made which enabled him to

locate and eliminate this trouble.

In another case several successive samples of weights submitted

by a contractor to the Post Office Department were found not to

conform with the specifications, upon their submission to the bureau

for test. The manufacturer was finally requested to submit drawings, and these enabled the bureau to suggest changes necessary to

enable the manufacturer properly to construct the weights in

question.

Handling Sets that Contain Inaccurate Weights.

Since the discontinuance several years ago, on account of the

expense involved, of the general practice of holding sets of weights

to allow the replacement of those found incorrect, manufacturers

found it necessary in many cases to have almost a whole set retested

in order to make the replacements and furnish a certified set. While

this has undoubtedly helped greatly toward the improvement in

accuracy noted in last year's report, it has also increased manufacturing costs. In an effort to correct this condition the bureau has

tentatively adopted the practice of removing the inaccurate weights

and certifying the incomplete set. The maker or dealer can then

have certified separately the weights needed to complete the set and can furnish the customer a certified complete set. The experience of the past months indicates that this scheme will probably

furnish a satisfactory solution of the problem.

Tests.

The number of tests made, a total of 6,700 weights, is an increase

of 24 per cent over that of last year and is the largest number ever made during a year. The actual amount of work accomplished is even greater than is indicated by the number of tests because of

the large increase in the number of Class M standards submitted.

The tests of such standards involve very much more work than those

of any other class.

3. TIME.

A. F. Beal.

The work of the time section has been confined largely to the test- ing of pocket watches and to committee and advisory work in cooperation with the Horological Institute of America, while a smaller

amount of time and attention have been devoted to the correlation

of results of previous tests, investigational work, and miscellaneous

calculations.

Committee Work (Beal).

The chief of the time section has served as a member of the executive committee of the Horological Institute of America as secre- tary of its board of examiners and certification committee. These

65077—23 3
18 KEPORT OF DIRECTOR OF BUREAU OF STANDAKUS.

committees have held meetings at the bureau and also at Lancaster,

Pa,, New York, and Boston. The work of the bureau in cooperation with the Horological Institute was presented before the New

York State Jewelers' Association and the American National Ketail

Jewelers' Association in addresses given by the chief of the time

section.

Correlation of Results of Tests.

For several years practically all watches tested have been submitted to the " railroad precision " test. The results for all tested

watches known to be new or practically so at the time of the test have been compiled for each type and make. These results are of

considerable value, and this will increase as the results of more

tests are added.

There also has been prepared an index for each group of watches

tested at one time. This is of considerable value, but should be

extended to cover not only the kind of test but also each feature of

the watches. For example, there should be an index indicating the

location in the records of all tests of watches with noncompensated

or uncut balances, fiat hairsprings, nonjeweled watches, 7-jewel

watches, and other irregular features.

Standard Time.

An attempt has been made to compile an index giving the standard time used in every country and important group of island'' in

the world. This list is far from complete, but will be increased as additional data become available.

Diurnal Variation in Clock Rates.

An investigation on the diurnal variation of clock rates is being

carried on in cooperation with the U. S. Naval Observatory. Small

progress on this problem has been made owing to the urgency of

other matters.

Time Signals Received by Radio.

Beginning January 1, 1923, the time signals from the Naval

Observatory for checking up the bureau's Riefier clock were received

by a specially built radio amplifier which operates the chronograph

pen. Formerly this was done by the line telegraph signal. Prior

to discontinuing the telegraph signal, the radio receiver had been

tested for several months and a long series of telegraph-radio comparisons obtained. The results show a relative lag of about 0.10

second of the radio signal over the wire signal.

New Time Service in Bureau.

A special wiring system has been devised and installed whereby

another laboratory can, by remote control, throw on the Riefler clock

signal and receive the signal.

History of Weights and Measures (Gould).

The compilation of history and data regarding the standard

weights and measures furnished to the various States and customhouses of the United States Government since 1840 has been completed.
REPORT OF DIRECTOR OF BUREAU OF STANDARDS, 19

4. CAPACITY AND DENSITY.

E. L. Peffer. Tests.

The results of the year's work show that of the volumetric glassware submitted for test 91 per cent was eligible for test. The re- maining 9 per cent was rejected upon preliminary examination on

account of inferior material, workmanship, defects, or failure to

comply with the specifications. In general, the quality of the glasswai-e was better than in the previous year. The improvement was

especially marked in the case of American-made aj^paratus. The

imported ware was not up to the standard of that made in America.

The dilution pipettes, however, were an exception, as certain imported pipettes of this type were the best that have been submitted

to the bureau for test. Eighty-two per cent of all glassware submitted passed the test,

and of that tested 90 per cent passed test. This is a very m.uch

higher percentage than for any previous year and speaks well for

the American manufacturers.

Seventy-eight per cent of the hydrometers submitted passed the

test, and of those tested 80 per cent passed test. This also is very

much better than the previous year. Of the hydrometers listed as

rejected a great number received reports showing the corrections so that the instruments could be used by applying the corrections.

Researches on Density.

Steel (Peffer).—The density of more than 100 samples of steel

was determined for the metallurgical division of the bureau in con- nection with an investigation on volume changes due to different

heat treatments.

Zinc (Peffer).—Twenty-one samples of zinc were examified for

density, the samples having been prepared under varying conditions

as to mechanical working. The report of this was made to the ex- pansivity section and was presented at the New York meeting in

April, of the sectional committee on zinc and zinc ores, of the American Zinc Institute and the A. S. T. M. This work is being continued

in order to obtain further information to be used in the international

standardization of zinc.

Glass (Tool, Peffer).—Thirtj'^-four density determinations have

been made on samples of glass to determine the change in density

under varying conditions of annealing and heat treatment. This is a

joint research being conducted by the divisions of optics and weights

and measures. Sodium chloride (Peffer, Hill).—Further work has been done on

the density and thermal expansion of sodium chloride solutions.

There remains the task of determining the density of a saturated solution at 60° F. The samples of pure sodium chloride have been prepared by the chemistry division.

Crystals (Peffer, Hill).—Several samples of crystals (quartz,

zircon, topaz, etc.) have been examined for density in connection with

work being done by the division of mechanics and sound of this

bureau.
20 REPORT OF DIRECTOR OF BUREAU OF STANDARDS.

Denatured alcohol.—Samples of alcohol and denaturants have been

obtained and are in the laboratory awaiting the determination of the

density and thermal expansion of various denatured alcohols. This

work will be done in cooperation with the Bureau of Internal Revenue, Treasury Department, which bureau issues the formulas for the

various denatured alcohols. The object of this investigation is to

obtain reliable information as to the density and weight per gallon

of alcohol when denatured in accordance with the approved formulas.

Visitors.

The section has received visits from many representatives of

various manufacturers, who came in the interest of cooperation

and in the desire to produce a better grade of apparatus. The results

of these conferences show in the increase in the percetage of glassware and hydrometers that passed the test this year in comparison

with previous years.

5. GAS-MEASURING INSTRUMENTS.

H. S. Bean.

Research in Connection with Orifice Meters (Bean).

This research embraces a study of the orifice meter as used in the

commercial measurement of gas. The principal object of the investigation is to determine the discharge coefficient under all the

variable circumstances which may occur within the range of commercial or engineering practice.

In order to solve this problem, it is necessary to make a careful

study of the eti'ects of the following variables upon the discharge

coefficient: (1) The shape of the orifice, which may vary from a sharp-edged hole in a thin diaphragm to a long flow nozzle; (2) the

diameters of the pipe and orifice; that is, the size or area ratio of

the pipe and the orifice; (3) the location, size, and finish of the pres- sure taps; (4) the length of straight pipe on each side of the orifice or the nature of the fittings or obstructions near the orifice; (5) the

linear speed through the orifice, or the rate of flow; (6) the absolute

pressure in the line and the magnitude of the differential; (7) the

density, viscosity, and specific heat of the gas and its deviation from

Boyle's law; and (8) steadiness or pulsation of the flow.

Through the courtesy of the War Department, the bureau has

been allowed to use in this investigation the large compressors

available at Edgewood Arsenal, Edgewood, Md. An experimental

pipe line has been installed there, and the set-up as now arranged

will permit the study with air of items Nos. 1 to 6, as enumerated

above, through a wide range of conditions. It may also be found

possible to give special attention to item No. 8, It is hoped that

when this work is completed it will be possible to make experiments,

using natural gas or other gases for the investigation of item No. 7. Up to the present time only a few preliminary runs have been

made. During these runs approximate checks were made of the

discharge coefficients of the flow nozzle which are to be used in the

final measurement.
REPORT OF DIRECTOR OF BUREAU OF STAJvDARDS, 21

Work of Consumers' Meters Committees (Bean),

In connection with the work of the 1922 consumers' meters committee, a paper on the " Determination of meter capacities " was

prepared in conjunction with other members of the committee.

This paper formed a part of the committee's report to the American

Gas Association and was adopted as the association's standard method

for capacity testing of meters. This committee also recommended

to the association a uniform method of badging tin-case meters for

capacity and size.

The 1923 consumers' meters committee of the American Gas Association has been designated as a committee on the standardization

of capacities of consumers' meters. Data have been collected on the

different sizes and capacities of meters, particularly of the tin-case

type, and much information on the service rendered by meters of

different designs has been obtained.

6. THERMAL EXPANSIVITY OF SOLIDS.

I W. H. Souder.

Research in Thermal Expansion (Souder, Hidnert, Sweeney).

A research on the effect of mechanical working on the thermal

expansion of molybdenum has been completed, and an investigation

of the thermal expansion of aluminum alloj'S is practically completed.

Research in Precision Screws and Graduated Scales (Souder, Harring).

This work is now being carried on in a room set apart and equipped

for precision tests. In designing the new dividing engine, the need

for which has been previously mentioned, particular attention has

been paid to tests of uniformity, especially those made on different

tj'pes of thrust bearings. Progress has been made in differentiating

the effects of the different sources of error, such as periodic and irregular errors of screws, bearing construction and assembly, lubrication films and moving parts, heat treatment for permanence of materials, and the cuntulation of errors. This procedure, although somewhat slow as far as shopwork on the actual machine is concerned, has

gi'eat advantages, since it has eliminated much of the guesswork

from uncertain phases of this very important research.

Research in Dental Inlay Technique (Coleman, Souder).

"Work on this problem, which was started in January, 1922,

has for its purpose the improvement and standardization of dental

restoration technique. This work is being conducted under the

direction of the bureau by a research associate from a laboratorj^ in

Xew York, X. Y.

Defective dental restorations are responsible for a surprisingly large

amount of loss both in money and in health. The defects result

from various causes. Among these are defective materials, defective

technique (due to cai'elessness or lack of exact information), and

improper selection of materials. Dental literature is filled with

conflicting data and offers some extraordinary statements in attempting to explain the. chemical and physical phenomena met in carrying

out the various techniques.
22 REPORT OF DIRECTOR OF BUREAU OF STANDARDS.

During the last year the individual materials used, such as plaster,

wax,_ gold alloys, etc., have been studied. The effects of proper

and improper manipulations, the magnitude of defects accompanying improper manipulations, and the natural limitations of restorations must be classified before a proper technique can be arranged.

Some of the specific factors met are distortions of wax patterns,

distortions of plaster investments upon setting and upon heat treatment, the elimination of the wax pattern, the shrinkage of cast gold,

and the elasticity of clasp and wire gold.

So many of these studies have required special equipment that

progress on testing has not been rapid until recently. Definite re- sults are being obtained which in many instances show that serious

defects are to be expected if the instructions of some so-called ex- perts are followed. Many sets of directions are extremely indefinite,

some call for excessive heat treatment of the investments, thus caus- ing misfits; some specify forceful means for elimination of wax;

and some use extremely crude methods for casting. Much of the

spring gold sold iof clasps and orthodontic appliances is of inferior

quality. Recent tests show decided improvements in these materials.

Need for New Equipment.

The most urgent need of the expansion laboratory is equipment

which will make possible precision determinations of expansion at

temperatures up to 1,500° C. This should, if possible, be provided

during the next year.

7. WEIGHTS AND MEASURES LAWS ADMINISTRATION.

R. W. Smith.

Enforcement of Federal Standard Barrel Law.

Field investigation (Smith).—A general survey of conditions was

conducted in the vicinity of Norfolk, Va., where a large number of

barrel factories are located, to determine whether the barrels being

manufactured for use in the shipment of farm produce complied

with the provisions of the Federal standard barrel laAV. The division of mai-kets of the State of Virginia had deceived complaints

that short-measure barrels were being manufactured and reported

this matter to the bureau for its action thereon. The State authorities also cooperated in the investigation made. Many barrel factories were visited and measurements made upon sample barrels

picked at random from stocks on hand. Stave barrels, single and

double veneer barrels, and " basket " barrels were included in the

survey. It is interesting to note that in only a very few cases were

any barrels found to be out of tolerance, that in no case was the

discrepancy large, and that in all such cases the capacities of the

barrels were in error in excess ; that is, they held slightly more than

the standard capacity of 7,056 cubic inches, fixed by Federal law.

Tests made at bureau.—Requests are made from time to time for

tests on barrels submitted by manufacturers to determine whether

or not they comply with the requirements of the. Federal standard

barrel law. Tests and inspections of such barrels have been made

during the course of the year and reports issued to the manufacturers for their guidance.
REPORT OF DIRECTOR OF BUREAU OF STANDARDS. 23

Investigation of Type and Performance of Commercial Weighing

and Measuring Devices (Holbrook, Smith, Roeser).

The studies made incident to this investigation comprise detailed

examinations, inspections, and tests upon different types of commercial weighing and measuring devices or of the product of different maufacturers, conducted from the standpoints of construction and performance with a view to establishing the general service

which may be expected from any individual samples of the par-:

ticular group or manufacturer in question. The work serves to

demonstrate whether the device is such as to be accurate, reasonably

permanent in its indications and adjustment, and not conducive to

the perpetration of fraud. Defects in design or construction are

disclosed and the manufacturer is often thus enabled to perfect his

device so that it will meet qfficial requirements and will render

batter service in use. These devices are submitted by the manufacturer on his own initiative or at the instance of a State weights

and measures official who may in some cases request a report from

the bureau in order to assist him in reaching a conclusion as to

whether the device in question should be allowed in commercial use

in his jurisdiction.

It is a source of regret that the facilities and personnel available

for work of this character are so limited that only a very small

amount of it may be undertaken. Studies must be limited to those

devices presenting new and novel features, and even of these only a small proportion can be examined. Also it is not unusual for

several months to elapse following the submission of a device before the examination of it can be commenced. This entire situation

is an unfortunate one, since, if the bureau could expand this service

to a point where any manufacturer could at any time submit samples

of his product for examination and receive a prompt report thereon, an immense amount of assistance could be rendered. The manufacturer would be benefited because he could then perfect his device before it was marketed; the work of the weights and measures

official would be greatly expedited because of the superior design

and construction of the weighing and measuring devices which he

would encounter in the field; and the merchants and the consuming

public would profit because the resulting improvement in the instruments used for weighing and measuring would be reflected in

greater precision of quantity determination in all transactions by

weight or measure. By reason of the fact that the number of these devices which can

be accepted for examination is strictly limited, the bureau finds it necessary strictly to limit the use which may be made of the reports

issued thereon. It will be obvious that it would be unfair to permit

a manufacturer who happened to have had one of his devices tested

to make whatever use he pleased of the report, when another manufacturer, having, perhaps, just as satisfactory a device, could not

have his device examined, simply because the bureau had not the

funds to carry on the test. It is therefore necessary to make the

reports confidential as set forth in the following paragraph which

is made a part of all of these reports

Use of report.—The Bureau of Standards neither approves nor disapproves

of commercial weighing or measuring apparatus, and in making tests and
24 REPORT OF DIRECTOR OF BUREAU OF STANDARDS.

reports such as this one does so for the sole purpose of assisting the manufacturer to a knowledge of the performance of his product and for the information of the bui'eau. The use of this report or any portion of it, directly or indirectly, in the selling of the product, is hereby specifically forbidden.

In no case is the recipient of this report to make any copies or abstracts

thereof or to use the subject matter or wording for any advertising purpose

whatsoever. This is always made a condition precedent to the test of a

device and is repeated here for emphasis and to make it a matter of record,

so that there may be no misunderstanding in regard to it. The examinations of the above nature completed during the past

year are as follows

Gasoline meters 2

" Visible " gasoline-dispensing units 2 Piston-type liquid-measuring device 1

Liquid-measuring device attachments 2

I/eather-measuring devices 4

Heavy-duty automatic scales i 2

Platform scale — 1

Parcel-post scales . 2

Postal letter scale 1

Computing scale 1

Butter scale 1

Scale-testing device 1

Total 20

Federal Legislation Proposed.

It is suggested above that at the present time the investigation of

type of commercial apparatus results in advisory reports merely ; in

other words, there is no legal power in the Federal Government to

enforce the recommendations so made. A number of the States,

however, practically exercise the power of regulation of type, either

directly or through the medium of refusing to seal types which do

not meet their approval. This has resulted in nonuniform and in

some cases widely divergent requirements. It is apparent that apparatus satisfactory for use in one jurisdiction should be satisfactory

for use in all sections of the country, and, if unsatisfactory, it should

not be allowed in commercial use anywhere. If standard types of

apparatus must be unnecessarily modified to meet the demands of

, different jurisdictions, a very great economic loss results without

any corresponding benefit.

Many manufacturers of weighing and measuring devices have

found this condition an irksome one and as a result the Scale and

Balance Manufacturers' Association secured the introduction into

Congress of a bill designed to secure uniformity of types of weighing and measuring apparatus for commercial purposes throughout

the United States for the protection of the general public in their

commercial transactions. This purpose is designed to be accomplished by requiring the Bureau of Standards to approve types of

commercial apparatus which are found to be accurate, reasonably

permanent in their indications and adjustment, and not conductive

to the perpetration of fraud, and to allow only such approved types

to be imported or to be sold or used for commercial purposes in the

United States.

The Annual Conference on "Weights and Measures of the United

States has repeatedly passed resolutions favoring the principle of

this bill. Also many manufacturers of weighing and measuring
EEPOKT OF DIRECTOR OF BUREAU OF STANDARDS. 25

devices other than scales have expressed their hearty approval of

this principle of regulation and urged that legislation be enacted.

This bill was not enacted at the last Congress, but the above asso- ciation has announced that it will again endeavor to procure legislation along these lines at the coming session.

It is mentioned elsewhere that an increasing number of States

are adopting legislation requiring that bread be made and sold only

in the form of loaves of certain standardized weights. There has

grown up much sentiment in favor of a Federal law putting all interstate commerce shipments of bread on the same basis, with the

joint objects of protecting those States having such a law from non- standard weight competition in the case of bread shipped in from

outside the borders of these States and of promoting uniformity by

establishing a Federal model upon which States not yet having

proper bread legislation may in the future base their proposed bills.

Recently a Member of Congress requested that the bureau draft a proposed bill along these lines, announcing his intention of introducing it in the next Congress. It may be noted that several years

ago in enacting a law regulating sales in the District of Columbia

Congress embodied in the law the principle of standard-weight

loaves.

The Need for Fundamental Weights and Measures Legislation.

For the past 30 years the weights and measures office of the Coast

and Geodetic Sui'vey and (since 1901) the Bureau of Standards

have been guided by the so-called " Mendenhall order " in administering the weights and measures laws of the United States. This

order accepted the national prototypes of the international meter

and kilogram as the fundamental standards of length and mass of

the United States, and since 1893 our measures of length and mass

in the customary or English system have been derived from these

standards in accordance with the law of 1866, by which the use of

the metric system Avas made legal and in which certain equivalents

were established.

. These metric standards have never been specifically adopted by

Congress as the fundamental standards of the United States; nor,

in fact, have any other physical standards of weight and measure

ever been adopted by Congress except the Troy pound of the mint,

which in 1911 was superseded by the " standard Troy pound of the

Bureau of Standards," which is derived from the kilogram in ac- cordance with the Mendenhall order and the law of 1866.

Within the past few years it has been held by representatives of

the American Institute of Weights and Measures that the official

acts of the Coast Surve}'' and the Bureau of Standards ii; carrying out the Mendenhall order have been without legal sanction, and

that the national prototypes of the international meter and kilogram

are not, in fact, the fundamental standards of the United States.

It is held by the above-named organization that the fundamental

standards of Great Britain are also by common law the fundamental

standards of the United States. The fact that the standards of

Great Britain have several times been changed since 1776, and the

further fact that it is now utterly impossible to determine the value

of the British yard and pound in use prior to 1776, are entirely over- looked or considered unimportant.
26 REPORT OF DIRECTOR OF BUREAU OF STANDARDS.

In the case of units of mass no difficulties have arisen, the pounds

of the United States and Great Britain being practically identical.

The present legal relation between the British Imperial yard and

the meter is slightly different from that established for the United

States by the law of 1866, as interpreted by the United States Coast

and Geodetic Survey and the Bureau of Standards.

According to the British order in council of 1898,

1 British Imperial yard _ 3600

1 meter ~ 3937X)ri3

whereas according to the United States law of 1866,

1 United States yard _ 3600

1 meter ~3937

This _ difference, although slight, is sufficient to cause uncertainty

and inconvenience in converting from one system of measurement

to the other. There is a further complication in the fact that

British standards of length are ordinarily intended to have their

correct or nominal length when at a temperature of 62° F., while

United States standards, especially those used in the industries, are very generally intended to be correct at 68° F.

It has been suggested that the logical and practical method of

bringing Great Britain and the United States into harmony in the

matter is for both to adopt the simple relation,

1 inch = 25.4 millimeters (exactly)

and 1 3'ard = 914.4 millimeters (exactly),

from which would be derived the relation,

1 meter = 39.370078 inches (approximately).

This value lies between the present legal values, and somewhat

nearer the British than the United States value.

That there would be certain practical advantages in the adoption

of the simple relation, 1 inch = 25.4 millimeters, is admitted both

by those who favor the use of the metric system and by those

who oppose it. For example, in addition to the advantage of bringing Great Britain and the United States into agreement, the suggested change would make legal the relation that is already widely

used in both England and America in screw cutting and similiar

work where it is desired to turn out a product in one system of

measurement on a machine manufactured in accordance with the

other system.

The arguments in favor of enacting legislation specifically adopting our metric standards as fundamental may be briefly summarized

as follows: (1) It would put on a definite legal basis the standards

that have been in use for the past 30 years. (2) They are the best

physical standards available from the standpoint of permanency and

accuracy. (3) If supplemented by a statement of the exact relation

between the units of the metric and the customary system, the fundamental standards would continue to serve as the basis of both systems of units.

An objection to proposing this legislation is the danger that it will

be misinterpreted as an attempt to force upon the United States the

exclusive use of the metric system.
EEPOET OF DIRECTOR OF BUREAU OF STANDARDS. 27

Compulsory metric legislation is considered by this bureau to be

inadvisable, and the above suggested action should in no sense be so interpreted. It should be interpreted solely as an attempt to put

our M'eights and measures on a definite legal basis and in the end to

bring about uniformity with Great Britain.

It should be borne in mind that the specific adoption of the national

prototype meter and kilogram as the fundamental standards of

length and mass of the United States, together with the adoption of

definite relations between the customary and metric units would not

in itself bring about complete uniformity with Great Britain. Similar action on the part of Great Britain would be necessary.

In case Great Britain should continue to regard the Imperial yard

and pound as the fundamental standards and to derive the metric

units therefrom in accordance with the new relation, there would

still be a slight theoretical difference. This difference, however,

would be insignificant, being in the case of the yard about one-third

of the present difference.

Annual Conference on Weights and Measures.

The Annual Conference of the Weights and Measures officials of

the United States, held at the Bureau of Standards, is one of the

most important means through which the bureau extends its cooperation with State and local departments of weights and measures and

fosters uniforinity in weights and measures laws, rule?! and regulations, methods of inspection of apparatus, etc., and the efficient administration of weights and measures departments throughout the

United States. The conference has always been sponsored by the

bureau and has grown from a group of five officials, who met in 1905

to discuss common problems, to an organization national in its scope,

embracing in its membership weights and measures officials from all

parts of the country. Its meetings are attended, in addition to the

officials, b}^ representatives of manufacturers, weighing departments,

railroads, and industries. Its sessions are devoted to a study of all of

the problems of weights and measures administration, such as model

laws, specifications and tolerances for weighing and measuring instruments, methods of testing commercial ajDparatus, newly developed

devices, testing equipment, organization and conduct of departments,

methods of carrjang on supervisory activities, special surveys, etc. Papers are presented on technical subjects by those with special ex- perience, reports are made of investigations and surveys conducted

"by the bureau and by the various States and cities, and many problems of current importance are brought up for discussion and solution by those in attendance.

The" sixteenth annual conference held this year was eminently successful in every way. The formal actions of the conference included the adoption of tolerances for heavy-duty automatic scales

and the tentatiA'e adoption of specifications and tolerances for

fabric-measuring devices and for vehicle tanks used as measures in

the sale of gasoline, fuel oil, and similar products. While the actions

of the conference have no legal status, its conclusions are generally

accepted as authoritative and are given effect by promulgation by

the proper authorities in most of the jurisdictions having weights

and measures departments.
28 REPORT OF DIRECTOR OF BUREAU OF STANDARDS.

Acting through the conference, the bureau has been able to ac- complish much in encouraging officials to an efficient and enthusiastic administration of their offices, and the considerable degree

of uniformity that now prevails throughout the United States may

largely be attributed to this activity.

The report of the conference, which is published each year in

printed form, is a verbatim report of the meetings. These reports

constitute a valuable source of weights and measures information,

containing as they do many technical papers, specifications, and

tolerances for weighing and measuring apparatus and, what is probably of equal importance, the discussions on these matters and on

the practical problems of the weights and measures official.

State Conferences.

In addition to the annual weights and measures conference held

at the bureau, meetings of the State, county, and city weights and

measures officials are held annually in many States. These meetings

are attended by a much larger group of local officials than are able

to attend the national conference, and their programs are con- cerned not only with problems national in their scope, but also with

additional problems arising as a result of local laws and conditions.

As a result these meetings offer a splendid opportunity for advising

these officials as to how problems similar to those confronting them

are being handled elsewhere and otherwise furnishing assistance.

Consequently, the bureau always makes an effort to have a representative present. Last year State meetings of this character

were attended in Michigan, Minnesota, Wisconsin, Indiana, Massachusetts, Pennsylvania, and New Jersey.

State Weights and Measures Laws (Parry).

Much work was done during the year in bringing up to date the

compilation of State laws in relation to weights and measures. There is considerable legislation of this character enacted every

year throughout the country, and in order to keep the files of the

bureau current in this respect new codes of laws must be carefully

checked for new enactments and all new compilations of laws ex- amined for any changes made in woi-ding or in the reference numbers of the old sections; consideration must then be given to the

question as to what portions of former laws have been repealed,

and all this material must be transcribed for permanent record.

Although the edition of the bureau's former publication on these

laws, dated 1912, is now entirely exhausted and the material is obsolete on account of the radical nature of the changes made in the laws

of a very large number of States, lack of funds in the last few years

has precluded the possibility of having a new edition printed. Notwithstanding this it is very necessary that an up-to-date file be kept

at the bureau, since this is found necessary in answering a large

number of inquiries received from various sources. Among the States recently enacting new weights and measures

legislation may be mentioned Connecticut, which adopted new re- quirements concerning the sale of coal by weight and a new bread

statute; Indiana, which fixed standards for certain shipping containers; Massachusetts, which abolished its list of bushel weights and

required that all fruits, nuts, vegetables, and grains, except berries
REPORT OF DIRECTOR OF BUREAU OF STANDARDS. 29

and commodities in original standard containers, be sold at retail

by weight or numerical count, further regulated the manner of sale

of coal and coke, and made several other changes in their code;

Nevada, which adopted a public weighmaster law and further standardized containers; Rhode Island, which passed an act in relation

to liquid-measuring devices; New York, which amended its law in

relation to the marking of the net contents on containers; Pennsylvania, which made some changes in its list of weights per bushel,

thus bringing it more nearly into agreement with those of other

States; South Carolina, which adopted a new general code; West

Virginia, which made changes in their weights per bushel list ; and

Illinois, North Dakota, Washington, and Wisconsin, all of which

passed new bread legislation requiring that all bread be sold in

standard size loaves only. The last-mentioned method of sale of

bread is making rapid headway throughout the country. Some 12

States now require that bread be sold in this manner, the majority of

these laws having been adopted recently. The Annual Conference

on Weights and Measures has, as before mentioned, several times

gone on record as being very strongly in favor of this method of sale

and has adopted a model law on this subject with which most of the

laws mentioned above are in substantial agreement.

Investigations.

During the year a number of investigations have been made in

cooperation with various agencies, and five of these, which illustrate well the scope of the work of cooperation carried on, may be

especially mentioned. One of these investigations was made at the

request of the Annual Conference on Weights and Measures, one as a

result of a conference with manufacturers, one at the request of a State department, and the others at the request of other Federal

departments.

Tolerances for 'bread (Holbrook, Smith).—The committee on

specifications and tolerances of the Annual Conference on Weights

and Measures was engaged during the year in a study of tolerances

for loaves of bread. Two questions are of vital importance in determining suitable tolerances, namely, the variations between individual loaves when manufactured in accordance with good commercial practice and the shrinkage to be expected between the time

of baking and the time the bread becomes stale. In the absence of

sufficient data on these factors, the bureau was called upon to pro- cure information in tliis connection. Since it is the earnest desire of

the bureau to further the adoption of proper and imiform tolerances

throughout the United States to be used in the enforcement of

weights and measures laws, an investigation was accordingly made

in Washing-ton, D. C. In the course of this investigation the individual weights of 2,613 loaves of bi-ead of various kinds and manufactured by a number of bakeries were determined, and the results

plotted in such a form as to reveal the mean weight and deviations

from mean weight for each group. Shrinkage curves were also prepared for various sizes and kinds of loaves, following a study of the

behavior of individual weights of a representative nimiber of loaves

of each size and kind kept under known conditions of temperature

and humidity.
30 REPORT OF DIRECTOR OF BUREAU OF STANDARDS.

Commercial filUng of milk and cream bottles (Holbrook, Peffer,

Smith).—An investigation to determine the average point to which

bottles of milk and cream are filled under good commercial filling

conditions was made as a result of a conference with the manufacturers of milk bottles who are seeking a uniform requirement

throughout the United States as to the point on a bottle defining

its capacity. In some States this point is established by law or regulation as the cap seat while in other States this point is fixed as one-eighth or one-quarter inch below the cap seat. The latter

requirement was recommended by the bureau some years ago, and

this investigation was made to determine whether any change in

this recommendation was indicated by present conditions. This

question is of general importance to the milk-bottle industry,

since, if a uniform requirement is adopted, it will reduce the

number of sizes to be produced with a consequent economy resulting

from a decrease in number of molds, stocks required to be carried,

etc., and to the consuming public since, if the designated filling

point is higher than the point to which the bottles can be filled

under commercial conditions, short measure in the sale of milk and

cream inevitably results. The investigation was carried on in the

cities of Chicago, Philadelphia, New York, and Washington, conditions in these cities being considered as representative of the country

at large. A total number of 3,610 bottles, I'epresenting the product

of 46 different dairies, were examined, and the results full}^ confirmed

the correctness of the bureau's former recommendation. These re- sults will be presented to the milk distributers and their cooperation

sought in the procuring of a proper and uniform standard.

In the course of this investigation there was developed a method

of readily determining in the field the height to which bottles of

milk and cream are filled, involving only the use of a simple specinl

gauge which is applied to the outside of the bottles without disturbing the bottle cap. This will be of considerable assistance to

weights and measures officials in the course of their check-up activities in their respective jurisdictions. There was also developed

in this connection a method for testing milk and cream bottles for

accuracy. For this use special types of adjustable depth gauge

and bulb burette were designed, the first for the purpose of establishing at any desired point below the cap seat the level of the liquid

used in testing the bottles, and the second for rapidly and accurately

determining the errors of the bottles under test. Leather-measuring machines (Eoeser) . —During the past year

extensive tests were made of machinery for measuring leather in

plants in the vicinity of Boston, at the request of the Massachusetts

weights and measures department. One other test was made for

the Board of Trade representing New York City manufacturers.

Investigations have been made to determine suitable material from

which to make standard test sheets and the proper form of these

test sheets.

Spring 'balances (Holbrook, Eoeser).—An investigation of springbalances has been carried on during the year at the request of the

Coast and Geodetic Survey to determine the most suitable type

of balance to be used in stretching tapes in base-line surveys. The
KEPOBT OF DIRECTOR OF BUREAU OF STANDARDS. 31

investigation involved a study of the uncertainty to be anticipated

in the use of the types at present employed and of the changes

in the elasticity of the springs under varying conditions of temperature.

Household measuring cups (Smith).—An investigation on household measuring cups conducted at the request of, and in cooperation

with, the Bureau of Home Economics of the Department of Agriculture has been almost completed. It was believed by the Bureau

of Home Economics that raany of the measuring cups on the market

were in error, and the assistance of this bureau was requested to

determine the actual conditions existing.

The investigation embraced 48 cups, secured from 33 different

manufacturers, each of these cups being tested at capacity and at

its various graduated subdivisions. The need for some effort toward

improving the accuracy of cups was thoroughly established, since errors in excess of 25 per cent were not uncommon. In addition, it was found that there was no uniformity in the character of

graduations, markings, etc. At the request of the Bureau of Home

Economics a code of specifications and tolerances designed to make

available a satisfactory measuring cup for use in cooking has been

prepared and submitted to the various manufactui'ers for their

comments and suggestions.

Foreign Weights and Measures (Parry).

The bureau has many requests, especially from American manufacturers of weighing and measuring equipment, to furnish information in relation to foreign weights and measures, and the bureau

feels that these data should be furnished whenever possible. Consequently, a file, as nearly complete as possible, is being assembled,

and progress has been made toward this goal during the year. As

a result it has been found possible to supply this information to

persons requesting it in greater detail than previously.

Legal Weights per Bushel.

The bureau is strongly of the opinion that the best method of

sale for dry commodities is by weight without reference to weights

per unit of volume, and that the arbitrary and conflicting bushel

weights established by State statutes might better be entirely discarded in favor of the hundred weight unit. Nevertheless, on ac- count of the steady demand by growers, shippei'S, and other

interested parties for information as to the legal bushel weights in

the various States, it is deemed advisable to replenish as soon as possible the supply of Circular No. 10, Legal Weights (in pounds)

per Bushel of Various Commodities, which is now entirely exhausted.

Accordingly, this circular has been revised and brought up to date

and will be ready for printing in July.

Miscellaneous Activities (Holbrook, Smith, Eoeser).

The routine activities of the section comprise a large amount of

correspondence, many personal interviews, the preparations for the

Annual Conference on Weights and Measures, and the preparation

of the conference report. Much of this correspondence is from

weights and measures officials, from manufacturers of weighing and

measuring devices, and from other commercial concerns, and relates
32 REPORT OF DIRECTOR OF BUREAU OF STANDARDS.

to specifications and tolerances, laws, regulations, special weighing

or measuring problems, and the like. Many inquiries along similar

lines are also received from private citizens, frequently accompanied

by requests for assistance from the Federal Government in correcting some local short weight or measure condition or in proceeding

against some alleged violator of State or local law. Such requests

must, of course, be referred to the' State or local officials, since the

bureau is not empowered to handle matters of this kind, except in

the case of standard barrels or lime barrels. Personal interviews

with officials, representatives of manufacturers, and inventors and

designers of new weighing or measuring devices follow the same

lines as mentioned above.

During the year attention has been given to the following: The

drafting of a number of bills on weights and measures subjects for

introduction into the Federal Congress or into State legislatures,

this work being done in each instance at the request of properly interested parties, such as Members of Congress, State officers, etc., the

preparation, at the request of the Post Office Department, of toler- ances for scales used in the Postal Service, the marking of length

intervals on a number of strips of material to be used by the District

of Columbia department of weights and measures in testing fabricmeasuring devices, the assembly of a set of standard weights and

measures presented to the Government of the Virgin Islands, and

attendance at various conferences held at the bureau and elsewhere

at which matters related to weights and measures were discussed.

8. INVESTIGATIONS AND TESTS ON COMMERCIAL SCALES AND

RELATED WORK.

H. M. Roeser.

Investigation of Railroad Track Scales (Holbrook, Eoeser, Fell,

Enwright, Eawson, Edwards, Giessemann, Hancock)

Excellent progress has been made during the past year in the

investigation of the condition of railroad track scales throughout

the country. As has been the regular experience in the past few

years, however, it was again found impossible to keep the track-scale

testing equipments in the field during the entire year on account of

lack of funds. This year time lost through the necessity of laying

up equipments from this cause approximated one-third of the time

of all the equipments. Part of this time Avas utilized in necessary

overhauling and repairing of the equipments, and, by transferring

men from track scale to mine scale equipments and granting one

inspector six months' leave without pay efficient employment of the

field force was found possible.

In spite of the delays mentioned above the railroad master scale

testing schedules were completed in regular order, involving the

test of 19 master scales; also 636 commercial railroad track scales

were tested by the three equipments.- The field personnel remained

intact with the exception of the six months' period of leave by one

inspector mentioned above.
REPORT OF DIRECTOR OF BUREAU OF STANDARDS. 33

The men comprising the inspection staff in this service have been

trained especially for it, and the smoothness and efficiency which

N| characterize their efforts in maintaining a good record of work

accomplished in the face of serious handicaps reflect the results of

this training as well as a commendable spirit of fidelity to duty.

||| The work was well distributed throughout the country. Tests

were made in 34 States and the District of Columbia, as follows:

Arkansas.

California.

Colorado.

Delaware.

District of Columbia.

Oeorgia.

Idaho.

Illinois. Indiana.

Kansas.

Kentucky.

Louisiana.

Maryland.

Michigan.

Minnesota.

Missouri.

Montana.

Nebraska.

New Jersey.

New Mexico.

New York.

North Carolina.

Ohio.

Oklahoma.

Oregon.

Pennsylvania.

South Dakota.

Tennessee.

Texas.

Utah.

Virginia.

Washington.

West "Virginia.

Wisconsin.

Wyoming.

11^ The accompanying map shoAvs the routes followed by the two

master scale testing equipments and also the location of railroad

master scales throughout the country. These two equipments are designated as No. 1 and No. 2. The No. 3 equipment is especially designed for ordinary commercial track-scale testing, and since being

put into operation last January has operated in Pennsylvania,

Maryland, District of Columbia, Virginia, Delaware, and New

Jersey.

As is the usual custom, the work has been planned to make the re- sults as representative as possible by distributing tests among

numerous owners. Tests were made on 78 railroads and at approximately 160 industrial plants.

A resume of the results of the tests of raili'oad track scales is

shown in the following table. This does not show the results of

master-scale tests, which are presented elsewhere. For the purpose

of bringing out certain facts of interest the data have been arranged

geographically, the country being divided into three districts in ac- cordance with the territorial subdivisions adopted by the Interstate

Commerce Commission in its " Report on the statistics of railways,"

which are designated the Eastern, Southern, and Western districts.

The results are classified to indicate ownership by railroads, industries, and Federal Government. A brief analysis of the errors on incorrect scales is also given.

65077—23-

REPORT OF DIRECTOR OF BUREAU OF STANDARDS. 35

Results of Tests on Track Scales.

District and scales owned byNumber

of

scales.

Passed

tolerance. Failedtolerance. Mean

numerical

error in per

cent.

Analysis of errors on incorrect scales.

Scales weighing

heavy. Scales weighing light.

Number. Per

cent. Number. Per

cent.

Number

of

scales

cent

correct

scales.

ivxcaix plus

error in per

cent.

Number

of

scales.

Per

cent

of in- correct

scales.

Mean

minus

error in per

cent.

Eastern: Railroad

Industrial Government. . . -

Total

Southern:

Railroad

Industrial Government. . .

Total

Western:

Industrial

V JLi_LU.Uli V • , , -

Total AU districts: Railroad

Industrial Government

Total

205

87

9

9442

6

45.8

48.3 66.7

Ill45

3

54.2

51.

33.3

0.43 .40

.39

58

16 52.2

3.5.

0.52

. 41 5329

3

47.8

64.4

100.0

0. 87

.80

.96

301 142 47.2 159 52.8 .42 74 46.5 .49 85 53.5 1 .85

87

133

34

4

39.1 30.8

.0

53

9

3

60.9 69.2

100.0

.45 .26

.50

23

5

2

43.4

55.6 66.7

.41 .30

.65

30

4

1

56.6

44.4 33.3

.83

.28

.21

103 38 36.9 65 63.1 .43 30 46.2 .41 35 53.8 .75

157

732

105

43 66.9 58.9

.0

52

30

2

33.1

41.1 100.0

.30

.29

2. 84

31

18

1

59.6

60.0

50.0

.46

.43 .24

2112

1

40.4

40.0 50.0

1.01 .72 5.44

232 148 63.8 84 36.2 .32 50 59.5 .45 34 40.5 1.04

449

173

14

233

89

6

51.9

51.4 42.9

216

84

8

48.1 48.6

57.1

.39

.35

.76

112

39

3

51.8

46.4 37.5

.48

.40

.51

10445

5

48.2

53.6 62.5

.90

.74 2.84

636 328 .51.6 308 48.4 .38 154 50.0 .45 154 50.0 .87

The above table shows that 51.6 per cent of the raih'oacl track

scales tested were within the tolerance prescribed for good performance, namely, 0.20 per cent of the applied load, or 200 pounds per

100,000 pounds of applied load. By geographical subdivisions it is

found that 63.8 per cent of the scales in the Western district, 47.2

per cent in the Eastern district, and 36.9 per cent in the Southern

district passed the tolerance. The mean errors of the scales in these

districts are 0.32 per cent in the Western district, and 0.42 per cent

and 0.43 per cent in the Eastern and Southern districts, respectively.

With reg'arcl to the incorrect scales tested, the number weighing

heavy and the number weighing light are equal, although the mean

errors in the latter case are considerably larger. The tabulated

figures for this case do not reflect with entire accuracy general conditions, owing to the fact that large negative errors are generally

found in the comparatively few instances where interference with

the performance of the scale is found to be due to obstructions to

the weighing mechanism, and these few large errors aifect the mean

results to a rather immoderate extent.

The tabulation seems to indicate that the advances in accuracy in

railroad track scale performance noted in recent j^ears are being

well maintained. The percentage of scales passing the tolerance,

naniel}^, 51.6 per cent, is higher than last year, when the figure was

48.5 per cent, and higher than any previous year, with the exception

of 1921. In the Southern district the percentage of scales passing
36 KEPOKT OF DIKECTOB OF BUREAU OF STANDARDS.

the tolerance is very materially improved, some improvement is

noted in the Western district, while in the East the percentage has

slightlj^ decreased. This figure of 51.6 per cent representing all the

scales tested follows a gradual increase in the quality of performance since the work was begun in 1914, when the percentage of

scales passing the tolerance was 38.2.

The value of this service in promoting better weighing conditions

is strikingly presented by the conditions found in the Western district. In the United States there are about 4,150 railroad-owned

track scales, of which number 33 per cent are in the Western district. Conditions governing the handling of the master-scale schedules iisually make it necessary and advisable for the bureau to do

a larger proportional amount of its work in that district than in

the others, and most of this is on railroad-owned scales along more

or less well-defined routes, which by force of circumstances must be

covered each year. This results in localized intimate contact Avith

weighing conditions, and it will be noted in the above table that 63.8

per cent of the railroad-owned scales in that district passed the tol- erance on good performance as compared to 44.6 per cent, the figure

obtained by combining the other two districts. It is thus evident

that the general conditions of weighing freight might be vastly improved if the bureau's facilities for handling this class of work

were extended.

During the past year corrective adjustments Avere made on 40

track scales. This service is extended to owners whenever the condition of their scales justifies it and when it can be done without loss

of time Avhich could be utilized in making other tests.

Calibration of Privately-Owned Test Cars.

During the past year 16 test cars belonging to railroads were calibrated. This service is extremely important, in that it assures a

correct standard to the owners in maintaining their own weighing

equipment.

Calibration of Master Scales.

Two new master scales Avere put into service and tested for the first

[ time by the bureau last year. The total number in the United States

is now 19. These were all tested in regular order, and practically

all were found to be in good weighing condition and receiving a commendable amount of attention to maintenance. The bureau has

noted a growing sense of responsibility among owners toward the

proper maintenance of these scales which are used as a control for

the 10,500 railroad track scales in the United States. The annual

testing and adjustment of these scales is considered by the bureau to

be its most important and responsible work in this field, and it is, in

fact, the fundamental control of all revenue freight weighed in the '

country. i Bureau of Standards Master Scale. \, In connection with the subject of master scales and test cars used i by railroads and industries attention must again be called to the

fact that the Government master scale purchased some years ago is \ still in storage. Funds should be provided for the purchase of a i l^roper site and for the erection of a building to house this scale, so i that the bureau could put it to the use for which it is intended.
REPORT OF DIRECTOR OF BUREAU OF STANDARDS. 37

I P-Until this scale can be installed for use the Government can not

f I'ealize upon its investment, its scale work can not be made of maxiI mum efficiency, and the service which the bureau should render must

necessarily be greatly curtailed.

As pointed out last year, this scale was contracted for in 1916, it being much needed even at that time, and it was intended to house

1 it in a centrally located test depot. As mentioned above, this has not

I yet been done, although since that time the bureau's track-scale work

L has broadened in scope and the need has consequently become more

I urgent. Track-scale testing equipment No. 3, contemplated at the

P time of the purchase of the scale and put into service at a more

I recent date, comprises test cars Nos. 3 and 4, these being 40,000 and

I 80,000 pound self-contained test units traveling on their own wheels.

Therefore, they must be reweighed at intervals not exceeding two

months in order to maintain and assure their accuracy, and this rei weighing should be done on a scale operated and guaranteed by the

I' bureau. Moreover, the 160,000 pounds of test weights (including the

special trucks) carried on equipments Nos. 1 and 2, which are used

' in certifying to the accuracy of every master scale in the United

States, must be repainted and adjusted from time to time and the

equipments overhauled. The bureau has no present facilities for

doing work of this character.

L In addition to the needs of the bureau the proposed testing station

I f would also be used for standardization of the test cars of all railI roads in the locality in which the scale is located and the calibration

j of weights carried thereon, as well as the calibration of all heavyweights submitted for test by industries or railroads located in the

I vicinity. The maintenance of a Government-owned master scale and

testing depot at some central point would do more, perhaps, than

any other thing to furnish a correct standard of weight to be trans-

; ferred to railroad-owned and industrial scales, to quicken the apprej elation of accurate weights and weighing, and to reduce claims, allay

;| suspicions, and provide a more stable basis for all business carried on

1 by weight.

\ In the opinion of the bureau the city of Chicago is the most favorable situation in the country for the station. This location, being

I a central one, would most efficiently be reached by the bureau's

several equipments, and it also would enable the bureau to serve a maximum number of railroads and industries.

Track Scales for Weighing Grain.

II Interstate Commerce Commission Docket 9009 (56 I. C. C. 347),

I decided January 13, 1920, and American Railway Association Grain

Circular No. 1, effective January, 1921, published pursuant to the

recommendations in the above-mentioned decision, carry specifications for track scales for weighing grain and require among other

j things that scales of this character shall comply with a tolerance of

1 0.10 per cent of the applied load as compared to a tolerance of 0.20

i; per cent for track scales other than grain scales. Incidental to its

i' regular work in testing track scales, the bureau last year tested 32

track scales used exclusively for weighing grain, and of this number

the performance of only two was found to be within the prescribed

tolerance. The mean error of the group of scales was 0.40 per cent.

This degree of inaccuracy is a serious condition, and one which is
38 REPORT OF DIRECTOR OF BUREAU OF STANDARDS,

a fruitful source of complaint among the handlers of grain. Un--

fortunately, with existing facilities, the bureau is unable to correct

this state of affairs as rapidly as the condition warrants.

Cooperation with Outside Agencies (Roeser).

During the past year the bureau has maintained representation on

a committee of the American Railway Engineering Association,

which completed specifications for the manufacture and installation

of motor truck, built-in, self-contained, and portable scales for railroad service.

Bureau of Standards Letter Circular 88, The Performance of

Railroad Track Scales, which gives results of tests of 1,000 track

scales, arranged in sucli a manner as to show the effect of current

tolerances on the grading of track-scale performance, was issued

last February and has been widely circulated in response to an active

demand. These tolerances are to receive the attention of the abovementioned committee during the current year. Specifications and

tolerances for heavy-duty automatic scales will also be considered.

Investigation of Mine Scales (Holbrook, Roeser, Fell, Rawson, Edwards, Giessemann, Hancock).

The investigation of the condition and accuracy of scales used

at coal mines in determining the amount of coal loaded by individual miners from which wages due are computed was very

seriously hampered in the last 12 months on account of the strike

in the union fields. Conditions during the summer and fall were

such that it appeared that no good purpose would be subserved by

attempting to carry on the work, and consequently no effort was

made to get the equipments into the field until the spring. As a

result it was found possible to save a considerable portion of this

fund, and at the close of the fiscal year there was an unexpended

balance of approximately $5,000 for return to the Treasury. Smce

the work has been resumed it has been progressing in the fields in

the vicinity of Clarksburg and Fairmont, W. Va., in southern Indiana and Illinois, and in Pennsylvania. The work has been handicapped to some extent due to unavailability of suitably trained

men. The duties are rather arduous, and men with the degree of

physical ability and technical training required are diflSlcult to

obtain and to hold in this service.

Specifications covering suitable types of weighing equipment and

methods of installation for the above service have been prepared.

These have not yet been published, as recent developments in work

in this field indicate the advisability of some revision of these specifications and confirmation of some of the technical details from independent sources. In connection with its investigation of mine scales the bureau has

in a number of instances been confronted with the fact that there is an unexplained discrepancy between total weight of coal mined as determined on tipple scales for the purpose of determining the

wages due the miners and the corresponding weight as determined

shortly thereafter on railroad track scales for the purposes of freight

charges and invoicing. This discrepancy is a matter of very considerable importance, and therefore a foundation has been laid

for an investigation by the bureau in cooperation with interested
REPORT OF DIRECTOR OF BUREAU OF STANDARDS. 39

parties to determine the underlying causes for this condition. The

bureau is in an excellent position to gather the necessary data, since

its mine-scale and track-scale testing equipments can be used in con- junction in the pursuance of the investigation.

Conveyor Weighers (Koeser).

Attention has been given to machinery used to weigh a continuous

stream of material such as coal, crushed stone, etc. Examinations

and tests have been made at two plants and literature collected cover- ing this type of weigher. The bureau anticipates considerable demand for attention to this type of weighing equipment. Facilities

for meeting the demand should be provided, as this class of weighing is an important one and is gradually increasing, particularly in

the mining industry and at stone and coal handling plants.

9. GAUGE STANDARDIZATION.

D. R. Miller. Development and Construction of Apparatus and Gauges.

Alterations in projection lantern (Miller, Carter).—During the

year the projection lantern used in the measurement of gauges

has been altered so that the angle of thread gauges can be measured

with the optical system arranged in two ways: (1) With the optical

axis of the projection lens system perpendicular to the axis of the

thread, and (2) with the optical axis parallel with the helix angle

of the thread.

Arrangement (1) is the usual arrangement and is employed in all

lanterns heretofore developed at the bureau and, so far as is known,

in England at the National Physical Laboratory. Arrangement (2)

is employed in a lantern developed by the Bausch & Lomb Optical

Co. The two arrangements give different readings for the angle

of thread when the helix angle is large. Preliminary tests and theoretical considerations indicate that the readings by both methods are approximations. It is proposed to make up threads of various helix

angles to be measured by both methods to determine if it is necessary

to apply corrections to the readings for either method to obtain the

true angle of thread. This work will be of considerable interest to

gauge and thread-cutting toolmakers who use the projection lantern

for measuring angle of thread.

Dial micrometers (Miller).—In connection with the study of

dial micrometers for measuring the thickness of paper it is neces- sary to devise means for measuring the contact pressure of the instruments. "V^liere the instruments are reversible, the force neces- sary to move the mechanism in both directions was measured by

means of an even arm balance and weights. To measure the contact pressure of instruments that were not reversible, the instruments were allowed to strike the end of a flexible cantilever beam

and the deflection noted. The beam was then calibrated to determine the weight necessary to cause the same deflection.

Penetration needles for testing bituminous materials (Haven).

During the year the section was requested to check the dimensions

of penetration needles used in the testing of bituminous materials.

The dimensions of these needles were specified by a committee of

the American Society for Testing Materials. A special fixture was
40 REPORT OF DIRECTOR OF BUREAU OF STANDARDS.

made to facilitate the measurement of the flat at the point and the

angle of point. In this fixture the needle was held vertically with

the point resting on a flat surface and measurement was made over

wires by means of a micrometer caliper placed at various known

heights from the point. The diameter and angles can be computed

from the micrometer measurements and the known diameter of the

wires.

Manufacture of precision gauge hlocks.-—The work of manufacturing precision gauge blocks was continued during the year. This

work was carried on in the shop when the force was not engaged in

more urgent work. The work of making 34 sizes of metric blocks,.

20 blocks of each size, is now about 60 per cent completed.

Standardization of Stock Sizes and Dimensions (Miller, Fullmer)

One of the most useful functions of the section has been in the

collection of data of stock sizes, standard dimensions, and tolerances

for common metal shapes and machine elements. Two letter circulars were published along this line, one Letter Circular No. 24^

Standard Thickness of Sheet Metal, was very favorably received

and, judging from the number of requests for the circular, it supplied information that was not readily available and was very much

desired in industry. The other publication. Letter Circular No. 18,

Important European Screw Thread Systems and Dimensions of

Bolt and Screw Heads and Nuts, is of interest to manufacturers and

exporters and to manufacturers making machines for export intended to interchange with screw thread systems employed in vari- ous European countries.

Cooperation with Engineering Societies and the National Screw

Thread Commission.

Considerable time was spent during the year in doing cooperative work with the various engineering committees and commissions

engaged in standardizing sizes of and tolerances for machine elements. Tables for tolerances for various classes of fit for use in

the progress report of the plain gauge committee were recomputed

during the year. Brass screws with nuts made to the "across flat

dimensions corresponding to the standard of the Society of Automotive Engineers were made up and submitted to tensile test to

determine whether brass nuts of these dimensions were stronger

than the bolt upon which they were fitted. This work was done

for the information of the National Screw Thread Commission to

determine whether the S. A. E. dimensions across flat on nuts were

suitable for soft materials as well as for the grades of steel ordinarily used. Circulars published during tne year for the information of or in cooperation with the National Screw Thread Commission

are listed with the other publications of the division.

Researches.

Gauge steel investigation (Miller, Laughlin).—The gauge sec- tion, in cooperation with the metallurgical division, has carried on

an extensive investigation of steels suitable for use for gauges. The

_ part the gauge section has taken in the investigation has been

' mainly in the measurement of specimens before and after annealing, hardening, and tempering to determine the dimensional changes

that occur; also a number of the specimens are being measured
REPORT OF DIRECTOR OF BUREAU OF STANDARDS.

from time to time to determine seasonal changes. In connection

with this investigation, 2,185 specimens have been measured and 450

specimens have been ground or otherwise machined. The results

obtained are reported in nine progress reports of the gauge steel

committee.

Strength and tightness of threaded joints (Miller, Fullmer).

Investigation of the effect of errors in thread form, lead, and taper

on the tightness and strength of threaded pipe joints has been con- tinued during the year. In this investigation it was found that there

were slight differences in either tightness or strength of straight

and taper couplings on taper pipe. It is usually considered that the

tapered coupling when used with tapered pipe makes a stronger

and tighter joint than the straight coupling, and the report on this

investigation has been held up until further tests can be made to

check the results already obtained on this point.

Material for gauges.-—In cooperation with the manufacturers of

stellite and a number of users of gauges an investigation has been

carried on to determine the suitability of stellite as material for

gauges. A number of stellite gauges were made to the drawings

furnished by the users and the gauges used by them in actual inspection in comparison with steel gauges. Reports have been re- ceived from all of the users, and these reports show that stellite

wears from four to six times as long as the usual hardened steel

gauge. Some stellite disks have also been received to be compared

with hardened steel disks on a wear-testing machine.

Research on development of millionth comparator (Miller, Haven).—Some work has been done on the construction of a satisfactory ultramicrometer or millionth comparator. Such a comparator

is desired to check the results of the present methods of comparing

and determining the parallelism of precision gauge blocks by light

interference. Interference methods for determining the absolute

thickness of these blocks and for determining the planeness of sur- faces are entirely satisfactory, and there is no occasion for a change

of methods. It is felt, however, that a contact method of comparing blocks and determining parallelism of surfaces would serve as a check on these methods. The comparator employing an optical

lever system and somewhat similar to the comparator used at the

National Physical Laboratory was tried out. It was found that with

the particular arrangement used the contact pressure varied considerably for small differences in the length of blocks. Recently some

experiments have been made with the use of condenser plates in the

plate circuit of an oscillating audion tube, and this arrangement

gives indications of being successful.

The section has cooperated with engineering committees and

commissions, such as the American Engineering Standards sec- tional committees on plain limit gauges and screw threads, the

gauge steel committee, and the National Screw Thread Commission,

in the standardization of sizes and tolerances of screw threads,,

bolts and nuts, and machine elements. The following communiciitions have been prepared for the National Screw Thread Commission: No. 42, Strength of brass bolts and nuts; No. 45, Compilation of replies to letters regarding allowances and tolerances on

wrench jaws; No. 47, Screw threads in the electrical industry (re-
42 REPORT OF DIRECTOR OF BUREAU OF STANDARDS.

vised) ; No. 49, National fire-hose thread revised to national hose

thread form; No. 50, Questionnaire on well casing and casing

threads.

PUBLICATIONS.

The following papers relating to the work of the division of

weights and measures were either issued or ready for press at the

close of the year

A study of commercial dial micrometers for measuring the thickness of

paper (Paul L. tlouston and D. R. Miller), Tech. Paper No. 226. The effect of mechanical working and heat treatment on the structure and

the thermal expansion of molybdenum (Peter Hidnert and W. B. Gero,

the latter of the Westiughouse lamp laboratory), Sci. Paper (in press).

The testing of hydrometers, Circular No. 16 (revision).

Invar and related nickel steels, Circular No. 58 ( revision )

Gas-measuring instruments, their operation, methods of testing, and their

use, Circular (ready for printing).

Report of fifteenth annual conference on weights and measures, Miscellaneous No. 51. The following mimeographed letter circulars have been issued:

No. 5. Liquid conversion tables. No. 18. Important Eiiropean screw thread systems and dimensions of bolt

and screw heads and nuts. No. 24. Standard thicknesses of sheet metal.

No. 72. Sieve-testing apparatus.

No. 74. Standard specifications for sieves.

No. 88. The performance of railroad track scales. No. 89. Conversion tables for petroleum oils. No. 91. Fitting of plugs for class B weights.

No. 95. United States petroleum oil tables. No. 96. Specific gravity and weight per gallon of milk and cream. The following communications have been prepared in mimeograph form for the National Screw Thread Commission

No. 42. Strength of brass bolts and nuts. No. 45. Compilation of replies to letters regarding allowances and tolerances on wrench jaws.

No. 47. Screw threads in electrical industry (revised).

No. 49 National fire-hose thread (revised to national hose-thread form).

No. 50. Questionnaire on well casing and casing threads.

The papers listed below have appeared in current scientific and

technical publications

Sieve-testing apparatus (L. V. Judson and R. E. Gould), Jour. Opt. Soc. of

Am. and Review of Scientific Instruments, September, 1922. Simple equipment for determining the errors of screws (W. Souder), abstract In program of Opt. Soc. of Am., 7th annual meeting, October, 1922.
ELECTRICITY.

E. C. Crittenden.

FUNCTIONS.

The work of this division covers electrical units, standards, measuring instruments, and methods of measurement, including electromotive force, resistance, current, inductance, capacitance, conductivity, insulation, magnetic measurements and properties, radioactivity, radio and telephonic communication, and properties and performance of electrical equipment, such as lamps and batteries. As a result

of cooperation with public service companies, public utility commissions, and municipalities on public utilty problems, some of the work

has been extended to cover more than strictly electrical matters.

SECTIONS.

1. Resistance measurements.

2. Inductance and capacitance.

3. Electrical measuring instruments.

4. Magnetic measurements.

5. Photometry and illuminating engineering,

6. Radio communication.

. Electrolysis prevention.

. Safety engineering.

9. Gas engineering.

10. Electrical service standards.

11. Telephone service standards.

12. Electrochemistry.

13. Radioactivity and X-ray measurements.

GENERAL STATISTICS.

Staff 98

Expenditures (1922-23) $264,000

Tests completed ._. 7, 583

Researches completed , 24

Bureau publications issued , 24

Other technical publications 29

43
WORK CHART.

I. RESISTANCE MEASUREMENTS.

SCOPE.

Establishment and maintenance of the ohm.

Development of resistance apparatus.

Galvanometer design.

Study of methods of measurement.

Testing of standards and apparatus.

Investigation of electrical properties of conductors.

Standardization of conductor materials.

Applications of resistance methods.

TESTS.

Nature of test.

Number completed. Nature of test.

Number com

pleted.

1921-22 1922-23 1921-22 1922-23

139

234

86

1782

2

13

1148

10

75

.501

RESEARCHES.

Subject. In cooperation with

Status June 30, 1923.

Per cent completed.Publication

issued.

Fundamental measurements of resistance Regulation of speed of mot or Apparatus for determination of salinity of sea water by electrical method.

Krrors caused by grounding of terminal of bridge Measurement of low resistance by means of a wheatstono bridge.

Special purpose galvanometer

Standardization of resistance materials Standard conductivity of aluminum

Variation of metallic conductivity with electrostatic charge.

Coast and

Geodetic Survey.

I. E. E

30

70

80

70

90

25

50

100 Outside.2

1 British and French national laboratories, Aluminum Co. of America.

» Physical Review, vol. 20, No. 6, p. 589, December, 1922.

2. INDUCTANCE AND CAPACITANCE.

SCOPE.

Establishment of fundamental standards of inductance and capacitance.

Maintenance of working standards.

Calibration of standards of other laboratories.

Development of mathematical formulas.-

Investigation of methods of measurement.

Measurement of electric properties of insulators: (a) Dielectric constant,

(6) Dielectric loss, (c) Insulation resistance.

Measurements on phenomena involving the determination of short-time intervals: (a) Absolute capacitance, (6) Ballistics, (c) Engineering.

44
REPORT OP DIRECTOH OF BTTREAU OF STA2^DARDS, 45

TESTS.

Number completed. Nature of test. 1921-22

Condensers 197 Inductances 41 Insulation resistance 17

1922-23

12747

19

RESEARCHES.

Subject. In cooperation

with

Status June 30, 1923.

Per cent completed.Publication

issued.

SWn effect in solenoids Mutual inductance of coaxial circles Spectroradiometric analysis of radio signals. Methods of measuring dielectric losses Ratio of absolute and int ernational henry . .

Movements and stresses in turrets Supersensitive dolonators

BaUistic investigations

Submarine cable insulation Torsional ^^bration of crankshafts

(')- Navy .

....do.

....do. ....do.

....do.

100

95 100

5030

90

100

9025

100

S422.

Special report. Do.

8420.

Special report.

1 General Electric Co. and Westinghouse Electric & Manufacturing Co.

3. ELECTRICAL MEASURING INSTRUMENTS.

SCOPE.

Testing electrical measuring instruments and accessories (shunts and in- instrument transformers).

Maintenance and extension of standards and methods for measuring voltage,

current, power, and energy.

Eeseurch on problems related to commercial electrical measurements: (a)

Development of testing methods and apparatus, (h) Studies of dielectric

strength and dielectric loss at high voltages.

Development of specifications for electrical measurements.

Miscellaneous electrical tests and investigations.

TESTS.

Nature of test.

Number completed.

1921-22

Ammeters

MilUvoltmoters Shunts Voltammeters Wattmeters

Voltmeters Watthour meters

Current transformers Voltage t ransformers Rubber gloves, pairs Miscellaneous insulation, samples

Spark plugs, etc Miscellaneous

58

32

24

164

11

5734

319
46 REPORT OF DIRECTOR OF BUREAU OF STANDARDS.

RESEARCHES.

Subject. In cooperation with

Status June 30, 1923.

Per cent completed.

Publicatiott

issued.

2050

30

10

25

Outside.i Do.2

Do.3 A.I. E. E

Development ol noninductive resistors for heavy

currents.

1 Electrical World, vol. 81, p. 1082, May 12, 1923.

2 Jour. A. I. E. E., vol. 42, p. 713, July, 1923.

3 Technical Review, Nat. Assn. of Cleaners and Dyers, p. 173, November, 1922; p. ISl, December, 1922.

4. MAGNETIC MEASUREMENTS.

SCOPE.

Development and maintenance of methods and apparatus for the determination of the magnetic properties of materials.

Testing of materials for magnetic properties.

Miscellaneous , testing involving magnetic properties or magnetic eftects. Correlation of magnetic properties with other physical properties of materials with a view to the development of nondestructive tests.

TESTS.

Number completed. Nature of test.

Normal induction

Hysteresis Core loss Miscellaneous

RESEARCHES.

Subject.

Magnetic comparators

Thermomagnetic analysis

Effect of manganese on magnetic properties

Magnetic properties and carbon content, pure alloys.

Detection of burnt rifle barrels Plunger electromagnets

Effect of heat treatment on magnetic properties of permanent magnet steel.

In cooperation with

Army.

Status June 30, 1923.

Per cent completed.

75SO

25

100

7520

10

Publication

issued.

S45S.

S163.

5. PHOTOMETRY AND ILLUMINATING ENGINEERING.

SCOPE.

Maintenance of fundamental standards of candlepower.

Calibration of standard lamps and of photometric instruments.

Research on methods of measuring light.

Development of photometric instruments.
EEPOBT OF DIRECTOR OF BUREAU OF STANDARDS. 47

Inspection and testing of lamps purchased by the Government.

Investigation of characteristics of lamps.

Formulation of lamp specifications.

Tests of lighting fixtures and accessories.

Investigations on motor vehicle lighting, including headlights, tail lights,

registry plates, and signals.

Consultation service to Government departments on lighting problems.

TESTS.

Nature of test.

Candlepower standards certified Other candlepower tests Portable photometers calibrated Pentane standard lamps

Automobile headlight devices Locomotive headlights Transmission of glasses and films Samples of kerosene Mantles for gasoline lamps

Special lamps tested Reflection factor measurements

Brightness standards

Illumination surveys, Government buildings.

Lamps seasoned but not standardized Lamps inspected at the factory (total) Lamp's life tested (total)

Number completed.

1921-22 1922-23

400

109

18

1 36

1 13 1,646,692 2,350

1 About 20,000 additional lamps have been inspected, on which detailed reports have not yet been re- ceived, July 1, 1923. RESEARCHES.

Subject. In cooperation with

Status June 30, 1923.

Per cent completed.

Publication

issued.

Methods of heterochromatic photometry

Operation of integrating spheres:

Development of special computing scales Corrections for color of coating Measurement of reflection factors Characteristics and performance curves of electric lamps.

Distribution of light in searchlight beams

Motor-vehicle lighting problems:

Properties of headlights Illumination and legibility of license plates

Visibility of colored signal" lights

Ilium. Eng.Soc.

50

10050

50 Continuing.

90

1050

Outside.i

Special reports.

1 Trans. Illuminating Engineering Society, vol. 18, No. 1, p. 62, 1923.

6. RADIO COMMUNICATION.

SCOPE.

Establishment of radio standards.

Testing of radio instruments and devices.

Development of methods of radio measurement.

Specifications for radio equipment.

Wave phenomena study.

Survey of interference.

Electron tube research.

Development of radio devices.

Government radio cooperation.

Application of radio methods.

Radio information..
48 REPORT OF DIRECTOR OF BUREAU OF STANDARDS,

TESTS.

Nature of test.

Number completed.

1921-22

Wave meters 14 10

1 18

2

T<'rp,nnpnrv inrlipflt.nr*; DecreniGtcr'> 159

152

7

2

2

1 22

10

1

ATipa. pfinHpiT^pr*? Inductance standards 1

Heterodynes .< . .

13

6

RESEARCHES.

Subject. In cooperation vrtth—

Status June 30, 1923.

Per cent completed.

Publication

issued.

Radio beacons.

Radio broadcasting problems

Aircraft radio problems

Radio direction finders Radio interference Radio wave phenomena

Short wave radio communication.

Electron tubes

Bureau of light- houses. Army.

Radio telephony

Insulating materials .

Radio measui'ements

Frequency standards Standards of current, capacitance, etc. Receiving sets and amplifiers

100

25

100

100

15

10

8050

75

75

50

50

20

75

1 Special report.

Outside.i Do.2

S469; outside.' 2 outside;* S449;

S450; LC87.

T216; S471; LC50,

LC51.

3 outside; ^ S455, S408;LC75, LC76,

LC77.

Outside; « LC92.

Special report. C121, C133, C137,

C141; LC86, LC90, LC93.

I'Lefax, vol. 13, p. 22, March, 1923.

2 Proc. Inst. Radio Eng., vol. 11, p. 75, April, 1923.

^

3 Proc. Inst. Radio Eng., vol. 11 p. 243, June, 1923.

* Jour. Wash. Acad, of Sci., vol. 12, p. 412; November, 1922; Proc. Inst. Radio Eng., vol. 10, p. 373, October, 1922.

6 Phil. Mag., vol. 44, p. 729, October, 1922; Radio News, vol. 4, p. 1618, 1923; Wireless Age, vol. 9, p. 65, August. 1922.

6 QST, vol. 6, p. 48, May, 1923.

7. ELECTROLYSIS PREVENTION.

SCOPE.

Field research on electrolysis testing and mitigation.

Investigation of corrosive action of soils on pipes and cables and methods

of reducing damage from this cause. Development of electrical strain gauges.
EEPOET OF DIRECTOR OF BUREAU OF STAJSDARDS. 49

TESTS.

Nature of test.

Number completed.

1921-22 1922-23

9

RESEARCHES.

Subject. In cooperation with

Status June 30, 1923.

Per cent completed.

Publication

issued.

Development of improved methods of electrolysis testing with the earth current meter.

Investigation of electrolysis conditions and relative merits of methods of mitigation.

Study of corrosive action of the soil on pipes and

cables. Development of electrical strain gauges Design and testing of special strain gauges for Navy

Department.

Development of code for lightning protection

Development of air-speed meters

Continuing.

. . -do

10

95 Outside.2

A.I. E.E.... 75.

10.

1 U. S. Bureau of Soils, various cities, public utiUty companies, and manufacturers of materials.

2 Engineering News Record, July, 1923.

8. SAFETY ENGINEERING.

SCOPE.

Preparation and revision of safety standards.

Investigations of materials and apparatus incidental to the establishment

of safety standards.

Investigation of accidents and of field conditions and current practices in

industry.

Cooperation with State and municipal officials in the interpretation and

application of safety standards.

Cooperation with engineering, insurance, and other associations in preparation of their own safety standards.

Preparation of publications bearing on the application of safety standards.

TESTS.

No tests made in this section.

FORMULATION OF SAFETY CODES.

»

Subject.

Revision of Electrical Safety Code Head and Eve Safety Code, revision Logging and' Sawmill Code (first edition) Aeronautical Safety Code for lightning protection. Elevator Safety Code, revision Miscellaneous safety codes under other sponsors...

Pictorial Electrical Safety Code

Line construction handbook

Standards of electrical safety conference

In cooperation

with—

fS. A. E.., LA.LE. E.

(')

Status June 20, 1923.

Per cent completed.

50 100

100

7730

30 Continuing.

70

4075

Publication

issued.

H3.

H2.

Outside.'

1 A. S. M. E. and Am. Inst, of Architects.

2 Electrical Safety Conference.

' Mechanical Engineering, vol. 45, No. 7, p. 444, 1923. . 65077—23 5
50 REPOBT OF DIRECTOR OF BUREAU OF STANDARDS,

9- GAS ENGINEERING.

SCOPE.

Study of standards for gas service.

Furnishing information to public service comm'ssions.

Preparation of National Gas Safety Code.

Study of design and performance of gas appliances.

Investigations of hazards from gas appliances.

TESTS.

No tests except in connection witli research.'

RESEARCHES.

Subject. In cooperation with

Status June 30, 1923.

Per cent completed.

Publication

issued.

Revision of Circular 32, Standards for Gas Service . . .

Relative usefulness of different gases Efficiency and completeness of combustion of solid top and grid top ranges Design and performance of gas appliances (adjustable

oriices, ranges, ovens, and industrial burners). Causes of carbon mono :ide poisoning from gas appli- ances in Baltimore, Md.

100 100

75 Continuing.

75

Outside.i C32. Outside.3 T222.

Special report.

Outside.'

Special report.

1 A. G. A. Monthly, vol. 5, No. 5, p. 317, May, 1922.

2 Pub. Serv. Comm. of Maryland.

» Gas Age Record, vol. 15, July 8, 15, and 27, 1922.

' A. G. A. Monthly, July, 1922.

5 Dept. of Health, Baltimore, Md.

10. iSLECTRICAL SERVICE STANDARDS.

SCOPE.

Study of engineering features of electric service regulations.

Formulation and comparison of standards for electric service.

Engineering study of street lighting practice.

Furnishing information to public service commissions.

TESTS.

No tests made in this section.

RESEARCHES.

Subject. In cooperation with

S-Jatus

Per cent completed.

June 30, 1923.

Publication

issued.

Revision of Circular 56, Standards for electric service Study of street lighting service and practice Translation of standards of American Institute of Electrical Engineers into Spanish. Revision of Code for Klectricitv Meters

Graphical symbols for electrical en<?inecring use Cooperation on street lighting committee

AI.E.E

N. E. L. A. and

Assoc. ('"dison Ilium. Cos. A IE a

Dist. of Columbia.

99

35

90

5

80

25

Outside.i C56.

1 Electric Light and Power, vol. 1, No. 1, p. 21, January, 1923; vol. 1, No. 7, p. 41, Tuly, 1923.
REPORT OF DIRECTOR OF BUREAU OF STANDARDS. 51

II. TELEPHONE-SERVICE STANDARDS.

SCOPE.

Determination of standard measures for quantity and quality of telephone

service.

P"'urnishing information to regulatory bodies.

Serving as consulting Telephone engineers to the Federal and State governments.

Investigation of tlie mathematical theory of submarnie cable telegraphy.

Establishment and maintenance of the standard of electromotive force. Testing stam'.ard cells.

TESTS.

Nature of test.

Number completed.

1921-22 1922-23

Standard cells 272

212

342 Telephone headsets 16 Control e luipment

Transformers 4

Solenoids 3

RESEARCHES.

Subject.

Study of quantity units and basis of specifications for Quality of telephone service. Traffic studies and coordination of Government tele- phone ssrvice. Private branch exchange telephone service Electromeohanif s of the telephone receiver Theory of telephone transmission Submarine cable telegraphy with reference to terminal

networks. Theory of high vacuum manometer ,

In cooperation with

Status Jime 30, 1923.

Per cent completed.

10

Continuing.

10 100

7540

100

Publication

issued.

12. ELECTROCHEMISTRY.

SCOPE.

Investigation of factors affecting performance of batteries.

Testing of primary and storage batteries and materials.

Formulation of specifications and standard methods of testing batteries.

Cooperation in commercial standardization of batteries.

Study and comparative tests of rectifiers. Research on single potential measurements.

Investigation of the silver voltameter.

TESTS.

Nature of test.

Number completed.

1921-22 1922-23

1,4024

629

4

20
52 REPORT OF DIRECTOR OF BUREAU OF STAKDARDS.

RESEARCHES.

Subject.

Navy airplane batteries

Rectifiers, all types Sulphuric acid

Jelly electrolytes Lead antimocy alloys for grids

Tarnishing and detarnishing of silver Effect of paper on tarnishing of silver Patent electrolytes Storage battery separators Porosity of storage battery plates

JilTect of impurities in electrolytes: Copper, iron, platinum, and manganese

Investigation to be continued with other impuri-

. ties. Crankshaft acceleration measurements , Dry cell performance Rate of sulphation of storage battery plates

Specifications for dry cells .Specifications for storage cells

In cooperation with

Status June 20, 1923.

Per cent completed.

Fed. Spec.Bd.

dO'

50

25

10 10080

100

50

10

8025

100

Coicfeinuing.

100

100

100

100

10

Publication

issued.

2 ouSside.i

Spec. Rept.

C 79 sad outside.' T 225. C139.

1 Chem. and Met. Eng., vol. 27, p. 1116; Electrical World, vol. 80, p. 13S6, 1922.

2 Chem. and Met. Eng., vol. 27, pp. 546, 603, 1923.

13. RADIOACTIVITY AND X-RAY MEASUREMENTS.

SCOPE.

Measurements and tests of radioactive materials.

Photometric measurements of selfluminous materials.

Investigation of effectiveness of X-ray protective materials.

Furnishing information to general public on radium and radium preparations.

TESTS.

Nature of test.

Radium preparations

Mesothorium

Selfluminous X-ray tests

Number completed.

1921-22 1922-23

2,103

17 1,649

2

2,15S7

1,2813

RESEARCHES.

Subject.

Measurements of gamma-ray absorption coefficients..

Survey of the physics of radiotherapy

Circular of information on radioactivity and radio- active materials ,

In cooperation

with—

Status June 30, 1923.

Per cent completed.

90

10

100

Publication

issued.
EEPOET OF DIRECTOR OF BUREAU OF STANDARDS. 53

Detailed Report of the Year's Work.

GENERAL.

Scope of Electrical Work.

One of the most important functions of the bureau is the establishment and maintenance of the fundamental standards- upon Avhich

all electrical measurements in this country are based. This includes

the intercomparison of standards, extensive research in methods of

measurement, and the development and improvement of subsidiary

and derived standards. These standards are utilized and the resulte

of the researches are applied in the testing of reference standards

and instruments for manufacturers, testing laboratories, universities,

research institutions, electric utilities, utility commissions, engineering and other interests, and various agencies of the Government.

Close contact is also maintained with similar institutions in other

countries- so as to secure international uniformity.

The testing of electrical insti-uments and apparatus is of two main

classes. The first is the calibration of reference standards and precision instruments for manufacturing and other institutions which

themselves make or standardize instruments for commercial use or" conduct research. It is through the work of such institutions that

the measurements made in practice are referred back to the standards

of the bureau. Secondly', a limited amount of testing of commercial

electrical measuring instruments, radio and photometric apparatus,

electrical, and magnetic materials is done. A large part of this

testing is done for the Government departments and serves the

double purpose of providing information to be used in formulating

specifications and of determining the quality of materials furnished

upon specifications. Some connnercial testing is also done for the

purpose of keeping the bureau in touch with the needs of the industries, of dcA'eloping methods, and of improving apparatus and

materials.

The research Avork has mainly to do with methods of measurement,

the determination of the electric and magnetic properties of materials, and the development of tliose phases of engineering science

in which measurement plays an important i-ole. In general, this investigational work deals with fundamental properties and principles,

so that the results may be applicable to a class of problems rather

than being limited to the one specific problem imder investigation.

The work on correlation of magnetic and mechanical properties of

iron and steel and in the stud}" of insulating materials are examples.

The research work in radio communication, magnetism, radioactivity, and photometry is along lines quite similar to that in the more

purely electrical measurements. Standaixls have been and are being

developed, methods of measurement are being improved, and special

problems of significance to the industries and of particular importance to the Government are being investigated. Specific examples of the projects in hand during the past year are given in the sec- tions below.

Public Utility Investigations.

Another important activit}' of this division, including more of en- gineering and field work than most of the electrical work referred to

above, is the investigation of problems arising in connection with
54 REPORT OF DIRECTOR OF BUREAU OF STANDARDS.

various iDublic utilities, particularly electric light and power, gas,

street railway, and telephone services. The work includes (1) scientific and engineering research, (2) the study of the conditions which

determine the quality of public utility service of various kinds, (3)

methods of testing and inspection employed by municipalities and

commissions, (4) compilation of safety rules for use by the utility

companies to safeguard their employees and the public, and (5) the

collection and distribution of information by published papers and

through correspondence.

This work is a natural outgrowth of the research and testing done

by the Bureau of Standards for the public utility companies and

commissions. The testing of electrical instruments and meters, of

gas lamps and the standards employed in testing gas, the life testing

of electric lamps, the testing of instruments used in telephone work,

research on electrolysis mitigation, and similar investigations and

tests connected with public utilities, have all involved standards of

service. The bureau has gradually accumulated a considerable

amount of information on these questions, and has been able to contribute materially to the establishment of standards of quality in

several of these services. Furthermore, it has promoted with marked

success the practice of settling disputed questions in this field on the

basis of sound engineering and economic principles and of cooperation between interests rather than by legal controversy, and in so doing the bureau has attained a recognized position as an advisor and

mediator in such questions.

The establishment and enforcement of regulations for utility services of the kinds covered by the bureau's work are recog-nized as proper functions of State or local governments and the bureau neither

has nor seeks any legal authority to control these services. However,

the mere determination of the facts regarding the quality of service

rendered often involves difficult technical or engineering questions.

To say what constitutes reasonably good service and whether improvements are practicable is usually not easy, as for most cities and

many State conunissions it is a difficult matter to judge the quality of

service rendered by the utilities. Obviously, it will never be economical or desirable for each commission or city to handle these questions alone. Though they possess large and able engineering staffs or employ specialists for each separate problem the question of what

is good service or Avhether the service in any given case is adequate,

safe, and satisfactory can usually be settled only by reference to what

is done under similar circumstances elsewhere in the counti-y. In

other words, standards of good practice and good service are largely

determined by general experience and should be studied comparatively, using "the experience of the entire country. The bureau has

been doing this for several years and has demonstrated the practicability and acceptability of the method.

In many States the commissions have set standards of service for

the different utilities, and most of those that have done so have been

glad to make use of the bureau's assistance. It will conduce to fair- ness and a good understanding to have the subject studied further

and to have specifications as definite and complete as possible made

available for all branches of public-utility service. The work applying more particularly to public utilities is described under sections

7, 8, 9, 10, and 11 below.
KEPOKT OP DIRECTOR OF BUREAU OF STANDARDS. 55

Conference of Engineers of State Utility Commissions.

Since the practice of exercising control of utilities through State

commissions has spread rapidly, the bureau's relations with such

commissions have become more and more important. "\^niile these

relations have been very cordial and mutually helpful, it has been

considered desirable to arrange for some more formal method of

contact with engineers of the commissions.

In connection with a meeting of the sectional committee which is revising the National Electrical Safety Code, representatives from

seven State commissions visited the bureau in November, 1922, and

an informal meeting was held to consider tlie best method of procedure for a lax'ger conference. In accordance with decisions then

reached, arrangements were completed for a general conference of

engineers on March 2 and 3 at the Department of Commerce and the

Bureau of Standards. More than 30 engineers, representing various

State commissions, attended this conference.

The program for the conference was confined strictly to engineering problems. A number of commission engineers presented papers

on matters in which they have had special experience. These included the " Grading of public utilities," " The public interest in

heating value standards for gas," and the " Conservation of natural gas." There was also a general discussion on the " Grounding

of electrical circuits " and on the problem of " Inductive interference."

I. RESISTANCE MEASUREMENTS.

Frank Wenner.

Fundamental Measurements of Resistance.

The work on the determination of resistances in " absolute " ohms,

as distinguished from international ohms, referred to in the report

of last 5'ear, .has been continued. A careful study has been made

of the sources of error and the precision of adjustment required for

the method selected for trial. This study leads to the conclusion

that it will be possible to make the errors peculiar to this method

small in comj)arison with those which are common to all methods

of making these measurements, such as those involved in the calculation of the values of an inductance from its dimensions and the

determination of the speed of rotation of the driving motor. Consideration has been given to the design of inductors, such that their

dimensions may be determined to a high precision and their induct- ance definitely calculated. The use of these in conjunction with

conductors to be furnished by the inductance and capacitance sec- tion will give values for the resistance to be measured based on

independently determined values for the inductances. To obtain a

value for the resistance of a conductor in terms of a calculated value

for an inductance and a measured frequency, it is necessary to bal- ance the electromotive force induced in the inductance against the

potential drop in the conductor. The apparatus for making this

balance is nearing completion.

Regulation of Speed of Motor,

In the fundamental measurement of resistance it is necessary to

have the speed of a driving motor definitely controlled. One feature
56 KEPORT OF DIRECTOR OF BUREAU OF STAlSfDARDS.

of the plan adopted for this purpose is applicable in many cases in which speed fluctuations may occur because of sudden changes

in the load or in the voltage of the power supply. This feature

consists in the use of a balance wheel not keyed to the shaft, which

carries one element of an electrical contact, the other element being

attached to a part keyed to the shaft. The contact controls an

auxiliary circuit containing a source of electromotive force and also

an inductance connected in series with the armature circuit. The

action is such that, in effect, the time lag of operation is counteracted, so that the motor definitely synchronizes with the balance

wheel. As the latter is driven by a fairly weak spring and retarded

only b}' a small amount of air friction, there can be no sudden

changes in the speed of the motor except a rapid vibration of very

small amplitude.

Measurement of Low Resistance by Wheatstone Bridge (Wenner,

Smith).

For the accurate measurement of low resistance it is usually con- sidered necessary to have special bridges, because the resistance of

connections can not be made negligible in comparison with the re- sistance to be measured. A procedure has, however, been devised by

which it is possible to make such measurements with the regular

Wlieatstone bridge. To be definite in value, low resistances must

have distinct current and potential terminals. By a proper choice

of connections to these terminals the errors caused by the connecting

resistances can be made relatively small, and where these errors still

need to be considered they can be determined by two auxiliary

measurements with the same apparatus. With a bridge in good

adjustment and having a ratio arm which can be set as low as one- tenth ohm, an accuracy of one-tenth per cent or better may be

obtained in the measurement of resistances as low as one-thousandth

ohm.

Errors Caused by Grounding Bridge Connections (Wenner, Forman)

In some discussions of the use of bridges it is recommended that

one of the detector terminals be grounded, especially if an alternating test current is to be used. This practice often materially improves the precision to which a bridge may be balanced, and conse- quently it has been assumed that it also increases the accuracy of

the measurements. However, investigation shows that the accuracy

may be decreased rather than increased. The difficulties in operation which seem to make grounding necessary may be remedied by

the use of a third branch of the bridge connected in parallel with

the source of the test current, or in some cases more advantageously

by a third branch connected in parallel with the detector.

Salinity of Sea Water.

In cooperation with the Coast Guard, apparatus has been developed

for use in determining the salinity of sea water by measurements of

its electrical resistivity. The apparatus is installed on the U. S. S.

Tampa, which is engaged in the international ice patrol work.
KEPORT OF DIRECTOR OF BUREAU OF STANDARDS. 57

2. INDUCTANCE AND CAPACITANCE.

H. L. Curtis.

Inductance and Capacitance Laboratory (Moon, Sparks).

The capacitance standards of this laboratory have been maintained at a constant temperature throughout the year. Two intercomparisons of these condensers have been made during the year, and

the vakies have also been determined absolutely in terms of the international ohm and second. All tests have been completed promptly.

Several tests have been made which required considerable research

before they could be completed.

Inductance Research (Hickman, Sparks).

In a paper on the "Alternating current resistance and inductance

of single layer coils " there is derived a formula by which the change

in resistance and inductance with frequency can be computed. In

addition, coils were constructed in which the effect could be measured. The experimental and theoretical results are shown to agree.

A paper has also been prepared on the " Mutual inductance of

coaxial circles." The purpose of this paper is to present simple

formulas, tables, and charts by which the computation can very

easily be made.

Capacitance Research (Moon, Webster)

At the request of an industrial research laboratory the capacitance

of a set of mica condensers was determined at a frequency of 5

cycles per second. This is the lowest frequency that has ever been

used in this laboratory.

Measurements were also requested on a 1-microfarad paper con- denser at 2,400 volts and 30, 60, 90, and 120 cycles. This voltage

is nearly the maximum which can be safely put on the bureau's air

condensers. The current required was also near the limiting value

for the machines for this work.

Methods of Measuring Dielectric Loss (Webster).

The purpose of this investigation is to reconcile the differences

which have been obtained by different methods of measuring dielectric loss. An electrodynamometer has been constructed and thoroughly tested. Several measurements have been made by means of

the bridge method, using an air condenser as a standard. A determination of the dielectric loss in several condensers by each of the

two methods will be made in the near future.

Properties of Insulators for Submarine Cables (Snow, McPherson,

Busse)

In conjunction with the chemical and the structural, engineei'ing,

and miscellaneous materials divisions, a systematic program has

been laid out and partially' completed for determining the electrical

properties of such insulating materials as show promise for use in

submarine cables. This work was undertaken to supply information

needed by the Signal Corps. Impoi'tant conclusions have alx'eady

been reached, and it is planned to prosecute the work still more ac- tively during the coming year.
58 REPORT OF DIRECTOR OF BUREAU OF STANDARDS,

Determination of the Ratio of the International Henry to the Absolute Henry (Moon).

The international henry can be determined from the international

ohm and the second. The absolute henry can be determined from

computations of a coil of knoAvn dimensions. The ratio of the two

values is the same as the ratio of the international ohm to the absolute ohm. In order to determine this ratio, coils are being con- structed whose inductance can be computed from their dimensions.

Several experimental coils have been wound in order to develop a method of winding. Two large porcelain cylinders have been

ground to form and are practically ready to be wound.

Movements and Stresses in Turrets and Turret Structures (Rooney).

The data obtained on the U. S. S. Galijorrda in November, 1922,

have been carefully analyzed and a rejoort submitted to the Bui-eau

of Construction and Repair of the Navy Department. This report

shows a number of unexpected facts in regard to the stresses which

occur in turret structures during gunfire.

Velocity of the Projectile Inside the Bore of a Gun (Moore).

A self-adjusting expansometer has been developed which can be

used to determine the time at which a projectile passes a given plane

across the gun by observing the expansion of the gun at that plane.

A considerable number of experimental difficulties have been over- come. A quantitative determination will be made in the near future

to determine the accuracy that can be obtained from the use of this

instrument. If it is as satisfactory as the preliminary work indicates,

it should entirely replace the finger method of measuring the velocity of projectiles on battleships. It will be a very great improvement over this method, since the time between shots can be

very materially shortened.

Photographs of Projectiles in Flight (Sellman).

A special camera capable of taking 250 pictures per second has

been used to determine the velocity of projectiles. The error in the

velocity as determined by this instrument is little, if any, gi'eater

than that which results from the use of the standard Boulenge

chronograph.

Torsional Vibrations of Crankshafts (Rooney, Sellman).

In cooperation with the Bureau of Engineering, Navy Department, a test was made of the vibration of the crankshaft of a large

Diesel engine. Both, the amplitude and period of vibration were

studied. The data have been carefully analyzed and a report submitted to the Navy Department.

The Temperature of a Short Wire Heated Electrically (Snow).

When a short wire is heated electrically, the maximum temperature which will be attained by any portion of the wire depends on

the amount of heat which is conducted to the metallic terminals and

on the amount of heat transferred to the surrounding medium by

conduction, convection, and radiation. A mathematical and experimental stiidy of this problem has been made in connection with a

special military investigation carried on by this section. The equation giving the temperature is complicated, but it agrees closely with

the experimental results.
EEPORT OF DIRECTOR OF BUREAU OF STANDARDS. 59

Spectrum Analysis of Radio Signals (kSnow).

At the request of the radio section an analysis was made to show

how the frequency distribution in an incoming signal could be

determined by measuring the current in a simple receiving circuit.

A paper on this subject has been prepared and submitted to the

editorial committee.

3. ELECTRICAL INSTRUMENTS.

H. B. Brooks.

Testing of Electrical Instruments.

The volume of testing of instruments for the Government was

slightly less than during the preceding year, but the testing for outside parties (public utility commissions, utility companies, and individuals) increased to nearly three times the amount done last year.

Cooperation with Associations.

The section has been represented on the following committees

Instruments and measurements, American Institute of Electrical

Engineers ; terminal markings of electrical apparatus, Electric Power

Club sectional committee ; standard symbols for electrical equipment, sectional committee, American Engineering Standards Committee; and the technical committees on stranding, and on paper

insulation of the sectional committee on insulated wires and cables.

As a result of the previous work on instrument standardization,

the chief of the section was appointed chairman of a subcommittee

of the instruments and measurements committee to study the existing foreign specifications for instruments and to prepare proposed

American specifications as a basis for discussion. A paper outlining

the work done abroad and presenting the proposed American specifications was presented at the June convention of the American Institute of Electrical Engineers.

Assistance was given the National Electric Light Association

meter committee in the revision of 16 chapters of the Meterman's

Handbook.

Federal Standard Specifications.

Considerable time has been given to the revision of a number of

specifications of the Eederal Specifications Board in the light of

criticisms received from Government departments and outside

authorities. In addition, six electrical specifications presented by

the committee have been adopted and promulgated by the above

board during the year.

Development of Apparatus (Brooks, Demsey, Defandorf. Wyckoff).

The construction of an absolute electrometer for directly measuring voltages up to 250 kilovolts has been resmned. Patterns for

some of the larger casting's are completed, and the design of the

electrometer has been improved in certain details.

An apparatus for testing insulating tapes for dielectric strength

was constructed and used in cooperation with the rubber section in

their development of standard specifications for such material.

An auxiliary test bench has been set up for the quick preliminary

checking of instruments with a very moderate degree of accuracy.
60 REPORT OF DIRECTOR OE BUREAU OF STANDARDS.

An oil-filter press has been installed to purify the oil used in the

bureau's voltage transformers.

A set of inductance coils suitable for use as burdens in the secondary circuit of current transformers has been constructed. This will

make it possible more readily to duplicate the burden with which the

transformer under test is used in service. Several air-cooled re- sistance standards for use in current-transformer testing have also

been constructed, and a study has been continued of the phase angle

and skin effect errors which become important in such apparatus for

large currents.

4. MAGNETIC MEASUREMENTS.

R. L. Sanf'ord.

General Magnetic Measurements.

Special attention has been given to routine magnetic testing during the year, and the test procedure has been revised for the purpose of more nearly meeting the needs in this line. On the new

basis two classes of test are provided. Class A tests are limited to

cases where the highest attainable accuracy is necessar}-. For this

test specimens must be sufficiently uniform and homogeneous not to

introduce errors in the measurement due to the material itself as

distinct from those inherent in the method of measurement. This

class of test will be applied, primarily, for the calibration of standard samples for the testing of permeameters or for certain classes

of research where the highest possible accuracy is required. Class B

tests are to be made in the great majority of cases. The particular

method to be employed in a given instance will depend upon circumstances, but, in general, the precision apparatus Avill not be used.

The accuracy attained will depend somewhat upon conditions, but

methods will be chosen which are capable of yielding results of satisfactory accuracy for the purpose for which they are to be used. In

order to provide a method for the testing of small samjoles of materials available only in small quantities, a magnetic comparator has

been developed capable of testing with satisfactory accuracy samples

G millimeters in diameter and 10 centimeters long. This principle

is also being extended for the testing of the larger specimens regularly used for routine tests. Magnetometric Measurements.

For certain classes of research, such, for example, as the determination of the effect of high temperatures on magnetic properties,

magnetometric methods are most convenient. Special apparatus has

been designed and is being installed for making this type of measurement. This work is being carried on as time and resources permit, and it is hoped that eventually the apparatus will be completed so that satisfactorj^ measurements can be made. This line of

investigation offers great promise in the study of structural transformation in iron and steel during heating or cooling as revealed

by corresponding clianges iia their magnetic properties.

Correlation of Properties.

For the development of magnetic methods for nondestructive test- ing of steel and steel products fundamental data on the correlation

of the magnetic properties of steel with the various factors influenc-
KEPOET OF DIRECTOR OF BUREAU OF STANDARDS. 61

ing its mechanical properties are important. One of these factors is

chemical composition. An investigation has been under way during

the year on the effect of manganese on the magnetic properties of

heat-treated carbon steel. Only steel having approximately 0.9 per

cent carbon has been examined so far. The effect of manganese up

to 0.75 per cent for this carbon content is apparent^ practically

negligible.

Magnet Steel.

A joint investigation with the metallurgical division has been

started for the determination of the effects of composition and heat

treatment upon the magnetic and other properties of various steels,

Avith particular reference to those now used commercially or suggested for the manufacture of permanent magnets. Various special

alloys have recently been developed for this purpose, but in view

of the meager data generally available on the steels ordinarily used

for this purpose it has seemed best to give first attention to the

regular commercial types of magnet steels. As this investigation

has just been started no data are yet available.

Rifle Barrel Testing.

When a rifle barrel is burnt in process of manufacture, the re- sult is a weak barrel, which ultimately fails in service. While this

type of defect is rare, the results may be serious, and the ordinary

methods of inspection do not always indicate the bad condition.

The magnetic properties of burnt steel are markedly different from

those of steel which has received the normal treatment. For this ^ reason a magnetic test might be expected to reveal the burnt condition. At the request of the Army Ordnance Department apparatus

has been contsructed to investigate the possibilities of a magnetic

method for detecting burnt barrels. This apparatus is now being

given a test under working conditions to see if its use as a method

of inspection is practicable.

Pull of Solenoids (Fischer).

The design of solenoid-operated mechanisms is rather difficult, due

to the complicated relationships involved. Apparatus has been constructed for measuring the pull of solenoids on plungers, and data

are being collected as time permits on the influence of various factors

on the magnitude of this pull. Such data, of which few are available, should be of value in the design of electromagnetic mechanisms.

Cooperation with Technical Committees.

The section has cooperated actively with two technical committees

of the American Society for Testing Materials. The committee on

magnetic properties has completely revised its specifications for

standard magnetic tests during the year, and the committee on magnetic analysis has been conducting an investigation on the testing of

tAvist drills in which the section has cooperated.

5. PHOTOMETRY AND ILLUMINATING ENGINEERING.

E. C. Crittenden.

Calibration of Standard Lamps ()Villis, Aman).

Since all candlepower and illumination measurements made in the

United States depend on the reference standards preserved at the
62 REPORT OF DIRECTOR OF BUREAU OF STANDARDS.

bureau, the first duty of the photometric section is the provision of

calibrated standards for research, university and testing laboratories,

and lamp factories. For several years the demands for such service

have been so great that requests have accumulated, and the bui^au

has not been able to furnish standards promptly. This demand has

continued during the past year, but a special effort has been made

to bring the work up to date. At the close of the fiscal year there

remained on hand 117 standard lamps to be calibrated, but it is hoped that all pending tests can be completed during the next fewmonths.

Photometric Methods (Tayloi', Willis).

The use of integrating spheres continues to increase, and spherical

measurements, which give directly an indication of the total light

output of lamps, appear likely to supersede the older methods almost

entirely in jjractical testing. Scientific Paj^er No. 447 on this subject

was issued during the year, and a j^aper on sphere photometers was

presented befoi'e the Illuminating Engineering Societj-. Considerable work has been done on methods for correcting errors which may

arise from lack of jierfect whiteness of the sphere coating.

On the problem of a general method for comparing liglits of different colors little progress has been made. Some tests of total transmission of colored filters have, hoAvever, given opportunity for comjDarison of results with those obtained by spectrophotometric methods

in the colorimetry section, and the agreement obtained has been

fairly satisfactory'. The most imjDortant immediate bearing of this

photometric problem is on the relative A'alues to be assigned to incandescent lamps in which the filaments operate at different temperatures and correspondingly different colors. As was indicated in last

yeai''s report, the bureau is maintaining independenth- sets of refer- ence standards rej^resenting the three most important types of lamps

(carbon filament, vacuum tungsteza, and gas-filled tungsten), pending international agreement on a general method of comparing these

types.

Inspection and Life Tests of Electric Lamps Purchased by the Government (Skogiand, Anderson, Collins).

As during the fiscal j'ear 1922, the quantity of lamps ordered by

Government departments during the fiscal year 1923 was considerably smaller than for several years preceding. The aggregate number was about 1,355,000 lamps, valued at $353,000. The average cost

per lamp was about 26 cents, as compared with 30.4 cents in 1922.

This ditt'erence in unit cost is largely accounted for by the two re- ductions in the price of tungsten lamps which were made during the

year.

Of the total number of lamps purchased 86 per cent were large

tungsten lamps as distinguished from miniature and carbon lamps.

The corresponding percentage in 1922 was 79. The increase in

tungsten lamps was largely in the vacuum type and was due to the

adoption of mill-type tungsten lamps instead of carbon lamps, formerly used extensively by the Navy Department. The quantity of

carbon lamps was thus reduced to about 3.5 per cent of the total. Of

the large tungsten lamps 15.4 per cent in number and 33.3 per cent

in cost were of the gas-tilled type.
KEPORT OF DIRECTOR OF BUREAU OF STANJIAEDS. 63

Since several large orders placed late in the fiscal year 1922 were

inspected during the current year, more lamps were inspected than

were actually ordered during the year, the total being about 1,640,-

500. As samples representing these inspected lamj^s there were subjected to life test at the bureau during the 3'ear, 1,318 A'acuum tungsten, 216 gas-filled tungsten, and 74 carbon lamps, a total of 1,608.

The bureau also made tests on about 350 samples representing a number of brands of lamps submitted to the States of New York and

Illinois in competition for .State contracts. Late in the year an inspection of one factory Avas made at the request of the State of Pennsylvania in connection with its contract for the coming year. These

special inspections and tests for the various States have given the

bureau considerable information regai'ding brands of lamps which

are not incliwiled in the testing work regularly done for the Federal

GoA^ernment.

In connection with the preparation of reports on the life tests, considerable time has been giA^en to the study of lamp cliaracteristics and

mortality curves showing the scattering of lamps from the average in

regard to length of serA-ice. A large amount of detailed data on

perfonnance of lamps has also been compiled for the information of

the various factories which furnished lamps to the GoA^ernment. In

one case a considerable study was made in coopei^ation with the metallurgical diAasion on crystallization of filaments as affecting the life of

the lamps.

Specifications for Incandescent Electric Lamps.

The tenth edition of Circular Xo. 13, United States Government

Specifications for Large Tungsten Filament Incandescent Electric

Lamps, was issued during the year, and this revised specification

was adopted by the Federal Specifications Board for the use of the

various departments of the Government.

Reflection Factor Measurements (Willis).

Some years ago several types of instruments for measuring the

reflection factors of surfaces were developed at the bureau. These

instruments mark a decided improA'ement in accuracy as compared

Avith earlier forms. During the past year, however, questions have

arisen regarding the relative values for reflection factors obtained in

different laboratories. In order to determine the cause of tliese discrepancies comparative measurements made in four different laboratories have been arranged. Up to the present time the results obtained have indicated that there are important differences betAveen

these laboratories, but an explanation has not yet been found.

Motor Vehicle Lighting (Smith, Malamphy).

Continuing the activities in behalf of uniformity of State requirements, which were mentioned in last year's report, the bureau has

carried on seA^eral projects during the year. These have included

tests of headlight devices, a study of the illumination i-equired to

render license plates legible under A^arious conditions, and several investigations intended to show the effect of variation in reflectoi-s and

lamps on test results.

At the request of the Washington Safety Council and the special

traffic committee appointed by the Commissioners of the District of

Columbia the bureau drew up a set of headlight regulations for the
64 KEPOKT OF DIRECTOR OF BUREAU OF STANDARDS.

Disti-ict. These regulations have not yet been adopted, but since they

are in conformity with those of neighboring States it is believed that

eventually they will be accepted. In connection with this assistance

given to the District two lectures were given to chauffeurs as a part

of the course arranged by the Safety Council. Simple instructions

for the adjustment of headlight devices were prepared and a special

demonstration was given for garage men in the District. In order to

show the need of more attention to adjustment of devices, a series of

tests on cars in service was made. These 'tests included over 400 cars and showed definitely that a very large percentage of them, even when

equipped with approved devices, were not in satisfactory^ adjustment.

In this work the automotive section of the bui^eau cooperated, and a paper describing the general results of the tests was prepared.

Miscellaneous Illumination Problems (Willis).

The bureau was called on to give advice in regard to illumination in

several Government buildings, including the Patent Office and some

rooms of the Post Office equipped for special tests. Advice was also

given in regard to instruments and general procedure in a survey of

post-office workrooms carried out by the Public Health Service.

An extensive test of gasoline mantle lamps was made at the request

of the Department of Justice to determine the relative performance of

mantles of different brands.

Assistance in the calibration of instruments and special filters was

rendered to several offices of the Depailment of Agriculture concerned

with measurements of light as affecting the growth of plants.

As a continuation of measurements made at the bureau immediately

following the war some work has been done on the properties of

searchlight beams, with particular reference to the distribution of

light in them. The section has also been charged with responsibility

for investigations on the use of colored signals for control of traffic to

be made in connection with code work on this subject managed by the

safety engineering section.

6. RADIO COMMUNICATION.

J. H. Dellinger.

Radio Interference,

With the increasing use of radio communication it becomes more

important to reduce the interference between radio waves. This

means that all transmitting stations must operate exclusively on the

frequencies assigned them, must use as small power as required to

reach the necessary distance, and must use waves which are as sharp

as possible. One of the immediate objectives of radio research generally, and of the bureau's radio work particularly, is the reduction of

radio interference in each of these respects. The requirement of a sharp wave means that the radio wave must occupy as narrow a band

as possible in the wave-frequency spectrum. The breadth of the wave

is therefore a measure of its interference-producing quality, and for

this reason a research has been started on the measurement of the

breadth of waves. The particularly difficult problem of correction

for the effect of the receiving circuits used in any such measurements

is being studied. Experiments have been commenced also on the
REPORT OF DIRECTOR OF BUREAU OF SrAXJ)ARDS. 65

I effects of modulation and frequency variation on the breadth of waves.

Electrical (nonradio) interference with radio reception is beI coming increasingly important. While the bureau has done little

! experimental work on the subject, it has made a preliminary study

1 of it and has had much correspondence on the matter. The National

Electric Light Association, Institute of Eadio Engineers, American

j Eadio Eelay League, and many other radio and electrical interests

i have urged that the bureau undertake a comprehensive study of the

problem, but the necessary means have not jet been provided. Eadio

reception is frequently interfered with and in some cities almost entirely prevented by electrical disturbances from such sources as

I series arc circuits, battery chargers, powder lines containing sparking

I commutators, leaky insulators, telephone bell ringing magnetos, and

electrical precipitation processes.

I Statistical Study of Distance Range (Jansky, Engel).

Along with the study of methods of measurement of interference,

woi'k has been conducted to determine the actual extent and effect

of interference in radio reception as expei'ienced by broadcast

listeners. A statistical study of distance range of radio transmission from broadcasting stations has been made, the obsei^vations

' being taken by about 100 volunteer observers. The bureau had the

cooperation of the American Eadio Eelay League, the Westinghouse

, broadcasting station at Pittsburgh, and the University of Minnej sota in selecting observers and editing the observation forms, about

i 7,200 of which were received. These are being analyzed by the sorting and counting machines of the Bureau of the Census. The rej suits show the effect upon distance range of the distance, wave frequency, type of receiving apparatus, and various sources of inter-

» ference. The analysis of results to date shows that the principal

obstacle to reception is interference from broadcast stations other

than the one which the listener desires to hear. The next greatest

obstacle is fading of signals (except in the summer when atmospheric disturbances are worse) , and the smallest of the observed

obstacles to reception is interference from power lines. The results

showed that there is a region ofjninimum reception about 100 miles

from a transmitting station, such that louder signals are received both

nearer to and farther from the transmitting station than in this

region. The distance of this region from the transmitting station

is roughly proportional to the wave length. •

Radio Fog Signalling (Dunmore).

Cooperation with the Bureau of Lighthouses in the improvement

of the radio fog-signalling service was continued. An automatic

transmitting set of Bureau of Standards type was adjusted in a new beacon station near Baltimore. Preliminary specifications were

prepared for an automatic transmitting set of electron-tube type.

Such sets will give rise to much less interference with other radio

communication, will modernize the beacon system, and will have

•greater distance range. Some consideration was given to the improvement of design of direction finders for use on shipboard.

65077—23-
66 EEPOKT or DIRECTOR OF BUREAU OF STAKDARDS.

Radio Recorders.

A radio time-signal relaj' was designed and constructed for the

recording of Arlington time signals by the section of the bureau

dealing with time standardization. This relay is essentially a re- ceiving set adjustable to a single frequency and is veiy rugged and

positive in action.

Aircraft Radio Problems (Dunmore, Engel).

Work was carried out for the Air Service on the development of

an altimeter utilizing variations of capacitance detected by radio

methods. Reports on tlais subject were furnished to the Air Service.

Special work on the application to aircraft of radio communication

on 3,000 kilocycles was also done (see " Short wave radio communication " below).

Radio Wave Phenomena (Whittemore)

A paper describing the bureau's work on the fading or fluctuations

of short wave radio signals was sent to press. This paper is to be

issued as a scientific paper of the bureau and an abbreviated version

is to appear in QST. A paper has also been prepared on the methods of statistical analysis used in the foregoing work and in the study

of distance range.

The bureau is represented on the committee on earth currents and

polar lights of the Aimerican Geophysical Union, which is making a study of the effect of aurora on radio transmission. Observation

forms for radio and aurora conditions were prepared for the McMillan Polar Expedition in cooperation with the American Radio

Relay League and Carnegie Institution. The purpose of these

forms, to be filled out by observers on the expedition and on land in

the northern parts of North America, is to reveal relations between

radio and auroral phenomena.

Assistance was given in the preparation of programs and general

organization of work on radio phenomena in connection with the International Union of Scientific Radio Telegraphy (see paragraph on

this subject below).

Short Wave Radio Communication (Dunmore, Engel).

A research has been under way fSr the Air Service of the Army

on the practicability of radio communication at higher frequencies

than those used in the past. The use of such frequencies, largely

neglected lT,eretofore, has been found to have a number of important

advantages. Interference is less because a much narrower percentage band of frequencies is utilized by radio telephony or any given

type of modulation than at lower wave frequencies.

Apparatus was developed for both transmission and reception on

a frequency of 3,000 kilocycles per second (100 meters). Both telegraphy and telephony on this fi-equency were found to be thoroughly

practicable. In two-way tests between Washington and Pittsburgh

it was found that the fading was materially less than in communication at lower frequencies.

When the experiments were carried to a frequency 10 times the

foregoing, namely, 30,000 kilocycles per second (10 meters), it was

possible to concentrate the waves in a desired direction by means

of a parabolic cylindrical reflector of parallel wires. Both teleg-
REPORT OF DIRECTOR OF BUREAU OF STANDARDS. 67

graphy and telephony were accomplished under these conditions.

Special 100-watt generating apparatus was develoi^ed, and the signals were received by a small loop antenna.

Electron Tubes (JollifFe).

A study was made of the effect of regeneration in receiving sets. It was found that the amplification due to regeneration decreases

Avith increase of signal strength and that the effect of regeneration

is not strictly equivalent -to a negative resistance for different values

of current in the circuit. A study was made of various means of

preventing reradiation from regenerative receiving sets. This is an

important phase of the interference problem, since the disturbance

radiated from such sets gives rise to annoying noises in the receiving

sets of near-by users. A brief experimental study was made of superregeneration.

Life tests were undertaken on the newer types of receiving tubes.

This work is in progress in cooperation with the tube manufacturers

and the Navy and the Army. It has involved a selection of properties for periodic measurements and the establishment of a time

schedule for the routine of the life tests. A study of the power rating of power tubes is under way. Two

radio telephone sets for general laboratory use and for the transmission of standard frequencj'' signals have been constructed.

Insulating Materials (Preston, Strock).

Measurements of radio-frequency properties were made on a number of samples of phenolic insulating material, hard rubber, celluloid,

and miscellaneous materials.

Work was also carried out on the standardization of methods of

testing the properties of electrical insulating materials in cooj)eration

with the American Society for Testing Materials, the bureau being

represented on committee D-9, insulating materials. The bureau's

methods of measuring radio-frequency properties were adopted by

this committee as tentative standards.

Radio Measurements.

In cooperation with the Radio Inspection Service a number of

improvements were made in the wave meters used by the radio inspectors. Specifications were drawn up for the design and construction of two coils to increase the frequency range of the wave meters.

Improvements were made in the resonance indicators. A special

scale was designed for use with the instrument which increases the

precision of reading frequency or wave length by a factor of six.

This work has been essential in view of the increasing use of con- tinuous wave radio-transmitting apparatus and the closer spacing of

wave frequencies assigned to radio stations.

A differential measurement device for rapid radio-frequency

measurements was designed and constructed. The cathode-ray oscillograph tubes used in connection with fundamental frequency standardization were improved by evacuation by special apparatus, and

measurements were made on the radio-frequency impedance of a number of telephone receivers.

Design of Radio Standards (Preston).

A number of improA'ements were made in the design of the variable

air condensers used as radio-frequency standards. A series of special
68 REPORT OF DIRECTOR OF BUREAU OF STANDARDS.

inductance coils was designed which gives a comprehensive set of

standards for inductance and frequency measurement in a radio

laboratory.

The Eadio Inspection Service was assisted in the design of a very

compact wave meter for the broadcast range of frequencies. Two

designs were prepared for a frequency indicator; that is, a nonadjustable wave meter, which indicates at one frequency only. This

device is for use in a broadcast transmitting station to set the frequency accurately on the assigned frequency. The use of a device of

this type was recommended by the Second National Radio Conference.

Improvements in Frequency Standard.

The increase in the use of radio communication and particularly

radio telephony has required that radio transmitting stations be set more accurately than in the past on the exact assigned wave frequency. In order to minimize interference it appeared desirable to assure the accuracy of such setting to 0.1 per cent, and this re- quired that the bureau increase the accuracy of its frequency standardization of wave meters. This necessary extension of accuracy has

been made and its validity assured through the use of four independent methods of establishing a standard of frequency. One

of these is the calculation of frequency from inductance and capacitance embodied in carefully constructed standards, such that the

values are the same at radio frequencies as at low frequencies.

The second method is a step-up to radio frequencies from the frequency of a carefully standardized tuning fork by means of frequency ratios determined by the cathode-ray oscillograph. This

method is capable of extreme accuracy. The third method is a stepup from the frequency of a tuning fork by the use of harmonics of

an electron-tube generator, while the fourth method is the step-down

to radio frequencies from ultra radio frequencies, such that the

corresponding wave length can be measured by means of short

standing waves on parallel wires.

Besides the establishment of a more accurate frequency basis the

problem involves the production and maintenance of standards which

will preserve a very constant frequency basis. This has involved

studies of accurate wave meter design. Some measurements were

made on piezo-electric resonators, which are extremely compact, and

will be given further study as accurate frequency standards. While

the work which has been done in improving the accuracy of frequency measurements has had gratifying success, it now appears

necessary to go still further, and the problem will be continued with

a view to securing an accuracy of at least 0.01 per cent in the

bureau's frequency standard.

Standard Frequency Transmission (Walls, Hall).

Frequency is a quantity of which the standard can be made available without the necessity of transporting physical instruments.

Advantage has been taken of this property to extend greatly the

availability of the bureau's frequency standard by the transmission

of radio signals of standard frequency. A special radio telegraph

and telephone transmitting set was constructed for this purpose.

Following two preliminary transmissions, which incidentally re-
REPORT OF DIRECTOR OF BUREAU OF STANDARDS. 69

suited in a direct comparison of the actual state of calibration of

wave meters in use, signals of standard frequency have been transmitted about once in two weeks. The schedules and other details are announced in the press and in the Radio Service Bulletin. The

frequency range from 75 to 2,000 kilocycles (4,000 to 150 meters) has.

been covered.

The frequency basis of the bureau is made available also by measuring from time to time the frequency of the wave actually transmitted by various stations to check their use of the frequencies

assigned them, to check their degree of constancy, and to determine

Avhether their transmission is of a sufficiently constant frequency

to make them available as frequency standards. It is proposed to

announce the frequencies of stations which have shown themselves

to be in the latter class, such stations then becoming available as points of a standard frequency scale.

Receiving Sets and Amplifiers (Whittemore, Preston, Strock).

Measurements were completed on the characteristics and performance of 34 commercial receiving sets of a wide variety of types

and frequency range, and further study and improvements were

made of the methods of measuring sensitivity and selectivity.

A series of five circulai's on the construction and operation of very

simple radio receiving sets was prepared, and in connection with this

work models of these sets Avere constructed. These sets have been

received with faA^or by many of the younger amateurs and are now

in wide use. Measurements Avere made of the A'oltage amplification and input

impedance of 17 commercial audio-frequency amplifiers.

Radio Testing (Hall).

The apparatus for radio testing Avas improved. A conA'enient set- up for capacitance measurement at radio frequencies Avas prepared,

and an additional Avorking standard wave meter Avas provided with

devices for precise adjustment to resonance. A considerable amount

of the testing Avas for the Eadio Inspection Service. Certain of the

parts used in the Avave meters employed by the radio inspectors were put in stock to avoid delays in testing.

Much more testing was requested by various institutions and individuals than the bureau could handle. In order to inform persons

Avhose tests the bureau Avas compelled to refuse for various reasons,

the qualifications of a number of private testing laboratories were

investigated, and a list of such laboratories is now given applicants

for tests Avhich the bureau itself can not make. The testing of wave

meters at other places than in the bureau's laboratory is noAV facilitated through the standard-frequency signals which are periodically

transmitted; such standardization is better than a Avave-meter test made at the bureau, since the Avave meter dees not have to be

transported.

Standardization of Radio Equipment (Whittemore).

A national movement for. the standardization of radio apparatus

and service Avas launched by the bureau. At the request of the

Institute of Radio Engineers, the National Radio Chamber of Commerce, Associated Manufacturers of Electrical Supplies, the National

Retail Dry Goods Association, American Radio Relay League, Radio
70 BEPORT OF DIRECTOR OE BUREAU OP STANDARDS.

Corporation of America, and the American Engineering Standards

Committee the bureau called a general conference of all radio interests on January 12. The result of this conference was the formation of a sectional committee of the American Engineering Standards

Conmiittee for radio standardization. Since the conference the

bureau has participated in the preliminary Avork of organizing the

sectional committee.

The bureau has been represented on the standardization committee

of the Institute of Radio Engineers, which recently completed its

work, in progress for some years on the standardization of radio

nomenclature and graphical symbols. The results of this study

have been published in the 1922 report of the committee on standardization of the Institute of Radio Engineers.

Extensive correspondence was carried on with manufacturers of

radio apparatus in connection with the revision of Letter "Circular

No. 66, List of Manufacturers and Sole United States Distributors

of Radio Receiving Equipment. This work progressed to the stage

where it could be more properly handled by the electrical equipment division of the Bureau of Foreign and Domestic Commerce.

It is now issued as a pamphlet by that bureau under the title, " List

of Manufacturers and Sole Distributors of Radio Apparatus and

Parts."

Radio Information (Ould, Zandonini).

The volume of requests for radio information of all kinds was far

beyond the ability of the bureau to handle adequately, but was not

as great as in the previous year. The amount of time required to

handle this correspondence has been reduced through systematization of types of letters used in reply and of reference files and other

sources of information.

An information service provided by the laboratory which has won

much commendation from technical radio workers is the reference

lists which are published each month in the Radio Service Bulletin.

The preparation of these monthly lists was begun two years ago, but

it was not until August, 1922, that they appeared in printed form.

They furnish a classified list of references to the principal radio

articles of technical interest appearing in the current periodical

iiterature.

Second National Radio Conference (Dellinger, Whittemore).

A conference was called by Secretary Hoover on March 20 to 24

to advise him in the administration of the radio laws. The bureau

participated in this conference, which represented United States

radio interests generally. The result of the conference was the

assignment of new wave frequencies throughout the whole radio

range, so chosen as to reduce interference which has become excessive.

The conference made a number of other recommendations which are proving of assistance to the department in its difficult task of administering the radio laws and international convention which have become obsolete from the technical standpoint.

Interdepartment Radio Advisory Committee (Stratton, Dellinger,

Whittemore).

The committee, which was organized toward the end of the previous fiscal year, has proved successful in coordinating the radio
KEPORT OF DIRECTOR OF BUREAU OF STANDARDS. 71

work of the Government. The scope of the committee's work was

extended dui-ing the year from radio broadcasting to all radio

matters. The bureau's representatives participated in the work of

various subcommittees, particularly that of the subcommittee on

technical problems. Through the work of this subcommittee a complete list giving all essential details of the equipment and operation

of all Government radio stations has been prepared for the first time.

The committee has carried on important studies of radio interference

and has begun a general program of standardization of radio equipment. The report of the work of the committee was issued by the'

Department of Commerce May 28.

International Union of Scientific Radio Telegraphy (Bellinger).

The bureau assisted in the work of tliis organization, which is

promoting international cooperation on some of the larger problems

in radio communication. The problems include radio wave transmission phenomena, atmospheric disturbances, methods of measure- ment and standards, and measurement of radiation causing interference. University and other reseai'ch workers were consulted on

various phases of the technical problems under study.

General Radio Work.

The bureau cooperated with a number of organizations in radio

matters besides those mentioned in the foregoing. Among such

organizations may be mentioned the American Radio Relay League,

to which information was furnished on the various problems. The

bureau participated in the work of a radio committee, consisting of

representatives of the several bureaus of the Department of Commerce having to do with radio matters. This committee was useful

in coordinating the department's radio work touching broadcasting,

the marine direction finder, radio regulations, and preparations for

the future international radio conference.

The bureau has taken the lead in undertaking to introduce the

concept and iinit of frequency instead of wave length in radio work.

This practice was recommended by the Second National Radio Conference. An accurate and convenient table for converting kilocycles

and meters was prepared, and this, together with a statement, " The

use of kilocycles in radio," was issued to the press May 7. Exhibits showing the radio work were furnished to a number of

expositions and the model showing the radio fog signaling system

was loaned to the Second Annual Marine Exposition in New York

and to an exposition in Atlanta. Ga.

7. ELECTROLYSIS PREVENTION.

Burton McCollum.

Electrolysis Work.

Electrolysis testing and mitigation heretofore have been handicapped by very inadequate methods of determining electrolysis conditions because methods of test formerly available did not give a

direct measurement of the factor causing corrosion. About two years

ago there was developed at the bureau an earth current meter, which

is an instrument for accurately measuring the currents directly re- sponsible for electrolytic corrosion. This apparatus measures the
72 EEPOKT OF DIKECTOK OF BUREAU OF STANDARDS.

leakage current in the earth near the pipe or cable and permits an

accurate determination of electrolysis conditions at the point of test. During the past j'ear the instrument has been used extensively in

field Tvork in a number of cities, partly for the purpose of developing the procedure in applying the apparatus to electrolysis testing

and partly to acquaint engineers ^vith the possibilities of the new

method. The new instrument also makes it possible to study the

relative merits of different methods of electrolysis mitigation in a much more definite and accurate T\'ay than was possible under the

older methods of test, and considerable application of the instrument

has been made by the bureau in this field.

As a part of the stud}" of errors involved in electrolysis testing a large amount of laboratory work has been done on the galvanic and

polarization potentials which are set up between metals under

conditions which might occur on public-utility networks. It has

been demonstrated that the ordinary potential difference measure- ments between a pipe and a near-by point in the earth as made

heretofore may include a galvanic voltage of a tenth of a volt or more and thus give rise to very misleading conclusions. This not

only shows that such tests, largely relied upon in electrolysis testing, are inaccurate, but shows also that such galvanic voltages may often

be an important factor in the deterioration of pipe and cable

networks.

Soil Corrosion (Logan).

The soil-corrosion investigation was started in 1922, chiefly for

the purpose of determining the extent of the corrosive action of

different kinds of soil on various kinds of metals used for pipe purposes and of determining the importance of this corrosion in diagnosing cases of damage alleged to be caused by stray cui'rents.

This work has been expanded, at the ui'gent request of pipe'manufacturers and of many public-utility corporations, to include a study

of the effectiveness of bituminous and metallic coatings as a protection against soil action. Eight bituminous coatings and four kinds

of metallic coatings are being tested in a large number of localities

carefull}' selected throughout the country. This work is being clone

with the active cooperation of the public-utility companies in many

parts of the country, pipe manufacturers, and the Bureau of Soils

of the Department of Agriculture.

Electric Telemeter (Peters).

In last year's report mention Avas made of the fact that this sec- tion had under development a series of electric telemetric (remote

reading or recording) devices of the carbon-resistor type, and that

these devices were finding application in the measurement of strains,

stresses, and forces, particularly those of rapidly vax\ying character.

During the year considerable pi'ogress has been made in this work,

and the following pieces of field and laboratorj' apparatus have

been constructed

1. A six-element photographic field outfit of the carbon-resistor

type for measuring strains in steel structures due to live loads.

With this apparatus simultaneous photographic records may be

made of vibratory strains at six widely separated points, having

frequencies of as high as 100 CA'cle^per second.
KEPOPvT OF DIRECTOR OF BUREAU OF STANDARDS. 73

2. A calibrating device with a micrometer microscope suitable for

calibrating carbon-resistor gauges for field use and also for studying the performance of resistor elements in detail.

3. An indicating panel for laboratory use in studying forms of

gauges and checking their constancy for laboratory use.

4. Three single-element indicating strain gauges for laboratory

use.

6. One four-element pull indicator for measuring the pull on the

pressure arms of a set of dynamometers for testing brake-band

material.

Eesearch on high-resistance carbons has also been carried on, and

it is now possible to make carbon resistors ranging in resistance

from 10 to 100 ohms each and having a working range of 50 per

cent of the initial value; that is, a 100-ohm stack Avould have a working range of from 100 to 150 ohms. These values permit the

use of much longer leads than have been used heretofore and make

the design of indicating instruments a simpler matter than with lowresistance stacks.

Several new forms of mountings for carbon resistors have been

made for the purpose of minimizing the exaggeration of effects due

to vibration and to buckling or bending of structural members. A

large amount of work has also been done in cooperation with the

Bureau of Aeronautics of the Navy Department and the Air Service

of the Army in the design, assembly, and calibration of apparatus for

their special purposes.

8. SAFETY ENGINEERING.

M. G. Lloyd.

National Electrical Safety Code.

The bureau has been engaged for 10 years in a study of the life

hazard in electrical practice and in the preparation and application

of the National Electrical Safety Code. In this work it has had

the cooperation and assistance of a large number of engineers con- nected witli electrical o]3erating and manufacturing companies, State

commissions, municipalities, and insurance underwriters. The electrical workers and the various national associations in the electrical

industry have also cooperated effectively in this work. The importance of having a national code, uniform in all the States, is

generally realized, as is also the advantage of having such a code

prepared and presented by a national agency that can study the subject thoroughly and consult all the interests affected. The Electrical

Safety Code consists of four principal parts, as follows

1. Rules for the installation and maintenance of machinerj^, switchhoards, and wiring in central stations and substations.

2. Rules for the construction and maintenance of overhead and

underground lines for the transmission and distribution of electrical

energy and intelligence.

3. Rules for the installation and maintenance of electrical apparatus and wiring in factories, residences, and wherever electricity is

utilized for light, heat, or power.

4. Rules to be observed by operators in working on or near electrical machines or lines.
74 REPORT OF DIRECTOR OF BUREAU OF STANDARDS.

A sujjplementary section includes rules for the grounding of circuits and equipment.

The bureau's thorough study of the diverse conditions under which

electricity is generated, distributed, and utilized and of the effect

of the rules on operating and construction costs has secured a code which involves no unreasonable expense, but, in general, as- sures an adequate measure of safety and a useful standardization of

practice. The varying conditions in different geographical sections

and in thickly and thinly populated districts have been given careful

attention.

The third edition of the" code was published under date of October

31, 1920, as Handbook No. 3. The discussion was separated from the

rules and issued as a separate volume known as Handbook No. 4. Both the rules and the discussion were extensively revised and amplified, and this edition of the rules is in suitable form for adoption

by State commissions, municipalities, and other agencies having appropriate jurisdiction.

Such mandatory application of the rules is already being made,

the States of Iowa, Nevada, North Dakota, Oklahoma, Oregon, Tennessee, and Wisconsin having adopted rules based on the third edition. Other administrative bodies had previously adopted rules

comprising this code in whole or in part, and it is generally

recognized as the most complete and satisfactory standard in its

field. This code has been approved by the American Engineering

Standards Committee as an American standard. Part 2, dealing

with overhead line construction, is being revised, with the assistance

of a sectional committee under American Engineering Standards

Committee procedure, preparatory to a fourth edition.

A pictorial edition of the rules showing their application by illustrations is in course of preparation. It is also expected to publish a volume of engineering data referring to matters connected with the

rules or with overhead line construction. These data will include

more extensive tables for the sags of conductors and will include

tables regarding the supporting structures, such as wood and concrete poles and steel towers.

Electrical Safety Conference.

The Electrical Safety Conference, organized to promote the

orderly, consistent, and proper development of practice in electrical

manufacturing and installation with regard to accident hazards, includes representatives of the Associated Manufacturers of Electrical

Supplies, the Electric Power Club, the National Bureau of Casualty

and Surety Underwriters, Underwriters Laboratories, National Electric Light Association, Association of Electragists-International,

and the Bureau of Standards. Detailed standards for construction

and installation of apparatus are being worked out by the conference

in harmony with the Electrical Safety Code. The conference has

already adopted standards for industrial control equipment, rotary

machinery, switchboards, and oil switches and circuit breakers.

Others are in course of preparation, those dealing with panel boards

and inclosed switches being nearly completed.

Safety Code for Lightning Protection (Peters).

As joint sponsor with the American Institute of Electrical Engineers, the Bureau of Standards has organzied a sectional com-
REPORT OF DIRECTOR OF BUREAU OF STANDARDS. 75

mittee of the American Engineering Standards Committee to prepare a code for the protection of buildings and other property against

lightning. This work will consist of three parts: (1) The protection

of persons, buildings, livestock, ships, smokestacks, trees, balloons,

airships, and hangars; (2) the protection of structures containing

inflammable liquids and gases; and (3) the protection of electrical

lines and apparatus. The first part of the rules, including specifications for lightning rods and rules for safeguarding human life, has

been the subject of a number of committee meetings and much cor- respondence with interested persons throughout the country and is now approaching its final form.

Industrial Safety Standards.

As a result of the work on the National Electrical Safety Code

and the numerous points of contact thus established with State

authorities and others interested in safety work, the bureau was

called upon to enlarge the scope of this work and to consider safety

requirements in other than the electrical industry. Two large and

representative conferences held at the bureau in 1919 decided that all

of this work should be placed under the auspices of the American

Engineering Standards Committee, which was reorganized and en- larged as a result of these conferences. Provision was also made for

the formation of a joint safety code committee to prepare a list of

codes already in existence urgently needed and to recommend

sponsors for preparing and revising these codes. This committee

has since been succeeded by the Safety Code Correlating Committee,

upon which the bureau is represented. Recommendations have been

made to the American Engineering Standards Committee for a large

number of safety codes and most of the recommendations have been

approved by that body.

The Bureau of Standards has, upon invitation from the American Engineering Standards Committee, accepted sponsorship for

the following codes

Electrical safety code.

Gas safety code (joint sponsorship with the American Gas Association).

Code for the protection of the heads and eyes of industrial workers.

Combined electrical fire and safety code.

Code for protection against lightning (joint sponsorship with the American

Institute of Electrical Engineers).

Safety code for logging and sawmill operations.

Safety code for aeronautics (joint sponsorship with the Society of Automotive

Engineers).

Code for the colors of traffic signals (joint sponsorship with the National

Safety Council and American Association of State Highway Officials).

Safety code for elevators (joint sponsorship with American Society of Mechanical Engineers and the American Institute of Architects).

A large number of safety codes are being developed by sectional

committees organized by other Federal bureaus and engineering

societies as sponsors. The bureau is represented upon many of these

committees and is doing active work in the development of the codes

under their jurisdiction.

Code for Head and Eye Protection.

The National Safety Code for the Protection of the Heads and

Eyes of Industrial "Workers was first issued in 1921. During the
76 REPORT OF DIRECTOR OF BrREAL' OF STANDAKDS.

current year a second edition \Yas published. This code states the

type of protection needed in various occupations and processes and

inchides si^ecifications for goggles, helmets, and other devices which

provide such j)rotection. It has been generally recognized as the

most authoritative work upon this subject and has been approved

bv the American Engineering Standards Committee.

Logging and Sawmill Code (Dickinson).

After several years of work in field inspections and a study of the

processes followed in this industry the preliminary rough draft of

this safety code has been revised and improved until it now represents a standard for j^ractice which provides the safety requirements

so mucli needed in this hazardous industry. This code covers the

felling of standing timber; the transportation of logs to the sawmill

by the various methods of skidding, river driving, and railroading,

including the use of donkey engines and boilers ; the storage and use of explosives ; and the operations of transforming logs into dimension lumber at the sawmill, including the operation of dry kilns.

The code is now complete and ready for publication, having been

approA'ed by the sectional committee which has cooperated with the

bureau in its formulation. Tliis committee included representatives

of the chief lumber interests, State labor officials, manufacturers of

logging and sawmill equipment, timber workers, and insurance companies, as well as otlier experts on the «ubject.

Aeronautical Safety Code (Halsted).

This code will include requirements for the construction and operation of airplanes, airships, and their power plants; requirements

for landing fields for balloons and for parachutes; and will specify

the qualifications for aviators and the traffic rules to be observed

in the navigation of the air. Parts dealing with balloons, airships,

and landing fields have been completed, and work upon the remaining parts of the subject are nearing completion. This work has been

carried out in cooperation with the Society of Automotive Engineers

and a conunittee representative of the various interests concerned in

this industry.

Elevator Safety Code (Dickinson).

An Elevator Safety Code has already been published by the American Society of Mechanical Engineers, members of the bureau's

staif having taken an active part in its preparation. As a joint

sponsor the bureau is now taking part in the revision of this code.

The next edition will contain not only rules for the construction and

installation of new elevators and escalators, but also a separate set of rules for existing installations.

Publications and Addresses.

An important part of the work of this section is the furtherance

of education of engineers, workmen, and others in safety subjects.

For this purpose a considerable number of technical and popular

papers and addresses have been prepared and presented during the

year.
REPORT OF DIRECTOR OF BUREAU OF STANDARDS, 77

9. GAS ENGINEERING.

W. M. Berry.

Standards for Gas Service.

The bureau has continued to receive many inquiries from municipalities and State public utility commissions regarding standards

for gas service. One of the most important cases was tliat of the

State of New York, where a specific heating value wai^established by

legislative action. In connection with this action the bureau was

called on for advice by both the State Public Service Commission

and the American Gas Association. The suggested rules given in

Circular No. 32, Standards for Gas Service, have been widely

adopted, and there has been a large demand for the fourth edition

of this circular, which was issued in 1920. During the year a large

amount of work has been done in completing the revision of that

part of the circular which summarizes State and city regulations now

in force. A^Hiile conditions with regard to gas-making supplies and

materials have changed consitlerably, the general principles governing the establishment of service regulations have not been affected

thereb3^ Consequently, the discussion of technical requirements and

the recommendations regarding rules and ordinances given in the

fourth edition of Circular No. 32 have not required modification. , In view of the shortage of printing funds it has, therefore, not appeared advisable to print a new edition of the whole circular. The

more important parts of the revised material on current regulations

have been printed in the American Gas Association Monthly, and the

complete data are available for reference.

During the year reports have been published dealing with the

investigation carried on last year in cooperation with the Maryland

Public Service Commission to determine the most economic heating

value standard for the city of Baltimore. The laboratory investigations are reported in Technologic Paper No. 222, on Eelativc

Usefulness of Gases of Difi^erent Heating Value and Adjustments

of Burners for Changes in Heating Value and Specific Gravity.

This material was also published in the g(?neral report of the investigation issued by the Public Service Commission, and the more

essential parts were given in a series of articles in the Gas Age

Kecord beginning in July, 1922.

Utilization of Gas (Brumbaugh, Eiseman, Shawn).

As*during the preceding year, a large part of the section's work

has been on various appliances for using gas. The previous woi'k

on design of burners has aroused wide interest among manufacturers, and the bureau has been called upon to test and criticize a large

number of designs for various purposes. Special attention has

also been given to the development of improved adjustable orifices.

This work in particular has been done in close cooperation with representatives of the American Gas Association and several important

manufacturers. The apparatus used for burner testing was demonstrated at the annual convention of the American Gas Association in October, 1922, and attracted a great deal of attention. Its

ready applicability to tests of burners under various conditions

has made possible extensive investigations of the performance of
78 EEPORT OF DIRECTOR OP BUREAU OF STANDARDS.

applicances which have given much more definite results than would

otherwise have been attained.

The bureau has been represented on several committees of the

American Gas Association, including the industrial fuel sales committee, the chemical committee, and the managing committee of the

technical section. This close contact with the technical committees

of the association has been of very great value in directing the

bureau's work ^long practical lines.

Special attention has been given during the year to tests of a large number of devices which are claimed to increase the efficiency of

use of gas but which involve more or less hazard because of resulting

incompleteness of combustion. These have included various types

of so-called " gas savers," devices which are to be placed on top of

regular burners, and also solid tops to be placed on ranges of the

open grid type. In general, it has been found that these devices are of doubtful value in increasing the efficiency of use and that they

certainly increase the dangers of poisoning from carbon monoxide.

Considerable attention has also been given to completeness of combustion obtained in heaters of the radiant type. These heaters are very popular, but if not well designed they also may give rise to

hazards because of incomplete combustion of the gas.

Investigation of Gas Poisoning in Baltimore (Brumbaugh).

A large number of deaths from gas poisoning in many parts of

the country during the past winter has called the attention of the

public to the hazards involved in the improper use of gas. Several

States have considered legislation limiting the use of gas for heating. In the city of Baltimore a considerable numbei; of deaths

occurred, and as a result the department of health undertook an

investigation to determine the causes of these accidents. Because

of the previous cooperation of the bureau in the Baltimore gas

investigation it was requested to cooperate in the determination of

carbon monoxide formed in various types of appliances. At the

suggestion of the bureau the United States Public Health Service,

the Bureau of Mines, and other agencies which were interested in

similar problems were asked to cooperate in this investigation.

Some members of the staff spent several months in field investigations and laboratoi-y tests covering a large number of cases in which

persons had been overcome by gas fumes. In a very large proportion of these cases it was found that appliances improperly designed

or installed were responsible. This conclusion naturally led to the

consideration of possible ordinances for controlling the sale and

installation of appliances. In this connection information was collected from a large number of cities regarding their ordinances on

the subject, and the bureau was represented on a committee of four

which was charged with the duty of drafting ordinances for

Baltimore.

Gas Safety Code.

Obviously the greater part of the work reported above has a direct bearing on the formulation of safety requirements to be observed

in the use of gas. During the year committees of the American Gas

Association have been actively at work in completing a new draft of

the proposed National Gas Safety Code, for which the bureau and
REPORT OF DIRECTOR OF BUREAU OF STANDARDS. 79

the association are joint sponsoi's. This new draft is based largely

oil the preliminary version drawn up by the bureau. During the

3'ear the personnel of the sectional committee which is to consider this

code has been approved by the American Engineering Standards

Committee, and it is hoped that the two sponsors will soon be in

position to submit a draft of the code to the sectional committee.

10. ELECTRICAL-SERVICE STANDARDS.

J. Franklin Meyer.

Standards for Electric Service.

For some years the bureau has been studying questions arising in

connection with specifications for electric light and power service

and the technical and engineering requirements that should be embodied by municipalities or by State public utility commissions in

the ordinances, rules, and regulations promulgated by them. Publicservice commissions in 40 States and in the District of Columbia are empowered by law to ascertain and fix adequate and reasonable standards for the measurement of quality and other conditions pertaining

to the service rendered by public utilities and to prescribe reasonable

regulations for examination and testing of such product or service

and for its measurement.

A new edition of Circular 66, " Standards for Electric Service,"

originally published in 1916, was completed during the year and includes new laws, new and amended rules, and a more extended discussion of the engineering features of electric service regulation.

It is, therefore, an exhaustive summary of the technical and engineering features of electric service regulation by commissions and municipalities. The revised (second) edition of the circular is now in press

and it is expected will be published in the near future.

Street Lighting Service (Duncombe).

Many requests for information are received from municipal engi- neers and city electricians with reference to street-lighting problems.

For some years the bureau has collected information, contracts, and

engineering data on street lighting and has made suggestions in nu- merous street-lighting negotiations between municipalities and electric light and power companies.

An exhaustive survey of street-lighting practice and service conditions is actively under way, and the bureau is having the hearty

cooperation of operating companies, municipalities, and manufacturers of street-lighting equipment. This study will cover the operating, engineering, illuminating, and contract aspects of street- lighting service throughout the United States.

Electrical Standardization.

The chief of this section has for some years been a member of

the standards committee of the American Institute of Electrical Engineers and has recently been named to represent the bureau on

the United States National Committee of the International Electrotechnical Commission. The bureau has several investigations vmder

way in cooperation with the institute, and there has been the fullest

cooperation throughout the year. A translation of the 1922 edition

of the standards of the institute has been undertaken at the request
80 REPORT OF DIRECTOR OF BUREAU OF STANDARDS.

of the standards committee, and a first draft has been completed.

The translation is noAv being revised and ci-iticized by Spanishspeaking engineers in Cuba, South America, and in Spain.

As chairman of a working committee of the institute on graphical symbols the chief of this section presented to the standards committee an exhaustive report on electrical symbols.

In connection with the work of the American Engineering Standards Committee he has also served on committees on the Code for

Electricity Meters, recently approved as an American standard, and

on a committee having in hand an extensive program of standardization of symbols and abbreviations in engineering and science.

II. TELEPHONE SERVICE STANDARDS.

F. A. Wolff.

Quantity and Quality of Telephone Service.

The primary function of this section is the determination of measures for both quantity and quality of telephone service suitable for

general adoption as standards. In order to fulfill this function it is necessary to acquire a comprehensive understanding of the fundamental scientific and engineering principles underlying the telephone

art, as well as a thorough knowledge of the operating characteristics

of all kinds of telephone apparatus and line construction and of the

varying details of telephone practice in the United States. These,

in turn, involve the collection and recording of a large amount of

data. The most important data not yet fully collected and studied

relate to the many more or less indefinite quantity units now in use and to the many characteristics of telephone service by means of

which its quality is judged. A large amount of this kind of data

has, however, been obtained through woi^k done by the section act- ing in an advisory capacity to the General Supply Committee, which

is responsible for the Government telephone service contract for each

fiscal year.

This contract now includes many definitions of quantities, and

each year it is made mox-e accurate and more complete. As a result

of this work misunderstandings and controversies have been greatly

reduced and most harmonious relations with the local telephone

company have been established.

General Survey of the Government's Telephone Facilities (Brown,

Shoemaker, Bailey).

The systematic collection of the field data required to continue the

normal work of the telephone section has been somewhat interrupted

because of the important duties undertaken by this section at the

request of the Bureau of the Budget. These required the making

of a survey of all Government telephone service in the District of

Columbia, with a view to effecting economy. In this work the sec- tion acted as the representative of the Budget Bureau and reported

to the chief coordinator, General Supply.

Economies totaling over $62,000 per annum have been effected

without either curtailing or degrading the service. Most of this

economy has been effected by increasing the efficiency of utilization

of facilities, some by obtaining more equitable rates where large

iisage is involved, some by increasing operating efficiency through
REPORT OF DIRECTOR OF BUREAU OF STANDARDS. 81

I consolidation of operating loads, and some by enabling proper

checking of bills.

Further economies of any considerable magnitude depend largely

upon reduction in operating costs, "now totaling more than $150,000

per annum. Studies have been begun to determine the extent to

which operating costs can be reduced by substituting automatic

i switching equipment for manual switching equipment. There are some lines of work in progress in connection with the survey which

will yield economies that are difficult to evaluate. For example, re- placement of some 60 different voucher forms by one standard form

and the introduction of uniform systems of keeping records of facilities are being considered. '^ Ji^o'J ^ The results of the survey in the District of Columbia have been

j considered so satisfactory by the chief coordinator that similar

surveys have been ordered for Baltimore, Philadelphia, New York,

and Boston. Considerable preliminary work has been done in Balti- more. Standard Specifications for Government Purchase of Telephone

Equipment.

A committee of departmental representatives, of which the chief

, of this section is chairman, was appointed by the Federal Specifications Board to consider the matter of standard specifications for

I Government purchase of telephone equipment. A preliminary meeting of this committee disclosed the facts that the Federal GovernI ment is not only one of the largest subscribers for telephone service,

I but also a large owner and operator of small telephone systems serv- ing its peculiar needs in many locations. Both of these conditions

make it desirable for the Government to carry on such work as the

bureau is doing.

Telephone Transmission (Beltz, Sasuly).

Considerable progress has been made in the preparation of material for publication on the subject of telephone transmission. It

will set forth the underlying principles involved in telephone transmission and their application to the predetermination of the transmission equivalent to telephone circuits as a whole, or of parts of

circuits, in terms of the electrical constants thereof, and will facilitate the interpretation of transmission differences met in practice.

The work has involved a careful digest of available literature on

the subject and the presentation of the subject in the simplest form

consistent with the inherent difficulties of the subject.

II Submarine Cable Theory (Sasuly).

The material previously prepared on submarine cable problems

has been rounded out during the year. A solution has been obtained

in the form of a sequence of iterated functions, of the system of

" chain " equations associated with this problem, as well as with the

iL series-shunt networks of filter circuits. The scope of a paper by

I

Moulton on the mathematical theory underlying the problem was

jl broadened by correlating it with one of his papers of similar but

P more fundamental nature, prepared for the Ordnance Department,

I United States Army. The material affords a treatment of the theory

t more powerful and complete than any so far published.

i 65077—23 7
82 BEPORT OF DIRECTOR OF BUREAU OF STANDARDS.

Standard Cells (Shoemaker, Bailey).

There were tested for parties outside the bureau 187 standard cells. Of these 25 were from Federal and State institutions, and 162 were

submitted by commercial concerns. In addition, 155 cells were

checked for other sections of the bureau.

12. ELECTROCHEMISTRY.

G. W. Vinal.

Tests of Batteries (Schrodt, Snyder).

During the fiscal year 40 tests of a routine nature have been made

comprising 332 batteries, including dry cells, flashlight batteries,

i-adio batteries, storage batteries for starting and lighting service,

airplane ignition and cranking batteries, hand lantern batteries, mine

lamp batteries, and two forms of alkaline batteries. Tests were made

for the Panama Canal, Department of Commerce, Signal Corps,

Quai-termaster Corps, Post Office Department, General Supply Committee, and Bui'eau of Aeronautics. In addition to the routine tests, a number of special tests have been made to obtain information desired for the preparation of specifications arid other purposes. In

addition to those mentioned above, 301 batteries have been included

in these special tests. Among the more important of the tests made

the following may be mentioned: The retest of several different

makes of starting and lighting batteries which had failed on previous tests, delayed service tests on dry cells of foreign manufacture,

tests of thin plate batteries designed for use on airplanes, comparision of alkaline storage batteries of American and foreign manufacture. The conference test of dry cells described in a preceding

report has been completed.

Interlaboratory comparisons on testing methods and results have

been made with a number of different manufacturers. In general,

good agreement has been found between the results obtained at the

Bureau of Standards and elsewhere, but in one significant case where

large differences were found the fact was established that the bureau's results were correct.

Summaries of all dry cell tests for the past three years have been

prepared and sent to the manufacturers, each manufacturer receiving information concerning the results on his own product.

Properties of Dry Cells.

The second edition of Circular 79 on the Electrical Characteristics and Testing of Dry Cells has been completed and published after

very careful revision. The specifications for dry cells included in

Circular 79 have now been adopted by the Federal Specifications

Board and issued separately as Bureau of Standards Circular No.

139, United States Government Specifications for Dry Cells.

Experiments are in progress to obtain the necessary information

for the standardization of dry cells for use on the filament circuit of

vacuum tubes. A number of different tests are being made to develop the physical characteristics of these batteries.

Specifications for Storage Batteries and Sulphuric Acid.

On request of the Federal Specifications Board the preparation of

specifications for various types of storage batteries is to be under-
REPORT OF DIRECTOR OF BUREAU OF STANDARDS. 83

taken, and preliminary arrangements have been made in the formation of a committee to handle this subject. ^ Work is also under way on the formulation of specifications for

W sulphuric acid. Data have been collected on the heat of dilution,

contraction, specific heats, viscosities, electrochemical equivalents,

freezing points, and the permissible amounts of certain impurities.

Available books published on the subject of sulphuric acid have

been reviewed, and a visit has been made to one manufacturing plant

where particulars relating to the manufacture and transportation

of the acid were studied.

Airplane Batteries (Snyder).'

An investigation has been in progress throughout most of the

year on airplane storage batteries submitted by the Navy Department

with a view to developing characteristics of thin plate batteries, including the relation of capacity and rate of discharge, temperature,

life, weight, and volume. This investigation is about 50 per cent

completed, and preliminary reports have been submitted to the Navy

Department. Preliminary specifications for airplane batteries were

also prepared at the request of the Navy Department. These specifications are to be revised upon completion of the tests now in. progress.

Impurities in Storage-Battery Electrolytes (Altrup).

An investigation of the effect of impurities in storage-battery

electrolytes has been in progress throughout the year. The first

part of this investigation was on a method for determining the rate

of sulphation of storage-battery plates. Since local action occurring

at the plates results in a change in weight, it was found possible to

make an accurate determination of the local action by weighing the

plates when suspended in the acid. The results of this part of the

investigation have been published. The second part of the investigation related to a study of the effect of iron, copper, platinum, and

manganese. This has been completed and a paper prepared for

publication. Reports on this investigation have also been rendered

to the Bureau of Engineering, Navy Department, at whose request

the investigation was undertaken.

Jelly Electrolytes.

A short investigation was made on the preparation and properties of jelly electrolytes for storage batteries. The results confirmed

the previous opinion that the use of jelly electrolytes is not desirable in storage batteries, but it was necessary to carry out this work

in order to answer the numerous inquiries received and to fill cer- tain batteries submitted by the Bureau of Aeronautics of the Navy

Department in accordance with their request.

Patent Electrolytes.

Preliminary steps have been taken in an investigation of patent

electrolytes. A summary has been prepared, and all available information, including analyses of these materials made by various storage-battery companies, is being collected. In a few cases experiments have been made at the bureau.

It is intended that this work shall supplement and extend the

work now being done in studying the effect of impurities in storage-
84 REPORT OF DIRECTOR OF BUREAU OF STANDARDS.

battery solutions. From the information which has been gathered

it is apparent that most of the patent electrolytes contain substances

which may be harmful to storage batteries. In other cases the added

materials are useless. These materials are sold with extravagant and

impossible claims at relatively high prices.

"Lead-Antimony Alloys for Batteries.

A study of the physical properties of lead-antimony alloys which

are used for storage-battery grids was undertaken in connection with

the investigation of the physical performance of airplane batteries

for the Bureau of Aeronautics, Navy Department. Casting of alloys

of various compositions were made by the metallurgical division,

and measurements of density and expansivity of the specimens were

naade by the division of weights and measures. Measurements of

the resistivity were made by this division and other factors by the

metallurgical division. The work was correlated and the report

prepared by this section. The report has been submitted to the

Bureau of Aeronautics and will later be prepared for publication.

Porosity of Storage-Battery Plates (Altrup).

A preliminary investigation was made to find a suitable method

of measuring the porosity of storage-battery plates. Two methods

were employed, one based on calculations from the weight of the

plates dry and the other on water absorption. Befoi-e the first

method could be satisfactorily used it was necessary to devise a method for drying the negative plates, since these ai-e subject to

rapid oxidation in the air. It was found that these could be satisfactorily washed in distilled water and dried in a vacuum, the resulting plate having a blue color quite unlike the gray color T^hich the

negative plates ordinarily have. The results obtained by the two

methods were in good agreement, but the work is not considered

completed.

Storage-Battery Separators (Holler, Snyder).

An investigation of storage-battery separators has been made in

connection with the investigation of the physical performance of

batteries for the Bureau of Aeronautics. A method was devised

for measuring the resistance of individual separators when immei'sed

in the electrolytes. Measurements of the electrical resistance and

mechanical properties of these separators, as affected by time of

immersion, concentration, temperature, figure, thickness of the back

web, method of cutting, and method of treatment, have been made

on 85 different samples of various kinds of wood obtained from three

manufacturers. A full report on this subject has been prepared for

the Bureau of Aeronautics and will be prepared also for publication.

Information on separators has been furnished also to the Bureau

of Engineering, Navy Department, and the Motor Transport Division

of the War Department.

Rectifiers (Holler, Schrodt).

A preliminary investigation of i-ectifiers for battery charging has

been made. This investigation included experiments on aluminum

and tantalum rectifiers of the electrolytic type, two forms of the gasfilled bulb type and five varieties of the mechanical type. The

object of the tests was to determine the efficiency, power factor, cur-
REPORT OF DIRECTOR OF BUREAU OF STANDARDS. 85

rent, energy capacity, and life. Oscillograph measurements of the

impressed voltages and the alternating and rectified currents were

made b}' means of an oscillograph. The outline of a proposed circular on rectifiers has been prepared.

Crank-Shaft Acceleration (Snyder).

As an outgrowth of work on batteries for starting airplane engines^ an investigation was undertaken at the request of the Army Air

Service to determine the crank-shaft acceleration of a 12-cylinder

Liberty airplane engine during the stax'ting period. Measurements

of the displacement of the shaft were made by means of an oscillograph and a specially designed commutator, and from the records

obtained the velocity and acceleration of the shaft, both with and

without ignition, could be computed. From an analysis of the en- gine conditions significant points on the curves could be explained,

and a record of the cylinders which fired, missed, and back fired

could also be derived.

Detarnishing of Silver (Schramm).

An extended investigation was made on the tarnishing and detarnishing of silver at the request of the Office of Home Economics,

Department of Agi'iculture. The first part of the investigation consisted in a study of the causes of tarnishing, the preparation of a standard tarnish, weight of the tarnish film, and a determination

of the factors which accelerate and retard tarnishing. The second

part of the investigation consisted of a study of the methods of

detarnishing, with especial reference to the electrolytic method, the

foi-mation of moss silver, and a comparison of the losses of silver

occurring when the electrolytic method is used as compared with

chemical and abrasive methods. This investigation was completed

and a report was prepared and sent to the Department of Agriculture on February 15, 1923. A paper on this subject was presented

to the Philosophical Society of Washington, January 27, 1923. The

bureau has received numerous requests for the publication of the

results of this investigation, and it is expected that the report will

be shortened and prepared for publication during the early part of

the coming fiscal year.

In connection with the above investigation a study was made of

the effect of various samples of paper used for wrapping silverware

on the tarnishing of specimens of pure silver and sterling silver.

This investigation was made at the request of and in cooperation

with the paper section of the structural, engineering, and miscellane- ous materials division. A large number of specimens were wrapped

with samples of paper furnished by the paper section, and they have

been allowed to stand, some in a moist atmosphere and some in a dry atmosphere, for a period of nine months. It is expected to

terminate the experiment at the end of a year from the date on

which it was started.

Cooperation with Outside Committees.

Assistance has been rendered through service on various committees dealing with battery problems. The questions considered have

included railway batteries and storage batteries for automotive purposes.

\
86 REPORT OF DIRECTOR OF BUREAU OF STANDARDS.

The customary assistance has been rendered to the General Supply

Committee in the award of contracts for dry cells and flashlight batteries. A table has been prepared showing the proper lamps to be

used Avith various sizes of flashlight batteries.

13. RADIOACTIVITY AND X-RAY MEASUREMENTS.

W. H. Wadleigh.

General Testing (Torrey).

The functions of this section include measurement and certification

of radium and mesothorium preparations and self-luminous surfaces

and materials, measurement (without certification) of the radioactivity of Aveakly radioactive solids, slimes, waters, solutions, and

other preparations for developmental, experimental, and commercial

purposes, and measurement of the protective coefficients (efficiencies)

of X-ray protective materials.

The growth of this work is illustrated by the following table,

which shows approximately the amounts of material certified as a

result of gamma-ray tests during the past nine and one-half years.

Year.

1914 (half year) 1914-15. . ; 1915-16 1916-17 1917-18

Number of preparations.

2882

112 223

177

Equivalent

miUigrams

of radium.

486

2,097

-1,531 6,638 0,376

Year. Number of preparations.

1918-19 474

1,210 2.129

2,120

2,163

1919-20

1920-21 1921-22

1922-23

Equivalent

millierams

of radium.

13, 159

25, 278

35, 565 32,044

24,172

Of the 2,163 preparations certified this year. 7 were reported to

be mesothorium equivalent in activity, as measured, to 449 milligrams

of radium. During the year there has developed among physicians

and radiologists a decided tendency toward the use of smaller

radium pi'eparations, but in larger numbers. This has meant that

the considerable decrease in the amount of radium received for test has not brought any appreciable decrease in the number of tests called for nor in the amount of work to be done. \ In addition to the above eight miscellaneous tests of ores and

commercial preparations for medical and experimental purposes

were made during the year, and one standard solution of radium

was furnished to the Bureau of Chemistry of the Department of

Agriculture. One thousand two hundred and eighty-one samples of

self-luminous materials and three of X-ra^^ protective materials were

also tested.

Emanation Measurements.

In March the measurement of emanation with the new Spindler and

Hoyer electroscope was commenced. By making possible the meas- urement of smaller preparations than is possible by the gamma-ray

method, this method opens the way to the production of small

radioactive standards in solution for the use of scientific laboratories. The method also makes possible more accurate tests of radio-
REPORT OF DIRECTOR OF BUREAU OF STANDARDS. 87

active ore samples, a few of which have been inchided under the

above-mentioned miscellaneous tests, but have thus far been tested

by the alpha-ray method only.

Standards and Standardization.

During the year one 50-milligTam preparation was added by

purchase to the bureau's list of radium standards and has been care- fully compared with the primary standard radium No. 6. Careful

measurements and comparisons of all the bureau's other secondary

radium standards with radium ISTo. 6 have also been made, and it is

jiroposed to send one or more of these in the near future to Madame

Curie's laboratory, to the British National Physical Laboratoiy, and

possibly to other European laboratories for recomparison.

Absorption Measurements,

During the fall and winter a series of measurements was made of

the gamma-ray absorption coefficients of various noncorrosive alloys

now being used in the manufacture of radium needles by the several radium-producing companies.

Carnotite Mines Survey (Wadleigh).

In July a brief survey was made of the carnotite mines of Colorado, and information Avas obtained as to the extent and location

of these radioactive ores and the methods used in mining and reduction of the ores. Public Health Service Investigation.

Since January, 1922, the section has been cooperating with the

research department of the Public Health Service in an attempt to

determine more definitely the kind and extent of the effects of the

radiation from radioactive materials on the various members of the

staff. It has been found that both low blood pressure and low

leucocyte-blood content result from continued exposure.

PUBLICATIONS.

The following papers relating to the work of the electrical division

have appeared during the year among the publications of the Bureau of Standards:

The theory, construction, and use of the photometric integrating sphere (E. B. Rosa and A. H. Taylor), Sci. Paper No. 447. Radio-frequency amplifiers (P. D. Lowell), Sci. Paper No. 449. An electron-tube amplifier using GO-eycle alternating current to supply power for

the filaments and plates (P. D. Lowell), Sci. Paper No. 450. Tables for the calculation of the inductance of circular coils of rectangular cross

section (F. W. Grover), Sci. Paper No. 455. Apparatus for the determination of the magnetic properties of short bars (M. F. Fischer), Sci. Paper No. 458. Preparation and properties of pure iron alloys : II. Magnetic properties of ironcarbon alloys as affected by heat treatment and carbon content (W. L. Cheney), Sci. Paper No. 46.'^. Formulas and tables for the calculation of the inductance of coils of polygonal

form (F. W. Grover), Sci. Paper No. 468. Directive radio transmission on a wave length of 10 meters (F. AV. Dunmore

and F. H. Engel), Sci. Paper No. 469. A method for the accurate measurement of short time intervals (H. L. Curtis

and R. C. Duncan), Sci. Paper No. 470.
88 REPORT OF DIRECTOR OF BUREAU OF STANDARDS.

Methods of measurement of properties of electrical insulating materials (J. H.

Dellinger and J. L. Preston), Sci. Paper No. 471. Alternating curi-ent resistance and inductance of single-layer coils (C. N. Hickman), Sci. Paper No. 472.

United States Government Specifications for dry cells, Circular No. 139. Properties of electrical insulating materials of the laminated phenol-methylene

type (J. H. Dellinger), Tech. Paper No. 216. Magnetic susceptibility and iron content of cast red brass (L. H. Marshall

and R. L. Sanford), Tech. Paper No. 221. Relative usefulness of gases of different heating value and adjustments of

burners for changes in heating value and specific gravity (W. M. Berry, I. V. Brumbaugh, J. H. Eiseman, G. F. Moulton, and G. B. Shawn), Tech.

Paper No. 222. A new method for determining the rate of sulphation of storage-battery plates

(G. W. Vinal and L. M. Ritchie), Tech. Paper No. 225.

United States Government Specifications for large tungsten filament incandescent electric lamps, Circular No. 13 ( tenth edition )

Electrical characteristics and testing of dry cells. Circular No. 79 (second

edition).

Construction and operation of a two-circuit radio receiving equipment with

crystal detector. Circular No. 121. Description and operation of an electron-tube detector unit for simple radio

receiving outfits. Circular No. 133. Auxiliary condensers and loading coil used with simple homemade radio

receiving outfits, Circular No. 137. A decimal classification of radio subjects—an extension of the Dewey system,

Circular No. 138. Description and operation of an audio-frequency amplifier unit for simple radio

receiving outfits. Circular No. 141. National safety code for the protection of the heads and eyes of industrial

workers, Handbook No. 2 (second edition).

The following mimeographed letter circulars were prepared:

No. 40. Radio publications of the Bureau of Standards. (Revisions of November 2.5, 1922. and May 1, 1923.)

No. 46. Description of fixed condensers used with simple homemade radio

receiving sets. (Superseded by Circular No. 137.)

No. 47. Description of a loading coil used with simple radio receiving sets. (Superseded by Circular No. 137.)

No. 48. Description and operation of an electron-tube detector unit. (Superseded by Circular 133.)

No. 49. Description and operation of an audio-frequency amplifier unit for

simple radio receiving outfits. (Superseded by Circular 141.)

No. 50. Bibliography of books and periodicals on tests, properties, and uses of

electrical insulating materials.

No. 51. List of the more important United States patents covering materials

and methods of manufacture of insulating materials.

No. 73. Fees for testing radio apparatus.

No. 75. The secondary standardization of radio wave meters. No. 76. The standardization of inductors at radio frequencies.

No. 77. The comparison of condensers at radio frequencies.

No. 78. Design of a portable short-wave radio wave meter. , No. 85. Fees for magnetic testing.

No. 86. Methods of measuring voltage amplification of amplifiers.

No. 87. Methods of measuring properties of electron tubes.

No. 90. Tests of radio receiving sets. I. No. 92. Radio signals of standard frequency and their utilization.

No. 93. Tests of radio receiving sets. II. The papers listed below have appeared in current scientific and

technical publications

The effect of gas-saving devices on the efficiency of burners and the completeness of combustion (G. F. Moulton), A. G. A. Monthly, July, 1922.

Effect of B. t. u. on burner efficiency (reprinted from Tech. Paper No. 222), Gas

Age Record 50; pp. 41-48, July 8; pp. 81-84, July 15; pp. 137-139, July

27, 1922.
REPORT OF DIRECTOR OF BUREAU OF STANDARDS. 89

Bureau of Standards exhibit at American Gas Association convention (I. V. Brumbaugh), A. G. A. Monthly 5, No. 3, p. 167; March, 1923.

State rules or laws governing the heating value of gas (reprinted from

Circular 32), A. G. A. Monthly 5, No. 5, p. 317; May, 1923.

The national electrical safety code and its relation to distribution (M. G. Lloyd),

Safety Engineering 44, p. 22 ; July, 1922.

The testing and use of magnetic compasses for airplanes (R. L. Sanford), Part

II of Nat. Ad. Com. for Aeronautics, Report No. 128. Note on the development of an electron-tube amplifier which uses 60-cycle al- ternating current to supply power for the filaments and plates (P. D. Lowell),

Jour, of the Amer. Inst, of Elec. Eng., 41, pp. 488-490 ; July, 1922.

Some measurements of telephone sensitivity (H. H. Smith), Wireless Age, 9, p. 65 ; August, 1922.

The effective capacity of pancake coils (G. Breit), Phil. Mag., 44, p. 729; October, 1922.

A method for testing and rating electron-tube generators (L. M. Hull), Proa

I. R. E., 10, p. 373 ; October, 1922.

The Bureau of Standards lends a hand (J. H. Bellinger), Radio Broadcast, 2, p. 40; November, 1922.

A device for recording electric contact using an electron-tube generator and a

radio-frequency spark (C. T. Zahn), Jour. Wash. Acad. Sci., 12, p. 412; November 4, 1922.

A variable resistor of low value (C. N. Hickman), Jour. Opt. Soc. of Amer.

and Rev. of Sci. Inst, 6, No. 8, p. 848; October, 1922.

The electrical characteristics of dry cells (G. W. Vinal and L. M. Ritchie),

Chem. and Met. Eng., 27, pp. 546 and 603; 1922.

Method for determining the rate of sulphation of storage-battery plates (G. W.

Vinal and L. M. Ritchie), Chem. and Met. Eng., 27, p. 1116; 1922. Elec.

World, 80, p. 1386 ; 1922.

Static electricity (F. B. Silsbee), Tech. Rev. Nat. Assoc. of Cleaners and Dyers,

p. 173; November, 1922; p. 181, December, 1922.

A direct reading and computing attachment for sphere photometers (B. S.

M^illis), Trans. 111. Engrg. Soc, 18, No. 1, p. 62; 1923.

The present status of commission regulation of electric light and power service

(J. F. Meyer), Electric Light and Power, 1, No. 1, p. 21; January, 1923.

Variation of metallic conductivity with electrostatic charge (F. Wenner and

N. L. Forman), Phys. Rev., 20, No. 6, p. 589; December, 1922.

The measurement of light (E. C. Crittenden), Jour. Wash. Acad. Sci., 13, No. 5, pp. 69-90; March, 1923.

Experiments with the two-plate condenser antenna (J. C. Warner), Radio

News, 4, p. 1618 ; 1923.

The work of the International Union of Scientific Radio Telegraphy (J. H.

Dellinger), Proc. Inst. Radio Engrs., 11, p. 75; April, 1923.

A 100 to 3.000 meter oscillator (H. J. Walls), QST, 6, p. 48; May, 1923.

The control of radio interference (J. H. Dellinger), Lefax, 13, p. 22; March,

1923.

Aircraft terminals and the aeronautical safety code (A. Halsted), Engineers

and Engineering, 40, No. 2, pp. 43^5 ; February, 1923.

Preparation of safety codes under the auspices of the American Engineering

Standards Committee (M. G. Lloyd), Bulletin No. 333, Bureau of Labor

Statistics, pp. 225-231 ; May, 1923.

The development of industrial safety codes (M. G. Lloyd), Mechanical Engineering, 45, p. 356; June, 1923.

Lead resistance for current transformers (F. B. Silsbee), Electrical World, 81,

p. 1082 ; May 12, 1923.

Continuous-wave radio transmission on a wave length of 100 meters using a

special type of antenna (F. W. Dunmore), Proc. Inst. Radio Engineers, 11,

p. 243 ; June, 1923.

The following papers are in press

Spectrum analysis of radio signals (C. Snow), Sci. Paper.

Uniform safety legislation (editorial) (M. G. Lloyd), Mechanical Engineering,

45, p. 444 ; July, 1923. , Nondestructive testing of steel hoisting rope (R. L. Sanford), Mmmg and

Metallurgy ; July, 1923.
90 REPORT OF DIRECTOR OF BUREAU OF STANDARDS.

New developments in telemetric devices (O. S. Peters and R. S. Johnston), Engineering News Record.

Resume of rules used in electric light and power regulation (J. F. Meyer),

Electric Light and Power, 1 No. 7, p. 41 ; July, 1923.

A study of radio signal fading (J. H. Bellinger, L. E. Whittemore, and S. Kruse), Sci. Paper and QST.

Recent developments in radio in the United States (J. H. Bellinger), Bulletin

of the Pan American Union.

Introduction to line radio communication. Signal Corps Radio Pamphlet.

Formulas and tables for the calculation and design of single-layer coils (F. W.

Grover), Jour. A. I. E. E. Reducing the guesswork in tuning (J. H. Bellinger), Radio Broadcast.
HEAT AND POWER.

H. C. Dickinson.

FUNCTIONS.

The field of the division includes measurement of heat, temperatures, and the thermal properties of matter; the specific effects of

temperature on materials of construction ; the transmission of heat

the production of power by means of heat engines ; and the properties

of fuels, lubricants, and accessories essential to the production of

power by this means. Some of the projects are : Establishment of the

standard scales of temperature throughout the range of measurable

temperatures ; testing and standardization of therm.ometers, pyrometers, and other temperature-measuring instruments ; determination

of specific and latent heats, heats of reaction, melting and freezing

points, and other properties of materials, in the determination of

which precise heat measurements are the, principal requirements;

standardization of calorimeters ; production and distribution of standard heat and temperature samples ; industrial application of heat

and temperature measurements ; determination of fundamental engineering data involving thermal constants ; determination of the fireresistive properties of structural materials ; measurements of power

characteristics of aircraft and other automotive engines ; efficiency

of power transmission in vehicles; characteristics of cooling radiators, brake-lining material, and minor accessories; properties of

liquid fuels as regards power production and economy ; laws of lubrication and behavior of lubricants ; and performance characteristics of

automotive vehicles.

SECTIONS.

3-

4- •5-

6.

7-

2.

I. Thermometry.

Pyrometry.

Heat measurements.

Cryogenic laboratory.

Fire resistance.

Automotive power plants.

GENERAL STATISTICS.

Expenditures (1922-23) Tests completed

Researches completed

Bureau publications issued

Other technical publications

Staff 78

$211, 000

36, 116

12

6

30

91
WORK CHART.

1. THERMOMETRY.

SCOPE.

Standardization of temperature scale below 500° C. Testing of thermometers.

Miscellaneous temperature tests.

TESTS.

Nature of test.

Laboratory thermometers

Clinical thermometers

Resistance thermometers and wire

Thermocouples

Thermohydrometers

Special tests

Number completed.

1921-22 1922-23

3,008

15,085

29

29

3,052

26,953

17. 12

12229

RESEARCHES.

Subject.

Annealing of thermometers

Standardization of industrial tests

In cooperation with

Status June 30, 1923.

Per cent completed.

Continuing.

Continuing.

Publication

issued.

2. PYROMETRY.

A. High Temperature Measurements.

SCOPE.

Standardization of temperature scale above 500° C.

Testing pyrometers.

Development of pyrometers and methods.

Properties of materials at high temperatures: (o) Melting points, (&)• Electrical resistance, (c) Specific heat.

TESTS.

Nature of test.

Pyrometers

Melting points

Special Tnermoolectric analysis.

Installations

Number completed.

1921-22

130

36

1

92
KBPORT OF DIEECTOR OF BUREAU OF STANDARDS.

RESEARCHES.

93

Subject.

Standardization of temperature scale: Melting point of palladium

EstabUsning punty of metals used for fixed points

Development of optical pyrometer and micro- pyrometer of high precision.

In cooperation with

Status June 30, 1923.

Per cent completed.

95

50

100

Publication

issued.

Outside. '

1 Jour. Am. Opt. Society and Review of Scientific Instruments; 1923.

B. Atomic Properties.

SCOPE.

Study of atomic and molecular structure by measurement of energy required

for the formation of ions, excitation of radiation and other types of elec- tronic-atomic energy exchange.

Experimental tests of the theory of radiation.

Measurement of radiation beyond the range of spectroscopic methods.

Development of new methods of exciting radiation.

A correlation of experimental data and critical examination of their bearing on theories of atomic structure. RESEARCHES.

Subject.

The use of high frequency currents for exciting radiation. Spark spectra and soft X-rays of alkali metals

stages in the excitation of tiiaUium

stages in the excitation of molecular and atomic

spectra of halides. Methods of exciting resonance radiation of high boiling

point metals.

In cooperation with

Status June 30, 1923.

Per cent completed.

Continuing.

75

10025

Continuing.

Publication

issued.

Outside. * Do. 2 Do. 3

1 Jour. Am. Opt. Soc, October, 1922.

2 Jour. Am. Opt. Soc; 1923.

3 Phjrsical Review: 1923.

3. HEAT MEASUREMENTS.

SCOPE.

Calorimetry : (a) Combustion calorimetry, (b) Calorimetry of gases, (c)

Specific and latent heats, etc. Thermodynamic properties of fluids. Heat transfer: (a) Thermal conductivity of materials, (&) Heat transfer at surfaces (c) Heat transfer through structures.

TESTS.

Nature of test.

Gas calorimeters standard combustion samples.

Insulatinf; niaicrials

Number completed.

1921-22 1922-23

497

1

7
94 REPORT OF DIRECTOR OF BUREAU OF STANDARDS.

RESEARCHES.

Subject. In cooperation with

Status June 30, 1923.

Per cent ' Publication completed. , issued.

10075

50

50

50

100

S467. Outside.i

C142, M52, outside.2

Outside.' Do.<

20

50

2040

' Refrigerating Engineering, vol. 9, p. 1; 1922.

2 A. S. R. E., December, 1922.

3 Mechanical Engineering, vol. 45, p. 168; 1923.

< Jour. A. S. H. and V. E., vol. 29, p. 69; 1923.

5. CRYOGENIC LABORATORY.

SCOPE.

Production of low temperatures for general use: (a) Carbon dioxide re- frigerating plant, (b) Liquid air, (c) Liquid hydrogen.

TESTS.

Occasional tests of materials and apparatus at low temperatures, mostly in cooperation with other sections.

RESEARCHES.

Subject. In cooperation with

Statu.

Per cent completed.

i June 30, 1923.

Publication

issued.

Development of equipment and methods:

Production, analysis, and liquefaction of hydrogen.

Vacuum-walled containers of high insulating eflB- 95

80

Reflection coefficients of metals for radiant heat 70

5. FIRE RESISTANCE.

SCOPE.

Research on fire resistive properties of: (a) Building materials, (h) Building construction, (c) Building devices.

Standardization of fire tests: (a) Temperature measurements, (h) Investigation of building fires. Standards of practice : (a) Fire regulations, {b) Safety codes, (c) Building

codes, (d) Specifications.

TESTS.

Nature of test.

Fire tests of materials

Fire tests of constructions

Fire tests of devices Intensity of building fires Auxiliary strength, absorption, etc., tests.

Number completed.

1921-22

544

4

1,469

1922-23

236

812

3 2,641
REPORT OF DIRECTOR OF BUREAU OF STANDARDS. 95

RESEARCHES.

Subject.

Fire tests of concrete columns.

Fire tests of brick walls

Fire tests of hollow tile

Stren^h of materials at high temperatures. Building exits Fire tests of insulated safes Fire tests of roofing materials Intensity and duration of fire Fire tests of partitions

In cooperation

with—

Hollow Building Tile Assn.

Status June 30, 1923.

Per cent completed.

90

R550

40

25

20

2020

10

Publication

issued.

Outside.1 Do.2

1 Rock Products, vol. 26, No. 5, p. 1201, Mar. 10, 1923.

2 Engineering News Record, Jime 29, 1922.

» Jour. Am. Ceramic Soc, vol. 5, No. 11, p. 788, 1922; vol. 6, No. 6, p. 748, 1923.

7. AUTOMOTIVE POWER PLANTS.

SCOPE.

Investigation of scientific and teclinical problems connected with design,

operation, and testing of internal-combustion engines and their accessories as applied to automotive purposes.

Investigation of qualities and characteristics of fuels. Investigation of qualities and characteristics of lubricants.

TESTS.

Nature of test.

Number completed.

1921-22 1922-2?

Gasnline

Oil

(irease Special tests (vacuum distillation) Carbon deposits

Carbon removers and gasoline improvers.

Spirk plue sets Brake linings

Viscosity determinations

Demulsibility

Calibration ef viscosimetcr tubes

42 104 859 1,132

533 39

663

416 24 55 90

64 72

29 8

33 19

RESEARCHES.

Subject. In cooperation with

Status June 30, 1923.

Per cent completed.

PubUcation

issued.

Aviation engines: Packard No. 1561 100

100

75

100

90

100

Report. Do.

Outside.'

Report.

WTigh\ H-'? do

do

Effect of changes in carburetor air temperature

Effect of cnanges in air fuel ratio on eneine perEftect of changes in compression ratio on engine

IN. A. C. A.
96 BEPORT OF DIRECTOR OF BUREAU OF STANDARDS.

RESEARCHES—Continued.

Subject. In cooperation

with—

Status June 30, 1923.

Per cent completed.Publication

issued.

fiO 50

50

40

11

100 Eeport.

75

95

75

Outside.i

Do.2

50

8050

50

8040

20 Continuing.

10045

10090 Continuine.

Do." Do.<

Do.6

T22?.

Outside.'

10060

50

100 Continuine.

1 no Report.

25

50 100

75

10050

50

Bo>

50

Ignii.ion: Standard spark gaps

Ignition systems Problems of ignition Carburetion: Fuel atomization in carbiu'etors Strombrrg NA-Ufi

Strombcr-; NA-D6

Metering characteristics of carburetors under

altitude conditions

Fuels:Cooperative fuel investigation

Dew points of hydrocarbon fuels Fuels tor high-compression engines

Lubrication: Bearing friction T,ow-tempcrature consistency ol oils Oxidation of oils Lubrication under high unit pressure Fractionation

Service tests Transmission lubricant investigation

Viscosity of lubricants Improved MacMichael viscoshneter Saybolt universal viscosimoter Bingham viscosimeter Reclamation of used petroleum lubricating oils.. TWpfl<:nriiTnpnt nf "OilmCSS"

Army.

Measurement of Cooling problems:

Air flow in confined spaces Airplane radiators Air flow tlirough radiators in flight Ballast recovery Automobile brake linings Truck rear axles Combustion: ^ ! Phenomena of combustion

I 'Combustion in engine cylinders

Effect spark characteristics on combustion

Miscellaneous: High-speed recording pressure indicator , Automobile headlight tests Testing catalytic agent Auxiliary air valves

Eiiect of combustion chamber temperature on

rate n[ carbon formation ... 1

.fP..

Army..

....do . do

Army..

....do . ....do.

Army.

Army.

.Army. 4a.

-.132....

1 Jour. S. A. E., February, 1.92:1; Jour. Ind. and Eng. Chem. May, 1923. 'Jour. S. A. E., January, 1922; Joiu:. Ind. and Eng. Chem. May, 1923. sjour. Ind. anr! Eng. Chem. vol. 14, p. 715, 1922.

< Jour. Opt. Soc. of America, vol. 7, p. 335, 1923. 'Jour. Opt. Soc. ol America, vol. 6, p. 875, 1922.

6 Chem. and Met. Eng. vol. 28, p. 302, 1923.

' Jour. S. A. E., .Tune, 1923. 'Automotive Industries, 1923.

Detailed Report of the Year's Work.

GENERAL.

The functions of the division are the maintenance of standards

in the field of heat and temperature measurements, the establishment of basic data on the thermal properties of matter, and on the

effects of temperature on materials of construction, and the investigation of materials and processes involved in the production of

power by heat engines. For instance, the establishment of a standard

working scale of temperature has been accomplished in the range of

ordinary processes, but the extremely low and extremely high temperatures have yet to be covered.
EEPOKT OF DIKECTOE OF BUREAU OF STANDARDS. 97

This year has marked the completion of an investigation of the

physical properties of ammonia which has resulted in what is

probably more accurate knowledge of these properties than exists

for any other substance. The results have been incorporated in

a set of tables for the use of engineers.

The work in connection with problems of power production will

probably result in a considerable increase in the available gasoline

supply of the country, as well as a national improvement in materials

used for brake linings on automobiles, thus bringing about an annual

saving of millions of dollars to the users of motor vehicles.

Much of this work, in particular that pertaining to automotive

power plants, fuels, and lubricants, has been conducted in close co- operation with the military branches of the Government, the American Petroleum Institute, the Society of Automotive Engineers, the

National Automobile Chamber of Commerce, and the National Advisory Committee for Aeronautics. Many of these investigations

are sponsored directly by the engineering division of the Air Service.

McCook Field, Dayton, Ohio, the motor transport division of the

Quartermaster Corps of the Army, or by the Bureau of Aeronautics

of the Navy Department, and are supported in whole or in part by

funds transferred from their appropriations under the terms of the

appropriation statutes. In such cases results are reported direct to

the sponsor and their publication is under its supervision.

1. THERMOMETER LABORATORY.

E. F. Mueller.

The greater part of the work of this laboratory is the routine

testing of thermometers of various kinds. This is a basic and es- sential part of the service of the bureau to the scientific institutions

and industrial laboratories of the country. Increase in the demands

for work of this nature without a corresponding increase in the

available personnel has made it impossible to perform the service as promptly as is desirable, and this condition should be improved.

This work is at present substantially self-supporting.

The adoption of definite requirements for certification of thermometers and the issuing of reports for thermometei's not eligible for

certification has brought into prominence the fact that the certificates

issued by the bureau are used rather as a basis for acceptance or

rejection than for the purpose of obtaining higher accuracy in the

use of the thermometers. Manufacturers are beginning to take an

interest in the correctness of the tests made by the bureau and in their

own tests, since failure to receive a certificate is a direct financial

loss. It will probably be necessary for the bureau to recognize, by re- vision in its testing procedure, that the industrial methods of using

thermometers are essentially different from the methods used in a physical laboratory. The testing procedure at present in use is based upon the latter methods. At present a thermometer tested at

600° F. to an accuracy of 0.5° is likely to be used in a carefully

standardized test in such a way that the results obtained are in error 65077—23 8
98 EEPOBT OF DIEECTOE OF BUEEAU OF STANDAEDS.

by 20 or 26°. Such errors can be greatly reduced by use of suitable

thermometers and methods of standardization.

The section has been represented on the American Society for Testing Materials committee on thermometers. The work of this committee will lead to simplification and greater accuracy in temperature measurements incident to industrial testing.

2. HIGH TEMPERATURES.

Paul D. Foote.

Industrial Pyrometry (Fairchild).

The return of prosperity in the industries using high temperatures

is demonstrated by the marked increase in the number of routine tests of pyrometers for the current year; also, the large increase in the

number of consultations with technical engineers indicates that the

industries are meeting competition by improved methods of temperature control. The section has devoted considerable time to these conferences and to further discussions by correspondence.

The field work has been limited to the inspection of local plants

where three pyrometric installations were tested, and detailed information was given for the efficient use of the existing equipment.

A standard rare-metal thermocouple scale has been definitely estal^-

lished, and it is hoped to standardize base-metal couples through

further research and cooperation with manufacturers and users. The section is now able to supply industrial laboratories with small

quantities of gold, silver, palladium, and platinum having a certified

purity and melting point. This is in addition to the series of common metals, which are issued in large quantity and the sale of which

has been placed on a routine basis.

A paper now in press describes a suitable design of optical pyrometers for industrial use, and a pamphlet in the nature of a primer

on the elements of thermoelectric pyrometry has been prepared at

the request of the American Society for Steel Treating. This is a much simpler discussion of thermoelectric pyrometry than the large

treatise issued as Technologic Paper 170 and is intended, primarily,

for the use of the actual operators of furnaces in steel plants. Chapters on pyrometiy for two technical handbooks issued in the cur- rent year were prepared by members of the section.

Research in Pyrometry (Fairchild, Hoover, Peters, Schmitt).

Research has been directed, primarily, toward the establishing

of a standard, easily reproducible, high-temperature scale. This

involves extensiA^e investigation of the methods for producing and

working metals of exceedingly high purity, means for maintaining

high temperatures, and the determination of melting points. The

investigation of the melting point of palladium, begun several years

ago, has been practically completed. The value found for this fixed

point on the high-temperature scale is 1,553.3° C, which may be

changed by possibly 0.5° when the final series of measurements are completed.

A complete report on research in the design of ojitical pyrometers

during the past three years will appear in the July, 1923, issue of
REPORT OF DIRECTOR OF BUREAU OF STANDARDS. 99

the Journal of the Optical Society of America and Review of

Scientific Instruments. Thorough consideration of the optics of

the pyrometer have suggested various designs which are free from

the ei-rors usuall}' inherent in this class of optical instrument, and

now temperature measurements may be carried out with a precision

of 0.1° C. at 1,500° C.

'

The investigation of thermoelectric methods for the determinationof small impurities in metals has been continued, in cooperation with

the chemical and metallurgical divisions. The thermoelectric properties of a series of alloys are being studied, the work at present

covering alloys of gold and palladium. The results are of especial

interest, since for the first time, apparently, attention has been given. ^ to the securing of metal liaving extremely liigh purity. In tliis way

the thermoelectric diagrams may be extended to alloys of only 0.001

per cent of the one metal. Such diagrams may prove of importance

in a physical interpretation of thermoelectric phenomena.

As a result of tlie work of the bureau in the preparation of platinum, spectroscopically pure, the design of a new type of mounting

for a resistance thermometer was deemed advisable. The platinum

wire is wound on a pure porcelain frame, thus removing dangers

from contamination by traces of iron present in mica. Greater

constancy at higli temperatures has been demonstrated, and further

work is now in progress.

Atomic Properties (Foote, Mohler, Euark).

While speculations on the constitution of matter may seem far

removed from applied science, yet the establishment by mathematical

and experimental means of a sound theory of atomic structure

would be of immediate practical value in the whole range of technical

research. Thus, the publication in 1922, by the Danish physicist

Bohr, of an extensive theory of atomic structure has justified an

emphasis on experimental work planned, primarily, to test these

conclusions. The most direct experimental tests are measurements

of the energy required for the different types of atomic disruption

(ionization), and the study of the spectra of the resulting radiations, work which has been in progress for five years. The measurement of radiations, beyond the range of spectroscopy, by electrical

methods has been continued and the technique improved. Several

methods of exciting radiation have been developed, such as the use

of high-frequency current for producing discharges in gas at low

pressure. A study of stages of excitation of some polyatomic molecules gave results having direct bearing on electron affinity.

In addition to the publication and presentation of these researches

before scientific societies a book has been published in Avhich a general view of the entire subject is given. In " Origin of spectra

the experimental I'esults obtained in this and related fields of re- search on atomic structiu-e are critically examined and summarized.

The object has been to present the experimental data quite completely and to give the theoretical basis essential for an imderstanding of the experimental work. This attempt to coordinate the data

and tlieories has been favorably received by both physicists and

chemists.
100 EEPOKT OF DIRECTOR OF BUREAU OF STANDARDS.

3. HEAT MEASUREMENTS.

E. F. Mueller.

Thermodynamic Properties of Ammonia.

Practically all the measurements required for the preparation of

tables of the thermodynamic properties of ammonia were completed

during the fiscal year 1921-22.

The preparation of papers desci'ibing the experimental work and

the computation of tables have occupied a large part of the present

year.

SpecifiG volume of superheated ammonia vapor (Meyers, Jes-

'sup).—The only experimental work on ammonia still under way

consists in some further measurements of the specific volume of

superheated vapor. A higher precision in these measurements than

was required for the preparation of tables appears desirable because

such precise measurements, combined Avith the data on specific heat,

may afford decisive tests of the validity of equations of state. Specific volume of saturated atiimonia vapor (Cragoe).—The manuscript of a paper on the specific volume of saturated ammonia A^apor

was completed and the paper published. The experimental work

had been completed several years ago. A paper on composition,

purification, and certain constants of ammonia, prepared several

years ago in the division of chemistry, was edited and has been

published.

Flow calorimeter (Osborne, Stimson, Sligh, Cargoe).—-Manuscripts of two papers describing the floAV calorimeter used for measuring the specific heat of gases and the measurements on the specific

heat of ammonia vapor, respectively, were nearly completed.

Data on ammofiia, ammonia tables^ a.nd Moilier chart (Van Dusen,

Cragoe, Meyers, Jessup).—The correlation of all of the data obtained

in the bureau's investigations on ammonia, by means of a suitable

system of equations, was successfully accomplished, but the material

has not yet been prepared for publication.

Ammonia tables, based on the system of equations mentioned above,

have been computed in the foot-pound Fahrenheit system of units

used by refrigerating engineers in this country. A preliminary edition was published in December, 1922, and the final edition in April,

1923.

A new Mollier chart for ammonia, representing the data in the

tables of the preceding paragraph, was drawn and published.

Properties of Steam (Osborne, Stimson).

The general outline of this problem was given in considerable

detail in the report for the preceding year. Much cai'eful work in

the design and testing of component parts of the apparatus to be

used has been completed, and the work is progressing about as anticipated.

A paper on the calorimetry of saturated fluids, which outlines the

general program for the investigation of the properties of steam, has

been submitted for publication.
EEPOBT OP DIRECTOE. OF BUREAU OF STANDARDS. 101

Heat Transmission and Thermal Conductivity (Van Dusen, Finkelstein).

Measurements by means of the conductimeter were made of the

heat transmission through a number of types of bviilding walls,

including brick, hollow tile, concrete block, and the ordinary construction with Avood joists. It is expected that results will be

available during the next fiscal year.

A large number of preliminary expeinments dealing with the,

transfer of heat across air spaces have been made, and apparatus;

has been designed and is under construction for continuing these;

measurements under more favorable conditions.

Miscellaneous.

Owing to other demands, very little, except a few routine tests

and some construction work on the apparatus for measurements at

high temperatures, has been done in connection with the measurement of thermal conductivity.

In gas calorimetry and combustion calorimetry only a small amount

of routine M'ork has been done.

5. CRYOGENIC LABORATORY.

C. W. Kanolt.

Liquid Air Plant (Cook).

The liquid air plant supplies the demand for liquid air for other

divisions of the bureau and occasionally for outside institutions. It

is operated on one or two days each week, producing from 15 to 20

liters at each operation. Much of this supply is required by other

laboratories of the bureau.

Carbon Dioxide Plant (Cook).

The carbon dioxide refrigerating plant is operated mainly to

supply refrigeration for researches of the heat division, and less

frequently for use in the testing of aviation and other instruments

at low temperatures by the division of mechanics and sound. The

cryogenic laboratory also has cooperated with various sections of the

bureau in a number of miscellaneous projects requiring low temperatures.

Special Vacuum-Walled Containers (Kanolt).

One project of the section has been the development of special

vacuum walled containers of very high heat insulating value for

retaining liquified gases with a minimum loss and for other purposes

requiring such containers. Work on this project was described in

the last annual report, since which further progress has been made

in the perfection of these containers. In connection with this work

apparatus has been developed for determining the coefficients of

reflection of metals for radiant heat.

Liquid Hydrogen (Kanolt, Cook).

The operation of the liquid hydrogen plant has been placed on a

satisfactory basis, and there is now no difficulty in producing liquid

or solid hydrogen when required. The liquefier produces about 2

liters per hour.
102 REPORT OF DIRECTOR OF BUREAIT OF STANDARDS.

Considerable attention has been given to the purity of the hydrogen. Very small quantities of nitrogen or oxygen" in the gaseous

hydrogen used will cause rapid clogging of the small hydrogen

expansion valve with solid nitrogen or oxygen. In other laboratories

the hydrogen has been purified by cooling with liquid hydrogen prepared previously. The practice at the bureau is to make very pure

hydrogen electrolytically without other purification than the relatively simple processes of removing oxy gen l)y heat and water by

calcium chloride, and carefully avoicling contamination of this hydrogen by traces of air. The locating and eliminating of sources of

contamination have been facilitated by the development of an analytical method for determining nitrogen in hydrogen by which very

small quantities can be detected and measured. Since pure hydrogen

has been made available in this way no trouble has been experienced

from clogging of the liquefier.

6. FIRE-RESISTIVE PROPERTIES OF BUILDING MATERIALS.

S. H. Ingberg.

Fire Tests of Brick Walls (Ingberg, N^ewcomer).

The fire tests of brick walls described in previous reports have

been concluded, so far as they concern fire tests and fire and water

tests of restrained and unrestrained panels. A further series of fire

tests under load is contemplated for which equipment is being provided. In the fire tests walls 11 feet high and 16 feet long are subjected to the standard fire test for periods up to six hours. The

conclusions from the fire tests conducted this year confirm those

from previous tests relative to the adequacy of the various types of

brick walls under fire conditions. In the fire and water tests the

walls are subjected to the standard fire exposure for one hour, when

a hose stream is applied for five minutes to the side exposed to fire. Hollow and solid masonry of the same general thicknesses and made

of the various kinds of brick used in the fire tests withstood the fire

and water tests without serious impairment. Tests of specimens of

masonry laid at the same time as the fire-test panels and of specimens

cut from the walls after fire test give a measure of the loss of strength

due to fire exposure. The concluding fire tests under working load

will be on walls made of brick that sustained the highest losses in

strength in this series to determine definitely ability to support working load under fire conditions.

HoUow^ Tile Investigation (Foster).

In the investigation of the fire-resistive and other properties of

Tiollow building tile, conducted in cooperation with the Hollow

Building Tile Association, 56 fire tests of tile masonry 4 feet square

have been made, comprising a series to determine (1) the effect on

fire resistive properties of adding ground burnt clay (grog) to

the raw clay, (2) the protection afforded by various plaster coatings,

(3) the effect of fineness of grinding of the raw clay, (4) the influence

of shape and size of unit, (5) the effect of adding a combustible filler to the raw clay, and (6) effect of wall thickness. Some of these

investigations have been completed and the results published. Freezing and thawing tests and compressive strength and absorption de-
EEPORT OF DIRECTOR OF BUREAU OF STANDARDS. 103

terminations have been made of tile representative of those used in

the fire tests. Chemical and mineralogical analyses have been made

of nearly all clays represented and ^-ork begun on the determination of the thermal expansivities of the burned clays, these determinations being made in cooj)eration with other divisions.

Standardization and Interpretation of Fire Tests.

Experiments are being conducted to obtain information on the

intensity and duration of typical building fires. A one-storj' brick

and concrete building 16 by 30 feet has been constructed, which, by

the use of discarded furniture, etc., can be fitted to rej)resent typical

occupancies, such as an office, a storage room, etc. Fire is started

either at one spot, or over a considerable arefv. and the intensity and

duration of the fire are observed by means of temperature measure- ments at a large number of points. Three such tests were completed.

Information of the kind furnished by the tests is necessary for the

proper interpretation of the results of fire tests of materials and

constructions.

Theater Curtains (Ingberg. Mitchell).

An investigation of the fire resistance and general adequacy of

theater fire curtains was begun at the request of the Conunissioners

of the District of Columbia. The progTam includes fire and operation tests of several types of curtains, as well as investigation of

possible improvements in design.

Building and Safety Codes.

Tentative building-exit codes for schools, factories, and mercantile establishments have been drafted bj' a sectional committee of

the American Engineering Standards Committee, on which the sec- tion is represented, and several proposed building and safety codes

have been reviewed.

New Investigations.

Xew investigations which have been planned and on which some

of the preliminary work has been done include fire tests of light

interior partitions, fire tests of insulated safes, and fire tests of

roofing. Equipment for tests of strength of materials at high temperatures is complete, and work on this subject is to be resumed.

Fire Tests of Concrete Columns (Hull).

Fire tests of about 90 reinforced concrete columns were made at

the former Pittsburgh testing station. The report of this work is

nearly ready for publication.

Miscellaneous Fire-Resistance Activities.

Among miscellaneous activities jnay be mentioned tests of the

safety of operation of motion-picture projectors and inclosing booths,

made at the request of other Government departments, an investigation on the merits of a proposed plan to increase the fire resistance

of the mansion house and adjacent buildings at Mount Vernon by

filling the wall spaces in whole or part with mineral wool, an investigation of the cause of the fire in the Treasury Building on May

3, 1922, and the prei^aration of a circular on the fire resistive properties of building materials for the use of the United States Chamber

of Commerce in its program to reduce the national fire waste.
104 REPOET OF DIRECTOR OF BUREAU OF STANDARDS.

7. AUTOMOTIVE POWER PLANTS, FUELS, AND LUBRICANTS.

W. S. James.

Altitude Laboratory (Sparrow).

Engine performance.—One of the important projects of the sec- tion is the study of performance of aircraft engines as affected by

altitude. During the year reports have been submitted to the

Bureau of Aeronautics of the Navy Department, covering very complete performance tests of two aircraft engines—^the Packard 1551

and the Wright H-3. These engines were tested in the altitude

chamber according to a test program of broad scope, including

changes in compression ratio. The results constitute a comprehensive

analysis of the behavior of these two types of engines under all nor- mal conditions met with in flight. Although neither of these reports

has been published, as they comprise special work for the Navy

Department, they have been circulated to a considerable extent among

aviation engine builders.

Effect of air temperatures.—^When aircraft or other such engines

are run at various temperatures of the intake air the power developed varies with the temperature. To make such results comparable, it is necessary to know the exact effect of air tempei-ature

on the power output of the engine.

An investigation of this question has been completed, the report

prepared, and submitted to the engineering division of the Air

Service. The report has now been submitted to the National Advisory Committee for Aeronautics for publication.

Mixture ratios.—The performance of internal-combustion engines

is markedly affected by the proportions of air and gasoline supplied

to it by the carburetor. An investigation of this subject has been

made and a report prepared for submission to the National Advisory

Committee for Aeronautics.

At the request of the American Chemical Society a paper entitled " Fuel requirements of internal-combustion engines " was prepared

for and presented at the New Haven meeting of that society.

Ignition (Silsbee).

Ignition problems have been handled jointly by this section and

the electrical division and have consisted mainly of certain specific

investigations requested by the Air Service and the National Advisory Committee for Aeronautics.

Size of sparh.—It is sometimes claimed that an intense or " hot

spark will cause the explosive mixture in an engine cylinder to

burn more rapidly, and hence give more power than when a weak

ignition spark is used. An extended investigation has been carried

on to determine whether or not such a connection between the spark

and the rate of burning exists. The results indicate that for mixtures of several explosive gases and also for gasoline vapor mixtures no such effect exists, and that the combustion initiated by the

weakest spark which can ignite the mixture at all will give as rapid

burning as will an igniting spark many times as intense. This study

has now been completed and a report will be submitted to the

National Advisory Committee for Aeronautics shortly.

Spark gaps.—^At the request of the Air Service a study has been

initiated of the various possible types of spark gap used in testing
EEPORT OF DIRECTOR OF BUREAU OF STANDARDS. 105

ignition apparatus. The best types of gap now in use are quite

erratic and it is desirable to standardize on the one which under

test shows the greatest permanency and the least variation of sparking voltage with external conditions.

Special tests.—In order to obtain more definite knowledge of the

felectrical phenomena which occur when an ignition system functions and to correlate the output of such apparatus with their

design, a comparative study of 10 radically different types of magnetos and spark coils has been started. It is hoped that the i-esults

will be of assistance to the manufacturers of such devices in improving their design and to the purchasers in adopting proper specifications and methods of test.

' While the bureau can not at present make routine tests of ignition

apparatus for the public, a number of sets of spark plugs have been

examined and tested from Government departments, municipalities, and from manufacturers whose products have shown sufficient

originality to warrant making tests for the information of the

bureau.

Carburetion (Sparrow, Cummings, Castleman, James).

Aircraft.—Flight tests of a radial air-cooled aircraft engine have

shown such peculiar carburetor characteristics at varying altitudes

that the Bureau of Aeronautics of the Navy Department requested

tests in the altitude chamber to determine the i-easons for this

erratic behavior. Tests have been completed with this engine fitted

with two different types of carburetors. As similar tests of the

performance of carburetors at varying altitudes have been made

during the year with two types of carburetor on a Packard 1551

aircraft engine and with three types on a Wright H-3 aircraft

engine, information as to aircraft-engine carburetors has been materially increased.

Pulsating flow.—Although a great deal is known concerning the

factors controlling the metering characteristics of carburetors when

a steady stream of air flows through them, this condition is not

met with in actual service on engines, as in this case the air flow is intermittent or pulsating. An investigation of the metering characteristics of several carburetors with both pulsating and steady

air flows has been carried out for and reported to the engineeringdivision of the Air Service.

Atomization.-—In order to insure optimum conditions for complete

and intimate mixing of the fuel and air in the intake manifold the

fuel should be as minutely subdivided as possible. Vaporization of

the fuel will, of course, result in the finest physical subdivision, but

the attendant loss of power resulting from increased temperature

of the mixture has made the possibilities of satisfactory mixing of

finely atomized fuel and air of great interest. An investigation

has been under way of the factors controlling (1) the formation of

the liquid drops from jets issuing from orifices of various types and

(2) the transportation of such drops in the air streams. This work

will probably be completed during the coming year.

Neio facilities.—-A new carburetor-testing plant for both automobile and aircraft carburetors has been designed and is in process of

construction. This will have sufficient size and pump capacity to

handle the largest airplane carburetors, and in many cases it will be
106 REPOET OF DIRECTOR OF BUREAU OF STANDARDS.

possible to test the complete intf\ke system as a unit. The testing

chamber is a reinforced monolithic concrete casting, and it will be

possible to vary the temperature of the air supplied the carburetor

from about —30 to +80° C. Three independent methods for the

measurement of the quantity of air flowing through the carburetor

and a device for the production of pulsations in the air stream are being provided.

Fuels for Internal Combustion Engines (Sparrow, Lee, Carlson,

Kennedy).

Special aircraft fuels.—-In order to prevent the destructive detonation resulting from the use of gasolines in high-compression aircraft engines benzol, alcohol, or other material must be blended with

the gasoline in varying proportions, dependent upon the compression ratio and volumetric efficiency of the engine considered. A

rather complete iuA^estigation of alcohol-gasoline and benzol-gasoline

blends lias been conducted, both as regards the physical and chemical

characteristics of the blends and their performance in aircraft engines. During these tests an engine was operated with a compression

ratio as high as 14 to 1. It is believed that this is the first time so high a ratio has been employed with an engine operating on the

Otto cycle. Reports covering this work have been submitted to the

Bureau of Aeronautics of the Nav3^ In addition, some of the outstanding results were presented at the winter meeting of the Society

of Automotive Engineers in a paper entitled " Testing fuels for

high-compression engines."

Economic motor fuel.—It ig well known that a relatively small re- duction in the volatility of motor gasoline will result in a significant

increase in the quantity of gasoline which can be produced from a barrel of crude oil. The effect of such reduction in volatility upon

the miles of transportation per gallon of gasoline possible with the

existing motorized transportation equipment of the country has,

however, been a much disputed question. During the past year, at

the request of three national societies—the American Petroleum Institute, National Automobile Chamber of Commerce, and the Society

of Automotive Engineers—representing the automotiv,e and petroleum industries, the bui'eau undertook an investigation of this question. The work has been carried out in close cooperation with these

organizations and so far has consisted of (1) two series of road

tests—one under summer and the other under winter conditions, with

cars estimated to represent approximately 75 per cent of the total

number now in use, and (2) laboratory investigation with the engine

of the car in most general use—-to find the conditions under which

differences in the fuels have a considerable effect upon engine

performance and to evaluate the magnitude and importance of these

differences.

Although the work is not yet completed, reports of its progress

have been presented at the annual meetings of the American Petroleum Institute and the Society of Automotive Engineers.

Intake manifold temperatures.—The steady reduction in recent

years of the volatility of motor gasolines available in this country

iias resulted in the general necessit}'' for heating the explosive mixture in order to assist in vaporizing the fuel before its entry into the

cylinders. As the power output of an engine is reduced when the
KEPORT OF DIRECTOR OF BUREAU OF STANDARDS. 107

temperature of the explosive mixture in the intake manifold is

heated, knowledge of the minimum temperature of the mixture at

which the fuel will remain in the vapor phase is of practical interest.

A method for the measurement of this temperature has been developed and applied to a number of gasolines. A publication giving

the results of this work is in preparation.

Blended f

uels.—In connection with the investigation on the physical properties of alcohol-gasoline blends for the Navy Department,

a stud}' has been made of the relations between the amount of water

present in the alcohol and the temperatures at which separation of

the alcohol and gasoline takes pace. The results of this work have

been reported to the Navy Department. « Lubrication.

Oxidation of oils (James, Sligh, Eade).—One of the most serious

difficulties encountered in the operation of internal-combustion en- gines is the formation of so-called " carbon " deposits in the combustion chamber. Although a part of this " carbon " is due to road dirt

and incompletely burned fuel, it has been found to vary with the

character of oil used. It is at present believed that the deposits

attributable to the oil are the result of its partial oxidation and may

therefore be indicative of their rates of " carbonization " in service.

During the past year, at the request of the Army Air Service, an

investigation has been made of methods for the determination of the

relative resistance of oils to partial oxidation similar to that pi;eviously proposed by Waters but more suitable for routine tests. A

number of methods have been investigated and, although an entirely

satisfactory one has not been completely developed, it is believed that

this will be accomplished during the ensuing year.

" Ccrrhon'''' deposits (James, King).—^During the year there has been

initiated an investigation of the conditions of engine oj)eration which

are of primary importance in controlling the formation of solids in

the combustion chambers and crank cases of engines. Some qualitative data on the effect of temperature of the metal parts of the

combustion chamber on the amount of "carbon" deposit formed

have been obtained and made available to the automotive engineers

through tlie trade press. It is believed that the results of the investigation when comi)leted will be of great assistance in the interpretation of laboratory tests of engine lubricants in terms of their

performance in use. Serrice tests (Thorne).—In addition to the laboratorj' engine tests

on lubricants, several tegts have been made on fleets of vehicles in

actual service. These " service " tests so far made have been for the

purpose of developing a satisfactory procedure for such work. It

is believed that such a i)rocedure has been successfully developed, and

comparisons between the performance of oils, differing in definite

particulars, are contemplated during the coming year.

Gear luh neation (von Amnion).—The limited knowledge available

in regard to the lubricants best suited for gear transmissions of automotive vehicles, involving the lubricatioii of both gears and bearings,

has stood in the way of preparing satisfactory specifications for such

lubricants. At the request of the Quai^termaster General the bureau

undertook to carry out an investigation of the more generally used

transmission and bearing lubricants, including both the fluid and the

semifluid types.
108 EEPOET OF DIBECTOK^OF BUBEAU OF STANDARDS.

In view of the probable difference in the requirements of gears and

antifriction bearings, it is necessary to study the problem of gear

lubrication separately from the problem of antifriction-bearing lubrication. This and the need of ascertaining very small differences in

friction losses and wear resulting from the use of different lubricants

have called for the planning and preparation of much special test equipment, some of which has made necessary preliminary experimental work. It has for this reason not been possible so far to begin

actual laboratory tests. The operation of the specially designed apparatus for the investigation of journal-bearing lubrication has been carefully investigated

and verj materially improved during the year. Some serious diffi- culties have been encountered and overcome. Several series of runs have been obtained, during which it has been possible to obtain satisfactory readings considerably beloAV the region of the minimum coefficient of friction. It is hoped that this investigation can be continued.

Loto temperature e-ffects (Griffin).—In the starting of aircraft

engines under winter conditions the maintenance of an ample supply

of oil to the rubbing surfaces is of great importance. The viscosity

of aircraft oils is high, even at the normal operating temperatures,

and when the oils are cooled to the temperatures encountered in

winter it may be so great as to prevent the entrance of the oil into

the suction side of the oil pumps. Of two oils of the same viscosity

at the working temperature (200° F.), one from a napthene and the

other from a paraffine base, the pour test of the paraffine base oil due

to the crystallization of the paraffine wax will be materially higher

than that of the oil from the napthene base, although the absolute

viscosity of paraffine base oil at low temperatures will be considerably

less than that of the napthene base oil. The question as to the significance of the pour test in estimating the relative ease with which

oils will be drawn into aircraft-engine oil pumps under winter conditions is therefore of importance. The engineering division of the

Air Service requested the bureau to investigate this question, using

aircraft oils from both napthene and paraffine base crudes. This is

being done by measuring the rate of oil flow into aircraft-engine oil

pumps when operating at low temperatures and also b)^ measuring the

plasticity of the same oils at low temperatures. Apparatus has been

designed and constructed for both parts of the investigation. It is planned to complete this investigation during the ensuing year.

Viscosity of lubricants (Herschel).—The viscosity of lubricating

oils is generally recognized as being their most important characteristic. Recent demands for greater accuracy in the measurement of

viscosity by means of the viscosimeter in most general use, the Saybolt Universal, have shown that its present state of standardization

is inadequate. Considerable work has been done during the year to

increase the accuracy of standardization of this instalment. This

investigation has been carried out in close cooperation with the

American Society for Testing Materials, the American Petroleum

Institute, and the National Electric Light Association.

Reclamation of used petroleum lubricating oils (Herschel) . —This

investigation of the possibilities of reconditioning or reclaiming

used petroleum lubricating oils, started last year, has been continued

with special reference to automobile and steam turbine oils. Steam

turbine oils are used continually for long periods of time—^that is.
REPORT OF DIRECTOR OF BUREAU OF STANDARDS. 109

one or two years—while at present automobile oils are used only for

a relatively short time and then discarded. The problem in the case of steam turbine oils is the original selection of oils which can be

maintained in good condition the greatest length of time. In the

case of the automobile oils the problem involves either the reconditioning of the oils while in use in the car or after draining from the

crank case. In cases where the cost of collection is small—that is,

in central garages caring for large number of vehicles—the possibilities of batch reclamation of crank-case drainings are promising.

" 6>^Z^r^e55 " of lubricants (Herschel) .—The property of " oili- ness " of lubricants has been recognized as an important quality

which has not yet been sufficiently defined to be capable of laboratory

tests. A special friction-testing machine, modeled after that of

Deeley, has been built for the study of this property, and its performance is being investigated.

Miscellaneous (James, Herschel).—An investigation has been

made of several types of viscosimeters in which the action depends

upon the a^scous drag between two rotating cylinders immersed in

the oil. the viscosity of which is to be determined.

Short investigations have been made of a test for the gum formation characteristics of gasoline proposed by the Bureau of Mines

and of slight changes in the method of test for demulsibility of oils.

A condensed statement of the experience gained at the bureau in

the engine testing of lubricants has been prepared and transmitted

to the Bureau of Mines to assist them in a recently initiated investigation of the suitability of California oils for use in automotive

engines.

Cooling Problems (Kohr, Harper, Butler, Zobel).

Aircraft radiators.—-The application of the published results of

the bureau's comprehensive laboratory tests of the characteristics of

aircraft radiators has been seriously hampered by the lack of information on the air flow through radiators in flight. In many airplanes the radiator is mounted in the nose of the fuselage or in

other positions in which the air stream either entering or leaving the

radiator is materially influenced by other parts of the airplane

sti'ucture. An investigation of the air flow in flight through radiators mounted in this manner has been undertaken at the request

and with the support of the National Advisory Committee for

Aeronautics. A method has been developed for taking these measurements. The flight work is being carried out in cooperation with

the flying personnel of tlie Bureau of Aeronautics of the Navy Department.

As the pre\dous laboratory tests of aircraft radiator characteristics

were carried out at maximum air speed of about 80 miles per hour,

the National Advisory Committee for Aeronautics has requested that

this work be extended to higher air speeds. The new wind tunnel

equipment now available at the bureau has made it possible to take

measurements up to air speeds of 150 miles per hour. This investigation will be completed during the coming j^ear.

Measurements of air flow.—At the request and with the support of

the National Advisory Committee for Aeronautics a critical study

was undertaken of the behavior of Bitot tubes as used to measure the

air flow through the cells of aircraft radiators. The subject has been
110 REPORT OF DIRECTOR OP BUREAU OF STANDARDS,

treated both from the theoretical and experimental standpoints with

concordant results. The experimental work has been somewhat limited through lack of a wide range of types of core, although those

used cover quite fully the small celled honeycomb type mostly used.

A report of this investigation is being prepared for submission to

the National Advisorj^ Committee for Aeronautics.

Automobile Brake Linings (von Ammon).

An investigation of automobile brake linings Avhich was begun

about two years ago at the request and with the support of the motor

transport division, Quartemaster Corps, has been continued. The

bureau's earlier work stimulated manufacturers to more systematic

investigation of the i>ossibilities of improving their products, and

that the efforts in this direction have borne fruit is shown by the

further improvement found in many of the samples tested during

the past year. This improvement is most marked in regard to the

durability under severe service conditions which are accompanied by

considerable increases in temperature. Some of the samples tested

showed under these conditions a truly remarkable durability compared even with the improvement noted in the preceding year. The

results further indicate that similar durability can be obtained not

only in linings covering a fairly wide range of variety, quality, and

staple of asbestos and percentage of cotton and wire but also with

either of the two types of saturant in most general use, one of which

is of asphaltic nature, while the other type is a rubber compound

capable of vulcanizing.

New test equipment now being installed will aid materially in ex- pediting the routine testing of the many new products being constantly submitted. It will also make possible the further development of additional tests planned earlier: of these an intermittent

application test will, it is believed, prove of particular interest. An

increasing interest in making laboratorj' tests of brake linings is noted among manufacturers of automotive vehicles.

Road Performance of Engines and Cars (James).

In the comparison between dynamometer and road performance

of automobile and truck engines significant and apparently unexplainable differences are often evident. The reasons for these differences are probably not due to errors in the laboratory observations, but to a lack of definite information as to the conditions of

operation encountered on the road, thus making reproduction of such

conditions in the laboratory uncertain. To assist in obtaining quantitative information on this subject, the bureau has designed and constructed apparatus that can be installed on practically any passenger

car and truck and which records autographically about 18 measure- ments giving the performance of the engine and car. Among these

records are rate-of-gasoline consumption, power output, car speed,

wind speed, wind direction, weight of air used by the engine, and

temperatures of the cooling water and kibricants in the engine and

transmission. The accuracy and reliability of the several measuring

and recording devices is being carefully investigated, and it is believed that the practicability of the apparatus for the purpose desired has been demonstrated. This apparatus should furnish data

of great value to car designers on tlie performance of their products.
EBPORT OF DIRECTOR OF BUREAU OF STANDARDS. Ill

Mechanical Efficiency of Truck Rear Axles (von Ammon).

An investigation of the relative merits of heavy duty truck axles of

6-ton rating and of various types begun earlier under the auspices of

the motor transport division, Quarteimaster Corps, has been concluded.

The results relating to the efficiency of power transmission of the

axles tested over the whole range of speeds and power have been presented in a paper read before the Society of Automotive Engineers.

Phenomena of Combustion (Stevens).

The information at j)resent available on the rates of flame propagation through explosive mixtures is very meager in comparison with

the wide application of the combustion of explosive mixtures for the

production of mechanical power.

As is Avell known, the thermal efficiency and power output of en- gines can be increased by increase in compression ratio, but so far

this has been limited because of peculiar and harmful types of combustion resulting from this increase. An investigation of the fundamental factors controlling flame velocities in explosive mixtures was

started about two j'ears ago and has been continued during the past

year at the request and with the support of the National Advisory

Committee for Aeronautics. A new optical method of extreme

simplicitj' and high accuracy described in a recent report to the

National Advisor}- Committee for Aeronautics has been developed

for this investigation. During the past year this method has been

applied to the measurement of the flame velocities in mixtures of pure

carbon monoxide and oxygen in varying proportions and with varying amounts of inert diluting gases present.

During the ensuing year it is thought that the method can be used

in the study of the rates of flame propagation in explosive mixtures

of more com]Dlex substances.

Miscellaneous (Sligh, Sparrow, James).

A high-speed recording pressure indicator has been designed and

is now in progress of construction. This indicator, it is hoped, will

make it possible to obtain pressure-time and pressure-valume indicator cards of high-speed engines with sufficient ease and rapidity

to permit of such cards being taken as part of all engine tests. Accuracy, rapidity, and ease of operation have been the prime considerations. The design has been developed after much preliminary

investigation regarding the action of the various elements entering

into it. In cooperation Avith the photometry section of this bureau, a series

of jiublic automobile headlight tests were run in order to determine

the average operating conditions of head lamps in service.

Results of these tests indicate that a majority of such lamps are

in imperfect focus, resulting in waste of light and dangerous glare.

These data have been given wide publicity, and it seems that they

will prove of great value in helping to bring about more general

attention to this important question of safe headlighting.

Several tests have been made of devices supposed to affect combustion in the engine cylinder, such as coating the inside of the

cylinder with a catalytic agent and the use of valves opening when

the piston is at the lower position of the suction stroke.
112 REPORT OF DIRECTOR OF BUREAU OF STANDARDS.

A short series of tests of power output and fuel consumption have

been made of a small model (0.7 horsepower) of a newly developed

type of 2-cycle engine.

A recording decelerometer for the study and testing of braking

systems has been designed and constructed. This instrument was

demonstrated at the summer meeting of the Society of Automotive

Engineers on a number of automobiles, incuding several fitted with

four-Avheel brakes.

INFORMATION, TESTS, AND PUBLICATIONS.

Information, Cooperation with Societies, etc. An important part of the division's activities has consisted in furnishing information on scientific and technical subjects related to

its Avork by extensive correspondence, reports, or directly to technical

men visiting its several laboratories. Many of the requests for

information relate to physical data which are readily accessible to

anyone interested, but a considerable proportion relate to special

equipment or information developed by the bureau and may require

considerable investigation. Information has been given on such

matters as the installation of a complete dynamometer equipment

for engine testing, on equipment for testing brake linings, on a number of matters relating to fire protection and prevention.

Members of the division have cooperated in the activities of vari- ous scientific and technical societies and organizations, including:

American Petroleum Institute, American Physical Society, American Society of Mechanical Engineers, American Societj^ of Refrigerating Engineers, American Society for Testing Materials, American

Society of Civil Engineers, American Ceramic Society, American

Concrete Institute, National Crushed Stone Association, National

Lumber Manufacturers Association, Prepared Eoofing Association,

United States Chamber of Commerce, Hollow Building Tile Association, Interdepartmental Committee on Petroleum Specifications,

National Advisory Committee for Aeronautics, National Fire Protection Association, Optical Society of America, and the Society of

Automotive Engineers.

The division has been actively represented in the committee work

of several of these societies, notably the American Society for Testing Materials, the National Fire Protection Association, American

Society for Steel Treating, National Eesearch Council, International

Union of Pure and Applied Physics, the American Society of Refrigerating Engineers, and the Society of Automotive Engineers.

Numerous papers dealing with the work of the division have been

presented before scientific and technical societies.

PUBLICATIONS.

The following publications relating to the work of the division

have appeared during the year among the publications of the Bureau

of Standards

Composition, purification, and certain constants of ammonia (B. C. McKelvy

and C. S. Taylor), Sci. Papers, 18, p. 655; 1923 (No. 465).

Specific volume of saturated ammonia vapor (C. S. Cragoe, E. C. McKelvy, and

G. F. O'Connor), Sci. Papers, 18, p. 707; 1923 (No. 467).
KEPOKT OF DIRECTOR OF BUREAU OF STANDARDS. 113

Radiators for aircraft engines (S. R. Parsons and D. R. Harper 3d), B. S. Tecli. Paper No. 211 ; 1922.

Tables of thermodynamic properties of ammonia, B. S. Circular No. 142 ; 1923.

Mollier chart for ammonia. B. S. Misc. Pub. No. 52 ; 1923.

Reclamation of used petroleum lubricating oils (W. H. Herschel), B. S. Technologic Paper No. 223. The papers listed below have appeared in current scientific and

technical publications

Thermometry, pyrometry and heat conductivity (G. K. Burgess and Paul D. Foote). A monograph published as a section of Standard Handbook for

Electrical Engineers, fifth edition. (This article was completely rewritten

for the fifth edition.)

The origin of spectra (Paul D. Foote and F. L. Mohler), 250 pp. Chemical

Catalog Co., New York, Monograph of The American Chemical Society).

Pyrometry (Paul D. Foote, C. O. Fairchild, T. R. Harrison, and R. M. Wilhelm), pp. 409-472. Liddell's Handbook of Chemical Engineering, McGrawHill, New York.

Critical potentials of thallium vapor (F. L. Mohler, Paul D. Foote, and Arthur

E. Ruark), Science 57 pp. 475-477; 1923.

A precise method of measuring small emfs and the change in thermoelectric

power of tin at the melting point (T. R. Harrison and Paul D. Foote),

J. O. S. A. and R. S. I. 7, pp. 389-398 ; 1932.

The D2 Zeeman pattern for resonance radiation (Paul D. Foote, Arthur E. Ruark, and F. L. Mohler), J. O. S. A. and R. S. I. 7, pp. 415-417; 1923.

The steam research at the Bureau of Standards (N. S. Osborne), Mechanical

Engineering, 45, p. 168 ; 1923. Heat transmission through building structures (E. F. Mueller), Jour. Am. Soc. Heating and Ventilating Engineers, 29, p. 69 ; 1923.

A simple apparatus for comparing thermal conductivity of metals and very

thin specimens of poor conductors (M. S. Van Dusen), Rev. of Sci. Insts., 6, p. 739; 1922.

A laboratory hypsometer (E. F. Mueller and T. S. Sligh, jr.) Rev. of Sci. Insts.,

6, p. 958 ; 1922.

Note on platinum resistance thermometer construction (T. S. Sligh, jr.), Rev. of

Sci. Insts., 7, p. 203 ; 1923.

Measurement of specific heat of superheated ammonia (bureau report to A. S. R. E. ) , Refrigerating Engineering, 9, p. 1 ; 1922.

Thermodynamics of ammonia compression (discussion, C. S. Cragoe), Rei.

Eng., 9, p. 125; 1922. Ammonia tables. Preliminary edition published separately by A. S. R. E., December; 1922.

Composition, purification, and certain constants of ammonia (E. C. McKelvy

and C. S. Taylor), Ref. Eng., 9, p. 213; 1923. (Same as S465.)

Specific volume of saturated ammonia vapor (C. S. Cragoe, E. C. McKelvy, and

G. F. O'Connor), Ref. Eng., 9, p. 239; 1923. (Same as S467.)

Mollier charts (E. F. Mueller and C. H. Meyers), Ref. Eng., 9, p. 295; 1923.

Effectiveness of different methods of making absorption determinations as

applied to hollow building tile (H. D. Foster), Jour. American Ceramic

Society, 5, No. 11, p. 788 ; November, 1922.

Investigation of cause of fire on U. S. Treasury roof (N. D. Mitchell), Quarterly

National Fire Protection Association, 16, No. 3, p. 255 ; January, 1923.

Fire tests of concrete protected and reinforced concrete building columns

(S. H. Ingberg), Paper before National Crushed Stone Association. Rock

Products, 26, No. 5, p. 120 ; March 10, 1923.

Capping for compression speciments (H. D. Foster), Jour. American Ceramic

Society, 6, No. 5, p. 263 ; May, 1923.

The fire-resistive properties of gypsum (S. H. Ingberg), Proc. American Soc. for Testing Materials, 16 ; 1923.

Effect of grog addition on fire resistance of hollow tile (H. D. Foster), Jour. American Ceramic Society, 6, No. 6, p. 748; June, 1923.

Testing fuels for high-compression engines (S. M. Lee and S. W. Sparrow),

Jour, of Soc. of Autom. Engrs. ; January, 1922.

Economic motor fuel volatility (R. E. Carlson), Jour, of Soc. of Autom. Engrs.

February, 1923.

65077—23 9
114 REPORT OF DIRECTOR OF BUREAU OF STANDARDS.

An investigation of some heavy-duty truck drive axles (S. Von Ammon), Jour.

of Soc. of Autom. Engrs. ; June, 1923.

Fuel requirements of internal combustion engines (S. W. Sparrow), Jour. Ind.

and Engr. Chem. ; May, 1923.

Anotlier ether-drift experiment (R. J. Kennedy), Physical Review; July, 1922.

A device for logarithmic and semilogarithmic plotting and finding powers and

exponentials (R. W. Castleman, jr.), Jour. O. S. O. A. and R. S. I., 7, No. 5;

May, 1923.

The use of multiplied pressures for automatic altitude adjustments (S. W.

Sparrow), Tech. note of National Advisory Committee for Aeronautics.

The following papers are in press or have been submitted for

publication

Disappearance of the filament and diffraction effects in improved forms of an

optical pyrometer (C. O. Fairchild and W. H. Hoover). To appear in July

issue of J. O. S. A. and R. S. I. Stages in the excitation of the spectra of thallium (F. L. Mohler and Arthur

E. Ruark). To appear in J. O. S. A. and R. S. I. Calorimetry of saturated fluids (N. S. Osborne). > Uses of the Mollier chart (C. H. Meyers).

The fire-resisting properties of building materials and constructions (S. H.

Ingberg), Circular, U. S. Chamber of Commerce.

REPORTS OF NATIONAL ADVISORY COMMITTEE FOR AERONAUTICS.

Constant pressure bomb (F. W. Stevens).

Correcting horsepower to a standard temperature (S. W. Sparrow).

Flash-over voltage of spark plugs at high altitudes (F. B. Silsbee).

Sparking voltage of gaps with hot electrodes (F. B. Silsbee).

Sparking voltage of spark plugs (F. B. Silsbee).

Effect of spark character on flame velocity (D. W. Randolph and F. B.

Silsbee).

Papers presented before scientific societies but not printed.

The excitation of spark spectra of rubidium and caesium in a low voltage arc

(F. L. Mohler, Paul D. Foote, Arthur E. Ruark, and C. C. Kiess), Washington

meeting of Optical Society of America.

Atomic structure from spectroscopic considerations (Paul D. Foote). Lecture

before American Association for Advancement of Science and American

Physical Society, Boston, December 28, 1923.

Stages in the development of the iodine spectrum and related critical potentials

(F. L. Mohler and Paul D. Foote), Boston meeting of American Physical

Society.

Pyrometry (H. M. Schmitt). Illustrated lecture before George Washingtoa

University Engineering Society. Awarded gold medal.

The alchemist (Paul D. Foote). Illustrated lecture at Rochester before Rochester Sections of Optical Society of America and American Chemical Society and

at Washington before Washington Philosophical Society.

The change in viscosity of oils with the temperature (W. H. Herschel), Jour.

Ind. and Eng. Chem., 14, p. 715 ; 1922.

The drainage error in the Bingham viscosimeter (W. H. Herschel), Jour. Opt.

Soc. of America, 6, p. 875 ; 1922.

Testing oiliness by friction testing machines (W. H. Herschel), Chem. and Met.

Eng., 28, p. 302 ; 1923.

Friction testing of lubricating oils (W. H. Herschel), Chem. and Met. Eng., 28,

p. 594; 1923.

Testing lubricating oils for quality (W. H. Herschel), Proc. Eng. Soc. of Western Pennsylvania, 38, p. 503 ; 1923.

The improved MacMichael viscosimeter (W. H. Herschel), Jour. Opt. Soc. of

America. 7, p. 335 ; 1923.
OPTICS.

C. A. Skinner.

FUNCTIONS.

The work of the optical division includes : Radiation and absorption spectra, along with certain phases of qualitative and quantitative chemical analysis for which these are especially applicable, and

the development of infra-red photography for astronomical observations and aviation purposes ; investigations and tests involving measurements of polarized light and its application, especially in the test- ing, standardization, and technology of sugar, including the supervision of the sugar laboratories of the customs service ; measurement

of the factors which determine color, the optical transmissive and

reflective properties of materials, and the color grading of light sources and materials; performance and development of optical instruments and materials, including refractive indices and dispersion

measurements; the more general field of radiation, determination of

the fundamental constants of radiation, the development of radiometric methods and instruments, and the determination of the emissive, reflective, and absorptive properties of materials for thermal

radiation ; testing of photographic materials and devices and general

photographic investigations ; application of the light wave as a standard unit for high precision length measurements and development

of interference methods.

1. Spectroscopy.

2. Polarimetry.

3. Colorimetry.

4. Refractometry and optical instruments.

5. Radiometry,

6.

7. Photographic technology.

8. Interferometry.

SECTIONS.

GENERAL STATISTICS.

Staff 45

.. $130, 000

6,612

Expenditures (1922-23) _. Tests completed

Researches completed

Bureau publications

Other technical publications.

31

12

10

115
WORK CHART.

I. SPECTROSCOPY.

SCOPE.

Determination of standard wave lengtlis.

Description of emission spectra of the cliemical elements.

Analysis of complex spectra.

Spectrocliemical research and tests. Preparation of spectrum tubes.

Catliodic deposition of metal miri-ors. Photographic emulsion investigations.

Photochemical study of light-sensitive materials.

Tests of photosensitizing dyes.

TESTS.

Nature of test.

Number completed.

1921-22 1922-23

Spectrochemical analyses: Platinum metals and alloys. Iron and steel Brass, bronze

Miscellaneous Spectrum tubes: Mercury

Cadmium

Helium, neon

Photosensitizing dyes:

Dicyanin

Kryptocyanin

Pinaflavol

5

19

125

30

7

20

9

3.5 150

6

1012

3

11

RESEARCHES.

Subject.

Determination of secondary standards in the visible and ultra-violet arc sprectrvun of iron. Determination of secondary standards in the red and

Infra-red arc spectrum of iron. Standard wave lengths in the solar spectrum

Wave-length measurements in the arc spectra of gadolinium and dyrprosium.

Wave-length measurements in the spectrum of chlorine. Wave-leangth measurements in the spectrum of scan- dium.

Wave-length measurements in the spectrum of colum- bium.

Wave-length measurements longer than 5,500 A in the

spectra of the six platinum metals. Wave-length measurements in the arc spectrum of tantalum.

Series regularities in the arc spectrum of chromium.

Series regularities in the arc spectrum of molybdenum.

Kegularities in the arc spectrum of iron

Regularities in the arc spectrum of titanium

Regularities in the arc spectrum of vanadium

Regularities in the arc spectrum of scandium

Regularities in the arc spectrum of zirconium

Regularities in the are spectrum of nickel and cobalt .

Regularities in the arc spectrum of six platinum

metals.

Practical spectrographic analysis

The physical basis of spectrochemical analysis

In cooperation

with—

Allegheny Observatory.

'Allegheny Observatory.

Status June 30, 1923.

Per cent completed.

100

100

10

100

50

100

100

100

50

80

100

100

100 100

10050

75

10

10050

Publication

issued.

S 466.

Outside. 1

Do.2

S444.

" Science, 56, p. 666, December, 1922. 116

2 Wash. Acad. Sci., 13, p. 243; 1923.
REPORT OF DIRECTOR OF BUREAU OF STANDARDS. 117

2. POLARIMETRY.

SCOPE.

Alagneto and electro optics.

Natural optical activity.

Double refraction.

Physicochemical properties of common sugars. Properties and structure of the rare sugars and associate compounds.

Analysis of sugars and sugar products. , Color and decolorization in technical sugar' products.

Utilization of nonsugars.

Standardization of practice in sugar technology.

Starches.

TESTS.

Nature of test.

White consiHuption sugars

Soft sugars Saccharimeters Quartz control plates Miscellaneous Annealing schedule and thermal effects Polariscopic determinations

Moisture

Molasses analyses

Polariscopic tube-cover glasses

Number completed.

1921-22 1922-23

1 2040 lU

62

1,656 695

24

2,000

12543

50

132 1,844

739

51 800

RESEARCHES.

Subject. In cooperation with

Status June 30, 1923.

Per cent completed.

Publication

issued.

Magnetic rotation of quartz Magnetic rotation of Fe, Ni, and Co

Magnetic rotation of Fe; O system

Magnetic rotation of CuHs^Ou

Specific rotation of sucrose Rotary dispersion of sugars Growing of doubly refracting crystals Development of zmc gaUium vapor lamp

Development of thaUium vapor lamp

Thermal effects in glass:

(a) Changes caused by annealing

(b) Changes caused by chilling

(c) Hardening glass

(d) Density changes

Electric double refraction Saturation relations in sugar mixtures

Invertase value of clerget constant

Densities of invert sugar solutions and the contraetionof sucrose upon inversion. Determination of raflBnose and sucrose in crude beet

products without use of enzymes.

Preparation of levulose Refractive indices of sugar solutions The halogen-acetyl and nitro-acetyl derivatives of the sugars. The penta-acetyl derivatives of d-glucose Moisture determination on soft sugars Moisture determination on molasses sirups, etc Ash determination in sugar products

Decolorization of low-grade honey

Methods of purification of sugars Comparative trictiromatio and quantitative spectro- photometric analysis of technical sugar products.

A standard sugar color, its absorption spectrum,

luminosity, and classification. Quantitative spectro-photometric analysis of technical sugar products.

85

80

8050

2040

30

90

30

50

100

10

55

9740

80

30

7035

75

1060

1020

50

1585

75

50
118 REPORT OF DIRECTOR OF BUREAU OF STANDARDS.

RESEARCHES—Continued.

Subject.

The absorption spectrum of soft sugars Comparative chemical and colorimetric analysis of various sugars: Tabulation of color, analytical values, sieve tests, and deductions based on observations. Methods of concentrating and analysis of beet-sugar waste water. Preparation of pure organic compounds from waste

water. Dry distillation process S&um^ of patent literature Utilization of molasses—sugar recovery Hydrogen-ion concentration of soft sugars

Titration curves and buffer action of soft sugar Moisture absorption and caking of white consumption

sugars. Development of mechanical plants:

Semicommercial

Development A new fixed point on the thermometric scale The structure of fucose

In cooperation

with

Status June 30, 192.3.

Per cent completed.

5

100

15 1002

3

50

50

95

100

Publication

issued.

S459. Outside.1

1 Jour. Bio. Chem., 54, p. 65, 1922 (September).

3. COLORIMETRY.

SCOPE.

Specification and standardization of colors—determination of: (a) The color

cliaracteristics of natural and artificial sources of light, (&) the properties of

materials which determine their color. Study of phenomena and laws of color vision.

TESTS.

Nature of test.

Number completed.

1921-22

Spectral transmission glass Other materials Dominant wave length, purity, brightness

Spectral reflection , Spectral energy distribution, color temperature.

Optical instruments

RESEARCHES.

Subject. In cooperation

with—

Status

Per cent completed.

June 30, 1923.

Publication

issued.

Spectrophotometric and spectroradiometric methods

Standard data on optical properties of materials which determine their color: Dyes Department of Agriculture.

50

100

575 100

75

90

10

S44a.

Do.

Outside.i

Do

Department of Agriculture.

1 Jour. Am. Cerm. Soc, vol. 6, No. 5, May, 1923.
BEPOET OF DIRECTOR OF BUREAU OF STANDARDS. 119

RESEARCHES—Continued.

Subject.

Visibility of radiant energy The photometry of incandescent sources by the method of rotatory dispersion. Color temperature of artificial Ught sources , Spectral distribution of energy from complete radiator

tables and graphs. Researches in color vision: Analysis of color stimulus in terms of dominant wave length purity and brightness.

Psychologic standard of "white" Ught

Visibility of radiant energy

Sensibilities of the eye—hue, saturation, bril- liance. The three fundamental excitations Color blindness Systems of material color standards

In cooperation,

with

MunseU Color

Co.

Status June 30, 1923.

Per cent completed.

Publication

issued.

100

75

75

90

50

50

2510

5

5

8443.

S417.

4. REFRACTOMETRY AND OPTICAL INSTRUMENTS.

SCOPE.

Testing of optical glass.

Design of optical systems.

Design of optical instruments.

Testing of optical systems.

Testing of optical instruments.

Construction of optical components.

TESTS.

Nature of test.

Determinatio* of indices of refraction Transmission of optical glass Measurement of focal length Measurement of aberrations Refractometers standardized

Binoculars tested

Mirrors silvered Miscellaneous

Number completed.

1921-22 1922-23

68 111 6 42

6 10

19 33 7 7

1 10 6 83

34 37

RESEARCHES.

Subject. In cooperation with

Status June 30, 1923.

Per cent completed.

Publication

issued.

Aberration of photographic lenses Design of telescopic sjrstems Instrument design: Lens for camera obscura

12-lnoh telescope objective

Magnifying steroscope

Field telemeter Small camera obscura for Aberdeen. Army.

9060

100

80 100

10075 Outside.'

1 Jour, of Opt. Soc. of America, 6, (5), July, 1922.
120 REPORT OF DIRECTOR OF BUREAU OF STANDARDS,

5. RADIOMETRY.

SCOPE.

Determination of tlie fundamental constants of tliermal radiation.

Development of instruments and methods of radiometry.

Investigation of the emissive, reflective, and absorptive properties of materials

for thermal radiation.

Maintenance of glasses for protecting the eyes from injurious thermal radiation.

TESTS.

Nature of test.

Number completed.

1921-22 1922-23

Eye protective glasses Standards of radiation

Photoelectric cells Quartz mercury therapeutic lamps

84

53

21

32

10

7

RESEARCHES.

Subject.

Photoelectrical investigations:

Argentite Bournonite and pyrargyrlte

HaUde salts of thalUum, lead, and silver Various photoelectrical investigations Further tests of stellar radiometers and some measure- ments of planetary radiation. Some new photo-electrical and thermo-electrlcal properties of molybdenite.

Thermocouple measurements of stellar and planetary

radiation. Optical society report on the present status of stellar and planetary radiation. Some observations on the transformation of thermal

radiation into electric current in molybdenite.

In cooperation with

Status June 30, 1923.

Per cent completed.

100 100

100

100

50

50

100

100

50

Publication

issued.

S446. S451 S456

S462.

S460.

Outside.1

JD0.2

D0.3

1 Popular Astronomy, February, 1923.

2 Jour. Opt. Soc. of America, December, 1922.

3 Proc. Wash. Acad, of Sci., November, 1922; Jour. Opt. Soc., January, 1923.

7. PHOTOGRAPHIC TECHNOLOGY.

SCOPE.

Sensitometry.

Investigation of illumination in photography.

Photomechanical processes. Applied photogranhy.

TESTS.

Nature of test.

Number completed.

1921-22

Emudsion characteristics FUter factors Standard lamps

Desenitizers Developers , Requisitions for photographic service. Design:

Automatic camera

Sensitometer Photometer

Printer

12040

12 2,050
EEPORT OF DIRECTOR OF BUREAU OF STANDARDS. 121

RESEARCHES.

Subject. In cooperation with

Status June 30, 1923.

Per cent completed.

Publication

issued.

Characteristics of developers

Effect of color of iUumination

Photographic characteristics of silver chloride, bro- mide, iodide, and other sensitive salts. Effects of charred paper on photographic plates

Investigation of failure of reciprocity law of exposure time and hght intensity. Effect of intermittent exposures

10

1025

10025

10

8454.

8. INTERFEROMETRY.

SCOPE.

Thermal expansion.

Calibration of end standards.

Line standards.

Index of refraction.

Dimensional changes of materials.

Plane surfaces.

Accurate measurements of the size of miscellaneous small objects.

TESTS.

Nature of test.

Number completed.

1921-22 1922-23

17 228

6

4 250

184

11844

15

12 100 Refractive index 5

RESEARCHES.

Subject.

Thermal expansion:

Ceramic materials , Fused quartz

Porcelain and white-ware glaze , Ruling of line standards ^ , Index of refraction of glass (20 to 600" C.)

Index of refraction of liquids

In cooperation

with—

Status June 30, 1923.

Per cent completed.

100

5030

30

10020

Publication

issued.

Detailed Report of the Year's Work.

GENERAL.

Outstanding Accomplishments.

From the large group of varied activities necessarily briefly

described below certain accomplishments may be cited here which

are of more than ordinary interest.
122 REPORT OF DIRECTOR OF BUREAU OF STANDARDS.

A number of the chemical elements have been brought into the

spectral series class which have heretofore, because of their very

complex spectra, eluded all attempts at correlation.

Experiments have been carried out which seem to corroborate

earlier conjectures that the process of annealing glass is not merely

one in which the mechanical stress is relieved, but perhaps primarily

one which permits and facilitates the formation throughout of definite molecular aggregates which characterize well-annealed glass.

An interferometer method has been developed for measuring refractive indices of samples no larger than 4 by 4 by 4 millimeters to an

accuracy of 1 part in 1,000,000, or to seven significant figures, thus

affording an effective means for investigating optical homogeneity

and chemical purity of materials, as also for calibrating standard

refractive index samples.

Two instruments of importance in photometry and colorimetry

have been completed, tested, and found to function satisfactorily.

One embodies the application of the principle of rotatory dispersion

in producing what is effectively a specifically variable blue filter

for eliminating color difference in the photometry of different light

sources, and the other is a very complete monochromatic colorimeter

which matches given colors by a definite quantity of white plus a

definite quantity of a pure spectral hue.

I. SPECTROSCOPY.

W. F. Meggers.

Standard Wave Lengths—Secondary Standards in the Visible and

Ultra-Violet Arc Spectrum of Iron (Meggers, Kiess).

Many problems in metrology, optics, spectroscopy, and astrophysics require for their solution a satisfactory system of standard

wave lengths. About a decade ago such a system of secondary

standards derived from comparisons of iron lines with the fundamental standard—that is, the red radiation from cadmium—was adopted

by the International Union for Cooperation in Solar Research.

These standards included 86 wave lengths of lines emitted by an iron arc burning with a 6-millimeter electrode separation, the light being

taken from an axial part of about 2 millimeters in the middle of the

arc. Some of the^e wave lengths were later shown to be influenced

by the operating conditions of the iron arc, and this led, in 1922,

to the following recommendation by the International Astronomical

Union : " In order to obtain lines of constant wave length, constant

intensity distribution, and adapted to high orders of interference,

the adoption is recommended of the Pfund arc operating between

110 and 250 volts, with 5 amperes or less, at a length of 12 to 15

millimeters used over a central zone at right angles to the axis of the

arc, not to exceed 1 to 1.5 millimeters in width, and with an iron

rod 6 to 7 millimeters in diameter as the upper pole and a bead of

oxide of iron as the lower pole." In view of these changes in the source it became desirable to remeasure the entire system of standards. A new set of values comprising 160 lines distributed at

intervals of 20 to 30 Angstrom units (1 Angstrom unit=0.0000001

millimeter between the ultra-violet (3,271.002 A) and the red
EEPORT OF DIRECTOR OF BUREAU OF STANDARDS. 123

16,677.994 A) was carefully determined by direct comparison with

the red radiation from a cadmium-vapor spectrum tube. In addition to improving the relative values of the secondary standards,

this investigation indicates that the present international system is

nearly 1 part in 1,000,000 too large in the longer wave lengths.

Secondary Standards in the Red and Infra-red Arc Spectrum of Iron

(Meggers, Kiess).

The International Astronomical Union in 1922 also recommended

that as the secondary standards of longer than 6,000 A are all stable

lines, and as the exposures with the above-mentioned arc may be

rather long, the 6-millimeter, 6-ampere arc be retained for this

region. Since no secondary iron standards greater than 6,750 A

existed, the problem of extending this system to longer waves was

undertaken. Using the original iron arc, the wave lengths of 160

spectral lines between the green (6,434.525 A.) and infra-red

(8,824.238 A) were accurately measured in terms of the cadmium

standard. For stable lines common to both ranges this last series of

values is in good agreement with the first series described above.

The precision attained in these wave-length measurements is of the

•order of 1 part in 5,000,000.

New Table of Solar Wave Lengths (Meggers, Kiess).

Quoting again from the report of the International Astronomical

Union : " It is believed that the time has arrived for the determination of a series of solar wave lengths in the international system to serve as standards for a new table of solar wave lengths." The spectroscopy section of the Bureau of Standards has accordingly entered

into a cooperative program of solar spectrum wave-length measure- ments with the Allegheny Observatory, of Pittsburgh, Pa. (Doctor

Burns). The necessary equipment was assembled and observations

were begiin in June.

Investigation of Arc Spectra (Meggers, Kiess, Stimson).

The description of the longer wave portions of the standard arc spectra of the chemical elements, which has occupied the bureau's

attention for the past seven years, has been continued. During the

past year these investigations have covered the following chemical

elements : Gadolinium, dysprosium, columbium, tantalum, scandium,

platinum, palladium, rhodium, ruthenium, osmium, iridium, and

chlorine. In each case hundreds of new spectral lines were discovered in the red and infra-red spectral regions, representing important additions to spectroscopic data. The results for gadolinium and

dysprosium were published in Scientific Paper No. 466. The long

wave-length data for the spectra of the platinum metals were completed, but publication will be deferred until the poorly observed

shorter wave regions have been investigated. In the case of chlorine no spectral data existed either in the red and infra-red or in the

ultra-violet. The deficiencies in the longer wave region were remedied by employing specially sensitized photographic plates, and in

the shorter by exciting the spectrum of chlorine in a tube of fused

quartz, which is transparent to ultra-violet. So far as modern photographic technique will permit, we have now investigated the long

wave portions of the arc spectra of nearly all of the known chemical
124 REPORT OF DIRECTOR OF BUREAU OF STANDARDS.

elements. A similar investigation is planned, on the longer wave

portions of the spark spectra of the chemical elements.

Spectral Regularities (Kiess, Walters, Meggers).

The emission spectra of the chemical elements consist, as is well

known, of characteristic sets of lines. For many years practical use has been made of such sets for the identification of chemical

elements in laboratories and in stars, but the physical origin of

the spectral lines has always been more or less of a mystery. The

interrelation of the different lines in any one spectrum has been for

nearly 40 years one of the major problems in spectroscopy. In the

case of the simpler spectra, like those of atomic hydrogen, the alkali

metals, and alkaline earths, certain numerical relations were early

found to exist between all or most of the lines of any one spectrum.

These studies were not very successful in solving the structure of

the more complex spectra, chiefly because the description of these

spectra was neither accurate nor extensive enough for the purpose.

Standard wave lengths, remeasurement of most of the spectra in

international Angstrom units, and especially the extension at this

bureau of spectral data to the longer wave lengths, have made it possible to bring much order out of what looked like chaos. During

the past year significant spectral regularities were found in the arc spectra of chromium, molybdenum, iron, nickel, scandium, yttrium,

titanium, zirconium, and vanadium. Now for the first time clues

have been found to the physical structure of the spectra of one or more elements in each column of their periodic classification; for

example, potassium, calcium, scandium, titanium, vanadium, chromium, manganese, and iron occupying the fourth row of the periodic

table from Column I to Column VIII. Some of the above-mentioned results have already been published, others are in press, and.

the remainder are in preparation. Similar investigations on the

arc spectra of cobalt, columbium, tantalum, the six platinum metals,

tungsten, and uranium are now under way. The computational work

involved in the analyses of these complicated spectra is enormous,

and much remains to be done before any of the spectra are completely classified. In most cases the lines thus far allocated comprise the majority of the stronger lines in any one spectxnim, but not

more than 5 to 10 per cent of the total number (3,300 for molybdenum

and about 5,000 for iron) listed in wave-length tables. The discovery

of regularities in these complex spectra is fundamentally important

and is of marked value in developing theories of radiation and

atomic structure.

Spectre-Chemical Analyses (Meggers, Stimson, Kiess).

About 200 spectrographic analyses were made during the year on

a large variety of materials, including pure metals and salts, steel,

bronze, brass and platinum-metal alloys, electrolytes, storage-battery

grids, glass, gelatine ash, ores, and minerals. Whenever possible the

spectrographic results have been checked by standard chemical

analyses, so that a correlation of the mixed spectra and the percentage composition could be made, thus furnishing a basis for

quantitative analyses from spectrograms of similar matei"ials re- I ceived in the futui'e. The spectrograph has successfully demonstrated its practical value in supplementing chemical methods of '
EEPOBT OF DIKECTOR OF BUREAU OF STANDARDS. 125

analysis, and in certain cases it may replace the more tedious wet

methods, both for qualitative and quantitative results. Scientific

Paper No. 444, Practical Spectrographic Analysis, was issued on

this subject.

2. POLARIMETRY.

F. J. Bates.

Utilization of Molasses—Patent Resume (Bates, Geldard, Peters,

Proffitt, Jackson).

The search of the United States and foreign patents on the first, division of this problem, namely, the utilization of the nonsugars,

has been completed, the results correlated, and a report prepared.

The report classifies the patents according to the arts comprised

within the field, discusses their relationships and general purposes,

and gives a digest of development as seen through the patents. Generally each patent is abstracted with a short description and a copy

of one or more of the drawings accompanying the original patent.

It includes a very comprehensive index of the patentees and the svibject matter of the patents.

The phases of the problem with which this circular deals are: The reccrvery and utilization of amines, ammonia, cyanides, nitrogenous nonsugars, potash and alkalies, and miscellaneous products,

such as glycerine, esters, fatty acids, etc.

Utilization of Molasses—Experimental (Geldard).

In continuation of the program outlined in the last annual i-e- IDort, a laboratory has been constructed and completely equipped

for research work on methods for the utilization of discard molasses

and waste water from sugar factories.

A large sample of waste water from one of the beet-sugar factories was obtained, and preliminai-y work on the analysis, evaporation,

and handling of the concentrated liquor has been completed. Following suggestions offered by the patent literature, methods have been

successfully applied for the recovery of some of the valuable organic

compounds and the inorganic salts which are to be found in beet

molasses and waste water. In addition to this procedure, woi'k will soon be started on processes of dry distillation, accompanied by a study of the distillation products and the factors which influence

the increase or diminution in yield of those which are economically

important.

Cooperation with United States Customs Laboratories (Snyder).

The bureau has continued to assist the Treasury Department in

the maintenance and operation of its customs laboratories. During

the past year over 1,800 exchange samples of raw sugar were tested,

approximately 50 per cent being direct polariscopic determinations

and the remainder tests for the percentage moisture in addition to

the polariscope determination. The importance of these control

analyses can not be overestimated. Excellent agreement has been

obtained between the bureau and the several customs laboratories.

The installation of the Baltimore laboratory has been completed,

the cooperation between the bureau and the appraiser of merchandise and his staff having made this laboratory possible. Its com-
126 REPORT OF DIRECTOR OF BUREAU OF STANDAKJUW.

pleteness and flexibility make it admirably suited for the wide range

of work incident to the appraisal of imported merchandise.

Crystallization (Bates, Phelps).

The delicate thermostatic control apparatus for growing large and

perfect crystals mentioned in the last annual report has been kept in

operation during the year. In addition, a room has been utilized

which is located so far below the surface of the ground that the daily

variations in temperature are entirely eliminated and the seasonal

changes amount to only 3 or 4°. A number of crystallization experiments have been started under the very constant conditions obtaining

m this room. Relatively large crystals have been obtained of many

of the rare sugars produced at this bureau, some of which have not

before been produced above a microscopic size. The crystallographic

and optical properties of some of these sugars have never been studied

owing to the impossibility of obtaining suitable crystals. In some of

the sugars that have been studied by the bureau, notably levulose,.

crystallographic forms have been observed which have not heretofore been recorded.

In addition to the various sugars, crystals of Rochelle salt and of

tartaric acid have been grown for the purpose of showing the asymmetric character of these crystals and were exhibited at the Pasteur

ci3lebration in New York.

As an important result of the bureau's work on crystals a method

of identification of the various sugars is being developed, using the

optical properties as determined by a petrographic microscope. Th&

work is only in the preliminary stage, but even in that stage the

nfiethod makes it relatively easy to distinguish between all of the 12

sugars that so far have been examined. The method is much shorter

and quicker than the older chemical method and requires only an

extremely minute quantity of the material, 1 milligram being ample.

The method is being extended to other sugars, and the properties of

all are being measured to a higher degree of precision.

Rotation and Rotatory-Dispersion o£ Sugars (Phelps).

Accurate measurements of the rotatory dispersion of the various

sugars now being prepared at this bureau are under way. It has been

found necessary to expend considerable time and effort to bring the

samples of the sugars on hand to the high state of purity necessary

to be in accord with the precision of the rotation measurements.

Numerous methods for the preparation of the rare sugars havebeen published, but, owing to the lack of accurate polarimetric

measurements, serious difficulty has been encountered by scientific

workers as well as manufacturers in using them. The work necessarily progresses slowly.

Adjustment and Standardization of Polariscopes and Saccharimeters

(Phelps, Golden).

The work of adjusting and standardizing polariscopes and sac- charimeters has been continued. A large proportion of the instruments sent to this bureau for test are old types, many having a

different basis of calibration from the newer ones, indicating that

the supply of new instruments is still insufficient to fill the needs of

the industry, notwithstanding that several excellent types have been

on the market for some time. The bureau is constantly called upon.
REPORT OF DIRECTOR OF BUREAU OF STANDARDS, 127

to furnish information regarding the use of these instruments and

has continued to render valuable service to the sugar industry.

During the year 43 instruments were adjusted and standardized.

Thermal Properties of Glass (Tool).

The problem of producing a homogeneous glass free from strain

is a very important problem in the commercial production of this

material, and the available scientific knowledge in this field is very

insufficient. This lack of information is particularly noticeable

regarding the proper methods for a stable, stress-free glass for optical and scientific purposes. The investigations carried out by the

bureau during the past year show that in the temperature region

where glass becomes practically rigid there is on cooling a very

great evolution of heat, while on heating through this same region

there is a corresponding heat absorption. An exothermic effect is

also obtained on reheating a rapidly cooled glass through a slightly

lower temperature range. In the process of annealing, altering the

treatment by changing the treating temperature and period and the

cooling rate greatly varies the magnitude of the heat-absorption

effect, and in chilling the gla^s the exothermic effect on reheating is greatly increased by increasing these same factors. From the data

obtained in these investigations it appears that glass held at any

temperature approaches more or less rapidly a relatively stable

condition for that temperature. It has also been found that non- uniformly cooled glasses, as in the case of molded articles, are inhomogenous, since the conditions attained vary from point to point.

In annealing, therefore, the glass should be preheated at temperatures which will insure the rapid establishment of homogeneity and

then treated for a sufficient period at a lower temperature, not only

to free it from strain, but also to create a condition relatively stable

at ordinary temperatures. The results of these investigations are now ready for publication.

Double Refraction in Strained Materials (Tool).

Measurement on the double refraction of strained transparent

media affords a means of determining the magnitude and distribution of the stresses present in the material. Such stresses may be the

result of improper annealing, the application of external forces, or

other causes. If the stresses are caused by external forces, the methods of measuring the double refraction effects are of value in optical

stress analysis. Glass improperly annealed is affected adversely by

the resulting stresses, and the only practical method for determining

their presence is some test for double refraction. Methods suitable for

such tests and stress analysis are being investigated with a view to

their improvement.

Investigations completed during the year have shown that the performance of glass used in optical instruments is often unsatisfactory

because of inhomogeneities due, among other causes, to the heat

treatment previous to the final annealing of the product. Such inhomogeneities accompanied by variations in the refractive^ index,

density, thermal expensivities, etc., cause irregular stress distributions which can be detected by double refraction measurements. The

stresses under these conditions may be smaller than those under a symmetrical distribution, but much more harmful. Similar investi-
128 REPORT OF DIRECTOR OF BUREAU OF STANDARDS,

gations are being continued, and it is hoped eventually to establish

standards for the fitness of glass for optical purposes. Much assist- ance in this work has been received from the optical glass and instruments sections of this bureau.

Refractometric Estimation of Solids (Jackson, Peters).

The total solid content of a pure sugar solution can be readily and

accurately determined by measuring its refractive index and comparing the observation with a table of known indices. Thus, the fundamental prerequisite to this method of analysis is the establishment of

the tables with accuracy. Available data are at present valid to the

fourth decimal, while the requirements of industry include the fifth

decimal. It is now proposed, in cooperation with another section of

this bureau, to determine the values by means of the interferometer.

Preliminary experiments have demonstrated the feasibility of this

method. This investigation is being carried out in response to a re- quest from a committee of the American Chemical Society.

Molasses and the Tariff (Jackson, Snyder).

With the introduction of the present tariff act, which for the first

time places the appraisal of imported molasses on a scientific basis,

the bureau was called upon to specify the methods of analysis. In

the previous act the direct polarization was the basis of appraisal,

but this method did not accurately show the sugar content. In the

present act the duty is based on the total sugars, which is an absolute

measure of the value of this product, but this necessitates a determination of the per cent sucrose as well as the per cent reducing sugars.

At the request of the Treasury Department the bureau conducted an

investigation on the various methods of analysis and as a result made

recommendations to the Secretary of the above department as to those

most satisfactory for this work. The sucrose is determined by a method developed and perfected by the bureau. The comparative

results obtained between the bureau and the customs laboratories

show excellent agreement.

Determination of Malic Acid in Maple Sugar Sand (Phelps).

At the request of investigators in the maple-sugar industry the

bureau has undertaken to measure accurately the fundamental optical constants underlying a proposed method for the determination

of malic acid in maple sugar sand. Maple sap contains considerable

malic acid. In the process of making maple sugar and sirup this

malic acid is precipitated as calcium malate which is technically

known as maple sugar sand. Formerly this sand was thrown away

but now is becoming one of the chief sources for the production of

malic acid. The methods of analysis then are very important, not

only to the maple-sugar industry of the United States but also to

Canada. It is because of this fact that the bureau is sufficiently interested in the proposed method to undertake the precise determination of the fundamental rotation constants upon which the method is based. The work has been but recently started, and only a few sets of observations have been made.

Testing of Molasses, Sirups, etc. (Snyder).

The bureau continued to act as referee between buyers and sellers

of molasses in important transactions, the bureau's analysis in each
EEPORT OF DIRECTOR OF BUREAU OF STANDARDS. 129

case being the basis of settlement. During the year 36 such analyses

were made. The study of new methods for analysis of these products has been continued.

The collaborative work on ash analysis of molasses and sirups for

the Association of Official Agricultural Chemists has been practically completed. As a result of the work of the collaborators the

referee of the above association recommended that the sulphate

method of ash determination be discontinued, and that the direct incineration method be made official. The work of the calendar year

consists of an exhaustive study of the methods of determining

moisture in molasses and sirups. The bureau had already undertaken a comparative study of these methods, particularly with refer- ence to the so-called soft sugars. Complete analytical data have been

obtained on 25 representative samples comprising all grades of soft

sugars from a number of refiners. A study of the rate of loss in moisture has led to the adoption of an arbitrary procedure which is capable of reproduction comparable with the precision of the methods

of determining the other constituents. Complete curves for each

sample show the loss of moisture for given conditions.

The work on ash determinations was taken up by the American

Chemical Society at their fall meeting and a committee appointed to

make a study of the subject. A member of the bureau was appointed

on this committee, together with representatives from the various

branches of the sugar industry. The bureau has the preliminary

work well under way.

Polarimetric Analysis of Crude Beet Products (Jackson, Nowak).

In general, the crude products of the sugar industry contain

other optically active materials in addition to sucrose. Under these

circumstances sucrose may be accurately determined by the Clerget

procedure provided the rotation of these substances remains un- changed during the analysis. In beet products, however, this con- stancy of rotation can not be maintained because of the nature of

the impurities. Thus, there occurs in beet juices the sugar, raffinose,

which, like sucrose, is hydrolyzed by acids and by enzymes to a sugar mixture which has a different rotation from the original

sugar. There are, moreover, optically active nonsugars present,

some of which change in rotation upon acidification. We thus have

three or more unknown quantities, whereas the Clerget method of

analysis supplies but two equations. In continuation of a previous

study of the Clerget method of analysis the modifications necessary

to the determination of sucrose and raffinose have been studied.

Comparative analyses have been made of a number of samples of

beet molasses by acid inversion, by neutral polarization, and by

inversion with specific enzymes. Tables have been constructed indicatinp; the proper constants to be used in computation.

Saturation Relations in Sugar Mixtures (Jackson, Silsbee).

The sugars, sucrose, dextrose, and levulose are the principal members of the sugar group occurring as commercial sirups. These

sirups are, in general, concentrated to such a degree as to be saturated or, indeed, supersaturated with respect to one or more of the

constituent sugars. An investigation has been brought to comple65077—23 10
130 REPORT OF DIRECTOR OE BUREAU OF STANDARDS.

tion in which the concentrations of each sugar in these saturated

sirups have been determined in pure solution and in solutions of the

mixed sugars. Thus the influence of each sugar upon the solubilities of the others has been measured. The composition of a cane- sugar sirup of maximum solubility and the influence of changing

temperature have been determined. The compositions of invert

sugar solutions which are saturated with dextrose at various temperatures have been tabulated. Certain relations respecting the

g'ranulation of honey have been found. Methods of partial inversion of sucrose have been described. The manuscript describing

these experiments has been prepared for publication.

Preparation of Levulose (Jackson, Silsbee).

Levulose is the sweetest member of the sugar group and in various

forms plays an important part in adult human nutrition. On

account of the extreme difficulty of preparation and high cost the

pure substance is not available except in minute quantities. Further

experiments have been made on the process of preparation from

invert sugar, beet molasses, dahlias, and Jerusalem artichokes. The

two last mentioned are potentially abundant sources of supply. The

experiments of the past year have shown the feasibility of adequate

production at relatively low cost. A particular study has been made

of the final crystallization of the product.

Analysis of Sugar by Enzymes (Jackson, Silsbee).

Important methods of sugar analysis are made available by the

specific action of enzymes (substances extracted from yeast by autolysis and subsequent dialysis). The enzyme "invextase" decomposes sucrose quantitatively into invert sugar. In order to

utilize this reaction for quantitative analysis, the fundamental constant must be determined with the required precision. This constant

represents the change in rotation of sucrose before and after inversion by invertase. Previous determinations of this constant have

been considerably at variance with one another. During the past

year many determinations have been made, and a provisional value

has been found to be 132.0 at 20° C. A further study will be re- quired to establish the constant with the necessary precision.

A constant in which the enzyme, melibiose, is involved is the

change of rotation of the sugar, melibiose, before and after hydrolysis. This sugar is formed by the partial hydrolysis of raffinose,

and its change of rotation is thus a direct measure of the percentage

of raffijiose. Preliminary values of this constant have been obtained.

Densities of Invert Sugar Solutions (Jackson, Silsbee).

Densimetric methods of analysis are extensively used in industrial

and scientific sugar laboratories. At present most of the density

determinations are expressed as " sucrose," principally for the rea- son that only those of sucrose have been precisely determined. Dm^-

ing the past year the densities of invert sugar solutions have been

deteniuned by a picnometer method. Invert sugar has in each ex- periment been prepared by careful inversion of pure sucrose in

the presence of a minute quantity of an inverting agent, a small

correction being applied for the agent itself.

At various intervals of concentration the expansion coefficients

between 20 and 40° C. have been determined. From the density
EEPOKT OF DIKECTOE OF BUREAU OF STA?fDAEDS. 131

data obtained it has been possible to calculate the contraction in

volume which cane sugar undergoes upon inversion. This investigation has been nearly completed.

Color Standardization of Commercial Sugars (Peters, Phelps,

Bates).

Excellent progress has been made in developing a system of color

grading of sugar products, using as a basis the photometric analysis

of transparent solutions. At the same time it is realized that the

industry is sorely in need of a system of color grading of the dry

refined white and moist soft sugars without going through the additional painstaking labor of preparing transparent solutions.

Several grades of white refined sugars of various grain sizes have

been examined by methods employing the principle of multireflection. The spectral distribution of these sugars was thus determined

in several parts of the visible spectrum. However, the principle of

multireflection can not be used in the determination of color qualities of the colored sugar products, so that a differently constructed

reflectometer must be employed. Since many obstacles yet remain

to be overcome in the perfection of a suitable reflectometer which

will grade color for all white and soft sugars, recourse has been had

to a system of color grading which depends on the preparation of

solutions, with an acceptable degree of transparency, from technical

sugar products of all grades. Only a mathematical scale of color

grading can be considered, and yet its equivalent in color sensations must be visualized. The successive color steps, therefore, proceed on a uniform ratio intensifying absorption at all wave lengths

in the same degree. The starting point is the best quality of white

sugar. Intensification of absorption at a uniform mathematical

ratio based on a little-known law leads to the creation of a yellow

color sensation. These progressive, uniform ratios of color intensification automatically lead to a system of classes and subclasses

which start with the finest quality of white sugar and end with the

lowest quality of residual waste molasses. The color of all sugar

products at any point of the visible spectrum is measured in terms

of the spectral distribution of the fundamental white siigar with its

color intensity " 1." Thus, it became possible to establish the photometric negative logarithms by their equivalent—a standard sugar

color unit. The term " color unit," while an old-time routine expression, has never before been defined with scientific accuracy, nor

has color been classified on the basis of a first quality white sugar.

Color and the Manufacture of Sugar (Bates, Phelps, Peters).

Attention has already been directed to the prime importance of

developing a method for the rapid and accurate measurement of

color in the various steps involved in the manufacture of sugar and

its by-products. The investigation of these closely related problems

has been made possible by the application of the results achieved in

the bureau's work on the measurement of color to the finished products. The fundamental principles involved have gradually been ex- tended to include all the intermediate products of cane sugar in

process of refining. Thus far the bui-eau has been unable to give a

similar study to the products of the beet-sugar industry, but intends

to do so at an early date.
132 REPOKT OF DIRECTOR OF BUREAU OF STANDARDS,

The past year's work in this field has established the gratifying

fact that the chemical method developed by the bureau for" the

preparation of impure nonsugar products for optical analysis has

shown it is sufficiently flexible and accurate for the purposes desired.

It is the residual waste products of the beet, as well as the cane industry, which particularly endanger the validity of the fundamental

law upon which all color determinations ultimately rest. Reliable

estimates of differences in color quantity as well as" quality must be

esablished by photometric principles, and it is believed that the

special photometer developed by the bureau for the sugar industry

will meet all the requirements of .the situation. A number of modifications yet remain to be made on this instrument. Various light sources ai^e also being investigated.

In view of the new facts which have been developed during the

past year it has become more and more evident that certain aspects

of color determination in technical sugar products can finally be perfected only by a transfer of the photometric investigation to the industrial sugar plants.

One of the interesting phases which has gradually revealed itself

is the fact that photometry of turbid solutions may ultimately become of value in the estimation of technical refining qualities of raw

material, entirely aside from any question of color.

Ultrafiltration (Peters, Phelps). ' The effect of ultrafiltration upon the optical properties of solutions

of technical sugar products has been studied. This research is one of the numerous aspects of the investigation on color and decolorization of technical sugar products. The purpose of ultrafiltration is the

separation of colloidal coloring matter from the molecularly dispersed colt)ring matter. As only concentrated, almost saturated, so- lutions can be employed, a new technique is being developed, so that

the time consumed in the operation will not be too excessive nor prohibitive. A preliminary note of the effect of ultrafiltration methods

on the optical qualities of soft sugars of all grades available in the

open market has already been given out to the industry.

The research was found essential for the reason that the effect of

the colloidal coloring matter upon the final color in technical refining

operations can be studied in no other manner in such detail. The

problem has never had the attention which it merits, for the reason that the whole technique is laborious and time consuming in the ex- treme. It is confidently expected that this method of ultrafiltration

will bring about a better insight into the difficult problem of the

absorption of coloring substances by the decolorizing carbons.

Acidity Measurements of Sugars (Profitt).

The importance of the reaction, which may be defined as the intensity of acidity or alkalinity'' of any sugar product has long been

recognized, but only in a very general way by both producer and

technical consumer. All producers of either raw or refined ^ugar

try to maintain their intermediate products (juices and sirups)

nearly, but not exactly, neutral. Some of the reasons for the variations from neutrality are: At the temperatures used even a small

amount of alkali in the presence of reducing sugars, which are always present in cane juice, will cause the development of excessive
REPORT OF DIRECTOR OF BUREAU OF STANDARDS. 133

amounts of color and of other troublesome impurities ; while, on the

other hand, the presence of even small traces of acid, which means

that there are hydrogen ions in excess of hydroxyl ions, will cause a

loss of some of the sugar by " inverting " it to glucose and levulose.

Hence, the cane-sugar manufacturer carries his intermediate products slightly acid to avoid the greater evil—dark colors, etc. On the

other hand, the beet-sugar manufacturer, whose juices usually contain

very little of reducing sugars, keeps his products slightly alkaline to

avoid inversion losses. This difference in handling during the process

of manufacture results in slight differences in the reactions of the

final products, so that certain technical consumers of refined sugar^

as, for example, candy manufacturers, find that they have to modify

their treatment of a sugar, as yet somewhat blindly, according to the

source from which it comes. The importance of the reaction of a

sugar as to its effect on the taste, on the ease of flocculation of impurities in the various processes of purification, on the removal of color

by means of carbons, etc., on the keeping qualities of the sugar, and

on many other characteristics are most important. There is great

need, not only of research in this field but of a greater dissemination

of even our present small knowledge of the subject.

During the year apparatus for the electrometric determination of

the hydrogen-ion concentration of sugar solutions has been set up,

and measurements of a series of soft sugars have been carried out.

Work is now in progress on the determination of the titration curves

for these same sugars over a range extending somewhat above and

below a value of Ph7, which is generally assumed to be the point

of neutrality. A very successful titration vessel and electrode have

been devised for the purpose. The equilibrium rates for this titration are slow and the measurements, therefore, tedious.

Molasses Formation (Proffitt).

One of the most urgent problems confronting the sugar technologist in the line of improved practice is that of reducing to a minimum the quantity of molasses produced. Molasses formation is

brought about by the presence of impurities in the sirups from which

the sugar is crystallized. In any factory or refinery sirup, the impurities, together with the sugar and water in which they are dissolved, form a chemical " system " whose properties vary according to the kinds of impurities present and to the relative proportions

of the various constituents in that particular sirup. Thus, if sufficient water is removed by evaporation under suitable conditions,

the sirup will become supersaturated and solid matter will separate

out in the form of crystals until equilibrium is attained or the process

is otherwise interrupted. At first the separating crystals may form

quite rapidly and may consist of nearly pure sugar ; later, as the proportion of sugar to impurities becomes less and less, other substances

will appear along with the sugar crystals in greater and greater proportions with respect to associated sugar and in continually changing proportions with respect t,o each other. Finally, the crystallization will proceed so slowly or the crystals will contain so small

a proportion of sugar that it does not pay to continue the process.

Strange as it may seem, very little is known about the true character

of these various systems, and so it happens that the sugar technologist can do very little consistent or even intelligent work toward
134 REPORT OF DIRECTOR OF BUREAU OF STANDARDS,

reducing sugar losses in the form of molasses until he has been proAaded with fundamental data on the physical and chemical properties

of the systems with which he has to deal in the common sirups of

the sugar factory and refinery. It is in work of this kind which the

bureau is carrying on under this caption that distinct accomplishments have been made in this field during the year.

Standardization of Commercial Sugars.

The work on the problem of establishing scientific specifications

which would rigidly grade and standardize the commercial sugars

has been continued with satisfactory results. That the problem is, a most difficult one involving both economic factors and scientific re- search of a high order, has long been recognized. Several hundred

samples have now been analyzed and investigated, a number of

definite physical properties having been accurately determined in

addition to the general chemical and color analysis. The success thus far attained in the research has only been made possible by the

fullest cooperation of the entire domestic-sugar industry. Final

application of the specifications and definitions will necessarily

have to be made in a large degree by a committee representing the

manufacturing sugar companies. In the bureau's efforts to differentiate accurately between commercial sugars the broadening of the

field of inquirj- has been unavoidable until it now includes the chemical precision methods of inquiry, the observed relation between

acidity, hydrogen-ion concentration, invert sugar, etc., and a spectrophotometric analysis by the use of a new photometer for technical

laboratories and screen tests. Elimination of Nonsugars (Proffitt).

Of all the various sources of manufacturing losses in the sugar

industry none is more important than that of the loss of sugar in

the form of molasses. These losses, as elsewhere explained, are due

directly to the presence of impurities or nonsugars in the sirups

from which the sugar is crystallized, and every pound of such impurities which is finally present causes the loss of 1^ pounds of sugar

and the rehandling of sirups equivalent to 8 or 10 pounds of sugar

and nonsugar. Hence, the importance of finding conditions for at- taining the greatest elimination of impurities from the sirups before

crystallization is begun. In the case of the beet-sugar process,

which is being investigated first, the most promising field for re- search would seem to be a study of (1) the factors influencing the

relative dialysis and diffusion rates of sugar and some of the known

nonsugars of the beet, (2) the reactions and equilibrium of the car- bonation process, and (3) the reactions and equilibria involved in

the various saccharate processes. During the past year an investigation of this field has been started and preliminary work with

some of the saccharate reactions involved has been carried out.

Laboratories for Sugar Technology (Proffitt).

The development of laboratories with the necessary flexible equipment for research work in sugar technology has proceeded slowly.

However, in view of existing conditions, satisfactory progress has

been made. Several important pieces of equipment and a considerable amount of much-needed piping and power-transmission machinery have been installed. The bureau's efforts have been greatly
REPORT OF DIRECTOR OF BUREAU OF STANDARDS. 135

aided by the sympathetic interest and cooperation of the makers of

sugar-manufacturing equipment.

Calibration of Flasks (Bates, Snyder).

An accurately calibrated 100-cubic centimeter flask is an invaluable

adjunct to all sugar laboratories. Great difficulty has always been

experienced by both the Government and the industry in securing a

sufficient number. Owing to the large amount of apparently unavoidable breakage it has been necessary to limit the cost in every

way possible. This has been difficult, owing to the unusually accurate calibration required for glassware of this character. In recent

years, due to the element of labor involved in calibrating, costs have

risen inordinately, and it has been difficult to maintain an adequate

supply of sugar flasks for the various customs laboratories. The

only possible solution of these difficulties appears to be the development of some device which will permit of accurate and yet rapid

calibration. Such a device, if applicable to a standard 100-cubic

centimeter sugar flask, would also be equally available for other volumetric flasks.

During the year the bureau, in carrying out further investigations

of this subject, has apparently been able to develop a satisfactory

calibrating instrument. It is an improved and perfected form of a device used by one of the Cuban sugar companies. The desired

volume of acidulated water is delivered into the unmarked flask,

^nd the position of the meniscus in the neck of the flask is rapidly

and accurately located by means of an elecrtode lowered by a micrometer screw. An electric circuit is thereby completed, and use

is made of telephone receivers to determine the instant of contact.

A steel pointer is brought into contact with the waxed neck of the

flask and revolved around the neck. The mark is then etched in the

usual manner. This device permits of the graduation of flasks ranging in capacity from 25 to 1,000 cubic centimeters with equal facility.

The results thus far obtained with the device have been most satisfactory, and its operation does not require a skilled manipulator.

It is expected that the drawings and specifications will be made

available to American manufacturers during the coming year.

Development of Sugar Balance (Bates, Snyder).

There has long been a need for a rapid and accurate balance especially designed for the weighing of sugar. This need is as important to the Government, especially for the testing of imported sugars

by the customs service, as to the industry as a whole. The requirements are peculiar to the service demanded, and as a result the bal- ances used have been of the greatest diversity of design and unsuited

for the purpose. The customs service necessarily imposes very hard

and continuous usage on sugar balances. During the year the bureau

was able to design a balance and thoroughly investigate the various

changes which were finally incorporated. A specimen balance was

eventually built by an American manufacturer, and an exhaustive

test in its final development, extending over several months, has

proved its complete practicability and accuracy. Among the more

important innovations may be mentioned the utilization of knife

edges and planes of agate, which effectually prevent the corrosion of

balances in tropical climates; single-armed hangers for the support
136 REPORT OF DIRECTOR OE BUREAU OE STANDARDS.

of the pan and scoop to permit of the rapid extraction or insertion

of sugar without danger of spilling and giving a maximum space

for manipulation ; the complete elimination of exposed parts to which

spilled sugar can adhere, thereby producing one of the most common

sources of inaccuracy in weighing; the equipment of both center

and end knife edges with arrests, thus preventing damage to the edges

during loading and unloading; sugar scoop counterpoised with pan

and interchangeable with it to permit the use of the scoop on either

side of the balance ; and sensibility adjustable to one-half miligram.

The balance has already been adopted by one manufacturer, and is now in quantitative production.

3. COLORIMETRY.

I. G. Priest.

Spectrophotometric and Spectroradiometric Methods (Gibson, McNicholas, Priest).

The fundamental specification of the stimulus of color is the spectral distribution of relative radiant power—that emitted by incandescent sources, or that transmitted or reflected by transparent or opaque materials. Methods of measuring such specti'al distribution

in the ultra-violet and infra-red as well as in the visible are therefore

continually being developed or improved. Speed as well as accuracy

are desired. Progress the past year has been as follows : , 1. New and improved apparatus has been designed for the proper

illumination of materials, the spectral reflection of which is to be

measured. This will be used with the Konig-Martens spectrophotometer. Plans have also been made for the use of such illumination

Avith a spectrophotometer similar to the Keuffel and Esser color

analyzer for the direct-reading measurement of spectral reflection

and transmission.

2. A revision of the exponential spectrophotometer (described in

previous reports) is being made which will make possible the directreading measurement of the spectral transmissivity of dyes.

3. The photoelectric cell is used in the violet, blue, and green to

supplement the visual and photographic methods. The null method

with electrometer has been replaced by an equal deflections method

with galvanometer, and by the addition of a Brodhun variable sec- tor spectral transmissions are now read directly. Without loss in

accuracy, the speed and ease of operation have thus been greatly increased and all computation eliminated. A paper describing the

method (now in press) will appear in the Journal of the Optical

Society of America.

4. The use of the Brodhun sector also makes possible a direct-reading thermoelectric method, the thermopile replacing the photoelectric

cell. The method has been employed to a considerable extent in the

red and near infra-red regions of the spectrum. The combined photoelectric and thermoelectric methods (one apparatus) completely cover the visible spectrum. As brought out in past reports, this overlapping of methods is very desirable.

5. Several minor improvements have been made in the photographic method of measuring spectral transmission. This method,

used in the blue, violet, and ultra-violet, is the sector photometer, null

method, and is also practically direct reading.
REPORT OF DIRECTOR OF BUREAU OF STANDARDS. 137

Visibility of Radiant Energy (Gibson).

By this expression is meant the ratio of luminosity to radiant

power—the luminous efficiency—at the various wave lengths in the

spectnmi. The results of the cooperative investigation with the Nela

Research Laboratories (described in last year's report) are being

published as a bureau scientific paper (now in press). Detailed descriptions of the method and apparatus are given in this paper, as well as a discussion of precision and reliability. Several of the observers had been used in previous investigations, and thus an excellent

comparison has been afforded between "these several determinations.

As a result of this investigation a revision of the I. E. S. mean

visibility curve is proposed, which gives better agreement with the

extensive experimental data. It is planned to establish permanent

apparatus at the bureau for the measurement of this important

function.

Spectral Transmissive Properties of Dyes (Frehafer, Gibson).

The dye standardization program of the bureau is in charge of the

chemistry division. The color of a dye solution is fundamentally

specified when its spectral transmissive constants are known, and

therefore such specifications constiti^te one of the possible methods

of testing the purity of a dye. The colorimetry section is thoroughly

equipped for such measurements and is cooperating with the chemistry division in this part of the standardization program. AVhile

much of this work is preliminary, it is regarded as essential to a full

understanding of the problem.

Twenty-one different kinds of dyes (about 150 solutions) have been

tested visually with the homogeneous mercury and helium lines, and

in some cases the region of maximum absorption studied. In one case

13 samples (most of them commercial) of a single dye were thus compared. No two of them were found alike. The work will be con- tinued the coming year.

Miscellaneous Spectral Transmission Measurements (Gibson, McNicholas).

Among the many such measurements that have been made the past

year the following are worthy of special note: (1) Japanese and

American signal roundels were compared in anticipation of large

orders for such glass being placed by the Chinese Government railroads. The Japanese roundels failed to meet the requirements of the

(American) Railway Signal Association. (2) The transmission of

nicol prisms has been measured throughout the ultra-violet and

visible. Those so far examined have been slightly yellowish and

have not transmitted very far into the ultra-violet.

Spectral Reflection of Enamels (Frehafer).

In cooperation with the enameled metal products section of the

ceramics division the spectral reflection of nearly white enamels of

different compositions was examined. Tlie opacity of these surfaces

is not easily judged by the eye when the surfaces are very nearly

the same. Hence, a more accurate method was resorted to, namely,

their total reflection for sunlight (computed from the spectral reflection) , in order to grade them accurately with respect to opacity. The

results are embodied in an article "The effect of some substitutes
138 REPORT OF DIRECTOR OF BUREAU OF STANDARDS.

for tin oxide on the opacity of white enamels for sheet steel," published in the May Journal of the American Ceramic Society.

Cooperative Investigations with the Munsell Color Co., March, 1922,

to February, 1923 (Priest).

At the request of the Munsell Color Co. the bureau has cooperated

with them on some of the fundamental problems in color standardization. All of the work has been done in the bureau's laboratories

with its own facilities. The company has paid the salary of one

research associate who has worked at the bureau on these problems.

The principal accomplishments to date are

Development, construction, and installation in the bureau of new

and improved apparatus for the analysis of color stimulus in terms

of dominant wave length and purity, paying particular attention to

careful standardization and refinements of measurement. This

apparatus is now being used with satisfactory results.

Preparation for the determination of hue sensihility to wave-length

difference.—In this investigation it is planned to determine (for a large number of observers and as a function of wave length, intensity,

and purity) the smallest wave-length differences just perceptible as color differences. The rather elaborate apparatus has been assembled

and preliminary tests made of it. It is expected that this work will

be resumed during the coming year.

Continuation of investigation of the psychologic standard of white

light previously begun at the bureau. (B. S. Sci. Paper 417.) —

Progress has been made on studies of the conditions of this experiment and reports of progress have been published. Considerable

unpublished data are on hand which can not be published until

further experimental work has been done. It is expected that the

bureau will continue this investigation.

The Golorimetry and photometry of daylight and incandescent

illuminants by the method of rotatory dispersion.—Further studies,

both theoretical and experimental, have been made on the methods

of photometry and colorimetry previously proposed by Priest.

In the light of this work, the method is now proposed as a complete and satisfactory solution of the practical problem of the visual

photometry and colorimetry of all illuminants (including the important phases of daylight) whose spectral distribution approximates

the Planckian formula closely enough to give a color match. This

solution is based upon the principle of the additivity of homogeneous

luminosities and the assumption of a standard visibility function.

The method falls in the general class of substitution " equality-ofbrightness " methods. All brightness matches are made at a color

match. This color match is obtained by modifying the color of a constant comparison source by allowing its light to pass through a train of nicol prisms and quartz plates which form, in effect, a blue or yellow filter of continuously adjustable spectral transmission.

Tables and graphs have been prepared by which color temperature

and candlepower or brightness may be readily obtained from the insti'ument readings on the basis of any visibility which it is desired

to assume as standard.

A model instrument has been constructed in the Bureau of Standards instrument shop.
RBPOET OF DIKECTOR OF BUREAU OF STANDARDS. 139

The method was described and the instrument exhibited at the

meeting of the Optical Society of America, Washington, October,

1922.

Preliminary data on the color of daylight at Washington.—The

average color of daylight and information as to the usual diurnal

and seasonal departures from this average are, of course, important

fundamental data in colorimetry. It has been found that the color

of daylight may, in general, be conveniently specified on a scale of

color temperature " ; that is, in terms of the hypothetical temperature of a complete radiator which would emit light of the same color.

From time to time observations of this kind have been made on

various phases of daylight at Washington. Some of the preliminary

data alread}^ obtained have been published.

4. REFRACTOMETRY AND OPTICAL INSTRUMENTS.

I. C. Gardner.

Testing of Photographic Lenses (Bennett).

The measurement of the aberrations and other optical characteristics of photographic lenses was first begun in the spring of 1921 at

tlie request of the Army Air Service. A report was made to the

Air Service on the 14 lenses submitted at that time. Because of the

value of these measurements in determining the types of lens most

suitable for use in airplane photography it was decided in the spring

of 1922 to investigate the characteristics of photographic lenses on

a more extensive scale. Accordingly, 27 other lenses of various

manufacture were supplied by the Air Service for this investigation.

Measurements of the aberrations, aperture ratios, and focal lengths

of these lenses were made, as a result of which the bureau has placed

at the disposal of the Air Service data on a total of 41 lenses.

The results of these tests are represented graphically, enabling the

degree of elimination of the various aberrations to be readily determined.

In order to familiarize the members of the engineering division,

Air Service, with the procedure which the bureau has found to be

most convenient as weU as reliable for the testing of photographic

lenses, a detailed report explaining the methods was also furnished

them.

As a further result of this work the section is now in possession

of a collection of data on the performance of practically all the

high-grade photographic lenses on the market upon which a standard

of excellence may be based and which serves to indicate the lines

which an attempt to improve this type of lens should follow.

Tables for the Design of a Telescopic System (Gardner, Tilton, Arnaud).

Work has been continued upon the completion of tables to be used

in the design of telescopic systems. At present the design of the

eyepiece is being developed and the computations are completed for

tiie Kellner type of eyepiece constructed from dense flint and barium

crown glasses.
140 REPORT OF DIRECTOR OF BUREAU OF STANDARDS,

Letter Circular on the Design of Telescope Objective (Gardner, Tilton).

Requests are frequently received for infoi-mation regarding methods of designing astronomical telescope objectives. Accordingly a

letter circular has been prepared and mimeographed which gives

complete instructions for the design of a telescope objective. The

information contained in this circular is not novel, but previously

has been available only in books or bound copies of scientific periodicals not conveniently accessible to amateur astronomers.

A i2-inch Telescope Objective (Clacey, Finn).

A 12-inch telescope objective has been designed and is now being

completed at the bureau. The barium crown and flint blanks were

made in the bureau's glass plant, and the designing, lens grinding,

and edging are entirely completed. The polishing of the surfaces

and the local retouching which are necessary if the spherical aberration is to be satisfactorily eliminated are at present under way.

The focal length of the objective is 12 feet.

Laboratory Telescopes (Case).

The designs have been completed of two new laboratory telescopes which are larger than the No. 1 size built last year. Work

on two lots of these to be used as standard equipment is progressing^

in the shop.

Desigpn of Lens for Camera Obscura (Gardner).

An objective was designed for the Ordnance Department, United

States Army, Avhich is to be employed in a large camera obscura

used in connection with their proof work at Aberdeen Proving

Grounds. The final design specifies two separated components with

a diaphragm placed at the optical center of the system. The objective was constructed by the Ordnance Department at Frankford

Arsenal in accordance with a design prepared by the bureau, and is now in use. Auto-Collimating Device for Geneva Spectrometer (Gardner,

Eckel).

An attachment has been designed and completed by which the

section's Geneva society spectrometer may be converted into an autocollimating type of instrument. This will enable more precise

measurements to be secured with the spectrometer, and it is expected

that at the same time it will lessen considerably the time required for

a determination of index of refraction. The section has also begun

the design of a spectrometer of greater precision which, when completed, will supplant the present instrument for work where the

highest accuracy is desired.

Direct Vision Spectroscope Prisms (Gardner).

Two 6-component direct-vision spectroscope prisms of different

sizes have been designed, and the construction of six sizes of each

to be used as standard equipment has been authorized.

Apparatus for Measuring Transmission of Optical Glass (Eckel).

A new apparatus for determining the transmission of optical glass

has been installed and operates satisfactorily. The errors arising

from stray light are much more effectively eliminated than in the-
REPORT OF DIRECTOR OF BUREAU OF STANDARDS. 141

older apparatus. This instrument is used in measuring the transmission of samples from the diflFerent melts made at the bureau's

optical glass plant.

A Magnifying Stereoscope (Gardner, Case).

In the last annual report reference was made to a request received

from the Coast and Geodetic Survey for the design and construction

of a magnifying stereoscope to be used in viewing photographs taken

from airplanes for the construction of maps. This instrument,

which was designed and constructed entirely by the bureau, has been

comjDleted and delivered.

Field Telemeter (Gardner, Tilton, Case).

In the last annual report mention was made of a field telemeter,

a convenient portable instrument for reconnaissance or approximate

surveying Avhich Avas developed at the Bureau of Standards for the

use of the United States Geological Survey. This instrument has

been used in the field for a year with satisfactory results. It was

returned to the bureau for modification in order to adapt it for use with longer stadia rods, and was then recalibrated. It is being

used in the field again this year.

Small Camera Obscura for Aberdeen Proving Ground (Bennett).

A request has been receiA^ed from tlie Ordnance Department, U. S.

Army, for the design and construction of three small camera ob- scuras to be used on the small-arms range, Aberdeen Proving

Ground. The designs have been completed and work has begun on

the construction.

5. RADIOMETRY.

W. W. Coblentz.

Optical Specifications of Glass for Balloon Hangars (Coblentz).

In the annual reports of 1919 and of 1921 mention was made of

investigations of colored glass, varnishes, etc., for excluding the

ultra-Aaolet rays of sunlight from balloon hangars and other buildings containing materials which are injured by photochemical action.

The original specifications, for which this bureau was not re- sponsible, required that glass for balloon hangars shall exclude

85 per cent of the ultra-violet rays and 65 per cent of the infra-red

rays of the sun. This requires the use of sunlight as a source of

radiation for making the test, which is inconvenient in view of the

fact that the measui'ements can be made only when the sun is available. To put this testing work on a convenient basis, the spectral

transmission of the glasses submitted for the test was determined

also for various wave lengths, using the ultra-violet emission spectrum of a quartz mercury arc lamp for the ultra-violet and a gasfilled tungsten lamp for the infra-red, and specifications drawn up

for this as sources. In this manner it was established that in order that a colored

glass (or a clear glass covered with asphaltum paint) shall exclude

80 to 85 per cent of the total ultra-violet radiation from the sun,

its ultra-violet spectral transmission (" Tr " including reflection)

should not exceed the following values: At 0.405 \x Tr=30 to 40

per cent; at 0.365 [x Tr=12 to 15 per cent; and at 0.313 [jl Tr=0.5 to 1

per cent.
142 REPORT OF DIRECTOR OF BUREAU OF STANDARDS.

The transmission of infra-red radiation from the sun and from a gas-fiUed tungsten lamp under normal operation through these

glasses was not markedly different. For the glasses thus far tested

the transmission (including reflection losses) varies from 25 to 35

per cent, which is well below the value set in the original specification. Since the exclusion of the ultra-violet rays appears to be of

primary importance and that of the infra-red rays of secondaiy

importance, it seems desirable to insist upon the exact adherence to

the specifications for elimination of the ultra-violet (solar) rays.

The glasses tested were of the wired type, with one side rough or corrugated. The corrugations or roughnesses were removed and the

surface polished. Measurements were made on areas clear from

wire, bubbles, and opaque spots. With the corrugations present, the

average transmissions of the clear areas would be somewhat lower

(the exclusion of the ultra-violet would be higher) than cited above.

However, these values establish a criterion for judging the optical

qualities of the glass.

Emissivity of Cotton Tent Cloth (Coblentz).

In last year's report attention was called to an investigation of

the most efficient roofing material which will keep the inside of a

balloon hangar at a minimum temperature when exposed to the sun.

It was shown that the most efficient means for excluding the effects

of heating from solar radiation from the interior of a building is

by covering the outside of the roof with a highly reflecting substance

(white paint, asbestos, etc.) and painting the inside of the roof with

aluminum paint, which is a poor radiator of the low-temperature

long-wave-length radiation emitted by the roof.

During the past year a similar study was made of white cotton

(duck) cloth such as is used for tents. As is well known, when a

tent is exposed to the sun the interior becomes uncomfortably warm

as a result of sunlight which is diffusely transmitted through the

cloth and, in particular, as a result of the heat rays emitted by

the cloth. By covering the inside of the cloth with aluminum paint

it was found that this heat radiation into the interior of the tent

can be greatly reduced.

For example, it was found that the radiation from the rear side

of a sample of No. 10 duck was reduced by 86 per cent by painting

the inside with aluminum. If the aluminum coating is on the outside, the arrangement is less efficient, the radiation into the interior

being reduced by only 78 per cent.

While No. 4 duck would be too heavy for tents, it is interesting

to note that by applying a coating of aluminum paint on the interior the heat radiation into the interior is reduced by 78 to 81 per

cent.

It is obvious that while such a tent would be more comfortable

in the daytime the use of the coating of paint would act in the

reverse direction and retain the heat generated within, thus maintaining a higher temperature during the night.

The foregoing data have already found application by makers

of tents and by persons dealing with refrigeration problems.

Recently the question was raised by the Weather Bureau con- cerning the effectiveness of a paper covering for protecting orange

trees from frost. Paper, like cloth, has a high emissivity for infra-
REPORT OF DIRECTOR OF BUREAU OF STANDARDS. 143

red rays. Hence, in order to prevent the rapid cooling of the tree

it appears that the paper hood should be covered with a coating of

aluminum paint.

Germicidal Action of Ultra-Violet Radiation (Coblentz).

In collaboration with the Bureau of Plant Industry (Doctor

Fulton), office of fruit-disease investigation of the Department of

Agriculture, an examination was made of the fungicidal effect of

ultra-violet light, with special reference to the abiotic effect upon

molds which affect oranges. Experiments were made upon affected

fruit; also upon culture media containing fungi. The results obtained seemed of sufficient importance to warrant undertaking an

investigation which has been under consideration for some years,

namely, a quantitative determination of the relation between the

energy and the germicidal action of ultra-violet rays of different

wave lengths.

This investigation should demonstrate the effectiveness that

accrues from the collaboration of two widely differing fields of

scientific activity—for example, physics and biology—in a problem

of mutual interest.

Application o£ Radiometry to Astronomical Problems (Coblentz).

One of the functions of the radiometry section of this bureau is

to develop instruments and methods of radiometry. In performing

this function it was found that thermocouples of special design

offered a means of solving certain astronomical problems. In cooperation with two astronomical observatories having large reflecting

telescopes opportunities were presented to demonstrate the useful- ness of these thermocouples in astronomical investigations. The

results obtained open up a new line of investigation on stellar evolution, stellar temperatures, variable stars, planetary radiation, etc. In this connection it is relevant to recall that eight years ago

when tlie first tests were made astronomers were so skeptical of the

sensitivity of the stellar thermocouple that doubt was expressed as

to its utility for astronomical investigations and advice was given

against attempting to use it for such purposes. In the meantime,

as a result of this demonstration, the technique of construction as well as the design of the thermocouple radiometer have been adopted

hj astronomers, and copies of this instrument have been in use for

years in connection with the largest and most valuable reflecting

telescope as an additional means of studying celestial objects.

During the past year two papers (Sci. Papers Nos. 438 and 460) were published describing the results of tests of newly devised instruments for measuring stellar and planetary radiation.

Photo-electrical Investigations (Coblentz, Eckford).

During the past year considerable time was taken in writing up

and publishing the results of photo-electrical investigations, some of

which had been in progress for some time.

It has been shown for the first time that crystal structure, chemical constitution, and atomic weight have a specific effect upon photoelectrical sensitivity, just as in previous investigations they were

found to have an effect on infra-red absorption spectra. These investigations mark an important advance in the bureau's knowledge

of photo-electrical conduction in solids.
144 REPORT OP DIRECTOR OF BUREAU OP STANDARDS.

Some New Photo-electrical and Thermoelectrical Properties of

Molybdenite (Coblentz, Hughes).

During the past year important new data were obtained on the

thermal emf which is observed in some samples of molybdenite when

exposed to thermal radiation but without an impressed potential.

It was found that this thermal emf is positive or negative in spots

which are separated by 0.5 to 1 or 2 millimeters, thus acting like a true thermocouple. Furtherfore, it was established that the spots

exhibiting the maximum positive and negative thermal emf do not

necessarily coincide with the spots of maximum photo-electrical

sensitivity which are observed when there is an external battery.

However, when there is a close coincidence of the loci of maximum

thermoelectrical and of photo-electrical sensitivity, the thermoelectrical reaction seems to function like a valve, which amplifies or weakens the photo-electrical reaction, depending upon the direction

of the impressed battery current through the crystal. From previous experience the photo-electrical reaction current should be found

to be proportional to, but independent of, the direction of the

" dark " battery current through the crystal. In the present instance

the photo-electric current is amplified or weakened, according as the external battery current flows with or against the thermoelectric

current. As a result of this selective action instead of obtaining

the same photo-electrical reaction (the same galvanometer deflection after correction for any difference that may exist in the " dark " conductivity) on reversal of the battery current there is an outstanding difference of 1.5 to 2.5 times between the maximum and the minimum photo-electrical effect. This is true of both positive and negative maxima of thermal emfs.

7. PHOTOGRAPHIC TECHNOLOGY.

R. Davis.

Action of Charred Paper on the Photographic Plate (Davis).

The method for deciphering written and printed matter mentioned

under the above topic in last year's annual report was published

in Scientific Paper No. 454, under the title " Action of Charred

Paper on the Photographic Plate and a Method of Deciphering

Charred Records."

Design of Apparatus for Investigating the Reciprocity Law (Davis).

The so-called reciprocity law in photography states that the effect

of light on a photographic plate (or paper) is proportional to the

product of light intensity by exposure time. This photochemical law

which permits important simplifications to be made in sensitometric

practice is questioned for extreme cases. The subject is of considerable importance because of its bearing on the theory of the latent

image and on astronomical photography and sensitometry. Special

apparatus to investigate its possible failure has been designed and is now under construction.

Standard Lamps for Sensitometry (Davis).

A group of standard lamps for use in the photographic industry

were seasoned, color matched, and their candlepower measured with

the cooperation of the colorimetry section of this division and with

the photometry section of the electrical division.
KEPORT OF DIRECTOR OF BUREAU OF STANDAHDS. 145

Sensitometric Tests (Davis).

About 60 experimental emulsions prepared by the spectroscopic

section were tested. Such tests involve, in general, the determination

of the " characteristic " curve, the photographic speed, spectrograms,

and filter factor.

Camera Design (Davis).

A special camera was designed for the electrolysis section of the

electrical division to photograph on a continuous strip, either full

size or half size, the entire outside surface of 6-inch lengths of

1^, 2, 3, and 6 inch sizes of cast-iron pipe exhibiting the effects of

soil corrosion. In this the camera remains stationary while the pipe

is rotated and the film shifted synchronously past a narrow aperture

(in the focal plane of the objective) parallel to the axis of the

imaged cylinder. The camera is now under construction.

8. INTERFEROMETRY.

C. G. Peters. Thermal Expansion (Peters, Merritt)

The extreme sensitivity of interference methods makes it possible

to measure the dimensional changes of small samples with great

precision. The expansion of samples 1 to 10 millimeters in length

can be determined with an uncertainty of not more than one-half of

1 per cent with the temperature control apparatus now available,

and measurements can be made in the temperature interval—150 to

H-1,000° C.

During the past year such tests have been made on samples of

commercial and optical glass, cast steel, Monel metal, brass, fused

quartz, platinum, and platinum-palladium alloy.

An extensive investigation of the thermal expansion of ceramic

materials, such as terra cotta, tile, glaze porcelain, etc., has also

been carried out and the results are being prepared for publication.

Calibration of End Standards (Peters).

The work of comparing the precision gauges of manufacturing

concerns with the bureau's end standards has been continued. Several

redeterminations of these end standards by direct comparison with

the standard light waves has been made during the year for the

purpose of testing their permanency. In addition to this work, a number of end standards were calibrated for companies engaged

in the manufacture of precision gauges.

Ruling of Line Standards (Peters).

Scales have been ruled using a Michelson type of interferometer

and light waves as the working length standard. Twelve such

scales, 6 inches in length with 40 rulings to the inch, were ruled

for a manufacturer of precision scales. In these the maximum

error of any interval was less than 0.00001 of the interval. Several

scales 10 centimeters in length divided into millimeter divisions

were also ruled. A number of small scales 1 millimeter in length

with lines 10 microns (0.01 millimeter) apart were made, the maximum error in any interval being less than 0.03 micron.

65077—23 11
146 REPORT OF DIRECTOR OF BUREAU OF STA2sDARDS.

Precision Determination of Refractive Indices (Peters).

Several different types of interferometers have been used to determine the indices of refraction and the dispersion of sohds, liquids,

and gases and also the variation of the refractive, index and dispersion ^vith temperature and pressure.

Using an interference method, the absolute index of refraction

and its variations with temperature have been measured for several

different kinds of glass. These measurements are accurate to about

one in the sixth decimal place.

Using an interferometer specially designed for the purpose, the

indices of water, water solutions, and transparent oil have been

determined. The results so obtained were correct to one in the sixth

decimal place. For such precision the temperature must be constant to 0.01° C.

Dimensional Changes of Materials (Merritt).

With the interference apparatus referred to in the report of

last year, changes in length of 0.05 micron in samples 5 centimeters

long can be detected. Repeated measurements made on 100 samples

of gauge steel prove the reliability of this apparatus. Measurements

on a large variety of materials are planned for the coming year

in order to determine the effect of time and treatment on the sta- bility of the materials.

TESTING, INFORMATION, AND PUBLICATIONS.

Tests Completed During the Yean

Work of routine nature completed during the year, amounting

to about 3,800 articles tested, covered: Spectrum tubes (28), photosensitizing dyes (5), spectro-chemical analyses (214), polariscopes

(43), polariscope cover glasses (800), samples of raw sugar (1,900)

and molasses (40), characteristics of glass (20), quartz control

plates (50), spectral transmission of glasses and other material

(20), spectral reflection (3), dominant wave length (2), relative

radiant power and color temperature of lamps (2), binoculars (10),

photographic lenses (33), refractive indices (116), dispersion and

transmission of optical glass and other substances (42), refractometers (7) and miscellaneous optical instruments (120), standard

sources of radiation (10), photoelectric cells (7), eye-protective

glasses (32), thermal expansion (118), planeness of surfaces (12),

calibration of end standards (44), dimensional changes (100), and

ruling line standards (15).

Information, Cooperation with Societies, etc. An important part of the division's activities has consisted in

furnishing information on scientific and technical subjects relative

to its work, by extensive correspondence, reports, or directly to

technical men visiting its laboratories.

Members of the division have cooperated in the activities of

various scientific and technical societies, including the Optical Society of America, the International Astronomical Union, the sugar

section of tlie American Chemical Society, th? Illuminating Engi«

nrering Society, and the American Engineering Standards Committee.
KEPORT OF DIRECTOR OF BUREAU OF STANDARDS. 147

PUBLICATIONS.

The following papers relating to the work of the division have

appeared during the year among the publications of the Bureau of

Standards

Practical spectrographic analysis, W. F. Meggers, C. C. Kiess, and F .7 Stiiii son, B. S. Sci. Paper No. 444, 18, p. 235 ; July, 1922.

Regularities in the arc spectrum of molybdenum, C. C. Kiess, B. S. Sci. Pape*

(in press).

Wave-length measurements in the arc spectra of gadolinium and dysprosiuni

C. C. Kiess, B. S. Sci. Paper No. 466, 18, p. 695 ; 1923.

Measurement of the color temperature of the more efficient artificial liglit sources by the method of rotatory dispersion, I. G. Priest, B. S. Sci. Paper

No. 443. The visibility of radiant energy, K. S. Gibson and E. P. T. Tyndall, B. S. Sci. Paper (in press)

Spherical aberration of thin lenses (T. Townsend Smith), Sci. Paper No. 4G1. Spectrophoto-electrical sensitivity of argentitite, W. W. Coblentz, Sci. Paper

No. 446. Spectrophoto-electrical sensitivity of bournonite, W. W. Coblentz and J. F. Eckford, Sci. Paper No. 451. Spectrophoto-electrical sensitivity of some halide salts of thallium, lead, and

silver (W. W. Coblentz and J. F. Eckford), Sci. Paper No. 456. Further test of stellar radiometer and some measurements of planetary radiation (W. W. Coblentz), Sci. Paper No. 460. Various photo-electrical investigations (W. W. Coblentz), Sci. Paper No. 462. The action of charred paper on the photographic plate and a method of de- ciphering charred records (Raymond Davis), Sci. Paper No. 454. The following papers were published in outside journals during

the year

False spectra from diffraction gratings (W. F. Meggers and C. C. Kiess), J. O.

S. A., 8, R. S. I., 6, p. 417 ; July, 1922.

Series in the arc spectrum of chromium (C. C. Kiess and Harriet Knudsen

Kiess), Science, 56, p. 666; 1922.

Regularities in the arc spectrum of iron (F. M. Walters, jr.), Jour. Wash.

Acad. Sci., 13, p. 243 ; 1922.

Regularities in the arc spectrum of titanium (C. G. Kiess and Harriet Knudsen

kiess), Jour. Wash. Acad. Sci. (in press).

The effect of some substitutes for tin oxide on the opacity of white enamels for

sheet steel (R. R. Danielson and M. K. Frehafer), Jour. Amer. Ceramic Soc,

May, 1923.

Direct-reading photo-electric measui'ement of spectral transmission, for publication in tlie Jour. Opt. Soc. Am. (in press), K. S. Gibson.

A field telemeter for approximate surveying (I. C. Gardner), Jour. Opt. Soc. Am., 6, p. 489 ; 1922.

Some observations on the transformation of thermal radiation into electric cur- rent in molybdenite (W. W. Coblentz), Jour. Wash. Acad. Sci., 12, p. 411,

November, 1922; Jour. Opt. Soc. Am., 7, p. 63, January, 1923.

Recent measurements of stellar and planetary radiation (W. W. Coblentz),

Opt. Soc. Committee Report, 1922, Jour. Opt. Soc. Am., 6, p. 1016; December, 1922.

Thermocouple measurements of stellar and planetary radiation (W. W. Coblentz), Opt. Soc. lecture, Popular Astronomy, February, 1923.

The papers listed below were presented before meetings of scientific societies during the year:

Interference measurements of secondary standards in the iron arc spectrum

(W. F. Meggers), American Astronomical Society, September, 1922.

Spectral regularities in the arc spectra of chromium and molybdenum (C. C. Kiess), American Astronomical Society, December, 1922, and Philosophical

Society of Washington, January, 1923.

Practical spectrographic analysis (AV. F. Meggers), American Institute of

Mining and Metallurgical Engineers, February, 1923.
148 KEPOKT OF DIRECTOR OF BUREAU OF STANDARDS.

The visibility of radiant energy (K. S. Gibson and E. P. T. Tyndall), Optical

Society of America, at Wasliington, October 25-28, 1922.

Progress on the determination of normal gray light (I. G. Priest), Optical

Society of America, at Washington, October 25-28, 1922. The effect of various conditions upon the determination of the normal stimulus

of gray (I. G. Priest and C. L. Cottrell), Optical Society of America, at Washington, October 25-28, 1922.

New tables and graphs for facilitating the computations of spectral energy

distribution by Planck's formula (M. K. Frehafer), Optical Society of

America, at Washington, October 25-28, 1922. The colorimetry and photometry of daylight and incandescent illuminants by

the method of rotatory dispersion (I. G. Priest), Optical Society of America,

at Washington, October 25-28, 1922.

Preliminary data on the color of daylight at Washington (I. G. Priest),

Optical Society of America, at Washington, October 25-28, 1922.

The visibility of radiant energy (K. S. Gibson and E. P. T. Tyndall), Philosophical Society of Washington, November 18, 1922.

The invertase value of the Clerget constant (R. F. Jackson, sugar division),

American Chemical Society, Pittsburgh, Pa., September 4-8, 1922. The contraction in volume of sucrose solutions upon inversion (R. F. Jackson,

sugar division), American Chemical Society, Pittsburgh, Pa., September 4^8,

1922.

A possible system of color classification of technical sugar products (H. H.

Peters and E. P. Phelps, sugar division), American Chemical Society, New

Haven, Conn., April 2-7, 1923. The absorption spectrum of panfeeds, magmas, run-ofts, and granulated sugars

from magmas (H. FX. Peters and B. P. Phelps, sugar division), American

Chemical Society, New Haven, Conn., April 2-7, 1923.

A preliminary note on the color problem of soft sugars (H. H. Peters and

B. P. Phelps, sugar division), American Chemical Society, New Haven, Conn.,

April 2-7, 1923.

A study of basic lead clarification of beet and cane molasses (R. F. Jackson

and R. S. Nowak, sugar division), American Chemical Society, New Haven,

Conn., April 2-7, 1923.

The aberrations of photographic lenses (A. H. Bennett), Washington Philosophical Society, December 16, 1922.

Thermocouple measurements of stellar and planetary radiation (W. W.

Coblentz), Optical Society of America, October 26, 1922.

Further measurements of stellar temperatures and planetary radiation (W. W.

Coblentz), Philosophical Society of Washington, October 7, 1922.

Some new photoelectrical and thermoelectrical properties of molybdenite (W. W.

Coblentz), American Physical Society, Washington meeting, April 21, 1923.
CHEMISTRY.

W. F. Hillebrand.

FUNCTIONS.

The work of this division includes the investigation of the chemical composition and purity of materials, studies of chemical properties and constants, researches in connection with methods of analysis, the preparation of specifications for technical materials for other

departments of the Government and for industrial and scientific laboratories. The chemistry division has general supervision of all chemical work at the bureau. In practically all questions of standardization or research, the purity of the materials involved is an important factor. Much of the work of this nature supervised by the

chemistry division is described under the appropriate headings elsewhere in this report.

1. Paint, varnish, and bituminous materials.

2. Detergents, cements, and corrosion.

3. Miscellaneous organic materials.

4. Inorganic analysis and standard samples.

5. Platinum metals and reagents.

6. Electrochemistry.

7. Gas chemistry.

SECTIONS.

GENERAL STATISTICS.

Expenditures (1922-23) Tests completed

Standard analyzed samples

Staff 67

$178, 000

8,506

5, 024

Researches completed

Bureau publications

Outside publications _

35

34

10

149
WORK CHART.

I. PAINT, VARNISH. AND BITUMINOUS MATERIALS.

SCOPE.

Pigments. Paint.

Drying oils. Varnish.

Volatile solvents. Bituminous roofing.

Resins. Waterproofing.

Bitumens. Related materials.

TESTS.

Materials tested.

Number completed.

1921-22

Paints, pigments, etc 1, 131 Varnish, drying oils, etc 445 Bituminous materials ' 488

RESEARCHES.

Subject.

Preparation of 17 specifications tor paint and varnish . Federal Specifi- cations Board.

In cooperation

with—

34 specifications in preparation

Physical properties of paint:

Some physical properties of paint

Color of paints

Moisture-proofing wood:

Effect of preservative process on properties of wood

Efficiency and durability of various coatings on wood.

Miscellaneous:

Shellac Acid-proof coatings for concrete surfaces Shingle stains Bituminous paints, varnishes, cements, and

similar materials.

.do.

Status June 30, 1923.

Per cent completed.

100

50

100

5

100

5

100 Continuing.

100

100

Publication

issued.

C82, 84, 86-89, 91, 93-94, 97-9!^, 102-

105, 111, 117.

Outside.'

LC.53.

T232. LC42.

LC64.

Outside.-

1 Proc. A. S. T. M., 22, pt. 2, p. 464; 1922.

2 Chapter 24 " Physical and Chemical Examination of Paints, Varnishes, and Colors," by H. A. Gardner;

1922. 150
REPORT or DIRECTOR OF BUREAU OF STANDARDS. 151

2. DETERGENTS, CEMENTS, AND CORROSION.

SCOPE.

Detergents. Fire-extinguishing compound.

Polishes. Cement.

Waxes. Gypsum.

Nondrying oils. Lime.

Coated metals. Clay.

Industrial waters. Sand.

Boiler compound. Misceljaneous.

TESTS.

Materials tested.

Detergents^ polishes, etc, Cements, lime, etc Miscellaneous

Number completed.

1921-22 1922-23

614

814

621

531 1,464

161

RESEARCHES.

Subject.

Preparation of 10 specifications for soap and soap

products.

Fire-extinguishing liquid specification , Corrosion: Total immersion of iron and steel . . . Inhibiting action of chromates in chloride solutions for automobile radiators. Coated metals: Lead-coated steel Nickel-plated plumbing fixtures Brass and bronze-plated hardware Cadmium-coated steel Determination of magnesia and phosphoric acid

In cooperation with

Federal Specifi- cations Board, do

Status June 30, 1923.

Per cent completed.

100

100

50

90

100

75

75

.50 50

Publicatioa

issued.

C123-132.

C134.

3. MISCELLANEOUS ORGANIC MATERIALS.

SCOPE.

Rubber.

Airplane dopes.

Balloon fabrics.

Dyes.

Inks, typewriter ribbons, carbon paper.

Adhesives.

Textiles.

Lubricants.

TESTS.

Materials tested

Number completed.

1921-22 1922-23

Dope 118 1,068 962 Rubber 667 699 Textiles 571 404

608 640
152 EEPORT OF DIEECTOR OP BUREAU OF STANDARDS.

RESEARCHES.

Subject. In cooperation with

Determination of total sulphur in rubber. .

Solution method for fillers in rubber Determination of coefficient of vulcanization. Maturated, sprayed, and coagulated rubber..

Special fillers in rubber goods

Viscosity and milling of crude rubbers

Specifications for rubber goods

Specifications for packings and gaskets

Unclassified rubber specifications: Rubber bands

Druggists' sundries

Oil suction and discharge hose

General specification for rubber goods (methods of testing and analysis). TJnvulcanized cushion stock

Specification for rubber friction tape

Specification for rubber insulating tape

Submarine cable insulation Improved balloon fabric Chemistry of cellulose Preparation of typical dyes

Analysis of typical dyes Methods of chemical analysis of dyes

Analysis of commerical dyes Chemical identification and determination of cordage

fibers. Effects of finishing agents upon dyed fabrics Sulphur compounds and oxidation of petroleum oils .

Federal Specifi- cations Board. do

Federal Specifi- cations Board,

.do

.do.

do

dodo

Army

Army and Navy

Status June 30, 1923.

Per cent completed.

100

752580

75

100

100

100

10020

100

100

.100 90

90

2540

5SO

6020

1 25

20

100

Publication

issued.

Outside.'

Do..

Do.'

Do.<

> Rubber Age and Tire News, 9, Nos. 4, 7, 8, 1921.

2 Fed. Spec. Bd. Specifications 38-51 incl.

3 Fed. Spec. Bd. Specifications 1-22 incl.

* Jour. Ind. & Eng. Chem. 14, No. 8, p. 72,s, August, 1922.

4. INORGANIC ANALYSIS AND STANDARD SAMPLES.

SCOPE.

Ores. Cast irons.

Plain carbon steels. Alloy steels.

Brasses, bronzes, and bearing metals.

Melting-point standards.

Sieve standards.

Pure chemicals.

TESTS.

Materials tested.

Number completed.

1921-22 1922-23

Ferrous 596

649

612

696

STANDARD SAMPLES.

Character of sample.

Number issued.

1921-22 1922-23

2,019 382

1,131

3,406

444

1,174
m

EEPOET OF DIRECTOR OF BUREAU OF STANDARDS.

RESEARCHES.

153

Subject.

Determination or aluminum as phosphate

Notes on determination of phosphorus

Separation of iron and aluminum from manganese and

certain other elements. Analysis of chrome-vanadium steel Interference of cobalt and certain other elements in the bismuthate method for manganese.

Determination of aluminum, tin, and bismuth in spelter and manganese ores. Analysis of chrome ore

Analysis of phosphate rock Reduction of titanium in the .Tones reductor. Determination of aluminum in ferro-alloys. .

In cooperation with

Federal Specifi- cations Board.

Status June .30, 1923.

Per cent completed.

Publication

issued.

!00 Outside.

100 Do.2

100 Do.s

100 Do.

100 Do.

100 Do.

100 Do.

8060

60

1 Jour. Ind. and Eng. Chem., 14, p. 1136; 1922.

2 Jour. Ind. and Eng. Chem., 15, pp. 44^7, 171-173; 1923. Jour. Am. Chem. Soc, 45: p. 676; 1923.

5. PLATINUM METALS AND REAGENTS.

SCOPE.

Platinum metals: (a) Methods of separation, (&) methods for purification,

(c) methods of analysis.

Routine preparation of pure materials.

Routine analysis of platinum-bearing materials.

Reagents: (a) Methods for testing, (b) routine testing.

Preparation of pure substances: (a) Mercury, (6) organic standard samples.

Supervision of chemical storeroom.

TESTS.

Materials tested.

Number completed.

1921-22 1922-23

9

22 285

PREPARATION OF PURE SUBSTANCES.

Nature of material.

Platinum metals and alloys. Benzoic acid Mercury , .pounds.

do...

Number prepared.

1921-22

200

1922-23

13

'600
154 KBPOKT OF DIRECTOR OF BUREAU OF STANDARDS,

RESEARCHES.

Subject.

Determination of iridium in platinum'alloys

Analysis of crude platinum

Preparation of pure rhodium

Analytical separation of rhodium from platinum

Preparation of platinum, platinum-rhodium thermocouples

Platinum alloys for laboratory ware

In cooperation with

Status June 30, 1923.

Per cent completed.

1075

75

50

100

5

PublicatioQ

issued.

Outside.i

1 Trans. Am. Electrochemical Society, 1923.

6. ELECTROCHEMISTRY.

SCOPE.

Electrodeposition of metals: (a) Structure, composition, and use of anodes,

(b) analysis, properties, and behavior of solutions, (c) structure and properties of deposits, (d) protective value of plated coatings, (e) industrial and

Federal applications.

Electrochemical measurements : (a) Conductivity of solutions, (&) hydrogen

ion concentration, (c) electrode potentials.

TESTS.

Number completed.

Materials tested. 1921-22 1922-23

50 20

100 10 Nickel salts 10 S

RESEARCHES.

Subject. In cooperation with

Status June 30, 1923.

Per cent completed.Publication

issued.

Metal distribution in electrodeposition Structure of electrodeposits, general Efiect of base metal on structure of copper.

Nickel deposition:

Acidity

Effects of impurities

1. Copper and zinc

2. Iron Behavior of nickel anodes

Conductivity of nickel baths Throwing power in nickel baths

Deposition of nickel on zinc Preparation of pure nickel Platinum deposition

Electrolytic alteration of copper map plates.

10050

100

100

100

10050

90

10

10

105080

Outside.i

Outside.'

LC82.

LC83. Outside.: Do.»

' Trans. Am. Electrochemical Soc, 43; 1923.

2 Trans. Am. Electrochemical Soc, 42, p. 79; 1922.

' Trans. Am. Electrochemical Soc, 32; 1923.
REPORT OF DIRECTOR OF BUREAU OF STANDARDS. 155

7. GAS CHEMISTRY.

SCOPE.

Material dealt with: (a) Fuel gases, (b) industrial gases, (c) pure gases. Properties of gases. Gas reactions: (a) Physical chemistry (equilibria, reaction velocity, etc.),

(&) industrial reactions (engineering problems, etc.).

Methods of producing gases: (a) Laboratory production of gases for experimentation, (b) Commercial production.

Gas analysis: (a) Laboratory and reference methods, (&) automatic methods.

Process control by analysis. • Utilization of gases. Balloon fabrics.

TESTS.

Materials tested.

Number completed.

1921-22 1922-23

223 240

IS20

RESEARCHES.

Subject. In cooperation with

Status June 30, 1923.

Per cent completed.

Publication

issued.

Development of instruments for: Determining balloon leaks Purity of gas in balloons Airship slide rule Detecting traces of water vapor

Improved gas measuring apparatus (analytical).. Sample-eoEecting vacuum pump

Determining water vapor (wide range)

Fractionating gases , Combining, recording, and control of various gas measurements , Detecting hydrogen in submarines

Processes for manufacturing hydrogen:

General study of methods

Oil-cracking process Improved steam-iron process Gas absorption Gas analysis by thermal conductivity: General study

Physical conditions affecting Chlorine Applications Determination of gasoline in natural gas Mixing gases in constant proportions

Army and Navy

do

do

Department of Agriculture.

Army and Navy

Navy

Army and Navy

do

do

Army and Navy

100

100

10090

80

80

1010

1050

80

10095

40

90

10050

50

1050

Outside.'

Outside.'

' Annual report of the N. A. C. A.; 1923.

" Chem. and Met. Eng. vol. 28, Nos. 17, 21, and 24, AprQ 30, May 28, and June 18, 1923. LIBRARY RESEARCHES.

Subject. In cooperation with

Status Jime 30, 1923.

Per cent completed.Publication

issued.

100 10040

100 C81.

•
156 KEPORT OF DIRECTOE OF BITREAU OF STANDARDS.

INSTRUMENTS CONSTRUCTED OR CALIBRATED FOR OTHERS.

Type of instrument. Constructed.

Balloon leak detectors ' Hydrogen purity indicators Helium purity Indicators Automatic apparatus for determining ammonia

Automatic apparatus for analyzing mixtures of nitrogen and hydrogen

Helium purity recorders Water vapor detector Carbon dioxide recorder Sulphur dioxide recorder Gas interferometer

Set of color standards for determining hydrogen sulphide

Detailed Report of the Year's Work.

GENERAL.

As in past years, a great part of the energy of the division has

been expended in the testing of materials submitted by various

branches of the Government service. Ijittle of this large amount of

testing work can with any propriety be called " routine work," if

this term is used in the same sense as it would be used in factorycontrol work ; for not only are numerous difficult tests made on the

samples examined, but, from the results of such tests, conclusions

are drawn as to the quality and suitability of the materials in question. Hence, a large proportion of the samples examined represent

actual research work, and in manj' cases these apparently minor re- searches on samples tested require more work than that represented

in many published original research papers. Methods of test are

continually being devised or revised, and much of this work is made

necessary b}- peculiarities of samples sent in from other branches of

the service.

Nearly all sections of the chemistry division cooperated extensively, as in the past, with committees of technical societies and with

other agencies. The division is represented on many committees that are engaged in scientific work, and in a number of instances the

chairmanships are held hy its members. Major organizations with

which such cooperation was had are : American Society for Testing

Materials, American Chemical Society, American Engineering

Standards Committee, Federal Specifications Board, American Concrete Institute, American Electroplaters' Society, Paint and Varnish Manufacturers' Association, Interdepartmental Conference on

Chemical Lime, Natural Gas Association, American Foundrj^men's

Association.

Considefable travel was undertaken for purposes of inspection,

field tests, and similar work in connection with studies of corrosion

and plant operation, attendance at meetings of committees, etc.

I. PAINT, VARNISH, AND BITUMINOUS MATERIALS.

P. H. Walker.

This section handles the analysis and testing of a great variety of

paint and varnish materials and of bituminous materials for waterproofing and roofing purposes. It prepares specifications for such
EEPOET OF DIRECTOR OF BUREAU OF STANDARDS. 157

materials and collects information relative to the service that may beexpected from them.

Cooperation with Outside Agencies.

Hie section of paints, varnishes, and bituminous materials con- tinued to cooperate with the conmaittee on protective coatings of

the American Society for Testing Materials in most of its activities.

Notable contributions in the report of the committee for 1923 will

be: (a) "Standard methods for routine analysis of yellow and

orange pigments containing chromium compounds, blue pigments,

and chrome green," F. W. Smither, chief of the section on detergents,

etc., assisted by P. H. Walker and E. F. Hickson; (6) "Tentative

methods for testing shellac," L. L. Steele; (c) reports of the subcommittees on varnish (L. L. Steele), linseed oil (L. L. Steele), physical properties of paint materials (J. G. Thompson), and waterproofing material (E. H. Berger).

The section also assisted a committee of the American Concrete

Institute in preparing specifications for waterproofing materials and

in studying waterproofing problems (E. H. Berger).

For the Paint and Varnish Manufacturers' Association considerable work was carried out on problems relating to drying oils, color

measurements, etc. For the Federal Specifications Board a very large amount of work

was done in preparing 17 completed and 34 still uncompleted United

States Government standard specifications (E. F. Hickson, E. H.

Berger, L. L. Steele)

Paint and Paint Materials.

In addition to work mentioned in preceding paragraphs, several

specifications for limited use were prepared (E. F. Hickson) , and the

development and improvement of methods of testing were continued.

Consultation with officials of the Shipping Board, War Department,

and others on particular painting problems has been an important

feature of the year's work. Several experimental antifouling paints

were prepared in assisting an investigation of a very complex problem that is being conducted by the Navy Department.

A paper on the physical properties of paint marks the beginning

of very important work (J. G. Thompson).

Encouraging progress has been made in measuring the color of

paints (J. G. Thompson).

Many experiments were made with various coatings in order to

study the best methods of preventing moisture changes with subsequent change in volume of wood (C. H. Jumper) , but this, like many

other paint problems, is so complicated as to require much time and

labor expenditure before definite results can be reported.

Varnish and Varnish Materials.

Improved methods of testing shellac have been published and the

nature of shellac wax is being mvestigated.

Data on the hexabromide value of raw linseed oil are being ac- cumulated (Steele), using the method previousl}^ devised in this laboratory. Further study on methods of determining " foots " in linseed oil is in progress, because the method devised here, while

admittedly better than any other known method, is subject to large

percentage errors and therefore objected to by producers of this

material.
158 REPORT OF DIRECTOR OE BUREAU OF STANDARDS.

Bituminous Materials.

The two major divisions of the bureau's study of bituminous materials relate to roofing and waterproofing, to which some reference

has already been made. Materials of a nonbituminous nature but

which have uses similar to bituminous materials are also included.

A great deal of investigational work was done in preparing the

numerous United States Government specifications for this type of

material and also on nontextile floor coverings and mastic decking

(Berger) . Information on durability and better methods of construction is constantly being collected. The large amount of consultation

work carried on is evident from the following examples: {a) The

construction of the bituminous bottom of the Lincoln Memorial Pool,

which was practically under the bureau's supervision; (5) specifications for and methods of applj'ing waterproof expansion joints for use on the roof of Lincoln Memorial, the Key Bridge, and the new

conduit of the Washington Aqueduct.

The section cooperated with the cement section in an investigation

on light-colored damp-proofing compounds for stone and concrete

and on the effect of alkali on concrete and with the electrolysis sec- tion on soil corrosion.

A member of this section prepared the chapter on bituminous

paints, varnishes, cements, and similar materials in a book by H. A.

Gardner, entitled " Physical Examination of Paints, Varnishes, and

Colors," and other members of the section gave assistance to the

author in other ways.

2. DETERGENTS, CEMENTS, CORROSION, ETC.

F. W. Smither.

The field covered by this section includes the chemical analysis and

testing of detergents, cement, lime, gypsum, coated metals (such as

tin plate and galvanized metals), waters, etc. Soap Specifications (Walker, Bower).

Tentative specifications were prepared for powdered soap and for

saddle soap at the request of the War Department. The specifications reported last year have been issued as circulars of this bureau.

Experimental work was done on the solubility of sodium chloride in

alcohol in connection with the methods of test prescribed in the

various specifications.

Cements, etc. (Whitson).

This section cooperated with the Interdepartmental Conference

on Chemical Lime in drawing up specifications for lime for various

uses. Further work on the modified Schaife method for the determination of available lime in quick and hydrated limes confirmed

the satisfactoriness of this procedure. This method has been published as a tentative standard by the American Society for Testing

Materials.

Considerable work of a miscellaneous nature was done in cooperation with the structural materials and other divisions, consisting

largely in furnishing special data for their investigations. This

work included the analyses of samples of alkali water and soil, waterproofing and composition flooring compounds, gj-psum, ganister rock,
REPORT OF DIRECTOR OF BUREAU OF STANDARDS. 159

fire clay, disintegrated concrete, and comparative analyses of Norwegian and other foreign Portland cements. Studies of certain analytical procedures were also carried out. The testing of samples of

the Portland cement used in the construction of the Wilson Dam at

Florence, Ala., increased greatly.

Corrosion, Waters, etc. (Sager).

" Total immersion " tests.—Cooperative work on the " total immersion " tests of the committee on the corrosion of iron and steel of

the American Society for Testing Materials, conducted in part at

this bureau and begun nearly three years ago, is still in progress.

Practically all of the 22-gauge iron and steel sheets under test at

this bureau have shown failures during the past year. Study of the

failures indicates that copper added to the steel does not appear to

be a factor in the life of the samples that are totally and continv;ally

submerged in running water. The 16-gauge sheets have to date

shown no failures. Reports of these tests will be found in the proceedings of the above-mentioned society.

Metallic coatings (Sager).—Owing to press of other work no further progress was made on the standardization of the salt-spray test. Inspection of zinc and cadmium coated materials exposed on the

New England coast by the General Electric Co. indicated that in the

salt-spray test as at present conducted the corrosive conditions are highly accelerated. Tests made for the Government departments

included an investigation of lead-coated iron and steel, tinned and

nickeled paper clips, aluminum coated with different types of varnish, duralumin rivets, etc. An investigation of the thickness of

coating on nickel-plated plumbing fixtures and on brass and bronze

plated hardware was made for the Federal Specifications Board.

An investigation of the effect of sodium chromate added to a solution

of calcium chloride upon the corrosive properties of the latter when

used as an antifreeze material for automobile radiators is nearing

completion. The section has given advice on galvanized materials to

certain technical committees of the Federal Specifications Board and

other branches of the Government.

Water (Sager).—Mineral analyses of watei-s were made for the

Government departments to determine the advisability of purification for industrial use and the means to be adopted, and after the

installation of purification equipment analyses of the treated waters were conducted to determine whether specification requirements had

been met. Periodic examinations of the treated waters are also

made. A member of the bureau's staff is serving as a member of an

advisory committee on drinking water standards for common carriers. The bureau, however, does not test waters as to potability.

Miscellaneous work.—A large number of samples was tested for

the Steamboat Inspection Service to determine their fire hazard.

SeA'eral materials were examined for the Federal Trade Commission,

including naphtha soaps and ritual candles. Four samples of gasoline were tested for the State of Washington. CooperatiA-e tests were made for the American Hotel Association and advice given in

connection with its program for the standardization of detergents

and other hotel supplies. Advice was given the National Committee on Prisons and Prison Labor regarding laundry supplies.

Various materials were examined for the Goveiniment departments:
160 EEPORT OF DIRECTOR OF BUREAU OF STANDARDS.

for example, graphite, boiler scale, boiler compounds, foundryfacings, boiler lagging, fire extinguishing compounds, antifreezing

solutions for automobile radiators, nondrying oils, so-called carbon

removers, and rust preventives, technical chemicals, etc. Many

soaps, washing sodas, cleaners, polishes, etc., were examined to guide

the various Government departments in making awards to contractors.

3. MISCELLANEOUS ORGANIC MATERIALS.

C. E. Waters.

This section is concerned with chemical analysis and investigations of oils, rubber, paper, textiles, ink, glue, airplane dopes, etc.,

with special reference to meeting particular requirements.

Airplane Dopes (Smith, Jacobsohn).

The testing of airplane dopes was carried on throughout the year.

Although a successful all-metal plane has been developed, there is

no immediate prospect of its superseding the plane having wings

covered with doped fabric.

Balloon Fabrics (Jacobsohn).

Only a negligible number of samples of rubberized balloon fabrics

was received during the year. The investigation for the purpose

of developing a balloon-fabric coating having the best qualities of

rubber and of goldbeaters' skin progressed very sloAvly until of late,

when some promising results were obtained. The investigation is for the Army and Navy.

Rubber Chemistry.

Notwithstanding numerous changes in personnel, there was only

a slight diminution in the number of rubber samples tested. In addition, satisfactory^ progress was made in the preparation of specifications for rubber goods and various kinds of packings.

In the rubber work there is close cooperation with the structural,

engineering, and miscellaneous materials division, which does the

physical testing. The physical and chemical testing are under the

control of one man. Both sections work together also in the preparation of specifications, and both have a share in cooperative work with

scientific societies. The study of new methods of chemical analysis

is greatly aided by having samples of known composition prepared

by the physical laboratory.

Dye Chemistry (Appel).

A year ago the bureau's dye chemist resigned after only four

months' service. In September another chemist was engaged, who

has made very satisfactory progress. Numerous dyes of known purity have been prepared as spectrophotometric standards. Methods

of chemical analysis have been studied and the results correlated

with those of spectrophotometric measurements. There will be

further correlation by means of dyeing tests on yarns. Two trips

were made to New York to attend conferences about dye standardization with representatives of the Treasury Department and the Tariff

Commission.

A few samples of commercial dyes were analyzed. Special attention was paid to the comparative study of several samples of crystal
REPORT OF DIRECTOR OF BUREAU OF STANDARDS. 161

violet—all the brands that could be obtained. This dye is used for

the determination of colloidal matter in molding sand. It had been

claimed that only one foreign brand of the dye was satisfactory for

the purpose, but the bureau's tests showed that equally good crystal

violet is made in this country.

Textile Chemistry (Eichlin).

Most of the chemical work on textiles consists in making chemical

tests of materials that are under investigation by the textile section of

the structural engineering and miscellaneous materials divisions.

In addition to the various routine tests, a study of the effects of dif-

--erent finishing agents upon dyed fabrics was begun. An investigation of the color reactions of the various cordage fibers was also

started.

Inks, Ribbons, Carbon Paper (Welch).

Each year many samples of these materials ai'e tested. The peak

of the load comes in the spring, when the Post Office Department and

the General Supply Committee make contracts for these supplies.

Adhesives (Welch).

Many samples of mucilage and library paste and a moderate

number of glue were tested. With these may be grouped a few glueglycerol compositions, such as hektograph pads.

Finger-printing Device (Welch).

A year ago mention was made of a method of finger printing that

was developed for the Postal Savings Division of the Post Office

Department. Since then a new device has been worked out and

adopted. The fingers are lightly oiled by pressing them upon a glass

surface coated with a thin film composed of lead oleate, ferric

chloride, and oleic acid. The fingers are pressed upon the document and the print developed by brushing it over with a dilute solution of sodium sulphide. For convenience the sulphide is supplied

in the form of tablets which are dissolved as needed.

Lubricants.

During the j'ear many lubricating oils and greases were analyzed,

as well as carbon deposits and a sludge from engines (N. Berryman,

in cooperation with the strvictural, engineering, and miscellaneous

materials and the heat and power divisions)

As pointed out a year ago, laboratory tests can at best only indicate whether or not a lubricant is likely to be satisfactory in service.

One of the causes of the deterioration of oil is oxidation, and further

progress was made in the study of the behavior of oils under oxidizing^ conditions. A paper giving evidence that there is a relation between the sulphur content of an oil and the rate at which it oxidizes

was published. A similar study of four transformer oils was made

in cooperation with a subcommittee of committee D-9, American

Society for Testing Materials. Part of this study was a comparison

of the results obtained by Gill's gumming test with those obtained by

heating the oils to a relatively high temperature in the air. Further work along this line is contemplated.

65077—23 12
162 EEPOKT OF DIKECTOR OF BUREAU OF STANDARDS.

4. METAL AND ORE ANALYSIS AND STANDARD SAMPLES.

G. E. F. Lundell.

The work of this section can be divided into three main branches

(1) The development of refined and of routine methods of inorganic analysis; (2) the preparation, standardization and distribution of standard samples of iron, steel, alloy steels, ferros, brasses,

bronzes, bearing metals, melting point metals, ores, cements, and pure

chemicals; and (3) the chemical analysis of the metallurgical materials used in the bureau's research projects or submitted b}' other

Government departments.

Standard Analyzed Samples (Hoffman, Bright, Scherrer).

The number of standard samples issued during the fiscal year

1922-23 was 5,024, as against 3,532 in the year 1921-22. The distribution was as follows:

Irons and steels 3, 406

Brass, bronze, and bearing metals 192

Metals for melting points 252

Ores 149

Cements 156

Sodium oxalate 286

Benzoic acid : 405

Naphthalene 70

Sucrose 73

Dextrose 35

Total 5,024

The sale of standard samples has shown a marked increase during

the past year in spite of the curtailment of the number of samples

issued to colleges and universities. The fee value of the samples,

$9,451, compares favorably with the appropriation of $10,000 which

was available for the prosecution of the work, and shows that it is

practically self-supporting.

The curtailment of samples issued to colleges and universities has

reference to samples intended for ordinary student use and not to

those needed for standardization or research. To meet the need for

student samples the bureau has adopted the policy of using the

chips which are not of the standard 20-40 mesh size but which are of

imiform composition and well suited for student use. In this way

large samiples of BOH 0.8 carbon, AOH 0.2 and 0.4 carbon, nickel,

and chrome-vanadium steels and sheet brass were prepared and

distributed free of charge among 71 schools.

One new standard sample was added to the list during the year

(No. 55, ingot iron) and four exhausted standard samples were

renewed, as follows: Sheet brass. No. 37b; B O H 0.2 C steel, No.

11c; A O H 0.6 C, No. 21b; and cement. No. 47c. In addition,

material has been secured for the following eight new standard

samples: Phosphate rock, manganese bronze, phosphor bronze,

refined silicon, 75 per cent ferrosilicon, 50 per cent ferrosilicon, highcarbon ferrovanadium, and low-carbon ferrovanadium. Unless

unforeseen difficulties in analysis arise these will all be available as standard samples by January 1, 1924.
EEPOET OF DIRECTOR OF BUREAU OF STANDARDS. 163

Cooperation in the Analysis of British Chemical Standards (Hoffman).

In addition to carrying on the analytical work dealing with the

bureau's standard samples, considerable analytical work was done

on the British chemical standards. In this work the bui^eau cooperated with American, English, Scotch, French, and Italian analysts

in the analysis of the British standard basic slag "A," and carbon

steels " P " and " C."

Cooperation in the Development of Standard Analytical Methods

(Knowles).

During the year the section cooperated with the subcommittee on

analysis of the Committee for the International Standardization of

Zinc. Methods for the determination of aluminum, bismuth, and

tin in spelter and of manganese in zinc ores were developed at the

bureau and adopted by the committee for recommendation as standard methods.

At the request of the American Foundrymen's Association methods

for the chemical analj^sis of molding sand were drawn up by the

section and these were adopted by the association as tentative standard methods.

The section also cooperated with the Amei-ican Society for Testing

Materials in the development and the revision of methods of analysis

for various nonferrcus materials and is now starting work on methods

for the analysis of ferros.

In connection with the work of the Federal Specifications Board

the section has recommended methods of analysis for materials listed

in the specifications. These were mainly selected methods, but cer- tain methods were revised and others were developed.

Umpire Analysis and Standardization of Various Metallurgical Material.

The work in this field was considerably increased during the past

year. Umpire analyses were carried out where analysts could not

agree, and the bureau was asked to settle the dispute. The policy

of the bureau of aiding firms in the standardization of material of

which no standards are available was continued, and considerable

analytical work was done on the prepared samples which Avere

submitted.

Analysis of Ferrous and Nonferrous Materials (Bright, Scherrer).

This work includes the chemical analysis of such metallurgical

products as iron, steel, alloy steels, ferrous, brass, bronze, bearing

metals, type metal, boiler plugs, solder, pure metal and coated metals,

such as tin plate, galvanized metal, and silverware. These analyses

were made for a number of branches of the Government, among

which may be mentioned the War, NaA-y, Treasury, and Post Office

Departments, Shipping Board, Panama Canal. General Supply

Committee, Government Printing Office. Bureau of Engraving and

Printing, and such branches of the Department of Commerce as the Bureau of Lighthouses and the Steamboat Inspection Service.

An important function of the section is the analysis of practically all

metallurgical material connected with the research projects of the

bureau. In addition, several special chemical compounds were prepared for other divisions of the bureau.
164 KEPOKT OF DIRECTOR OF BUREAU OF STAjSTDARDS.

5. PLATINUM METALS, REAGENTS, AND APPARATUS.

E. Wichers.

In this work may be mentioned the study of methods of testing

reagents and apparatus to be used in chemical analysis, including

study of chemical glassware, porcelain, platinum, and platinum

substitutes.

Platinum Metals.

The research upon the chemical and physical properties of the

platinum metals has been continued. The major portion of the

year's work was devoted to the study of methods of analysis of crude

platinum and platinum alloys.

Determination of .iridium (Gilchrist).—Probably the most important determination in platinum alloys is that of iridium, since

iridium alloys are extensively used in a number of industries. An

exhaustive critical study of the Deville-Stas method for this determination, commenced during the preceding jJ'ear, was completed.

A large number of analyses were made on specially prepared alloys

in order to determine the accuracy of the method, the effect of the

presence of other metals in the alloys, and the effect of variation over

a wide range in the details of the procedure. Of the metals usually

present in complex platinum alloys, iron and ruthenium were the

only ones found to cause errors in the iridium value, both being

weighed as iridium. In commercial practice ruthenium is frequently

regarded as equivalent to iridium and determined as such. A method

of correcting the iridium value for iron was developed. A paper

setting forth the results of *this work, together with a recommended

procedure, was prepared for publication.

Analysis of platinum ore (Swanger) . —^Work on this project, begun

last year, is well advanced. The analysis of this material involves

the separation of the six platinum metals besides copper, silver,

gold, and iron, and the determination of those elements of commercial value, usually platinum, iridium, rhodium, palladium, and gold.

A scheme has been outlined which has as its principal object the

attainment of greater accuracy in these determinations than is possible with methods now in use without unduly adding to the time re- quired for a commercial analysis. Details of the procedure have

been subjected to extensive experiments, and complete analyses

have been made of a number of mixtures containing the elements

mentioned in known proportions. Some additional work is required

before tlie method will be ready for publication.

Rhodium-platinum separation.—A study of the quantitative separation of rhodium from platinum was begun, there being at present

no adequate method for this separation. Rhodium has been increasing in scientific and industrial importance for the past few years,

with consequent increase in demand for a method for its determination. Preliminary experiments on a proposed method have been

completed, and a systematic study is in progress.

Preparation of pure metals.—Some additional work was done on

the purification of rhodium. This section cooperated with the division of metallurgy in its additional work on the preparation of the

10 per cent rhodium—90 per cent platinum alloy. Other work on

purification consisted largely of the routine jDreparation of the va-
EEPORT OF DIRECTOR OF BUREAU OF STAJNDARDS. 165

rious metals as needed. About 1,500 grams of pure platinum was

prepared for use in the various investigations in progress and for

issue to other sections of the bureau in the form of thermocouples.

In a few cases platinum wire was issued in small quantities to outside laboratories where the highest purity was essential. About 150

grams of pure palladium was prepared for the heat division. One

sample of a pure palladium salt and one of a pure iridium salt were

issued to an outside laboratory.

Miscella7ieous.—In addition to the specific projects already discussed, numerous minor studies were made on chemical and physical

proj)erties of the platinum metals. A bibliography of the metals

of this group, commencing with 1918, Avas brought up to date. This

is to supplement the bibliogi-aphy published by the United States

Geological Survey, which is complete through 1917. In cooperation

with the division of metallurgy a paper describing the scope and purposes of the bureau's work on the platinum groups was published

in the Transactions of the American Electrochemical Society.

Chemical Reagents and Apparatus (Isaacs).

The examination of all reagent chemicals purchased by the bureau

was continued during the year. Eighty-five lots of reagents were

analyzed. In general, an improvement was noted in the quality of

such chemicals oyer those purchased in previous years. There still remains a need for a study of methods used in testing reagents.

Lack of funds has so far made any systematic work in this field impossible, and only a very limited amount of time could be applied

to the problem during the year.

About 600 pounds of mercury was purified for use in the bureau's

laboratories, as well as a small quantity of sodium chloride, which

was specially prepared for the division of weights and measures. Some attention was given to the improvement of analytical glass

funnels, one of the makers of glass apparatus cooperating.

6. ELECTROCHEMISTRY.

William Blum.

^ The principal work of this section consists of investigations upon

the electrodeposition of metals. In addition, assistance is frequently

rendered to other sections of the bureau in connection with such meas- urements as conductivity and hydrogen-ion concentration.

The purposes of the studies upon electi-odeposition ai-e {a) to determine the fundamental principles, especially those which govern

I the structure and properties of the deposits; (h) to develop methods

j for the analysis and control of electroplating and electrotyping solu-

\ tions; and (e) to furnish to interested Government departments,

manufacturers, electroplaters, and others information and advice.

Owing to the fact that there are comparatively few persons with

I technical training connected with the electroplating and electroi typing industries, frequent visits to plants and lectures to appropriate groups are necessary and helpful. In addition to the contacts

j thus formed, the section keeps in close touch with the industry

I through the research committee of the American Electroplaters' Soli ciety Avhich meets at the bureau twice a year. An experienced elecj troplater, George B. Hogaboom, is employed in an advisory capacity.
166 REPORT OF DIRECTOR OF BUREAU OF STANDARDS.

General Electrodeposition.

Current distribution and '''throwing ^otoer" (Haring).—In commercial electroplating it is important to secure as nearly uniform,

distribution of the metal coatings as possible, especially upon irregularly shaped articles. Solutions which produce good distribution are popularly designated as having good "throwing power." This

property has been defined and methods of measuring and controlling

it have been devised. These experiments were made with copper

solutions. A study of throwing power in nickel deposition is in

progress.

Structure of deposits {ivith metallurgical division).—The internal structure of electrodeposits is important because it largely determines those properties, such as hardness, strength, ductility, and

luster, upon which the usefulness of the coatings depends. Investigations thus far conducted have led to the development of a tentative theory of the mechanism of metal deposition and of a simple

classification of the crystal types existent in electrodeposits. Further work is required before definite conclusions can be reached.

Effect of ha^e-metal structure (toith metallurgical division).—It

has been found that when copper is deposited upon rolled or cast

copper under certain conditions the crystals of the electrodeposit are direct continuations of those existing in the base metal. This

observation indicates the possibility of similar effects when one metal—for example, nickel or silver—is plated upon another, such

as steel, brass, or nickel-silver. It is hoped that this subject may be

investigated further.

Nickel Deposition.

Acidity (Thompson).—Further observations have indicated the

usefulness of hydrogen ion (or pH) measurements for controlling

the acidity of nickel solutions both in research and in practical

electroplating.

Effects of impurities (Tho.'ipson, Thomas).—The principal metallic impurities likely to be present in nickel salts are copper, zinc,

and iron. Copper was found to be most detrimental, and zinc

slightly less so, while iron in moderate amounts is not usually deleterious. On the basis of this information and of an examination of

a large number of samples of commercial nickel salts tentative

specifications have been prepared.

Nickel anodes (Thomas and metallurgical division).— satisfactory technique has been developed for measuring quantitatively the

corrosion efficiency of nickel anodes; that is, their ability to maintain the nickel content of the solutions. Preliminary experiments

have been completed and final tests are now in progress to determine

the effect of the composition, method of preparation, and structure

of nickel anodes upon their behavior.

Conductivity (Hammond) .—The conductivity of solutions con- taining nickel sulphate and the various common constitutents of

nickel baths have been determined.

Deposition of nickel on zinc (Thompson).—An investigation has

just been started to determine the best conditions for nickel plating

upon zinc and die castings. Difficulty is now frequently experienced

in obtaining commercially satisfactory adherent deposits.
KEPORT OF DIRECTOR OF BUREAU OF STANDARDS. 167

Preparation of pure nickel (Thompson).—Experiments are in

progress to produce on a fairly large scale nickel of very high

purity suitable for the determination of the physical constants.

Specifications for nickel plating (Sager).—^At the request of the

Federal Specifications Board the thickness of the nickel coatings on

a number of plumbing fixtures was determined. A tentative specification, based upon a minimum average thickness of nickel, has been

prepared and is now under consideration.

Platinum Deposition (Bailey).

A study of platinum deposition is being made in order to define,

if possible, conditions which would yield dense, impervious deposits

of platinum which will protect the base metal from the action of

corrosive liquids or gases. Preliminary results indicate that most

platinum deposits, such as are applied to jewelry, are porous and

exert little protective action.

Electrolytic Alteration of Copper Map Plates (Bailey).

At the request of the U. S. Coast and Geodetic Survey a method

has been developed by which alterations may be made upon engraved

copper plates with a considerable saving in time and labor over

previously used methods. The operation depends upon a process

devised by a member of the bureau's staff, whereby metal can be

dejDosited by means of a stream projected from a nozzle in which an anode is contained. Similarly, it is possible to dissolve metal from

a given surface by a reverse current. In either case action occurs only at the point where the projected stream strikes the plate and

not upon the surrounding area over which the liquid flows. In the

correction of map plates the copper is first dissolved by this method

from the area to be corrected and may then be redeposited to the

desired thickness, or the dissolved area may be brought up to the

desired plane by hammering the back of the plate, and copper may

then be deposited on the back of the plate if necessary.

7. GAS CHEMISTRY.

E. R. Weaver.

Methods of purification, analysis, and testing of gases, including

illuminating gas and special gases, such as hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen, and argon, comprise the chief work of the section of gas

chemistry.

The work of the section has been carried on during the past year

almost entirely upon funds transferred from other departments,

particularly the Army and the Navy. Much of the work has been

of a x'outine nature, including the testing of balloon fabrics and the

construction and calibration of instruments of various kinds previously developed within the section. Partly for this reason the

research work has been more than usually fragmentary, and no

outstanding projects have been carried out, but the important re- searches of the previous year have been completed and preliminary

work has been done upon several new undertakings of the utmost

importance.

Although the financial support of the section has come largely

from military sources, none of the problems dealt with has been
168 EEPOBT OF DIRECTOR OP BUREAU OF STANDARDS.

military in a technical sense, since all have been of an industrial

character. The success which has been attained in the solution of

the problems of the small industries operated within the Government departments indicates the importance of extending the investigations and of applying the results already obtained to larger fields

of industry. Even in case the results of a given investigation are not directly applicable to industry the experience gained and the

facilities developed for research work can be applied immediately

and effectively to the solution of industrial problems.

Assembling Technical Information.

The section constantly acts as a consultant to other agencies of

the Government and to the general public on all sorts of technical

questions relating to gases. An important paH of the work of the

section is the preparation and publication of summaries of the available knowledge on special branches of gas technology. Successful

work of this character is made possible only by the systematic i-eview

and indexing of the scientific literature relating to the physical and

chemical properties of all the important gases, gas analysis, and the

methods of producing, separating, purifying, and handling gases

for all purposes. A large amount of time is necessarily devoted to

library work of this character.

During the past year Circular No. 81, entitled " Bibliography

of the Scientific Literature Kelating to Helium," was revised and

about 200 references added.

Much work was done upon a critical review of the existing knowledge of the densities and the pressure-volume temperature relations of

gases (Pickering). The sections on densities and on critical constants

were completed. About three-quarters of the work on the review of

thermal expansion and compressibility is done. Aft'cr the selection of

the most reliable data is completed much work will remain to be done

upon the construction of tables and charts and the written discussion.

A special effort will be made to present the subject in such a way

that the use of the inost accurate data available will be possible

for the reader without technical training. This work will have immediate application in the measurement and sale of gases and should

have many other industrial uses. General Gas Analysis (Ledig, Shepherd).

Less than the usual amount of time has been devoted to the study

of general methods of gas analysis because of the small number of

men in the section, the demands of other problems, and the need for

gases of known purity in carrying on the investigation. A new type

of burette and compensator is being developed, which it is hoped

will be nearly as accurate as the weight burette, previously developed

in the section, and will permit much more rapid work.

Automatic Gas Analysis (Palmer).

Develoj^ment Avork upon the analysis of gases by the thermal conductivity method has continued, but the many demands from various

Government laboratories for the construction and calibration of

ajDparatus of this type have prevented the bureau from devoting

as much time to this problem as is desirable.

The development of convenient apparatus for determining the

permeability of balloon fabrics without removal from the balloon
KEPOKT OF DIRECTOR OTP BUREAU OP STANDARDS. 169

and for determining the purity of balloon gas was completed and

two sets of apparatus of each type were built and calibrated for

other departments of the Government. Similar kinds of automatic

apparatus constructed for other Government establishments were

as follows : Four helium indicators, 3 helium recorders, 1 recorder

for sulphur dioxide in the exit gases from a sulphuric acid plant, 1

apparatus for determining ammonia, and 1 for analyzing mixtures

of nitrogen and hydrogen.

The small amount of research work for which time was available resulted in the development of improved methods for controlling

the temperature of and the current supplied to the gas-analyzing

units and of a practical cell for analyzing gases containing chlorine.

A more thorough study was made of the effect of certain physical

conditions upon the performance of the thermal-conductivity apparatus, particularly the effects of gas pressure and of applied voltage.

A general paper on the method has been prepared which covers

quite completely the construction, calibration, and uses of the instruments employed.

Preliminary work has been done upon two new forms of apparatus

for detecting hj^drogen in submarines. Both are believed to be much

better suited to severe service conditions than the detector formerly

developed.

The method is rapidly assuming a position of importance in several industries, largely through the efforts of the bureau to introduce

the method to the public. Five instrument companies in this country are now making, or preparing to make, commercial apparatus of

this type.

Absorption of Gases (Ledig).

An investigation has been in progress for some months upon the

fundamental phenomena of the absorption of gases in liquids, including both physical solution and chemical reactions. The ultimate

object of the research is to secure complete engineering data by which

the performance of any commercial absorbing unit can be computed

from a laboratory test upon the gas and liquid to be used. This is pioneer work which has required the development of entirely new

methods of study. The investigation has progressed as far as a

practically complete qualitative explanation of the phenomena involved, and some work has been done toward the quantitative application of the results to engineering problems.

Hydrogen Production.

The investigation of methods of producing hydrogen for aero- nautical purposes, which was the major project of the preceding year,

has been practically completed as far as its application to aeronautics

is concerned. A plant to supply Scott Field is now being constructed by the Air Service according to specifications furnished by

the section. This plant will make hydrogen by the thermal decomposition of oil, which is the process best adapted to the intermittent

production of hydrogen on a moderately large scale. The work of

the section upon the steam-iron process resulted in the development

of an essentially new method of hydrogen manufacture which gives

promise of great industrial possibilities. These possibilities have as yet not been thoroughly studied.
170 EEPORT OF DIRECTOR OF BUREAU OF STANDARDS.

A description of the oil-cracking process has been published in an

outside journal. A comprehensive publication on the hydrogen investigations of the bureau is in preparation. This paper will deal

at length with the possibilities of future development resulting from

the investigations as well as with the researches themselves.

Water Detector (Ledig).

To meet an important need in the refrigeration and chemical industries the section has developed a detector for water vapor, intended particularly for use in closed pipes, which depends upon the

electrical conductivity of a thin film of a hygroscopic electrolyte.

With this detector it is possible to record water vapor with considerable accuracy, but any one instrument in its present stage of development will operate successfull}- over only a small range of vapor

pressure. By providing for automatic temperature control it appears feasible to make an instrument which will operate successfully over a wide range of humidities. Preliminary work has been done

on this instrument of wider range.

Apparatus for Fractionation and Low-Temperature Experiments

(Shepherd).

An elaborate apparatus is in the course of construction for the

analytical separation of gases and their purification in experimental

quantities by low-temperature distillations. The apparatus includes

several novel features which have been developed within the section, one of which is a sample-collecting vacuum pump of large capacity.

In addition to its uses for analysis and purification, the apparatus

should be useful for the study of vapor pressures, solubility, adsorption, and other phenomena, particularly in liquefied gases. A

part of the apparatus has already been used to prepare helium of

spectroscopic purity.

Gasoline in Natural Gas (Shepherd).

One of the major problems for which the apparatus mentioned

in the preceding paragraph is to be used is the study of methods

of determining gasoline in natural gas. The bureau is represented

on the committee appointed by the Natural Gas Association to standardize this determination, which is of great importance both as an

aid to engineering practice and as an essential part of many of the

contracts between the gas producers and companies separating the

gasoline. Much work has been devoted to a study of the natural

gas-gasoline industry in connection with this problem.

Miscellaneous.

Among the numerous minor activities of the section may be

mentioned the following:

A discussion of the airship slide rule developed by the section was

prepared for publication and will appear in the Eighth Annual

Report of the National Advisory Committee for Aeronautics (Pickering).

Apparatus was devised and used for determining whether the

static sparks produced by pulling apart balloon fabrics would ignite

mixtures of hydrogen and air (Pickering).

A set of standard paper strips impregnated with lead acetate and

exposed to known small amounts of hydrogen sulphide was prepared
REPORT OF DIRECTOR OF BUREAU OF STANDARDS. 171

for the use of another section of the bureau in studying the corrosion

of concrete in sewers. Preparing strips of uniform color with known

amounts of gas proved, a rather troublesome problem, requiring the

development of new methods. The standards finally prepared were

used with success (Shepherd).

The routine testing of 240 balloon fabrics, of calcium carbide, and

a few other materials of miscellaneous character has consumed much

time.

Important Problems Upon Which Preliminary Work Has Been

Many possibilities for important industrial developments have

grown out of the past work of the section. In several cases preliminary work has been done to determine the probable feasibility of

the various projects.

The woi-k on automatic gas analysis has opened up a large field for

study and development in the automatic control of many industrial

processes. The simplest, and probably the most important of these,

is a system of efficient control of boiler firing by a combination of

temperature measurements and gas analysis which has been worked

out in some detail but not yet tried experimentally.

Much preliminary work has been done upon a new type of multiple

electrical recorder capable of taking a large number of practically

simultaneous records, operating any desired number of indicating

instruments, and performing several other operations, including integration and the operating control of automatic machinery. An

electrical method of recording pressures has been developed and tried

successfully in the laboratory. A method for recording directly

any one of a wide variety of simple functions of several variables,

each of which can be measured independently, has been worked out

theoretically, and some details regarding which there was doubt have

been worked out. The method promises to have many important

applications, among them the recording (and, if desired, integrating)

of orifice meter measurements directly in gas volumes corrected to

standard conditions of temperature and pressure, and the recording

of the heating value of a gas likewise corrected.

The production of hydrogen as a by-product of city gas works,

by oil refineries, and from natural gas are promising prospects

which may contribute to the solution of the fixed nitrogen problems.

The simultaneous production of gas and electrical power is an

equally promising field for study.

The hydrogen investigations have shown the need for, and some

of the laboratory developments have shown the way to carry out, a fundamental study of many of the more important industrial gas re- actions, particularly with respect to rates.

The number of chemical tests made in the laboratories of the

chemistry division during the fiscal year was 8,506. Distributed by

types of materials the tests were as follows

Done.

CHEMICAL TESTING.

Ferrous metals (irons and steels)

Nonferrous metals, alloys, and coated metals

Cement and cement materials

Bituminous products (including creosotes, etc.)-

612

1, 4(U

545
172 EEPOET OF DIEECTOE OF BUEEAU OF STANDAEDS.

Varnish materials (including shellacs) 533

Paint materials 711

Lubricants 640

Soaps, nondrying oils, and metal polishes 531

Inks and related office supplies 962

Balloon fabrics, etc 305

Rubber ; 699

Textiles 404

Miscellaneous 404

Total 8,506

These tests were made for very many Government bureaus and

establishments and for States, municipalities, and private parties, as follows

Agriculture 20

Commerce (this includes samples received from other divisions of the

bureau for chemical tests) 3,591

Interior 55

Labor 3

Navy 601

Post Office 908

Treasury 375

War , 482

United States commissions and committees (including U. S. Shipping

Board) 700

General Supply Committee 750

Panama Canal 882

Other independent establishments 103

State and municipal 59

Private parties 77

Total 8, 506

PUBLICATIONS.

The following papers, circulars, and letter circulars, emanating

wholly or in part from the chemistry division, were published during

the year:

Composition, purification, and certain constants of ammonia (E. C. McKelvy

and C. S. Taylor), Sci. Paper No. 465; Kefrig. Eng., 9, p. 213; 1923.

Specific volume of saturated ammonia vapor (C. S. Cragoe, E. C. McKelvy,

and G. F. O'Connor), Sci. Paper No. 467; Refrig. Eng., 9, p. 239; 1923.

Shellac (P. H. Walker and L. L. Steele), Tech. Paper No. 232. Bibliography of scientific literature relating to helium (E. R. Weaver), Circular No. 81, second edition.

The following United States Government specifications for paints

and paint materials, all prepared by the technical committee on paints

of the Federal Specifications Board, P. H. Walker, of the Bureau of

Standards, chairman:

Linseed oil, raw, refined, and boiled, Circular No. 82, second edition.

Basic carbonate white lead, dry and paste, Circular No. 84, second edition.

Basic sulphate white lead, dry and paste. Circular No. 85, second edition.

Turpentine, Circular No. 86, second edition.

Zinc oxide, dry and paste. Circular No. 87, second edition.

Leaded zinc oxide, dry and paste, Circular No. 88, second edition.

White paint and thinned paints made on a white base, semipaste and ready

mixed, Circular No. 89, second edition.

Ocher, dry and paste, Circular No. 91, second edition.

Iron-oxide and iron-hydroxide paints. Circular No. 93, second edition.

Black paint, semipaste and ready mixed. Circular No. 94, second edition.

Green paint, semipaste and ready mixed. Circular No. 97, third edition.

Volatile mineral spirits for thinning paints. Circular No. 98, second edition.
REPOBT OF DIRECTOR OF BUREAU OF STAKDAEDS. 173

Composite vehicle for thinning semipaste paints wlien the use of straight linseed

oil is not justified, Circular No. 102, second edition.

Water-resisting spar varnish. Circular No. 103, third edition.

Asphalt varnish. Circular No. 104, second edition.

Liquid paint drier, Circular No. 105, second edition.

Flat interior lithopone paint, white and light tints. Circular No. Ill, second

edition.

Interior varnish. Circular No. 117, second edition.

United States Government specifications for fire-extinguishing liquid (F. W.

Smither), Circular No. 134. Soap (F. W. Smither, P. H. Walker, and J. H. Bower), Circular No. 62, third

edition.

Acid-proof coatings for concrete surfaces, Letter Circular No. 42, third edition.

Effect of Su-Dex process of treatment on physical properties of several woods.

Letter Circular No. 53. The following United States Government specifications for soaps,

all prepared by the technical committee on soaps of the Federal

Specifications Board, F. W. Smither, of the Bureau of Standards,

chairman

White floating soap, Circular No. 123. Liquid soap. Circular No. 124. Soap powder. Circular No. 125. Salt water soap. Circular No. 126. Automobile soap. Circular No. 127. Chip soap. Circular No. 128. Ordinary laundry soap, Circular No. 129. Grit cake soap, Circular No. 130. Scouring compounds (a) and (&) for floors and soap-scouring comjjounds (c),

Circular No. 131. Hand grit soap. Circular No. 132. The following appeared during the year in outside journals

Standard methods for the sampling and analysis of commercial soaps and soap

products. Report of a committee of the industrial division, American Chemical Society, of which P. H. Walker, of the Bureau of Standards, was a member. .Tour. Ind. and Eng. Chem., 121, p. 1159 ; 1922.

Effect of impurities in nickel salts used for electrodeposition (M. R. Thompson

and C. T. Thomas), Letter Circular No. 83 and Trans. Amer. Electrochemical

Soc, 42; 1922. The influence of the base metal on the structure of electrodeposited metals

(W. Blum and H. Rawdon), Trans. Amer. Electrochemical Soc, 43; 1923.

Some physical properties of paints (P. H. Walker and .J. G. Thompson), Proc. Am. Soc. Testing Materials, 22, P. Ill, p. 464 ; 1922.

Separation of iron and aluminum from manganese and certain other elements

(G. E. F. Lundell and H. B. Knowles), Jour. Am. Chem. Soc, 45, p. 676: 1923.

The production of hydrogen bv the thermal decomposition of oil (E. R. Weaver), Chem. and Met. Eng.. 28, pp. 764, 939, and 1072; 1923.

Notes on the determination of phosphorus (G. E. F. Lundell and .T. I. Hoffman), Jour. Ind. Eng. Chem., 15, pp. 44 and 171: 1923. Investigations on platinum metals at the Bureau of Standards (E. Wichers and

L. Jordan), presented at the forty-third general meeting of the American

Electrochemical Society, New York, May, 1923.

Current distribution and throwing power in electrodeposition. (H. E. Haring

and William Blum) ; presented at the forty-third general meeting of the

American Electrochemical Society, New York, May, 1923. (Trans. Amer.

Electrochemical Soc, 43, 1923.)

Effect of iron on the electrodeposition of nickel (M. R. Thompson), Trans.

Amer. Electrochemical Soc, 43; 1923.

The following are in press or preparation

Atomic weight of osmium (R. Gilchrist), Doctoral thesis, Johns Hopkins University.

Analysis of chrome-ranadium steel (G. E. F. Lundell, J. I. Hoffman, and H. B. Knowles). '
174 EEPORT OP DIRECTOR OF BUREAU OF STANDARDS.

An airship slide rule (E. R. Weaver and S. F. Pickering).

A detector for water vapor in closed pipes (E. R. Weaver and P. G. Ledig).

A review of the densities of various gases (Marion Smith Blanchard).

A review of the critical constants of various gases (S. F. Pickering).

Thermal conductivity method for the analysis of gases (P. E. Palmer and E. R.

Weaver)

The development of an improved steam-iron process for the production of

hydrogen (E. R. Weaver and A. H. Graham).

Determination of total sulphur in rubber goods (S. Collier, M. Levin, and

R. T. Mease).

The interference of cobalt and certain other elements in the bismuthate method

for manganese (G. E. F. Lundell).

Notes on the crystalline form of electrodeposited metals (William Blum and

H. S. Rawdon).

The determination of iridium in platinum alloys by the method of fusion with

lead (Raleigh Gilchrist).
MECHANICS AND SOUND.

L. J. Briggs.

FUNCTIONS.

Investigations relating to mechanics, sound, and properties of

matter, including hydrodynamics, aerodynamics, aircraft and engineering instrument research, and the standardization of mechanical

appliances; embracing investigations of sound ranging, soundproofing properties of building materials, analysis and correction of

acoustical defects of auditoria, time-signaling apparatus, elastic properties of diaphragms and springs, testing and development of aircraft

and engineering instruments, ballistics, wind tunnel tests and re- search, and development and standardization of plumbing systems^

builders' hardware, and elevator safety interlocks.

SECTIONS.

1. Engineering instruments and appliances.

2. Sound measurements.

3. Aeronautic instruments.

4. Aerodynamical physics.

GENERAL STATISTICS.

Expenditures (1922-23) Tests completed

Researches completed

Bureau publications

Other technical publications

Staff 48

$151, 000

870

58

4

13

175
WORK CHART.

SPECIAL INVESTIGATIONS.

SCOPE.

Special investigations on meclianics and properties of matter. Standardization of mechanical appliances.

RESEARCHES.

Subject.

High-pressure steam-heating hnes Rate of e.xhaustion of closed tank

Jet propulsion of airplanes

Leakage through thin clearance spaces Relative wearing value of ball-bearing and

bushed bronze butts. Earth inductor compass

Precision weighings of large crystals Gravitational constant Gyroscopic stabihzation Dimensional theory

Orifice meter research Crystal structure Carrying capacity of soil stacks Plumbing traps Builders' hardware specifications

steel

In cooperation with

Status June 30, 1923.

Per cent completed.

100 100

100 100 100

80SO

1070 Continuing,

50

10no

30

SO

Publication

issued.

Outside.' T224.

Outside.2 Do.' Do.'

1 Mechanical Engineering, October, 1922.

> N. A. C. A. report 159, 1923.

' Engineering, Feb. 23, 1923.

' Hardware Age. Mar. 31, 1923.

I. ENGINEERING INSTRUIVIENTS AND MECHANICAL APPLIANCES.

SCOPE.

The calibration of engineering instruments.

The study of theory, characteristics, and limitations of engineering instruments.

The development and improvement of engineering instruments.

Tlie development and improvement of methods of calibration.

The formulation of standards of performance for engineering instruments.

The investigation of groups of similar commercial appliances for the purpose

of establishing standards of performance.

The development of test methods and apparatus.

The investigation of new appliances of engineering importance.

The testing of mechanical appliances.

176
REPORT OF DIRECTOR OF BUREAU OF STANDARDS. 177

TESTS.

Number completed. Nature of test.

Current meters

Pressure gauges Anemometers

Mispellaneous (instruments) Radiator valves , Fire extinguishers Miscellaneous (appliances)..

RESEARCHES.

Subject.

Safety release devices, hydrogen cylinders: Fusible plu^s

Frangible disks Performance of commercial odometers

Elevator interlocking devices Radiator traps Anemometers

Allen hydrautomat

Fire extinguishers (new types): Foam

Carbon tetrachloride Soda and arid Calcium chloride Radiator valves (new types) Thermostatic valves ,

In cooperation with

Army.

do. do.

Status June 30, 1923.

Per cent completed.

100

95

1550

100 10030

100

100 100

100

100

100

Publication

issued.

Outside.

Do.i

1 Jour. Am. S. H. V. E., March, 1923.

2. SOUND MEASUREMENTS.

SCOPE.

Sound sources. Sound receivers.

Acoustic properties of materials.

Frequency standardization.

Oscillography.

Clironography (involving time intervals of less than one second).

Ballistic measurements.

TESTS.

Nature of test.

Number completed.

1921-22 1922-23

7 11

65077—23 13
178 REPORT OF DIRECTOR OF BUREAU OF STANDARDS.

RESEARCHES.

Subject.

Acoustics of rooms

Sound-transmission experiments.

Voice-tube experiments

Electric-clocli: form Long-wave radio recorders

Short-wave radio recorder

Do

Kadio-aooustic method of position finding

Motor-driven chronograph

4-inch high-speed oscillograph camera

8-inch high-speed oscillograph camera

Piezo-electric blastmeter

10-inch Pie'o-electric blastmeter Homopolar velocimeter Small-arms retardation chronograph

Solenoid spark chronograph

In cooperation with

Navy.

Status June 30, 1923.

Per cent completed.

Coast and Geodetic Survey.

Army

Coast and Geodetic Sruvey.

do

do

Navy

Arn^

'.'.'.'.do'.'.'.'.'.'.'.'.'.'. do

dodo

100

1050

50

100

100

100

5065

100

100

10090

100

100

85

Publication

issued.

Outside .1 S473.

1 Jour. Franklin Inst., June, 1923.

3. AERONAUTIC INSTRUMENTS.

SCOPE.

Researches on errors of aeronautical instruments, theory of their performance, temperature compensation, etc. Researches on instrument diaphragms and diaphragm materials.

Investigation of liat and helical springs for instruments.

Investigation of aerial navigation metliods.

Development of testing methods for aeronautic instruments.

Standardization of aeronautical instruments.

Preparation of specifications for aeronautical instruments.

Investigation of sphygmomanometers.

Development of altitude instruments.

Development of rate-of-climb instruments.

Development of power plant instruments.

Development of air-speed instruments.

Development of special instruments for lighter-than-air craft. Development of navigating instruments.

Development of surveying and engineering aneroid barometers.

Development of special mercurial barometers.

Development of salvage methods for aeronautic Instruments. Determining altitudes for record flights.

TESTS.

Nature of test.

Number completed.

1921-22

Aerial sextants Air-speed indicators Altimeters Aneroid barometers Barographs

Surveying aneroids

Mercurial barometers

Rate-of-climb indicators

Air-pressure gauges , Oil-pressure gauges Manometers Sphygmomanometers

Tachometers Turn indicators , Airplane thermometers .

24

26

10

5

3

10

11

15

16

113
EEPOKT OF DIRECTOR OF BUREAU OF STANDARDS. 179

RESEARCHES.

Subject.

Investigation of instrument diaphragms:

Elastic properties of metallic diaphragms

Tension experiments on metallic diaphragms.

Investigation nonmetallic diaphragms

Drift and hysteresis in metallic diaphragms

Investigation of barometric sylphon diaphragms

Investigation of Bourdon tubes: Development of theory

Elastic and temperature errors Bourdon tubes.

Investigation of bimetallic bars Determination of altitude of aircraft. I N. A. C. A...

Investigation of night and cloud flying do

Investigation of aerial navigation ' do

In cooperation with

N. A. C. A. and Armv.

N. A. C. A

N. A.C. A.and

Army.

Arm^

N. A.C. A... Army

Investigation of methods for reducing astronomical

observations. Investigation of aircraft compasses

Investigations of aerial sextant

Investigation of gasoline-flow meters

Investigition of springs for instruments Theory of rate-of-climb indicators Investigation of aeronautic instruments Development of ground-speed and drift indicator Development of distant indicating tachometer Development of electric turn indicators Development of electric turn meter Development of horizontal angle indicator Development of precision barometer Development of precision altimeter Development of precision barograph

Development of temperature-compensated altimeter,

e.xpan.'^ion thermal element. Development of temperature-compensated altimeter, bimetallic thermal element. Development of temperature-compensated thermo- barograph.

Development of open scale landing altimeters Development of precision surveying aneroid barometer. Design of portable mercurial barometers Development of mechanical statoscope , Development of improved rate-of-climb indicator Development of improved liquid rate-of-climb indicator. Development of combined statoscopes and rate-of- climb indicators. Development of high-speed airspeed indicators Development of suspended head electric airspeed

indicators. Development of gas-pressure alarm Development of baUonet volume indicator Development of fabric tensioimieter Development of mine-depth recording instrument Development of aircraft compass

Army.

Navy.

Army.

Navy.

Arm^!-..

:!!;!do'. Navy.

Armv.

do.

do. do. Navy .

.do. Army.

Navy.

Army..

....do. Navv.

....do. Army, Navy . .. Navy .

....do.

....do. Army..

Navy .

do. do.

Status June 30, 1923.

Per cent completed

85

80

75

100

100

8095

25 10095

95

100

100

100 100

25

10 100

100

100

100

10095

100

90

8530

100

60

75 100

10

1009090

10095

100

10075

10085

Publication

issued.

Outside.'

T237.

1 N. A. C. A. Tech. Kept. No. 165.

4. AERODYNAMICAL PHYSICS.

SCOPE.

Measurement of the resistance of the air to the motion of bodies relative to

it, including the determination of the magnitude, direction, and point of application of the resultant force, its relation to the relative speed, and the force

distribution over the surface of the body: (a) Measurement of forces and

moments on airfoils, airplane models, aircraft bombs and bomb models, airship

models, etc., (&) measurement of the damping of oscillations of bombs, airship

models, etc., (c) measurement of the distribution of pressure over airship hulls,

airship fins, projectiles, etc., (d) measurement of wind pressure on structures. Calibration of instruments for use in air-streams of speeds ranging from 15

to 150 miles per hour.
180 REPORT OF DIRECTOR OF BUREAU OF STANDARDS.

Study of tlie steadiness of air-streams used for the above-mentioned measurements. Study and development of wind tunnel apparatus and methods.

TESTS.

Nature of test.

Number completed.

1921-22 1922-23

18

2

13

9

1

14

8 Turn indicators

RESEARCHES.

Subject.

Army.

....do.

....do.

....do.

Pressure distribution over the military airship hull .

Forces and moments on the military airship

Shielding effect of car on military airship Forces and moments on type A. P. high altitude observation balloon. Comparative tests of four Goodyear hull models

Pressiu'e distribution over the ilS-1 airship hull Forces and moments on the RS-1 airship huU with

12 sets of fins, control surfaces neutral. Forces and moments on the RS-1 airship hull vrith 2 sets of fins, control surfaces at angles. Damping coefficients for RS-1 airship hull with 12 sets

of f cs, control surfaces neutral. Damping coefficients for RS-1 airship hull with 2 sets

of fins, control surfaces at angles. Effect of presence of fins on pressure distribution over RS-1 airship hull. Study of discrepancies of check nms on stream line models.

Effect of tunnel leakage on pressure drop

Scale effect on airship hulls

^ Characteristics of oscillating apparatus | do

Damping coefficients of aircraft bomb models do

Forces and moments on Loring D500 bomb model do

Comparative measiu'ements on model and full scale bomb.

The relation of the center of area of meridian section

of aircraft bombs to center of pressure. Absolute measurement of velocity of air streams

Direct check of Pitot tube Speed fluctuations in Venturi type wind tunnel Performance of roof ventilators in wind stream normal

to axis of ventilator. "Wind forces on two automobile models

Shielding of electric power lines on same cross arm. .

In cooneration with

do. do.

do.

do.

do.

do.

do.

do.

do.

do.

....do...

do.

N.A.C. A.

....do....

....do....

Status June 30, 1923.

Per cent completed.

100

100

100

100

100

100

100

100

100

100

20

10

10

.TO 90

100

100

25

50 100

25 100

100

10

Publication

issued.

Detailed Report of the Year's Work.

GENERAL.

The mechanics and sound division includes sections dealing with

(1) engineering instruments and mechanical appliances, (2) sound

investigations, (3) aeronautic instruments, and (4) aerodynamical

physics. In addition, special experimental and theoretical researches

and problems relating to performance standards of mechanical apjiliances are carried on by a staff of engineering physicists. The activi-
REPORT or DIRECTOR OF BUREAU OF STAI^DARDS. 181

ties of the division in testing and research are described in the following pages. An equally important feature of the Avork is to be found

in the advisory relationshms which have been establislied with other

technical branches of the Government and with the industries. This

is illustrated by the participation of the bureau (1) in the formulation of several of the power-test codes of the American Society of

Mechanical Engineers and in the work of the American Engineering

Standards Committee and the A. S. M. E. Fluid IMeters Research

Committee; (2) in the work of the aerodynamics committee of the

National Advisory Committee for Aeronautics; (3) in numerous conferences with representatives of the Army and Navy, particularly in

connection with problems in aerodynamics, ballistics, and aerial

navigation; and (4) in the work of the building code committee of

the Department of Commerce and the builders' hardware committee

of the Federal Specifications Board.

I. ENGINEERING INSTRUMENTS AND APPLIANCES.

W. F. Stutz.

Current Meter Rating Station (Lewis, Graff).

The calibration of water-current meters, instruments used in the

measurement of the quantity of water flowing in rivers and other

open channels, requires the use of a body of still water of considerable

length and means for towing the instruments at different uniform

speeds. An adequate installation for this purpose is too extensive

and costly to be provided by private enterprise. An hydraulic

laboratorj^ designee! and equipped especially for this purpose, and in

continuous operation throughout the year, is maintained by the

bureau to supply this important engineering need. During the past

fiscal year 455 current-meter calibrations were made for the different

engineering bureaus of the Government, instrument manufacturers,

and engineers in private practice.

Calibration of Instruments (Hodge, Lewis, Graff).

A total of 688 engineering instruments were calibrated during the

year, including 455 current meters, 208 pressure gauges of various

descriptions, 17 anemometers, and 8 miscellaneous instruments.

Performance Tests of Odometers.

At the request of the Motor Transport Corps of the Army an

investigation of the performance of commercial types of odometers

has been undertaken. A machine for approximating the conditioiis

of road service has been constructed, and the first tests of commercial

devices are about to be made.

Radiator Return Line Valves (Stutz, Lewis).

The successful operation of the heating system generally installed

in public buildings is primarily dependent on the performance of

thermostatic valves placed at the outlet of each radiator. At the

request of the Supervising Architect of the Treasury Department a series of performance tests was made of all such valves presented to

that office for its approval for use in buildings under its jurisdiction.

To pass these tests successfully the valves must comply with performance specifications developed as a result of a previous invest i-
182 EEPOKT OF DIRECTOR OF BUREAU OF STANDARDS.

gation of a lai^ge number of sucli devices. Five series of tests of this

character were made during the past year. The data resulting from

such tests are also employed by other Government departments.

Fire Extinguishers (Lewis, Bailey).

At the request of the Steamboat Inspection Service tests and

investigations were made of 33 hand chemical fii-e extinguishers for

the guidance of the Board of Supervising Inspectors.

Miscellaneous Engineering Tests.

A number of engineering tests of a miscellaneous nature were made

during the year, such as hydrostatic tests of pressure vessels, con- denser testing, tests of valves, and the like.

Investigation of Elevator Safety Devices (Stutz, Bailey, Buynitzky).

The investigation of elevator interlocking devices begun near the

close of the last fiscal year, at the request of the city of Baltimore,

has been continued through the present fiscal year. A study of

elevator accident statistics shows that al)out three-fourths of the

accidents fatal to the public occur at the hoistway door. A welldesigned and reliable interlocking device would practically eliminate

accidents of this character, and appreciation of this fact is leading

to the rapid extension of the compulsory use of such devices. However, their approval by regulatory bodies has been based largely on

a visual inspection, and it is the purpose of this investigation to

obtain experimental data which will permit the basing of such

approval upon the results of actual reliability performance tests. A series of such tests, including an endurance reliability test under

normal conditions of operation, a test in a corrosive atmosphere, in

a dust-laden atmosphei'e, operation without lubrication, and under

conditions of misalignment likely to occur in i)i'^ctice, has been

developed and automatic apparatus for conducting the tests completed. Nine commercial devices have been tested. The outstanding

results of the investigation thus far conducted are : First, the proof

of the need of performance tests for such devices; and, second, the

necessity for improvement of available devices. Of the interlocks

on the market at the time the investigation was undertaken the number which could comply with a reasonable i:>erformance requirement

was very small, indeed. The majority of the interlocks tested have

been or are in process of being redesigned to correct defects which

developed in the tests. Safety Release Devices for Hydrogen Cylinders (Hodge).

An iuA-estigation of safety release devices for hydrogen cylinders in

progress during the last fiscal year was continued at tlie request of

the Chief of the Air Service of the Army. The premature release

under normal conditions of the devices which ha;ve been in use has

resulted in serious loss of gas. One solution of the problem was

found in a safety device employing a light frangible disk supported

hj a fusible allo_y plug. The investigation was extended to include

a study of unsupported frangil)]e disks and, in particular, their behavior under continued loading. The experimental work of this

investigation has been practically completed, and a report of tlie results of the investigation is in preparation.
KEPOET OF DIRECTOR OF BUREAU OF STANDARDS, 183

2. SOUND MEASUREMENTS.

E. A. Eckhardt.

Sound-Intensity Measurements (Eckhardt, Karcher, Chrisler).

The experimental determination of the sound-transmitting and

sound-absorbing properties of building materials involves the meas- urement of relative sound intensities. In these measurements the

measuring apparatus and the measuring operation must not change

the thing measured by an amount which endangers the accuracy

desired. This requirement is general in physical measurements, but

is exceptionally difficult to meet in sound measurements. A method

for measuring relative sound intensities which satisfies this requirement has been further developed. An electromechanical sound re- ceiver is placed in the sound field. The output of this receiver is amplified, and the resulting output of the amplifier is rectified (crystal rectifier) and measured by means of a suitable galvanometer. By

use of calibrated mutual inductances the calibration of the amplifier

system is avoided and the measurements are strictly comparable, independent of any amplifier adjustments. The apparatus has an intensity range of "l to 1,000,000.

The measurement of relative sound intensities has involved the development of an instrument for the measurement of the electrical

power consumed by an electromechanical sound-producing instrument. The instrument developed is of the electrodynamometer type

and, used as a deuection instrument, has a sensitivity of approximately 5 microwatts per millimeter at a scale distance of 1 meter.

Power values of the order of a milliwatt may be determined with a probable accuracy of 1 per cent.

Sound Chamber.

The volume of inquiries from manufacturers of building materials,

builders, architects, building owners, and others indicates a pressing

need for information concerning the acoustical qualities of building

materials. New materials appear on the market, and neither the

manufacturer nor the user know definitely how effective they are

acoustically. In order to provide facilities for making such information available, a sound chamber has been built which will make

the needed measurements possible. ' The sound chamber is built massively of concrete. Two measuring

rooms are located, respectively, above and beside a source room, the

latter being separated from the remaining structure by air spaces.

Panel openings are so designed that the transmitting panels when

sealed into position form the only bon'd between the two parts of the

structure, excepting the common ground on which they stand. The

vertical panel opening is to be used for the study of wall structures,

the horizontal panel opening for the study of floor and ceiling structures. The panels are to be built 6 by 7 feet 6 inches. Wlien the

panels are sealed into position the effective transmission area will be

5 by 6 feet 6 inches. These panels are larger than any for which

transmission data have so far been found. The arrangements and

the program of work are such that information covering a wide range

of materials and construction can be developed rather rapidly after

the preliminary difficulties have been cleared up.
184 KEPOKT OF DIKECTOE OF BUKEAU OF STANDARDS.

Auditorium Acoustics (Eckhardt, Keiser).

Analyses have been made of a number of faulty rooms and auditoria, including school assembly rooms and offices. Corrective measures are at best expensive, although in most cases substantial improvement can be assured. Analysis of the plans of a building in

advance of construction can always forestall serious mistakes in the

acoustical results. Several analyses of this kind were made during

the year. Addresses on auditorium acoustics were made at the

Brooklyn Institute of Arts and Sciences and the Franklin Institute

of Philadelphia and a paper was published on the acoustics of rooms

in the Franklin Institute Journal for June, 1923.

Voice-Tube Experiments (Eckhardt, Quayle).

In cooperation with the Bureau of Construction and Repair of the

Navy Department a series of experiments on the sound-transmission

characteristics of voice tubes and voice-tube fittings has been carried

out. This work will be continued during the coming year. None of

the material on this subject is as yet available for publication.

Radio-Acoustic Ranging (Eckhardt, Keiser, Eyre).

In cooperation with the United States Coast and Geodetic Survey

a procedure has been worked out for determining at any moment the

position of a ship with reference to known shore points. The procedure involves the sending of a sound signal through the water

from the ship and the transmission of radio signals from surveyed

shore stations Avhen the sound signal arrives. The time of departure

of the sound signal and the time of arrival of the radio signals are recorded on the ship. It is anticipated that a ship engaged in making depth soundings will thus be enabled to determine its position

on the map irrespective of the visibility. This is important, since

smooth seas which are desirable in sounding measurements are usually accompanied by fog.

In this scheme the recording of the radio signals is accomplished

by means of a short-wave radio recorder of a type previously developed by the Bureau of Standards. A chronograph to provide adequate constancy of rate under shipboard conditions of operation is being developed. The development and construction of the apparatus is well advanced, and field trial of the system will probably be

secured during the summer of 1923.

Electric Clock Fork (Keiser).

By a suitable combination of the electron-tube tuning-fork di'ive

developed in the sound laboratory in recent years and a Warren

synchronous motor clock the electrical counterpart of the classical

Koenig clock fork has been developed. Each complete revolution

of the single hand of the clock marks the completion of 3,600 vibrations of the tuning fork. A contact arrangement permits the recording on a chronograph drum of the completion of each revolution of

the clock hand. Simultaneously second marks from a standard

break-circuit chronometer are recorded. The instrument permits the

making of all measurements which have been made with the classical

instrument and avoids the mechanical difficulties presented by the

high-speed escapement of the latter.
EEPOKT OF DIRECTOR OF BUREAU OF STANDARDS. 185

A first report on "An electron tube tuning fork drive " was prepared and published in the Journal of the Optical Society of America for November, 1922.

Tuning Fork Calibrations (Keiser, McNish).

The laboratory is now in a position to certify the frequencies of

tuning forks with a precision which is limited only by the con- stancy of their performance. Some work has been done toward improving this constancy, but the results are not yet sufficiently conclusive to warrant publication.

Radio Time Signal Recorders (Eckhardt, Karcher).

The instruments developed last year have been used with success by the United States Coast and Geodetic Survey during an entire

field season for recording radio time signals in connection with precise longitude determinations. The success attained prompted the

inclusion of longitude determinations in a program of field work

in Alaska. To assure the increased range, additional development

work was done and additional recording sets provided. With one

of these sets time signals from Annapolis have been successfully

recorded in Alaska and longitude determinations made. It is worthy

of note that this field work is carried out during the season of pronounced static disturbances, and that some of it has been done in

regions in which these disturbances are exceptionally strong.

A short-wave recorder of this type has been devised for the Ordnance Department of the United States Army and has been used

successfully to record the time of release of a bomb from a plane.

The releasing mechanism automatically transmits a radio signal from

the plane, which is recorded at the observing station. The termination of the time of flight is recorded by the use of microphones on

the bombing field. The recorder makes u.se of a single electron

tube.

A short-wave recorder has also been built for use at sea in connection with a radio-acoustic ranging project previously described. A

paper on " The errors to be expected in longitude determination by

radio signals caused by the sending and receiving apparatus " was

presented before the section of geodesy of the American Geophysical

Union.

Oscillograph Developments (Eckhardt, Quayle, Eyre, Keiser).

By the use of tungsten wire for the loop, oscillograph vibrators

of the Duddell type have been made with natural frequencies as high as 16,000 cycles per second, using relatively large mirrors 0.017

by 0.060 inch. The current sensitivity of such vibrators is of the

order of 30 milliamperes per millimeter, but the current capacity is

quite high. The advantage of such elements is the sharpness of the

break in the record when abrupt changes occur in their circuits. This

characteristic makes their use especially advantageous in the meas- urement of very short time intervals.

The high-speed oscillograph camera developed within the last few

years has been completely redesigned. This new instrument embodies the improvements which the extensive experience with the

older instrument suggested. Oscillograph cameras of this type have

been supplied to the proving grounds of both the Army and the

Navy.
186 REPORT OF DIRECTOR OF BUREAU OF STANDARDS.

Apparatus for Ballistic Measurements.

During the past few years considerable work has been done in

cooperation with the technical staff, Army Ordnance, and the Bureau

of Ordnance, Navj^ Department. This work has consisted largely in

the development of various types of .apparatus for ballistic measurements, as described below.

Piezo-electric Pressure Measurements (Eckhardt, Karcher, Keiser,

Eyre, McNish).

The piezo-electric gauges developed for obtaining the time-pressure

relation of a discharging gun have received service trials, and the

indicator diagrams obtained by their use have been carefully compared with other data obtained from the same rounds. This comparison indicates that the physical characteristics of the gauge are

satisfactory, and that the form of the pressure curve is reproduced

by the recording system with a satisfactory degree of faithfulness.

These comparisons indicated, however, that the calibration of the

gauge is uncertain in its magnitude to the extent of about 5 per cent.

This uncertainty tvas traced to the galvanometer. Changes in its

construction and in the procedure of using the galvanometer have

reduced this uncertainty, so that the calibration now may be known

with an accuracy of better than 1 per cent.

A number of gauges have been designed and constructed for use

in securing indicator diagrams of explosive pressures. In view of

the experience gained it has been possible to increase the sensitivity

of such gauges by a factor of 5. The quartz plates used were first

tested for their piezo-electric quality by using an electrometer as the

indicating instrument. Later a vacuum tube method suggested by

Professor Cady was tried. The plates are now tested with a testing

machine and a ballistic galvanometer, this process being much more

expeditious and reliable than any other that has been tried.

A blast meter for obtaining the indicator diagram of blast pres- sures near the muzzle of guns or around exploding bombs and shells

has been developed during the year. The blast pressures are, in

general, of much shorter duration and of less magnitude than the

pressures in guns. While adequate field trials have not been made,

the tests in the laboratory indicate that the instrument will give

satisfactory performance.

The piezo-electric gauge galvanometer combination really provides

instantaneous values of the pressure impulse, and the sensitivity of

the system is properly expressed in terms of pressure impulse units.

Some attention has been given to the measurement of mechanical

impulses, and measurements were made of the impulse of the recoil

of a machine gun and the impulse delivered by an electric riveting

hammer. This is a field of application of the piezo-electric gauge

which appears very promising.

Chronograph for Ballistic Measurements (Eckhardt, Karcher,

Chrisler).

A projectile velocity chronograph has been developed jointly with

the technical staff of the Ordnance Department, United States Army,

during the last year or tAvo. In this instrument the current developed in solenoid coil screens when a magnetized projectile passes

thi'ough them is recorded by means of an oscillograph equipped with

suitable time-scale apparatus. This chronograph is now being used
EEPOET OF DIRECTOR OTP BUREAU OF STANDARDS. 187

currently at the Aberdeen Proving Grounds. It permits velocity

determinations with a precision at least ten times greater than any

previously available. Since the record is photographic there is necessarily a delay in obtaining the result.

Experiments have been made with a view to combining the advantages of coil screens with the recording element of one of the older

types of chronograph which make the result more immediately

available. The bureau has developed a vacuum-tube relay system

which when combined with coil screens and an Aberdeen chronogroph recorder provides a chronograph unit having the desired

characteristics. For calibers of 4.7 inches and larger this solenoidspark chronograph operates satisfactorily now. The work at present

is directed toward securing an accuracy equivalent to that of the

Boulenge chronograph for 3 inches and smaller calibers.

In connection with this work a careful analysis was made of the

constancy of the Aberdeen chronograph recorder. Since the gov- ernor of that instrument is of the centrifugal type, it seemed a priori

that for short-time intervals which might or might not include a period of regulation an appreciable error might result even though

the average speed over many periods of regulation might be constant. The result of the study indicated the constancy to be quite

adequate for all purposes contemplated.

Small Arms Retardation Chronograph (Eckhardt, Chrisler).

A chronograph has been developed with interrupters of the type

used in the Joly chronograph, which function to break a circuit as the bow wave of the projectile passes. The Joly instruments make

use of pivots, and because of pivot friction they sometimes fail to

function. To avoid this difficulty the instrument has been redesigned and a metal ribbon suspension provided. These interrupters,

together with tAvo systems of relays, one of which is of the electrontube type, and an Aberdeen chronograph recorder, constitute the

complete chronograph. The projectile passes in succession eight

interrupters suitably spaced, and the instant at which each interruption occurs is recorded on the chronograph. From this record

the velocitjr of the projectile while traversing each of the seven known distance intervals may be determined. The retardation of

the projectile due to air resistance may therefore be investigated

systematically with this instrument. The precision of measurement

is substantially the same as that provided by the standard Aberdeeia

chronograph.

Homopolar Velocimeter (Eckhardt, Karcher, Chrisler, Eyre).

The instruments usually used for obtaining the velocity and

acceleration of recoil of a gun give directly the relation of gun displacement and time. A single differentiation yields the velocity

and a second differentiation gives the acceleration. A homopolar

dynamo has been developed, which is so fastened to the gun and

its carriage that its angular velocity is directly proportional to the

linear velocity of the gun. The current in the dynamo circuit is

recorded oscillographically. The record gives directly the velocitytime curve of recoil, and a single differentiation yields the acceleration. The calibration of the instrument is simple. Actual trial has

yielded satisfactory results. The advantages of obtaining a velocity

record directly are obvious.
188 REPOKT OF DIRECTOR OF 'BUREAU OF STANDAKPS.

3. AERONAUTIC INSTRUMENTS.

J. A. C. Warner.

The aeronautic instruments section has continued its program

of research and development for the Army, the Navy, and the

National Advisory Committee for Aeronautics on funds furnished

by these organizations and, to a more limited extent, has undertaken

work for other Government departments. In addition to the development of new instruments fundamental, theoretical, and experimental researches have been conducted in connection with the theory

of elasticity as related to the performance of instrument diaphragms.

A large amount of routine work on instruments submitted for tests has also been carried out during the year.

In this report the work may be considered under two heads:

First, the experimental investigations and researches which relate

to the fundamental physical principles involved in instrument development; and second, the practical design and construction of new

typs of aircraft instruments.

Investigation of Bourdon Tubes (Keulegan, Beij).

This investigation has included the development of the theory

of the deflection of Bourdon tubes and a study of their elastic errors. A new formula for the deflection of these tubes has been derived

on the assumption that the deformation of the walls is entirely of a

fliexural nature, and that any lateral cross section is made up of

two circular arcs of equal lengths and of the same curvature. The

method followed was that of equating the work of deformation to

the external work done. The new formula agrees with experiment

far more closely than does any of the formulas previously developed.

Hysteresis, drift, and recovery curves have been obtained for several

Bourdon tubes for various ranges of loading. In connection with

this exjDerimental work a study has been made of Boltzmann's theory

of time effects and the conclusions drawn therefrom have been compared with the test results wherever possible. The work done up

to the present time involves (1) the determination of Boltzmann's

time function from the drift curves obtained experimentally; (2)

computation of recovery, the predicted results being found to agree

with experiment; and (3) the separation of directional or elastic

hysteresis from time hysteresis. Among the conclusions drawn from

the theoretical investigation are the following: (1) For small loads

the time hysteresis is approximately half of the total hysteresis, (2)

aftereffect is independent of directional hysteresis, (3) drift and re- covery are proportional to the maximum pressure, and (4) time

hysteresis varies but slightly with changes in the rate of loading.

Investigation of Metallic Diaphragms (Keulegan, Henrickson).

The investigation of metallic diaphragms has been continued,

both as regards the determination of empirical laws for the deflection of such diaphragms and as regards their elastic errors. Empirical formulas have been developed for the deflection of flat and

corrugated diaphragms, both for distributed and for concentrated

loads. Progress has been made in developing the mathematical treatment of the deflection of a corrugated diaphragm, using the theory

of shells as given in mathematical treatises on elasticity. A study of
EEPOPiT or DIRECTOR OF BUREAU OF STANDARDS, 189

accurately determined hysteresis loops for flat diaphragms indicates

that, when the drift is small, the maximum hysteresis occurs at a

! load equal to one-half the maximum load of the cycle and the

hysteresis curve is symmetrical about the maximum. This was found

to be true both for different materials and for different loads, providing the load was not too great. The magnitude of the hysteresis

was found to be proportional to the maximum load of the cycle for

similar cycles in which the rate of loading was the same. Aftereffect was found to be proportional to the maximum load of the cycle.

Investigation of Nonmetallic Diaphragms (Eaton, Buckingham).

Thin rubber and a large number of leathers and doped fabrics

have been studied during the past year to determine their possibilities for use as nonmetallic diaphragms. Mel^ods of predicting

the load-deflection curve for a diaphragm of known slackness used

in conjunction with a spring of known stiffness have been developed,

thus making it possible to design in a scientific manner a slack

diaphragm pressure element. Load-deflection curves computed from

the theorj are being compared with the corresponding curves determined experimentally. Diaphragms of various degrees of slackness

have been studied under different conditions of temperature and

humidity. Humidity is found to be one of the most troublesome

factors affecting the performance of slack diaphragms, for changes

in it alter the degree of slackness, which in turn affects the effective area and consequently the load-deflection curve. Tests have been

conducted to determine the permeability of the various materials to

air for a large range of pressures. The effect of humidity and the

fact that some of the most promising materials were quite permeable

to air led to the attempt to reduce these effects by the surface application of various dopes furnished for the purpose by the chemistry

division. It was found that these dopes closed the pores of the material, rendering it less permeable and reducing the effect of humidity,

but that the effect of temperature changes on the material was greatly

increased. It is considered that alum-tanned colon leather is the

most suitable of all the matex-ials yet studied for use as a nonmetallic diaphragm.

Investigation of Barometric Sylphon Diaphragms (Keulegan, Beij).

Two sylphon diaphragms exhausted to a low pressure and provided

with internal springs were tested for the Army Air Service to determine the magnitude of their elastic errors. The hysteresis exhibited

by these diaphragms was less than 0.5 per cent for a differential pres- sure of 54 centimeters of mercury.

Investigation of Gasoline Flow Meters (Sylvander, Frymoyer).

A report containing the results of a thorough investigation of the

performance of various types of flow meters suitable for aircraft has

been submitted to the Bureau of Aeronautics, Navy Department.

The balanced-vane type was found to be superior to the vertical float

type of instrument. Calibration curves for the flow meters when

used with liquids of different densities and viscosities are included in

this report. A report on an experimental model of a flow meter,

based on the principle of determining the rate of flow by measuring

the temperature to which a constant and known supply of heat energyraises the inflowing liquid has been submitted to the engineering divi-
190 KEPORT OF DIKECTOE OF BUREAU OE STANDARDS.

sion, Army Air Service. In connection with this investigation an

apparatus for accurately and quickly testing flow meters has been

developed.

Investigation of Aircraft Sextants (Beij).

This investigation, involving the study and testing of all the types

of aircraft Sextants for the purpose of finding the most suitable form

for aircraft use, has been completed for the present. During the past

year two types of sextant were studied. A tentative design for an

improved bubble sextant, based on the results of this investigation,

has beert prepared.

Bimetallic Bars (Keulegan).

Bimetallic bars are used for temperature compensation in instruments, as thermometric elements, and as a means of temperature

control. The theory of these bars has been developed in preliminary

form. Tests on bars made of brass and invar elements indicate that

the deflection of a given bar can be predicted within 10 per cent by

this theory.

Theory of Rate-of-Climb Indicators (Mears, Brombacher).

Considerable work has been done in developing the theory of the

leak type of rate-of-climb indicator. The work has been divided into

two parts: (1) The general theory of the instruments and (2) the

effect of temperature on the indications. The development of the

general theory has involved the determination of the relation between

the rate of climb and the construction constants and the performance

characteristics of the instrument. Special attention has been given

tO' the theory of lag, since it is exceedingly important to reduce the

lag to a minimum when these instruments are used on lighter-than-air

craft. The effect of temperature on the indications of rate-of-climb

indicators has been studied for each of three assumptions: (a) That

the indicator is at the free air temperature and the altitude is determined by pressure and temperature observations, (&) the same as

(a) except that the altitude is determined by pressure observations

only, and (c) that the indicator is at a constant temperature and the

altitude is determined as in (a). The corrections computed for case

(b) have been verified by experiment. This i-esearch was conducted

in connection with the development of rate-of-climb instruments.

The results, however, have not yet been prepared for distribution.

Design of Springs for Instruments (Brombacher).

(a) Plate spnngs.—A formula has been developed for the deflection of plate springs supported at both ends and subjected to a central load, the springs having varying moments of inertia. The particular formula developed is for a spring in which the moment of

inertia varies in accordance with one law from the support to a point

part way toward the center and in accordance with another law from

this point to the center of the spring. A method has been devised,

however, whereby the formula for deflection can be written by inspection when the variation of moment of inertia can be expressed

for successive portions of the spring.

(h) Helical springs.—Work has been initiated in connection with

the preparation of monograms for use in the design of helical springs.

The availably formulas for these springs have been studied critically
EEPOKT OF DIRECTOR OF BUREAU OF STAINDARDS. 191

and the exact cases to which they apply determined. It is planned to

conduct experimental work to verify the theoretical results and to

acquire information as to the effect of factors which can not be easily

included in the formulas.

Methods of Reducing Astronomical Observations in Aerial Navigation (Beij).

The use of maps in finding position from astronomical observations has been studied. This investigation, which covers the problem of methods for the reduction of astronomical observations suitable for aircraft use, has been completed.

Reports on Aerial Navigation (Beij, Warner).

A report on the navigation of aircraft by astronomical observations is nearing completion. This report includes a brief outline of

the theory of astronomical position finding and its application to the

navigation of aircraft, as well as a complete bibliography of the subject. Instruments for observation are described, and the problems

encountered in their use are discussed. The various methods of re- ducing observations are described in detail and their practical value

for aerial navigation compared. A report on night and cloud flying

has also been nearly completed. This report includes a discussion

of aerial lighthouses and beacons, field lighting equipment, and devices for aid in landing in fog. The methods of navigating aircraft

at night and in clouds are reviewed, and the instruments required

for this purpose are described.

Report on Aircraft Compasses (Seward).

A report has been prepared embodying the results obtained from

extensive laboratory tests on 43 makes of airplane compasses representative of American, British, French, German, and Italian service

and experimental instruments. This report contains a brief description of the physical characteristics of each of the compasses tested,

together with curves for air and liquid damping. Curves showing

the elfect of temperature upon the period of the liquid damped compasses are also includecf. The experimental work was conducted in

cooperation with the Bureau of Aeronautics, Navy Department.

Ground Speed and Drift Indicator (Sylvander).

The gear-driven ground speed and drift indicator of the optical

synchronized type has been completed and delivered to the engineering division. Army Air Service. This instrument contains a specially designed 5-speed gear box to provide for the range of speeds

required in the instrument. The instrument was found to function

satisfactorily both in laboratory and in flight tests. The indicator

as finally constructed should prove durable and simple to operate.

An electromagnetic eddy current type indicator designed to eliminate

the friction drive on the altitude scale has also been designed, but

has not been developed fully.

Distant Indicating Tachometer (Sylvander, Frymoyer).

A distant indicating tachometer of the commutator-condensergalvanometer type has been designed and constructed. The commutator is attached to the shaft whose speed is to be measured and

alternately charges a condenser from a battery and discharges the

condenser through a sensitive galvanometer, the successive dis-
192 REPORT OF DIRECTOR OF BUREAU OF STANDARDS.

charges coming with sufficient rapidity to produce a steady indication on the galvanometer. This instrument has the advantage that

it can be used under circumstances where but a small amount of

power is available to operate the speed measuring device.

Turn Indicators (Sylvander, Frymoyer).

The new electrically driven gyroscopic tura indicator has been

completed. Laboratory and flight tests on the instrument compare

favorably with those on the air-driA^en instruments. This instrument, howeA^er, has the advantage, especially when used on lighterthan-air craft, in that its sensitivity is the same at all speeds, Avhile an

air-driven instrument does not function satisfactorily at Ioav air

speeds. Several neAv instruments of this type designed during the

past year by private firms have been studied in the laboratory and

in flight.

Electric Turn Meter (Sylvander, Frymoyer).

A new electrically driA^en gyroscopic turn meter has been designed and constructed. It consists of a small, specially constructed

battery motor in Avhich the armature rotates about the field on ball

bearings, thus forming the rotor of a gyroscope. The gyroscope is

moimted in such a way as to allow it to precess about one axis only,

the fore and aft axis, when mounted in the aircraft. The turning

movement of the ship causes precession about this axis, which is

indicated by a suitable mechanism. This instrument is extremely

sensitive and measures quantitatively the rate at which the aircraft

is turning from a given course. Horizontal Angle Indicator (Beij, Parkhurst).

The horizontal angle indicator, which is intended to be used in

range-finding work from captive balloons or dirigibles, measures

simultaneously the horizontal projection of the angle between two

given points and the depression angles to each of the points. This

instrument has been constructed during the past year and is now

practically ready for test. ^ Precision Barometer (Mears, F. Cordero).

As a result of flight tests on this instrument it was found desirable

to change the indicating mechanism. The original indicating mechanism consisted of a shifting dial, Avhile the new mechanism consists of a spiral scale, the pointer making three revolutions in each

mechanism. To show at a glance which portion of the spiral should

be read in any given instance, the instrument is provided with an

auxiliary pointer rotating through a much smaller angle than does

the main pointer and passing over an auxiliary scale divided into

three portions. Each portion of this auxiliary scale is enameled in

a characteristic color corresponding to the colors used in gi-aduating the three portions of the spiral scale. The Air Service loaned

this instrument to the Engineer Corps, and it has been used with

marked success in an automobile to determine the contour of the

country around Dayton, Ohio, for establishing check points in aerial

mapping.

Precision Altimeter (Mears, Brombacher).

A precision altimeter was designed and constructed during the

past year. This instrument is almost entirely free from the usual
KEPOET OF DIRECTOR OF BUREAU OF STANDARDS. 193

\

elastic errors of aneroid barometers and yet is nearly as small as the ordinary service altimeter. The pointer makes two revolutions

for the 10,000-foot range of the instrument. Laboratory tests are now being conducted, and slight modifications of the mechanism are being made. With minor changes in design this altimeter could be

adapted to use as a precision surveying or engineering aneroid

barometer. It also could be made to serve as the basis for the development of a somewhat larger model which would be suitable as a substitute for mercurial barometers for meteorological purposes.

Precision Barograph (Mears).

A combined altimeter and barograph provided with an indicating

dial like an ordinary altimeter and with a recording device similar

to that of the older model precision barograph described in last year's

report has been designed and constructed. The present instrument is an improvement of the older model, having been considerably re- duced in size and otherwise modified. However, the straight-line

motion of the pen, which w^as the main feature of the former instrument, has been retained, thereby making possible the use of rec- tangular coordinates on the chart. This instrument has been given

its preliminary laboratory tests and should soon be ready for flight

tests. Temperature-Compensated Altimeter with Expansion Thermal Element (Mears, F. Cordero).

The use of a bimetallic strip for temperature compensation has

been found unsatisfactory because of its thermometric lag. Considerable development work has been conducted on an altimeter

which is to be corrected for free air temperature by the use of an

element operated by the change in volume of a liquid which com-

. pletely fills an expansion chamber.

Temperature-Compensated Thermobarograph (Mears, F. Cordero).

A temperature-compensated thermobarograph has been under development during the past year. This instrument gives a record of

altitude corrected for air temperature, together with a record of the

air tempe.rature itself. This problem is especially difficult, because it requires a pressure element compensated for temperature at all temperatures and pressures which may be encountered and in addition a thermal element free from any altitude elfect due to pressure.

Open-Scale Landing Altimeters (Brombacher, Sutton).

Three open-scale altimeters suitable for the landing of aircraft are under construction for use on the Navy rigid dirigible ZR-1.

They have a range of about 3,000 feet and are provided with a protective apparatus which prevents the injury of the instruments if the

craft is flown at higher altitudes. It is expected that these instruments will not have an error greater than 10 to 20 feet. A very important problem in connection with these altimeters is the location of a suitable point for mounting the outlet or static head when they are used on heavier-than-air craft. The static pressure at the point

where the instrument is mounted differs slightly from the static

pressure of the free air at the same level owing to the flow of air

around the fuselage. This efi^ect is too small to affect the reading

65077—23 14
191 REPORT OF DIRECTOR OF BUREAU OF STANDARDS.

of the ordinary altimeter, but might cause errors several times as great as the maximum allowable error for these sensitive instruments.

Surveying Aneroid (F. Cordero).

A surveying- or engineering aneroid has been developed at this

bureau and is now being given field tests by, the United States Geological Survey. In designing this aneroid the object in view was to

produce an instrument which would be practically free from all the

elastic errors of the commercial aneroid barometer and which at the

same time would be rugged enough to stand the jars and shocks to

which these instruments are subjected during transportation and field use.

'

Mercurial Barometer Design (Brombacher).

The mercurial altitude barometer designed at this bureau in 1918

has formed the basis of the new design made during the past year.

The new features include making possible the transportation and

reading of the barometer in a motor truck and preventing the con- tamination of the mercury in the cistern. A support for mounting

the instrument on the truck was designed. The design of this barometer makes use of the advantageous principle of having the cistern

closed and compensating for the change of level of mercury in the

cistern by contracting the scale divisions.

Mechanical Statoscope (Mears, Strother).

The automatic electrically-operated valve used in this statoscope

required further development before the instrument gave satisfactory performance. This work was carried out during the past year,

and the instrument was completed and delivered to the Army Air

Service.

Improved Mechanical Rate-of Climb Indicator (Mears, Strother).

This instrument is an improved model of small size for use on

heavier-than-air craft. The construction is nearly complete, and

the indicator should soon be ready for flight tests. Improved Liquid Rate-of-Climb Indicator (Strother).

A liquid rate-of-climb indicator with a very open scale has been

designed and is now being constructed. This instrument is of importance in weighing off and landing dirigibles, the navigating offi- I cers depending on it almost entirely for this purpose. It is expected

that this instrument will be tested and put into service on the Navy p rigid dirigible ZB-1 shortly.

Combined Statoscopes and Rate-of-Climb Indicators (Mears, Parkhurst).

These instruments are intended to replace two separate instruments

which are essential to the operation of aircraft, thus reducing the

number of instruments carried. When used as statoscopes, they indicate small changes in altitude, while when used as rate-of-climb indicators they measure the rate of change of altitude. Two types of

these combined instruments have been vmder construction during the

past year, the first of which was described in last year's report.

Considerable trouble has been experienced with this type in getting

a sufficiently small delayed-action relay to operate the valve in a satisfactory manner and in obtaining a suitable multiplying mech-
REPORT OF DIEECTOE OF BUEEAU OF STANDARDS, 195

anism which will operate properly both when the instrument is used

as a statoscope and when it is used as a rate-of-climb indicator, using

the present sylphon diaphragm element. The second type under

development is similar to the first except for the electrically-operated

valve. The new automatic valve (preliminary model developed by

Sutton) consists of an electromagnetically operated pawl with suitable cams for actuating the equalizing valve and for shutting off the

current at the proper moment. The multiplying mechanism has been

greatly simplified. Three instruments of this type are under construction.

High-speed Air-speed Indicators (Henrickson)

Six Pitot type air-speed indicators reading to 250 miles per hour

were provided on short notice for the Bureau of Aeronautics, U. S.

Navy, for use on racing planes by remodeling a number of waterballast indicators.

Suspended Head Electric Air-speed Indicators (Eaton, Henrickson).

Two electric air-speed indicators of the commutator-condensergalvanometer type have been constructed for the U. S. Navy for

use on rigid dirigibles. These instruments are of the suspended

head type, the propeller and commutator of each being mounted

in a stream-lined case and suspended about 40 feet below the ship.

Considerable work was necessary to develop a stream-lined head

which should be sufficiently compact and light and at the same time

stable in flight. Each instrument has an extra indicator, so that

the air speed can be read at two different parts of the ship simultaneously. A feature of this type of instrument is that as many

indicators as desired may be connected in series to the commutator

without affecting the reading which would be given by any one of

them if used alone.

Gas Pressure Alarm (Henrickson, Eaton).

The need for an instrument which will give warning when the gas

in one of the cells of a rigid dirigible has expanded to fill the cell

and has begun to build up an excess pressure has led to the development of a gas-pressure alarm. The instrument is in the form of a large push button which is mounted on springs on a girder just

below the gas cell and which is deflected by the lower wall of the cell

when the pressure inside exceeds that of the external air. As the

push button deflects, it completes an electrical circuit by closing

contacts which are hermetically sealed in a sylphon diaphragm filled

with carbon tetrachloride. A second sylphon connected with the

first by means of a small tube serves as an expansion chamber,

allowing the first sylphon to deflect under pressure. The closing of

the electrical circuit operates simultaneously a buzzer and a red

lamp in the cabin.

Ballonet Volume Indicator (Eaton, MacNair).

A ballonet volume indicator of the static pressure type has been

constructed. This instrument measures the difference in pressure

between the gas bag and the ballonet of the ship, and so is in reality a delicate pressure gauge, giving full-scale deflection for a head of

1 centimeter of water. A sufficiently sensitive pressure element was

obtained by using a thin colon leather diaphragm with a very
198 BEPOET OF DIEECrOR OF BUEEAU OF STANDAEDS.

flexible steel spring. The leather diaphragm was treated with a

special elope which made it more nearly impermeable to hydrogen

and which Avas affected by temperature in such a way as to compensate in part for changes of temperature of the gas and air.

Fabric Tension Meter (Eaton, Keulegan).

The necessity for knowing the tensions in the gas bags of nonrigid dirigibles and in the outer cover of rigid dirigibles has

brought about the development of a special tension meter for this

purpose. The instrument is attached to the outside of the fabric

temporarily by means of an elliptical rim containing a large number

of suction holes. This rim surrounds an elliptical inner chamber

into which the fabric can be deflected a known amount by an applied

suction whose magnitude is measured by means of a gauge attached

to the instrument. If two such measurements are made at a given

point of the_ fabric with the major axis of the instrument placed

successively in directions at right angles to each other, the tensions

in these directions can be computed. Furthermore, if four readings

are taken with the major axis of the instrument placed successively

in directions at 45° with one another, it is possible to compute the

magnitudes and directions of the maximum and minimum stresses. Mine Depth Recording Instrument (Mears).

This instrument was designed and constructed in cooperation with

the Navy Department for use in determining the depth and small

variations in depth of submarine mines. The chart of the instrument has a range of 30 feet, the instrument being adjustable so that

this range may be had at any depth from to 120 feet of water.

The scale is sufficiently open to be read to within 1 inch of water.

Aircraft Compasses (Seward).

A magnetic compass especially adapted for use on an airplane

equipped with a turn indicator was designed and constructed for

the Army Air Service. The instrument was designed so as to give

quick recovery of the card after a disturbance. A Navy Mark II

compass has been modified to incorporate, as far as possible without

complete redesign, the results of extensive laboratory and flight tests of all types of airplane compasses.

Flight-History Tests of Barographs (Sonntag).

A flight-history test is one in which the factors of time, barometric pressure, and instrument temperature are made to I'epeat in

the laboratory the conditions of the flight. Such tests are often

given the barographs carried in flights for altitude records, since by

this means the most accurate determination of the altitude attained can be made. Two such altitude determinations were made by this

bureau during the past year.

Sphygmomanometer Testing (Eaton, Buckingham).

The sphygmomanometer testing has grown in volume during the

past year. The bureau has taken an active part in furnishing information relative to the performance characteristics of these instruments to manufacturers, to private individuals, and to Government

bureaus which were contemplating the purchase of sphygmomanometers. There is a distinct field of activity for the Bureau of
REPORT OF DIRECTOR OF BUREAU OF STAiNUAKDS. 197

Standards in connection with the standardization of blood-pressure

apparatus because of the growing use and importance of these

instruments in medical science.

Routine Testing.

The routine testing of aeronautic and various other closely related

instruments has occupied a portion of the time of the section during

the past 3'ear. The instruments tested include 14 air-speed indicators, 21 altimeters, 3 aneroid barometers, 4 surveying aneroids, 16

barographs, 3 mercurial barometers, 18 tachometers, 3 turn indicators, 2 aerial sextants, and 16 sphygmomanometers.

Flight Tests on Aeronautic Instruments.

About 30 flight tests were made during the year by members of

the section in connection with the development and investigation of

a number of different aeronautic instruments. The various types of

aircraft necessary for these tests were furnished through the courtesy

of the Army, the Navy, and the National Advisory Committee for

Aeronautics.

4. AERODYNAMICAL PHYSICS.

H. L. Dryden. •

The work in aerodynamics is carried on largely with the cooperation and financial assistance of the engineering division of the Air

Service, United States Army, the Ordnance Department of the Army,

and the National Advisory Committee for Aeronautics.

The equipment available has been described in detail in the an- nual report of the bureau for the year 1921-22. It comprises three

wind tunnels, one 3 feet in diameter, with a speed range of 11 to

180 miles per hour; one 4^ feet in diameter, with a speed range of

^17 to 90 miles per hour; and one 10 feet in diameter, with a speed

range of 15 to 70 miles per hour. Apparatus is available for all

types of aerodynamic testing except propellers.

Researches on Airship Models (Upton, Frisby, Hill, Boyd, Temin).

An extensive program relating to the forces and moments acting

on airship models, distribution of pressure over airship hulls, and

damping coefficients for airship models has been carried on through

the year for the engineering division of the Air Service. The re- sults are incorporated in a series of nine confidential reports forwarded to the engineering division. The major part of the woi»k has

been done in connection with the design and construction of the ES-1

semirigid airship.

A knowledge of the distribution of pressure is very essential for

the computation of stresses in the fabric and in the keel girder, as well as for the proper reinforcement of areas subject to large inward pressures. Measurements have been carried out on the hulls

of the military airship (an existing type) and on the hull of the

R/S-1 with the hull at various angles to the air stream. Methods

have been developed for the graphical integration of the local pressures to give the component forces on any section of the envelope.

The presence of the control surfaces modifies the distribution of

pressure over the envelope to a very marked degree, and this effect
198 REPORT OF DIRECTOR OV BUREAU OF STAS"DARD«.

is no"w being stndiecl. This will be followed by an investigation of

the distribution of pressure over the controls.

A stud}^ of the total forces and moments acting is very necessary

for estimates of performance and stability. Such studies have

been made of the military airship, the type A. P. high altitude observation balloon, and of the R/S-1 under mam^ conditions. Coml^arative tests were made on four Goodyear models prior to the selection of the hull for the ES-1. The selected hull was then tested

with 12 sets of fins with control surfaces neutral. On the basis of

these tests two sets of fins were selected for further tests with controls at angles and for oscillation measurements.

Incidental to the main program measurements at several wind

speeds were made to determine the magnitude of scale effect to be

expected. Most of the tests described were of a comparative nature,

but for final predictions the scale effect must be known. Some work

was also done in connection with improvement of the methods of

measurement.

Researches on Aircraft Bombs (Dryden, Heald).

Researches on models of aircraft bombs have been carried on in

cooiDeration with the Ordnance Department of the Army.

The work on the measurement of damping coefficients has been

continued. Some work has been done on the mathematical theory

of the motion with center of gravity fixed and restoring force due to

the air motion alone. It is proposed to carry out some experimental

Avork along this line.

A study has been made of a model of a bomb designed by Dr. E. J.

Loring, of the Ordnance Department, to provide data for the selection of the proper amount of fin surface to secure satisfactory stability.

A comparison has been made of tests of a 4-inch model in the

54-inch tunnel with tests of the full-scale bomb in the 10-foot tunnel

with very satisfactory agreement both as regards forces and moments.

The problem at present engaging attention is the development of a

satisfactory method for estimating fin surface sufficient for stability.

At present an empirical rule is used and tests are now under way

to determine its validity. The tests involve a series of determinations of center of pressure positions for various models.

Researches on Roof Ventilators (Dryden, Heald).

The preliminary report on tests of roof ventilators created such

interest that the apparatus was again assembled and the tests ex- tended to samples submitted by other manufacturers. These ventilators are used in connection with natural systems of ventilation for

factories, school buildings, etc. The principles involved are few in

number, although the number of different samples in production is

very large. The bureau's investigations cover the principles involved

in producing an exhaust by means of a wind normal to the axis of the

ventilator. The results have led to a few simple designs, some of

which have been adopted by manufacturers desiring to improve their

product.

A few tests have been made approximating conditions on a peaked

roof, and other tests have been made on two of the ventilators on an

installation characterized by a very low resistance to flow.
EEPOET OF DIRECTOR OF BUREAU OF STANDARDS. 199

Studies of Wind Tunnel Air Streams (Dryden, Heald).

The study of the air stream of tlie 3-foot tunnel, including the

determination of its speed by an absolute method, has been con- tinued under a grant from the National Advisory Committee for

Aeronautics. The very great importance of eliminating long connections to the measuring instruments has been shown by various

tests. The principal contribution to the bureau's knowledge of the

character of the speed fluctuations lies in the discoveiT- that the

period of the disturbances is independent of the wind speed, and

that the approximately constant period is characteristic of stationary

waves in the tunnel. No Avay has yet been found of eliminating

these high-frequency fluctuations. The phase relations of the pres- sure wave and the velocity wave shoAV the importance of eliminating

the effect of the pressure wave in studying velocity fluctuations.

Numerous additional observations have been taken of the speed

of balloons allowed to float along the tunnel. The speed of the

balloons, as determined by the mean of 40 observations, is equal

to the speed as given by the Pitot tube within one-fourth of 1 per

cent, but the deviations of individual observations are quite large.

Various methods have been tried to reduce the deviation, without

success, the deviations^ being due, apparently, to the erratic motion

of the balloons.

Resistance Measurements in a High-speed Air Stream (Hull,

Briggs).

Resistance measurements of models of projectiles and bombs have

been continued during the year for the Ordnance Department, using

a high-speed air stream supplied by large centrifugal compressors

at the Lynn works of the General Electric Co. The head resistance

of bomb models has been measured through the entire speed range

of an aircraft bomb falling from a height of 16,000 feet. Resistance

measurements of model projectiles have been extended to speeds of

1,560 feet per second, using a divergent orifice approximately 8

inches in diameter and a gauge pressure on the orifice of about 28

pounds per square inch. In these measurements the stationary compressional wave in front of the projectile could be clearly seen as a well-defined shimmering surface.

SPECIAL INVESTIGATIONS.

Theory of Dimensions (Buckingham).

Dimensional theory is of prime importance in technical physics,

because many problems which are too complicated to be handled at

all by ordinary theoretical methods can be successfully attacked by

an experimenter who is guided by the theory of dimensions.

A great deal of research^ particularly in hydro and aero dynamics,

is now conducted by means of models, the experiments being planned

and the results translated into information about full-scale performance by means of dimensional theory.

A member of the section has continued to give a part of his time

to the development of this subject, upon which an increasing amount

of correspondence is being carried on with engineei-s in addition

to consultations with members of the Navy Department on some of
200 REPORT or DIRECTOR OF BUREAU OF STANDARDS.

their problems of design. Six lectures were also delivered on the

theory and interpretation of model experiments before military and

civilian members of the Navy Department.

Earth-Inductor Compass (Heyl, Briggs).

A new type of airplane compass was developed last year for the

Air Service, in which the orientation of a craft is deteriiuned by

balancing components of the electi'omotive forces set np in coils spinning continuously in the earth's magnetic field. The same principle

has since been applied in the consti-uction of a compass suitable for

ocean-going vessels, and a sea test will shortly be made. This type

of compass may be located in that part of the vessel which is least

magnetically disturbed, and its indications electrically transmitted to

the bridge.

Gravitation and the Einstein Theory (Heyl).

The increasing importance of Einstein's theory of gravitation

has led the bureau to subject the fundamental postulate of this theory

to experimental examination from a new direction. This postulate,

called the " Principle of equivalence," asserts in effect that gravitation and inertia are indistinguishable because identical in their nature. The physical basis for this assumption, is the fact that the

inert mass of a body is known tO' be proportional to its gravitative

mass to a high degree of precision (about 1 part in 20,000,000) ; in other words, the intensity of gravitation is independent to this

degree of the material experimented upon. One line of investigation

of this point has had but very little experimental attention—the

possibility that a crystal may show different gravitational properties

in different axial positions. This line of experiment has been carried

out rather completely, covering all the nonisometric systems of crystals, and reaching the record precision of 1 part in 1,000,000,000

(10"). Tire work is about four-fifths completed, and to this high

degree of precision no gra^dtational difference has been discovered.

The experiments have failed to prove Einstein wrong. They can not,

of course, prove him right. Incidentally, this" work has led to a

practical method of comparing weights with a precision of 1 part in

1,000,000,000. The best previous record of this kind is that of the

comparison of standard kilogram at the International Bureau, where

the precision (as an average of a series) has reached about 7 parts

in 1,000,000,000.

Orifice Meters (E. Buckingham, Bean).

Orifice meters, though comparatively modem instruments, are already widely employed in the industries. One of their most important uses is in the measurement of natural gas, and the Government receives large royalties based on such measurements. It is

consequently desirable that orifice meters be standardized authoritatively, and that satisfactory testing methods be developed.

While a good deal of private experimental work has been done

on orifice meters, numerous questions regarding their behavior and

accuracy under various working conditions need further study, and

repeated requests for information led to the initiation of the present

research. Its purposes are : To analyze all the available data so as to

get as much from them as possible; to get reliable first-hand experi-
REPORT OF DIRECTOR OF BUREAU OF STANDARDS. 201

mental information oi\ certain doubtful points, and ultimately to devise practical methods for testing commercial orifice meters.

One of the questions concerns the behavior of orifices at the high

gas pressures used in natural gas lines, all previous work having been

done at low pressures. As this point seemed of particular interest

to natural gas engineers, advantage was taken of an offer of cooperation by the Chemical Warfare Service, who are loaning to the bureau

the use of a large compressor plant at Edgewood Arsenal.

The primaiy purpose of the work at Edgewood is to standai'dize,

at various pressures up to 300 pounds per square inch, a nmnber of

orifice plates which can later be tested also at low pressures, so that

the effects of changes of pressure may be accurately known. A^Hien

this has been accomplished, further standardization work can be

carried out without the difficulty and expense attendant on the use of high pressures.

The facilities at Edgewood for producing high-speed air jets will

permit of certain highly desirable experiments on that very important instrument, the impact tube; and it is hoped that this

problem may also be taken up.

Hardware Standardization (Fairchild).

The purpose of this work is to standardize builders' hardware for

Government as well as private use; to carry out such laboratory

tests as may be necessary to insure the adoption of articles having

the requisite characteristics regarding durability and performance;

to make such surveys as may be required to insure the adoption as standard of those items found in general commercial production.

The Advisory Committee on the Standardization of Builders' Hardware, consisting of representatives of the prominent manufacturers

in this field, has organized separate subcommittees on locks, butts,

and shelf and miscellaneous hardware, which have held frequent

meetings among the manufacturers of these lines. In the case of

several companies, the recommended standards have been set up at

the factories almost immediately following the committee meetings,

with the general understanding that the standards will be adopted

by all companies as early as they find it practicable. The standard

items of builders' hardware recommended by the manufacturers are being incorporated into the Government specification for builders'

hardware which is nearing completion under the administration of

the builders' hardware committee of the Federal Specifications

Board.

Following a conference of the Hollow Metal Door Manufacturers

with the representatives of hardware manufacturers, the architects,

and the Government, a number of items of builders' hardware have

been recommended as standard for hollow metal doors, and an

arrangement of holes in templet butts, together with rules for butt

sizes on hollow metal doors, have been formulated preparatory to

recommendation as standard.

A report on the relative wearing value of ball-bearing and steelbushed bronze butts as shown by an accelerated service test carried

on at the Bureau of Standards, indicating the relative merits of

various types, has been issued to the manufacturers and the results

also published in Hardware Age.
202 BEPORT or DIRECTOR OF BUREAU OF STANDARDS.

Plumbing Investigations (Hunter). * The pluinbin<y investi(?ation undertaken in November, 1921, for

the housing division of the bureau for the purpose of obtaining and

correlating data on which to base rules of construction for simple,

economical, and efficient plumbing in small dwelling houses was con- tinued through the past year and has been completed for dwellinghouse plumbing.

The work has involved : A study of water and air movements in

plumbing systems with numerous experiments on stack and vent

systems, including several complete test plumbing installations; a study of the characteristics of sewage discharge through stack and

horizontal drain systems with a view to the proper proportioning of

sizes of soil and waste stacks, vents, house drains, etc., to the number

of fixtures on the system ; a study of trap si|Dhonage and the means

of preventing it by a proper design of the system; the preparation

of charts and tables for the practical application of the results obtained; the preparation of a report of the investigations; and, in

connection with the subcommittee on plumbing, the formulation of

a recommended plumbing code, based on recognized good practice

and the results of the bureau's investigations.

Further experiments have been made to determine the serviceability of a 3-inch soil stack for larger plumbing systems. The

report of the investigations and the recommended plumbing code

are ready for publication in the final report of the subcommittee on

plumbing.

PUBLICATIONS.

The following papers have been published during tlie year:

High pressure steam-heating lines (E. Buckingham), Mechanical Engineering,

October, 1922.

Rate of exhaustion of a closed tank by a reciprocating air pump (E. Buckingham), B. S. Tech. Paper, No. 224, January 4, 1923. Jet propulsion for airplanes (E. Buckingliam), N. A. C. A. Report No. 159; 1923.

Leakage through thin clearance spaces (E. Buckingham), Engineering. February 23, 1923. Tests of radiator traps (W. F. Stutz), Jour. Am. Soc. Heating and Ventilating

Eng., March, 1923.

Testing of anemometers (O. J. Hodge), Jour. Am. Soc. Heating and Ventilating

Eng., March, 1923. The acoustics of rooms (E. A. Eckhardt), Jour. Franklin Institute, June, 1923;

A method for the measurement of sound intensity (J. C. Karcher), Sci. Paper,

No. 473 (part of vol. 19), May 7, 1923.

A Piezo-electric method for the instantaneous measurement of high pressures

(J. C. Karcher), Sci. Paper No. 445 (part of vol. 18), August 4, 1922.

An electron-tube tuning fork drive (E. A. Eckhardt, J. C. Karcher, and Mi

Keiser), Jour. Optical Soc. of America and Review of Scientific Instruments,

Vol. VI, No. 9, November, 1922.

Altitude effect on air-speed indicators II (H. N. Eaton and W. A. MacNair),

N. A. C. A. Tech. Rept. No. 156. Aeronautic instruments (F. L. Hunt), Jour. Opt. Soc. Vol. VI, No. 7, September,

1922, B. S. Tech. Paper No. 237. Diaphragm investigation, Pt. I (M. D. Hersey), N. A. C. A. Tech. Rept. No. 165. Optical night altitude indicator (J. A. C. Warner), Jour. Opt. Soc. vol. 7, No. 3, March, 1923, Aviation, Vol. XIV, No. 11, March 12, 1923, N. A. C. A. Tech.' Note No. 123. The determination of the altitude of aircraft (W. G. Brombacher), Jour. Opt.

Soc. (in press).

The relative wearing value of ball-bearing and steel-bushed bronze butts

(I. J. Fairchild), Hardware Age, March 31, 1923.
STRUCTURAL, ENGINEERING, AND MISCELLANEOUS

MATERIALS.

P. H. Bates.

FUNCTIONS.

This division is concerned with the investigation of the properties,

uses, design, and fabrication of structural, engineering, and miscellaneous materials. This includes metal of all kinds, and wood,

especially when fabricated into structures or structural parts, ce- ment, concrete, lime, gypsum, sand, stone, and sand-lime brick.

Under miscellaneous materials are included leather, rubber, and

composition materials used in place of these, textiles, and paper.

To make the study of these products complete, it is desirable to

take into consideration the processes by which they are manufactured. Hence, the equipment includes an experimental rubber mill,

textile mill, paper machine, cement plant, etc. The division is also

concerned in the improvement of the present and the development

of new methods of testing and the establishment of standards cov- ering the manufacture and the use of the materials concerned.

1. Structural and engineering materials.

2. Cement, concrete, and stone.

3. Leather and rubber.

4. Textiles.

5. Paper.

6.

7. Lime, gypsum, and sand-lime brick.

SECTIONS.

GENERAL STATISTICS.

Staff Expenditures (1922-23) Tests completed

Researches completed

Bureau publications

Other technical publications

96

$223, 000

16, 425

30

8

39

203
WORK CHART.

I. STRUCTURAL AND ENGINEERING MATERIALS.

SCOPE.

Measurements of the resistance of fabricated structural units under tensile,

compressive, and torsional stresses. The study of testing apparatus and testing methods.

The determination of physical properties of new material.

The design and testing of structures. TESTS.

Nature of test.

Steel Iron Other metals and alloys Enamels for sheet metals Rope:

Wire

Manila

Sisal Calibration of testing machines

Large H columns

Structural members (Delaware River Bridge)

M'scellaneous

Number completed.

1921-22 1922-23

293 467

119 22

472 578

87

29 8

54 46

4 4

8 2

4 18

6 224 164

RESEARCHES.

Subject.

Laboratory tests and field trials with recording extensometer.

Physical properties of materials

Strain gauge measurements on engineering structures: Optical strain gauge

Arlington Building.

Calibration of testing machines

Strength of steel columns

Fatigue properties of woods and metals.

Specification for wire rope

Tanks.

Brinell testing.. Brickwork:

Ideal walls

Hollow tile

Delaware River Bridge tests.

Comparison of Humphrey and Izod machines.

Steel columns

Fatigue of duralumin

Building stresses Allowable loads on corrugated zinc roofing.

Girder hooks

» Proc. A. S. T. M.; 1923. 204

In cooperation s^ith—

Navy Depart- ment.

Treasury Department.

Federal Specifi- cations Board. American Bureau of Welding.

Common Brick

Mfgrs. Assn. and SandLime Brick A ssn. National Fire- proofing Co. andA. S.T.M.

Joint commission of Pennsylvania and

i^ew Jersey.

American Bridge

Co.; Bethle- hem Steel Co. Navy

American Zinc

Institute. American Bridge

Co.

Status June 30, 1923.

Per cent completed.

100

100

100

1050

1090

100

25

60

100

90

60

50

10

70

Publication

issued.

ClOl.

Outside.i

T236.
BEPORT OF DIRECTOR OF BUREAU OF STANDARDS. 205

RESEARCHES—Continued.

Subject.

Welded rail joints.

Crinkling stresses Riveted joints Bibliography on riveted joints.

In cooperation

with

American Elec. Ry. Assn.; American Bureau of Welding; National ResearchCouncil. Navy

do

Status June 30, 1923.

Per cent completed.

35

5 100

Publication

issued.

2. CEMENT, CONCRETE, AND STONE.

SCOPE.

Inspection and testing of cement for Government departments.

Researches in cement, concrete, and building stones. Development of specifications and metliods of tests for these materials.

TESTS.

Nature of test.

Cement

Concrete Aggregates Concrete products

Testing sieves Miscellaneous Building stones. .

Number completed.

1921-22

3,900

1,000

25

1137 ISO30

1922-23

5,200

81158

42

124

372

106

RESEARCHES.

Subject. In cooperation

with—

Status June 30, 1923.

Per cent completed.

Publication

issued.

Portland cement stucco. Reinforced concrete

Durability of concrete in aUcali soils

Properties of building stones

Properties of Indiana limestone Volume changes in concrete Standard of fineness General concrete investigations

Worlcability of concrete mixtures.

Caustic magnesia

Constitution of Portland cement.

75 Continuing,

80 Continuing.

25

25

50 Continuing.

3590

50

Outside.'

Out,side.2 T223. T2U.T220,

Outside.3

T>o.< C135. Outside.*

1 Proc. Am. Concrete Inst., vol. 14, 1918; vol. 16; 1920.

2 Proc. Am. Concrete Inst., vols. 15, 16, and 17; and Concrete, vol. 21, p. 145, November, 1922.

3 Engineering News Record, May 27, 1920; Concrete, Jime, 1920; Engineering and Contracting, June 2, 1920; Canadian Engineers, June 10,' 1920; Concrete Products, June, 1920; Proc. A. S. T. M., vol. 20; 1920, vol.

21; 1921; Concrete, December, 1920; Juno, 1921; Proc. Am. Concrete Institute, vol. 19, 1923.

< Proc. A. S. T. M., 1923.

" Joiu. Am. Ceraimc Soc., July, 1921. y

3. LEATHER AND RUBBER.

SCOPE.

Standards of quality, practice, and performance : (a) Apparatus, (?>) properties of materials, (c) standard test methods, {d) specifications and standardization, (e) routine testing.

Industrial process investigations: (a) Experimental rubber mill, (h) experimental tannery.

Related materials: (a) Rubber compounding, (&) tanning and filling, (c)

substitutes.
206 KEPORT OF DIRECTOK^ OF BUREAU OF STAlfDARDS.

TESTS.

Nature of test.

Number completed.

1921-22 1922-23

82

776

191 736

RESEARCHES.

Subject. In cooperation with

Status June 30, 1923.

Per cent completed.

Publication

issued.

Sole leather: Commercial abrasion test for. Water penetration of Specification for vegetable . .

Chemical imiformity

Chrome, durabiUty

Leather belting: Properties of Specification

Upholstery leather: Properties of Specification Lace leather: Specification Chemical methods

Shark leather, properties of Synthetic tanmng materials: Tanning properties

Substitutes:

Artificial upholstery

Auto-top materials Composition soles Rubber heels Leather from hogskins:

Tanning tests Properties of Polishing leather for cutlery

Rubber compounds:

Abrasion test for Accelerated aging test for Cable investigation

Pneumatic tires: Power losses in Endurance test for Specification for

Test data on

Specifications for: Cushion tires Inner tubes

Federal Specifi- cations Board.

Federal Specifi- cations Board.

Test data on inner tubes

Specially prepared rubbers.

Jar rings

Federal Specifi- cations Board.

Teat-cup rubbers. Packings

Fire hose

Federal Specifi- cations Board.

Rubber tubing Hose (various uses) Drug sundries Rubber bands

Insulating tape General specifications methods).

Federal Specifi- cations Board.

....do

....do

for rubber goods (test

50 100 Outside.i

ou

10

90

40

9025

40

109040

75

7540

1050

20

50 T213.

4050 Outside.

100

10

75 Do.3

10050

100 Do*

100

75 100 Do.5

100 Do.«

75 DoJ

5050

50

100 Do.s

' Federal Specifications Board specification No. 37,

2 Federal Spcdfications Board specification No. 3.

2 Federal Spec ifications Board specification No. 3.

< Federal Specifications Board sperifieation No. 51.

5 Federal Specifications Board specification No. 3**.

6 Federal Spocifications Board specification No. 39.

' Federal Specifications Board specifications Nos. 40--50, inclusive.

8 Federal Specifications Board specification No. 59.
EKPORT OF DIRECTOR OF BUREAU OF STANDARDS. 207

4. TEXTILES.

SCOPE.

Study of raw fibers : (a) Preparation, (b) grading, (c) sampling.

Study of manufacturing processes: (a) Effect of processes on finished

product, (6) economics of varieties and design, (c) conditions, (d) tolerances.

Study of uses: (o) Efficient application in present uses, (b) new uses. Methods of testing, development of, and application: (a) Chemical, (&)

physical, (c) microscopic.

Handling of finished product : (a) Laundering, (6) pressing, (c) storing, (d)

cleaning.

TESTS.

Nature of test.

Number completed.

1921-22 1922-23

Samples tested 5,335 5,776

RESEARCHES.

Subject.

Heat-retaining properties of blankets and clothing

materials. Abrasive qualities of fabrics Stress-strain relations of airship covering

Efficiency of preservatives for textiles used in fisheries. Specifications for: Brattice cloth Numbered duck

Dredging sleeve du^k Army and light-weight duck

Shelter-tent duck

Denim

Felts Mpasurement of hosiery Blankets Bunting, wool

Bunting, cotton

Sheetings

Conveyor belts for Post Office Department use.

Investigation of substitutes for jute sandbags. .

Standardization: Breaking strength of electrical yarn Endurance test of mail bags. . Methods of testing fastness of color.: Test methods for oil and moisture in press cloths.

In cooperation

with—

Navy Depart- ment.

Cotton Duck Association.

Post Office Department.

Post Office Department.

Status June 30, 1923.

Per cent completed.

80

2.5 100

50

10 100

7550

20

40

30

5090

50

50

30

50

20

50

40

30

100

Publication

issued.

C136.

T231.

5. PAPER.

SCOPE.

Physical testing : (a) Study of new devices. (B) standardiziition of methods,

(c) development of new methods.

Chemical testing: (a) Standardi55ation of methods, (b) development of new

methods.

Microscopy and photomicrography: (a) Development of stains, (&) development of technique.

Paper mill: (a) Study of special raw materials, (&) manufacture of special

papers, (c) study of processes of manufacture.

Standard specifications.
208 EEPOKT or DIRECTOE OF BUREAU OF STANDARDS.

TESTS.

Nature of test.

Number completed.

1921-22 1922-23

3,604 1,636

RESEARCHES.

Subject.

Antitarnish paper

Thickness testing of paper

Sizing quality Standard substance basis Waterproof test Technical standardization

Simplifi<"ation of sizes Photomicrography of paper fibers. Rubber latex in paper Aging of rubber latex paper

Colored micrographs

Classification and definitions Foreign and domestic clays

Case-lining paper Breaking and bursting test Tensile strength test Brittleness test Effect of humidity on paper

Condenser paper

Coating paper with glue

Flax straw.

In cooperation with

National Association Glue Manufacturers.

Status June 30, 1923.

Per cent completed.

95

Publication

issued.

.^0 100 T226.

80

100 Outside.i

75 100 Do.2

100 Do.s

100 T217.

100 Outside.*

100 Do.5

25

100 Do.«

75

75 100 Do.'

100 Do.8

100 Do.9

100 Do.9

100 Do.i»

10

' Paper

2 Paper

3 Paper

< Paper

6 India

5 Paper

' Paper

" Paper

9 Paper

i» Paper

Trade Journal, Trade Journal. Trade Journal, Trade Journal, Rubber World, Trade Journal, Trade Journal, Trade Journal, Trade Journal,

Indus'try, May

Aug. 17, 1922. Dec. 28, 1922. Nov. 9, 1922. Dec. 28, 1922. June 1, 1923. May 31, 1923. Mar. 29, 1923. Mar. 22, 1923. Apr. 12, 1923.

, 1923.

7. LIME, GYPSUM, AND SAND-LIME BRICK.

SCOPE.

Standards of quality.

Improvement of manufacture.

Improvement of use.

Improvement of new products.

Development of new uses. Bureau work outside of section.

TESTS.

Nature of test.

Number completed.

1921-22 1922-23

70

18

12

34

1210

!
REPORT or DIRECTOR OF BUREAU OF STANDARDS. 209

RESEARCHES.

Subject. In cooperation with

Status June 30, 1923.

Per cent completed.

Publication

issued.

Use of hydrated lime in Portland cement mortar Improvement of plasticity of hydrated lime

Effect of addition of hydrated lime on the properties

of concrete. Use of lime in chemical industries Strength of bond between mortar and sand-lime

brick. Cause of unsoundness of lime plasters

Investigation of the physical properties of calcined gypsum and gypsum products. Acoustics of wall plaster Effect of moisture on set gypsum plaster Grading of sand for sand-lime brick

Utilization of old plaster molds Improvement of gypsum block Adhesion of gypsum plaster to concrete How to make lime set quickly

National Lime

Association,

Contracting

Plasterers' Association, In- ternational

Plasterers'

Union.

Gyi)sum Industries. National Lime

Association.

90

5050

50

25

100

95

5030

90

50

75

100

50

Outside.' Do.2

Do.3

C118; cm, C144.

Outside.''

Do.5

Do.6

Do.'

Do.8

Do.9

1 Trans. Nat. Lime Mfrs. Assn.; 1913, 1914; Proc. A. S. T. M.; 1917; Jour. Am. Ceramic Soc; 1919; Nat

Lime Assn.; 1917.

2 U. S. patent 1410087.

> A. S. T. M.; 1922; Rock Products, Nov. 18, 1922; Nat. Lime Assn. Proc; 1922.

* Sand-Lime Brick Association, Trans.; 1920.

6 Jour. Am. Ceramic Soc, Nov., 1920.

6 Jour. Am. Ceramic Soc, Dec, 1920; Jour. Am. Ceramic Soc, 1921; Chem. and Met. Eng., June 15, 1921; Proc A. S. T. M.; 1922. '•Trans. Sand-Lime Brick Assn.; 1918, 1921.

8 Proc A. S. T. M.; 1923.

3 Trans. Nat. Lime Assn.: 1923.

Detailed Report of the Year's Work.

I. STRUCTURAL AND ENGINEERING MATERIALS.

H. L. Whittemore.

Telemeters (Johnston, Peters).

A set of 12 telemeters, designed in the electrical division, has been

put to practical use in connection with a series of tests of duralumin

girders for Fleet Airship No. 1, Bureau of Aeronautics, U. S. Navy,

and on tests of 14 special column sections submitted by the Delaware

River Bridge Joint Commission. These instruments were originally

designed for use on the special triangular girders of Fleet Airship

No. 1 and have a total range of action of 0.012 inch, in either tension

or compression.

They have been used consistently to measure total deformations of

twice their designed range and have shown no loss of calibi-ation.

Throughout the investigation frequent calibration checks were made

to determine the constancy of the instruments' reading under con- tinued laboratory use. As a result of this checking calibration it is believed that the original accuracy of the instruments is maintained,

and it is felt certain that in ordinary use they will show accuracy

66077—23 15
210 REPORT OF DIRECTOR OF BUREAU OF STANDARDS.

within 2 per cent. Greater accuracy can be obtained by very careful

use and adjustment.

Physical Properties of Materials (Petrenko).

Circular 101, the first edition of which was published in 1921, has

been revised and is now in the hands of the editorial committee. The

circular contains the values for tensile, compressive, and shearing

strengths, ductility, modulus of elasticity, and other related properties of pure metals, their alloys, and of wood. In addition to these,

the properties of metals at elevated temperatures, their resistance to

fatigue and impact, and the effect of heat treatment and cold working are given. The properties and the uses of the less commonly used

metals are described briefly. Graphical representation is used in

many cases to sliow the change of the properties of a material with

changing conditions.

References to the sources are giveSti for all values in this circular.

Optical Strain Gauge (Tuckerman).

A new optical lever system has been devised, consisting of a triple or quadruple mirror system combined with an autocollimater. The

system is conveniently portable and very free from accidental disturbances. In its present construction it is sensitive to changes of

approximately two hundi'ed-thousandths of a radian, or 12 seconds

of arc. With costlier lens systems it should be possible to increase

this sensibility considerably, perhap four or five times.

Used in a strain gauge with a 0.2 inch Martens lozenge, it has

given consistent readings sensitive to two-millionths of an inch of

deformation. This sensibility can be considerably increased, but no

experiments have as yet been made to see how far this increase can be carried without undue interference from unavoidable mechanical disturbances.

This optical-lever system has wide possibilities of application to

many fields of measurement, where convenience and reliability combined with high sensibility are needed. Applications to strain

gauges, extensometers, torsion dynamometers, and wind-tunnel

dynamometers are at present being worked out.

The present instruments were made by the Naval Gun Factory

for an investigation of riveted joints for the Bureau of Construction

and Repair of the United States Navy.

Test of Reinforced Concrete Floor of the Arlington Building (Larson, Petrenko).

Hollow tile and reinforced concrete floor panels, supported on re- inforced conci'ete beams, were loaded, some to 3.8 times the design

live load. The loading was designed to produce the maximiim positive and the maximum negative moments. Strain measurements

were taken on the concrete and the reinforcing steel of the slabs

^nd of the girders. The deflections of the slab were measured also.

j.n the slabs, the maximum stresses were developed at the positions

of negative moment. The beams at the edges of the panels offered

so little resistance to torsion that the stresses in the steel across these beams due to negative moment were little affected by a transfer

of load between adjacent panels.
REPORT OF DIRECTOR OF BUREAU OF STANDARDS. 211

The effect of time under load was very pronounced in the first 20

hours, and comparatively small later. The increase in the deformation due to continued loadino; was greater in the reinforcement than

in the concrete. The cracking of the concrete and the resulting

great increase of the stresses in the reinforcing steel showed that

at first the concrete carried a considerable portion of the tensile

stresses. Dvie to the low stresses, the moment coefficients were generally

small. They are not proposed for use in design, but to show the

relative amount of the bending moment carried in the two directions. The effect on the moment coefficients of an increase in the

ratio of length to width of the panel was a rapid increase of both

the positive and the negative moments in the direction of the short

span, and a less rapid decrease of both moments in the direction of

the long span.

The factor of safety of the structure was apparently greater than

2.13.

Federal Specifications Board's Specifications for Wire Rope (Whittemore).

This specification, now practically complete, has been prepared

with the effective cooperation of the representatives of other Government departments and of the manufacturers of wire rope.

Using the Navy specifications for a basis, a number of changes

have been made both in the form and substance. The values for

the strength and other properties have been carefully checked and

corrections made where necessary. Requirements for the lay of the

rope have been included, as well as tests for the zinced coating.

Fatigue of Woods and Metals (Tuckerman).

Most of the work during the past year on the fatigue of metals has

been on sheet duralumin for the Bureau of Aeronautics, Navy Department.

Rotary beam fatigue machines have, however, been used to test the fatigue resistance of specimens of heat treated nickel steel for

the metallurgical division. It was impossible to test these specimens

to failure under repeated stresses, as there are only three specimens

of each heat treatment. The Smith-Gough deflection method of test- ing was, therefore, used successfully. The loads were increased by

small increments and the deflection of the specimen measured. The

stress causing a marked increase in the deflection is the endurance

limit of the material.

Erratic deflection readings, obtained when this method was first

used, made it seem desirable to measure the errors in loading caused

by the ball bearing in which the specimen was rotated. Self-aligning

bearings, having two rows of balls, which' have been used in many

fatigue machines of this type, particularly the machine designed by

F. M. Farmer, showed that the moment on the specimen often varied

4 per cent from the computed moment.

Bearings having a single row of balls, which were mounted in

trunnions, showed no variations greater than one-tenth of 1 per

cent. As the self -aligning bearings had been used for this work, they

were replaced by the single-row bearings and satisfactory results

were obtained.
212 REPORT OF DIRECTOR OF BUREAU OF STANDARDS.

Hydrostatic and Strain Gauge Measurements on Welded and Riveted Tanks (Stang, Greene).

For the purpose of ascertaining the relative merits of riveted, as compared with electric-welded tanks, four steel tanks, 4 feet in

diameter and 10 feet long, made of five-sixteenths inch mild steel

plates, were tested under hydrostatic pressure. Two of the tanks

were butt welded, and one was lap welded, and the fourth was of the

ordinary lap-riveted construction. The ends of the tanks were

spherical, having a radius of 4 feet. Strain gauge measurements

were made at different pressures and the stress distribution and stress- pressure relationship obtained. The results of the hydrostatic tests proved rather unsatisfactory for comparing the relative strengths of

the different types because of secondary failures.

For thin tanks, the measured stresses, based upon the dimensional

formula for longitudinal as well as transverse stress in the tanks, are in close agreement with the design stresses computed by the common pressure formulas, provided the former are not affected by

secondary causes. Secondary stresses, which resulted in high stress

intensity and produced failure in each case, were caused by (a)

faulty design of the attachment of the spherical end to the cylindrical

shell, (6) nonconformity of the shell to an accurate circular section,

and (c) discontinuities in the shell for the manhole and fittings.

Ideal Walls (Whittemore, Stang). , The tests of the brick walls made in cooperation with the Common

Brick Manufacturers' Association have been completed, and the re- port prepared for publication. Doctor Stang, at the request of the

association, attended the annual convention in Cleveland, Ohio, and

gave them the results of the investigation. At the request of the

association i^ublication of this report was postponed, pending the

completion of tests on the entire series of walls.

Delaware River Bridge Joint Commission Tests (Johnston).

In connection with the design of the new suspension bridge spanning the Delaware River from Philadelphia to Camden the joint

commission of consulting engineers submitted for test 14 special

I-section plate and angle columns of a so-called silicon-manganese

steel. In this test the over-all dimension and construction of all

columns were identical,, with the exception that the web thickness

was changed. The web thickness varied from three-eighths inch plate

to 1-| inches. Up to three-fourths inch in thickness they were single

webs. The 1-inch thickness consisted of a series of two sir^gle webs

and two one-half inch web plates stitch riveted together. The l-|-inch

web was composed of two three-fourths inch plates stitch riveted.

The principal object of the investigation was to determine the relative

compressive strength of web plates, with particular reference to the

ordinarily accepted design rule, limiting the minimum thickness of

plate permissible.

The investigation gave further information relative to the failure

of a stiffened column section and the comparative action of single

and double webs. In all tests the column section used to test the compressive section of the web plate was stiffened laterally by special

channel stiffeners applied to simulate the supporting conditions found

in the actual tower construction of the bridge.
REPORT OF DIRECTOR OF BUREAU OP STANDARDS. 213

Comparative Tests of Notched Specimens in Izod Impact and Humfrey Slow Bending Machines (Petrenko).

The purpose of these tests was to find out the difference in behavior

of various metals subjected to impact and to slow bending. The

materials investigated included duralumin, brass, nickel-silver, Monel

metal, 0.25 per cent carbon steel (boiler plate), 3-| per cent nickel

steel, carbon-tool steel, and high-speed steel.

These materials were tested as received from the mill without

further heat treatment. The specimens were all of standard Izod

type and the notches were cut perpendicularly to the direction of rolling. The results obtained indicate that in most cases there is no

essential difference in the behavior of materials under impact or in

slow bending, although the numerical values may be very different

(Izod values are generally higher than in slow bending). In some

cases the slow-bending test may be preferable, as in the former a diagram is automatically drawn, showing the relation betAveen the

angle of bending and the bending moment, which may be of value

in judging the behavior of material during the test. Strength of Large Columns of H Shaped Cross Sections (Tuckerman) . Thirty additional columns were tested during the past year. These

were supplied by the Bethlehem Steel Co. The results have not been

analyzed completely, but appai-ently they confirm the conclusions

drawn from the previous tests, that the strength of the column depends upon the yield point of the material.

Strength of Corrugated Zinc Roofing (Whittemore).

This cooperative investigation between this bureau and the American Zinc Institute of New York, N. Y., is to determine the safe load

which can be put on roofing of this kind for a given spacing of

purlins. This information is much needed by builders and even by manufactui'ers of corrugated zinc roofing. A number of failures

of these roofs recently has shown that reliable values for safe loads

are not available. The question of the proper use of this material

is of great economic importance. Zinc is used very successfully

in Europe and should find a place in roofing materials used in this

country.

Girder Hooks (Whittemore, Stang).

The work on this investigation has been resumed. The results of

the tests made last year are being prepared for publication.

Investigation of Strength of Welded Rail Joints (Sweetman).

The bureau, in cooperation with the American Railway Association and American Bureau of Welding, is preparing to conduct a portion of an investigation regarding strength of welded rail joints

of various types, such as are used in street railway systems. The

bureau has undertaken to determine such properties as tensile

strength, electrical conductivity, and impact resistance.

To date the bureau has conducted several tensile tests on welded

joints of various types in order to determine a satisfactory means of

gripping the specimen in the testing machine. In order that the

rail ends may be gripped in the lax'ge Emery testing machine it is necessary to remove a portion of the rail head and flanges and rivet
214 REPORT OF DIRECTOR OF BUREAU OF STANDARDS.

to the rail web such filler plates as may be necessary to give the

required section area. The result of these tests showed that in cases where the oxyacetylene blowpipe had been used in removing the head

and flanges, the specimen broke in nearly all cases at the end and

not by failure of the weld. This was due to cracking of the material

adjacent to the cut by the severe heating action of the blowpipe. In

the case of specimens from which the head and flanges had been re- moved by machine tools this trouble was not experienced, but the

expense of preparing the ends by machine tool methods is great.

The committee has adopted a method of gripi^ing used in the testing

laboratory of a large rail manufacturing company. This method

requires no special end preparation. The apparatus necessary to

make use of this method consists of pulling heads having a tapered

opening similar to the head of a universal testing machine and tapered wedges which fit the contour of the rail. The manufacturers

interested in this investigation are supplying the special heads and

fixtures Avhich will be used in connection with the large Emery

testing machine.

Crinkling Stresses in Steel Tubing (Greene).

A lai'ge number of tests have been made to determine the mechanical properties of steel tubing manufactured in America and England

for the purpose of selecting material and for comparing the uniformity of properties of the two makes. In addition, a few column

and combined tests have been made and it is intended to continue the

tests until satisfactory^ results have been obtained.

Riveted Joints (Johnston).

A series of tests to observe the behavior of riveted joints under

working stresses is being made for the Bureau of Construction and

Repair of the Navy Department. The joints are of diiferent form

and construction and are of three weights of matei'ial, of three

grades of material, and several size rivets. They are 22 inches wide

and will contain as many as 20 rivets on one side of the joint. The

present schedule contemplates 99 tests. For this work the optical strain gauge has been devised. Three

trial joints are being made at the Naval Gun Factory, and it is expected that the tests will be started when the joints have been

completed.

Bibliography on Riveted Joints (Stang).

A bibliography of technical publications on riveted joints has

been prepared, wliich includes about 230 references. English,

French, and German articles published in the last 10 or 15 years

were carefully read, and the most useful articles selected.

The strength of riveted joints, obtained either by computation or experimental work in the testing laboratory, received particular at- tention. The practical aspects of the question have not been over- looked and helpful information contained in the trade journals has

been included.

Tests of Members of Fleet Airship " No. i " (Johnston).

During the year an investigation of the strength of various members of Fleet Airship No. 1, United States Navy, has been completed.

«
REPORT OF DIRECTOR OF BUREAU OF STANDARDS. 215

In all, 147 full size girder members, duplicates of the members used

in the airship, were tested, each girder type being tested in triplicate, generally in both 5 and 10 meter lengths, and as either a freeend column, simple beam, or combined beam and column. The test

specimens were fabricated of duralumin at the Naval Aircraft Factorj, Philadelphia, Pa.

The failures were remarkably consistent, both in type of failure

and in failing load for any particular type of girder. Further, practically all failures were elastic ; that is, depended on the modulus ol

elasticity of the material or its stiffness rather than upon its other

physical properties, and were, in general, of the type expected from

previous knowledge of the behavior of such specimens. There were

no failures of details, such as riveting lattices, etc., and throughout

the entire series tkere was no evidence of brittle or inferior material

having been incorporated in any part. The tests gave assurance as to the strength of the principal structural parts of the airship' and

furnished valuable data for future work.

Riveted and Welded Joints (Tuckerman).

A report on these tests made for the American Bridge Co. has

been prepared for publication in one of the engineering journals.

Investigation of a Process for Seasoning Wood (Whittemore).

A preliminary investigation was conducted on a process for season- ing or drying wood. The investigation included tests on several

kinds of hard and soft woods used in commercial work, specimens

of which were tested when in partially green and kiln dried conditions for comparison with specimens which were treated by the

process. The conclusion drawn from this work was that the j)rocess

might be used to dry lumber to a condition suitable for use in a

'shorter time than by kiln dryiiig.

Investigation of Strength of Welded Pressure Vessels (AVliittemore).

In cooperation with the committee on welded pressure vessels of

the American Bureau of Welding an investigation of the strength of

welded pressure vessels has been conducted. This investigation was

planned to obtain information on methods of making acceptance

tests which would assist the boiler code committee of the American

Society of Mechanical Engineers in preparing their Safet}' Code for

Pressure Vessels. In general, the tanks were stressed under hydrostatic pressure until rupture occurred.

The following conclusions have been drawn from the test results

The double V welds were much stronger than the single V welds;

the butt welded heads were stronger than the inserted heads ; a hammer test can not be relied upon to show more than a few exceptionally defective welds ; hydrostatic pressure 1^ times the working pres- sure showed only a small number of imperfect welds, even when the

hammer was used ; hydrostatic pressure sufficient to stress the shell to

the yield point will show a large proportion of imperfect welds.

The results of the tests made at the Bureau of Standards will form

part of the report of the pressure vessel committee, to be printed by

the American Bureau of Welding.
216 REPORT OF DIRECTOR OF BUREAU OF STANDARDS.

2. CEMENT, CONCRETE, CONCRETE MATERIALS, BUILDING STONE.

J. C. Pearson.

General Concrete Investigations (Pearson, Slater, Hitchcock,

Dwyer, G. A. Smith).

All the general studies of concrete conducted by the bureau are

classified under this heading, including tests of an investigative nature for the Government departments, and limited investigations of

materials and methods of test. The most important of these studies

during the year include a further development of the method of

measuring consistency by means of a flow table of improved design,

an investigation of the inundation method of measuring sand, completion of a cooperative series of tests on acceleratoi-s conducted

imder the auspices of the American Society for Testing Materials,

completion of an investigation of the cause of failure of artificial

stone in southern California in cooperation with the U. S. Geological Survey, and the development of a penetration test for measuring

the workability of concrete mixtures. In addition, somewhat extensive studies have been made of three special cements, two of them

produced and marketed in European countries, and numerous tests of concrete and concrete materials have been made for the U. S.

Reclamation projects, for the Wilson Dam, Muscle Shoals, Ala., and

for the Key Bridge and the new aqueduct, Washington, D. C.

Toward the close of the fiscal year, the bureau began a series

of laboratory tests supplementary to the field tests of concrete

being conducted under the auspices of the joint committee on concrete and reinforced concrete, in cooperation with the Associated

General Contractors and the Portland Cement Association. The

field tests are under the direction of W. A. Slater of this bureau,

and are designed to show Avhether it is possible with a reasonable

degree of care to secure concrete having a strength substantially

in agreement with that required for the design. These tests are being made on a reinforced concrete building which is being built

by Stone & Webster (Inc.), for the Victor Talking Machine Co.,

at Camden, N. J. Improved Flow Table for Measuring Consistency of Concrete

(Pearson, Hitchcock, Dwyer).

Progressive improvement has been made in the design of this instrument, which is now regarded as an indispensable part of the

equipment of every concrete testing laboratory. The principle of the

flow table was covered in a patent issued to C. M. Chapman in 1913,

but the device in essentially its present form was developed by G. M.

Williams in 1919, at that time an employee of the Bureau of Standards. The latest type of instrument embodies heavy all-metal castings, after a design by the Bureau of Public Roads. While the flow

table has not yet been standardized, the new table eliminates most of

the objectionable features of the earlier tables, and should be generally acceptable. The table is illustrated in a paper on the " Inundation method of measuring sand for making concrete," Proc.

A. C. I., and the method of operation is described in detail in a paper on "A penetration test for the workability of concrete mixtures" presented before the American Society for Testing Materials, June, 1923.
REPORT OF DIRECTOR OF BUREAU OF STANDARDS. 217

Inundation Method of Measuring Sand (Slater, G. A. Smith).

The variation in the quantity of moisture carried in sand at different times causes important variations in the consistency of concrete

in which the sand is used and also causes appreciable variations in

the quantity of sand which a measure will hold Avhen compacted in a standard manner. It has been found that a very large portion of

these variations can be eliminated by measuring the sand in water;

that is, by filling the measuring vessel about half full of water before

filling it with sand. A series of tests was carried out to find out

how satisfactorily the method could be used and to try it out in the

actual making of concrete specimens. By shoveling sand into water

in the measuring vessel very nearly constant quantities were obtained,

regardless of the amount of moisture originally contained in the sand.

By using both sand and water as measured by the inundation method

and using the same quantities of cement and coarse aggregate concretes were obtained showing remarkable uniformity in consistency

and strength. The results of these studies were presented before the

American Concrete Institute in January, 1923, and appear in a paper

by G. A. Smith and W. A. Slater in the Proceedings of the Institute,

Volume XIX, 1923, page 222.

Tests of Accelerators (Pearson, Hitchcock, Dwyer).

The bureau participated in a series of tests of commercial and

proprietary accelerations of the calcium-chloride type involving the

making and testing of about 300 concrete and 400 mortar specimens.

These tests were conducted under the auspices of the American

Societj^ for Testing Materials in cooperation with a number of

laboratories. The results of the tests confirm and supplement the

information previously published by the bureau on this subject and

demonstrate quite conclusively that the early strength of concrete

is increased considerably by the use of calcium chloride admixtures,

but under damp storage conditions this increase does not usually

extend beyond the 28-day period. The report of these tests appears in

the annual report of committee C-9, A. S. T. M., for 1923.

Disintegration of Concrete Due to Altered Feldspar Aggregate

(Pearson, Dwyer).

Extensive and rapid disintegration of an artificial stone widely

used in Los Angeles a few years ago led to a joint investigation by

the bureau and the United States Geological Survey. The quarries

from which the aggregate was obtained were inspected, samples were

procured, and specimens were made therefrom and exposed to the

weather in Washington, D. C. The usual physical tests of the specimens were satisfactory, yet pronounced disintegration of the exposed

specimens occurred within a year. Mineralogical examination showed

that the aggi'egate was an altered feldspar, the disintegration being

due primarily to laumonite. There was nothing in the case to give

rise to any question concerning the suitability and durability of unaltered feldspar as a concrete aggregate. In fact, the latter is ex- tensively and satisfactorily used for this purpose in various parts

of the country. This investigation was reported in a paper, "An

interesting case of dangerous aggregate," by J. C. Pearson and G. F.

Loughlin, Proc. Am. Cone. Inst., Volume XIX, 1923, page 142.
218 REPORT OF DIRECTOR OF BUREAU OF STANDARDS.

Workability of Concrete Mixtures (Pearson, Hitchcock).

An investigation of considerable importance has been launched

during the year by the adaptation of a simple penetration test to the

measurement of the workability of concrete mixtures, as distinct from

consistency or flow, a property measured by the flow table previously

described, and varying with the quantity of mixing water used. It

has been found that the penetration test gives results agreeing with

the judgment of experienced operators as to the comparative workability of different mixtures, and while further refinement and extension of its application is needed, it has brought out some very interesting facts. Thus the workability of a concrete mixture is found

to depend more on the nature and proportions of the solid ingredients than upon the amount of mixing water, and the effects of various

powdered admixtures can be readily compared. The test is fully

described in a paper, "A penetration test for the workability of concrete mixtures," by J. C. Pearson and F. A. Hitchcock, presented to

the American Society for Testing Materials, June, 1923.

Durability of Sewer Pipe (Pearson, Furlong).

An investigation of the condition of clay and cement sewer pipes

in the city of Los Angeles was undertaken in April, 1922, in cooperation with pipe manufacturers and the engineering department of the

city of Los Angeles. Studies thus far have been confined to the

sewerage of Los Angeles, but real progress has been made in determining those elements that may be injurious to the system. Test

sections have been installed in various operating lines in the city,

and exposure tests of clay and cement pipe have been made in manholes so distributed as to cover practically all typical conditions.

Inspections have been supplemented by extensive chemical studies,

both in the field and in the laboratory. A jDrogress report on the

year's work has nearly been completed.

Cement Stucco (Pearson, Hitchcock).

Measurements of the stucco panels erected last year and described

in the last annual report have been continued. Unfortunately these

panels developed faults which were not anticipated and which

masked the comparative values which they were designed to furnish.

On the other hand, they indicated plainly some of the precautions

which must be taken in the application of stucco to frame if satisfactory results are to be obtained; they also suggested that such

factors as ciiring and the intervals between coats are more important

than has been considered the case heretofore. If the cooperation of

the industries can be obtained these indications will be followed up

by a series of further tests next year with a view to developing the

iBOst dependable specifications for stucco on frame structures.

Concrete House Construction (Pearson).

Some further data on concrete house construction have been collected during the past year, but preparation of the general report

on the subject has been set aside for more pressing matters. However, certain aspects of the concrete house idea were embodied in a paper before the American Concrete Institute, January, 1923, entitled

" Thoughts on Concrete Houses," by J. C. Pearson. (See Proc. Am.

Cone. Inst., Vol. XIX, 1923, p. 167.)
REPORT OF DIRECTOR OF BUREAU OF STANDARDS. 219

Durability of Concrete in Alkali Soils (Pearson, Furlong).

The chief item of importance in connection with this investigation vras the installation of a new experimental drain near Montrose,

Colo., consisting of 76 concrete drain tile treated with various

bituminous compositions, either as coatings or penetrative treatments.

This drain was installed in the alkali patch at North Mesa Siphon

in October, 1922, by E. H. Berger, of the chemistry division. In

addition, a section of the experimental drain at Montrose laid by

the bureau in 1913 was inspected. A number of replacements were

made in this drain in 1915, and the concrete blocks were exposed to

alkali at Grand Junction, Colo. In general, the action of the alkali

has been progressive, the disintegration being further advanced than

at the last inspection in 1919.

Mr. Berger also visited and assisted in the examination of the

concrete specimens installed by the Portland Cement Association at

Medicine Lake, Florence, S. iDak., and at Montrose, Colo. While

these exposures Avere only one year old at the time of this inspection, they largely dispose of any hope that integral waterproofing

compounds can be regarded as effective against alkali attack.

Fineness Investigations (Pearson, Hitchcock, Sligh)

No further development work has been done with the air analyzer,

although its api^lieation has been extended to neAv materials during

the past year. A firm of engineering specialists has requested permission to commercialize this apparatus, and it is hoped that a portable and compact instrument Avill soon be available to the

numerous industries and testing laboratories in which it can be used

to advantage. As an indication of its general usefulness, the following is an incomplete list of materials which are for the most

part beyond the reach of testing sieves, but which have been success- fully classified by tlie analyzer : Cements, paint pigments, fine molding sands, copper and other metallic powders, cai*bon powders, clays

of various types, pulverized quartz, feldspar, alundum, pumice, emery,

and other abrasives; whiting, flue dust, potash treater dust, insect

powders, hydrated lime, graphite, plaster of Paris, and basic magnesium carbonate. With the exception of one or two materials exhibiting peculiar properties, practically all the finely divided or pulverized materials which have been tested, and of which a considerable portion of the individual particles are between 0.1 and 0.01

miiliiueter in size, can be successfully separated by means of the

analyzer.

Standard Fineness Samples (Sligh).

Neither a descriptive circular nor a suitable standard fineness sample for testing sieves of the United States standard series has yet been

prepared, contrary to the expectations of a year ago. Lack of personnel and pressure of routine testing has displaced these important

matters, but they can hardly be postponed another year. There is a distinct urgency for the preparation of samples of standard fineness

for testing other sieves than the No. 200, particularly for the finer

sieves, because it has been demonstrated that a sieve may not con- form in every respect to the specifications and still apparently give as good results as one which does. The criterion is a test of the sieve

on a sample of standard fineness, and, in general, a sieve so tested and
220 REPORT OF DIRECTOR OF BUREAU OF STANDARDS.

furnished with a correction is entirely suitable for control work, if

not for standardization purposes. Under this heading may be mentioned a considerable amount of cooperative work in the testing of

sieves and molding sands for the joint committee on molding sand

research of the National Research Council ; also the calibration of 27

sieves from nine different laboratories cooperating with committee

D-5 on coal and coke of the American Society for Testing Materials^

and participation in the fineness determinations of pulverized coal

for that committee.

Standard Cement Samples (Sligh).

The bureau prepares and keeps on hand for issue standard fine- ness samples of cement for checking up No, 200 sieves. They are supplied in two' degrees of fineness and are issued in sealed glass

jars, each jar containing about 160 grams, enough for three 50-gram

sieve tests. A price of 50 cents, sufficient only to cover the cost of

preparation, is charged for each jar. With these samples No. 200-

sieves may be compared with the standards of the Government and

corrections to these standards determined. These samples are also

used by the bureau in checking up its own sieves and in the determination of corrections for No. 200 sieves submitted for certification.

A new sample, 46^, has recently been prepared, of Avhich 78 j)er cent

passes the No. 200 sieve. The other sample on hand is 47c, 89.2 per

cent passing the No. 200 sieve. During the year very few of sample

47 were issued. About the same number of sample 46 was issued

as in the preceding year. There was an increase of nearly 200 per

cent in the number of No. 200 sieves for which corrections were determined, as compared with the year before.

General Work in Reinforced Concrete (Slater, G. A. Smith, Wade).

In addition to the preparation of a number of papers referred to

in the list of publications issuing from this section, a great deal of

time has been given to committee work of the various engineering

societies. In particular may be mentioned participation in the work

of the joint committee on standard specifications for concrete and

reinforced concrete, and of the special committee on reinforcing steel,

functioning under the auspices of the American Society for Testing

Materials 'in cooperation with manufacturers, the joint committee,,

and the Bureau of Standards. A number of new and revised municipal building codes have been submitted to the bureau for criticism, in which studies of the design requirements are a part of the

work coming under this heading. Progress has also been made in

the analysis of data inherited from the Shipping Board, particularly on tests of ship frames, the efi'ect of direction of slab reinforcement, and shear in reinfoi"ced concrete beams.

Test of Reinforced Gypsum Roof Slab (Slater, G. A. Smith).

At the request of the Bureau of Yards and Docks a reinforced

gypsum roof slab designed according to the " Marks system " of i-oof

construction was tested at the site of the Gallinger Hospital. This

slab was 18 feet long, 8 feet wide, and 3^ inches thick and was supported in such a manner as to give three spans of 6 feet each. Concentrated loads, which were equal to the designed live load, were- applied at the one-quarter points of each span. After the designed

load had been placed, the load on the center span was increased to-
REPORT OF DIRECTOR OF BUREAU OF STANDARDS. 221

approximately three times the designed live load. The load was

left in place for about six weeks, during which time deflections of

all spans increased gradually. The action of the slab was generally

satisfactory, even though the slab was not as dry as it would probably have been had it been sheltered from the weather.

Bond Tests of Dudley Deformed Bars and Plain Round Bars

(Slater, G. A. Smith).

At the request of the Assistant Secretary of Commerce a study

was made of the effect of Dudley reinforcement bars in resisting

bond stresses in concrete as compared with the effect of plain round

bars. Tests were made on beams reinforced witli Dudley round,

Dudley square, and plain round bars, and on pull-out specimens.

At first slip in the pull-out specimens the Dudley bars in most cases showed smaller bond resitsance than did the plain bars, but at the

maximum load the bond stress was somewhat greater. In the beam

tests similar results were obtained. As in other investigations, the

I'ound bars were found to be more effective than the plain bars.

General Investigation of Building Stones (Kessler).

The work in connection with this investigation has been confined

chiefly to the weather-resisting qualities of limestone and sandstone.

The laboratory work is being supplemented by field studies of the

stone in structures. Inspections have been made during the year

of numerous buildings in 12 cities of the East and Middle West.

The purpose of the field studies is to obtain data on the weathering

of the various types of stone under actual conditions of use. This

will serve as a basis for interpreting the results of weathering tests. A few minor investigations have been made during the year when

the need for certain information was urgent. One of these was the

study of a mica schist from Alta Vista, Va., for use in a Government

breakwater. Studies were made of several samples of sandstone

from the old Government quarry on Aquia Creek, Va., and neighboring deposits to determine the possibilities of the material for

present-day needs. This material was rather extensively used in the

first Government buildings, viz, the Capitol, Wliite House, Treasury,

and others, but its use was discontinued when better transportation

facilities made more desirable materials available. This study indicates that some of the strata yield stone of reasonably good quality.

A company has been organized and a quarry is being developed in

the vicinity of the old Government quarry. Numerous tests were

made on the slate submitted for use in the bottom of the reflecting

pool of the Lincoln Memorial. A series of compression tests is

being made for the Bureau of Mines to determine the relative

strength of mine pillars of various heights.

An important development in connection with the work on building stone during the year has been the placing of a research associate at the bureau by the Indiana Limestone Quarrymen's Association. The associate works on the problems which are of general

interest to all concerned with the use of Indiana limestone, and the

results will be available, as tlie studies are completed, in the form

of the regular bureau publications. A rather extensive program

has been formulated for tliis work, which includes several lines of

research that have heretofore received little attention. Among these
222 REPORT OF DIRECTOR OF BUREAU OF STANDARDS.

are fatigue and permanent distortion of the stone under continuous

loading, the rehitive bearing power of stone and other materials

when loaded under the conditions found in modern construction, the

bonding of various mortars to limestone, and the bond of mortars to

stones which have been waterproofed before setting.

Exposure Tests on Colorless Waterproofing Materials (Kessler).

The purpose of this study is to determine (a) the relative etfective- ness of various materials in keeping the stone from absorbing water,

(b) the life_ or period of effectiveness of the materials under ex- posure to the weather, (c) the relative effectiveness on various textures of stone, and (d) the effect on the appearance of the stone.

Many of the tests have been in progress about two and one-half

years. A report is in process of publication which gives the results

of two years' exposure. This will probably be available during the

present year.

The majority of the treatments have shown considerable deterioration during two years of exposure. A few, however, are giving excellent results after this period of weathering, Avhile some of the

materials showed practically no waterproofing values from the start. The tests on different textures indicate that waterprofing rhaterials

which give good results on coarse or medium textures may not prove

at all satisfactory on very compact stones. Practically' all of the

materials experimented with produced more or less discoloration

when applied to the stone which remained during several months'

exj)Osure to the Aveather. After about a year, however, this, in all cases, had faded out, leaving a cleaner appearance than the untreated

stone. This was due to the fact that the waterprofing served to

prevent the dust and soot from entering or lodging in the pores of

the stone.

Weathering Tests (Kessler).

The frost-action tests, which consist in repeatedly freezing the

specimens while nearly saturated with water, are carried to the

point at which the stone is practically destroyed. Some of the

specimens of limestone began to disintegrate at less than 100 freezings, while others have withstood nearly 1,000 freezings without

showing any appreciable disintegration. The work on sandstone has

not been carried as far as that on limestone, but far enough to indicate that the weaker sandstones are somewhat less resistant to frost

action than the poorer grades of limestone, while some of the better

grades of sandstone have passed 500 freezings without marked signs

of decay.

A series of artificial freezing tests is being made in which common

salt is allowed to crystallize in the pores of the stone. This is done

by soaking the specimens in a solution of the salt and afterwards

drying them. The formation of salt crystals in the pores has a similar action to that of ice but is more severe. Hence, disintegration results in a much shorter time. This test seems to offer a more

expeditious means of determining the resistance of stone and similar

materials to frost action, although the test requires more extensive

study to determine whether it is entii-ely comparable to frost action.

A similar method has been proposed and sometimes applied by using

sodium sulphate instead of common salt. This gives a more severe action than sodium chloride, and on some materials it causes disinte-
EEPOET OF DIRECTOR OF BUREAU OF STANDARDS. 223

gration when not allowed to crystallize, which indicates a chemical

action. Hence, it is not believed that the sodium-sulphate test is

entirely satisfactory as an accelerated test for durability of stones

exposed to the weather.

Elastic Pointing and Calking Materials (Kessler).

The work being done on this subject consists in testing the tight- ness of joints, which have been calked with various materials, under

continuous exposure to the weather. A few new materials have been

added to the tests which were started during the past year. Some

of the materials have shown considerable shrinkage and cracking

during one year of weathering.

Discoloration of Stone Masonry (Kessler).

This subject has been given some attention during the past year.

Various cements have been tested for setting limestone and tests are in progress to determine the feasibility of preventing stains by

coating the exposed surface of the masonry with colorless waterproofing materials. Some attention has been given to methods of

removing stains from masonry. A case of staining on the granite

steps of the Lincoln Memorial had caused so much annoyance that

the commission in charge was considering the removal of the stained

blocks at considerable expense. The bureau was called into consultation, and the stains were successfully removed at a very insignificant

cost. Caustic Magnesia Cements (Bates, Young, Eapp).

As a result of the laboratory testing of a large number of commercial composition floorings, a specification was drawn up which

was presented to the National Association of Oxychloride Cement

Manufacturers as tentative. In the preparation of these specifications, the data which the bureau has accumulated on caustic magnesia and its properties were also used in arriving at the suggested

specifications.

The bureau has been cooperating with a number of producers of

domestic caustic magnesite and with certain users in formulating

specifications for caustic magnesia, to cover its uses in the flooring,

stucco, and ship-decking industries. This is at the present time

under consideration by those interested in the matter.

The large test panels of commex'cial caustic magnesia stucco, which

were erected a year and a half to two years ago, are still under observation. Their behavior up to the present time has been perfect in

every respect.

Constitution of Portland Cement (Bates, Young).

The investigation which was being conducted at a commercial

cement plant on the efi^ect of burning and composition on the finished cement was completed during the year so far as plant operation was concerned. The study was one of extreme interest and the

data which are now being accumulated indicate that very valuable

information has been obtained. Notwithstanding that the coinpositions of the various cements varied as much as 5 per cent in

silica content, 2 per cent in alumina content, and 5 per cent in the

lime content, all but five of the cements passed the specifications as now in force. At the end of three months, however, these five
224 EEPORT OP DIRECTOR OF BUREAU OF STANDARDS.

cements which gave low tensile strength had acquired a strength

in excess of that acquired by many of the cements which had passed

the specifications. In view of the fact that specimens have been

made which will not be tested before the end of 10 years, conclusive

data will not be available for some time. However, it is hoped to

be able to present the data which will be at hand at the end of one year, together with preliminary conclusions. It is hoped, that

these data will give some information in regard to the action of

" alkali " on cements, since the concrete specimens are being stored

in not only a damp closet but in the dry atmosphere of western

Texas and soil highly impregnated with alkali.

In view of the agitation in regard to the high alumina cements,

which are covered in Technologic Paper No. 197 of this bureau, it was deemed advisable to inaugurate further investigation of these

cements. However, the work has not progressed further than the

making of some very preliminary burns, in which the compositions

approached closely that of the similar type of cements being manufactured in France. Eaw material in the form of bauxite from

Georgia has also been obtained, which will be used to manufacture

this cement in a rotary kiln. The resulting cement will be tested

particular^ for its resistance to sea-water action on concrete.

Cement Inspection (Dwyer, Oscar, Moyer, Furlong, John).

The quantity of Portland cement tested by the bureau and packed

and shipped under the supervision of its inspectors to Government

projects during the fiscal year was 19.5 per cent greater than the

amount handled during the preceding fiscal year. The monthly

totals are compared in the following table:

Shipments of Bureau Tested and Ceetified Cement (Baeeels).

July

August

September

October. .

November.

December.

January . .

February.

March

1921-22

71,416

63 ,,853 67,528

72,355

46, 809 44,675

27,624

21,476 42,969

1922-23

42,918

46, 851

28, 014 42,536

40,850 46,444

54,418

69, 108

74, 185

April

May.

June.

Rejected for failure to meet

specifications

1921-22

43,970

45, 156 46,064

593, 845

51,124

Miscellaneous Tests.

In addition to the mill inspection work, 111 samples of cement

submitted by Government offices and State institutions were tested.

Some of these were intended for comparisons, others were referee

cases. Field specimens of concrete have been submitted from a number of Government projects, totaling nearly 800, the majority coming

from the Wilson Dam, under construction at Muscle Slioals, Ala.

Including the work of the branch laboratories at Denver and San

Francisco some 550 miscellaneous samples have been tested, including

concretes, aggregates, cement products, water, paints, asphalts, galvanized metals, oils, Avaterproofing compounds, and building stones.

In connection with tests of accelerators previously mentioned, a number of concrete cylinders containing calcium cMoride, and exposed to
REPORT OF DIRECTOR OF BUREAU OF STANDARDS. 225

the weather in 1917 and 1918, were broken in the latter part of the

fiscal year. The embedded rods were generally in good condition,

although localized spots of rust were observed, apparently where

voids occui-red on the surface of the steel.

3. LEATHER, RUBBER, ETC.

P. L. Wormeley.

Chrome Sole Leather (Bowker, Geib).

A comprehensive investigation to determine the comparative durability and utility value of chrome-tanned sole leather and vegetabletanned sole leather has been completed. Comparative wear tests involving natural chrome sole leather and samples which had been

stuffed with paraffin, hard greases, and mineral fillers gave results

which lead to the following conclusions: (1) Natural chrome leather

will wear twice as long per unit of thickness as vegetable tanned

leather, but will not hold its shape and is not water resisting. (2)

Chrome leather stuffed with paraffin will outwear vegetable leather

in neai-ly the same ratio as does natural chrome. It holds its shape

slightly better, but remains resistant to moisture penetration for only

a short time. (3) Chrome leather stuffed with hard greases and mineral fillers will wear about 30 per cent longer than vegetable leather.

It is firmer, more waterproof, and holds its shape better than natui'al

leather and that containing paraffin. (4) As a general conclusion,

it may be stated that chrome sole leather will wear approximately

twice as long as vegetable sole leather per unit of thickness, but that

in order to secure firmness and water-resisting properties comparable to that of vegetable leather the wearing quality of the chrome

leather must be sacrificed to some extent.

Synthetic Tanning Materials (Wallace, Wolesensky).

Observations made on these materials during the year have shown

that by themselves they are not suitable for making leather, since

they lack the filling properties of ordinary vegetable tanning materials. Tanning tests using blends of the ordinary materials and

the synthetic materials show that the latter are an aid to penetration,

the time required for striking through a heavy hide being cut in

half. The use of these materials in the extract wheels aided penetration and also had a bleaching effect. A study of the plumping

effects of a blend of vegetable tanning and synthetic materials

showed that some had a decided plumping effect, while others after

a certain point actually depressed the hide. Some of the samples

had a solubilizing effect on the insolubles of certain vegetable tanning

materials when blended with the latter in certain proportions. The

composition of the synthetic tanning materials is such as to make

their economic importance of limited value since care must be exercised in their use, and even then only a small amount can be used in

combination with the ordinary vegetable materials. A comprehensive program of research has been started relative to the producnon,

process development, and application of these materials, and the possibilities of using some of the coal-tar derivatives in combination

with cheaper materials in order to produce a blend which will in

itself be satisfactory for converting hides into leather will be studied.

65077—23—16
226 REPORT OF DIRECTOR OF BUREAU OF STANDARDS.

Leather from Hogskins (Bowker, Wallace).

Hogskins oHev a large potential source of leather, it being stated

that the annual slaughter of hogs is about 60,000,000, the skins of

whicli for the most part are sold as meat. Hogskins contain large

amounts of natural fats which seriously interfere with the proper

tannage of these skins, especially by the chrome process. Investigations relative to the quality of the leather made from hogskins which

had been entirely degreased prior to tanning were made during the

year. Tanning, chemical, and physical tests were made involving

hog, calf, sheep, and goat skin-3 in both the degreased and natural

conditions. As a result of these tests it is believed that leather made

from degreased hogskins and sheepskins can be brought into general

use for shoe uppers, thereby presenting larger sources of raw skins

in the case of hog and a new use for sheepskins not seriously con- sidered formerly.

Colon Leather for Diaphragms (Bowker).

Samples of specially prepared colon leathers have been found to be

satisfactory for use as slack diaphragms in certain aeronautic instruments. Tests made have shown that these matei'ials can be

depended upon to repeat their performance under similar conditions,

that they are not affected by temperature over the range in which

use is likely, and do not have so high a permeability as to be unsuited for use. This latter is a very essential property for any

material to be used as a slack diaphragm.

Shoes (Bowker).

Assistance was given the United States Public Health Service in

connection with the development of standard shoes for letter carriers for both winter and summer wear. This work involved tests for quality of the leather used, study of the construction of the shoes,

and actual service tests to determine whether any inherent weaknesses

would develop.

Comparisons were made on different shoes for the New York police

department relative to the quality of materials used and the construction.

A contact with the National Committee on Prisons and Prison

Labor was established, as a result of which a report has been made

relative to the quality and construction of shoes made in one of the

State prisons.

Power Losses in Automobile Tires (Wormeley, Holt).

Tliis investigation has been continued and tests made on approximately 100 tires of different makes and sizes. The results of these

tests have been compiled for publication as a technologic paper. A

number of manufacturers have availed themselves of the special tiretesting equipment at the bureau in order to determine the effect of

new features in the design of tires.

Endurance Tire-Testing Machine (Wormeley, Holt).

The operation of this machine has been continued, and numerous

tests made at varying axle loads and air pressures with different

types of test wheels in order to arrive at a condition comparable with

road service. In this work the bureau has had the cooperation of the

various Government departments, in particular the Post Office De-
REPORT OF DIRECTOR OF BUREAU OF STANDARDS. 227

partment, in checking the bureau's laboratory results with road tests. Advice has likewise been furnished by the Rubber Association of

America and by several individual manufacturers. The results to

date show that the conditions of test and the type of. test wheel are of vital importance. Tentative test conditions have been established

and are being verified by tests on tires from representative manufacturers.

Accelerated Aging Test for Rubber Goods (Holt, Boone).

A continuation of this investigation has shown the desirability of

including such tests in many of the specifications for rubber goods.

This is being done as rapidly as the bureau is able to establish satisfactory test conditions for different types of materials.

Jar Rings for Canning (Boone).

This investigation has been completed and the results transmitted

to the manufacturers interested. The tests indicate that rings purchased under the present specification should giA'e satisfactory service.

Milking Machine Rubbers (Collier, Boone).

At the request of the Department of Agricultui'e an investigation

was conducted to determine the reason for the rapid deterioration of

rubber used with these machines. The bureau's tests showed conclusivel}^ that this trouble could be eliminated by the removal of the

bu1,terfat thoroughly before sterilization.

Insulated Wire Investigation (Holt, Boone).

This investigation is being conducted in cooperation with the chemical and electrical divisions at the request of the Signal Corps of

the Army. The different kinds of rubber, gutta-percha, balata, etc. (along with numerous compounding ingredients), are being studied

in order to determine the best materials for insulation purposes consistent with cost and availability.

Specially Prepared Rubbers (Holt, Anderson).

Advances which have been made in the rubber industry in methods

of preparing rubbers from the latex have made it necessary for the

bureau to follow such changes with a view to maintaining proper

standards for rubber goods. Preliminary experiments which have

been conducted with these specially prepared rubbers have shown

some quite surprising results in the way of possible increases in tensile strength.

Insulating Tape (Boone, Cook).

This investigation has been continued with tests on the tapes which

have aged for six months and one year. A report covering the first

six months was sent to the different manufacturers.

Rubber Analysis (W. H. Smith).

The analysis of rubber goods, representing material purchased by

various Government departments, is a necessary and important function of the bureau. For this class of materials certain routine methods may be followed, but in many cases it is necessary to use revisions

of the ordinary procedure.

A method of analysis, depending on the selective solvent action of

mineral oils, has resulted in greater accuracy than was possible in
228 KEPOKT OF DIRECTOR OF BUREAU OF STANDARDS.

the past. By this method the fillers, especially decomposable fillers,

may be determined definitely for a great variety of compounds.

An attempt is being made to determine mineral rubbers by a new- method of procedure. Experimental work on rubber accelerators is

also being carried on. The methods of analysis proposed by this bureau and adopted by

the American Chemical Society, and substantially by the American

Society for Testing Materials, have been submitted to the Federal

Specifications Board for its approval.

4. TEXTILES.

F. R. McGowan.

Heat-Retaining Properties of Fabrics (Sale).

The work carried over from the last fiscal year relating to the

design of apparatus and most suitable method of testing the comforting value of blankets, which composed three distinct measurements, has been finished, and a detailed publication on the method of

test and descriiDtion of apparatus has been prepared. The problem

itself will require additional work in the line of procuring fundamental data in order that the results may be expressed in terms which

will make them most useful to the manufacturers of blankets and

clothing materials.

Pima Cotton (McGowan, Mercier).

The investigation as to the use of this material, as outlined in the

last annual report, is still under way, since mail sacks made from

this cotton are still under service test by the Post Office Department.

Examination from time to time has indicated that no marked changes

have occurred in the quality, and there has been no marked decrease

in the strength or usefulness of the bags.

Sheeting (McGowan).

This investigation was carried on to determine the physical properties of sheetings, as obtained from commercial houses, in an effort

to obtain standard specifications for sheeting. The work took into

consideration 30 or moi"e different types of sheetings, and after being

tested the results were reported to the manufacturers submitting

samples through the textile division of the Bureau of Foreign and

Domestic Commerce, the latter having been instrumental in procuring the samples. From results of this work and surveys which have

been carried out specifications were submitted to the Joint Committee

on Research and Standardization of the Cotton Industry for their

consideration. No reports of final adoption are available to date.

Appraisal of Textiles (McGowan).

The Veterans! Bureau was anxious to dispose of a large quantity of

textiles. At their request the Bureau of Standards made an appraisal

of this material. The survey included items ranging from cheesecloth to heavy duck, bandages, towels, absorbent cotton, aprons, sheeting, and blankets.

Fish Lines (McGowan).

A recent publication of the Bureau of Fisheries on the effect of the

available commercial treatments for preserving fish lines includes the
REPORT OF DIRECTOR OF BUREAU OF STANDARDS. 229

work on the physical properties of these lines made by this bureau.

The publication shows the effect of the different preservatives on the

life of the material, also their effect on handling by making the materials pliable or stiff, as the case may be. It is planned to carry this

work further to include various other types of textiles used in the

fishing industry.

Abrasion (McGowan).

The work on the investigation of the workability of the apparatus

used to determine the abrasive qualities of fabrics was not in progress

the greater part of the year. At the request of the Joint Committee

on Kesearch and Standardization of the Woolen and Worsted Industry the work was again started to cover one or two important

problems of the wool industry. The investigation on the effect of

the variables of the machine has not been completed. It has not

seemed advisable to place this device before the public, inasmuch

as the preliminary data have not been completed.

Stress/Strain Relations of Balloon Fabrics (Sale, Morris).

At the request of the Navy Department a series of tests was made

on the outer cover cloth of large airships similar to the ZR-1 to

obtain fundamental data on the relations of the stresses in the

covering. The work covered methods of application and the effect of

different applications on the strength and serviceability of the

material.

Standard Method of Testing Fastness of Color (McGowan).

Surveys have been made of available apparatus used for fading and

for indicating the degree of fading of various colors on a number of

textile materials. The work was undertaken at the request of the

American Association of Textile Chemists and Colorists, whose purpose it is to obtain standard methods of testing fastness to light,

washing, and other factors. The bureau is testing one set of specimens which was sent out by the association for the purpose of

checking. This work is to be correlated with the project of standardization of dyes.

Conveyor Belts (McGowan).

At the request of the Post Office Department a further survey

was made to obtain data which would enable that department to secure the most suitable belting for their purpose. Inspection at

the New York post office indicated that in considering specifications

for belting for that particular branch of seiwice, account should be

taken of a number of variables which enter into the life of the belt,

such as the condition of the mechanical fixtures. As a result of the

bureau's recommendations, specifications covering rubberized fabric

and stitched canvas belts were drawn up by the Post Office Department in cooperation with the textile section.

Brattice Cloth (McGowan).

At the request of the Bureau of Mines, cooperative work has been

started on the preparation of specifications for brattice cloth, specifications for application, and specifications for testing the material.

A survey of the present materials used in the different mines, classified as to location and gaseous condition, was made by the Bureau

of Mines; and later a survey of application was made by a repre-
230 REPORT OF DIRECTOR OP BUREAU OF STANDARDS,

sentative of the bureau. The matter has been placed before the

manufacturers' advisory committee for their consideration. The

plan as now outlined includes the introduction of fabrics made

from hard fibers and an investigation of fire-resisting and water-resisting treatments.

Electrical Cotton Yarn (McGowan).

At the request of a manufacturer of magnet wire, a committee

was formed composed of electrical wire manufacturers and cottonyarn dealers for the purpose of drawing up a standard method of

testing the physical properties of electrical cotton yarn. To date

the committee has succeeded in drawing up standard methods of

testing breaking strength, and is now working up a standard test

to indicate the uniformity of winding of the yarns on the cheeses.

Sandbags (McGowan).

As an item on the preparatory progTam of the War Department,

the substitution of cotton for jute sandbags has been turned over to

the bureau. This requires a survey of the present containers available and also the possibility of utilizing paper yarns and textile

fibers. The possibility of using bale wrappings has been entertained

and can be brought about by the introduction of cotton wrapping

for bale purposes.

Specifications for Federal Specifications Board (McGowan, Schoffstall).

In general, in the previous formation of textile specifications by

the various Government departments very little investigational work

was used. This makes necessary a thorough study of each of the

fabrics under consideration with a view toAvard forming an efficient

specification based primarily on commercial materials. By commercial materials are meant those which are now being miinufactured

or those which will be by general agreement used as commercial

standards.

A survey of all Government specifications for textile materials has

been made, showing over 950 specifications covering over 1,500 separate materials. A complete file is being collected for consideration

of each of the materials as they are taken up by the committee.

After a tentative draft has been formed, it is referred to manufacturers' committees for comment. Committees representing the vari- ous parts of the textile manufacturing industry are being thoroughly organized to expedite the handling of this work. In the

cotton industry, for instance, a small committee formed from the

largest associations handles the specifications, referring them to

the manufacturers of the particular product under consideration,

which results in a complete survey of commercial practice.

From all these comments, criticisms, and collective data a tentative

specification is formed, and after approval by the textiles committee

and the commercial committee it is submitted to the board for adoption and promulgation.

Progress of the textile specifications is summarized as follows:

There have been completed specifications for numbered duck and the

measurement of hosiery; there have been submitted to commercial

technical committees specifications for Army duck, shelter-tent duck.
KEPOKT OF DIREGTOK OF BUREAU OF STANDARDS. 231

dredging sleeve duck, denim, and sheeting; and the committee is now

considering wool and cotton bunting, felt, and blankets.

In addition, some data and comments were prepared on typewriter ribbons and handed to a committee formed to consider them.

Also, standard methods of test have been adopted by the committee

and the various commerci?»l committees.

Research and Standardization (McGowan, Schoffstall)

It is the desire of the bureau to be of maximum assistance to the

commercial world, both through the introduction of research and

standardization and through assistance in obtaining fundamental

data, upon which standardization can be based. Along these lines

the textile industry has been successfully approached and organized

into one main committee known as the main advisory committee of

the Bureau of Standards on I'esearch and standardization. This

committee takes into consideration particularly the manufacturers

of the industry, and the work should be broadened to include the

jobbers, retailers, and allied industries. The main committee has

met on three occasions. The last meeting was held on June 1, and

resulted in the appointment of John P. Wood, of the wool industry,

as chairman. The following associations have appointed advisory

committees to work with the bureau on subjects of particular interest

to them: The National Association of Wool Manufacturers; the

American Association of Woolen and Worsted Manufacturers and

the National Association of Woolen and Worsted Spinners have

appointed a joint committee; the National Association of Cotton

Manufacturers and the American Cotton Manufacturers Association

have also appointed a joint committee ; National Association of

Hosiery and Underwear Manufacturers; Cordage Institute; Cotton

Duck Association; Silk Association of America; National Association of Finishers of Cotton Fabrics; Association of Manufacturers

of Window Shades and Shade Cloth; National Tent and Awning

Manufacturers Association; Interstate Cotton Seed Crushers Association ; American Association of Wool Blanket Manufacturers ; and

National Committee on Prisons and Prison Labor.

5. PAPER.

F. A. Curtis.

Thickness of Paper (Houston).

Disputes between the manufacturers and users Avith regard to the

thickness of paper can usually be traced to a difference in readings

of the instrument used to measure the thickness. To determine the

magnitude of the difference that may result in the use of the types

of dial micrometers commonly employed to measure paper, a number

of instruments were calibrated against steel gauges and used to

measure the thickness of several grades of paper. The micrometers

were studied to ascertain the causes of the different readings on the

same paper. The instruments were found to differ in form and area

of contact, contact pressure, and in the amount of friction in the

mechanism. To determine the effect of contact area and pressure,

tests in measuring paper were made on commercial papers using

contacts of different areas and with varying contact pressures. These
232 REPOET OF DIRECTOE OE BUREAU OF STANDARDS.

tests showed that the paper yielded to a greater extent with increase

of pressure when the contact was larger than when small. Under

the same pressure per square inch, but different contact areas, different readings of thickness were obtained. The mechanisms of the

instruments were studied to determine the effect of the various

designs on the contact pressure, the variation in contact pressure, and

the accuracy and variance of the instruments. Specifications are given for a standard instrument. From a study of the mechanisms

of instruments and the results of this investigation, it is felt that two

or more types of the mechanisms studied can be used in instruments

that will meet the specifications. The paper also contains specifications for a standard procedure to determine the mean thickness of a sample of paper. The investigation was carried on in cooperation

with the gauge section, and the results appear as Technologic Paper

No. 226.

Color of Paper (Lofton).

In connection with several investigations and also for mill control work, it has been necessary to develop a method for measuring

the color characteristics of white paper in such a way as to obtain

a comparative numerical figure. Through the courtesy of the paint

section, an apparatus was available which had been developed for

zinc white iDaint. The method was developed by Professor Pfund,

of Johns Hopkins University. It is a method by which the color

characteristics of white paint may be determined in terms of the

capacity of the paper for diffusely reflecting red (625 meter wave

length), green (550 meter wave length), and blue (460 meter wave

length) light. The color characteristics of 21 samples of white

paper were determined, and apparently all the samples tested are more or less deficient in the proportion of blue light reflected.

Further investigation should be made as to the importance of

whiteness and brightness and also the effect of the " finish " of the

paper upon the test. Relation Between Bursting and Breaking Strength (Houston).

A study of the curves of bursting and breaking tests on paper at

different humidities indicates a striking similarity in the form and

magnitude of the variations. It was believed that the data from

these tests indicated similar properties of paj^er. For this reason,

a study was made of the two test methods and the relation between

the two was investigated. A special device was attached to a Mullen tester to permit the determination of the amount of deflection of the diaphragm, from which the stretch of the paper could

be calculated. Tests were made on similar specimens on the

Schopper tensile tester and the data arranged to indicate the possible

relations:

breaking strength _ bursting strength

elongation elongation.

Although only a limited amount of data was obtained on account

of the time available, the results indicate that the above relation

is valid and might be used as a means of calibration of the Mullen

tester. The results of this investigation were published in the

Paper Trade Journal, March 29, 1923.
KEPORT OF DIRECTOR OF BUREAU OF STANDARDS. 233

Breaking Strength Test (Houston).

There are a number of devices for determining this quality of

paper, but there is little unifoi-mity in the procedure as to width and

length of the test strip, the rate of applying the load, and the time

during which the specimen is under stress. A study of these various

factors has been completed, using a number of different types

of paper, the study being made with a 50-kilogram Schopper tensile

tester, hydraulically operated. An examination of these data indicates that there is considerable difference in the amount of stretch

when the factors are varied, but that, when only the strength is to be

considered, the length of the specimen, within certain limits, is

negligible and that the strength is almost proportional to the width.

The results of this investigation were published in the Paper Trade

Journal, March 22, 1923.

Brittleness of Paper (Houston).

The Mullen tester is used almost universally in this country for

determining the bursting strength of paper and this factor is used,

to a large extent, as a measure of the quality of the paper. It often

happens, however, that a sheet may be so made or so sized that it will

have a high bursting strength and yet show a very low tearing or folding strength. By means of two steel rollers, a crease is made

under controlled conditions of pressure and time and the bursting

strength is determined before and after such folding. The loss in

strength under such conditions is an excellent indication of the

brittleness of the paper. The grading of paper by this method is

practically the same as that obtained by the Schopper folding en- durance tester. The results of this investigation were published in

the Paper Trade Journal, April 12, 1923. Further work is to be

done to standardize the tester and the method of procedure.

Effect of Humidity on Paper (Houston, Kirkwood, Carson).

As in the case of textiles, most of the physical properties of paper

are affected by changes in the relative humidity of the surrounding

atmosphere. Various physical qualities of paper have been studied

under relative humidity conditions of from 15 to about 86 per cent

and the results were published in the Paper Trade Journal, April 12,

1923. The test data indicate that the bursting and tensile strengths

are very similarly affected by changes of relative humidity, with a maximum at about 35 per cent moisture. Weight, tearing and folding strength, and expansion seem to increase steadily with increase

of relative humidity. The investigation has opened up two questions: (1) What relative humidity should be standard for test, and

(2) what is the relation between the actual strength of the individual

fibers and the friction between or cohesion of the various fibers in

the sheet? '

Sizing Quality of Paper (Carson).

One of the most important and fundamental factors in the manufacture of paper is the process of sizing paper. In general, this

process may be divided into two parts—engine or beater sizing and

tub sizing. In the former case rosin is used almost entirely, although

glue, starch, water glass, casein, etc., are sometimes used in addition.

In the latter case glue, converted starches, or a mixture of the two

are almost exclusively used, although these materials also afl'cct other
234 • REPORT OF DIRECTOR OF BUREAU OF STANDARDS.

properties of the sheet. In this study their effect on the resistance or partial resistance to ink and fluids is of especial importance.

Before undertaking the study of the operation of sizing it has been

necessary to develop a reliable test method. Some 18 methods have

been more or less investigated, and a supplementary report was published in the Paper Trade Journal, September 7, 1922. It appears

probable that different test methods will be necessary, depending on

whether the paper is to be used for printing, for writing, or to be

used in some process where the absorption must be accurately controlled. It would seem that sizing quality can not be defined truly

in terms of either lateral absorption or normal absorption alone,

but is to be judged as a result of the independent measurements

of both.

Waterproof Test (Carson).

There is a considerable demand for a method of measuring the

so-called waterproof quality of certain papers. This has been investigated and a method proposed which should be- fairly reliable,

but further work must be done to correlate the test data with the

value of the paper under actual service conditions. A modification

of the Stockigt method for determining sizing quality is used as a means of determining the relative water-resisting quality of paper.

The specimens are molded into a cup shape in the top of the bottle,

having an inside diameter of about 1| inches. The " cups " are

floated on a 2 per cent solution of ammonium thiocyanate (NH4CNS)

and three or four drops of a 1 per cent fjolution of ferric chloride

(FeClg) is placed in the middle of each "cup." The time required

for the pink or red coloration to set in is taken as a measure of

the degree of waterproofing. It is believed that this method is more

convenient and reliable than the methods usually employed.

Rubber Latex in Paper (Shaw, Bicking).

Due to the recent publicity given to a patent for the use of rubber

latex in paper an investigation was made for the paper division of

the Bureau of Foreign and Domestic Commerce. Rubber latex in a diluted form is put into the beater and it is claimed that this addition improves the quality of paper in regard to strength, finish,

filler retention, etc. A series of runs was made with different furnishes and tests were made on the paper so made. A complete

report of this study was published in the Paper Trade Journal,

December 28, 1922. This report indicates that the increase in

strength was within the natural variation of paper-making practice,

that great care had to be exercised to prevent the agglomeration of

the rubber into relatively large particles, and that in some cases the

paper developed a pronoiuiced odor on storage.

Aging of Rubber Latex Paper (Shaw, Carson).

In connection with experiments as to the use of rubber latex in

paper it was found that it was difficult to obtain a complete extraction of resin and rubber from the paper and a separation of the

two materials. The method used was to extract first with acetone

to eliminate the resins and then to extract with chloroform. A

special run was then made and extractions made daily. Successive

analyses of the same papers with increasing age indicate a comparatively rapid oxidation of the rubber retained in paper as a result of
REPORT OF DIRECTOR OF BUREAU OF STA25DABDS. 235

adding latex to the beater furnish. Within the limits of the investigation the oxidation was observed to be most rapid in the case of paper made of sulphite and soda pulp and least rapid in the case of rag papers. Complete oxidation in the case of the fonner was a matter of a few days, while in the latter case several months were

required for the greater part of the rubber to oxidize. The i^esults

of this investigation were published in the India Rubber World,

June 1, 1923.

Antitarnish Paper (Kirkwood). . Considerable difficulty has been experienced in the past as to a

suitable method for determining whether a paper was suitable for

wrapping polished metal goods. There seemed to be disagreement

between the methods proposed. A number of samples were obtained,

but before testing these the cooperation of the electrochemistry sec- tion of the electrical division was obtained. Strips of plated, pure,

and sterling silver were wrapped with small pieces of the paper

samples and the specimens were placed in jars under both dry and

moist conditions. The tarnishing effect of the paper has not yet

been determined, but as soon as the tests given above are completed

the samples of paper are to be examined and tested. From other

studies it is evident that sterling silver tarnishes more rapidly than

pure silver. It is planned to prepare later a standard method for

testing antitarnish paper.

Photomicrography of Paper Fibers (Lofton).

Although completed during the last fiscal year, the report on this

iuA'estigation was not published until recently as Technologic Paper

No. 217. It contains a description of some of the more important

factors in the photomicrography of vegetable fibers, especially those

used in the paper industrj^ Three types of light filters, with general directions for preparing them, are discussed. Suggestions as

to the best type of photographic plates to use for photomicrographic

work are given. Staining and preparing the material to be photo- - graphed are discussed and the value of photographs for permanent

records and in the study and control of materials and mill processes

is pointed out. The various discussions are illustrated by photomicrographs and diagrams.

Colored Micrographs (Merritt).

In connection with the microscopic study of paper fibers it has

been found very advantageous to make projection drawings. Such

projections and drawings bring out the characteristic markings

much better than when the specimens are observed through the

microscope in the ordinary way. By properly coloring or tinting

these drawings useful charts are made available for reference and

for research. The additional advantage of these drawings over photomicrographs is that selected fibers on fields may be placed to- gether to bring out special characteristics. A series of such drawings is being prepared, both of the ordinary paper-making pulps

and also of special woods and fibers. These drawings are being

tinted to bring out the characteristic markings and will be of value

not only for study but also to microscopists in the paper industry.
236 REPORT OP DIRECTOR OF BUREAU OF STANDARDS.

Methods of Fiber Analysis (Merritt).

In Connection with the cooperative study by a committee of the

Technical Association of the Pulp and Paper Industry work has been

started on several methods of fiber analysis that have been proposed

as standard. In the past the method used in any laboratory was

largely dependent upon the individual microscopists, but there has

been much discussion as to the relative merits of the " count " and

" estimation " methods. Samples of known and unknown proportions

of various fibers were prepared for use in this work. It is expected

that procedure for standard test will thus be developed.

Chemical Hydration of Pulp (Shaw, Bicking).

In connection with a research organization some experiments were

made to determine whether a certain amount of hydration could

be produced by preliminary treatment with strong, cold caustic

soda. Cotton linters were used, but the work was not carried far

enough to develop any very definite conclusions. This work, however, showed the possibilities of a more thorough study of this subject, and a large amount of time could probably be saved if such a method could be developed. However, a great deal of laboratory

work would pi'obably be necessary before any definite paper-making

trials could be made. This problem is, of course, closely connected

with the fundamental study of cellulose.

White Water Waste and Recovery (Shaw, Bicking).

In connection with the work of the committee on waste of the

paper industry cooperative studies were carried out at two book

paper mills—Dill & Collins Co. and the Miami Paper Co. These

tests were made to determine the amount of clay and fiber that was

lost and also to obtain some information as to clay retention under

actual mill conditions. These tests were exhaustive and were made

during an actual commercial run of paper, and the data were used

by the waste committee in their report to the paper industry. A

supply of pulps and clay were presented by the Miami Paper Co.

to permit of duplicate i-uns at the Bureau in order to develop a relation between the experimental mill and a large commercial machine. The experience and data obtained are chiefly of value in con- nection with the study of domestic and foreign clays.

Domestic and Foreign Clays (Shaw, Bicking).

There has been considerable delay in completing this problem, and

it has been postponed from time to time to finish other work. The

various runs made last year were of a preliminary nature and_ were

of value in developing the technique and in obtaining preliminary

information. However, the final runs are now being made on 5

domestic clays and 3 foreign clays in order to obtain mill data.

These clays have been tested, and samples of the paper made are

tested in the usual manner and also for color and finish. It is hoped

that sufficient data will be available to determine the relative value

of the two types of clay when color, amount of grit, retention in the

l)aper, and cost are considered.

Condenser Paper (Shaw, Bicking).

In connection with the manufacture of power condensers, a lightweight paper approximating 0.005 inch in thickness is necessary.
EEPOKT OF DIRECTOR OF BUREAU OF STANDARDS. 237

The requirements for this paper are that it must be free from pinholes and from conducting particles. Difficulty has been experienced

in obtaining this paper, since most of the commercial papers contain

approximately 30 to 40 such particles per square foot. An investigation was undertaken last year at the request of the General Electric

Co. and satisfactory paper was produced here. A report of this

study was published in Paper Industry, May, 1923. Considerable assistance was given by both the General Electric Co. and The

Smith Paper Co., and special equipment was supplied by them. The

chief requirement in making this paper, in addition to cleanliness,

is the use of a stone or composition beater roll from which metallic

particles will not chip oif. Glue for Coating Paper (Gottschalk).

Due to the probable increased price of casein, the National Association of Glue Manufacturers has established a fellowship to study

the use of glue for coating paper. A number of years ago it was

customary to use glue for this purpose, but with the introduction of

casein glue was seldom used. For certain purposes casein gives a

better coating, due to its water-resisting quality. Samples of glue

liave been obtained and preliminary studies are being made. A

drying apparatus is to be added to the coating machine in order to

reproduce mill conditions. It is planned to use the paper, under care- fully controlled conditions, for both typography and lithography.

Flax Straw for Paper (Kellogg, Shaw, Bicking).

Last' year the investigation of the possible use of flax straw and tow

for paper making was imdertaken. Very large quantities of seedflax straw are available in the Northwest and in Canada. The problem was restricted to the study of the use of the " sulphate " process.

This is an alkaline cook used for spruce, southern pine, etc., and the

paper made from such pulp is commonly called kraft. A number of

cooks and runs were made, using both the seed straw and tow produced from the seed straw. Very satisfactory results were obtained,

and during the latter part of the year a number of cooks were made

under industrial conditions in a sulphate pulp mill at Jaite, Ohio.

There were a number of unfavorable factors present during these

cooks, such as a dirty system, dirty water, etc., but the pulp was

shipped to the bureau and runs were made. The qualit37^ of the paper

produced was not so good as that from the cooks made here, but cost

data were obtained which indicated that the use of either flax straw

or tow was not economically feasible with ordinary paper-making

materials at their present prices. A complete report is being published.

Barograph and Syphon Cable Paper (Curtis).

The study of the properties of special papers is best illustrated by

the development of specifications for barograph paper and paper for

syphon recording instruments for cable messages. In the former

case the work was done at the request of the engineering division of

the Air Sex'vice. A number of papers were examined, but it was

necessary to study also the ink used under conditions that might be

analogous to those found at high altitudes. Tentative specifications

were finally developed and reported to the Air Service. In the case

•of syphon cable paper, however, the two factors that had to be con-
238 EEPOBT OF DIRECTOE OF BUREAU OF STANDARDS.

sidered were sizing (quality and the surface of the paper. The instruments for recording the cable messages are so delicate and sensitive that the pen must easity make a mark with minimum resistance

and the line should be clear to permit of easy reading of the message.

Recommendations were made in regard to this type of paper.

Proposed Standard Substance for Paper (Curtis).

In connection with the general program on the standardization of

paper, one of the committees cooperating with the bureau in this

work has recommended the adoption of a standard substance or weight basis for all paper in place of the numerous bases now in use for the different grades or classes. This recommendation has

been indorsed by a committee of manufacturers, by a committee of

paper merchants, and by a number of organizations representing

users of paper, printers, publishers, and purchasing agents. It has

also been unanimously indorsed by a general conference held at the-- bureau in regard to the standardization of paper. A report advocating the use of this standard-weight basis was published in the Paper

Trade Journal for August 17, 1922. It is believed to be a very

necessary adjustment in order to have a common unit of weight that

will eliminate confusion. The size recommended is 25 by 40 inches,, or 1,000 square inches.

Technical Standardization (Curtis).

Considerable progress has been made in connection with the

development of various phases of a suitable technical standardization

of paper as to sampling, testing, and tolerances. The completereport of a committee appointed to consider this matter was published in the Paper Trade Journal for September 14, 1922, and was

adopted with slight modification at a general conference held at the

bureau. This report proposes standard methods of sampling paper,

standard procedure for certain tests on paper, and also recommends

definite tolerances. The report further indicates that no attempt has

been made to prepare specifications of quality.

Sizes of Paper (Curtis).

For practically two years several committees have been cooperating on the problem of the sheet sizes of paper which could best be

used in order to simplify and reduce the number of sizes made and

kept on hand by the merchant. Careful surveys have been made

by the committees, and the field covered includes paper sizes for

general commercial printing, for books and magazines, for cataloguesand directories, and for bond, writing, and ledger paper forms. The

reports of the various committees were submitted to a general conference, composed of manufacturers, merchants, users, and other

interested representatives or organizations for its action. All the

reports were approved by the conference as a basis for further

development and for adoption by the trade. These reports are to- be published in detail, with sustaining data which were collected

during the market surveys, which were made in each case.

Classification and Definitions of Paper (Curtis).

A systematic arrangement of the various kinds and types of paper

into a classification for statistical purposes had been developed andhas been approved by the general conference on paper standardiza-
REPORT OF DIRECTOR OF BUREAU OF STANDARDS, 239

tion. The types are arranged in 10 classes—absorbent, boards, building, cardboard, cover, news, printing, tissue, wrapping, and writing.

These main classes are divided and subdivided in such a manner as

to group together those papers that are characteristically alike and

which are, in all Cases, the primary product of paper mills and not

converted products. In this classification there are about 175 main

types, and the terms used are common in the trade. Definitions have

been developed for these terms and are based on the classification.

In a supplementary report the committee submits an additional list of approximately 800 terms with definitions based on the main types

as given in the classification.

Case Lining Paper (Curtis).

In connection with an investigation and a manual being developed

by the transportation division of the Bureau of Foreign and Domestic

(jommerce, a study is being made of the technical requirements of

case-lining paper for overseas shipment. A number of repi'esentative

samples have been obtained and were tested under normal conditions.

Samples were also exposed to a temperature of 145° F. and were also

frozen. Retests were made after the paper had been exposed. A

. number of samples were obtained from incoming foreign shipments

and compared with domestic papers.

7. LIME, GYPSUM, AND SAND-LIME BRICK.

W. E. Emley.

Use of Hydrated Lime in Portland Cement Mortar (Johnson).

It is now quite customary to use a mixture of lime and cement in

mixing mortar. The recommendations of different authorities run

all the way from the addition of a little lime to cement mortar to the

addition of a little cement to lime mortar, many city building codes

specifying half-and-half. Obviously there should be one combination best adapted for a given purpose. This can be ascertained by

measuring all of the important properties of all possible combinations. Both this bureau and numerous other investigators have been

at work on this for some years. A new series of tests just completed

included the measurement of plasticity, time of set, yield, shrinkage,

and tensile strength of many different proportions of lime, cement,

and sand. The report is now in preparation. The literature on this

subject is so prolific that a bibliography is one of the important features of the report. The conclusions are drawn largely from the

literature, using the bureau's data merely as supplementary. As a

general proposition, it may be stated that a cement mortar leaner

than 1 : 3 can be improved by the addition of lime.

Improvement of Plasticity of Hydrated Lime (Welch, Emley).

There are tvfo kinds of hydrated lime for structural purposes,

which are known to the trade as " masons' " and " finishing." The

latter always commands the higher price, solely because of its greater

plasticity. Last year the bureau succeeded in improving the plasticity of masons' hydrate to such an extent as to make good finishing

hydrate. This process involved further treatment of the masons'

hydrate, after manufacture. This year an endeavor has been made

to improve the manufacturing process so that finishing hydrate,
240 REPOKT OF DIRECTOR OF BUREAU OF STANDARDS.

rather than masons', will be the 'original product, and further treatment will be unnecessary. It seems that plasticity is dependent not

onl}^ on the colloidal content of the hydrate, but the colloid, like glue,

must be protected against drying out, especially at the temperatures

normally reached in the manufacturing process, and it must also be

prevented from flocculating itself when the mixing water is added

preparatory to use. It has been found that the drying out can be

prevented by letting the freshly made hydrate cool in an atmosphere

of steam, and the flocculation by the addition of small amounts of a

readily soluble calcium salt. A hydrator designed to apply these

principles has just been completed for further experiment.

Use of Line in Chemical Industries (Emley).

In some years, more lime is used in the chemical industries than in

the building trades. Because it is the cheapest basic material, and

also because of its great affinity for water, it is fundamentally important as a raw material in a large number of industries. Each industry, of course, has its particular needs, requiring a lime of certain

properties. Public economy demands that any lime shall be used as far as may be for the pui'pose for which it is best adapted. The user wants to know what kinds of lime are available, and the maker wants

to know what kinds of lime are needed. To answer these questions,

the bureau has undertaken to prepare a series of specifications cov- ering the different kinds of lime required by the larger users. To

take advantage of the information possessed by other branches of the

Government an Interdepartmental Confei'ence on Chemical Lime

has been organized to prepare these specifications, the chief of this

section being secretary of this conference. Prior to publication, each

specification is submitted for criticism to both makers and users of the

particular kind of lime. Two of these specifications, covering the

rag cooking (paper) and glass industries, have been published. Two

more, for the causticizing and sulphite-pulp industries, are now in

press. Water purification, ceramic whiting, silica brick, sand-lime

brick, sugar, and leather are being studied.

Cause of Unsoundness of Lime Plasters (Emley).

Occasionally a type of failure known to the trade as " popping " develops in lime plaster. Small particles seem to expand and push

themselves out of the plaster, leaving tiny holes. In extreme cases, these holes may be sufficiently large or numerous to be unsightly. An

investigation made by the bureau some years ago indicated that

popping could not be serious if the lime was all fine enough to pass a No. 50 sieve. Such fine material either would be completely hydrated

during the mixing and application of the plaster, or the particles

would be too small to leave noticeable holes if they did expand. It

was therefore recommended that a requirement for this fineness be

put in the specifications for lime. The manufacturers objected on the

ground that certain impurities might be present in coarser sizes without causing trouble, and it would be unfair and unnecessary to grind

such materials to the required fineness. To answer this question, the

National Lime Association, the Contracting Plasterers Association,

the International Plasterers Union, and this bureau cooperated in

the erection of 98 panels of lime plaster. Different impurities were

prepared in different sized particles and added to the lime. The
KEPORT OF DIRECTOR OF BUREAU OF STANDARDS. 241

panels became one year old on March 4, 1923. An examination of

them indicates that popping is caused by overbiirned lime or by lime

burned during hydration. Other impurities, with the possible ex- ception of sand, do not cause popping, regardless of their coarseness. The report has been released to the Journal of the American

Ceramic Society, but is not yet published.

Investigation of the Physical Properties of Calcined Gypsum and

Gypsum Products (Welch).

The results of previous work on this subject gave data on the properties possessed by most of the calcined gypsums and gypsum plasters

on the market. In attempting to correlate these results, two subsidiary problems arose. Many gypsums contain small amounts of

anhydrite, Avhich is a form of calcium sulphate and could not be ac- curately distinguished from gypsum by chemical methods. This

made it difficult to check the physical properties against the chemical

composition. Most of the samples were either accelerated or retarded

so that their most important property, time of set, was not normal.

The effect of accelerators and retarders on both the time of set and

the other properties had to be studied before the results could be

safely interpreted.

A method has been devised for determining the amount of anhydrite in gypsum. It consists of dehydrating and then rehydrating the

sample in a current of air of known humidity and temperature. During this j)rocess the anhydrite remains inert, and its amount can be

calculated from the amounts of water lost and taken up. This report

is now in preparation.

Lists of materials which accelerate or retard gyi^sum have been

compiled from the literature, supplemented by the bureau's experiments. It has been found that, in general, the use of a retarder will cause a decrease in the strength of the gypsum.

Grading of Sand for Sand-Lime Brick (Johnson).

The important criteria for judging sand-lime brick are the compressive strength, transverse strength, and absorption. The product

is classified by these three properties. Most sand-lime brick plants

grind a part or all of the sand they use. It is then possible to control

to some extent the fineness or grading of the sand. If this is done intelligently, it may improve the quality of the brick enough to raise

its classification. We have previously published data on the effect

of grading of sand on the absorption and transverse strength. A

series of tests to show the effect on the compressiA^e and tensile

strengths have just been completed. In general, it seems that the

finer the sand the better the brick. The report is now in preparation.

Improvement of Gypsum Block (Porter, Welch).

The present gypsum partition tile is designed to be used only for

interior nonbearing partitions. There are no accepted specifications

for the material. If the blocks can be improved in strength and

weather resistance, they might find more extended use. Tbe first

step in the problem was' to test all brands of block now on the market

for compressive strength, transverse strength, absorption, rate of

absorption, gypsum content, core volume, and expansion. This work

65077—23 17
242 EEPORT OF DIEECTOR OF BUREAU OF STANDARDS.

1

has just been completed, and the report will be used as a basis for

specifications. Meawhile, the value of various weatherproofing compounds has been investigated. The indications thus far are that

treatment of the block with paraffin dissolved in a volatile carrier

will increase its weather resistance.

Adhesion of Gypsum Plaster to Concrete (Porter).

Some difficulty has been experienced in making gypsum plaster

adhere to a concrete wall. A series of preliminary experiments disproved the theory that this was due to chemical reaction between

the gypsum and the cement. It was then assumed to be due to differential expansion between the two materials, gradually weakening

and finally destroying the bond. Data on the expansion of concrete

were already available. Tests were conducted to obtain similar data

for gypsum plaster, especially as affected by the amount of sand in

the plaster. It was found that the expansion of this material can

be varied at will by use of a predetermined proportion of sand. By

using such a proportion of sand that the plaster will have the same

coefficient of expansion as the concrete, a good permanent bond can

be obtained. For the usual type of concrete, the plaster should

contain about two parts of sand to one of gypsum, by weight. The

report will be published as an appendix to the annual report of

committee C-11, A. S. T. M., for 1923.

How to Make Lime Set Quickly (Stockett).

When competing with gypsum, the slow setting of lime is sometimes a commercial handicap. By the addition of accelerators or

retarders, the time of set of gypsum can be varied at will. It is

desired to find some similar means to control the time of set of lime.

It has been found that a mixture of ground quicklime and hydrated

lime will set in the desired time, without undue change of volume.

Unfortunately, this mixture will not keep well enough for commercial shipment. The bureau has, therefore, tried to devise a means

to utilize it at the factory, by casting it in the form of partition

tile. About the same time, the National Lime Association succeeded

in making a similar block by extrusion from an augur machine, and

without the use of the quick-setting mixture. Tests of these blocks

show that they differ from the cast blocks to such an extent that

there may be a' market for both. The cast blocks are much lighter

and more porous, and therefore better adapted for interior nonbearing partitions, while the extruded blocks are better for exterior bearing walls. Tests of the extruded blocks have been reported to the

National Lime Association, but not yet published. The best mixture

for the cast blocks has not been fully determined. It was found that

a mixture of hydrated lime and unretarded Portland cement sets rather quickly, and this has been put on the market as a sort of quicksetting lime.

TESTING, INFORMATION, AND PUBLICATIONS.

Tests Completed During the Year.

During the year the folloAving tests have been completed by the

various sections of this division :

\
REPORT OF DIRECTOR OF BUREAU OF STANDARDS. 243

Steel

Iron

Other metals and alloys

Rope

Calibratiqn of testing machinesLarge H columns

Structural members (Delaware

467

22

578

58

2

18

Concrete products

Testing sieves

Building stones Leather

Rubber

Textiles

Paper

Lime and lime products.

Gypsum

Miscellaneous

42

124

106

191

736

5, 776

1, 636

River Bridge)

Cement

Concrete

Aggregates

8

5, 200

811

58

44

12

536

Cooperation.

The following is a list of the more important societies and groups

with which this division has cooperated during the past year. In

the majority of cases the connection with these organizations has

been through technical committees appointed by them to advise and

consult with the bureau in regard to problems in which they are

particularly interested.

American Concrete Institute.

American Society for Testing Materials.

American Society of Mechanical Engineers.

American Bureau of Welding.

National Research Council.

American Engineering Standards Committee.

National Advisory Committee for Aeronautics.

American Society of Civil Engineers.

American Association of Engineers.

Engineering Foundation.

Associated General Contractors.

Joint Committee on Concrete and Reinforced Concrete.

National Lime Association.

Gypsum Industries Association (Inc.).

Sand-Lime Brick Association.

American Ceramic Association.

American Zinc Institute.

Cotton Thread Exchange.

American Association of Woolen and Worsted Manufacturers.

American Cotton Manufacturers Association.

National Association of Cotton Manufacturers.

National Association of Woolen and Worsted Spinners.

National Association of Wool Manufacturers.

National Association of Dyers and Spinners.

National Electric Light Association.

American Petroleum Institute.

Society of Automotive Engineers.

United Typothetse of America.

National Paper Trade Association.

American Paper and Pulp Association.

Technical Association of Paper and Pulp Industries.

Association of National Advertisers.

National Association of Purchasing Agents.

Book Paper Manufacturing Association.

Tanners' Council.

Leather Belting Exchange.

National Boot and Shoe Manufacturers Association.

Rubber Association of America.

Rubber Heel Club.

American Leather Chemists' Association.

Cordage Institute.

Cotton Duck Association.

National Association of Hosiery and Underwear Manufacturers.

American Home Economics Association.

Inter-State Cotton Seed Crushers' Association.

National Association of Tent and Awning Manufacturers.

Silk Association of America.

Laundrymen's National Association.
244 REPORT OF DIRECTOR OF BUREAU OF STANDARDS.

Specifications.

The division has devoted considerable time during the past year to

the development of specifications covering the purchase of materials

for Government use. This has been carried on very lai'gely through

the Federal Specifications Boai'd. Bearing in mind the fact that

Federal specifications are very largely introduced into purchases by

semipublic and private interests, particular attention has been paid

to keeping in mind the viewpoint of the producer. Care has been

taken not to demand a product which would entail undue hardship

on tlie producer or the introduction of unusual practices. Specifications have been presented during the past year, and adopted by

the Federal Specifications Board, for a large variety of rubber products including various types of hose, rubber tubing, jar rings, and

packing. There are in course of preparation specifications for a

variety of leather products, as sole, lace, upholstery, packing, and

harness leather; various types of paper, as wrapping, blotting,

mimeograph, toweling, carbon, chart, and ledger paper ; wire rope

certain textile products, as duck and denims ; anci cementing materials, as Portland cement, natural cement, lime, and gypsum. The

following have been issued by the Federal Specifications Board:

Pneumatic tires and inner tubes F. S. B. No. 3. Leather belting F. S. B. No. 37. Fire liose F. S. B. No. 38. Rubber tubing F. S. B. No. .39. Various types of hose, as gas, dredging, and suction. F. S. B. Nos.40-.'j0, inclusive.

.Tar rings F. S. B. No. 51. Numbered cotton duck F. S. B. No. 53. Test methods for rubber goods F. S. B. No. .59. PUBLICATIONS.

During the year the following reports of work done in the division

liave been published

Technologic Paper No. 218. Results of some compressive tests of structural

steel angles (A. H. Stung and L. R. Strickenberg)

Teclmologic Paper No. 229, Some tests of steel wire rope on sheaves (Edward

Skilhnan).

Technologic Paper No. 236. Loading test of a hollow tile and reinforced concrete

floor of Arlington Building, Washington, D. C. (Louis .J. Larson and Serge

N. Petrenko).

The effect of sudex treatment on the physical properties of several woods, Letter

Circular 53. Calibration boxes for testing macliines. Letter Circular 94. Bibliography on impact testing (H. L. Whittemore) , Proc. Amer. Soc, for Test. Materials. 1922. Discussion on " Progre.ssive failure of metals under repeated stress" (Moore.

Kommers, and .Jasper), L. B. Tuckerman, Proc. Amer. Soc. for Test. Materials,

1922, vol. 22. Notes on aerodynamic forces on airship hulls. National Advisory Committee

for Aeronautics. Technical Note No. 129. Wide web column tests for Delaware River Bridge, editorial. Eng. News-Record,

December 7, 1922. New developments in telemetric device (R. S. .Johnston and O. S. Peters),

Proc. Amer. Soc. for Test. Materials, 1923.

Optical strain gauges and extensometers (L. E. Tuckerman), Proc. Amer. Soc. for Testing Materials, 1923. Teclmologic Paper No. 220, Test of a hollow tile and concrete floor slab reinforced in two directions (W. A. Slater, Arthur Hagener, and G. P. Anthes).

Technologic Paper No. 233, Tests of heavily reinforced concrete slab beams

(W. A. Slater and Fred B. Seely).

Inspection of Portland cement (J. R. Dwyer and Roy N. Young), Concrete,

August and September, 1922.

\
REPORT OF DIRECTOR OF BUREAU OF STANDARDS. 245

Development of the flat slab (W. A. Slater), Philadelphia Record. March 30,

1923.

Inundation methods for measurements of sand in making concrete (G. A. Smith and W. A. Slater), Proc, Amer. Concrete Inst., 19: 1923. Stresses in flanges of T beams (W. A. Slater), Concrete, November, 1922. Thoughts on concrete houses (J. C. Pearson), Proc, Amer. Concrete Inst., 19;

1923; Concrete, February, 1923.

An interesting case of dangerous aggregate (J. ('. Pearson and G. F. Loughlin),

Proc, Amer. Concrete Inst., 19 ; 1923 ; Concrete, April, 1923.

What quality of concrete block should become standard? (.1. C. Pearson),

Concrete, November, 1922.

Discussion on the " Meaning and microscopic measurement of average particle

size" (J. C. Pearson), Jour. Amer. Ceramic Soc, May, 1923.

Alkali attack on concrete roads and building brick—A study of disintegration

in Glenn County, Calif. (Irving Fuj-long), Eng. News-Record, .July 13, 1922.

Circular No. 135, Caustic magnesia cement.

The possibility of improving hydraulic cements (P. H. Bates), Proc, Portland

Cement Assoc. ; 1923. What properties of and methods of making Portland cement require further

investigation? (P. H. Bates). Proc, Amer. Soc. for Test, Materials; 1923.

Technologic Paper No. 226, A study of connnercial dial micrometers for measuring the thickness of paper (Paul L. Houston and D. R. Miller).

Technologic Paper No. 217, The photomicrography of paper fibers (R. E. Lofton )

The determination of sizing quality (F. T. Carson), Paper Trade Jour., September 7, 1922.

Simplification of paper sizes (report of committee). Paper Trade Jour., November 9, 1923.

Improvements in methods of making the Herzberg stain used in fiber analysis

(M. F. Merritt), Paper Trade Jour., August 24, 1922.

Rubber latex in paper (M. B. Shaw and G. W. Bicking), Paper Trade Jour.,

December 28, 1922. Technical standardization (report of committee), Paper Trade Jour., Deceitiber 28, 1922.

Proposed standard substances for paper (S. L. Willson), Paper Trade Jour.,

August 17, 1922.

Paper research literature: A bibliography (F. A. Curtis and C. J. West),

Paper Trade Jour., February 8, 1923.

Effect of length and width of test specimen on tlie breaking strength and

elongation of paper (P. L. Houston), Paper Trade Jour., March 22, 1923. Relationship between breaking strengtli and bursting sti-ength of paper ( P. L. Houston), Paper Trade Jour., February 8, 1923.

A quick test to determine the brittleness of paper (P. L. Houston), Paper

Trade Jour., April 12, 1923. The effect of atmospheric humidity in the physical testing of paper (P. L. Houston, F. T. Carson, and R. S. Kirkwood), Paper Trade Jour., April

12, 1923.

A study of the experimental manufacture of condenser paper (M. B. Shaw and

G. W. Bicking), Paper Industry, May, 1923.

Aging of rubber latex paper (M. B. Shaw and F. T. Carson), India Rubber

World, June 1, 1923. Classification and definitions of paper (report of committee), C. J. West,

Paper Trade Jour., May 31, 1923.

Manufacture of lime (W. E. Eniley), Proc, Sand-Lime Brick Assoc. ; 1922.

Effect of hydrated lime on the strength and flow of concrete (W. E. Eniley),

Proc, Nat. Lime Assoc; 1922; Proc, A. S. T. M. ; 1922; Rock Product.*,

November 18, 1922.

Intelligent scientific conti-ol essential to the lime industry (W. E. Emley), ( -hem.

and Met., August 30, 1922 ; Concrete ; October, 1922. Tests of gypsum wall board and plaster board (J. M. Porter), Proc, A. S. T. M. ; 1922.

Standards of quality (W. E. Emley), Ingeniera Internacional, October, 1922.

Bureau of Standards (W. E. Emley), Brazilian American, November, 1922;

Proc, Amer. Chamber of Commerce of Sao Paulo, November, 1922.

Department of Commerce (W. E. Emley), Brazilian American, November, 1922. General impressions of Brazilian business (W. E. Emley), Chem. and Met.,

February 14, 1923.

METALLURGY.

George K. Burgess.

FUNCTIONS.

The metallurgical division concerns itself with research, investigation, and testing as related to metals and alloys, except built-up

metal structures and the processes of extraction of metals from

their ores. Its functions include the production of metals and

alloys, both of the highest attainable purity and of commercial

grades ; the preparation and study of auxiliary metallurgical products such as slags, included gases, molding sands, refractories, and

deoxidizers ; the development of apparatus, instruments, and manufacturing appliances for metallurgical processes, reseach, and

testing; the formulation and maintenance of those standards and

specifications of interest to metallurgists ; the determination of metallurgical constants and properties ; the investigation of the performance of manufacturing units ; the determination of the causes of

failure and the study of the improvement of metal products ; and

j the development of economical metal substitutes. The division has

j equipment for metallographic examinations of metals such as microI scopic analyses, including determinations of constitution, structure,

and causes of failure ; for thermal analyses, including determination

of heating and cooling curves for location of critical points ; for the

various heat treatments, such as annealing, quenching, cementation,

j tempering; for various operations for the hot and cold working of

, metals, such as forging, rolling, and drawing, and for miscellaneous

physical tests; for the usual foundry operations of molding and

casting ferrous and nonferrous metals; and for other metallurgical

processes, such as production of pure metals, electrodeposition and

plating, welding, and determination of gases in metals.

SECTIONS.

1. Optical metallurgy,

2. Thermal metallurgy.

3. Mechanical metallurgy.

4. Chemical metallurgy.

5. Experimental foundry,

GENERAL STATISTICS.

Staff 43

$84, 000

4, 181

Expenditures (1922-23) Tests completed

Researches completed

Bureau publications

Other technical publications

37

14

44

247
WORK CHART.

1. OPTICAL METALLURGY.

SCOPE.

Identification of: (a) Metallographic constituents, (h) unknown alloys, (r)

heat treatment, (d) mechanical history.

Constitution.

Causes of failure.

Etching reagents.

Metallographic apparatus.

Corrosion and its prevention.

Coated metals.

Metallographic standards.

Photomicrograph s. TESTS.

Nature ot test.

Number completed.

1921-22 1922-23

87

34

712

1861365

3

8

17

Aluminum and aluminum alloys

Coated metals Platinum

is

4 Lead 3

7

735

Gold alloys

17

RESEARCHES.

Subject.

Properties of carbon steels: Grain size and hardness Grain size and other mechanical properties

Tempering of hardened steel Nonferrous corrosion: Lead

Copper (special phase)

Soft metals, tin, aluminum, and zinc (special phase , intererystaUine attack)

Comparison of test methods

Etching reagents and methods: Copper

Copper alloys, niclcel and its alloys AUiminum

Constituents of special steels Phosphorus and low carbon steels (microdistribution)

Electric arc welding:

Characteristics of arc fused steel..

Welded pressure tanks

Nickel spark plug electrode Structure of steel at high temperatures.

In cooperation with

Status Jime 30, 1923.

A.S.T.M

Steel manufacturer.

American Welding Society.

American Welding Bureau.

Per cent completed.

1 Chem. and Met. Eng., 26, p. 109, 154, 212; 1922.

2 Arasrican Welding Bureau No. 5, June, 1923. 248

100

15 100

100

100

100

100

100

70

100

100

100

100

100

Publication

issued.

S397.

S452.

S377. T158. Outside."

S399.

S435.

T203.

T179.

Outslde.2

T143.

S356
KEPOKT OF DIRECTOR OF BUREAU OF STANDARDS.

EESEARCHES—Continued.

249

Subject.

Defective steels (flakes)

Deep etching of iron and steel: Acid etching (concentrated acid)

Persulphate etching , Microoharacteristics of wrought iron .

Testing of galvanized materials Ferrous corrosion: High chromium steels , Comparison of methods of tests .

Nick-bend test for wrought iron

Properties of electrolytic copper Embrittlement of malleable iron in gah'anizing.

In cooperation with

Army, Ordnance.

A.S.T.M.

A.S.T.M

Wrought iron

manufacturers.

Malleable iron

manufacturer.

Status June 30, 1923.

Per cent completed.

100

100

100 10060

75.5

90

50

100

Publication

issued.

Outside.3

T156.

S402. T97.

C80. Outside.*

Outside.''

Do. 8

' Trans, of Amarican Institute of Mining Engineers, p. 246; 1920. American Railroad Association Report No. 85, Novembsr, 1919; Jour, of the Faraday Society, p. 110, 1921.

< Proc. A. S. T. M., 17, p. 144; 1917.

6 Pro3. A. S. T. M., 22, p. 193; 1922.

' Am. Institute of Metals, 1916; Trans. Electro^bemistrv Sosiety, p. 1.59, 1916; Trans. Eleotro3hemistry

Society, p. 103, 1923.

2. THERMAL METALLURGY.

SCOPE.

Thermal analys's : (a) Location of critical points, (b) sur%'ey of heat treat- ment, (c) new alloys.

Heat treatment: («) Annealing and noi-malizing, (h) hardening and tempering, (c) cementation, (d) investigation of new alloys.

High temperature properties of metals.

TESTS.

Nature of test.

Number completed.

1921-22 1922-23

3,438

72 6607»

RESEARCHES.

Subject.

Steel at high temperatures:

Boiler plate (tension) General carbon steels (tension) General carbon steels (compression and impact) . Alloy steels (compression and impact)

Alloy steels (tension) Heat treatment structural carbon and alloy steels: Nickel-steel properties

1 per cent carbon steel

In cooperation

with—

^Various steel

' manufacturers

Status June 30, 1923.

Per cent completed.

100

10030

3090

85

100

PubUcation

issued.

T219.

T205.

Outside.'

Outside.^

Do.3

T206. Outiide.' 'Mining and Metallurgy, No. 158, sec. 15, February, 1920; Chem. and Met. Eng., 24, No. 3, p. 131,

19, 1921; Chem. and Met. Eng^ 26, No. 26, p. 1207, June 28, 1922; Chem. and Met. Eng., 27, >fo. , Aug. 2, 1922; Chem. and Met. Eng., 27, No. 7, p. 309, Aug. 16, 1922.

Jan.

2 Trans. Am. Soc. for Steel Treating, 2, No. 5, p. 409, February, 1922.

a Trans. Am. Soc. for Steel Treating, 2, No. 5, p. 409, February, 1922; Iron Age, 110, No. 7, p. 404, Aug.

17, 1922. t

' Trans. Am. Soc. for Steel Treating, 2, No. 6, p. 467, March, 1922.
250 REPORT OF DIRECTOR OF BUREAU OF STANDARDS.

KESEAECHES—Continued.

Subject.

Heat treatment structural carbon and alloy steels

Continued. High chrominm (stainless) steel Molybdenum steels High-speed steel: Performance lathe tools Secondary hardness Performance milling cutters Tool, die, and gauge steels: Artificial seasoning Dimensional changes in hardening

Study of gauge steel and their treatments Quenching media

Melting points:

Alloy steels Refractory elements Heat treatment duralumin

PickUng and heat treatment of rods, etc Apparatus for thermal analysis

Critical ranges of steels: Carbon steels , Nickel steels Other alloy steels Low-temperature critical ranges, iron and steel... Iron-nitrogen diagram (new) , Hardened si eels Thermoelectric measurements

Magnetic properties of steels: Eutectoid steel Permanent magnet

Effect of surrounding atmospheres in heat treatment. Gkses V. heat treatment of steels

In cooperation with

Navy

Navy

(Gauge committee, Army,

Navy, and

manufacturers,

Status June 30, 1923.

Per cent completed

Publication

issued.

100 Outside.'

100 Do.6

75 T228. Outside.'

100 S395, Outside.3

5

100 Outside.'

25

4025

60

70

75 S347. 100 Outside.w

95 T230, S348, 336.

95

100 S376. Outside."

60 S375. Outside.i2

40

15 100 S39S. Outside.is

90

100 S404, 408. 565

20 S457. Outside.^

= Jour, of Soc. of Auto. Eng 7, No. 1, p. 103, July, 1920; Chem. & Met. Eng., 23, No. 1, July 7, 1920.

6 Trans. Am. Soc. for Steel Treating, 2, No. 9, p. 769, June, 1922.

' Trans. Am. Soc. for Steel Treating, 2, No. 12, p. 1125, September, 1922.

s Trans. Am. Soc. for Steel Treating, 1, No. 9, p. 511, June, 1921.

9 Chem. and Met. Eng., 25, No. 4, p. 155, July 27, 1921; American Machinist, 55, p. 768. w Trans. Am. Electrochemical Soc, p. 543; 1920. " Mining and Metallurgy, No. 158, sec. 16, February, 1920.

- '2 Chem. and Met. Eng., 28, No. 5, p. 212, Jan. 31, 1923. " Trans. Am. Soc. for Steel Treating, 1, No. 12, p. 212, .Tan. 31, 1923. " Trans. Am. Inst, of Min. and Met. Eng., 67, p. —, 1922.

3. MECHANICAL METALLURGY.

SCOPE.

Working of metals: (a) Forging, (b) rolling, (c) drawing, (d) welding,

(e) soldering.

Railroad materials: (o) Cause of failure, (&) materials and specifications,

(c) rails, wheels, axles, etc. Miscellaneous properties : (a) Bearing metals, (b) fusible plugs, (c) miscellaneous tests, {d) specifications, (e) nomenclature.

Manufacturing appliances and processes. TESTS.

Nature of test.

Number completed.

1921-22 1922-23

Tin boiler plugs

Solders Bearing metals.

Steels Saw blades Miscellaneous .

446

76

527

5

456

4

21
REPORT OF DIRECTOR OF BUREAU OF STANDARDS

251

RESEARCHES.

Subject.

Bearing metals — Properties of A. S. T. M. bearing metal.s Ratio of length to diameter in compression testing Effect of impurities

Graphitization of white cast iron.,

Sulphur and phosphorus in steel

Properties of pure nickel

LighjLaluminum alloys -Guminum magnesium aIloj"s Solders for aluminum

Physical properties and constants of metals and al- loys'

Initial stresses in metals Volume change during solidification Properties of single crystals of metal

Propercies of antimony lead alloys High tin alloy constitution Failure of brasses and bronzes

Railway materials: Temperature distribution in cooling metals Heat stresses in chilled iron oar wheels He it stresses in steel car wheels

Effects of titanium in rail steel Properties of cast iron of the car wheel type.

"Working of metals (steel, brass, monel, etc.) Effect of conditions of hot roUing on properties . . -

Working of duralumin

Working of 36 per cent nickel steel Effect of progressive cold drawing on properties.

Temperature measurements in metallurgical practice. Resistance of metals to wear

In cooperation

with—

A.S.T.M

Car-wheel manufacturers.

.Toint Committee

on Sulphur

and Phosphorous In Steel. Nickel manufacturer.

Status Juno 30, 192:3.

Per cent completed.

Manufacturers

Brass manufacturers.

\Car-wheel man-

/ ufacturers. Manufacturers.

Car-wheel manufacturers.

Gauge-Steel

Committee (in part;.

70

100

5020

90

1.5

40

5

109090

80

90 / 100

1 100

10020

Continuing.

90

15105

5020

Publication

issued.

T18S.

Outside.' Do:-

T129.

Outside.

S363. C78.

Outside.*

T209. T235.

T163.

1 Appendix to report of committee B-2, Proc.- A. S. T. M. 1922.

2 Proc. A. S. T. M., June, 1S23.

s Proc. A. S. T. M., 22; 1922.

' Chem. and Met. Eng. 25, No. 2, July 13, 1921.

4. CHEMICAL METALLURGY.

SCOPE.

Preparation of pure metals and alloys: (a) Influence of chemical composition on properties of metals, (6) development of new alloys, (c) working

metals of high purity.

Study of gases in metals: (a) Development of methods of analysis, (&)

influence of gases on physical properties, (c) deoxidation of metals, (d)

solubility of gases in metals.

Study of metallurgical auxiliary materials: (a) Refractories, (b) slags,

(c) ferro alloys and deoxidizers, (d) metal-melting furnaces.

Chemical metallurgy standards.

TESTS.

Number completed. Nature of test. 1921-22 1922-23

Steel 343

136 Nonforrous alloys IS
252 REPORT OF DIRECTOR OF BUREAU OF STANDARDS,

RESEARCHES.

Subject.

Gases in metals Method for oxygen and hydrogen

Method for total nitrogen and steel Nitrogen as nitrides in steel Oxygen in steel Oxygen in cast irons Nonferrous metals

Deoarburization of ferrochromium Pure iron alloys: Fe-C, Fe-Mn, Fe-C-Mn, aUoys

Sulphur in pure iron alloys Preparation and working of pure platinum metals

Preparation of Pt Pt-Rh thermocouples

Special refractories for Pt melting

Alloy for Brinell balls

In cooperation with

Gases in alloy treated steels Relation of oxygen in steel to sulphur content

Special refractories for ferrous alloy melting

Preparation and working of 36 per cent nickel steel (invar). Caustic embrittlement of boiler plate

Various manufacturers.

Ball manufacturers .

Joint Committee

on S and P

in steel.

Boiler manufacturer.

Status June 30, 1923.

Per cent completed.

Continuing.

90

80 100

.50 3030

100

10040

40

lOO

8030

20

10

60

80

30

Publication

issued.

Outside.'

S457.

S448.

S453.

Outside.' Do.«

' Proc. A. S. T. M.; 1923.

» Trans. Am. Electrochemical See; 1923.

S. EXPERIMENTAL FOUNDRY.

SCOPE.

Molding.

Casting: (a) Nonferrous metals and alloys, such as brass, bronze, aluminum,

etc. ; (h) steel and iron. Molding sands.

New commercial alloys.

Foundry standards.

TESTS.

Nature of test.

Number completed.

1921-22 1922-23

Castings:

1,213 1,272

297 155 Lead 60 13 295 208

7 28 374

13 161 Pb-Sb alloy 8 Tin " 15 6

2

268

4

1

1
REPORT OF DIRECTOR OF BUREAU OF STANDARDS. 253

RESEARCHES.

Subject. In cooperation with

Status June 30, 1923.

Per cent completed.Publication

issued.

Electric-furnace practice Ferro alloys melting range

Lead-zinc bronzes Art bronzes, patinas

Molding sands: Recovery of steel sands Standards

Testing methods

Thermal conductivity

Bond deterioration Improved zinc bronzes Impurities in bronzes and brasses. Metal spraying process: Development of apparatus

Application of process

Joint Committee

(Am. FoundryI men's Assn., Nat'l Res.

Council').

\Army, Air Serv-

/ ice; Navy.

15

5 100

82

1545

80

5

585

85

5060

Outside.'

' Bull. Amcr. Inst, of Mining and Metallurgical Eng. Bulletin 51, 1919.

Detailed Report of the Year's Work.

GENERAL.

The appointment of the chief of the metallurgical division to the

directorship of the bureau is the outstanding event of the past year.

The general organization of the division, however, has not been

greatly aft'ected by this change.

The subject of " gases in metals " is receiving a great deal of at- tention from the division. The large number of requests for help

and advice in this field received during the year is strong evidence

of the need for and value of such an investigation, particularly in

the iron and steel industry. The pioneer work of opening up the

field and defining test methods has been practically completed and

that phase of the work of more immediate interest to the industrial

public, the correlation of the " gas content " of metals and alloys

with their mechanical and other useful properties, has been well

started. It is planned to continue the work as one of the major

metallurgical investigations during the coming year.

The work of the joint committee on the study of the efi^ects of

sulphur and phosphorus in steel has been continued and extended

during the year. The marked success of the " round-table " method

used by this committee in its investigation of this very important

and very much debated metallurgical subject has led to its adoption

in several other cooperative investigations now being started. One

specific instance which may be mentioned is the specifying of the

quality of tin plate to meet the varied demands of the canning industry.

In the study of railway materials marked progress has been made.

The publications summarizing the results of the investigation of the

" braking stresses " in chilled iron and steel car wheels have been

issued. The investigation of the comparative effects of different

types of deoxidation treatment on rail steel has also been completed

and the report is now in press.
254 KEPOET OF DIEECTOR OF BUEEAr OF STAKDAKDS.

A knowledge of the properties of metallic materials at elevated

temperatures, particularly when the service of such materials involves these temperatures, is of very considerable industrial importance. Several printed reports containing the results of investigations of this kind were issued during the year.

The almpst vital importance of gauges in modern manufacturing

methods is well recognized. The gauge steel committee, organized

for directing and conducting the stucty of suitable steels for this

purpose and their proper treatment, has been very active during tlie year, and will be continued during the coming year.

In the work of the metals committee of the Federal Specifications

Board the division has taken a very active part during the year,

both the position of cliairman and of technical secretary being filled

by members of the division.

Decided progress in the testing of " noncorrodible " steels has been

made during the year. The work will be continued and extended to

other types of material for the purpose of developing standard cor- rosion testing methods.

Mention may be made of an investigation of the carburizing properties of steels now being outlined which was undertaken at the

request of a group of metallurgists of the automobile industry and

confirmed by a large number of commercial metallurgists canvassed

for the expression of an opinion on the subject.

The nvimber of unsolved problems in the fundamentals of physical

metallurgy makes the extension of the methods of study bej'ond those

now available at the bureau very desirable and necessary. Plans

have been completed for applying X-raj^ diffraction methods to the

solution of some of these problems and research along this line will

be started and actively carried on during the coming year.

COOPERATIVE INVESTIGATIONS WITH TECHNICAL COMMITTEES.

Investigation of the Effect of Sulphur and Phosphorus in Steel.

The ultimate aim of the joint committee which is directing this

research is the determination of suitable and safe limits for these

two elements in various classes of steel. Up to date the question of

the variations in sulphur has received most of the attention. The

second annual report of the progress of the work which was presented

before the American Society for Testing Materials summarized the

results of tests made on steels of carbon contents of 0.2, 0.45, and

0.75 per cent carbon containing " added sulphur of vaj'ying amounts.

The first report dealt with steels containing " residual " sulphur.

During the year the preparation of the various grades of plate steel

containing various amounts of " residual " sulphur has been completed, and the testing is now in progress. The various forging steels,

also illustrating the effects of " residual " sulphur, have been made

and after heat treatment at the bureau will be sent to the laboratories

of the Watertown Arsenal, Watertown, Mass., and the Naval Experiment Station, Annapolis, IMd., where the testing will be conducted.

Some attention has been given to the relation between the percentage of oxide of the steels and their sulphur content. The results

suggest a very striking difference, according to whether the sulphur

is " added " or " residual." Further Avork is in progress for the pur-
REPORT OF DIRECTOR OF BUREAU OF STANDARDS. 255

pose of confirming the tentative conclusions already reached. Other

laboratory work in progress relates to the results obtained by the

evolution and the gravimetric methods for sulphur determination as carried out upon the steels of different carbon contents. A comparison of the sulphur content of steel containing "residual" sulphur

after remelting with those containing " added " sulphur is also re- ceiving consideration.

Welded Rail Joints.

This committee, the organization of which was mentioned in the

last annual report, has made splendid progress in the carrjdng out

of the investigation. The plans for the necessary circular experimental track which will bo laid on the bureau grounds have been

completed, and the construction wdll be started in the near future,

the project being financed mainly by the American Electric Railway

Association. The preparation of the various types of welded rail

joints has been practically completed and some testing has been done.

The committee has designed a special impact testing machine, which

will be erected at the bureau for use in this investigation.

Mine-Drill Steel.

During the past year the joint advisory committee on this subject

representing the Bureau of Mines, Bureau of Standards, and the industry completed the field survey on the general subject of mine drill

breakage. Two reports on the subject were presented before the

American Institute of Mining Engineers. In brief, it may be said

that the survey showed that the subject of drill breakage was of less

importance than it had been stated to be. The committee has in

progress the preparation of a

" Primer of heat treatment " as related

to the subject of mine-drill steel. The future work contemplated includes the mathematical study of stresses in drills, the heat treatment

of such steels, and the failure of drills as related to these two copies.

Molding Sand Investigation.

The study of molding sands which is being carried out in cooperation with the joint committee on this subject has shown a very decided

dearth of reliable information along this line. The work taken up

during the past year was confined to laboratory tests for the determination of the characteristic properties of these materials as re- lated to their use in the foundry. Test methods for the measurement

of the properties of fineness, permeability, and cohesiveness have been

drawn up and released for criticism and suggestion through the

American Foundrymen's Association. During the year this association, through its research committee, placed a research assistant at the

bureau to aid in the laboratory work which is now under way.

Gauge Steels.

The military and industrial importance of gauges is unquestionably one of the most vital problems to be faced in manufacturing

work. The investigation of this subject carried out in cooperation

with the joint committee during the past year has been very successful.

Early in 1922 a committee representing gauge users, gauge manufacturers, steel makers, the Army and Navy ordnance departments,

and the Bureau of Standards was organized for the purpose of con-
256 REPORT OF DIRECTOR OF BUREAU OF STANDARDS.

sidering- means to improve the durability, permanence, and manufacture of steel gauges. Somewhat later an investigator was added

to the staff of the bureau for full-time work on this problem. To

this common cause the Army and Navy ordnance departments have

contributed funds, several manufacturers have contributed steel, and

others have machined test specimens. All of the experimental work

is carried out at the bureau and five reports summarizing the results

were issued to the committee during the past year.

In mapping out the program of woi'k three principal phases of

the problem were recognized, namely, the dimensional changes on

hardening, the permanence of dimensions, and the resistance to wear. In regard to the first it has been shown that all tool steels increase in

volume on hardening, so the problem is resolved into that of restricting the change to ctirections in which the least disadvantage is incurred. There are considerable differences in this respect between

the several steels as observed in cylindrical specimens and expedients

for the control of the changes are being stiidied.

The experimental work has shown that the changes with time are due in part to internal stress. Consequently it has been necessary

to determine the magnitude and direction of the stresses in relation

to the heat treatment. Some explorator}- work in this field has just

been completed. Subsidiarj^ to this problem is that of the temperature distribution during heat treatment, which has led to an experimental and mathematical analysis of the temperature relations in

bodies of simple shapes. The results are in the course of preparation for publication.

The investigation of the resistance of gauge steels to wear has

served so far mainly to show the difficulties which must be overcome

in this kind of testing and to aid somewhat in the general interpretation of the results of abrasion tests. This work is described later in

more detail.

Corrosion.

The permanence of metals after fabrication is of great importance and second, perhaps, only in importance to the ability to prepare

such metals in the first place. The desirability of instituting systematic research on the subject of corrosion has been strongly urged

upon the bureau at different times. The bureau is represented on

the corrosion committee organized by the National Eesearch Council

for the purpose of correlating investigations of this kind and also

upon the two corrosion committees dealing with ferrous and nonferrous metals of the American Society for Testing Materials. During the past year a great deal of attention was given to the corrosion

testing of " noncorrodible "' steels. This work is described later in

another section.

Api^aratus was constructed and used for the alternate immersion

testing method, and during the coming year attention will be given

to a comparison of the various common methods of corrosion testing,

the same materials and solutions being used throughout all of the

tests. The special apparatus for this is now in course of construction.

Federal Specifications Board Metals Committee.

The division of metallurgy has taken a very active part in the

work of this committee during the year. Up to date 32 specifica-
REPORT OF DIRECTOR OF BUREAU OF STANDARDS. 257

tions, 18 relating to nonferrous metals and alloys and 14 to the fer- rous group, have been completed by the committee and sent out for

criticism. The bureau's advisory committee on nonferrous metals

and the one on ferrous materials each devoted a large part of its

meetings to a critical discussion of the specifications available. The

value of suggestions of this kind from the leaders in the industries

involved is an excellent proof of the service rendered by confer- ences of this kind.

Railway Materials.

During the past year the investigation on thermal stresses in car wheels was completed and the results published in the bureau's

series of technologic papers. The comments which have been made

t by engineers upon the results of the analysis of stresses existing in a

I Avheel operated under conditions approximating those of service indiI cate that they will be found very valuable by the railway designing

j engineer.

The laboratory study comparison of the deoxidizing effects of

j titanium and silicon upon the properties of rail steel has been comj pleted and the results Avill shortly appear as a technologic paper.

' It is expected that the next investigation of railway materials to be

j taken up will be a study of certain types of service failure of rails

to be investigated by a special joint committee on the subject.

I Conferences.

i Two well -attended meetings of the advisory committee on nonI ferrous alloys were held at the bureau during the year, at which

, were discussed the various current bureau investigations relating to

those materials. Particular attention was given to the specifications

for nonferrous alloys which had been completed and tentatively

\ adopted by the metals committee of the Federal Specifications

Board.

One meeting of the advisory committee on ferrous metals was

held during the year, the discussion being along the same lines as given above.

A meeting of representatives of technical engineering societies,

railway engineers, and others interested in the subject of rail failure

was held at the bureau during June. At this conference plans were

,1 laid for a future meeting of a small working committee, at which a

I' program for the cooperative study of certain types of rail failures

; will be considered.

The division cooperated in a conference called at the bureau for

the purpose of considering suitable nondestructive tests for wire

rope.

! Arrangements have been completed for a conference to be held at

the bureau early in the coming year at which will be discussed the

subject of tin plate. Representatives of the National Canners' Association, the Can Manufacturers' Association, the tin-plate manufacturers, and the Bureau of Standards will attend this conference,

which was arranged at the request of the canners' association.

Attempts will be made to formulate suitable specifications covering

, the use of tin plate for the canning industry, a subject which conjl cerns every user of canned foods.

65077—23 18
258 REPORT OF DIRECTOR OF BUREAU OF STANDARDS.

The division through its chief, who acted as presiding officer, co- operated in a conference at the National Eesearch Council of

Makers and Users of Scientific Apparatus. The conference discussed subjects which are of immediate and very practical importance to the bureau, and a permanent organization to carry on the

work was arranged.

Metallurgical Definitions.

The bureau cooperated with a special committee on definitions

repfesenting the American Society for Testing Materials, Society

of Automotive Engineers, and t;he American Society for Steel

Treating in formulating standard definitions of metallurgical terms

used in heat treatment. The report will be referred to each of the

three societies for discussion.

Circulars of Information.

The requests received by the bureau for reliable metallurgical

information led to the preparation of a series of circulars dealing

in a comprehensive and critical manner with the available information on typical metals and alloys. The number of requests for these

publications would appear to justify fully their preparation. During the past year Circular 58, Invar and Related Nickel Steels, has

been fully rewritten and is now in press. Circular 78, Aluminum

Solders, has been brought up to date and reissued. Circular 100,

Nickel and its Alloys, has been revised and verified and the revised

edition will be published early in the year.

I. OPTICAL METALLURGY.

H. S. Rawdon.

General.

This term connotes the general method of investigation of metallurgical products involved. The metallographic microscope is one

of the principal instruments and the extent to which it was used during the year is shown by the summary of the number of micrographs

prepared; total, 1,848, of which 555 related to tests and 1,293 to

investigations.

Etching Reagents for Alloy Steels (Grosbeck).

The metallographic etching of alloy steels with the usual acid

reagents fails to identify the different constituents that may be

present in the alloy steel such as the carbide of iron, chromium,

tungsten, or vanadium, tungstite of iron, and possibly complex compounds as double carbides. This is of particular importance where

two or more of the constituents are present simultaneously in the

microstructure, as has been found to be the case with high-speed

steels.

It was seen early in the investigation that, on the one hand, there

was little hope offered by the use of the usual inorganic acids be- cause of the general resistance of the above-mentioned constituents

to the corrosive action of the acid ; while, on the other hand, alkaline

solutions of an oxidizing nature offered much of promise in producing distinctions by means of etching characteristics. A little ex- perimental work was next carried out on various alkaline solutions

with and without the use of oxygen gas or oxidizing agents, the
REPORT OF DIRECTOR OF BUREAU OF STANDAKDS. 259

result of which work was the development of a new etching reagent,

namely, a potassium permanganate and sodium hydroxide mixture.

With the object of establishing the identification of the metallographic constituent known or believed to be present in the microstructure by noting its behavior toward the various etching reagents,

etching tests were made on various alloy steels with varying amounts

of the alloying element and of carbon, using a number of etching

reagents of an alkaline nature, among which were several wellknown reagents as sodium picrate, Yatsevitch's reagent, etc. Heat

tinting was also tried. The method of sequence etching, or etching

with two or more etching reagents in succession without any repolishing of the specimen between the etchings, was used with success in

cases where more than one constituent is present in the microsection,

as in high-speed steels.

The results obtained so far have shown that it is possible by a proper selection of the etching reagent to determine in a satisfactory

manner the presence or absence of the different constituents in the

microsection and also to distinguish between several of the constituents when two or more are present in the same microsection, as, for

example, cementite and chromium carbide, cementite and iron tungstide. No method has as jet been found for distinguishing between

chromium carbide and tungsten carbide, other than from a consideration of the shape of the particles these constituents have been

found to assume, should both occur in the same microsection.

Corrosion of Chromium Steels (Rawdon, Ki-ynitsky, Bloxton).

The investigation of the corrodibility of different " noncorrodible "

steels was continued throughout the year. The specimens, which

represented a series of special steels prepared at the bureau, varied

in carbon content from 0.06 to 1.44 per cent, and in chromium from

2.66 to 19.66 per cent. The methods of simple immersion and of re- peated or alternate immersion were used, and a special apparatus for

controlling the latter was designed and constructed. One publication of a preliminary nature was issued during the year.

The following general conclusions as to the corrodibility of this

class of steels appear to be warranted by the results up to date

(a) Corrosion in distilled water.—The composition and heat treatment rather than the character of the surface are the dominant factors determining corrosion resistance. The most resistant to cor- rosion in all cases were steels having 11.5 per cent or more of

chromium and 0.40 per cent or less carbon. A relatively high carbon

content lowers the corrosion i-esistance. Quenched (hardened) specimens withstood corrosion by the repeated immersion test much better

than similar samples in the annealed state. Quenched specimens

Avithstood corrosion much better when subjected to the alternate immersion test than in the simple immersion.

(6) Corrosion in dilute hydrochloric acid.—The resistance of an- nealed steels to corrosive attack decreases with an increase in the

chromium content and similarly for carbon. In general, hardened

samples shovv^ greater loss of weight than do annealed, but no regularity in behavior of the quenched specimen, according to composition, could be detected with certainty.

The work is being extended to other kinds of acids, citric being

chosen as representative of fruit juices.
260 EEPOKT OF DIRECTOR OF BrREAU OF STANDARDS.

Corrosion of Metals by Alco-Gas (EaAvdon, Lorentz, Sillers).

T'nconfirmecl reports concerning- the corrosive action of certain

i;ii;,:nres of alcohol and gasoline used as motor fuels led to a request

frc m the Bureau of Aeronautics, NaA'y Department, for a series of

corrosion .tests upon representati^-e sheet metals and alloys. The

first step in the investigation consisted in the determination of the

ternary diagram (room temperature) of mutual solubilitj' of the

gasoline-alcohol-water system. The liquids chosen for the test were

for the most part those fomrd to consist of but one phase; that is,

those lying within the range of composition of mutual solubility of

the three. The gasoline used for the mixture was a high-test gasoline, such as is used for airplane-motor fuel. The sheets tested included the following: Uncoated iron and steel, tin plate, terneplate,

galvanized steel, cojDper, brass, bi'onze, nickel brass, Monel metal,

aluminum, and duralumin.

The investigation has not jet been completed, but the results obtained up to date indicate that the liquids used haA'e veiy little effect

upon most of the sheets (terneplate showing the greatest attack)

and suggest that the inferior quality of gasoline used in such mixtures must be largely responsible for excessive corrosion if it occurs.

Crystallinity in Wrought Iron (Eawdon, Epstein).

This investigation, which is concerned piumarily with the proper

interpretation of the results of the nick-bend test usually included

in the specifications for wrought iron, was mentioned in the last

annual report. The work was extended during the 5''ear to include

wrought-iron bars of large sections, wrought iron of very high phosphorus content, and open-hearth iron ("carbonless steel"). The

work which has been practically completed leads to the following

general conclusions : Crystalline areas appear most readily in the

fractures obtained in the nick-bend test in those materials in which

the individual slag threads are small and uniformly distributed.

The presence of " steel in wrought iron, being conducive' to this

condition, favors the formation of such ciwstalline areas. The converse is not true, however, for the presence of crystalline area is not

a sure indication of the presence of steel. The test can not be used as a means for detecting- high, phosphoriis

irons.

A rapid application of the load, usually by impact, is necessary for

the formation of the crystalline areas. Distinction should be made

between the cr^'stalline areas on the tension and on the compression

side of a bar. The latter are, in general, not to be regarded as indicative of the structural condition of the metal.

Inclusions in Steel (Epstein).

In the investigation previously referred to of the properties of rail

steel after different types of deoxidation treatment, a good deal of

attention was given to the study of the inclusions remaining in the

steels after treatment. The physical nature, probable chemical composition of the inclusions, so far as it could be inferred from the

available data, and distribution of the inclusions were studied. These

features are discussed in a publication which is now in press.
REPORT OF DIRECTOR OF BUREAU OF STAXDARDS. 201

Standard Grain Size for Condenser-Tube Brass (Rawdon, Sillers).

The attempt in specifications to control the properties of a metal

by specifying the grain size which will be permitted is rather novel.

In connection with the grain-size clause of the tentative specifications

of the American Society for Testing Materials for condenser tube

brass, a good deal of attention was given to the determination of

grain size in this type of brass and the preparation of micrographs

which would be representative of a structure of a given grain size.

The results were submitted for inclusion in the new A. S. T. M.

specifications for condenser-tube brass.

Microhardness (Sillers, Mutchler).

In cooperation with the committee on metallography of the American Society for Testing Materials a good deal of attention has been

devoted torthis subject. The usual methods for the determination of

hardness do not give any indication of the variation in hardness of

the metallographic constituents of which an alloy is built up. Such

differences are readily indicated, however, by the variations in the

width of the scratch or groove cut on a polished surface of such an

alloy by an accurately ground "point" of some very hard material.

Tests are being made to determine the accuracy of this method, the

determination of hardness of a series of standards and some of the

" practical " applications of the method.

Cold Working of Metals (Eawdon, Mutchler).

One of the applications which has been made of the microhardness

method mentioned above is in the study of metals which have been

subjected to very severe deformation by cold working. It is generally stated that the effect of such deformation is to harden progressively any metal, the hardness, in general, being proportional to the

amount of deformation received. Some very striking exceptions to

this general rule are indicated by the results already obtained. The

hardness of many metals as measured by the " scratch hardness " and

also by the microbrinnell method increases rapidly during the early

stages of cold deformation by rolling. A reversal occurs, however,

and the metal becomes softer, so that in its final condition as a very

thin sheet it is appreciably softer than in its initial state. This behavior has been found to hold true in the case of copper, iron, soft

steel, and some of the nickel alloys. Some metals, however, such as aluminum, harden progressively as the cold deformation is increased.

The results obtained indicate that some modification of the general

theory which has been advanced as to the cause of hardness of metals

by cold working may be necessary in order to explain satisfactorily

the apparently anomalous behavior of some metals under these conditions.

Crystalline Form of Electrodeposited Metals (Eawdon, Blum, Sillers).

The properties of metallic coatings deposited electrolytically are intimately related to the crystalline condition obtaining within such

deposits. It has been shown during the past year in some preliminary work along this line that the ci'ystalline structure of the base

metal upon which an electrodeposit is made may, if properly cleaned

prior to the deposition, predetermine absolutely the structure of the

coating. Thus, of two coatings deposited under identical conditions
262 REPORT OF DIRECTOR OF BUREAU OF STANDARDS.

the one on a coarse-grained metal may be coarse, whereas that upon

a fine-grained base of the same composition may be correspondingly

fine. Contradictory statements have been made in the technical

literature at various times concerning the possible ejffect of the base

metal upon an electi'odeposit laid down upon it, but these experiments, the results of which have been published, appear to be the

first authoritative evidence on this point.

Considerable additional work leading to a generalization concern- ing the crystalline form of electrodeposits made under different conditions of deposition has been done, and the results will soon be

published.

Structural Effect of Manganese in Carbon Steels (Rawdon).

This phase of the general investigation of the study of the iron

carbon manganese alloys in progress in the metallurgical division

was completed during the year, and the results published as a scientific paper. In brief, manganese confers upon an annealed steel a microstructure closely analogous to that which is obtainable in a

similar steel, low in manganese, only by certain definite heat treatments. The shifting of the eutectoid ratio and the general lowering

of the transformation temperature by the addition of manganese are accountable for most of the changes in structure observed.

Welded Pressure Tanks (Epstein).

A large number of metal! ographic examinations were made as part of the general investigation carried out by the bureau of a series

of welded tanks px-epared by the American Bureau of Welding.

The results obtained, which are embodied in the published report of

this work, did not appear to warrant including such a metallographic

test as part of the general " acceptance clause " in specifications for

this type of material.

New Investigations.

A line of metallographic investigation, to which it is planned to

devote considerable attention during the coming year, is the study of

the atomic structure of metals by means of X-ray diffraction methods.

Work will be started as soon as the complete apparatus is received.

It is believed that this study will aid very much in settling some of

the obscure points in some of the investigations in progress at present,

particularly the study of the effects of cold rolling of different metals,

which will be continued and extended.

Requests from a number of metallurgists interested in the car- burizing of steel products were received for an investigation along

this line. The consensus of opinion of a large number of metallurgists canvassed on the subject was in favor of such an investigation.

In this study, which will soon be started, emphasis will be laid upon

the initial characteristics of the steel, the structural effects resulting

after a standard carburizing treatment, and the results obtained

after hardening the carburized steels. The cooperation of nearly all

of the sections of the division will be necessary in carrying out this

study. It is hoped that the investigation will throw light on the

possible relationship between the initial quality of steel and the results obtained upon carburizing, concerning which there are very considerable differences of opinion at present.

li
REPORT OF DIRECTOR OF BUREAU OF STANDARDS. 263

2. THERMAL METALLURGY.

H. J. French.

Mechanical Properties of Metals at Elevated Temperatures (French,

Tucker)

(a) Tensile properties of steels.—The high temperature tension

tests of steels mentioned last year have been completed. More than

30 sets of tests were made at temperatures varying from room temperature to 600° C. (approximate) on the following steels: Normalized and quenched-and-tempered carbon steels of varying carbon

contents; steels containing a single alloying element, such as nickel,

chromium, tungsten, cobalt, manganese, or uranium ; and commercial

quaternary steels, such as chrome-nickel, chrome-vanadium, chromemolybdenum, and nickel-uranium. From the standpoint of high ultimate tensile strength and limit of proportionality at high temperatures, the temperature scale for these steels may be divided into

three parts: (1) The range 20 to about 450° C, (2) 450 to 600°C.,

and (3) above 600° C.

It was found in the lowest range that high strength and proportional limit are functions of composition and heat treatment, and,

in general, combinations giving the highest strength at ordinary temperatures show similar superiority throughout the entire range. It

is advisable, however, to keep carbon low, as brittleness increases

rapidly with carbon content, particularly in the blue-heat range

(300° C. approximate).

The upper limit in the second or "transition" range involves

nearly full tempering Of a hardened steel so that the benefits to be

derived from heat treatment are limited except in the lower portion

of the range, and high strength and limits of proportionality are

largely functions of composition. Such elements as chromium, cobalt, uranium, molybdenum, and vanadium improve the strength,

whereas nickel, even in large proportions, appears to soften the steel,

particularly in the neighborhood of 550° C. and above.

It appears improbable that commercial steels can be produced to

withstand continuously fairly large loads at temperatures above

about 650° C, except when large proportions of one or more alloying

elements are added to reduce the iron content to such low values

that the resulting product can not correctly be called " steel."

(b) Tensile tests of cast nickel-copper alloys.—In addition to the

above and with the cooperation of a commercial foimdry, a stvidy of

the high temperature tensile properties of various nickel-copper alloys was undertaken. Several sets of tests have been carried out

and the work will be continued.

(c) Forging and compression tests.—This investigation, which was

mentioned in last year's report, has been modified and greatly ex- tended. It includes comparison of various steels subjected to compression simulating the working in a press and impact as would be

;;pplied in a drop hammer at temperatures up to and including those

at which steels are hot worked (1,000 to 1,200° C).

Thus far comparisons have been made between carbon steels of

different carbon content, carbon and 3-^ per cent nickel rivet steels,

and various structural alloy steels. Alloy-tool steels will also be

included.
264 REPORT OF DIRECTOR OF BUREAU OF STANDARDS.

It has been found that the static loads required to produce definite

deformations in carbon steels at 1,100° C. decrease with inci'ease in

carbon content, Avhereas in rapidty applied loads, as in forging, the

reverse was found to be true. This means that high-carbon steel is

harder to forge than low-carbon steel, but may be more easily deformed in a press. The differences between low cai'bon and 3'i per

cent nickel rivet steels were found to be small.

High-Speed Steels (French, Diggs, and Strauss, of United States

Naval Gun Factor}^).

In cooperation with the metallurgical and testing division of the

United States Naval Gun Factory a large number of lathe tests of

high-speed steels were made. The first part of this investigation,

mentioned in 1922, has been completed and the report published as Technologic Paper No. 228. It may be characterized as a critical

examination of the competitive breakdown test used of late in the

purchase of high-speed steels, together with a preliminary survey of

the compositions and properties of the current types produced.

Such tests were found to be unsatisfactory as a basis of pui-chase,

but may be used in cases where large differences in performance

are esjoected, providing suitable precautions are observed. Thus

this test may be used to detect steel of highly questionable qualit3\

In certain severe breakdown tests with roughing tools on 3 per cent

nickel-steel forgings, in which high frictional temperatures were

produced, the performance of commercial low tungsten-high vana- dium and cobalt steels was greatly superior to that of the high

tungsten-low vanadium type and special steels containing small additions of uranium or molybdenmn. However, these comparisons

did not hold under more moderate working conditions.

Many of the tools tested were heat treated according to instructions furnished by the manufacturers, and it was noted that wide

differences existed in recommended practice for steels of the same

type composition which were to be subjected to the same service. In

order to obtain more definite information regarding the heat treatment of high-speed steels a second investigation was begun and is

now being completed. This included not only lathe-tool performance, but dimensional changes in hardening and consideration of

" re-dressing " practices for tools.

DuTiensional Changes in Hardening Steels (French, Cross).

Tests in this investigation were continued at intervals during the

year and a study made of the effects on dimensional changes in

hardening of such variables as initial properties and structure, rate

of heating, and interrupted quenching. Various tool and die steels,

including plain cai-bon, chrome-vanadium, tungsten finishing,

chrome ball race, and high-speed steels were used. The construction of a dilatometer for measuring dimensional changes during

rapid cooling (quenching) has been stai-ted. This work will .be continued.

Study of Quenching Media (French, Berliner, Klopsch).

One of the ncAV investigations recently undertaken,^ a study of

technical quenching media, is of primary importance in the hardening of steels. Its purpose is to obtain more quantitative data than

now exist concerning water, oils, brines, emulsions, etc., and will be
EEPOET OF DIRECTOR OF BUREAU OF STANDARDS. 265

extended ultimately to include determination of temperature gradients during rapid cooling of relatively large masses. Ordinary temperature-measuring devices are not suited for such

work, so that it was necessary to set up and put into operating condition special quenching equipment and a string galvanometer. The

preliminary work has been finished and a series of experiments with

small samples completed so that within the next few months a preliminary report may be prepared.

Annealing of High-Carbon Steels (Klopsch).

Methods for rapid annealing (spheroidization) of high-carbon

steels have received considerable attention during the past year,

and a study has been made of the structure and properties of 1.10

per cent carbon steel as affected by several of the variables in annealing practice.

Nitrogen in Iron (Wymore, Cross).

Some attention has been given to the occurrence of nitrogen in iron.

By the nitrification of pure iron samples in ammonia followed by a

" dili'usion anneal," it is hoped to obtain specimens which will give

results by the thermal analysis method which can be used for constructing the iron-nitrogen equilibrium diagram. The results

obtained on these specimens will be checked against those obtained

by nitrification of iron dust in ammonia.

Thermoelectric Measurements of Critical Ranges in Pure IronCarbon Alloys (Berliner).

A study was completed by means of thermoelectric measurements

of the critical ranges of pure iron carbon alloys containing from' 0.07

to 1.5 per cent carbon. The decarburization of the higher carbon

alloys, all of which were in the form of wire, was so severe that in

many cases the results could not be used. In general, however, the

results obtained were found to be consistent with previous determinations by other methods and showed conclusively that the Ag transformation occurs at the same temperature, on heating and cooling,

for alloys containing up to about 0.45 per cent carbon. It does not

appear in alloys of higher carbon content as a separate and distinct

energj^ change. A report is now in preparation.

Heat Treatment of Steels for Permanent Magnets (French, Hamill).

An investigation was recently started to determine the effects of

varying heat treatment upon the steels now used commercially or suggested for use in the manufacture of permanent magnets.

Continued and New Investigations.

Much of the work now in progress is the result of specific requests

from the industries or is being carried out in cooperation with

technical organizations. Work will be continued in the study of

high-speed steels, dimensional changes in hardening, quenching

media, and the properties of metals at high temperatures.

In addition it is expected that one or more of the following investigations will be taken up during the year: (a) Artificial seasoning

of cast irons, (&) effect of heat treatment on certain nonferrous light

alloys, (c) efl'ect of heat treatment on corrosion resistance of various

steels, and (d) study of carburization of steels.
266 REPORT OF DIRECTOR OF BUREAU OF STANDARDS.

3. MECHANICAL METALLURGY.

J. R. Freeman, jr.

Bearing Metals (Freeman, Brandt).

The bureau has published the results of investigations on the

mechanical properties in compression of white metal bearing alloys

at normal and elevated temperatures. The size of the compressiontest specimen used in these investigations conformed with the recom- mended practice of the American Society for Testing Materials

with respect to the ratio of length to diameter of test specimen, which

was 3 to 1. In cormnercial laboratories a 1 to 1 ratio is generally used and re- ports have been published by other investigators giving the results

of tests on specimens Avith still other ratios. Considerable discussion, therefore, developed regarding the intercomparability of re- sults of tests made on specimens with different ratios of length to

diameter. Accordingly an investigation has been completed during

the past year on the influence of the ratio of length to diameter

in the compression testing of babbitt metals. The results obtained

showed that for loads up to and greater than those causing appreciable yielding of the alloy, the stress deformation curves in compression are identical for ratios of length to diameter of test specimens

between 3 to 1 and 1 to 1 for specimens 1 inch in diameter. This

is true for both lead base and tin base alloys.

At the request of committee B-2 of the A. S. T. M. a study is in

progress of the effect of arsenic, iron, and copper on the mechanical

properties of certain of their tentatix^e standard white metal bearing

alloys.

Car-Wheel Investigations (Burgess, Quick).

The investigation of thermal stresses in steel car wheels has been

completed and results published as a technologic paper.

Cast Iron for Car Wheels (Freeman, Quick).

An investigation is in progress to determine the influence of sulphur, phosphorus, manganese, silicon, and total and combined car- bon, respectively, on the properties of cast iron of the car-wheel

type. Studies of the effect of nickel and chromium will also be

made.

The iron is being pre])ared in crucibles and poured in the form of

bars for the transverse bending test and chill test specimens. After

determining the transverse strength, tension, and impact, test specimens are machined from the upper and lower portions of the broken

transverse test bar. Tension and compression tests will also be

made at elevated temperatures.

Wear Testing (Freeman, Rosenberg).

The study of the resistance of steels to wear, which was started

last year, is being continued and is progressing satisfactoi'ily. Tests

ire being made to determine the relative resistance to wear of com-

.-nercial steels under different conditions of heat treatment when run

in contact with steels of the same composition and heat treatment

ind of other compositions and treatment. It has been found that
RF.PORT or DIRECTOR OF BUREAU OF STANDARDS, 267

with some steels the greatest resistance to wear is obtained by hardening, by quenching, and then tempering the steel at a low temperature, which tends to disprove the general belief that maximum hardness gives greatest resistance to wear. It has also been shown that

the rate of wear is reduced very considerably by the removal of the

fine abraded particles produced during a test. Titanium Treated and Silicon Treated Rails (Burgess, Quick).

This investigation, previous!}' mentioned, of the deoxidation effects

of titanium and silicon on the properties of rail steel has been completed, and report submitted for publication as a technologic paper.

Invar Tapes and Shapes (Freeman, Neville).

Tlie study of the forging and rolling characteristics of invar outlined in last year's report is being continued. Wire 0.004 inch in

diameter has been successfully prepared, and ribbon 0.001 by 0.005

inch wide has also been made. Certain details of forging, however,

are yet to be worked out, as many ingots split during forging.

Properties of Single Crystals of Metals (Freeman, Hromatko).

The study of the properties of single crystals is being continued,

the crystals being prepared by the method mentioned in last year's

report. Difficulty has been encountered in obtaining single crystals

sufficiently large for determining satisfactorily their mechanical

properties.

A knowledge of the characteristics of the single crystal is fundamental in any logical discussion of the properties of a metal as it

exists in the form with which we are most familiar; that is, a con- glomerate of numberless small crystals.

Miscellaneous.

Aside from the major investigations mentioned, this section is interested in the testing and development of aluminum solders, the

volumetric changes in nonferrous alloys during freezing, the properties of lead-antimonjf alloys for use in storage-battery plates, and

miscellaneous problems dealing with the mechanical working of

metals and alloys.

The heavy mechanical working equipment, particularly the rolling

mill and forging press, has been used extensively for the forging

and rolling of special alloys for investigations by other sections, such

as the rolling of special alloys for corrosion studies and the investigations in progress relative to the effect of sulphur and phosphorus in

steel. A considerable amount of rolling has also been done for the

Naval Gun Factory.

Proposed Investigations.

An investigation is contemplated to study the effect of progressive

cold working, by drawing, on the mechanical properties of pure

metals, in particular, the tensile properties. The drawbench is being

fitted up for this work at the present time. The shape and characteristics of the stress-strain curve will be determined over the

elastic range with an Ewing extensometer, and from the yield point

to the ultimate strength with a Dalby optical load-extension re- corder. This will give a complete and very precise measurement of

the tensile curve from the " no load " to the " break."
268 EEPOKT OF DIRECTOE OF BUREAU OF STA^TDARDS.

4. CHEMICAL METALLURGY.

L. Jordan.

Preparation and Properties of Pure Iron Alloys (Neville).

The first scientific paper of a series having the above general title

was published under the subtitle I, Effects of carbon and manganese

on the mechanical properties of pure iron,'" a summary being given

in the annual report for last year. Sufficient material from the

alloys made for this investigation Avas furnished the section of optical

metallurgy and the section of magnetic measurements to permit investigations of the magnetic properties and the microstructure of

these especiall}' pure alloys. The results have been published as the

second and third papers of this series.

Effects of Sulphur on the Properties of Pure Iron Alloys (Jordan,

NeAdlle).

The second phase of the work undertaken on pure iron alloys is concerned Avith the investigation of the effects of sulphur. Most of

the alloys of this series have bene fused in vacuum, electrolytic iron,

pure carbon, manganese, and iron sulphide being used as the raw materials. Certain portions of the vacuum-fused series are duplicated by the preparation of ingots of as nearly as possible identical

composition, but made by fusion with excess of air. The data from

forging and rolling and from the mechanical properties of these

alloys may be expected to point out the limits of sulphur causing

red shortness in pure iron, the ratio of manganese to sulphur required

to eliminate this red sliortness. the effects of sulphur on mechanical

properties, and the influence of the presence of oxygen or oxides in

the metal on any or all of these properties. The investigation is

thus closely related to the work being carried on by the Joint Committee on Phosphorus and Sulphur in Steel in its tests of commercial

steels containing residual and added sulphur.

Investigations on the Platinum Metals (Jordan, Neville).

The investigations on the platinum metals are -carried on in co- operation with the division of chemistry. The division of metallurgy

is particularly concerned with the technique of melting and working

the pure platinum metals and their alloys, the determination of the

mechanical properties, and the stud}^ of selected alloys with respect

to their suitability for platinum ware. Melting technique has

necessitated the studj^ of special refractories, thorium oxide, and to

some extent zirconium oxide, being used at present. INIethods of casting crucibles in jDlaster of Paris molds, previously used by this bureau

in the manufacture of optical glass pots and other refractory shapes,

have been successfully' applied to the preparation of these thoria

and zirconia crucibles. The bureau is cooperating with the manufacturers of high-frequency furnaces and producers of zirconia and

thoria, in the development of such cast crucibles of sizes adapted to

commercial uses in precious metal melting.

Platinum-Platinum Rhodium Thermocouples (Neville)

As a part of the work on the platinum metals a thermoelement

platinum and platinum-rhodium alloy superior in quality to the best

material of this kind formerly in the bureau's possession has been
KEPOET OF DIRECTOR OF BUREAU OF STANDARDS, 269

prepared. A large part of the rare metal thermocouples required by

the bureau during the year have been made in its own laboratories.

Alloy for Balls for Brinell Hardness Test (Jordan, Neville).

A new alloy has been made which gives promise of being especially suitable for the manufacture of balls to be used in testing

very hard steels. This material is a high-carbon vanadium iron

alloy. It can be forged and by suitable treatment can be made ex- tremely hard without, however, developing excessive brittleness.

Further work on the development and testing of this alloy is in

progress.

Special Alloys and Pure Metals (Neville).

As in previous years, there has again been a considerable demand

made on this section for the preparation of special alloys, and of

ingots, bars, and wire of vacuum-fused pure metals. The special

facilities available for the production of high temperatures, either

under atmospheric pressure or under vacuum, experience in the use of special refractories and in the smelting and working of metals

of high purity have made possible the preparation of many special

alloys which have been of great value in furthering a wide variety

of investigations in many Government and university research

laboratories.

Determination of Oxygen and Hydrogen in Metals (Jordan, Eckman, Barrows).

The development of the vacuum-fusion method for oxygen and

hydrogen in metals has been brought to a very satisfactory stage.

The method allows close check determinations on a given material,

makes use of solid metal samples, thus avoiding errors through sur- face oxidation of chips, and completely determines all oxygen present in a metal as CO, C0=, oxides of iron, manganese, silicon, and

aluminum or any other oxides reducible by carbon or iron carbide at

1,500° C. in a vacuum. At present the vacuum-fusion method, involving the melting of the metal in contact with carbon, is the most

generally applicable one for the correct determination of oxygen

in both cai'bon-free and carbon-bearing metals.

Oxygen and Oxides in Steels (Jordan, Eckman, Barrows).

The vacuum-fusion m.ethod for oxygen has been applied to a number of steels for determining the efficiency of various methods of

deoxidation. In such cases it has given information as to oxygen

or oxide content of the steels which could not be obtained by any

other method of analysis. One case which ma}' be cited is the investigation of titanium-treated rail steels previously mentioned in

this report. The bureau also applied this method of analysis to ex- perimental heats of zirconium-treated steels prepared by a commercial research laboratory. The same method of analysis is being used

in a study of a large number of commercial heats of open-hearth

steels made under the supervision and for the work of the Joint

Committee on Phosphorus and Sulphur in Steel.

Vacuum Fusion Method for Nitrogen in Metals (Jordan, Eckman).

Further progress may be reported on the method for determining

nitrogen in metals by fusion in vacuum and absorption of nitrogen
270 EEPOKT OF DIEECTOK OF BUEEAU OF STANDARDS,

in the evolved gases by metallic calcium vapors. Values for nitrogen

in iron determined by this method are frequently lower than those

obtained by the Allen method. The reasons for these differences

have not been discovered as yet. Certain steels have given higher

values by the fusion than hj the solution method. Such results are

to be expected, however, from the fact that the solution or Allen

method detennines only a part of the total nitrogen in many steels.

5. EXPERIMENTAL FOUNDRY.

C. M. Saeger, jr.

Production of Castings (Saeger, Flegel).

The number of requests received for special castings for use in the

bureau's instrument shop, for the production of research material,

and for use by several of the other Government departments has

increased considerably over that of last year. During the past year

2,442 castings from 564 different patterns were made, an increase of

more than 25 per cent over the number cast during the previous year.

New Foundry Equipment (Saeger).

Up to the present time the bureau has been handicapped somewhat

by the lack of facilities for the production of cast iron. During

the year a cupola to be used for this purpose has been installed.

This will make possible the production of iron for casting purposes

and also for refining into steel in the experimental electric steel furnaces, which form part of the equipment of the metallurgical

division.

Molding Sands (Karr).

With the active cooperation of the joint committee on molding

sands, the development of laboratory methods for testing these sands

is receiving very considerable attention. Eeference is made later

to this work.

PROBLEMS OF MILITARY INTEREST.

Erosion of Steels for Machine-gun Barrels (Sveshnikoff).

In cooperation with the War Department, 25 alloy steels recommended for service as machine-gun barrels have been put through a

series of physical and ballistic tests which are expected to disclose

their suitability for ordnance purposes. The project, with its modifications and accessory investigations, is drawing to a close and

should be concluded during the coming fiscal year.

Development of Light Armor Plate (Vanick, Herschman).

In conjunction with the War Department, the bureau has undertaken the problem of developing light armor plate and of preparing

specifications expressing in physical terms those properties which

are essential to the service of the plate.

The first portion of the problem allotted to the bureau has been

completed, and reports of the work have been submitted to the War

Department. Experimental data are being collected from the separate research units that have assisted in the work apart from the

bureau, and the results are being condensed and interpreted into
KBPOET OF DIEECTOK OF BUREAU OF STAKDABDS. 271

tentative specifications. Meanwhile, experimental work is confined

to investigations supplemental to the main research.

Development of Metals Resistant to Hot Ammonia Gases (Vanick).

The Fixed Nitrogen Research Laboratory of the Department of

Agriculture has utilized the metallurgical facilities at the Bureau of

Standards to assist in developing materials suitable for nitrogenfixation apparatus which operates at high 2:)ressures and high temperatuies in corrosive gases. Exposures varying from 2 to 12

months of a series of 50 ferrous and nonferrous metals and alloys

have been completed in corrosion apparatus operated at their laboratories. The specimens are treated, tested, and microscopically ex- amined at the bureau. The initial program is approximately 75 per

cent complete, and satisfactory material for high pressure, high temperature fixation apparatus is assured from the results obtained.

Failures of metallic parts in service are examined for the purpose

of adding to information relative to the precise conditions under

which parts are in operation, thus guiding the selection of materials

for the fixation apparatus. Service tests of fundamentally different

commercial alloys are provided for with the same object in view.

Processes known as super-pressure processes have introduced new

and more severe operating conditions which will demand new methods

of experimental procedure to develop suitable materials for the accomplishment of such processes. No work under this activity has as yet

l3een undertaken. The preparation of metallic base catalysts for the

pressure-fixation processes present problems in the field of metallic

oxide solutions to which such metallurgical tactics are applied as

assist in the knowledge, study, and control of the oxide preparations.

RESEARCH ASSOCIATES.

The general subjects investigated during the year by the investigators placed at the biireau by various metallurgical companies were

the same as those mentioned in the last annual report. In addition,

a research assistant was added to the list by the National Foundrymen's Association to aid in the study of molding sands. The following is a general account of the accomplishments of these investigators : Nickel Investigations (Waltenberg and Ruh, associate and as- sistant) . Investigations which have been in progress during the past year

include the following : Intercrystalline deterioration of nickel ; equilibria of nickel-nickel oxide; effect of common impurities on the

malleability of nickel and Monel metal.

The research division of the International Nickel Co. is cooperating with various sections of the bureau in the following investigations : Nickel compounds as fillers in rubber, nickel and Monel metal

deposits obtained with a metal-spray gun, efficiency of different types

of nickel anodes in electroplating, and preparation of pure nickel.

No publications of any work were issued during the past year.

Intercrystalline Deterioration of Nickel,

j A comparison was made of the intercrystalline detei-ioration of low

j manganese nickel, grade "A," and high manganese nickel, grade

" D," when heated for a period of four ho.urs at 1,100° C. in contact
272 KEPOKT OF DIRECTOR OF BUREAU OF STANDARDS.

with ferric oxide or silica and in the presence of carbon dioxide or

sulpliur dioxide. The high manganese or grade " D " nickel deteriorated less in every case. The presence of sulphur dioxide was found

to accelerate greatly this type of deterioration.

Equilibrium of the Nickel-Nickel Oxide System.

Nickel oxide when present in nickel occurs as the compound represented by NiO. It is practically insoluble in solid nickel and forms

a eutectic with nickel at 1.1 per cent NiO, (0.24 per cent O,), the

melting point of the eutectic being 1,438° C. The melting point of

NiO was found to be 1,660° C.

Effect of Common Impurities on the Malleability of Nickel and

Monel Metal.

It is believed the results of this investigation show conclusively

that sulphur is the only element usually found in nickel which causes

it to be nonmalleable, and sulphur above 0.01 per cent causes nickel

to be unsuitable for hot forging. This applies to nickel to which no

mangnesium has been added ; the addition of manganese changes the

sulphur constituent to a manganese sulphide and improves the forging properties; the addition of mangnesium 0.1 per cent changes

the suljihur constituent to a magnesium sulphide and produces malleable nickel, Avith or without the presence of manganese.

Open-Hearth Iron Investigation (Cain, associate).

The investigations for the past year have dealt mainly with the

following subjects : Additional tests have been made on various

refractory mixtures for stopper-sleeve brick. No entirely satisfactory mixtures have been found, partly because of lack of uniformity

of some of the raw materials tried and partly because of price flue-'

tuations of the latter.

Further investigation has been made of the manganese-sulphur

ratio necessary to prevent red shortness of low-carbon ferrous products. The indications are that further research may be necessary

before publication of the results. From what has been ascertained

thus far it would seem that tliere are many cases where the prevention

of the red shortness is not merely a question of the ratio of manganese

to sulphur, but that other considerations of unknown nature also

enter. Additional melts have been made to test the effect of highoxygen content on red shortness in the practical absence of sulphur,

and the conclusions previously reached are sustained by these tests. The preparation of specimens for a study of thermal critical points

of low-carbon ferrous products has been completed. These specimens

have been analyzed, and the study on the thermal transformations is soon to be started.

Several modifications in the design of apparatus for determining

gases in metals have been made. One apparatus is for the study of- gases in low-carbon iron by a modification of the Goeren's method,

and it may also be used for the analysis of some specially deoxidized

materials. A modification of the vacuum-induction furnace to be

used in deoxidation studies has been comj)leted. This furnace lias

been tested and found very satisfactory for the work intended.

The preparation in the special induction furnace of. a series of pure

iron melts under controlled amounts of air has been started. This

investigation is intended to yield information as to the rate of oxida-
REPORT OF DIRECTOR OF BUREAU OF STANDARDS. 273

tion of iron and the absorption or retention of the iron oxide formed.

This information, in turn, will guide in the preparation of iron with

definite or known oxide content as a "standard" material against

which to test deoxidizers.

Galvanizing and Brass Foundry Problems (Marshall, associate).

The investigator working on this line of research completed his

work at the bureau at the middle of the past year. The results of the

investigation on the embrittlement of malleable cast iron during galvanizing will soon be published in the bureau's series of technologic

papers. Following is a summary of this work

Recent investigations have shown that commercial malleable iron

is often embrittled as a result of galvanizing by the "hot-dipping"

method. The present study, however, has shown that this change

results from quenching from certain temperatures in the blue-heat

range and that the galvanizing plays no other part than the means

of heating the iron. The low-shock resistance of such material after

hot-dip galvanizing is often very striking. The present study of the

problem showed that the magnitude of this deterioration varied with

different samples of iron. The Izod impact test was used as a con- venient means for measuring the resilience of the metal. The embrittlement was found to be limited to a fairly definite range of

quenching temperatures. Aging after treatment did not appear to

affect the results. The rate of cooling from the blue-heat range was

important, however. If the malleable iron was slowly cooled instead

of quenched from these temperatures, the impact resistance was not

nearly so seriously impaired. It was also found that the upper limit

of the "embrittlement zone" lay a few hundred degrees (C.) below

the critical point. Quenching from temperatures in this upper safety

I zone increased the resilience of the iron and made it immune to the

blue-heat deterioration. The information obtained did not solve the

question of the fundamental cause of the embrittlement, but did point

out a convenient and simple method for eliminating it. Molding Sand Investigation (Aungst, assistant).

During the year an assistant was placed at the bureau by the

American Foundrymen's Association to aid in the testing and study

of molding sands. The work is carried out vmder the supervision of

i the section chief and most of the time up to date has been spent in

j testing the methods tentatively adopted by the Joint Committee on

" Molding Sands for the testing of such materials. These include the

test for fineness by the sieve test, the determination of cohesiveness

1 or bond strength by the overhanging bar method, and the measure-

! ment of the permeability by the rate of flow of a standard volume

of air through the sand under standard conditions. The committee

plans to test all sands submitted by the State geologists of the diiferent States that show any promise of being utilized as molding sands,

and these are three of the important tests which are to be made on

i| all sands. Two of the States have already submitted samples which

; have been tested.

TESTS.

The following cases are given as typical of examinations of this

kind which the division has been asked to make during the past

year. Many of tKe examinations made by the division and listed as 65077—23 19
274 REPORT OF DIRECTOR OF BUREAU OF STANDARDS.

tests are largely investigational in character. They are of great

variety, and each requires individual treatment.

Corroded Material.

The following are listed as typical of the variety of corroded

products this division is called upon to investigate. In cases of this

kind an opinion is usually requested as to a more satisfactory material to use.

*

(a) A number of luminous buoy lights used on shipboard failed, one exploding on deck. These " water " lights consist of a sheetmetal can containing calcium carbide and calcium phosphide, which

ignite by the action of the water when the can is thrown overboaixl.

The corrosion of the container because of electrolytic action was most

severe underneath the brass labels attached to the cans giving the

manufacturer's name. It was recommended that the cans should

be of copper and that the use of metallic labels or tags should be

strictly forbidden on this class of material.

(h) The rivets of part of a duralumin girder from a wrecked

dirigible were found to be very severely corroded, the deterioration

being so severe that they could be easily cut with a knife. The

duralumin strips also showed evidence of corrosion by intercr5'stalline embrittlement. It could not be learned whether the corrosion

took place while immersed in sea water or in the air. Chemical

analysis shoAved the rivets to be much lower in alloying elements

than is the regular duralumin.

((?) A portion of copper boat sheathing had so rapidly deteriorated

in service that in less than a year it had a lace-like appearance. The

oxide content was slightlj' greater than that usually found in commercial sheet copper, but otherwise the material appeared to be of

high grade. It was concluded, therefore, that the failure was due

to some unusual service condition rather than to any defect or abnormality in the metal.

Tungsten Lamp Filaments.

A number of tungsten lamp filaments which varied considerably

in performance were examined. Particular attention was given to

the changes in structure which occur as the lamps are burned and

the filaments deteriorate, in the endeavor to show why some lamps

have an abnormally short life. Tlie expenditure of considerable

effort on the technique of polishing and etching the fine wires was

required. It was possible from the metallographic examination to

point out some defects and the probable sources of weakness.

Tool Steel Graphitization.

Attention was called in one of the technical journals to a rather

unusual condition sometimes found in carbon tool steels which cause them to have a black-heart fracture. No satisfactory explanation of

the phenomenon being advanced, a specimen of this material was

secured and examined at the bureau. Microscopic examination

showed that an almost complete graphitization of the cementite in ne central portions of the rolled bai^ was responsible for the peculiar appearance of the fracture. The characteristic shape of the

graphitic portion of the bar suggested strongly that some condition

oi'iginating in the ingot was responsible for the relative ease of

graphitization upon annealing. The ordinary chemical analysis,

however, showed no essential differences in chemical composition
KEPOET OF DIRECTOR OF BUREAU OF STANDARDS. 275

\\]ong the cross-sectional zones of the bar and hence did not indicate

\vhat tliis condition might be. Manufacturers of steels of this kind

have found, as a result of experience, that the presence of a very

t-inall amount of chromium will prevent graphitization upon aniiealing.

Deterioration of Steel by Brazing.

A " wire-pull" terminal of medium carbon steel developed cracks

after brazing. The microscopic examination showed that as a result

of the high brazing temperature used, the copper brazing alloy had

penetrated into t]ie steel in an intergranular manner, causing intercrystalline brittleness of tlie steel. It could not be ascertained

whether or not the steel part was under stress while being brazed.

Such a condition, if it did obtain, would contribute to the attack of

rlie steel by the molten brazing metal.

Defective Lead Cable Sheathing.

The sheathing was defective by reason of a number of small trans- verse cracks which liad permitted the infiltration of water. The ex- amination showed nothing which suggested inferiority of the material. The indications were that the cracks had originated at some

stage in the manufacturing process, while the lead was at a rather

]iigh temperature.

Platinum Gauze Catalyzer.

A portion of a platinum gauze cylinder used as a catalyzer in the

oxidation of anamonia had become veiy weak and brittle in service.

The microscopic examination showed that the wires had become

ver}' much roughened and notched so that the surface of the wires

was very much increased. This is common in platinum after being

used for this purpose, and apparently is a necessary accompaniment

of the " activation " process. The chemical conditions under which

the gauze was used also might have contributed to the weakening of

the wires.

"Aluminized " Steel Tie Bolts.

The bolts were to be used in furnace construction and were therefore to be exposed to elevated temperatures. The " aluminizing " apparently had been done by the immersion of the bolts in molten

aluminum. A noticeable alio}' coating had formed by the penetration of the aluminum into the iron. The coating was not comparable,

however, with that formed in the commercial process of " calorizing " and it did not seem that for severe high temperature service the

" aluminized bolts would " stand up " better than bare steel.

Special Process of Heat Treatment of Tubes.

In this process, so far applied largely in an experimental manner

for the heat treatment of thin-wall tubes, the metal is heated by its

resistance to the passage of electric current. An investigation of

this method of treatment for brass condenser tubes v>^as cai-ried out

at both the plant of the manufacturer and the bureau, and a report

covering the application and limitations of the process was prepared.

Miscellaneous.

The following materials may be mentioned as illustrative of the

wide variety of materials the division is called upon to examine

Solder and soldering paste, aluminum solder, aluminum kitchen uten-
276 REPORT OF DIRECTOR OF BUREAU OF STANDARDS.

sils, dental burs, failed bearing, failed carburized steel-drivingpinion, automobile tire chains, copper-lead graphite commutator

binish, ball pein machinist's hammer, broken drive shaft from autotruck, graphitic bearing metals, inferior hypodermic needles, leadcoated steel sheets and wire, exploded boiler tubes, die steels, air fur- nace and electric furnace cast iron, nickel of varying sulphur content, silver coinage alloys, welding rods, brass condenser tubes, electrical fuse wires, alloys for steam turbine buckets, " gas content " of

copper, zinc, malleable cast iron, Monel metal, and steels.

Fusible Plugs.

There were 456 fusible boiler plugs tested for the Steamboat Inspection Service. Of these, 260 met satisfactorily all the requirements

of the specifications; of the remainder, 12 were reported as having

loose fillings and 184 were rejected : of these, 62 had a copper content

more than 0.3 per cent; in 13, the lead content exceeded 0.1 per cent;

18 had a copper content more than 0.3 per cent and lead in excess of

'0.1 per cent ; 3 showed the copper content to be more than 0.3 per

icent and the iron more than 0.1 per cent; in 74, the total impuritj''

was more than 0.3 per cent ; 4 were inferior, as the melting point was

less than 230° C. ; in 9, the tin fillings were loose ; and 1 had a cas- ing which was not bronze.

Summary of Tests.

The table below gives a summary of the moi-e important tests completed by the division during the year, the estimated value of which

is $12,870. For a complete statement of all tests completed, the table

at the beginning of the report of this division should be consulted.

Certain of the Moke Important Tests Completed During the Fiscal Year

1922-23.*

For tlip Covernment:

AOTiculture Dcp'irtrnrnt

Biurau of Standards Navy Dcoartm'^nt Panama Canal Steamboat Inspection Service War Departmrnt

Treasury Pepartmont

XT. S. Shipping Board

Post Office Coast and Oeodetic Survey

General Supply Committee

Inter-tate Commerce (.Commission. Governmmt Printine Office Department of Commerce

Veterans' Piureau

Total

JFor th ' public.

Grand total.

Heat

treitm^nt, thermal

analysis

and hisrh- temperature mechanical

tests.

Iron and

steel.

640

656

4

660

Nonfer- rous.

73

Metallofrranhic (hieludins physical

and

corrosion

tests.

Iron and

steol.

1?4

2

4

15

2

Ifi

21

1

.54

4

20115

216

Chemical

m'^tallurgy, gas content in metals.

Non- Iron

t^r- and

rous. stc:i.

118

18

166 66

Nonfer- rous.

Fusible plugs.

Ca-stin^.

Iron and

steal.

456

456

456

1125

11715

Nonfer- rou'.

1, 3,51

Total.

519

1,870

1,S70

I 2,3m

9

fi 456

31

13 69

5 519

21

15

5

3,512

132

',644

' For detailed statement arranged accordins; to sections of the Metallurgical Division, so!» tables on pages 218 to 251.
REPORT OF DIRECTOR OF BUREAU OF STANDARDS. 277

PUBLICATIONS.

Publications by members of the metallurgical staff relating to the

work of the division appearing during the year are as follows

Thermal stresses in steel car wheels (G. K. Burgess aiijj G. W. Quick), Tech.

Paper 2.S5 ; also Railway Age, 74, p. 9.51 ; 1923.

The study of steels for engineering structures (G. K. Burgess), Proc. Am. See.

Civ. Engrs., 49, pp. 524-547 ; 1923.

Annual table of constants, preface to section on engineering and metallurgy

(G. K. Burgess) ; 1922. Dr. S. W. Stratton (G. K. Burgess), Technology Eng. News, 3, p. 146; 1922.

Standardization and research (G. K. Burgess), Amer. Mining Cong.; November,

1922.

Contribution to discussion of corrosion of ferrous materials (G. K. Burgess),

Proc. British Inst. Civ. Engrs., 214, Pt. II, p. 183 ; 1922.

Presidential addi-ess. The trend of standardization (G. K. Burgess), Am. Soc. for Test. Materials ; June meeting, 1923.

Second preliminary report, joint committee on investigation of sulphur and

phosphorus in steel (G. K. Burgess and C. L. Warwick), Proc. A. S. T. M.

June, 1923.

Structure and related properties of metals (H. S. Rawdon), Trans. Am. Soc. Steel Treat., 3, pp. 649-679 ; 1923.

The influence of the base metal on the structure of electrodeposits (W. Blum

and H. S. Rawdon), Trans. Am. Electrochem. Soc, 43; May meeting, 1923.

Graphitization of a carbon tool steel (H. S. Rawdon and S. Epstein), Chem.

and Met. Eng.. 27, p. 650 ; 1922.

Preparation and properties of pure iron alloys : The effect of manganese on the

structure of alloys of the iron-carbon system (H. S. Rawdon and F. Sillers,

jr.), Sci. Paper 464; also The Iron Age, 110, pp. 1357-1361; 1922.

Copper, Circular 73 (revised) (H. S. Rawdon and M. G. Lorentz).

Protective metallic coatings for the rust proofing of iron and steel, Circular 80

(revised) (H. S. Rawdon).

The structure of martensitic carbon steels and the changes which occur upon

temper.ng (H. S. Rawdon and S. Epstein), Sci. Paper 452. Resistance to corrosion of various types of chromium steels (H. S. Rawdon

and A. I. Krynitsky), Chem. and Met. Eng., 27, p. 171; 1922. Contributory factors in corrosion (H. S. Rawdon), contribution to discussion of

preliminary notes on corrosion, Proc. Am. Soc. Test, Mat., 22, pt. 1, p. 238 ; 1922.

Deterioration of alloys by internal oxidation, contribution (H. S. Rawdon) to discussion of The oxidation and swelling of zinc-aluminum alloys. Am. Inst. Min. and Met. Eng., pamphlet 1190 ; 1922. Some metallographic features of manganese bronze, contribution to discussion

(H. S. Rawdon) of The blue const.tuent in high-strength manganese bronze.

Am. Inst. Min. and Met. Eng., pamphlet 1190 ; 1922. The scratcli-hardness method, contribution (H. S. Rawdon) to discussion of

A study of bearing metals, Trans. Am. Inst. Min. and Met. Eng., February

meeting, 1923. The microscopic examination of "dirty" steel (S. Epstein), Chem. and INIet. Eng., 28, p. 482 : 1923.

A recording chronograph for the inverse-rate method of thermal analys s (H. J. French), Tech. Paper 230; also Trans. Am. Soc. Steel Treating, 3, p. 640;

1923. Effect of temperature, deformation, and rate of loading on the tensile properties of low-carbon steels below the thermal critical range (H. J. French),

Tech. Paper 219. Strength and elasticity of boiler plate at elevated temperatures (H. J. French),

Chem. and Met. Eng., 26, No. 26, p. 3207; 1922.

Boiler plate after cold-work or work at blue heat (H. J. French), Chem. and

Met. Eng., 27, No. 5, p. 211 ; 1922.

Effect of rate of loading on tensile properties of boiler plate (H. J. French),

' Chem. and Met. Eng., 27, No. 7, p. 309 ; 1922.
278 KKPCET OF Dir.iXTOR OF BTRKAU OF .STANDARDS.

Effect cf temperature, (lefoiiiiation, and rate of loadiii.i; on flu- tensile properties of low-carbon steel heow the thermal critical range (H J French)

, Tech. Paper 219. Note on the strength of stainless steel at high temnf>ra tnn^s (H .] French)

The Iron Age 110, ]). 404; 1922. Lathe bieak-down tests of some nuKU'rn high-si'eed steel.- (H. .1. .French iuid

J. Strauss, U. S. Naval Guii Factory), Tech. Paper 228; also Trans. Am

Soc. Steel Treat.. 2, p. 112.3; 1922. The constituti(;n of the al'oys of iron and nickel ( D. Hanson ('Xafousil

Physical L- b.) and .T. U. Freeman, jr.), Jour. Iron and Steel Inst.. 107; May

meeting, 1923. The influence of ratio of length to diameter in the compre.-sion te.-^ting of bal)- bitt meta's (.1. R. Freeman, jr.. and Paul F. P.rnndtl, Pri>c, Am. So<'. Test. Mat. ; June meeting. 1923. Solders for aluminum, Circular 78 (revised) (J. S. Hromatkoi.

Contribution to discussion of white-metal allovs (J. R. Freeman, jr.). Jour.

Inst, of Metnls, 28, 174: 1922.

.^On precision altimeter design M. R. Freenian. jr.. and J. B. Peterson), Report

.126, Na*i"nal Adviso]'y Committee for Aeronautics; 1922. Tl^e physical prci.erties of the A. S. T. M. tentative standard white-metal beariug-nlloi-s (J. R. Fi-ecm:ai. jr.», Pi-o<\ Am. Soc. Test. Mat., pt. 1, p. 207; 1922. Investigations of platinum metals at the Bureau of Standards (E. Wichers and

L. Jordcn Trrn^. Am. Electn chem. Soc. 43; May meeting, 1923. The preparation of platinum and platinum-rhodium allo.v for thermocouples

(R. P. Neville), Trans. Am. Electrocbem. Soc. 43; May meeting, 1923. The decarburization of ferro cliromium by hydrogen (L. Jordon and F. E. Swindells), Sci. Paper 448; also Chem. and Jlet. Eng., 27, p. 1071; 1922.

Gases in metals; I. The determination of comb ned nitrogen in iron and steel and the change in the form of nitrogen by heat treatment (L Jordan and

F. E. Swindells), Sci. Paper 457 ; also Chem. and Met. Eng., 27, p. 1135 and

1170; 1922.

The prepai-ation and properties of pure iron alloys; I. Effect of carbon and

manganese on the mechanical properties of iron (R. P. Neville and J. R. Cain), Sci. Paper 453; also Trans. Am. Electrochem. Soc, 42, p. 21; 1922.

Gases in metals (L. Jordan), Proc. Am. Soc. Test. Mat.; June meeting, 1923.

The effect of high-temperature quenching on the microstructure of highcarbon steels (H. Scott), Trans. Am. Soc. Steel Treat., 3, pp. 593-623; 1923. The magnetic change in silicon and in chromium steels (H. Scott). Chem. and

Met. Eng., 28, p. 212 ; 1923.

The decomposition of martensite into troostite in alloy steels (H. Scott),

Forging and Heat Treatment, 8, p. 296 ; 1922.

Contribution to discussion. What is steel? (H. Scott), Chem. and Met. Eng.,

27, p. 1156 ; 1922.

The mechanical propert es of chrome vanadium steels (J. S. Vanick), Trans.

Am. Soc Steel Treat., 3, p. 196 ; 1922.

Thermal transformations in some chrome vanadium steels (J. S. Vanick) and

W. W. Sveshnikoff), Trans Am. Soc Steel Treat., 3, p. 502; 1923.

The magnetic susceiitibility and iron content of tin-red-brass fL. H. Mai'shall

and R. L. Sanford), Tech. Paper 221. Review of present status of drill-steel breakage and heat treatment (F. B. Foley, C. Y. Clayton, and H. S. Burnholz), Trans. Am. lust. Min. and Met.

Eng., pamphlet 1206-M ; 1923.

Hardness and heat-treatment of mining drill shanks (C. Y. Clayton), Trans. Am. Inst. Min. and Met. Eng. ; pamphlet 1208-M ; 1923. Influence of temperature, time, and rate of cooling on the physical properties

of carbon steel (H. M. Howe, F. B. Foley, and J. R. Wlnlock), Trans. Am.

Inst. Min. and Met. Eng. ; pamphlet 1226-S ; 1923. Publications in press

A comparison of the deoxidation effects of titanium and of silicon on the

properties of rail steel (G. K. Burgess and G. W. Quick) ; Tech. Paper.

Invar and related nickel steels, Circular 58 (rewritten) (B. C. Groesbeck).

Nickel, Circular 100 (revised) (E. C. Groesbeck).

The crystalline form of electrodeposition of metals (W. Blum and H. S. Rawdon), American Electrochem. Soc.
KEPORT OF DIEECTOE OF BUEEAU OF STANDARDS. 279

Embrittlement of malleable cast ii'on produced by heat treatment, as revealed

by impact tests (L. H. Marshall).

Tensile properties of carbon and alloy steels at high temperatures (H. J. French and W. A. Tucker), Iron Age.

Lathe breakdown tests for the purchase of high-speed steels (H. J. French and

Jerome Strauss), Forging and Heat Treating.

Deterioration of steel and wrought iron tubes in hot, gaseous ammonia (J. S. Vanick), Trans. Am. Soc. for Steel Treating.

Note of the swelling of machine gun barrels (W. W. Sveslmikoff), Army Ord- nance Journal.
1
CERAMICS.

P. H. Bates.

FUNCTIONS.

The work in connection with ceramics deals with standards of

quality, methods of test, and specifications for ceramic materials

and products ; the study of problems relating to the preparation and

utilization of ceramic materials and to the manufacture of ceramic

products ; the elimination of waste by supplying definite guides to

purchasers, Governmental and private, and by obtaining and disseminating to manufacturers scientific information of assistance in

the improvement of products and in increasing the efficiency of

methods. The products embraced in this work include building

materials, such as brick, hollow tile, wall tile, and architectural terra

cotta ; drainage materials, such as sewer pipe and draintile ; paving

materials, such as paving brick and floor tiles ; refractory materials

required for the lining of metallurgical and other furnaces; pottery

and porcelains, including dishes, sanitary ware, electrical porcelain,

and chemical porcelain ; glass products, including window glass,

glass containers, and optical glass ; and products made by the enameling of sheet iron or sheet steel, cast iron, and other metals.

SECTIONS.

1. Pottery and fine ceramics.

2. Optical glass.

3. Refractories.

4. Enameled metals.

GENERAL STATISTICS.

Staff Expenditures (1922-23) Tests completed

Researches completed

Bureau publications

Other technical publications

30 — $62,000

.._ 12, 283

8

2

11

281
WORK CHART.

I. POTTERY AND FINE CERAMICS.

SCOPE.

Investigation dealing with: (a) Tableware (earthenware, porcelain), (&)

architectural terra cotta, (c) tile, (d) art pottery, (e) chemical and hightemperature porcelain, if) stone ware. Comprising .studies of effect on finished product of: (a) Raw materials, (6)

manufacturing processes, (c) burning conditions.

Leading to development of tests: (a) Chemical, (&) physical, (c) petrograpliic.

Standards of quality and service.

TESTS.

Material tested.

Raw materials China Matt glares One-fire porcelains

Casting slips Tank linings Terra cotta

Number completed.

1921-22 1922-23

350 2,500

30

160

500 900

40 1,500

20

55 230

RESEARCHES.

Subject.

Physical properties of vitreous china bodies. Standard specifications for "whiteware"

Properties of American and English ball clays: Raw materials Products

Investigation of potters flint in pottery bodies Zinc matt glazes A study of clay suspensions by means of the hydrogen

electrode.

Plasticity of paper^clays

In cooperation

with—

American Vitri- fied China

Mann facturers

Crazing of semiporcelain dinner ware. Cements for setting tiles

Study of physical properties of terra cotta: Physical tests of specimens

Burning conditions in terra cotta plants.

American Pulp

and Paper Association.

Association of Tile Manufacturers.

National Terra

Cotta Society.

do

Status June 30, 1923.

Per cent' completed.

100

50

100

100

50

1075

80

3065

85

10

Publication

issued.

Outside.i Do.2

T227.

Outside."

1 .Tour. Am. Ceram. Soc, August, 1923.

2 Jour. Am. Ceram. Soc, February, 1923.

' Jour. Am. Ceram. Soc, September, 1923. 282
EEPORT OF DIEEOTOR OF BUREAU OF STANDARDS. 283

2. OPTICAL GLASS.

SCOPE.

Manufacture or optical g:hiss: ('i) Raw materials, ib) processes, {c) testing, (d) annealing.

Sheet slass : (a) Strength, {h) wind resistance, (c) .specifications.

Olass containers: (o) Manufacture, (h) physical properties, (e) service

conditions.

Glass tableware: (a) Ph.vsical properties, (&) specifications.

TESTS.

Natin c of test.

Chemical aualyses

Miscellaneous." Action of water, etc., on glass . Mold temperatures

Physical tests Optical glass:

Gla.":? melted—

Routine.

Ex])erimental

Glass molded, annealed, inspected, and approved

By hand

As slabs

fibs...

"\pots.

fibs... \pots..

/lbs \pieces..

fibs \pieces..

Number completed.

1921-22 1922-23

60

"277'

5,000

23,000

23 6,0004

1,839 7,775

80877 Stock of blanks accumiiilated (appro.ximately) (l*?^ pieces.

120

155 924

25

1,060

19, 000

19 11,400U

1,806 9,407

374

43 300

3,000

1 Delivered to the Naval Optical Shop, Navy Yard, Washington, D. C. RESEARCHES.

Subject.

Composition and optical properties of glasses.. Study of physical properties of glass Scumming of glass bottles . .

Specifications for sheet glass

In cooperation with

'Stones" in glass..

Glass Container Association. do

Manufacturers

of sheet glass.

Status June 30, 1923.

Per cent completed.

25

75

7590

95

Publication

issued.

Outside.'

D0.2

1 Jour. Am. Ceramic Soc., April, 1923.

' Jour. Am. Ceramic Soc., December, 1922. ,

3. REFRACTORIES.

SCOPE.

Structural clay products : (a) Brick (&) hollow tile, (c) drain tile. Refractories: (a) Fire-clay brick, (&) silica brick, (c) magnesite brick, (d)

chrome brick, (e) special.

Glass-tank blocks and glass pots

Investigations of

(a) Raw materials.

( 6 ) Manufacturing processes,

(c) Commercial uses. To develop standards of

(a) Tests.

(&) Quality,

(c) Use.
284 REPORT OF DIRECTOR OF BUREAU OF STANDARDS,

TESTS.

Number completed. Nature ol test.

Commercial

rir6K;lay refractories Water smoking and dehydration

Sagger clays

RESEARCHES,

Subject.

Study of refractories:

Brick for stoker-fired boiler settings

Brick for rotary cement kilns

Resistance of glass pot bodies to glass. Problems relating to saggers

Water smoking and dehydration of clays

Status June 30, 1923.

[Refrae to r i es Manufacturers Association, Store &

I Webster.

United States Potters Association. Heavy Clay Producers' Association.

Per cent completed.

75

20

10030

100

Publication

issued.

4. ENAMELED METALS.

SCOPE.

Enameling of : (a) Ferrous metals, (h) nonfei'rous metals.

Effect on finished ware of; (a) Raw materials, (h) compositions, (c) melting, (d) surface of metal.

Developing standards of : (a) Test metliods, (h) quality.

TESTS.

NRlurc of test.

Number completed.

1921-22 1922-23

75 1,450

1,10075

50 1,S50

1,70070

Enamels:

RESEARCHES.

Subject.

Sheet-steel enamels for kitchenware: Composition and physical properties.

Application of results Warpage of enameled sheet iron and steel. Cast iron for enameling purposes Some substitutes for tin oxide in white enamels.

Specking of ground coat enamels

Status .Tune 30, 1923.

In cooperation with

Per cent completed.

Publication

issued.

' oonley Manu- \ factoring Co. / .'Vnicrican '.'e- ramiei-'ociety, enamel division.

10095

90

70

100 , Outside.i

100

' Jour. Am. Ceramic Soc, May, 1923.
REPORT OF DIRECTOR OF BUREAU OF STANDARDS. 285

Detailed Report of the Year's Work.

I. POTTERY AND FINE CERAMICS.

H. H. Sortwell.

Physical Properties of Vitreous China Bodies Fired at Different

Temperatures (Sortwell).

As a result of a meeting of the research committee of the United

States Potters Association with the Bureau of Standards, an investigation was started dealing with the effect on the finished body

of different compositions and temperature conditions prevailing

throughout commercial kilns. A member of the bureau's staff

visited the potteries of the American Vitrified China Manufacturers'

Association for the purpose of making specimens for transverse,

compressive, and impact sti-ength tests and porosity determinations.

The specimens were fired in three different locations in a kiln at each

factory in order to obtain samples burned under average plant

conditions, and were then tested at the bureau. The differences in

the bodies showed emphatically the serious effect of underfiring and

overfiring on the physical properties of such wares. In addition to this, each of the 11 potteries shipped a quantity of

plastic body to the bureau, where it was made into specimens and

fired at cones 6, 8, 10, 12, and 14, covering a much wider range in

heat treatment than exists in the pottery kilns. These tests gave the

same results as the previous tests. A^-liile some of the bodies had a comparatively long burning range, most of them matui^ed and overfired within narrow limits. A complete report of the work has been

submitted to potters who cooperated in the work, and for publication

in the Journal of the American Ceramic Society.

Development of a One-Fire Porcelain (Sortwell).

A combination of body and glaze for the manufacture of porcelain

in one fire—that is, maturing body and glaze at the same time—has

been developed for the economical and rapid production of whiteware products. The work, which consisted of casting and firing a

large number of pieces, involved studies of the effect of variation in

clay content on casting behavior, the amount of electrolytes for

proper deflocculation of such bodies for casting, the relation of

methods of mold making to the wearing qualities of the molds, the

effect of variations in glaze composition on body fit in the one-fire

process, and the effects of variation in temperature and kiln atmosphere on overglaze color. Further work should be done, especially a study of water content and salts to be used in the casting of bodies

of very low or no ball clay content.

Tests of Porcelain Sanitary China (Sortwell, Fair).

Ten brands of porcelain lavatories have been given a long series

of tests to study the advisability of the use of a hot and cold water

test in the specifications of the Federal Specifications Board. The

conclusions from the work were that a hot and cold water test would not be severe enough to show any difference in the average

run of the wares in a reasonal)le length of time. Further tests were

made by quenching the lavatories from a furnace at temperatures of

100, 120, 140, 160, 180, and 200° C. in water at 15° C. These tests
286 REPORT or DIRECTOR OF BUREAU OE STANDAKUs.

showed differences in the 10 brands of ware tested with respect to

their abihty to withstand sudden temperature changes. Results obtained do not justify the formulation of specifications.

Specifications for Tableware (Sortwell, Hazelwood).

In order to establish relations between thickness of tableware and

resistance to impact, further physical tests have been made. Tayo of

the brands tested were semiporcelain hotel ware and two were vitrified porcelain hotel ware. It was found that in all types tested

the imj)act to cause " starring " increased with the thickness in an

approximately parabolic relation. In plain semiporcelain dinner

ware and roiled edge vitrified hotel china, difference in thickness

within the range in which such ware is ordinarily made had no appreciable effect on the ability of the ware to withstand complete

failure by impact. A report has been given the potters and was

published in the February, 1923, issue of the Journal of the American

Ceramic Society.

In connection with these laboratory tests, service tests are being

conducted in cooperation wixh the American Hotel Association at the Willard Hotel, Washington, D. C., and the Biitniore and Waldorf-Astoria Hotels, New York, N. Y. Additional samples are being

sent to other hotels for this purpose.

Bonding Power of Ball Clays in Fired Bodies (Sortwell, Shearer).

In addition to the investigation of ball clays which has been

reported in Technologic Paper No. 227, a further study of the clays

has been made to determine the comparative effect of the various

clays on the strength of fired bodies. Twenty-five ball clays, both

American and English, were used in making experimental bodies,

containing 50 per cent nonplastic refractory material, wliich were

fired at several temperatures and the transverse strengths determined. Wide differences in the bonding power of the clays in the

absence of active fluxes were noted. A few bodies were then made

for comparison of the bonding power of the clays in bodies con- taining no fluxes with semiporcelain and vitreous china compositions

containing feldspar, which promotes vitrification. The results of

this preliminary study indicated that the strength of bodies containing feldspar might differ but slightly with different ball claj^s, but

that no relation exists between such bodies and those in which no

flux is used. The report of this work has been submitted for publication in the Journal of the American Ceramic Society.

Cement for Setting Tile (Gaardsmoe).

Rapid increase in the use of tile for lining tanks in various in- dustries has brought to the attention of manufacturers of this commodity that the cements now available possibly do not give satisfactory service. The bureau has been conducting work along the

line of developing cements to resist the action of such solutions as acid storage battery electrol^ytes, photographic fixing solutions, -photographic developers, meat pickling solutions, paper stock bleach,

and solutions of aluminum sulphate. Concrete tanks are being con- structed which are being lined with tile set in certain of the acidproof cements in common use. After aging these are being filled

with the solutions indicated and the behavior of the cement in ser\'-
REPORT OF DIRECTOR OF BUREAU OF STANDARDS. 287

ice noticed. The work has not progressed sufficiently to permit any

conclusions to be drawn.

'Zinc Matt Glazes (Sortwell).

Matt glazes of this type are important commerciall}', but the published information on compositions is very meager. A study of compositions suitable for this type of glaze maturing at several temperaj tures is under way.

Potters' Flint (Shearer).

American potters use three distinct types of silica in their bodies,

(juartz, American cryptocrystalline silica, and French flint. An

. investigation is being conducted to determine their comparative effects in semiporcelain, sanitaiy porcelain, and viti-eous china bodies.

Seventeen samples, representing all three types, have been collected

and are being tested for a comparison with the specifications for flint

proposed to the American Ceramic Society by their comjnittee on

standards.

Study of Humidity Problems (Lindsay).

A study of the effect of different rates of drying of clay under

different humiditj' conditions is under waj". The first phase of this

stud}'' consists in- the determination of the effect of drying treatment

on the strength and other properties of laboratory test specimens

made from different types of clays and from comanercial bodies. A

large part of this work will be done in a drier permitting accurate

control of temperature and humidity conditions.

In cooperation with the heat and power di\dsion and the Weather

Bureau, work in the study of theoretical psychrometry and hygrometry is being carried out. The work now consists mainly in as- sembling data preparatory to publication. The ultimate object is the

establishment of more reliable and accurate tables relating to the

condition of water vapor in air and the verification of the laws of

evaporation.

United States Potters' Association Research Associate (Roehm).

This investigation is a study of the cause and control of the craz- ing of semivitreous china.

The work is being conducted on commercial bodies and on specimens of ware submitted by manufacturers. The investigation involves: (a) A study of physical properties, such as rate of vitrification, transverse strength, absorption, and coefficient of expansion of

this type of ceramic bod}'; (h) the effects of glaze thickness; (c) the

effect of varying thicknesses in the ware on which the glaze is used;

and (d) a correlation of physical properties with results obtained by

the glazing of specimens under varying conditions of glaze and

body thickness and methods of burning.

A complete report of the progress of this investigation has been

submitted to the association.

A Study of Clay Suspensions (Hall).

This is a part of the program of studies of those physical-chemical properties of clays which must be more clearly defined and understood before satisfactory progress can be made in the preparation

of specifications for clays for specific purposes and in the improve-
288 REPORT OF DIRECTOR OF BUREAU OF STANDARDS.

ment of such processes as the purification of clays and the casting

of porcelain and other ceramic wares. The work on the study of clay suspensions has dealt mainly with

methods of determining the hydrogen-ion concentration which affects the stability of such suspensions. The two methods finally

adopted were the colorimetric method and the hydrogen-electrode

method. The water extracts from 50 different clays, including ball

clays, kaolins, and fire clays Avere examined by these methods. The

pH value for these varied from 3.0 to 8.5. The rate of settling of a

clay in water is greatly influenced by the pH value of the suspending medium. The rate of settling of six different clays over a wide

range of pH value was studied and they all exhibited a maximum

rate of settling on the acid side (the iso-electric point), and a minimum rate of settling on the alkaline side (the point of maximum

deflocculation) . Knowing these two points for a given clay, it is possible to attain a high degree of efficiency in the separation of

clay material from impurities, such as coarse grain quartz and mica.

The action of alkali on 11 clays was studied by means of the hydrogen electrode, and the amount of alkali absorbed by a clay suspension

was determined. From the data collected it seems that the action

of alkali on clays over the range pH 7-12 is a case of physical absorption. In solutions moi^e strongly alkaline than pH 12, there

is probably a chemical reaction between the alkali and the clay. By

plotting the two constants of the absorption equation as determined

for the 11 clays, they are divided into three classes, namely, ball

clays, kaolins, and china clays. This will probably give some clue

as to the distribution of the grain size of the several clays.

Thermocouple Protection Tubes (Insley).

It has been noted that the high-fire porcelains used in the manufacture of thermocouple protection tubes generally fail very rapidly

in glass-melting furnaces though they may give very satisfactory

results in the usual type of ceramic kiln. Petrographic examinations have been made of such failed tubes and it has been found that

the alkali volatilized from the melt produces a conversion of the

sillimanite originally present into corundum imbedded in a glass

composed of a complex silicate, high in alkali.

Study of Physical Properties of Architectural Terra Cotta (Fuller).

The first phase of this investigation which is being conducted in

cooperation with the National Terra Cotta Society, and which

involved a series of physical tests on specimens of terra-cotta bodies,

is nearing completion. During the past year studies of the properties

of terra-cotta bodies included determination of hardness, resistance

to abrasion, resistance to actual freezings, permeability, and porosity.

Striking differences in permeability have been shown, but there is no consistent relation between the permeability and absorption values

for the bodies studied. All the bodies resist actual freezing so well

that although approximately 350 actual freezings have been made

on 4 by 1 by 1 inch specimens of bodies produced by a number of

manufacturers, only slight effects have been observed and it is, there- • fore, impossible to correlate resistance to freezing with any of the

other properties determined.
REPORT OF DIRECTOR OF BUREAU OF STANDARDS. 289

A new program of tests of freezing and weathering resistance on

a large number of special coping blocks, balusters, special freezing

specimens, and bars made by four different manufacturers and

burned in different parts of their kilns has been undertaken. A

representative of the biu'eau visited three plants in the East, which

have been designated to make and burn tliese specimens, and a survey

of temperature conditions in different parts of the kiln in which the

specimens were burned was made in order that variations in burning

conditions and the residtant effect on the quality of the ware could be

studied. A similar set of specimens will be made and burned at a plant in California. In addition to the specimens made from the

regular terra-cotta bodies, coping blocks and balusters are to be made

up from an especially porous terra-cotta lumber body and from

especially dense bodies, such as stoneware and electrical porcelain.

2. GLASS—OPTICAL GLASS.

A. E. Williams.

General.

The relations between the chemical composition of various kinds

of glasses and their ph^^sical and optical properties have been further

investigated. This work included investigations of: (a) Plant and

laboratory methods of melting glass and the molding, annealing, and

testing of glass products; (&) the resistance of glass to weathering

and the solvent action of water; and (c) the strength of glass for

glazing.

These investigations have resulted in the accumulation of a vast

amount of data regarding the various phases of the glass industry

and the properties of glass, which have enabled the bureau to render

considerable assistance to the manufacturers in improving the

quantity and quality of their product. They have also enabled the

bureau to recommend specifications and tests for several types of

glassware, which make it possible for the consumer to obtain supplies that will give the maximum service.

Methods of Testing (Williams, Palmer, Hazelwood).

Development of test for resistance to weathering.—^Work to devise

methods for determining the resistance of glass to solution in water

and the comparative resistance of glass used for container purposes

has been completed. As a result a basis of comparison for the quality

of glasses in this respect has been obtained. This work was reported

in the Journal of the American Ceramic Society, vol. 6, No. 4 (1923)

Study of strength tests for sheet glass.—Sheet glass for glazing

purposes has been tested in frames for comparison with the results of

the simple transverse strength tests previously made. The testing

of small samples and of large lights in frames is being continued in

order to get an accurate survey of the variations in the strength of

glass as produced by different manufacturing variables. Results

indicate that the simple tests on small samples can be interpreted

into values obtained on large plates.

" Scumming or Weathering of Bottles (Williams, Ford).

Samples packed and stored under various conditions for a period

of six months have been removed from storage and examined. The

65077—23 ^20
290 REPORT OF DIRECTOR OF BUREAU OF STANDARDS.

results indicate that conditions of damp storage and certain types

of packing, such as wrapping tightly in paper, favor the production

of scum. A study of the physical and chemical condition of the glass surface

as compared with the interior layers of the article is being made with

a view to reducing the tendency of glasses to scum by producing a more resistant surface. The results of this work were repoi'ted in the

Journal of the American Ceramic Society, volume 5, No. 12 (1922).

Specifications for Glazing Glass (Williams).

As a result of tests made by the bureau and of sevei'al conferences

between manufacturers and consumers of glass for glazing, tentative

specifications have been prepared in wliich nomenclature, definitions,

classification, faults, size, tolerances, etc., are discussed. Agreement

to these specifications is practically unanimous, but they have not

yet been adopted.

Specifications for Milk Bottles (Williams).

Conferences with manufacturers, cap makers, milk dealers, and

dairy inspectors have been held at wliich plans were discussed to

standardize the shapes, capacity, marking, and labeling of milk bottles, and to consider the possibilities of adjusting State and municipal

laws and regulations to conform to such standards. Methods of

marking were adopted and the Bureau of Standards was delegated

to present this phase of the Avork to the State and municipal authorities concerned.

Work for Federal Specifications Board (Williams).

Work on the preparation of specifications for glass and chinaware

for use in all Government departments is being conducted by this

division in cooperation Avith various Government departments. A

suitable specification has been prepared and a tentative set of chinaware has been adopted by the Government representatives. This

will be referred to the potters association for comment. Tentative

specifications for four types of glassAvare have been adopted and

are now in the hands of manufacturers for comment and criticisms.

Optical Glass.

Melting (Finn).—Thirty pots of optical glass were melted, in

which the following types Avere produced : Kind of glass. Number of ix)ts. Boro-silicate crown (Nd=1.520) 18

Light ciwn {N.i=1.524) 5

Light barium crown (N<i=1.574) 2

Medium flint (N.i=1.620) 3

Dense barium crown (Nd=1.622) 1

Extra dense flint (Nd=1.774) 1

The relatiA^ely large proportion of boro-silicate glass was made to supply the naval optical shop, which calls for very large quantities

of this glass in the form of flat, lens, and prism blanks. The experi- ence derived from the numerous melts of this glass now enables the

bureau definitely to state the conditions under which a good quality

of this glass can be made in relatively short time, and it has also been

dernonstrated that a superior quality of this glass can be made entirely from rejected glass (cullet).
REPORT OF DIRECTOR OF BUREAU OF STANDARDS. 291

The melts of light crown have not yet been entirely successful.

The melting of light barium crown and medium flint gives very

satisfactory glass. The time required for the fii-st of these is at present probably somewhat longer than is actually necessary, but the demands for this glass and the funds available have not justified the

large nuuiber of melts required to make a comprehensive study of

variations in melting operations.

A decided improvement in the color of the dense barium crown

was obtained by modifying tlie batch composition. This type of

glass has a decided tendency to be green in color, and in order to be

suitable for high-speed photographic lenses it should be relatively

free from color.

The dense flint melt is satisfactory for prisms for direct vision

spectroscopes, although it contains some seeds and is distinctly yellow in color.

A water-cooled iron pipe, as used in Scotland for stirring the

molten glass, has been successfully substituted for the clay rods previously used in the bureau's work. The iron stirring rod can be handled much more easily and its use obviates the necessity of making a new clay rod for each melt.

Molding (Finn).—Approximately 12,000 satisfactory optical

blanks have been molded by the " sticking-up " process. These include lens blanks varying from 15 millimeters in diameter, weighing

15 grams to penta prisms, with a 63-millimeter face, weighing 1,000

grams.

A number of slabs varying from 15 by 5 to 22 by 10 centimeters,

and weighing from about 3 to 12 kilograms, have been molded by

heating the glass in clay molds. Three large disks weighing from

100 to 150 kilograms and about 75 centimeters in diameter by 8 centimetei's tliick have been made by a similar process. In order to obtain larger pieces of glass for this purpose, seven pots of boro-silicate

glass have been cooled in various ways, to determine, if possible, the

cooling conditions necessary to yield the entire melt in one piece.

The problem is rendered somewhat complex by differences betAveen

the thermal expansion of the glass and that of the pot body.

Annealing (Finn).—Much of the glass molded has been annealed

in an electric fui'uace. The operation of this furnace, which was designed and built at this bureau and is now equipped with an automatic temperature regulator, is very satisfactory, and it is relatively

easy to reduce the strain in the largest prisms and penta prisms to

less than 10 per centimeter.

Inspection (Finn).—A combination of the immersion method and

the shadow-projection method has been found to be more rapid and

more sensitive for detecting strite than either method alone. This

procedure makes it possible to examine slabs, etc., after rough giinding, obviating the extra work incident to polishing.

The estimation of strain in molded blanks is found to be more

reliable if they are immersed in the proper liquid during examination since it is difficult, if not impossible, to detect small, irregular

strains in molded blanks without polishing or immersing them.

This is especially desirable on account of the unsatisfactory optical

performance resulting from small, irregular strains. {See Experimental strain.)
292 EEPORT OF DIPiEC'TOR OF BUREAU OF STANDARDS.

|

Dispositwn.—Approxiini\tely 2,200 pounds of filass, representing over 9,500 pieces, have been delivered to tJie naval optical shop on

Ordnance Bureau requisition No. 222 (1922). In addition to this, ; about 0,000 lens blanks varying- from 15 to 110 millimeters in diameter have been prepared as stock for the Bureau of Standards.

Glass -pots (Geller. Finn).—The glass pots which were made last

year and are being used tliis year are giving excellent results. The

modifications in the composition of the pot body and method of

burning, which lias been radically changed during the past year,

gives pots which a);e extremely resistant to the most corrosive glasses.

The pots arc completely liurned in pot arches, the rate of heating

ibeing very slow up to 800° C. and then more rapid (25° per hour)

^iiuattjl the critical temperature (about 1.425° C.) is reached. This

'temperature, which is maintained for eight hours, is just below that

at which the pot becomes sufficiently soft to deform under its own

weight.

ExpcrimevtaJ chemicnJ (Finn, Thompson).—The chemical analysis

of the glasses made at the bureau is well under way. This important

investigation is being conducted with a view to establishing the

relation between chemical comiDosition and optical constants. Such

data should enable one to predict definitely what optical constants

can be obtained and what batch composition will give the desired

results.

Experimeiital strain and its relation to optical performonrp

(Finn).—Several cases of poor definition have been referred to the

bureau by the naval optical shop and whenever the trouble could not i( be attributed to strife the glass was found to be irregularly strained,

and the trouble was entirely corrected by proper annealing.

Viscosity of Glass (Williams, Palmer).

Apparatus for measuring the viscosity of glasses at different temperatures has been designed, assembled, and calibrated. Tests on

three samples of soda-lime glass indicate that it may be plastic in

nature rather than viscous. This is also apparently true of 90 per

cent glucose solutions.

Classification and Identification of "Stones" in Glass (Insley).

Studies of " stones " in glass were made to determine their nature

and origin and to suggest methods for preventing their formation,

since they ai'e the soiu'ce of considerable losses to the glass industry.

Approximatelj' 200 samples of glass containing " stones," which are

crystalline segregations or undissolved extraneous matter, were ex- amined and found to result from unsatisfactory furnace conditions,

faulty batch compositions, and poor refractories. Stones resulting

from these causes are easily identified with a polarizing microscope

and with proper precautions can be practically eliminated. The

results of this investigation were published in the Journal of the

American Ceramic Society, vol. 6, No. 6 (1923).

3. HEAVY CLAY PRODUCTS—REFRACTORIES.

W. A. Hull. Study of Refractories (Geller).

In cooperation with an advisory committee composed of producers and consumers of refractories, the bureau has undertaken
REPORT OF DIRECTOR OF BUREAU OF STANDARDS. 293

tlie eslablisbiiient of specifications to be used by various Government

departments in the purchase of refractories. The present work

deals specifically with refractorj' brick for the lining of stoker-fired.

boiler settings and consists in subjecting brick of a representativenumber of brands to tests, as suggested at the last meeting of theadvisor}' committee held at the bureau. The results of the laboratory

tests are then to be correlated with service records on brick of the"

same brands, Avhich are being gathered from the various power

plants. With these data it is hoped to establish certain values by

means of Avhich the suitability of a given brand of brick for stokerfii'ed boiler service can be determined in the laboratory.

Brick were obtained representing 42 brands, supplied by users in

all of the important industrial districts of the country. A representative number of specimens of each have been subjected to the

standard and modified load tests, and the endurance, constant volume, and quenching tests. Absorption tests before and after various

lieat treatments, the fusion points, and chemical analyses of each

brand were determined.

The results of the load test check closely with those obtained in

previous investigations and show clearly the relative behavior of

brick from various district? of the United States. Results of the

investigation also indiciite a close relation between chemical composition, fusion point, and resistance to sudden temperature changCy

and these also agree quite satisfactorily with the results of the en- durance and constant volume tests. The laboratory work of the

investigation has been completed. The data obtained, although of

great interest and value, can not be used as a basis for specifiiations until correlated with service records which are now being

collected.

Brick for Rotary Cement Kilns (Geller, Pendergast).

Samples of commercial refractories for this type of kiln have been

obtained from four manufacturers and one consumer. A representative number of specimens will be subjected to recognized tests

for refractories, including: (1) Constant volume and quenchingtests, (2) a modified slagging test, (3) load test for high-duty brick,

and (4) fusion point.

From the data obtained it is proposed to establish relative values

of clinker and fire clay brick and to determine the relation between

the commercial value of the fire-claj^ refractories and their alumina,

content.

Investigation of the Resistance of Various Types of Glass Pots ta

the Corrosive Action of Glass (Geller).

Twenty pots, each having a capacity of approximately 1,000 pounds

j of glass, were made by the casting process and delivered to the (riass

! section of this division to be used in the production of optical glass.

A remarkable opportunity is afforded in this way to study on a commercial scale, but with laboratory precision, the effect of varying

body compositions and methods of burning on the lesistance to the

I corrosive action of the glass. A complete report of obser ations on

l)0ts of varying compositions, and their resistance to glass corrosion

1 as afl'ected by different burning treatments and types of glass, has

been submitted for publication to the Journal of thf^ Ar.iei-ican

! Ceramic Society.
294 EEPORT OF DIRECTOR OF BUREAU OF STAKDAKDS.

Three glass pots, having a capacity of approximately 4,300 poancTsf

of glass each, have been cast and are to be used in a special glass

investigation. The manufacture of these pots involved the forming"

of a plaster mold considerably larger than any previously made at the

bureau. Ten tons of plaster of Paris were used in the forming of

the various parts of the mold, and many instructive points were

brought out relative to preparation, casting, and turning down of

the plaster to the desired foiTn. The casting of the special glass pots,

each of which required approximately 3,000 poimds of slip, offered

no partcular difficulties.

Sagger Investigation (Geller).

A comprehensive study of problems relating to saggers has been

undertaken, beginning with a surve}^ of the important types of clays

used in sagger making in different parts of the United States. Samples of approximately 60 sagger clays have been obtained, and their

physical properties are being studied, and, in addition, test specimens are being made of sagger mixes used by several different potteries. Samples made from these mixtures, together with samples

made from individual clays included in the mixtures, will be bui'ned

in the potteries and the progressive changes in their physical and

chemical properties in the course of successive burnings in pottery

kilns will he studied. The pottery manufacturers who have been

asked to furnish considerable quantities of clays, and those who have

been asked to cooperate in the investigation by buming test specimens in their kilns, have responded heartily.

Heavy Clay Products Investigation (Geller. Hazelwood).

The work on water smoking and dehydration of clays, which was

undertaken in connection with the Cooperative Heavy Clay Products Investigation, has been completed. This work included water

smoking and dehydration of 4-inch cubes made from clays and

shales sent in from 14 plants at which burning processes were

studied by the Bureau of Mines. The water smoking and dehydration studies were made in an electrical furnace so equipped that

temperatures could be measured at different depths in the cube and

the loss of weight could be determined during the water smoking

and dehydration. Both processes were carried on at different rates

in order to determine the effect of the rate of water smoking and thii rate of dehydration on the specimen, and on the temperature distribution within it, as well as on the rate of loss of weight. Runs

were also made in which the specimen was heated by stages, the

temperature being held constant at the end of each stage until the

weight became practically constant. The iDurpose of this was to

determine how much of the weight loss would take place at a given

temperature if sufficient time were allowed. This has a particular

bearing on the question of burning and the results showed that loss

of time, especially in water-smoking period, would result from holding the temperature in a kiln constant for a considerable period

instead of keeping it consistently rising. The results ot the investigation show distinctly the differences in behavior of different types

of clays and shales in the water smoking and dehydration periods,

and in the report which has been rendered to the technical committee of the Heavy Clay Products Association the results show in
REPORT OF DIRECTOR OF BUREAU OF STANDARDS. 295

a somewhat striking manner means and methods by which kiln time

and fuel could be conserved in the burning of heavy clay products

in intermittent kilns. The data obtained will be of value to those

who are engaged in the development of continuous kilns and the

improvement of continuous-kiln practice.

Behavior of Refractories in Glass Tanks (Insley).

In order to determine the cause of failure in glass-house refractories a study of the change in the constitution and structure of

refractories used in different parts of glass-melting furnaces has

been undertaken.

4. ENAMELED METALS.

R. R. Danielson.

Sheet-Steel Enamels for Kitchen Ware (Danielson).

Preliminary tests of ability to withstand impact, acids, and

quenching, made for the purpose of providing data for enameled

kitchen Avare specifications, showed such great differences in commercial ware that one of the large manufacturers of such wares is cooperating with the bureau in an extended investigation of the

relation of enamel composition to these physical properties. The

cooperating company stationed a man at the bureau to assist in the

work and has contributed 3,000 dinner plates of their regular sheetsteel stock for use in the investigation.

A large variety of compositions for both ground coat and cover

coat enamels have been made and applied to the stock. The finished

plates have been tested for acid resistance, ability to withstand

impact, and resistance to thermal shock. In addition, the effect of

underfiring and overfiring is being studied. The work is well under

way and when completed the results will be applied on a larger

scale in the cooperating factory.

Warpage of Sheet Iron and Steel (Hartshorn).

In the manufacture of table tops and other sheet-iron and steel

ware considerable loss is incurred by the warping of the stock during the manufacturing processes. An investigation is under way

to determine the causes and methods of control of the tendency of

enameled sheet-iron and steel wares to warp.

A number of typical metal stocks now in use have been obtained.

Different cleaning methods and annealing treatments are being

studied, and a variety of typical ground and cover coats are being

applied to determine the effect of enamel fit on warping. A progress

paper on this investigation was presented at the annual meeting of

the American Ceramic Society in February, 1923. The data obtained indicate a relation between the hardness of the enamel and

the method of cooling and the amount of warpage produced in the

finished product.

Cast Iron for Enameling Purposes (Danielson).

There is almost a total lack of reliable information on the composition of cast iron suitable for the manufacture of enameled bathtubs, stove parts, etc. A manufacturer having great success with

cast iron from one source may meet considerable trouble when forced
296 EEPOET OF DIRECTOR OF BUREAU OF STANDARDS.

to cliange his source of supply. Samples of a large variety of

enameled cast irons from a number of factories have been shipped

to the bureau. In cooperation with the metallurgy division, the

specimens have been examined microscopically and the chemical

analyses have been made. The information obtained is not sufficient

to satisfactorily distinguish poor irons. Gas analyses and further

enameling tests are in progress to determine causes of blistering and

pinholing.

Some Substitutes for Tin Oxide in White Enamels for Sheet Steel

(Danielson, Frehafer).

The price of tin oxides makes it desirable to use cheaper opacifying agents in white enamels if as satisfactory results can be obtained.

About 25 opacifying agents, including all of the substitutes for tin

oxide now on the market, and several other possible compounds have

been incorporated in a standard commercial composition and compared Avith the same composition made with several brands of tin

oxide. The opacity of the resulting enamels has been determined

by the light division, and they have been examined for texture and

gloss.

In general, the results showed that none of the substitutes were

equal to tin oxide as an opacifying agent. A number of antimony

compounds gave good results, and zirconium oxide and silicates

served very Avell. However, any economy effected by the elimination

of the tin oxide would be accompanied by a sacrifice in the appearance of the enamel. It is possible, however, that one or more of the

proposed substitutes for tin oxides might give better results in

enamel of some other composition than in the one in which they were

tried in this investigation. The results of the work have been presented before the enamel division of the American Ceramic Society,

and the report has been published in the May, 1923, issue of the

Journal of the American Ceramic Society.

Specking of Ground-Coat Enamels (Danielson).

A preliminary investigation has been conducted to study the

causes of " specking " of ground-coat enamels. This defect appears

as spots of oxide or slag in the first enamel coating and is detrimental to the appearance of the ware. A number of steel cups have been coated with a regular stock

enamel for observation.

Results indicate that this " specking " is due to a rusting of the

metal, caused by an excess of acid or salts in the enamel. It can be

remedied by the addition of sufficient sodium hydroxide previous

to the dipping operation. A report on this investigation has been

made before the enamel division of the American Ceramic Society.

TESTING, INFORMATION, AND PUBLICATIONS.

It is gratifying to be able to say that the demands made upon the

division for " analyses " of clays have materially fallen off. The

general public is apparently learning that the analyses or tests of

clay which may happen to come to its attention are of very little

value in themselves to anyone. It is far more important to know the

extent of the deposit of the clay and its uniformity than to know

the properties of a small sample which may be picked up some
REPORT OF DIRECTOR OF BUREAU OF STAlsDARDS. 297

place. The public is also beginning to realize the necessity of studying not only the extent and chai-acter of the deposit, but the need of

going into the question of plant financing and also the marketing of

whatever product is made. Realizing these points, the demand for

general information as to the value of small samples of clay is falling

off rapidly.

At the same time the amount of testing is inci'easing. This testing

is, however, generally the result of investigations being carried on

at the bureau, often in cooperation with an association or a cor- poration. Though it may appear as a test or a series of tests, it is in reality a part of a research, for certain lines of investigative methods have reached such a condition tliat many types of testing have

become, even in the case of research, routine.

The cooperative work between various technical associations and

the bureau has been most gratifying during the past fiscal year.

In several instances the members of the associations permitted the

bureau to conduct tests at their plants. In this way the bureau

was able to extend to actual plant operations certain of the observations which it had been carrying on onlj'^ on a semiplant scale at the

laboratory. Among such cases may be mentioned the assistance of the

American Vitrified China Manufacturers' Association and the National Terra Cotta Society. In both cases a large number of test pieces were prepared at the plants according to the usual plant

routine, observations on this routine being made by representatives

of the bureau. The specimens were sent to the bureau for test. Tests Completed During the Year.

During the year the following tests have been completed hy the

various sections of this division

Raw materials (clays, flints,

ii spars, etc.) 500

I Chinaware 900

j Tank linings 55

l Matt glazes 40

' One-fire porcelains 1, 500

Casting slips 20

i Action of water on glass 924

Optical Glass production.

Eoutine

j Experimental

Molded and annealed

Physical tests of glass 1, 060

Chemical analyses 120

Sagger clays 928

Terra cotta 230

Fire-clay refractories 2, 156

Three coat enamel burns 1, 850

Physical tests of enamels 1, 700

Chemical tests of enamels 70

Pounds.

19, 000

11, 400

2, 480

Cooperation with Technical Societies.

I The cooperation Avith the bureau of the various technical societies

j interested in ceramics and ceramic products has been most grati1; fying. The willingness of committees and whole associations to come

' to the bureau and spend a day in discussing problems and preparing

programs of work shows not only the interest which these associations have in the bureau, but their confidence in the results to be

; obtained. These visits to the bureau hy the representatives of the

I technical societies have been of material assistan:;e to the bureau also,

in enabling it to conserve the time of its stalf and the cost of attendI ing these meetings in other cities. At the same time, however, the

I staff of the division has attended a great many conferences with
298 REPORT OF DIRECTOR OF BUREAU OF STANDARDS.

groups and presented, the work and secured advice as to its continuance.

The following technical societies and commercial organizations are cooperating with the bureau in one way or another, some in investigative work on specific problems, but the majority in committee work

on the broader problems of standardization and establishment of

specifications: American Institute of Architects, American Society

for Testing Materials, American Society of Mechanical Engineers,

American Ceramic Society, National Electric Light Association, National Terra Cotta Society, United States Potters Association, American Vitrified China Manufacturers Association, Hollow Building

Tile Association, Refractories Manufacturers Association, American

Face Brick Manufacturers Association, Common Brick Manufacturers Association of America, National Paving Brick Manufacturers

Association, Wall Tile Manufacturers Association, American Stokers

Association, National Glass Distributors Association, American Hotel

Association, and Sheet Metal Ware Association.

PUBLICATIONS.

During the year the following reports of work done in the division

have been published

Effect of variations in heat treatment on tlie physical properties of vitreous

china bodies (H. H. Sortwell), .Tour. Amer. Ceram. Soc, August, 1923.

Impact tests on tableware (H. H. Sortwell), Jour. Amer. Ceram. Soc, February,

1923.

Technologic Paper No. 227, American and English ball clays (H. H. Sortwell).

A study of the origin and cause of stones in glass (Herbert Insley), Jour. Amer.

Ceram. Soc, June, 1923.

Technologic Paper No. 234, Methods of measuring the plasticity of clays

(F. P. Hall).

Some qualitative tests on the resistant properties of soda-lime glasses to water (L. A. Palmer), Jour. Amer. Ceram. Soc, April, 1923.

The weathering of glass containers (K. L. Ford), Jour. Amer. Ceram. Soc,

December, 1922.

Effect of hydrogen ion concentration on clay suspensions (F. P. Hall), Jour. Amer. Ceram. Soc, September, 1923. The effect of some substitutes for tin oxide on the opacity of white enamels

for sheet steel (R. K. Danielson and M. K. Frehafer), Jour. Amer. Ceram.

Soc, May, 1923.

Disintegration of soda-lime glasses in water (A. E. Williams), Jour. Amer.

Ceram. Soc, August, 1922.

Comparative tests of English and domestic whitings (A. E. Williams and B. J. Woods), Jour. Amer. Ceram. Soc, December, 1922.

Recommended specifications for limestone, quicklime, and hydrated lime (W. E. Emley and A. E. Williams), Jour. Amer. Ceram. Soc, June, 1923.

Further studies on cast glass pots (R. F. Geller and A. N. Finn), Jour. Amer.

Ceram. Soc, August, 1923.
SIMPLIFIED PRACTICE.

W. A. Durgin.

FUNCTIONS.

The division of simplified practice is cooperating with American

industries in furthering a nation-wide program for the elimination

of waste in commecre and industry, through reduction in the number

of sizes and types of standard products, the abandonment of useless

varieties, and the concentration of the attention of manufacturers

upon articles of the greatest interchangeability.

GENERAL.

The division of simplified practice is developing rapidly in re- sponse to demand from industry and business. A large part of the

effort during the year has been given to meeting requests from a wide

range of industries for information on the national importance of

simplified practice and the available service of the department in

this field. Forty-five conferences have been held at Washington,

D. C, 81 formal addresses have been made to groups of from 50 to

1,200 individuals, and 21 articles published in the news, trade, and

general press. In addition the division has been represented at 50

other meetings of business committees or conventions where some

considerable attention was secured.

SIMPLIFIED PRACTICE RECOMMENDATIONS.

Recommendations Printed.

The series of simplified practice recommendations now includes

nine items. Two of these, covering paving brick and bedsteads,

springs, and mattresses, respectively, have been requested in printed

form by a very large number of interested producers, distributors,

and consumers. The original paving-brick recommendation was

revised for the second time on March 27, 1923, further eliminations

reducing recognized types and sizes to 6, as against the 66 styles

which were being merchandized only a year and a half ago. Survey

of the industry and statement of leading firms unite in emphasizing

the great importance of this measure. Recommendations in Process of Acceptance.

The remaining seven i-ecommendations are in process of formal

acceptance by individuals, and as each has the approval of a general conference of all interests it is certain these will be published

by eai-l}- fall. The commodities covered are: No. 3, Metal lath. Rediicing from eighty-odd to 18 styles, with

the hearty cooperation of manufacturers, architects, builders, and

other interests.

299
300 REPORT OF DIRECTOR OF BUREAU OF STANDARDS.

No. 4, Paints, varnishes, and containers. Readoption of the wartime schedule in the manufacture of paints and varnishes, with several additional eliminations of sizes and types of containers.

No. 5, Hotel chinaware. Reduction from over 700 sizes and types

to ajDproximately 160 by the cooperative action of the American

Hotel Association and the Vitrified Chinaware Manufacturers' Association.

No. 6, Asphalt. Elimination of approximately 90 per cent of the

existing grades and varieties in paving and filling asphalts. One

producer states that if this could have been accomplished a year ago

it would have already resulted in a saving of $200,000 to his concern

alone. There are 22 firms in this business in the United States.

No. 7, Face brick. Adoption of one standard size each for rough

and smooth brick, as against the 38 rough and 35 smooth brick varieties previously vised.

No. 8," Paper. Eight sizes of paper with their doubles recommended

as standards for all general uses. This action of a representative

general conference is based almost entirely upon research work of

the paper section of the structural, engineering, and miscellaneous

materials division, and reports from technical committees representing the paper industry indicate that it will certainly lead to enormous

savings all along the line.

No. 9, Wire fence. Elimination of 87J per cent of the existing

stjdes of woven-wire field and poultry fences and 93-| per rent of the

variety in packages and concentration upon that comparatively small

portion of the present line which accounts for nearly 94 per cent of

the total demand.

In addition to these specific examples, the division has important

ATork under way with many large industries.

SERVICES OF THE DIVISION OF SIMPLIFIED PRACTICE BEING USED

BY MANY LARGE INDUSTRIES.

Lumber.

The lumber industry (third largest in America) is working on the

standardization of nomenclature, grades, and sizes to secure the advantages of simplified practice and developing a nation-wide corre- lation of inspection service as a means to protect consumers in the

quality and quantity of lumber purchased. It is estimated by ex- perts in lumber matters tMs combined effort will save $250,000,000

annually.

Farm Implements.

The manufacturers of farm imi)lements are carrying on a comprehensive program, simplifying and standardizing their products to

lower costs and improve service to the farmer. One very large

manufacturer states the application of the principle of simplification

saved his firm over $10,000,000 in 1920 and 1921.

Retail Hardware.

The 21,000 retail hardware merchants through their national asso- ciation are endeavoring to improve their service by reducing varieties,

patterns, and sizes in axes, hatchets, hammerSj saws, files, wrenches,

and man}^ other articles in every-day use by carpenters, mechanics,
REPORT OF DIBEOTOE OF BUREAU OF STANDARDS. 301

and householders. They believe such action will lower prices, and

stimulate turnover. Manufacturers and jobbers are responding to

these efforts, and are confident the results will be well worth while.

Glass, Paper, Metal, and Wood Containers.

A preliminary meeting was held January 16 of manufacturers,

distributors, and users of glass, paper, metal, and Avood containers.

Eesolutions were adopted to make surveys in these respective fields

tending toward the elimination of excess varieties and types of containers. A committee was appointed for each group, which will collect the data and submit them to a general committee for collation

and tabulation prior to a general conference, which will be convened

sometime in the early fall. Flags.

The manufacturers of United States flags now offer the public

nearly 300 different sizes, not one of which conforms to any of the 12

standard sizes promulgated hj Executive order in 1916. These manufacturers, hoAvever. find they are losing money through this great

diversity and are working to produce standard sizes which will be

both artistic and commercially practicable. This, they claim, is something the countr_y has not had in the 146 years of its independence.

Hollow Building Tile.

The committee of the Hollow Building Tile Association conferred

Avith the division regarding the calling of a general conference in

October to consider the elimination of 23 out of 36 existing varieties

in types, sizes, and Aveights of hollow building tile, and adopting 13

as standards for the industrv.

Concrete Products.

T\\e Concrete Products Association and the American Concrete

Institute have presented to the division their recommendations for

the reduction of variety in sizes of structural and partition units

made from concrete. Concrete blocks are now made in 30 different

lengths, 20 different Avidths, and 26 different heights. They propose one height, one length, and tA\'o Avidths. A general conference

Avill be called in October to consider the adoption of these recom-

]nendations.

AMERICAN MARINE STANDARDS COMMITTEE.

The formation of the American marine standards committee, at

the suggestion of the American Marine Association of New York

City in cooperation Avith this division, opens one of the largest fields

for the application of the principles of simplified practice. The

committee, through tb.e association, is to consider, encourage, promote, adopt, and promulgate, in cooperation Avith all interests concerned, any measure, such as standards, rules, or recommendations

to bring about simplified practice in the fields of engineering, commerce, and industry, as affects shipbuilding. It is also to cooperate

Avith similar foreign bodies engaged in the study or promotion of

simplified or standards of practice, in or affecting the marine field.

This committee has under consideration 12 hull, 4 machinery, and 3

ship operation subjects.
302 REPORT OF DIRECTOR OF BUREAU OF STANDAEDS.

SURVEYS IN PROCESS.

Surveys are in process for the following industries: Automotive

parts; blankets; range boilers; steam boilers; commercial forms;

warm-air furnaces ; metal, wood, spice, flavoring extract, coffee, and

macaroni containers; paper bags; silk threads; locks, bolts, butts,

and shelf hardware; shovels; steel refractories; prepared roofing;

paint and varnish brushes; milk bottles and caps; surgical instruments ; steel lockers ; taps and dies ; and pianos.

LIST OF INDUSTRIES SERVED.

Other industries being served are those producing men's, women's,

and children's shoes ; textiles ; railway equipment ; hospital supplies

mining supplies ; oil-well supplies ; plumbing supplies ; concrete

mixers; registers for Avarm-air furnaces; household refrigerators:

crucible refractories; concrete refractories; cast-iron pipe; copper

and brass products; mechanical stokers; machine tools; twist drills:

watches and clocks: fish containers; dining-car supplies; hardware,

including sheet steel, terneplate, conductor pipe, and eaves troughs

loaded shells; safes; linoleum; chemicals; rubber heels; and machinery.
BUILDING AND HOUSING.

J. M. Gries.

FUNCTIONS.

The work of this division includes gathering and distributing

scientific, practical, statistical, and other information tending to

encourage, cheapen, and improve construction and housing. It covers investigations for use in framing local building and plumbing codes, and a study of problems connected with city zoning.

Information on the prices, production, consumption, and stocks of

building materials, and on building activity is collected, analyzed,

and distributed. Special attention is paid to factors bearing on the

housing problem. The work includes studies of building practice,

and cooperation with efforts to reduce seasonal operations and

otherwise eliminate waste in the construction industries.

GENERAL.

Scope of the Work on Building and Housing.

Construction is one of the largest and. most important of American

industrial activities, and the people of the United States are vitally

interested in having it function efficiently. Not only their industrial

progress but their housing and general living standards depend

very largely on increasing efficiency in construction. The division

of building and housing studies the needs of the industry and their

relation to the public welfare. It endeavors to see that these needs

are met and the j)ublic welfare advanced, partly through its own

efforts and by enlisting the aid of other branches of the Federal

Government, the work of which can be of constructive value, and

partly by presenting its conclusions to the industry itself through the

trade press, trade associations, and individuals in the incl\;stry.

The work of the division, as pursued during the first two years

of its activities, has centered mainly around the elimination of waste.

It may be divided conveniently into five groups

1. " Technical service for municipalities " covers recommendations

for local building and plumbing codes and work on city zoning problems. This work has been taken up because of statements of individuals and organizations connected with construction and civic improvement that more information is needed if local regulation of

construction is to rest on a sound basis.

2. Current statistical information connected with the biiilding industry is collected and distributed by the division. This work includes gathering building material prices, as paid by contractors in

different cities, the publication of figures on building activity, building costs, and building materials, and handling of inquiries in

regard to statistics. • 303
304 REPORT or DIRECTOR OF BUREAU 0¥ STANDARDS.

3. Economic and statistical studies related to the building industry,

and the housing problems of the American people, are also made by

the division. A study of seasonal operation in the construction industries, undertaken at the close of the fiscal year, is perhaps the

most important activity to be mentioned under this heading.

4. Certain other activities of the division aim at the elimination

of waste. In this group lie the work on building practice and co- oj^eration Avith the division of simplified practice in the standardization of building materials.

5. Service to individual home builders comprises the fifth group.

The division has issued articles on home financing, choosing the site

for a home, weatherproofing, and other problems of the home owner.

It also cooperates Avith the Architects' Small House Service Bureau,

a nonprofit-making organization, in its Avork of preparing and distributing improved small-house plans, and has contributed to the

Avork of the Better Homes in America movement, whose national

advisory council in 1922 and 1923 has been headed by the Secretary

of Commerce.

General Condition in the Division.

The organization of the division of building and housing re- mained substantial^ the same in form and personnel as during the

previous fiscal year. Not only Avithin the division, but also in the

make-up of the advisory committees on building codes, plumbing

codes, and zoning, there were A^ery feAV changes. The men who

served on these committees during the year are given belq,w, with

some of their affiliations.

BUILDING CODE COMMITTEE.

Ira H. Woolson, consulting engineer, National Board of Fire Underwriters,

New Yorlj, N. Y., chairman ; member American Society of Mechanical Engineers and National Fire Protection Association.

Edwin H. Brown, architect, Minneapolis, Minn. ; chairman committee on

small houses and secretary American Institute of Architects.

William K. Hatt, professor of civil engineering, Purdue University ; director

advisory board on highAvay research. National Research Council ; and American Concrete Institute.

Albert Kahn, member of American Institute of Architects.,

Rudolph P. Miller, former superintendent of buildings. New York, N. Y.

president Building Officials' Conference ; member American Institute of Consulting Engineers and American Society for Testing Materials.

John A. Newlin, in charge of section of timber mechanics, Forest Products

Laboratory, Forest Service, U. S. Department of Agriculture, Madison, Wis.

Ernest .1. Russell, architect, St. Louis, Mo. ; chairman National Board for

.lurisdictional Awards in the Building Industry ; fellow American Institute

of Architects.

Joseph R. Worcester, considting engineer, Boston, Mass. ; member American

Society of Civil Engineers and American Institute of Consulting Engineers.

Frank P. Cartwright, technical secretary.

PLUMBING CODE COMMITTEE.

George C. Whipple, chairman ; professor of sanitary engineering in Harvard

University, Cambridge, Mass. ; member American Society of Civil Engineers and American Public Health Association (fellow).

Harry Y. Carson, research engineer, American Cast Iron Pipe Co., Birmingham,

Ala. ; member Iron and Steel Institute, American Society for Testing Materials and American Foundrymen's Association.
REPORT OF DIRECTOR OF BUREAU OF STANDARDS. 305

William C. Groeniger, consulting engineer, Columbus, Ohio ; member American

Public Health Association, American Society of Sanitary Engineering, and

American Water Works Association.

Thomas F. Hanley, Hanley & Co., mechanical engineers and contractors,

Chicago, 111. ; member American Society of Sanitary Engineering and National Association of Master Plumbers (chairman of standardization committee). A. E. Hansen, hydraulic and sanitary engineer, New York, N. Y. ; member

American Society of Sanitary Engineering, American Public Health Association and American Water Works Association.

William J. Spencer, secretary treasurer of building trades department, American Federation of Labor, Washington, D. C. ; member United Association of

Journeymen Plumbers.

Albert L. Webster, consulting engineer. New York, N. Y. ; member American

Society of Civil Engineers and American Public Health Association.

ZONING COMMITTEE.

Edward M. Bassett, lawyer ; counsel, zoning committee of New York, N. Y. Irving B. Hiett, realtor ; former president, National Association of Real Estate

Boards.

John Ihlder, housing consultant ; manager, civic development department of the

Chamber of Commerce of the United States. Morris Knowles, consulting engineer ; from the Chamber of Commerce of the

United States. Nelson P. Lewis, municipal engineer ; from the National Conference on City

Planning and National Municipal League ; past president, American City

Planning Institute.

J. Horace McFarland, master printer and civic investigator ; president. The

American Civic Association.

Frederick Law Olmsted, landscape architect ; president. The American Society of Landscape Architects ; past president, American City Planning Institute. Lawrence Veiller, housing expert ; secretary and director, The National Housing

Association.

The members of these committees individually represent the leading technical bodies and professional societies interested in these

fields. These committees meet at frequent intervals, usually in

Washington, D. C, to draft reports, and to advise regarding the

work in their respective fields done by the staff of this division and

the technical divisions of the bureau.

TECHNICAL SERVICE FOR MUNICIPALITIES.

Building Codes.

Completion of the report entitled "Recommended Minimum

Requirements for Small Dwelling Construction" was the major

accomplishment in this field during the year. In accepting this

report from the building code committee, the Secretary of Commerce stated:

This report has been built up by cooperation of the Government and the

public, which I feel will appeal to everyone. The committee itself represents

the great voluntary organizations most interested in public service in this

direction, but beyond this you have consulted with many other associations and

you have submitted the report in its preliminary form to over 900 municipal

officials, architects, engineers, officials of trade associations, and incorporated

their criticisms into its final form. I believe this method of intellectual legislation is unique and gives the report a value far beyond any similar work undertaken to date.

I join with you in the belief that it will be helpful not only through practical use by municipalities in building codes and in promoting greater uniformity in

65077—23 21
303 EEPORT OF DIRECTOR OF BUREAU OF STAKDAllUti.

cotles throughciut tlje country, but that with its appendix it will prove directly

us;efnl to owners and huilders of dwellings generally. * * *

Tlie work was initiated and the committee appointed on account

of the fact that building codes and builders frequently fail to

recognize modern methods of construction, thus adding to building

costs and retarding much needed construction, particularly of

dwellings.

The report is believed to represent the most thorough investigation that has yet been made of the engineering and practical side of

house building. This subject has never before received even a small

part of the expert study that is due it and hence millions of our

small houses have been lauilt with needless waste of some materials,

yet with neglect of simple precautions necessary for comfort and

durability.

This first report of the committee deals with the construction of

one and two family houses of masonry, poured concrete, and frame

tj^Des, the latter including veneer and stucco. The value of such

construction in the United States amounted to well over a billion

dollars in 1922. It is expected that general adoption of the code,

Avith consequent modification of present unjust and wasteful requirements, will result in substantial conservation of materials and the

saving of many millions of dollars.

The committee recommends that building codes permit 8-inch solid

brick and 6-inch solid concrete walls for two and one-half and three

story dwellings accommodating not more than two families each.

Only about 40 per cent of the present city building codes investigated permit 8-inch brick walls in dwellings two stories high, and

but 6 per cent allow three-story dwellings of this thickness. Eightinch walls of hollow tile, hollow concrete block, or hollow walls of

brick are permissible, but may not exceed 20 feet in height with an

additional 5 feet to the peak of the gable. Two-family dwellings

of frame construction would be limited to two and one-half stories

under the recommendations of the committee.

Metal lath and plaster on wood studs properly fire-stopped is approved for part}' and division walls, but at least every alternate wall

in row houses must be 8-inch solid brick or concrete, or 12-inch hollow masonry.

Eeqiiirements for quality of hollow masonry units agree fairly

Avell with present practice, but in view of the type of buildings dealt

with those for brick were placed somewhat below the medium grade i established by the American Society for Testing Materials. The re- port recommends revised working stresses for timber used in dwellings, based on investigations of the United States Forest Products

Laboratory. For other materials experimental work of this bureau

was used freely.

Live loads to be required as bases for design are 40 pounds per

square foot for floors of wood and 30 pounds for monolithic floors or those of solid or ribbed slabs. Foundation walls of brick are required to be 12 inches thick for excavated inclosures, and those of

concrete must be as thick as the walls they support, but not less than

8 inches. Special hollow building tile 12 inches thick is pei-mitted

for foundation walls of frame buildings.

11
REPORT OF DIRECTOR OF BUREAU OF STANDARDS. 307

In addition to the requirements in the code itself, the appendix

contains a mass of valuable information on the quality of materials

and methods of workmanship which should be used for good results.

This part of the report includes tables showing safe sizes of floor

joists and girders, a discussion on protecting lumber against decay,

an analysis of methods to be followed to avoid cracking of plaster,

advice on fuxTing the inside of masonry walls, and many other matters of interest to the home builder.

The discussion of built-in garages, both in the code and the appendix, is regarded as particularly valuable in view of their comparative novelty and their relation to fire hazards. The report is full and explicit on this point. Proper methods of chimney construction and of fire-stopping are also treated. A number of valuable references are given to pamphlets, easily obtainable, dealing

with special points.

Upon completion of the small-dwelling report, the committee en- tered actively upon preparation of reports dealing with regulations

governing live-load assumptions and the construction of masonry

walls in buildings of other types.

Extensive data on floor loads in office buildings have been compiled and pviblished in a number of building-industry magazines.

Other information has been accumulated which will make possible

the issue of a tentative report of the committee's recommendations

for floor-load requirements in building codes. A similar report also

is in preparation, giving the committee's recommendations for construction of masonry walls. It is planned that both these reports

will be widely submitted for critical discussion before the publication of final recommendations.

Plumbing Codes.

The work on plumbing codes has followed somewhat the methods

used by the building code committee in preparing the report on

small-dwelling construction. The plumbing subcommittee has so

i far concentrated its attention on problems connected with smallhouse systems, although much of its work also applies to buildings

of all types. A lack of any but the most fragmentary information

on the intermittent flow of water, such as is found in a house-drainage

system, at once revealed the need of experimental work. A special

series of tests with actual plumbing installations was accordingly

undertaken by the mechanics and sound division, and the results

obtained have permitted the preparation of a report which will have

the unique distinction of being the first to be based on scientific

knowledge of the problems involved.

The committee has paid attention to the problem of municipal

inspection of plumbing, and its code recommendations are accordingly being framed with a view to the manner in which they will be

applied in practice. A preliminary report was sent out for comI ment and criticism to several hundred interested persons throughout

j the country, and much valuable information Avas obtained which will

' be utilized in the final report.

I Zoning for Towns and Cities.

Ii The principal work of the zoning committee during the year was

the completion of a standard State zoning enabling act permitting
308 REPORT OF DIRECTOR OF BUREAU OF STANDARDS.

cities to zone. A preliminary edition of this act was issued in

August and a revised edition in January. It was used as the basis

of bills introduced in 11 State legislatures early in 1923 and several

of these acts were passed. The need for such a standard form was

very great, as comparatively few States had satisfactory acts. The

use of a standard act should not only help simplify the drafting of

bills but it should have an important effect in avoiding confusion

in regard to the legal status of zoning.

The most minute attention was given to the wording of the act in

order to insure as far as possible its standing up under court decisions. It was submitted for suggestions to experts who have been

connected with the zoning of the greater part of those municipalities

in the United States in which such ordinances are in force. The

views of the civic, professional, and commercial organizations most

interested were carefully considered, and the act was drawn with

existing court decisions in regard to zoning constantly in mind.

The division has maintained what is believed to be the most complete list of zoned municipalities in the United States. Its state- ment that " 15,000,000 people live in zoned cities " on January 1,

1923, was commented on most extensively by the daily, weekly, and

monthly press of the country.

It is significant to note that when the advisory committee was

formed in September, 1921, there were only 43 zoned municipalities,

with less than 11,000,000 inhabitants, in the United States, while on

June 30, 1923, there were about 155 zoned cities, towns, and villages,

with a population of close to 20,000,000.

CURRENT STATISTICS.

The principal current statistical material compiled by the division

is a monthly table of building-material prices for 24 items as paid

by contractors in about 50 cities. These are obtained in cooperation

with the Bureau of the Census largely from local builders' ex- changes. They have been published regularly in an increasing number of trade papers, and are used by the Bureau of the Census in

compiling index numbers of the price materials for small frame and

brick houses. These retail price indexes for building materials delivered on the job are believed to be the only ones of their kind

available.

The division has continued to cooperate with the editor of the

Survey of Current Business in obtaining the figures on building

activity, building costs and production, and consumption and stocks

on hand of the principal building materials. This Department of

Commerce publication devotes several pages to these figures each

month, and, therefore, serves as an invaluable statistical guide to the

current situation for those in the industry as well as for those interested in it indirectly.

Some of the more important figures which are believed to be of

the greatest value as an index to conditions were plotted regularly

in graphical form and received wide distribution through republication in trade papers of the construction industries and allied

fields.

The division has also served as a clearing house for inquiries in

regard to statistics collected by other Government departments
REPORT OF DIRECTOR OF BUREAU OF STANDARDS. 309

that relate to building and building materials, and it has been possible to answer several hundred requests involving information collected elsewhere, either directl}'^ or by reference to the proper bureau.

ECONOMIC AND STATISTICAL STUDIES.

This work included a special study in March, 1923, of construction

activity and demands for construction in relation to the capacity of

the construction industries as measured hj the supply of building

trades labor, building materials, and transjDortation facilities. This

survey was carrried on in response to a request from the President,

dated March 3, which stated

The administration, in one way or anotlier, has the direction of Congress to carry on a very considerable volume of construction work. I would be glad

to have the advice of the Department of Commerce as to the policy which ought

to be pursued in view of the present economic situation in the building industries, with a view to determining how much to speed up on the construction

program to which we are committed.

The division also prepared an article for the Year Book of Commerce on " Construction in 1922," with a special section devoted to

the housing situation. The Year Book article on " Construction

materials other than lumber " was also prepared in the division.

At the close of the year arrangements were made for the division

to take charge of an investigation of seasonal operation in the construction industries, in cooperation with the new construction committee of the President's Conference on Unemployment. The work

as first outlined was to include a survey of actual seasonal construction by regions and classes of construction. Seasonal operation in

the lumber, brick, cement, and other industries was also to be taken

up, together with the effects of seasonal operation on the construction industries themselves, on their workers, and on commerce and

public welfare in general. The concluding part of the study was to

be concerned with the remedies that have been proposed or that have

proven successful in a limited way.

MISCELLANEOUS WORK ON ELIMINATION OF WASTE.

The work outlined under technical service to municipalities and

much of that under other headings aims at the elimination of waste.

In addition to these other activities, however, the division has en- deavored to call the attention of the industry to the savings XDOssible

through greater simplification and elimination of dimensional

varieties. It has, therefore, assisted the division of simplified practice in that part of its work relating to building materials. It is

believed that simplification of dimensional varieties of different materials will permit more rapid construction, reduce loss of time due

to inability to obtain materials, permit accumulation of semifinished

materials in manufacturing, reduce the cost of doing business for

retailers, and allow manufacture for stock, thus reducing seasonal

fluctuation in the operations of building-material producers.

The division has encouraged the movement to distribute leasing

dates throughout the year, as a single leasing date causes the simultaneous completion of business buildings, apartments, and dwellings,

which results in aggravation of the seasonal demand thus artificially

created.
310 REPORT OF DIRECTOR OF BUREAU OF STAlsTDARDS.

Service to Individual Home Owners.

The division lias prepared several articles for the benefit of individual families, including " Financing a Home," " Choosing the Site

for Your Home," and "Weatherproof Your House." A booklet

entitled " Hoav to Own Your Home " was in course of preparation at

the close of the year, and will embody the results of some of the eco- nomic and statistical studies mentioned above.

The division has activelv assisted the Better Homes Demonstration

Week held October 9 to 14, 1922, and June 4 to 9, 1923. The Secretary of Commerce is chairman of the advisory council of the Better

Homes in America Movement and the chief of the division of building and housing is a member of the council.

The October demonstration homes were conducted in over 500

cities and towns, and it is believed that this figure was exceeded during the June period. • One of the chief aims of the demonstrations was to present wellbalanced homes, in which the value of the house, the lot, and the

furnishings and equipment were well proportioned. In many cases

a special effort was made to show how homes could be improved

and housework lessened at an expense within reach of the smallest

incomes.

COOPERATION, INFORMATION, AND PUBLICATIONS.

Throughout the year the division has continued to work closety

with arcliitectural, engineering, and trade associations, and pviblic

officials both in obtaining material for technical investigations and

statistics and in distributing them. The importance of such co- ojDeration is shown by the advisory committees on Building Codes,

Phimbing Codes, and Zoning. The reports of building-material

prices have been obtained from private organizations and the better

homes demonstrations were carried out entirely through private initiative.

The work on seasonal operation in the construction industries in

collaboration with the construction committee of the President's

Conference on Unemployment will itself bring the division in contact with practically all the organizations connected with the construction industry.

The chief of the division is chairman of the committee on construction of the American Statistical Association, which is to

arrange a part of the program for the annual meeting of that or- ganization to be held in December, 1923.

In addition to the organizations mentioned above, the division has

important contacts with the American Civic Association, American

Institute of Architects, The Associated General Contractors, Chamber of Commerce of the United States, National Association of

Builders' Exchanges, National Association of Real Estate Boards,

National Congress of the Building Industry, National Housing

Association, and the United States League of Local Building and

Loan Associations. The division is also in touch directly with local

and State branches of most of those listed above.

The methods of distributing information have varied with the

different branches of work. Charts and other material issued by
REPORT or DIRECTOR OF BUREAU OF STANDARDS. 311

the division have appeared in nearly all classes of trade papers con- nected with building, building materials, and leal estate; in the

Building and Loan Association News; in the house organs of local

organizations, such as chambers of commerce, real-estate boards and

builders' exchanges; in the monthly bulletins of Federal reserve banks; and in the real-estate sections of newspapers. In addition,

the Survey of Current Business is widely used as a source of statistics on conditions in the building industry.

PUBLICATIONS.

Recommended minimum requiremeufs for small dwelling construction (building code committee), Bureau of Standards, 1923.

Among others, tlie articles listed below have appeared in current publications and most of them are available in mimeographed form

Review of building and housing situation in 1922 (Jolm M. Gries),. New York

Evening Post, December 30, 1922, and syndicate of nev>?spapers.

The home buyer and his problems (John M. Gries), National Real Estate

.Journal. Built-in garages (Ira H. Woolson), Fire Protection, Indiana))oli-^, Ind., Jfarcb,

1923.

Weatherproof your house.

Financing a home—-Better Homes in America—Plan Booi.

Choosing the site for your home (John M. Gries), Better Homes In America—

Plan Book.

Standard State zoning enabling act permitting cities to zone. (Advisory Committee on Zoning), Buildings and Building Management (without footnotes),

September 22, 1922 ; Civic Improvement Items, September, 1922 ; Iowa Town

Planning Association Bulletin, Seotember, 1922 ; National Real Estate Journal,

October 9, 1922.

Work of the division of building and housing (John M. Gries), The Constructor, June, 1928.

List of zoned municipalities, Engineering News-Record, September 28, 1922.

III. REPORTS OF THE OFFICE, OPERATION, AND

CONSTRUCTION DIVISIONS.

THE OFFICE.

H. D. Hubbard.

FUNCTIONS.

The work of the office comprises the supervision of the units of

the administrative branch; selection, recommendation, and assignment of office personnel; planning and supervision of the bureau's

clerical routine (finance, personnel, property and stores, transportation, mail and files, purchase, and information) ; supervision of the

editorial work of the bureau ; and of the technical library.

GENERAL.

Scope.

The office division handles the accounting for more than $2,000,000

receipts and expenditures for equipment, supplies, personnel, travel,

and general expenses ; the personnel actions and records for the staff

of more than 900 members, with aipproximately 193 grades, titles,

and specialties ; the accountability records and actions affecting more

than 100,000 pieces of apparatus, equipment, tools, and furniture;

the procurement, storing, and distribution of scientific and other supplies of more than 4,000 varieties; handling and filing 250,000 communications; maintenance of a technical library of about 25,000 volumes and receiving 616 scientific and other periodicals published in

12 languages; the maintenance of a technical catalogue library of

approximately 15,000 volumes, with specialized sources of information for the procurement of the latest types of technical apparatus

and materials; examination of 234 manuscripts submitted for publication and the editorial preparation for publication of those ac- cepted and approved for bureau publication; the issuance of 91

scientific, technologic, and other publications (containing 2,622 pages

of new matter), and their official distribution through regular

channels.

The work of the office division thus comprises a wide range of

technical subject matter peculiar to scientific research institutions.

The technical nature of the correspondence, certificates, reports,

equipment and supplies, books and periodicals, and the collation of

technical bulletins and publication of research i-esults all require a

clerical staff carefully selected and experienced in the subjects handled. The nature and range of such work involve exacting responsibility and call for a trained staff, effective systems for procedure,

and adequate checks to insure promptness and accuracy.

313
314 REPORT OF DIRECTOR OF BUREAU OF STANDARDS.

Present Status of the Division's Work.

The work of the office during the year has proceeded very satisfactorily. The simplification of procedure and concentration of

work has been carried as far as feasible without unduly decreasing

effectiveness. The bureau has, however, responded to the urgent

need for assistance in the central offices of the department by the

temporary detail of certain clerks to assist during the emergency.

I. FINANCE.

D. E. Thomas.

Functions.

The finance section of the office division records the receipt of

appropriations and transfers of funds from other departments; ac- counts for such funds under respective allotments by means of the

order and voucher' records ; prepares all pay rolls, and keeps current

the auxiliary records incident thereto; audits and approves all

vouchers for payment ; checks the disbursing office voucher abstracts

prepares semimonthly financial statements of bureau funds, and

periodic financial reports, etc., called for by the Bureau of the

Budget ; has the custody of all cash received by the bureau, and compiles the annual estimates and fiscal statistics connected therewith.

Funds,

The regular appropriations of the bureau amounted to $1,547,360.

In addition, $162,100 was transferred to the bureau during the cur- rent year from other departments for cooperative investigational

work, and $9,696.92 was received in reimbursements, making the

total funds received this year available for obligation, $1,719,156.92.

A large proportion of the money received from other departments

for cooperative work was transferred under the fortifications act of

May 21, 1920.

Appropriation Statements.

The following statement shows the amount and object of each

appropriation provided for the bureau for the fiscal year 1923, the

disbursements during the year, the amount of unpaid orders at the

close of the year, and the unexpended balance remaining at the close

of business June 30, 1923:

Appropriation.

Salaries Equipment

General expenses Improvement and care of grounds

Testing structural materials Testing machines

Metallurgical research —

Investigation ot optical glass Standard materials Investigation of textiles Sugar standardization Gauge standardization High-tempcrature investigation

Testing railroad scales Investigation of fire-resisling properties

' Includes reimbursement of $7,563.88,

2 Includes reimbursement of $133.04.

' Includes reimbursement of $1,800.

Total

appropriation.

$432,360.00

93,000.00

75, 000. 00

10,000. 00

1 182,563.88 30,000.00

2 40, 133.04 25,000.00

10,000. 00

25, 000. 00

3 41,800. 00

40, 000. 00

10, 000. 00

40, 000. 00

25,000.00

Disburse- ments.

S396,327. 76

46, 129. 78

54, 705. 14

6, 182. 83 154,737.54 24,637.09

33,406.66

20,696.42

7,725. 28 19,875.89

32, 445. 08 34,611.43

8,891.31

35,945. 92

21, 499. 46

Liability.

$20,262.99

42,639. 28

15, 104. 82

2, 161. 35

18,639. 39

3, 519. 35

6,652.43

829. 81 1,678.40

1,712.39

8, 563. 84

1,866. 15

688. 38

1,907.95 3,286.60

Balance.

$15,769.25

6,230. 94

5, 190. 04

1,665. 82

9, 186. 95

1,843.56

74. 05

3,473.77 596.32 3,411.72

791. 08 3,522.42

520. 31

2,146. 13

213. 94

I
REPORT OF DIRECTOR OP BUREAU OF STANDARDS. 315

Appropriation.

Testing miscellaneous materials

Investigation of public-utility standards Radio researcli Industrial research Sound investigation

Investigation of clay products

Color standardization Radioactive substances Standardizing mechanical appliances

Investigation of mine scales and cars Standardization of equipment

Appropriations transferred from other departments

Aviation, Navy transfer Party expenses, Coast and Geodetic Survey . .

Construction and repair, Bureau of Construction and Repair

Engineering, Bureau of Engineering Ordnance and ordnance stores Investigation of sources of crude rubber Experiments, ordnance, Navy transfer Automatic rifles Incidental expenses of the Army

Subsistence of the Army

Clothing and equipage

Total

Total appropriation.

S30,000.00

85, 000. 00

30,000. 00

< 249, 294. 00

s 5,200. 00

25,000. 00 10,000.00

10,000.00

15,000. 00

15,000. 00 100,000.00

3, 300. 00

11,300. 00

1,650. 00

550. 00

550. 00

42,300. 00

1,100. 00

2,000. 00

25,000.00

10,000. 00 2,500.00

1,756,600. 92

Disburse- ments.

824,930. 37

73,978. 81

27, 042. 88 198,603.67

3,705. 48

22, 422. 74 8,411.61

7,675. 73 13,082.63

7, 471. 49 77,969.09

205. 29 161.32

1,363,478.60

Liability.

$3, 272. 07 10,626.93

2, 762. 22

19, 822. 99

1,37.5. 54 1,634.87

1,366. 77

1,773. 51 1,244.62

4, 896. 08 14,854.99

808. 96

2,364. 51

265. 00

196,482.19 196,640.13

Includes reimbursement of $144 and transfers from other departments of $99,150.

' Includes a transfer from Coast and Geodetic Survey of $200.

The following statement shows the condition of the appropriations

for the two preceding fiscal years at the close of business, June 30,

1923

Appropriation.

Fiscal Year 1921. Salaries Equipment

General expenses Improvement and care of grounds

Testing structural materials Testing structural materials (Interior civil). Testing machines

Metallurgical research Optical glass Additional land

Investigation of textiles Sugar standardization Gauge standardization High-temperature investigation

Testing raUroad scales Investigation of fire-resisting properties

Investigation of railway materials Testing miscellaneous materials

Investigation of public-utility standards Radio research Industrial research • Sound investigation

Investigation of clay products

Color standardization

Total appropriatior..

$432,

1 95,

75,

10, 125,

30^;

2 25,

3 31,

47,

^ 15,

1^31, M6,

10, 40,

25,

15, 30, '85,

8 30,

9 837,

10 7

25*

10,

360. 00

330. 00

000. 00

000. 00

000. 00

2.50. 00

000. 00

163. .59 000. 00

272. 00

680. 00

800. 00

183. 54

000. 00

000. 00

000. 00

000. 00

000. 00

272. 86

096. 00

856. 88

000. 00

000. 00

000. 00

Disburse- ments.

$421, 133. 68

89, 876. 90

69, 491.,36

9, 944. 45

124, 341. 63

1, 882. 64

29. 900. 74

25, 018. 57

30, 837. 55

47, 272. 00 15,566.97

31, 655. 08

44, 709. 00

9, 965. 62

39, 655. 31

24, 495. 43 14,751.88

29,918. 33

85, 045. 08

29,901.96

807, 835. 63

6, 914. .52 24,519.71

9, 778. 90

Liability.

$1,529.16

3, 386. 22

149. 31

.86

11.82

42. 66

13.76

"i'.SO

33. 84

11.25

10, 540. 31 51.12

65. 83

1 Includes reimbursement of S330 from other departments.

- Includes reimbursement of $163.59 from other departments.

3 Includes transfer of $6,000 which is available for the incurring of obligations for the fiscal years 1922 and

1923 received from other departments.

< Includes reimbursement of $680 from other departments.

6 Includes reimbursement of $1,800 from other departments.

^ Includes transfer of $2,420 and reimbursement of $3,763.54 received from other departments.

' Includes reimbursement of $272.86 received from other departments.

' Includes reimbursement of $96 received from other departments

» Includes transfer of $773,877, a large portion of which is available for theincurring of obligations for the

fi.scal years 1922 and 1923, and reimbursement of 13,979.88 received from other departments.

J" Includes transfer of $2,000 received from other departments.
316 EEPORT OF DIRECTOR OF BUREAU OF STANDARDS.

Appropriation.

Fiscal Year 1921—Continued.

Standardizlag mechanical appliances

Investigation of mine scales and oars Standardization of equipment

Appropriations transferred from other departments:

Air Service, Army, War transfer Armament of fortification, War transfer Manufacture of arms. War transfer Ordnance stores ammunition, War transfer Experiments, ordnance. Navy transfer Aviation, Navy transfer

Total

Fiscal Year 1922. Salaries Equipment

General expense Improvement and care of grounds

Testing structural materials Testiag machines

Metallurgical research

Investigation of optical glass Investigation of textiles Sugar standardization Gauge standardization High-temperature investigation

Testing railroad scales Investigation of fire-resisting properties

Testing miscellaneous materials

Investigation of public-utility standards Radio research Investigation of public-utUity standards, 1921-22 . .

Industrial research Sound investigation

Investigation of clay products

Color standardization Standardizing mechanical apphances

Investigation of mine scales and cars Standardization of equipment

Appropriations transferred from other departments:

Gauge standardization. War transfer

Total

Total appropriation.

u «35, 000. 00

15, 000. 00

15, 000. 00

450. 00

3, 250. 00

1, 625. 00

1, 500. 00

5, 000. 00

50, 000. 00

2, 209, 089. 87

432, 360. 00

85, 000. 00 75,000.00

10, 000. 00

12 178, 035. 50

30, 000. 00

40, 000. 00

13 28, 000. 00

15, 000. 00 " 31,800.00

40, 000. 00

10, 000. 00

40, 000. 00

25, 000. 00

30, 000. 00 70,000.00

30, 000. 00

15, 000. 00

15 468, 257. 00

5,000. 00

25, 000. 00

10, 000. 00

15,000. 00

15, 000. 00

100, 000. 00

3, 000. 00

1,836,452.50

Disburse- ments.

$34, 622. 91 11,763.48

9, 675. 50

443. 83

3, 228. 01

1, .549. 77

1, 449. 24

4, 894. 06

46, 221. 51

2, 138, 261. 25

421,194.83

75, 636. 32

63, 289. 60

9, 690. 24

157. 273. 20

28; 129. 75

37, 641. 98

25, 842. 39

13, 959. 70

29, 904. 76

37, 960. 85

9, 451. 75

37, 091. 04

23, 082. 50 28,409.82

69, 206. 36 28,211.85

14, 795. 07

344, 336. 34

4, 829. 31

23, 432. 38

9, 148. 48

13, 737. 07 13,383.30

88, 527. 64

2, 738. 94

1, 610, 905. 47

Liability.

S22. 93

5.00

29. 82

23. 00

2, 574. 72

18, 496. 41

1,821.27

2, 701. 90 12.00

1, 271. 53

2. 64

25. 58

773. 05

91.40

197. 94

154.63

117. 68

15, 190. 44

54. 00

460. 35

220.00

23,094. 41

Balance.

$377. 09

3, 213. 59

5, 324. 50

6. 17 16.99

45. 41 27.76

105. 94

1, 203. 77

52, 332. 21

11,165. 17

17, 542. 41

9, 008. 50

297. 76

19,490. 77

1, 867. 61 2,332.44

1,384. 56

1,040. 30

1, 803. 84

2, 039. 15 548.25 2,711.02

1, 762. 87

1, 590. 18

675. 96

1, 788. 15

204. 93

108, 730. 22

170. 69

1,567. 62

797. 52 1,262.93

1,616. 70 11,012.01

41.06

202,452.62

u Includes transfer of $20,000 received from other departments.

12 Includes reimbursement of $3,035. 50 received from other departments.

13 Includes transfer of $3,000 which is available for the incurring of obligations for the fiscal years 1923 and

1924, received from Navy Department. " Includes reimbursement of $1,800 received from other departments.

16 Includes transfer of $316,673.66, a large portion of which is available for the incurring of obligations for the fiscal years 1923 and 1924, and reimbursement of $1,583.34 received from other departments.

2. PERSONNEL.

W, C. Fewell.

Staff.

During the year the bureau staff comprised 342 statutory employees and an average of 554 engaged in research and investigations

specially authorized by Congress.' The statutory positions include

201 scientific positions, 56 office asistants, 50 engaged in the operation of the plant, and 35 in construction. The personnel for the

year averaged 896 regularly appointed employees. There were also

on the rolls approximately 38 experts employed on the part-time

basis, their services being required for short periods at intervals

during the year. They are not, therefore, included as a part of the

regular personnel.

Personnel Changes.

There were 1,421 personnel changes during the year. These included 278 separations, 270 entrances, 489 promotions, and 847 mis-
REPORT OF DIRECTOR OF BUREAU OF STANDARDS. 317

cellaneous changes. The staff and the separations wei^e approximately the same as the preceding year. During the year Dr. S. W.

Stratton, director of the bureau, resigned to accept the presidency

of the Massachusetts Institute of Technology, having served as director of the bureau since its establishment in 1901. Upon your

recommendation, the President appointed Dr. George K. Burgess

to the directorship of the bureau. He had served in succession as chief of the section of pyrometry and as chief of the division of

metallurgy since the organization of that division in July 1913.

The serious problem of maintaining an adequate staff of efficient

"workers led the office to study the causes of personnel changes. The

results are tabulated by groups according to the class of work.

Personnel Changes During Fiscal Year 1922-23.

Analysis.

Nature of action. Total. • facien- tmc. Clerical. Construction.

Operation.

Housing

simplifi- cation and

specifi cations.

1,421 897 278 103 118 25

Entrances, total 283 159 59 13 43 9

Analysis: Permanent appointments 165 83 38 13 26 5 Temporary appointments 77 46 15 15 1 24 2 2

Transfers within bureau .... 13 Q

A nu nuo

•5 •

Exits, total 291 181 53 17 36 4

Analysis:

111 70 22 6 11 2 Returning to school 26 25 1 n

17 10 3 4 Completion of job 57 31 8 2 15 1 lU health 15 7 1 6 1 14 9 3 2

5 1 1 2 1 Retirements 1 1 Transfers within bureau 13 7 4 2 Miscellaneous reasons 32 21 10 1

847 557 166 73 39 12

Ajialysis: Promotions 489 335 97 40 12 5 210 141 33

6

27 9 Temporary made permanent 31 16 1 4 4 Cancellations of appointments 42 19 12 3 6 2 Extension of temporaries 36 18 11 7 Amendments of appointment 16 13 2 1 1 1 Changes of designation

Changes to per diem status 6 5 1 Changes to per annum status 9 6 3

5 4 1 Changes of name by marriage 2 2

896 550 148 122 05 11 Ratio of number of separations to average

31 32 33 14 52 33

Salaries.

The average salaiy of the employees on the scientific staff for the

year was $1,866; the housing, simplification, and specification staff
318 EEPOKT OF DIKECTOR OF BUREAU OF STANDARDS.

$3,603; the office staff $1,292; the construction force $1,472; and the

mechanical plant or operating force $842; and for all employees of

the bureau the average salary was $1,665. The average number of

employees in the various divisions during the year, the approximate

salaries paid, and the average salary per employee are summarized

in the folloAving table

Employites and Saiaeies by Divisions, 1922-23.

Divisioa. Average

number of employees.

Total of all salaries for year.

Average

salary per employee.

All divisions, total

Average salaries by classes: Scientific and technical Housing, simplification and specifications

Office Construction Operation of plant

"Weights and measures

Electricity Heat and power

Optics

Chemistry

Mechanics and sound

Structural engineering and miscellaneous materials Metallurgy Ceramics

Simplified practice

Building and housing Standard specifications

Office Operation

Construction

S96 $1,491,528

5.50 11 14S

12265

4598

78

45

67

48

96

4330

54

9

14S

65

122

1, 026, 341

.39,640 191,271

179, 578 54,098

SO, 873 194,620

144, 896 91,313

147,722 92,709

152, 807 70,085

51,316

20, 873 11,818 6,949

191, 271 54,698

179, 578

51,665

1,866 3,603

1,292 1,472

842 1,797

1,986 1,858

2,029

2,205

1,931

1,592

1,630

1,711 4,175

2,955 3,474

1,292

842 1,472

Leave of Absence.

The Bureau of Standards again occupies the premier position of

the bureaus of the department in regard to the minimum use of

sick-leave privileges and ranks third in the minimum use of annual

leave. A summary of annual and sick leave granted the bureau

employees during the calendar year 1922 is given in the following

table

Leave of Absence Granted Dtjeing 1922.

Kind of leave. Days

granted.

Average

days

granited per employee.

19,708

3, 141 27.49 Sick 4. 38

Total, 1922 22,849 31.87

Total for preceding year (1921) 21, 386 33.42

Reclassification.

A law was enacted hj Congress during the year to provide for the

classification of Government employees within the District of Columbia and in the field service. New job-classification sheets were prepared for employees of the bureau. To insure uniformity in the

assigning of grades to the various positions, special committees were j
REPORT OF DIRECTOR OF BUREAU OF STANDARDS. 319

appointed to consider and recommend appropriate grades for the

individual job sheets. Special care and study was given in assigning grades. The classification as recommended was based upon the

character of the work in accordance with instructions set forth in

Bureau of Efficiency Circular No. 1. A summary of the bureau's

recommendations to the Secretary of Commerce showing the percentage of increase for the various classes follows

Class. Present

salaries. Proposedsalaries. Totalincreases. Percentageof increase. Positions.i

Scientific Office and administration

Total

SI, 16S, 740

231,660

207, 100 81,656

$1,348,360

246, 800

214. 520

85, 580

$179, 620

15, 140

7. 520 3,924

15. 36

6.5

3. 14 4.8

533

150

12176

1,689,156 1, 895, 260 206, 104 12. 26 880

1 These figures include employees on a part-time basis wlio arc called on only occasionally for consulting

purpo.ses. There will probably be no change in the status of these employees.

3. PURCHASE.

S. W. Caywood.

Orders.

During the year just ended 6,029 orders were issued, comprising

4,485 regular orders for industrial, scientific, and technical materials

223 exigency orders covering emergency purchases; 267 orders for

printed forms, scientific technological papers, and documents; 1,054

travel authorization requests. In connection with the procurement

work, 8,806 proposals were sent out to prospective bidders, covering

industrial, scientific, and technical materials.

Vouchers.

During the year 6,013 vouchers were received, recorded, distributed, collected, prepared for payment, and passed to the disbursing office. It is the function of the purchase section to see that

the voucher is ready for payment, which .work involves checking

for delivery, quality, quantity, price, description, and method of

purchase.

Catalogues.

The purchase section maintains a library of technical catalogues

of approximately 15,000 industrial, scientific, and technical cataloguess, bulletins, etc., numerically filed, and recorded on card indexes by subject and firm name. The usefulness of this library to

the bureau's technical staff in locating articles, data, source of supply,

information, compilation of specifications, etc., makes it indispensable to the effective procurement of needed supplies.

4. PROPERTY AND STORES.

G. H. Vaneman.

Stores.

During the year approximately $76,000 worth of scientific and

other supplies were received, checked, and shelved; and supplies to
320 KEPOET OF DIRECTOR OF BUREAU OF STANDARDS.

the value of $67,000 were dispensed through the technical storeroomj

of the bureau.

The section's perpetual in^^entory of stores has the advantage of

enabling the storeroom to keep all standard stock of supplies on hand

and to avoid the accumulation of dead stock.

Property.

More than 7,000 pieces of apparatus, tools, and other equipment

were received, inspected, and stamped with the bureau's inventory

numbers, and the necessary accountability records were prepared,

passed, and filed.

Shipping.

The bureau's freight and express shipments increase each year.

These comprise much delicate and fragile apparatus calling for

unusual care in unpacking, inspecting, and distributing. The past

fiscal year has reached a maximum of approximately 25 tons per

week. A daily average of 11 shipments of instruments and materials

.were returned to the owners after being tested by the bureau.

By careful study of the best methods of packing each kind of instrument or material, and by using the utmost care in handling

fragile apparatus, the breakage in shipments of tested material was

reduced* to a record minimum of four cases for the entire year. In

view of the large proportion of extremely fragile apparatus handled,

this result is very gTatifying.

Transportation.

An effective schedule of transportation service by motor truck has

been maintained without failure throughout the year: (a) By mail

truck between the bureau and the Department of Commerce, Post

Office Department, and other bureaus and establishments of the

Government, and (h) by heavy trucks between the bureau and the

express offices, freight depots, and Government buildings. All hauling has been done by the bureau's own trucks, and freight and

express have been moved promptly from the depots, avoiding storage

and demurrage charges during the entire year. Freight movements

have at times been as high as 45 tons per day.

By special arrangement the bureau trucks are now hauling also

all freight from the depots to the Department of Commerce, work

formerly done by drayage companies. This has effected for the department a considerable saving of expenses formerly incurred for

drayage, storage, and demurrage.

The section is cooperating with the automotive power plants sec- tion of the heat and power division of the bureau in the matter of

testing oils, tires, etc. By this method the gasoline and oil con- sumption of our trucks has been materially reduced.

5. MAIL AND FILES.

R. W. Lamberson.

Communications.

A daily average of more than 800 pieces of first-class official mail

were handled by the mail and files section. About one-half of this

mail is of an importance to justify special card indexing. An
KEPOET OF DIREGTOK OF BUREAU OF STANDARDS. 321

effective system provides both writer and subject indexes. Telegraphic communication during the year inchided the receipt of 1,740

incoming and the dispatch of 1,090 outgoing telegrams. The firstclass official mail handled during the year aggregated 244,200 pieces.

Schedules.

The mail and files section operates efficiently on strict time schedule, each essential step in the complete handling of incoming and

outgoing mail being graphically controlled. Simple graphic records

show the dail}' magnitude of the several classes of mail received and

sent and the scheduled and actual time of all sorting, indexing, and

distributing operations.

Improvement and Use of Files.

During the year additional storage space was alloted for the files,

and the rearrangement of the noncurrent files thus made possible

has resulted in better service. Travel records and order folders have

been taken over by this section for filing.

The card indexes are segregated chronologically by years, limiting

the daily handling of material during current operations, to strictly

current records. The card indexes of the mail are now divided into

four groups, each assigned to one clerk, thus speeding up the finding

of needed coi'respondence. An efficient subject classification adopted

by the section permits parts of any file to be promptly withdrawn for

reference by the experts. The section is now enabled to locate

promptly any correspondence received by the bureau since its establishment in 1901, by accountability records of withdrawals filed in

place of withdrawn correspondence.

Standard Correspondence Practice.

The mail and files section on the basis of regulations, special orders, and authoritative sources of data concerning standard cor- respondence practice, compiles, maintains, and distributes a book of

Standard Office Practice for the entire clerical work of the bureau.

A series of office notes supplements this practice by adding later

orders and regulations and reminders as to items needing special at- tention as ascertained from the daily inspection of the mail. The

system has resulted in a uniform standard of quality in the bureau's

outgoing correspondence, including reports, certificates, and other

material.

General Service.

The mail and files section maintains a complete system of collection and delivery of intrabureau communications for the entire

bureau and extending to about 20 separate buildings; acknowledges

and refers mail addressed to the bureau in error; supervises the

bureau communication facilities, including telephone, telegraph, elevator, and messenger service.

The section supervises the operating staff of the telephone switchboard, the current business of which requires two operators and part

time of a third, and 10 trunk lines, 1 tie line, and 267 working stations within the bureau.

65077—23 22
322 REPORT OF DIRECTOR OF BUREAU OF STANDARDS.

6. LIBRARY.

A. Fanti.

Accessions.

During the year 1,34:7 volumes were added to the library of the

bureau, making a net total of 24,683. There were outstanding orders

for 388 volumes at the end of the year. The accessions included

volumes of important scientific periodicals acquired to complete es- sential reference sets. There were sent to the bindery 1,081 volumes

which have been or will be added to the library.

Periodicals.

A total of 616 periodicals is currently received, 316 by exchange,

the remainder by subscriptions. Of the total, 396 are in English, 116

in Grerman, 65 in French, and 39 in other languages. The increase in

the number of periodicals over last year is 38. The periodicals

received are distributed as follows

Subscription. Exchange. Total.

American lOS

5934

93

6

13594

3123

33

243

153

65 116

39

British and other in English

German • Others

Total 300 316 616

The 616 periodicals currently received may be classified by subject

as follows : 18 scientific and technical bibliography and abstracts, 64

general science, 16 physics, 39 closely related to physics, 67 general

engineering, 62 special fields of engineering, 49 metallurgy, 76 electricity, telephony and radio, 54 chemistry and chamical technology,

14 illumination and radiology, 14 architecture and building, and the

remainder in miscellaneous or general technical subjects.

Library Service.

The Kmited library space available has resulted in some temporary decentralization. While many readers Ansit the library for consultation and reference to the books, by far the larger proportion of

the work has been accomplished by the desk assignment of the

standard texts to the specialist group most concerned. Arrangements are pending to allow the library increased space for stacks,

magazine racks, and readers' tables. The librarian has, during the

year, cleared 5,000 loan charges for book Avithdrawals from the

libraiy and has arranged for borrowing 333 books from the Library

of Congress and 53 from other libraries.

It is obvious that the new literature serves as a stimulus to the

expert staff, as well as giAdng information of gTeat practical value

in their Avork. The library is administered by an expert in physics,

mathematics, and library science, and it is his aim to keep the specialists of the bureau in touch Avith the latest literature of their

respective fields. Since the library is so essential to the success of

the scientific work, the importance of keeping it up to date and thor-
REPORT OF DIRECTOR OF BUREAU OF STAA'DARDS. 323

onghly equipped with fundamental texts within the bureau's field can hardly be overestimated.

7. INFORMATION SECTION.

Hugh G. Boutell. Scope.

The information section collates and disseminates certain technical information, arranges for the official distribution of the bui'eau's

publications and reports covering tests of materials, inspects the incoming and outgoing mail, routes inquiries by letter and telephone,

prepares special reports and articles, and interviews general visitors.

Special Reports.

Numerous reports and articles for the technical and popular press

M-ere prepared during the year. The gTeatly increased interest on

the part of the general public in the scientific work of the Government caused an unusual demand for accounts of the bureau's technical Avork written in nontechnical language. Many of these w^ere

prepared by the information section in cooperation Avith those in

charge of the various investigations. Forty-eight new letter circulars Avere issued and the Technical NeAvs Bulletin was sent out each

month as heretofore.

Directing Inquiries.

Incoming inquiries by mail and telephone were routed to the

members of the bureaivs staff best qualified to ansAver the questions, or refeiTed to the proper Government department. These included

many questions from ncAvspaper information services, industrial or- ganizations, and private individuals, and involved the handling of

a large daily mail.

Publications Issued During the Year.

During the past fiscal year the bureau issued 91 new publications.

These comprise 37 scientific papers, 26 technologic papers, 22 cii'- culars, and G publications of other series ; 39 publications Avere reissued in revised form or from existing plates.

Tests.

The bureau's work includes a large amount of testing of standards, weights and mefisures, measuring instruments, and materials.

Incidental thereto, there is inA^oh^ed in many cases primary research

on the scientific principles underlying such tests, the study of existing methods, and the development of new standard tests of determinate precision. The law requires that a reasonable fee be charged

for each test, except Avhen made for the National Government or for

State governments, in which case the Avork is done free. The tests

completed during the year for other branches of the Government

and the public, together with their value, are summarized in the following table. It should be understood that this table includes only

those tests for Avhich all technical procedure, including the payment

' of fee Avhere a charge is made, was entirely completed during the

fiscal year 1922-23. Tests carried out by one section of the bureau

in connection with the investigational work of another section or
324 REPORT OF DIRECTOR OF BUREAU OF STANDARDS,

division are likewise not included. The table, therefore, does not

represent all the test wox'k carried out in the various laboratories.

For a complete record of the tests completed by each section of the

bureau during the year, the work charts given in connection with

the reports of each division should be consulted.

NujiBER AND Value of Tests foe Other Branches of the Government and

THE Public Completed, Fiscal Year Ended June 30, 1923.

For Govemment. For public. Total.

Number. Value. Number, Value. Number. Value.

Length:

Tapes 170 $974. 05 131 8598.35 301 $1,572.40 other length tests 439 527.05 1,193 1,771.50 1,632 2,298.55 Mass:Weights 892 463. 85 4,085 1,779.60 4,977 2, 243. 45 Scales and balances 850 37,344. 30 1 1. 00 851 37,345. 30 Capacity 2, 409 1,161.60 7, 152 3,928. 50 9,561 5,090. 10 Hydrometry . . . 439 464. 00 469 833. 10 908 1,297. 10 Time 202 323. 00 268 405. 00 470 728.00

Electrical tests 461 3,211.50 565 3, 209. 20 1 026 6 420.70 Photometry ^ ... 2,157 8,967.00 263 '786.75 2^420 9,753.75 Radioactivity 1,000 61.60 2, 151 17, 284. 80 3,151 17,346.40 Temperature:

1,141 72.62 16,120 1,333.24 17,261 1,405.86 other thermometers and mis810 1,389.80 2,058 5,796.82 2,868 7,186.62 Optical tests: 1,864 1, 864. 00 27 87.50 1,891 1,951.50 35 347. 20 215 1,330.00 250 1,677.20 Chemical analyses: Cement..." 1,471 14,710. 00 1,471 14,710.00 Other materials 4, 8S6 78,003.00 11 278. 00 4,897 78,281.00 302 538. 50 4,077 8,786.35 4,379 9,324.85 Mechanical instruments and appU755 3,502. 10 73 502. 50 828 4,004. 60

58 1,127. 00 7 20.75 65 1,147.75

Pliysical tests of materials: Cement 5,239 42,319.25 1 1.50 5,240 42,320.75 Other structural materials 1,140 3,656.00 127 340.00 1,267 3,996.00 MisceDaneous materials, includ- ing paper, textiles, rubber,

6,669 25,709. 00 440' 1,259.50 7,109 26,968.50

1,260 3,784.27 21 346.00 1,281 4, 130. 27 Miscellaneous 46 376. GO 36 265. 50 82 641. 50

Total 34,695 230,896. 69 39, 491 50,945.46 74,186 281,842. 15

1 In addition, the bureau inspected 1,640,485 incandescent lamps at various factories for other depart- ments of the Government, the fees for which would amount to $4,247.58.

• This item represents the number of cUuioal thermometers tested, whereas the total number submitted was 28,860, the difference being rejected for test because of defective construction.

• In this item is included a total of 2,679 thermometers tested; the total number submitted was 2,898, the difference being rejected for test.
OPERATION AND CONSTRUCTION.

A. E. Hanson.

FUNCTIONS.

This division operates and maintains the power, heating, and

refrigerating plants, installs and repairs electrical and plumbing

equipment, and cares for buildings and grounds.

GENERAL.

The operation and construction division might well be called the

general service division in that its functions include under routine

service the heating, lighting, cleaning, maintaining, and guarding of

more than a dozen buildings; operating throughout the year two

steam plants for furnishing high and low-pressure steam for laboratory use; manufacturing ice and circulating brine at low temperatures, cooling and circulating water for drinking and laboratory

uses; generating, converting, and transmitting electric power from

three substations at a dozen different voltages" or frequencies ; providing stationary and portable storage-battery service; providing

high and low pressure air, gas, vacuum, and hot and cold water

service; maintaining elevators; caring for lawns, shrubbery, paths,

roads, and drainage systems, and propagating and caring for flowers

installing new equipment or making alterations to meet changing

requirements ; in brief, to furnish every service within the range of

the equipment and ability of the personnel of the engineering division to further the scientific and technical work of the bureau.

Although the routine work of providing the above services requires

a large personnel of widely diversified training and experience, the

work incident to increasing the capacity of the various services,

extending the distribution systems, making alterations, building

foundations, and installing laboratory equipment requires as much

time of all classes of employees of the division, except the janitors

and watchmen, as does the routine work of operation and maintenance.

CONSTRUCTION AND REPAIR.

A. E. Hanson.

Mechanical Plant (Mcllvane).

Necessary repairs have been made to all steam, electric, and

mechanical equipment during the past year. The service of the

plant has been further improved by the putting into regular service

of a 500-kilowatt frequency changer supplying 3-phase, 60-cycle

power and the installation of a 200-kilowatt motor generator set

supplying direct current. Other equipment procured for the plant

and now in process of installation includes a boiler feed pump; a

325
326 REPORT OF DIRECTOR OF BUREAU OF STANDARDS.

350-gallon per minute motor-driven pump for fire protection or emergency house service ; a 2-ton refrigerating plant for the Industrial and Kiln buildings ; three 50-kilowatt transformers ; and remote

control switches for increasing the safety of operating high-tension

equipment.

Electrical Work (Ludwig).

The electrical section has made necessary repairs or replacements

of parts of elevators, motors, generators, switchboards, transformers,

lighting fixtures, electric ovens and clocks, storage batteries, and

watchmen's clock systems ; and replaced burned-out fuses, lamps, and

electric circuits. New work done by the section has included removal

of temporary wiring and installation of permanent wiring in the

center wing, Industrial Building; all laboratories on the north side

of the Chemistry Building, wiring of new installations of equipment

have included a panel furnace, a rubber mill, tire-testing machine,

cranes for the Emery testing machine, sugar laboratories, photoemulsion laboratory, dynamometers and altitude chambers, and a 200-kilowatt motor generator set. Numerous smaller wiring jobs

have included extensions of service and connections of small motors,

ovens, regulators, i-elays, call bells, ventilating fans, lights, etc. Plumbing and Steam Fitting (Koch).

Necessary repairs have been made to plumbing fixtures, chemical

hoods, steam baths, vpater stills, gas burners and blowers, regulating

valves, flushometers, steam and waste traps, thermostats, reducing

valves, steam and brine radiators, distribution lines for steam, water,

air, gas, vacuum, brine, and ammonia; and expansion valves, bibbs,

and joints have been repacked. Installation of new equipment or

alterations in laboratories have required the installation of steam

and brine radiators, thermostats, regulators, aspirators, condensers,

sinks, pipe stands and guard rails, chemical hoods, steam baths,

gas burners and blowers, and fire-protection equipment. The above

installations and connections to other equipment not installed by this

section have required extensions of all pipe distribution systems and

installation of new ducts, flues, drains, and ventilating systems.

Miscellaneous (Peters).

Painting during the past year has included the exterior of the

North Building, two of the power-plant stacks, the halls in the North

and West buildings, 18 laboratories and offices in the Northwest

building and several rooms in other buildings. Partitions have been

built in the Northwest, South, East, and Industrial buildings and

others removed in the East and North buildings. Concrete foundations have been built for more than a dozen installations of heavy

equipment ; a concrete block wall 75 feet long and 30 feet high was

built to act as a sound screen; a concrete floor was laid in the East

wing of the Industrial Building and several smaller sections laid in

other buildings. A cornice, water table, and stucco were added to

complete the sound chamber ; work was begun on the extensive alterations and repairs required for the high-tension laboratory; several

temporary sheds and buildings including the motor-transport barracks have been removed from the bureau's grounds; necessary re- pairs were made to skylights, roofs, ventilators, flashings and gut-
REPORT OF DIRECTOR OF BUREAU OF STANDARDS. 327

ters, doors and windows; broken glass and marble replaced and

plastering pointed up; fire equipment inspected and tested; boiler

settings repaired.

BUILDINGS AND GROUNDS.

F. A. Peters.

Care of Buildings (Eundell, Fields).

The janitorial work is largely of a routine nature in cleaning

the buildings, including offices and laboratories, disposing of rubbish,

and keeping sanitary conditions throughout. This section is also

called upon to supply laboratories requiring ice, naove heavy equipment about the bureau, or assist in the hauling of such equipment

from freight stations to the bureau. The bureau has about 25,000

square feet of floor space for each janitor, while 10,000 square feet is considered all the area one man can keep in proper condition.

Guarding (Struks).

The duties of the watchmen consist in making inspections of the

buildings to prevent fire, theft, and damage by weather to the property of the bureau. They report to the superintendent's office all

matters discovered on their rounds needing attention, such as locks

out of order, broken windows, leaking valves and faucets, burned-out

lamps, waste of water, gas, or power. They start or stop apparatus

at specified times as requested by members of the scientific staff and

make record of all emploj^ees entering, leaving, or working in laboratories outside of regular hours. Watchmen's roiuids are recorded

on clocks.

Grounds (David).

During the year a plane-table survey and map were made of the bureau's grounds and buildings by the Coast and Geodetic Survey.

One thousand square yards of cinder concrete road were built between

the East and Radio buildings, and extending toward Pierce Mill

Road. Regrading done around several of the buildings to prevent

flooding of basements from heavy storms has resulted in considerable

improvement. Several ground drains have been added. Cinders

from the boiler rooms have been used to build roads, paths, and au- tomobile parking space. A space 120 feet in diameter has been

cleared east of the Industrial Building for the rail-joint investigation. Dead trees have been cut down and wood, together with packing boxes, supplied regiilarly to our boiler rooms; debris has been

cleared ; lawns, shrubbery, and flowers have been cared for.

TRANSFER OF CUSTODIAL WORK AND PERSONNEL.

Preliminary to the transfer of the i"esponsibility for the care, main-'

tenance, and protection of the buildings of the Department of Commerce to the superintendent of the State, War, and 'N?ivj Department

Buildings, a survey was made of the custodial work at this bureau,

and a report submitted to the Director of the Bureau of the Budget.

It was recommended that the custodial work be left with the Bureau

of Standards, as it was handled efficiently, judging from the condition
328 REPORT OF DIRECTOR OF BUREAU OF STANDARDS.

of the buildings and the reported costs of operation, which are about

two-thirds of the cost per square foot of most down-town Federal

buildings. However, the Comptroller General ruled that the Bureau of Standards custodial work must be transferred to comply with

the act of Congress. The transfer was made effective July 1, 1923.

Larger Custodial Force Needed.

As the necessary heat and light must be furnished, it is evident that

the low cost of the bureau's custodial work is largely accounted for

by the inadequacy of personnel. This is further shown by the fact

that the bureau has about 25,000 square feet of floor space for each

janitor, while 10,000 square feet is considered all that one man can

properly care for. Increasing the janitorial and watch forces by 50

per cent would still keep the bureau's cost low and insure the keeping

of all parts of the buildings in good condition and properly guarded.
IV. RECOMMENDATIONS.

Personnel.

The greatest need of the bureau is the securing and maintaining of

scientific and technical personnel of a high grade to whom salaries

should be paid commensurate with those obtaining in competitive

occupations. It has been found impossible to fill certain A'ery important positions in the bureau, including that of division chiefs,

with the grade of men desired because of the low salary scale. It is

very important that the proposed new reclassification schedule be put

into effect at as early a date as possible to remedy this situation.

Additional Land.

The importance of acquiring the land lying between the bureau's

property and Connecticut Avenue has been mentioned several times

in previous reports. The importance of this will be realized upon

examination of the map near the beginning of this report, and it is

extremely necessary to keep control of this property not only to

insure a suitable entrance but to provide for the future expansion

of the bureau. Moreover, all property in this vicinity is increasing

rapidly in value, and it is in the interest of economy to purchase it at

the earliest possible moment.

Power Plant.

The original power plant of the bureau was designed to supply

two buildings, and for many years its equipment has been utterly

inadequate to meet the current needs of the laboratories. In order

to provide the necessary steam, electricity, and other facilities, it

has been necessary to add two other boiler plants and considerable

electrical machinery. A great deal of the power is now bought from

the commercial company. The reliability of such service is necessarily not as great as it should be for a research institution Avhere

the shutting down of machinery, due to interruptions in the power

supply, may result in the loss of valuable data. In the interests of

economy and efficiency, a central power plant should be provided as soon as possible. It is believed that the erection of such a plant

would result in a very great saving owing to the increase in the reliabilitj^ of the service and the lower cost of power production.

Care of Buildings.

The number of janitors, laborers, and watchmen available to care properly for the buildings and grounds is quite inadequate; there

being, for example, at the bureau one janitor per 25,000 square feet

of floor space, as compared with the average of one per 10,000 square

feet in the Government service. These figures, however, do not tell

the whole story, because, owing to the nature of the work carried on

at the bureau, it is even more important than in most Government

buildings to care properly for the equipment, and the work necessarily requires a higher degree of intelligence than is usually the

case in connection with janitorial service.

65077—23 23 329
330 REPORT OF DIRECTOR OF BUREAU OF STA^TDARDS.

Printing and Publications.

The funds provided for printing and publication of the results

of the bureau's work have been insufficient to meet the demand for

this material for some time, but during the past two years the

expansion of the bureau, owing to its extended activities in' the specification field, as well as to the increase in its normal output relating

to scientific and technical investigations, has made this increasingly

apparent. . To meet adequately the demand for the iDublications

of the bureau will require additional funds for printing, and it is

recommended that an effort be made to increase the bureau's allotment for this purpose, as it seems evident that it is highly desirable

to make available to industry satisfactorily and promptly the results

of the bureau's work.

New Legislation.

In view of the fact that questions of maintenance, operation, and

protection are so closely interrelated with the conduct of technical

investigations in the laboratory that it is impossible, for example,

to distinguish between the fuel used for heating and lighting and

that employed in the conduct of experimental work, it is earnestly

recommended that the act of Congress approved February 13. 1923

(42 Stat., 1239), turning over these functions and appropriations

to the superintendent of the State, War, and Navy Department

Buildings be repealed in so far as it relates to the Bureau of

Standards.

The bureau is also interested in legislation relating to uniformity

in weights and measures ; the approval of weighing and measuring

appliances ; the use of clinical thermometers ; tlae betterment of railway track, mine, and other commercial scales; the sale of uniform

loaves of bread on the basis of weight; and such other matters as will give to the public more satisfactory standards in every field.

Additional Funds for Research. ' To keep pace with the urgent demands of industry for the support

of fundamental research on which the progress of industry and the

prosperity of the country depend, it is highly desirable to urge upon

Congress the need of supporting experimental research upon a more

extensive scale at the bureau. It is well recognized that the brunt

of the cost of industrial research should be borne by industry ; nevertheless, there are many important problems of a fundamental nature

common to industry as a whole and also specific problems relating

to an industry which can be handled best by the active participation

of a public research institution, such as the Bureau of Standards.

It is in the public interest that many such problems be developed

by the participation, in their solution, of a Government laboratory,

and I am, therefore, urging substantial increases in the estimates

for the coming year.

Respectfully,

George K. Btjrgess,

Director.

To Hon. Herbert Hooater,

Secretary of Commerce.

n