NISTIR 8147

Measuring Airborne Emissions from 

Cigarette Butts: Literature Review 

and Experimental Plan

Final Report to U.S. Food and Drug Administration under

Interagency Agreement #244-15-9012

Dustin Poppendieck

Shahana Khurshid

Steven Emmerich

This publication is available free of charge from:

http://dx.doi.org/10.6028/NIST.IR.8147
NISTIR 8147

Measuring Airborne Emissions from 

Cigarette Butts: Literature Review

and Experimental Plan

Final Report to U.S. Food and Drug Administration under

Interagency Agreement #244-15-9012

Dustin Poppendieck 

Shahana Khurshid 

Steven Emmerich 

Energy and Environment Division

Engineering Laboratory

This publication is available free of charge from:

http://dx.doi.org/10.6028/NIST.IR.8147

October 2016

INCLUDES UPDATES AS OF 10-19-2016: PAGE 35

U.S. Department of Commerce 

Penny Pritzker, Secretary

National Institute of Standards and Technology 

Willie May, Under Secretary of Commerce for Standards and Technology and Director
i 

This publication is available free of charge from: http://dx.doi.org/10.6028/NIST.IR.8147

Abstract

Under an interagency agreement with the Food and Drug Administration (FDA), a comprehensive 

literature review was conducted to gather and analyze existing research related to airborne emissions 

from non-smoldering cigarette butts. Based on the results from the literature review, an experimental 

plan was developed to measure the airborne emissions from non-smoldering cigarette butts. The 

literature review found that: 1) Non-smoldering cigarette butts can contain many of the same chemicals 

found in mainstream and sidestream smoke, and they are a potential source of these chemicals in both 

indoor and outdoor environments; 2) A number of studies have investigated the chemicals found in 

cigarette butts and chemicals leached? from cigarette butts into water. However, there are very limited 

data on the emissions from cigarette butts into air; 3) The emission rates from cigarette butts into air 

may be minimal for some heavy chemicals (e.g., metals, tobacco-specific nitrosamines), but may be 

significant for more volatile chemicals (e.g., nicotine, pyridine, benzene); 4) The airborne emissions of 

cigarette butts may be influenced by the cigarette brand, filter material, butt length, environmental

temperature, airflow around the cigarette, number of puffs during smoking, degradation of the butt, 

and smoking method; 5) Much more data are needed on the airborne emission rates under different 

conditions. Based on the information from the literature review, the proposed experimental plan aims 

to fill the data gaps by using a screening tool (e.g. headspace analysis) to examine the airborne emission 

from non-smoldering cigarette butts under various environmental conditions. Steps in the proposed 

investigation include development of headspace analysis methods, selection of cigarette brand, 

determination of butt length, generation of cigarette butts, and determination of the target compounds.

The proposed experiments will be conducted under four exposure environments, including small 

chamber, large chamber (to mimic indoor conditions), Simulation Photo-degradation via High Energy 

Radiation Emission chamber (SPHERE), with ultra violet radiation to simulate accelerated aging in 

outdoor environments, and outdoor rooftop (to represent aging in an outdoor environment). 
ii

This publication is available free of charge from: http://dx.doi.org/10.6028/NIST.IR.8147

Contents

1 Background ...........................................................................................................................................1

2 Purpose .................................................................................................................................................1

3 Literature Review on Cigarette Butt Emissions ....................................................................................1

3.1 Literature Search...........................................................................................................................1

3.2 Definition of Cigarette Butt...........................................................................................................2

3.3 Chemical Composition of Cigarette Butts.....................................................................................3

3.3.1 Chemicals Emitted from Cigarette Butts into Air................................................................19

3.3.2 Chemicals Emitted from Cigarette Butts into Water..........................................................20

3.3.3 Chemicals Measured in Cigarette Butts..............................................................................21

3.3.4 Mainstream and Sidestream Smoke Chemicals Potentially in Cigarette Butts ..................22

3.4 Factors that Potentially Influence Airborne Emissions from Cigarette Butts.............................27

3.4.1 Brand...................................................................................................................................27

3.4.2 Filter Material .....................................................................................................................28

3.4.3 Butt Length..........................................................................................................................29

3.4.4 Temperature .......................................................................................................................29

3.4.5 Cross flow............................................................................................................................29

3.4.6 Ventilation...........................................................................................................................29

3.4.7 Puff Number........................................................................................................................29

3.4.8 Degradation ........................................................................................................................30

3.4.9 Smoking Method.................................................................................................................30

3.5 Impacts of Cigarette Butts on Human Health and Environment................................................30

3.5.1 In Vitro Assay ......................................................................................................................31

3.5.2 Animal Exposure .................................................................................................................31

3.6 Alternative Uses for Cigarette Butts...........................................................................................31

4 Experimental Plan for Phase II ............................................................................................................33

4.1 Screening Tool: Headspace Analysis..........................................................................................33

4.2 Task 1: Method Development.....................................................................................................34

4.2.1 Headspace Analysis.............................................................................................................34

4.2.2 Selection of Cigarette Brand ...............................................................................................35

4.2.3 Determination of Butt Length.............................................................................................35

4.2.4 Generation of Cigarette Butt ..............................................................................................35

4.2.5 Target Compound List.........................................................................................................36
iii

This publication is available free of charge from: http://dx.doi.org/10.6028/NIST.IR.8147

4.2.6 Method Validation ..............................................................................................................37

4.3 Task 2: Initial Experiments..........................................................................................................37

4.3.1 Smoking Condition..............................................................................................................37

4.3.2 Temperature .......................................................................................................................37

4.3.3 Moisture..............................................................................................................................38

4.4 Task 3: Large Chamber Experiments...........................................................................................38

4.5 Task 4: SPHERE Experiments.......................................................................................................40

4.6 Task 5: Roof Top Experiments....................................................................................................40

4.7 Schedule......................................................................................................................................41

5 Summary .............................................................................................................................................41

6 Disclaimer............................................................................................................................................42

7 Acknowledgements.............................................................................................................................42

8 References ..........................................................................................................................................42
iv

This publication is available free of charge from: http://dx.doi.org/10.6028/NIST.IR.8147

Glossary

Airborne emission: Release of pollutants into air from a solid or liquid source as it burns or 

volatilizes.

Automated headspace analysis: Measurement of compounds of interest from the vapor phase around 

a sample placed in a closed system instead of directly from the sample matrix. 

Automation allows for enhanced precision and sample throughput.

Chemical: A form of matter that is composed of a particular set of elements and has 

characteristic properties. A chemical cannot be separated into the elements it is 

comprised of by physical separation methods, i.e., without breaking chemical 

bonds.

Cigarette butt: Defined in this document as the cigarette remaining at the conclusion of the 

smoldering phase following smoking. The conclusion of the smoldering phase is 

defined as when the entire cigarette butt reaches the ambient temperature of 

the environment in which it is located. Typically, the cigarette butt has three 

major parts: ash, unburnt tobacco, and filtration material. The cigarette butt 

includes any remaining paper (wrapping paper, tipping paper, and plug wrap 

paper).

Cigarette filter: Includes the filtration material, tipping paper, plug wrap paper, and adhesive. 

The filtration material is usually made of cellulose acetate, the cigarette filter is 

intended to trap less desirable components of mainstream smoke.

Cigarette tip: A term used to refer to cigarette filters, especially for cigarettes that people roll 

themselves.

Compendex Engineering Village: Database of patents and journals across disciplines. Disciplines 

include: electrical, civil, chemical, mechanical, mining, and general engineering in 

addition to applied science. This database covers engineering to a greater depth 

than the Web of Science database.

Compounds: A form of matter that is composed of two or more elements and has 

characteristic properties. A compound cannot be separated into the elements it 

is comprised of by physical separation methods, i.e., without breaking chemical 

bonds.

Constituents: Compounds present in a cigarette after it has been smoked.

Cross flow: Ambient air flow surrounding the cigarette. 

Ingredients: Compounds or additives added to cigarettes during the manufacturing process.

ISI Web of Science Databases of journals across disciplines. The disciplines include agricultural, 

biological, and environmental sciences, engineering, technology, applied science, 

medical and life sciences, and physical and chemical sciences. This database 

covers biological, medical, and environmental sciences to a greater depth than 

the Compendex Engineering Village database.

Mainstream smoke: All smoke that leaves the butt end of a cigarette during the smoking process

(ISO3308 2012).
v

This publication is available free of charge from: http://dx.doi.org/10.6028/NIST.IR.8147

Non-smoldering: The non-smoldering phase starts when the entire cigarette butt reaches the 

ambient temperature of the environment in which it is located and particles are

no longer emitted from the combustion process.

Rooftop experiments: Experiments that will be conducted on the rooftop of building 226 on the NISTGaithersburg campus to measure the effect of aging in the outdoor environment 

on airborne emissions from cigarette butts. Several instruments are located on 

this rooftop to measure environmental conditions such as solar irradiance, wind 

speed, rain, etc.

Sidestream smoke: All smoke which leaves a cigarette during the smoking process other than from 

the butt end (ISO3308 2012).

SPHERE experiments: Experiments that will be conducted in the Simulation Photo-degradation via High 

Energy Radiation Emission chamber (SPHERE), with ultra violet radiation to 

simulate accelerated aging of cigarette butts in outdoor environments.

Tenax-TA tubes: Porous polymer adsorbent used for collecting airborne organic contaminants. For 

analysis the tubes are thermally desorbed into the inlet of a gas chromatography 

system.

Tobacco filter: A term used to refer to cigarette filters.

Ventilation: Air flow though the cigarette.
1

This publication is available free of charge from: http://dx.doi.org/10.6028/NIST.IR.8147

1 Background

The Family Smoking Prevention and Tobacco Control Act (Tobacco Control Act) was signed into law on 

June 22, 2009, amending the Food, Drug and Cosmetic Act and providing the Food and Drug 

Administration (FDA) the authority to regulate the manufacturing, distribution, and marketing of 

tobacco products. More specifically, the Tobacco Control Act gives FDA the authority to, among other 

things, establish science and research programs to inform the development of tobacco product 

regulations and better understand the risks associated with tobacco use.

FDA considers the environmental impacts of its actions as an integral part of its regulatory process. The 

National Environmental Policy Act (NEPA) of 1969, as amended (42 U.S.C. § 4321 et seq.), directs that all 

agencies of the Federal Government include a detailed assessment of the environmental effects of a 

major Federal action significantly affecting the quality of the human environment. To comply with NEPA, 

according to 21 CFR 25, FDA follows guidance from the Council for Environmental Quality (CEQ) in 

assessing the environmental effects of any proposed action. Under 21 CFR 25.40(a), the environmental 

assessment shall focus on relevant issues relating to the use and disposal of FDA regulated articles. 

Included in the environmental considerations of tobacco product applications, FDA considers, among 

other factors, the environmental effects of waste generated as a result of disposal after use.

A major existing environmental consequence of the use of tobacco products, such as conventional and 

roll-your-own cigarettes, is the waste disposal of discarded cigarette filters or butts, which can persist in 

the environment for more than 10 years (Novotny and Zhao 1999). Globally, around 5 trillion cigarette 

butts are generated per year (Novotny and Zhao 1999, Chapman 2006, Healton et al. 2011, Bonanomi 

et al. 2015). Cigarette butts are some of the most common forms of litter found on beaches 

(Claereboudt 2004, Smith et al. 2014), near streams, night clubs (Becherucci and Pon 2014), bus stops 

(Wilson et al. 2014), roads and streets (Healton et al. 2011, Patel et al. 2013). Cigarette butts have been 

found at densities averaging more than four cigarette butts m-2 in urban environments (Seco Pon and 

Becherucci 2012).

The environmental toxicity of cigarette butts due to air emissions is not well studied. FDA is seeking to 

gather more information regarding air emissions from cigarette butts and to assess the cumulative 

environmental impact of filtered tobacco products. 

2 Purpose

This report summarizes activities under an interagency agreement (#244-15-9012) between the Food 

and Drug Administration (FDA) and the National Institute of Standards and Technology (NIST). The 

objective of that agreement was: 1) to conduct a literature review to gather and analyze existing 

research related to airborne emissions from non-smoldering cigarette butts, and 2) to develop an 

experimental plan to measure the airborne emissions from non-smoldering cigarette butts.

3 Literature Review on Cigarette Butt Emissions

A literature search, as described below, was conducted to evaluate existing literature that assessed

emissions from non-smoldering cigarette butts

3.1 Literature Search 

A literature search of papers published prior to January 20th of 2016 was carried out using the ISI Web of 

Science and Compendex Engineering Village databases. As shown in Table 1 , the search keywords used 

were “Cigarette butt*”, “Cigarette filter*”, “Cigarette tip*” and “Tobacco filter*”. The “*” wildcard 

character allowed for plural words to be searched simultaneously. A total of 1 793 papers were 
2

This publication is available free of charge from: http://dx.doi.org/10.6028/NIST.IR.8147

identified from ISI Web of Science, while 1 101 papers were identified from Compendex Engineering 

Village. Combining the papers from the two search results and removing the duplicate papers resulted in 

a database with 2 381 papers. Of those 2 381 papers, 2 186 papers were excluded since the studies 

performed were not related to the topics discussed in this document. Specifically, those excluded papers 

focused on subjects such as the act of smoking, diseases caused by the act of smoking, how to make 

cigarettes, experiments on rats or mice smoking, and indoor air filters to remove cigarette smoke. 

Table 1. Summary of literature searches.

Search database Search keywords No. of papers Search date

Web of Science

Cigarette butt* or 

Cigarette filter* or 

Cigarette tip* or 

Tobacco filter*

1 793 01-20-16

Compendex 

Engineering Village

Cigarette butt* or 

Cigarette filter* or 

Cigarette tip* or 

Tobacco filter*

1 101 01-20-16

None of the remaining reviewed 195 articles directly studied airborne emission from non-smoldering 

cigarette butts in indoor or outdoor environmental conditions. Four articles reported the emission from 

cigarette butts into the headspace of sample vials at elevated temperatures. The detailed summary of 

these four papers is described in section 3.3.1. As a result of the limited data set on airborne emission, 

the focus of the literature review was widened to investigate all possible emissions from cigarette butts 

to provide context to the experimental plan. Consequently, the 195 papers were scrutinized for this 

report. Of those 195 papers, 121 relevant articles which discussed the definition of cigarette butts, 

chemical composition of cigarette butts, factors that potentially influence cigarette butt airborne 

emissions, impacts of cigarette butts on human health and environment, and alternative uses for 

cigarette butts, have been cited in this document.

3.2 Definition of Cigarette Butt

A definition of a cigarette butt is needed to accurately discuss emissions from cigarette butts. ISO 3308

(2012) (Routine analytical cigarette-smoking machine - Definitions and standard conditions) defines a

butt length as the “length of unburnt cigarette remaining at the moment when smoking is stopped.” For 

the purpose of this document, this definition of a cigarette butt will be the cigarette remaining at the 

conclusion of the smoldering phase following smoking (i.e. the remaining cigarette butt has reached the 

temperature of the environment it is in). For the remainder of this document the term cigarette butt will 

refer to a non-smoldering cigarette butt. 

A cigarette butt has three major components: 1) ash, 2) unburned tobacco and 3) filtration material

(Figure 1). These three major components are wrapped by three types of paper (wrapping paper, tipping 

paper, and plug wrap paper). 
3

This publication is available free of charge from: http://dx.doi.org/10.6028/NIST.IR.8147

Figure 1: Components of cigarette butt.

3.3 Chemical Composition of Cigarette Butts

Since there are limited data on airborne emissions from cigarette butts, it is important to characterize 

the chemical composition of cigarette butts in order to assess their potential airborne emissions. The 

chemicals in cigarette butts can be the original chemicals in the unsmoked cigarettes or the pyrolysis 

and distillation products deposited in the cigarette butts. Each component of a cigarette butt (e.g., ash, 

unburned tobacco, filter and paper) can contain different chemicals that could possibly emit as the 

cigarette butt ages.

The chemical composition of the ash and the unburned tobacco depends on the types of tobacco, how

the cigarette was smoked, and the mass transfer behavior of combustion products along the cigarette. 

The diameter of the cigarette (Coggins et al. 2013) and the permeability of the wrapping paper will 

influence the burned condition (Xia et al. 2012). Depending on the burning conditions, the combustion 

temperature in a cigarette can reach up to 800 °C (Hertz et al. 2012). Different chemicals are produced 

at different temperatures and times during the burning process. Hydrocarbons (e.g., benzene and 

naphthalene) are formed by pyrolysis above 600 °C, while phenols are generated at 400 °C. In contrast, 

nicotine is released by distillation at temperatures below 300 °C (Baker 1987).

Chemicals found in cigarette filters will depend on the filter design. Filters are designed to capture 

various less desirable components of mainstream smoke, with each cigarette brand using different 

strategies. The type of filter material will influence the initial chemicals present in the cigarette butt that 

can potentially be emitted. Most filters are made of cellulose acetate. However, researchers have 

examined the performance of filters consisting of activated carbon, tert-butylhydroquinone (TBHQ), 

vitamin C, carotene, grape seed extract, Ginkgo biloba extract, dried hemoglobin, and polyurethane 

foam/aluminum hydroxide hybrid (Smith et al. 1997, Valavanidis and Haralambous 2001, Masoudi 

Soltani and Kazemi Yazdi 2012, Liu et al. 2013, Petraru et al. 2013, Salman et al. 2014, Soltani et al. 

2015).

It should be noted that some additives may be added to the unburned tobacco to improve their sensory 

properties and increase attractiveness to smokers. These additives include single compounds such as 
4

This publication is available free of charge from: http://dx.doi.org/10.6028/NIST.IR.8147

glycerol, propylene glycol, menthol, vanillin, diammonium hydrogenphosphate, and n-propyl-phydroxybenzoate, as well as complex additive mixtures such as cocoa, licorice, and mint oil (Merckel 

and Pragst 2007, Huang et al. 2014). Some of the additives may remain in the cigarette butt. Similar to 

other original chemicals, the additive transfer behavior to the cigarette butt is dependent on the 

molecular weight and boiling point of the additive, the configuration of the cigarette, and other factors 

such as the chemical polarity of the additive (Huang et al. 2014).

Regardless of the different composition of different cigarette butts, even for cigarette butts from the 

same pack, different chemicals can be detected when the butt is exposed to different environments or 

measured using different methods. The following sections (3.3.1 to 3.3.4) summarize the studies that 

have reported chemicals related to cigarette butts or related to individual components of cigarette butts 

(e.g. filter, unburned tobacco, ash and paper), including: 1) emissions from cigarette butts or individual 

butt components into air, 2) emissions from cigarette butts or individual butt components into water, 

3) extraction of cigarette butts and direct analysis of cigarette butts or individual butt components, and

4) components in mainstream or sidestream smoke that potentially exist in cigarette butts. Table 2

summarizes the chemicals reported to be directly associated with cigarette butts and the analytical 

methods used in the first three groups of studies. The fourth group of studies are excluded from Table 2, 

since the experiments did not positively associate the measured chemicals with cigarette butts.
5

This publication is available free of charge from: http://dx.doi.org/10.6028/NIST.IR.8147

Table 2. Summary of detected chemicals reported in cigarette butt emission and extraction studies. Acronyms are defined in Table 3. Chemicals 

highlighted in bold and marked using asterisk are on the United States Food and Drug Administrations’ Harmful and Potentially 

Harmful Constituents in Tobacco Products and Tobacco Smoke: Established List

Class Chemical CAS

MWa

(g/mol) Component Mediab Summary of method Reference

Alcohols Ethanol 64-17-5 46.1 Tipping 

paper

Air Incubate a cigarette butt in a headspace vial, analyze 

the air in the headspace by GC-MS

(Huang et al. 2014)

Alcohols 2-Furfuryl Alcohol 98-00-0 98.1 Cigarette 

butt

Air Incubate a cigarette butt in a headspace vial, collect 

the sample with Tenax GC, analyze the sample by GCFID

(Fukuhara et al. 1985)

Alcohols Isopropanol 67-63-0 60.1 Tipping 

paper

Air Incubate a cigarette butt in a headspace vial, analyze 

the air in the headspace by GC-MS

(Huang et al. 2014)

Alcohols Methanol 67-56-1 32.0 Cigarette 

Filter

Air Incubate a cigarette butt in a headspace vial, analyze 

the air in the headspace by GC-FID

(You et al. 2014)

Alcohols 1-methoxy-2-propanol 107-98-2 90.1 Tipping 

paper

Air Incubate a cigarette butt in a headspace vial, analyze 

the air in the headspace by GC-MS

(Huang et al. 2014)

Alcohols 1-ethoxy-2-propanol 1569-02-4 104.2 Tipping 

paper

Air Incubate a cigarette butt in a headspace vial, analyze 

the air in the headspace by GC-MS

(Huang et al. 2014)

Alkaloids 7-Carbaldehyde 

camptothecin

80758-83-4 376.4 Cigarette 

butt

Water Leach into distilled water, analyze the leachate by LCMS(Zhao et al. 2010a)

Aromatic 

amines

Nicotine* 22083-74-5 162.2 Cigarette 

butt

Water Leach into distilled water, analyze the leachate by LCMS(Zhao et al. 2010a), 

(Zhao et al. 2010b)

Aromatic 

amines

Nicotine* 22083-74-5 162.2 Cigarette 

butt

Water Leach into purified water and simulated rainwater, 

analyze the leachate by LC-MS-MS

(Green et al. 2014)

Aromatic 

amines

Hexaconazole 79983-71-4 314.2 Cigarette 

butt

Water Leach into distilled water, analyze the leachate by LCMS(Zhao et al. 2010a)

Aromatic 

amines

Imidocarb 27885-92-3 348.4 Cigarette 

butt

Water Leach into distilled water, analyze the leachate by LCMS(Zhao et al. 2010a)

Aromatic 

amines

Cotinine 486-56-6 176.2 Cigarette 

butt

Water Leach into distilled water, analyze the leachate by LCMS(Zhao et al. 2010b)
6

This publication is available free of charge from: http://dx.doi.org/10.6028/NIST.IR.8147

Class Chemical CAS

MWa

(g/mol) Component Mediab Summary of method Reference

Aromatic 

amines 

2-(Pyridin-3-yl)

Pyrrolidine-1-

Carbaldehyde

3000-81-5 176.2 Cigarette 

butt

Water Leach into distilled water, analyze the leachate by LCMS(Zhao et al. 2010a)

Aromatic 

amines

Sulfadoxine 2447-57-6 310.3 Cigarette 

butt

Water Leach into distilled water, analyze the leachate by LCMS(Zhao et al. 2010a)

Aromatic 

amines

5-(4,6-Dichloropyridin-3-

yl)-Pyridine-1(2H)-

Carboxamidea

270 Cigarette 

butt

Water Leach into distilled water, analyze the leachate by LCMS(Zhao et al. 2010b)

Carbonyls Acetol 116-09-6 74.1 Cigarette 

butt

Air Incubate a cigarette butt in a headspace vial, collect 

the sample with Tenax GC, analyze the sample by GCFID

(Fukuhara et al. 1985)

Carbonyls Acetone* 67-64-1 58.1 Tipping 

paper

Air Incubate a cigarette butt in a headspace vial, analyze 

the air in the headspace by GC-MS

(Huang et al. 2014)

Carbonyls Acetone* 67-64-1 58.1 Cigarette 

filter

Extract 

solution

Extract with acetonitrile aqueous solution, analyze the 

extract by LC-MS-MS

(Yu et al. 2013)

Carbonyls Butyl acetate 123-86-4 116.2 Tipping 

paper

Air Incubate a cigarette butt in a headspace vial, analyze 

the air in the headspace by GC-MS

(Huang et al. 2014)

Carbonyls Cyclohexanone 108-94-1 98.1 Tipping 

paper

Air Incubate a cigarette butt in a headspace vial, analyze 

the air in the headspace by GC-MS

(Huang et al. 2014)

Carbonyls 2-Pentanone 107-87-9 86.1 Cigarette 

butt

Air Incubate a cigarette butt in a headspace vial, collect 

the sample with Tenax GC, analyze the sample by GCFID

(Fukuhara et al. 1985)

Carbonyls n-propanol 71-23-8 60.1 Tipping 

paper

Air Incubate a cigarette butt in a headspace vial, analyze 

the air in the headspace by GC-MS

(Huang et al. 2014)

Carbonyls n-propyl acetate 109-60-4 102.1 Tipping 

paper

Air Incubate a cigarette butt in a headspace vial, analyze 

the air in the headspace by GC-MS

(Huang et al. 2014)

Carbonyls Cyclopentanone 120-92-3 84.1 Cigarette 

butt

Air Incubate a cigarette butt in a headspace vial, collect 

the sample with Tenax GC, analyze the sample by GCFID

(Fukuhara et al. 1985)
7

This publication is available free of charge from: http://dx.doi.org/10.6028/NIST.IR.8147

Class Chemical CAS

MWa

(g/mol) Component Mediab Summary of method Reference

Carbonyls 2-Cyclopentenone 930-30-3 82.1 Cigarette 

butt

Air Incubate a cigarette butt in a headspace vial, collect 

the sample with Tenax GC, analyze the sample by GCFID

(Fukuhara et al. 1985)

Carbonyls 2-Methylcyclo pentenone 1120-73-6 96.1 Cigarette 

butt

Air Incubate a cigarette butt in a headspace vial, collect 

the sample with Tenax GC, analyze the sample by GCFID

(Fukuhara et al. 1985)

Carbonyls 4-methyl-2-pentanone 108-10-1 100.2 Tipping 

paper

Air Incubate a cigarette butt in a headspace vial, analyze 

the air in the headspace by GC-MS

(Huang et al. 2014)

Carbonyls Methyl n-Butyl Ketone 591-78-6 100.2 Tipping 

paper

Air Incubate a cigarette butt in a headspace vial, analyze 

the air in the headspace by GC-MS

(Huang et al. 2014)

Carbonyls n-butyl alcohol 71-36-3 74.1 Tipping 

paper

Air Incubate a cigarette butt in a headspace vial, analyze 

the air in the headspace by GC-MS

(Huang et al. 2014)

Carbonyls Ethyl acetate 141-78-6 88.1 Tipping 

paper

Air Incubate a cigarette butt in a headspace vial, analyze 

the air in the headspace by GC-MS

(Huang et al. 2014)

Carbonyls 3-Furaldehyde 498-60-2 96.1 Cigarette 

butt

Air Incubate a cigarette butt in a headspace vial, collect 

the sample with Tenax GC, analyze the sample by GCFID

(Fukuhara et al. 1985)

Carbonyls 2-Furaldehyde 98-01-1 96.1 Cigarette 

butt

Air Incubate a cigarette butt in a headspace vial, collect 

the sample with Tenax GC, analyze the sample by GCFID

(Fukuhara et al. 1985)

Carbonyls Formaldehyde* 50-00-0 30 Cigarette 

filter

Extract 

solution

Extract with acetonitrile aqueous solution, analyze the 

extract by LC-MS-MS

(Yu et al. 2013)

Carbonyls Isopropyl acetate 108-21-4 102.1 Tipping 

paper

Air Incubate a cigarette butt in a headspace vial, analyze 

the air in the headspace by GC-MS

(Huang et al. 2014)

Carbonyls Acetaldehyde* 75-07-0 44.1 Cigarette 

filter

Extract 

solution

Extract with acetonitrile aqueous solution, analyze the 

extract by LC-MS-MS

(Yu et al. 2013)

Carbonyls Acrolein* 107-02-8 56.1 Cigarette 

filter

Extract 

solution

Extract with acetonitrile aqueous solution, analyze the 

extract by LC-MS-MS

(Yu et al. 2013)
8

This publication is available free of charge from: http://dx.doi.org/10.6028/NIST.IR.8147

Class Chemical CAS

MWa

(g/mol) Component Mediab Summary of method Reference

Carbonyls Propionaldehyde* 123-38-6 58.1 Cigarette 

filter

Extract 

solution

Extract with acetonitrile aqueous solution, analyze the 

extract by LC-MS-MS

(Yu et al. 2013)

Carbonyls Protoanemonin 108-28-1 96.08 Cigarette 

butt

Air Incubate a cigarette butt in a headspace vial, collect 

the sample with Tenax GC, analyze the sample by GCFID

(Fukuhara et al. 1985)

Carbonyls Crotonaldehyde* 4170-30-3 70.09 Cigarette 

filter

Extract 

solution

Extract with acetonitrile aqueous solution, analyze the

extract by LC-MS-MS

(Yu et al. 2013)

Carbonyls 2-Butanone 78-93-3 72.1 Cigarette 

filter

Extract 

solution

Extract with acetonitrile aqueous solution, analyze the 

extract by LC-MS-MS

(Yu et al. 2013)

Carbonyls Butyraldehyde 123-72-8 72.1 Cigarette 

filter

Extract 

solution

Extract with acetonitrile aqueous solution, analyze the 

extract by LC-MS-MS

(Yu et al. 2013)

Carbonyls Acetol Formate 116-09-6 74.1 Cigarette 

butt

Air Incubate a cigarette butt in a headspace vial, collect 

the sample with Tenax GC, analyze the sample by GCFID

(Fukuhara et al. 1985)

Carbonyls 3-Methyl-2-

Cyclopentenone

2758-18-1 96.1 Cigarette 

butt

Air Incubate a cigarette butt in a headspace vial, collect 

the sample with Tenax GC, analyze the sample by GCFID

(Fukuhara et al. 1985)

Carbonyls 2,3-Pentanedione 600-14-6 100.1 Cigarette 

butt

Air Incubate a cigarette butt in a headspace vial, collect 

the sample with Tenax GC, analyze the sample by GCFID

(Fukuhara et al. 1985)

Carbonyls 5-(4-Hydroxy Pyridin-3-

yl)-Pyridine-1(2H)-

Carboxamide

217 Cigarette 

butt

Water Leach into distilled water, analyze the leachate by LCMS(Zhao et al. 2010a)

Carbonyls 7-Keto-Benzo(a)pyrene 272 Cigarette 

butt

Water Leach into distilled water, analyze the leachate by LCMS(Zhao et al. 2010a)

Hydrocarbons Ethyl Benzene* 100-41-4 106.2 Cigarette 

butt

Air Incubate a cigarette butt in a headspace vial, collect 

the sample with Tenax GC, analyze the sample by GCFID

(Fukuhara et al. 1985)

Hydrocarbons Ethyl benzene* 100-41-4 106.2 Tipping Air Incubate a cigarette butt in a headspace vial, analyze (Huang et al. 2014)
9

This publication is available free of charge from: http://dx.doi.org/10.6028/NIST.IR.8147

Class Chemical CAS

MWa

(g/mol) Component Mediab Summary of method Reference

paper the air in the headspace by GC-MS

Hydrocarbons Ethyl Benzene* 100-41-4 106.2 Cigarette 

butt

Air Incubate a cigarette butt in a headspace vial, analyze 

the air in the headspace by GC-MS

(Ji et al. 2015)

Hydrocarbons Benzene* 71-43-2 78.1 Tipping

paper

Air Incubate a cigarette butt in a headspace vial, analyze 

the air in the headspace by GC-MS

(Huang et al. 2014)

Hydrocarbons Benzene* 71-43-2 78.1 Cigarette 

butt 

Air Incubate a cigarette butt in a headspace vial, analyze 

the air in the headspace by GC-MS

(Ji et al. 2015)

Hydrocarbons 3,3-Dimethyl-1-Butene 558-37-2 84.2 Cigarette 

butt

Air Incubate a cigarette butt in a headspace vial, collect 

the sample with Tenax GC, analyze the sample by GCFID

(Fukuhara et al. 1985)

Hydrocarbons Pyridine 110-86-1 79.1 Cigarette 

butt

Air Incubate a cigarette butt in a headspace vial, collect 

the sample with Tenax GC, analyze the sample by GCFID

(Fukuhara et al. 1985)

Hydrocarbons Cyanobenzene 100-47-0 103.1 Cigarette 

butt

Air Incubate a cigarette butt in a headspace vial, collect 

the sample with Tenax GC, analyze the sample by GCFID

(Fukuhara et al. 1985)

Hydrocarbons Cyclooctatetraene 629-20-9 104.2 Cigarette 

butt

Air Incubate a cigarette butt in a headspace vial, collect 

the sample with Tenax GC, analyze the sample by GCFID

(Fukuhara et al. 1985)

Hydrocarbons Isocapronitrile 542-54-1 97.2 Cigarette 

butt

Air Incubate a cigarette butt in a headspace vial, collect 

the sample with Tenax GC, analyze the sample by GCFID

(Fukuhara et al. 1985)

Hydrocarbons Toluene* 108-88-3 92.1 Cigarette 

butt 

Air Incubate a cigarette butt in a headspace vial, analyze 

the air in the headspace by GC-MS

(Ji et al. 2015)

Hydrocarbons Toluene* 108-88-3 92.1 Tipping 

paper

Air Incubate a cigarette butt in a headspace vial, analyze 

the air in the headspace by GC-MS

(Huang et al. 2014)

Hydrocarbons Toluene* 108-88-6 92.1 Cigarette 

butt

Air Incubate a cigarette butt in a headspace vial, collect 

the sample with Tenax GC, analyze the sample by GCFID

(Fukuhara et al. 1985)
10

This publication is available free of charge from: http://dx.doi.org/10.6028/NIST.IR.8147

Class Chemical CAS

MWa

(g/mol) Component Mediab Summary of method Reference

Hydrocarbons p-Xylene 106-42-3 106.2 Cigarette 

butt 

Air Incubate a cigarette butt in a headspace vial, analyze 

the air in the headspace by GC-MS

(Ji et al. 2015)

Hydrocarbons m-Xylene 108-38-3 106.2 Cigarette 

butt 

Air Incubate a cigarette butt in a headspace vial, analyze 

the air in the headspace by GC-MS

(Ji et al. 2015)

Hydrocarbons m-Xylene 108-38-3 106.2 Tipping 

paper

Air Incubate a cigarette butt in a headspace vial, analyze 

the air in the headspace by GC-MS

(Huang et al. 2014)

Hydrocarbons o-Xylene 95-47-6 106.2 Tipping 

paper

Air Incubate a cigarette butt in a headspace vial, analyze 

the air in the headspace by GC-MS

(Huang et al. 2014)

Hydrocarbons o-Xylene 95-47-6 106.2 Cigarette 

butt 

Air Incubate a cigarette butt in a headspace vial, analyze 

the air in the headspace by GC-MS

(Ji et al. 2015)

Hydrocarbons Styrene* 100-42-5 104.2 Tipping 

paper

Air Incubate a cigarette butt in a headspace vial, analyze 

the air in the headspace by GC-MS

(Huang et al. 2014)

Hydrocarbons Styrene* 100-42-5 104.2 Cigarette 

butt 

Air Incubate a cigarette butt in a headspace vial, analyze 

the air in the headspace by GC-MS

(Ji et al. 2015)

Hydrocarbons Xylene 1330-20-7 106.2 Cigarette 

butt

Air Incubate a cigarette butt in a headspace vial, collect 

the sample with Tenax GC, analyze the sample by GCFID

(Fukuhara et al. 1985)

Insecticides Maleic Hydrazide 123-33-1 112.1 Cigarette 

butt

Extract 

solution

Extract with methanol, dissolve the extract in DMF 

and silylate with BSTFA, analyze the silylated extract 

by GC-MS

(Zhang et al. 2012)

Insecticides Chlorantraniliprole 500008-45-7 483.2 Cigarette 

butt

Extract 

solution

Extract with acetonitrile, radioassay the extract by LSC (Gaddamidi et al. 

2011)

Insecticides Imidacloprid 138261-41-3 255.7 Cigarette 

butt

Extract 

solution

Extract with acetone, radioassay the extract by LSC (Clark et al. 1998)

Metals Aluminum (Al) 7429-90-5 27 Cigarette 

butt

Water Leach into aqueous solution, analyze the leachate by 

ICP-OES

(Moerman and Potts 

2011)

Metals Antimony (Sb) 7440-36-0 121.8 Cigarette 

butt

Cigarette 

butt

Analyze different components of cigarette butt 

(unburned tobacco, ash, filter, cigarette paper) 

(Wu et al. 1997)
11

This publication is available free of charge from: http://dx.doi.org/10.6028/NIST.IR.8147

Class Chemical CAS

MWa

(g/mol) Component Mediab Summary of method Reference

directly by INNA

Metals Arsenic (As)* 7440-38-2 74.9 Cigarette 

butt

Cigarette 

butt

Analyze different components of cigarette butt 

(unburned tobacco, ash, filter, cigarette paper) 

directly by INNA

(Wu et al. 1997)

Metals Arsenic (As)* 7440-38-2 74.9 Cigarette 

filter

Extract 

solution

Extract with HNO3 and H2O2 by heating in water bath, 

analyze the extract by HG-AFS

(Wang et al. 2007)

Metals Barium (Ba)* 7440-39-3 137.3 Cigarette 

butt

Water Leach into aqueous solution, analyze the leachate by 

ICP-OES

(Moerman and Potts 

2011)

Metals Cadmium (Cd)* 7440-43-9 112.4 Cigarette 

butt

Water Leach into aqueous solution, analyze the leachate by 

ICP-OES

(Moerman and Potts 

2011)

Metals Cadmium (Cd)* 7440-43-9 112.4 Cigarette 

butt

Extract 

solution

Extract with HNO3-HClO4 by wet ashing technique, 

analyze the extract by FAAS 

(Pelit et al. 2013)

Metals Cadmium (Cd)* 7440-43-9 112.4 Cigarette 

butt

Cigarette 

butt

Analyze different components of cigarette butt 

(unburned tobacco, ash, filter, cigarette paper) 

directly by INNA

(Wu et al. 1997)

Metals Cadmium (Cd)* 7440-43-9 112.4 Cigarette 

butt

Cigarette 

butt

Analyze different components of cigarette butt 

(unburned tobacco, ash, filter, cigarette paper) 

directly by INNA

(Wu et al. 1997)

Metals Cadmium (Cd)* 7440-43-9 112.4 Cigarette 

butt

Extract 

solution

Extract with 69 % HNO3 and 36 % HCl using a 

microwave system, analyze the extract by FAAS

(Galazyn-Sidorczuk et 

al. 2008)

Metals Cadmium (Cd)* 7440-43-9 112.4 Unburned 

tobacco

Extract 

solution

Extract with HCl, analyze the extract by solid surface 

fluorescence using nylon membranes coated with 

carbon nanotubes

(Carolina Talio et al. 

2013)

Metals Chromium (Cr)* 7440-47-3 52 Cigarette 

butt

Extract 

solution

Extract with HNO3, analyze the extract by ICP-AES (Wang and FinlaysonPitts 2003)

Metals Cobalt (Co)* 7440-48-4 58.9 Cigarette 

butt

Cigarette 

butt

Analyze different components of cigarette butt 

(unburned tobacco, ash, filter, cigarette paper) 

directly by INNA

(Wu et al. 1997)
12

This publication is available free of charge from: http://dx.doi.org/10.6028/NIST.IR.8147

Class Chemical CAS

MWa

(g/mol) Component Mediab Summary of method Reference

Metals Copper (Cu) 7440-50-8 63.6 Cigarette 

butt

Extract 

solution

Extract with HNO3-HClO4 by wet ashing technique, 

analyze the extract by FAAS 

(Pelit et al. 2013)

Metals Mercury (Hg)* 7439-97-6 200.6 Cigarette 

filter

Extract 

solution

Extract with HNO3 and H2O2 by heating in water bath, 

analyze the extract by HG-AFS

(Wang et al. 2007)

Metals Mercury (Hg)* 7439-97-6 200.6 Cigarette 

butt

Cigarette 

butt

Analyze the cigarette butt directly by mercury 

analyzer AMA-254

(Kowalski and 

Wiercinski 2009)

Metals Iron (Fe) 7439-89-6 55.9 Cigarette 

butt

Extract 

solution

Extract with HNO3, analyze the extract by ICP-AES (Wang and FinlaysonPitts 2003)

Metals Lead (Pb)* 7439-92-1 207.2 Cigarette 

butt

Extract 

solution

Extract with 69% HNO3 and 36% HCl using a 

microwave system, analyze the extract by FAAS

(Galazyn-Sidorczuk et 

al. 2008)

Metals Lead (Pb)* 7439-92-1 207.2 Cigarette 

filter

Extract 

solution

Extract with solvent using a microwave system, 

analyze the extract by FAAS

(Huang et al. 2013)

Metals Lead (Pb)* 7439-92-1 207.2 Cigarette 

paper

Extract 

solution

Ash the cigarette paper with microwave ashing at 450 

°C, extract the ash with nitric acid, analyze the extract 

by FAAS

(Wu et al. 2012)

Metals Lead (Pb)* 7439-92-1 207.2 Cigarette 

butt

Water Leach into aqueous solution, analyze the leachate by 

ICP-OES

(Moerman and Potts 

2011)

Metals Manganese (Mn) 7439-96-5 54.9 Cigarette 

butt

Water Leach into aqueous solution, analyze the leachate by 

ICP-OES

(Moerman and Potts 

2011)

Metals Manganese (Mn) 7439-96-5 54.9 Cigarette 

butt

Extract 

solution

Extract with HNO3-HClO4 by wet ashing technique, 

analyze the extract by FAAS 

(Pelit et al. 2013)

Metals Nickel (Ni)* 7440-02-0 58.7 Cigarette 

butt

Water Leach into aqueous solution, analyze the leachate by 

ICP-OES

(Moerman and Potts 

2011)

Metals Potassium (K) 7440-09-7 39.1 Cigarette 

butt

Cigarette 

butt

Analyze different components of cigarette butt 

(unburned tobacco, ash, filter, cigarette paper) 

directly by INNA

(Wu et al. 1997)

Metals Strontium (Sr) 7440-24-6 87.6 Cigarette 

butt

Water Leach into aqueous solution, analyze the leachate by 

ICP-OES

(Moerman and Potts 

2011)
13

This publication is available free of charge from: http://dx.doi.org/10.6028/NIST.IR.8147

Class Chemical CAS

MWa

(g/mol) Component Mediab Summary of method Reference

Metals Titanium (Ti) 7440-32-6 47.9 Cigarette 

butt

Water Leach into aqueous solution, analyze the leachate by 

ICP-OES

(Moerman and Potts 

2011)

Metals Zinc (Zn) 7440-66-6 65.4 Cigarette 

butt

Extract 

solution

Extract with HNO3, analyze the extract by ICP-AES (Wang and FinlaysonPitts 2003)

Metals Zinc (Zn) 7440-66-6 65.4 Cigarette 

butt

Extract 

solution

Extract with HNO3-HClO4 by wet ashing technique, 

analyze the extract by FAAS 

(Pelit et al. 2013)

Metals Zinc (Zn) 7440-66-6 65.4 Cigarette 

butt

Cigarette 

butt

Analyze different components of cigarette butt 

(unburned tobacco, ash, filter, cigarette paper) 

directly by INNA

(Wu et al. 1997)

Nitrosamines N-Nitrosonornicotine 

(NNN)*

16543-55-8 177 Cigarette 

butt

Water Leach into distilled water, analyze the leachate by LCMS(Zhao et al. 2010a, 

Zhao et al. 2010b)

Nitrosamines TSNAsc Cigarette 

filter

Extract 

solution 

Extracting the filter with mixture of deuterated 

water/dimethyl sulfoxide, analyze the extract by NMR

(Verdolotti et al. 2012)

NPAHs 1,3-dinitronaphthalene Cigarette 

filter

Extract 

solution

Extract with toluene, analyze the extract by EM-MS (John Dane et al. 2002)

NPAHs 9-nitroanthracene Cigarette 

filter

Extract 

solution

Extract with toluene, analyze the extract by EM-MS (John Dane et al. 2002)

NPAHs Nitrobenzene* Cigarette 

filter

Extract 

solution

Extract with toluene, analyze the extract by EM-MS (John Dane et al. 2002)

PAHs Anthracene 120-12-7 178.2 Cigarette 

filter

Extract 

solution

Extract with acetonitrile and water, analyze the 

extract using SPME and HPLC

(Demirci 2014)

PAHs Benzo(a)pyrene* 50-32-8 252.3 Cigarette 

butt

Water Leach into distilled water, analyze the leachate by LCMS(Zhao et al. 2010a)

PAHs Benzo[a]pyrene* 50-32-8 252.3 Cigarette 

filter

Extract 

solution

Strip the wrapping paper, extract with acetone, clean 

up by solid phase extraction, analyze the extract by 

HPLC-FLD

(Ding et al. 2014)

PAHs Benzo[a]pyrene* 50-32-8 252.3 Cigarette 

filter

Extract 

solution

Extract with acetonitrile, analyze the extract by LCMS-MS(Zhang et al. 2014)
14

This publication is available free of charge from: http://dx.doi.org/10.6028/NIST.IR.8147

Class Chemical CAS

MWa

(g/mol) Component Mediab Summary of method Reference

PAHs Benzo[a]pyrene* 50-32-8 252.3 Cigarette 

filter

Extract 

solution

Extract with acetonitrile and water, analyze the 

extract using SPME and HPLC 

(Demirci 2014)

PAHs Benz[a]anthracene* 56-55-3 228.3 Cigarette 

filter

Extract 

solution

Extract with acetonitrile and water, analyze the 

extract using SPME and HPLC

(Demirci 2014)

PAHs Benzo[b]fluoranthene* 205-99-2 252.3 Cigarette 

filter

Extract 

solution

Extract with acetonitrile and water, analyze the 

extract using SPME and HPLC

(Demirci 2014)

PAHs Fluoranthene 206-44-0 202.3 Cigarette 

filter

Extract 

solution

Extract with acetonitrile and water, analyze the 

extract using SPME and HPLC

(Demirci 2014)

PAHs Pyrene 129-00-0 202.3 Cigarette 

filter

Extract 

solution

Extract with acetonitrile and water, analyze the 

extract using SPME and HPLC

(Demirci 2014)

Phenols Catechol* 120-80-9 110.1 Cigarette 

filter

Extract 

solution

Extract with mix solution of acetic acid, methanol 

water, analyze the extract by HPLC

(Hu et al. 2015)

Phenols Hydroquinone 123-31-9 110.1 Cigarette 

filter

Extract 

solution

Extract with mix solution of acetic acid, methanol 

water, analyze the extract by HPLC

(Hu et al. 2015)

Phenols m-cresol* 108-39-4 108.1 Cigarette 

filter

Extract 

solution

Extract with mix solution of acetic acid, methanol 

water, analyze the extract by HPLC

(Hu et al. 2015)

Phenols o-cresol* 95-48-7 108.1 Cigarette 

filter

Extract 

solution

Extract with mix solution of acetic acid, methanol 

water, analyze the extract by HPLC

(Hu et al. 2015)

Phenols p-cresol* 106-44-5 108.1 Cigarette 

filter

Extract 

solution

Extract with mix solution of acetic acid, methanol 

water, analyze the extract by HPLC

(Hu et al. 2015)

Phenols Phenol* 108-39-4 108.1 Cigarette 

filter

Extract 

solution

Extract with mix solution of acetic acid, methanol 

water, analyze the extract by HPLC

(Hu et al. 2015)

Phenols Resorcinol 108-95-2 94.1 Cigarette 

filter

Extract 

solution

Extract with mix solution of acetic acid, methanol 

water, analyze the extract by HPLC

(Hu et al. 2015)

Phenols Rutin 153-18-4 610.5 Cigarette 

butt

Water Leach into distilled water, analyze the leachate by LCMS(Zhao et al. 2010a, 

Zhao et al. 2010b)

Phenols Rutin 153-18-4 610.5 Cigarette 

filter

Extract 

solution

Extract with methanol, analyze the extract with HPLCUV(Sun et al. 2012)
15

This publication is available free of charge from: http://dx.doi.org/10.6028/NIST.IR.8147

Class Chemical CAS

MWa

(g/mol) Component Mediab Summary of method Reference

Phenols 2,2-Dimethyl-2,3-

Dihydrobenzofuran-7-ol

1563-38-8 164.2 Cigarette 

butt

Water Leach into distilled water, analyze the leachate by LCMS(Zhao et al. 2010b)

Phenols 1,5-DihydroxyAnthraquinon117-12-4 240.2 Cigarette 

butt

Water Leach into distilled water, analyze the leachate by LCMS(Zhao et al. 2010b)

Phthalates Dibutyl Phthalate 84-74-2 278.3 Cigarette 

filter

Extract 

solution

Ultrasonic extract with water and ethanol mixture, 

analyze the extract by GC-MS 

(Zhang et al. 2012)

Phthalates Diisobutyl Phthalate 84-69-5 278.3 Cigarette 

filter

Extract 

solution

Ultrasonic extract with water and ethanol mixture, 

analyze the extract by GC-MS

(Zhang et al. 2012)

Phthalates Di(2-ethylhexyl) 

phthalate

117-81-7 390.6 Cigarette 

filter

Extract 

solution

Ultrasonic extract with water and ethanol mixture, 

analyze the extract by GC-MS

(Zhang et al. 2012)

Pyrazines Pyrazine 290-37-9 80.1 Cigarette 

butt

Air Incubate a cigarette butt in a headspace vial, collect 

the sample with Tenax GC, analyze the sample by GCFID

(Fukuhara et al. 1985)

Pyrazines 2-Methylpyrazine 109-08-0 94.1 Cigarette 

butt

Air Incubate a cigarette butt in a headspace vial, collect 

the sample with Tenax GC, analyze the sample by GCFID

(Fukuhara et al. 1985)

Pyrroles N-Methylpyrrole 96-54-8 81.1 Cigarette 

butt

Air Incubate a cigarette butt in a headspace vial, collect 

the sample with Tenax GC, analyze the sample by GCFID

(Fukuhara et al. 1985)

Pyrroles Pyrrole 109-97-7 67.1 Cigarette 

butt

Air Incubate a cigarette butt in a headspace vial, collect 

the sample with Tenax GC, analyze the sample by GCFID

(Fukuhara et al. 1985)

Pyrroles 3-Methylpyrrole 616-43-3 81.1 Cigarette 

butt

Air Incubate a cigarette butt in a headspace vial, collect 

the sample with Tenax GC, analyze the sample by GCFID

(Fukuhara et al. 1985)

Pyrroles 2-Methylpyrrole 636-41-9 81.1 Cigarette 

butt

Air Incubate a cigarette butt in a headspace vial, collect 

the sample with Tenax GC, analyze the sample by GCFID

(Fukuhara et al. 1985)

Terpenes Beta-Carotene-4,4’-Dione 472-61-7 596.8 Cigarette Water Leach into distilled water, analyze the leachate by LC- (Zhao et al. 2010a, 
16

This publication is available free of charge from: http://dx.doi.org/10.6028/NIST.IR.8147

Class Chemical CAS

MWa

(g/mol) Component Mediab Summary of method Reference

butt MS Zhao et al. 2010b)

Terpenes Xanthophylls 127-40-2 568.9 Cigarette 

butt

Water Leach into distilled water, analyze the leachate by LCMS(Zhao et al. 2010a)

Terpenes Limonene 5989-27-5 136.2 Cigarette 

butt

Air Incubate a cigarette butt in a headspace vial, collect 

the sample with Tenax GC, analyze the sample by GCFID

(Fukuhara et al. 1985)

Terpenoids Solanesol 13190-97-1 631.1 Cigarette 

filter

Extract 

solution

Extract with hexane, analyze the extract by LC-MS (Watson et al. 2004, 

Polzin et al. 2009, 

Ashley et al. 2010, 

Brinkman et al. 2012)

Terpenoids Solanesol 13190-97-1 631.1 Cigarette 

filter

Extract 

solution

Extract with KOH, analyze the extract with LC-MS-MS (Watson et al. 2004)

Unknown 6-(2,6-Dichlorophenoxy) 

Pyrimidine-2,4-Diamiined

271 Cigarette 

butt

Water Leach into distilled water, analyze the leachate by LCMS(Zhao et al. 2010b)

a

MW: molecular weight

b

Media: media describes the environment the detected chemicals were analyzed in (air, water, extract solution, cigarette filter, cigarette butt).

c

The specific chemicals of tobacco specific nitrosamines (TSNAs) are not available in the cited paper (Verdolotti et al. 2012)

d

CAS number can’t be found based on the name and the structure reported in the reference (Zhao et al. 2010b), so it is classified as unknown chemical.
17

This publication is available free of charge from: http://dx.doi.org/10.6028/NIST.IR.8147

Table 3. Analytical technique acronyms

Acronym Method Description

EM-MS electron monochromaticmass spectrometry

Chemical species are ionized with electron ionization, and 

then sorted based on their mass-to-charge ratio. The ion 

signal as a function of the mass-to-charge ratio is 

characteristic of different chemicals. 

FAAS flame atomic absorption 

spectrometry

A flame heats a sample, causing the atoms in the sample to 

undergo a transition from the ground state to an excited 

state. In the excited state the atoms absorb the light passed 

through the sample. The elements in the sample are 

identified based on the absorption of light by free atoms in 

a gaseous state. 

GC-MS gas chromatography-mass 

spectrometry

A sample is forced by a gas through a column that is lined

with a stationary phase which causes the components to 

separate. A mass spectrometer ionizes the chemical 

compounds to generate charged molecules which are 

separated according to their mass-to-charge ratio by 

electromagnetic fields. The ion signal detected is then 

processed into mass spectra.

GC-FID gas chromatography-flame 

ionization detector

A sample is forced by a gas through a column that is lined

with a stationary phase which causes the components to 

separate. A flame ionization detector ionizes the chemical 

compounds producing a signal in proportion to the 

concentration of organic species in a gas stream.

HG-AFS hydride generation-atomic 

fluorescence spectrometry

A technique for speciation studies of hydride forming 

elements (e.g. Arsenic) and Mercury. A hydride is a 

compound that generally contains one or more hydrogens 

with reducing properties. Atomic fluorescence 

spectrometry is based on absorption of radiation by an 

atomic vapor and subsequent emission of radiation at 

wavelengths that are characteristic of the atomic species 

present.

HPLC-FLD high performance liquid 

chromatography-fluorescence

detector

A sample is forced by a liquid through a column that is 

packed with a stationary phase which causes the 

components to separate. Different components will adsorb 

to the column at different rates, thereby separating the 

components as they flow out of the column. Components 

fluoresce in proportion to the concentration of the 

component. 

HPLC-UV high performance liquid 

chromatography-UV detector

A sample is forced by a liquid through a column that is 

packed with a stationary phase which causes the 

components to separate. Different components will adsorb 

to the column at different rates, thereby separating the 
18

This publication is available free of charge from: http://dx.doi.org/10.6028/NIST.IR.8147

components as they flow out of the column. Components 

absorb UV spectra in proportion to the concentration of the 

component. 

ICP-AES inductively coupled plasmaatomic emission spectroscopy

A technique for elemental analysis that uses a plasma 

source to dissociate the sample into its constituent atoms 

or ions, exciting them to a higher energy level. As they 

return to their ground state, they emit photons of a 

characteristic wavelength depending on the element 

present. This light can be recorded with an optical 

spectrometer.

ICP-OES inductively coupled plasmaoptical emission spectroscopy

A technique for elemental analysis that uses a plasma 

source to dissociate the sample into its constituent atoms 

or ions, exciting them to a higher energy level. As they 

return to their ground state, they emit photons of a 

characteristic wavelength depending on the element 

present. This light can be recorded with an optical 

spectrometer.

INAA: instrumental neutron 

activation analysis

A technique for elemental analysis that bombards the 

sample with neutrons, causing the elements to form 

radioactive isotopes. Based on the known radioactive 

emissions of different elements, the emissions from the 

sample can be analyzed to determine the concentration of 

elements in it.

LC-MS liquid chromatography-mass 

spectrometry

A sample is forced by a liquid through a column that is 

packed with a stationary phase which causes the 

components to separate. Different components will adsorb 

to the column at different rates, thereby separating the 

components as they flow out of the column. A mass 

spectrometer ionizes the chemical compounds to generate 

charged molecules which are separated according to their 

mass-to-charge ratio by electromagnetic fields. The ion 

signal detected is then processed into mass spectra.

LC-MS-MS liquid chromatography-mass 

spectrometry-mass 

spectrometry

A sample is forced by a liquid through a column that is 

packed with a stationary phase which causes the 

components to separate. Different components will adsorb 

to the column at different rates, thereby separating the 

components as they flow out of the column. In a mass 

spectrometer, ions are produced and separated by their 

mass-to-charge ratio. However, in mass spectrometry-mass 

spectrometry (MS/MS), ions of particular mass-to-charge 

ratios are further dissociated into fragment ions. These 

fragment ions are then separated and detected in a second 

stage of mass spectrometry.

LSC liquid scintillation counter A technique for detection and quantification of 

radioactivity. A scintillation fluid is added to the sample 
19

This publication is available free of charge from: http://dx.doi.org/10.6028/NIST.IR.8147

which interacts with the beta particles released from the 

sample. The energized molecules of the scintillation fluid 

emit photons of light at intensities that are proportional to 

the energy of the beta particle. The emitted spectra are 

unique for different-energy beta emitters.

NMR nuclear magnetic resonance An analytical technique used to determine the structure of 

organic compounds. Nuclear magnetic resonance is based 

on the absorption of electromagnetic radiation by a nucleus 

having a magnetic moment when placed in an external 

magnetic field. The intramolecular magnetic field around an 

atom in a molecule changes the resonance frequency, 

which provides details of the electronic structure of a 

molecule.

SPME solid phase microextraction A sampling technique that involves the use of a fiber coated 

with a material which extracts both volatile and nonvolatile compounds from different kinds of media (liquid or 

gas phase).

3.3.1 Chemicals Emitted from Cigarette Butts into Air

As mentioned before, no study has investigated the airborne emissions from cigarette butts in 

indoor or outdoor environmental conditions. However, there are four studies that measured the 

emissions from cigarette butts into the airborne headspace of test vials. In this section, we 

summarize the four studies. Both the measured chemicals and a brief description of the analytical 

methods are summarized in Table 2 and Table 3, respectively.

Fukuhara et al. (1985) detected a range of volatile components (e.g., carbonyls, hydrocarbons, 

pyrroles and terpenes) in the headspace of vessels that contained cigarette butts, and found that 

these compounds were not different from those found in mainstream smoke. They also found 

that the tar-like odors in butts may result from 2,3-pentanedione, N-methyl pyrrole 3-methyl 

pyrrole, isocapronitrile, pyrrole, and 2-methyl pyrrole. You et al. (2014) developed a static 

headspace gas chromatography - flame ionization detector (GC-FID) method for quantifying 

menthol concentrations in the cigarette filter and cigarette papers (tipping and wrapping papers

together) in a mentholated cigarette. The samples were first heated at 100 o

C for 30 minutes in a 

headspace sampler, and then measured by GC-FID. The methanol concentration in the cigarette 

papers ranged from 3.0 mg/g paper to 4.1 mg/g paper, while the methanol concentration in the

cigarette filter was 13.7 mg/g paper to 27.2 mg/g paper. Huang et al. (2014) measured the 

emissions of cigarette tipping paper into the headspace of vials. The samples were first incubated 

at 80 o

C for 45 min, and then 20 volatile organic compounds (VOCs) were quantified using gas 

chromatography-mass spectrometry (GC-MS). Among the 20 target VOCs, methanol, ethanol, 

isopropanol, ethyl acetate, 1-methoxy-2-propanol, and n-propyl acetate were the most abundant, 

with concentration ranging from 0.01 mg/m2 paper to 3.3 mg/m2 paper, 1.0 mg/m2 paper to 13.2 

mg/m2 paper, 0.0 mg/m2 paper to 8.9 mg/m2 paper, 0.03 mg/m2 paper to 1.33 mg/m2 paper, 0.0 

mg/m2 paper to 3.0 mg/m2 paper, and 0.02 mg/m2 paper to 20.7 mg/m2 paper, respectively. A 

recent study developed a static headspace GC-MS method to quantify benzene, toluene, mxylene, p-xylene, o-xylene, styrene and ethylbenzene concentrations in cigarette filters (Ji et al. 

2015). The method heated the cigarette filters at 120 °C for 30 min in the headspace vials. The 
20

This publication is available free of charge from: http://dx.doi.org/10.6028/NIST.IR.8147

measured concentrations for benzene, toluene, ethylbenzene, p-xylene, m-xylene, o-xylene, and 

styrene were from 0.4 μg/filter to 1.1 μg/filter, 1.1 μg/filter to 4.7 μg/filter, 0.4 μg/filter to 1.7 

μg/filter, 0.3 μg/filter to 1.4 μg/filter, 0.8 μg/filter to 3.3 μg/filter, 0.4 μg/filter to 1.4 μg/filter, and 

2.0 μg/filter to 5.7 μg/filter, respectively.

These four studies provide some basis for understanding the potential airborne emissions into 

indoor or outdoor environments. However, the study reported by Fukuhara et al. (1985) was 

limited in the number of cigarette butts tested and quantification of the identified chemicals. For 

the three more recent studies (Huang et al. 2014, You et al. 2014, Ji et al. 2015), the types of 

chemicals detected are very limited and only cigarette filters or tipping papers were measured. 

These studies did not include the unburned tobacco or ash of cigarette butts, which likely emit 

different chemicals from the filters and tipping papers. In addition, the high incubation 

temperatures (> 80 o

C) will enhance the emission of some non-volatile chemicals that may not 

emit to a significant degree at normal indoor and outdoor temperatures. These testing conditions 

could result in overloading the GC-MS if the unburned tobacco and ash were included. Finally, all 

of these studies only measured freshly generated cigarette butts, or part of the unburned 

cigarette, and didn’t examine the influence of several factors that could impact the emission of 

cigarette butts, such as the exposed temperature, relative humidity, aging, and ultra-violet (UV) 

radiation. 

3.3.2 Chemicals Emitted from Cigarette Butts into Water

In this section, we summarize the chemicals found in studies on emissions from cigarette butts or 

their components into water. Both the chemicals detected and more detailed information on the 

measurement methods are shown in in Table 2 and Table 3, respectively.

Compounds within cigarette butts can leach out into water, potentially threatening human health 

and the environment, especially marine ecosystems (Kadir and Sarani 2015). Zhao et al. (2010a)

measured the chemicals in both aerobic and anaerobic cigarette butt water extracts. They found 

that the main chemicals in both water extracts were aromatic amines, e.g., nicotine and

N-nitroso-nornicotine (NNN). More types of compounds were found in aerobic water extracts 

than anaerobic water extracts, which may be because of the oxidization of amine compounds in 

aerobic water. Another study published by Zhao et al (2010b) also primarily detected amines in 

water, but also found different chemicals than the first Zhao et al. (2010a) study, e.g., cotinine. 

Emissions from cigarette butts into water can be a fast process. Standardized cigarette butts 

produced with a smoking machine leached 7.3 mg of nicotine per g of butts into 1 L of purified 

water, of which 50 % was released in the first 27 minutes during the experiment (Green et al. 

2014). The same study also found that the cumulative nicotine release from fifteen consecutive 

rainfall events with 1.4 mm of precipitation for each event was 3.8 mg of nicotine per g butt, of 

which 47 % was released during the first event (Green et al. 2014). A study of metals (aluminum, 

barium, chromium, cadmium, copper, iron, lead, manganese, nickel, strontium, tin and zinc)

showed that more than half the mass was leached within one day from the cigarette butts into 

acidic aqueous solution (Moerman and Potts 2011).

Interestingly, cigarette butts can not only emit chemicals into water, but also absorb chemicals 

from water. Chen et al. (2012) used cigarette filters as adsorbents for pre-concentration of 

fluoroquinolones antibacterial agent. Hence, it is possible that not all chemicals present in the 

cigarette butt as it ages are from the original cigarette or the result of the smoking process.
21

This publication is available free of charge from: http://dx.doi.org/10.6028/NIST.IR.8147

3.3.3 Chemicals Measured in Cigarette Butts

Since there are limited data on chemicals emitted from cigarette butts into air or water, we 

examined the literature for information on chemicals that are present in cigarette butts. 

In this section, we summarize the chemicals from studies on extraction of cigarette butts or 

individual butt components by solvents. We also examine studies that directly analyzed the 

cigarette butts or individual butt components via their radioactivity. Chemicals detected in 

cigarette butts and more detailed information on the measurement methods are included in Table 

2 and Table 3, respectively.

3.3.3.1 Metals

Metals are commonly detected within cigarette butts or individual butt components (Wu et 

al. 1997, Huang et al. 2013). Cadmium, copper, manganese and zinc were measured in 

cigarette butts at concentrations up to 104 μg/g butt (Pelit et al. 2013). Mercury and arsenic

concentrations in cigarette filters have been measured between 0.002 mg/kg to 0.051

mg/kg and 0.025 mg/kg to 0.651 mg/kg, respectively (Wang et al. 2007). Zinc and iron have 

been detected in the cigarette tobacco, filter and ash (Wang and Finlayson-Pitts 2003). 

After smoking, 15 % to 50 % of heavy metals (lead, arsenic, cobalt, cadmium, potassium, 

antimony and zinc) originally in cigarettes is retained in cigarette butts (Galazyn-Sidorczuk 

et al. 2008, Wu et al. 2012, Carolina Talio et al. 2013). However, despite the detection of 

mercury in the cigarette butts, a majority of mercury that is initially present in the cigarette 

was released into the air during smoking and not trapped on cellulose acetate filters 

(Kowalski and Wiercinski 2009). 

3.3.3.2 Polycyclic Aromatic Hydrocarbons (PAHs) and Terpenoids 

Since cigarette butt samples can be collected easily and noninvasively, levels of some 

chemicals in cigarette butts are often used to estimate mouth-level intake of the chemicals 

for smokers. Benzo[a]pyrene (B[a]P) levels in used cigarette filters have been measured and 

demonstrated to be highly correlated with B[a]P measured in mainstream smoke. This

correlation allows B[a]P concentrations in cigarette butts to be used as an estimate of 

mouth-level B[a]P exposure of smokers (Ding et al. 2014, Zhang et al. 2014). PAHs in

cigarette filters have been studied using solid-phase microextraction (SPME) and high 

performance liquid chromatography (HPLC) (Demirci 2014). The sum all of the studied PAHs 

found in the filter tar of three brands of cigarettes were 17.9 ng, 66.7 ng and 320.2 ng per 

cigarette. 

Solanesol is a chemical found in tobacco leaves. The concentration solanesol deposited in 

cigarette filters has been shown to be stable for over four weeks after smoking (Watson et 

al. 2004). As a result, solanesol extracted from cigarette filters may be used as an indicator 

chemical to assess smokers’ mainstream smoke exposure to tobacco specific nitrosamines 

(TSNAs) (Polzin et al. 2009), tar (Watson et al. 2004) and nicotine (Watson et al. 2004, 

Polzin et al. 2009). The concentrations of solanesol in cigarette filters were used to estimate 

the mouth-level intake of 4-(methylnitrosamino)-1-(3-pyridyl)-1-butanone (NNK) (Ashley et 

al. 2010, Brinkman et al. 2012), which was found to be significantly associated with urinary 

concentrations of its major metabolite 4-(methylnitrosamino)-1-(3-pyridyl)-1-butanol 

(NNAL) (Ashley et al. 2010). 

3.3.3.3 Insecticides and Plant Growth Regulators

Different chemicals are often used to protect tobacco plants prior to harvest. These 

chemicals can be in the unburned tobacco of a cigarette butt or potentially transferred to 
22

This publication is available free of charge from: http://dx.doi.org/10.6028/NIST.IR.8147

other parts of the cigarette butt and detected in the extract of cigarette butts. Maleic 

hydrazide (1,2-dihydro-3,6-pyridazinedione), a plant growth regulator that inhibits the 

growth of suckers on tobacco plants, is often present in cigarettes, ranging from 1 μg/g 

cigarette to 100 μg/g cigarette (Zhang et al. 2012). Zhang et al. (2012) found that maleic 

hydrazide can be transferred to the cigarette butt in the range from 1.1 % to 1.9 % of the 

initial mass present in the cigarette. Chlorantraniliprole is the active ingredient in the 

insecticide used to control budworm and hornworm in tobacco plants. A study on pyrolysis 

of 14C chlorantraniliprole in a cigarette showed that about 17 % of spiked 14C

chlorantraniliprole was found in extracts of cigarette butts after smoking (Gaddamidi et al. 

2011). Of the spiked radio-labelled insecticide imidacloprid [1-(6-chloropyridin-3-ylmethyl)-

N-nitro-imidazolidin-2-ylideneamine] in tobacco leaves, 39 % of the radioactivity was found 

in cigarette butts after the smoking of cigarettes made of the spiked leaves (Clark et al. 

1998). 

3.3.3.4 Other Organics

In addition to the aforementioned chemicals, phenolic compounds, tobacco specific 

nitrosamines (TSNAs), carbonyls, phthalates and nitropolycylic aromatic hydrocarbons

(NPAHs) have also been detected in cigarette butts. 

Sonication solvent extraction of cigarette filters followed by HPLC analysis has been used to 

measure seven major phenolic compounds (hydroquinol, resorcinol, catechol, phenol, pcresol, m-cresol and o-cresol) on cigarette filters in a comparative study run between six 

laboratories (Hu et al. 2015). Rutin, a kind of phenolic compound, was found in cigarette 

filters at a mass of 0.1 μg/filter to 0.3 μg/filter (Sun et al. 2012). However, the rutin mass in 

the cigarette filter was two orders of magnitude lower than in the tobacco part of the 

cigarette (Sun et al. 2012), and rutin is likely not volatile enough (molecular mass 610.5 g 

mol-1

, boiling point 956oC) to be emitted into the air at significant levels from extinguished 

butts. 

TSNAs have been detected in cigarette filters by extracting the filters with a mixture of 

deuterated water/dimethyl sulfoxide and then analyzing with nuclear magnetic resonance

(NMR) (Verdolotti et al. 2012).

Yu et al. (2013) extracted carbonyls (formaldehyde, acetaldehyde, acetone, acrolein, 

propionaldehyde, crotonaldehyde, 2-butanone and butyraldehyde) from cigarette filters and 

determined that the filtration efficiencies of four different types of cigarette filters (i.e. 

cellulose acetate filter, activated carbon filter, polypropylene fiber filter, and paper filter) 

were roughly 5 % for the total content of the eight carbonyls. 

Phthalate esters were extracted with water and ethanol from 45 cigarette filters and 

analyzed using GC-MS (Zhang et al. 2012). Among the 17 targeted phthalate esters, only 

dibutyl phthalate (DBP), diisobutyl phthalate (DIBP) and di(2-ethylhexyl)phthalate (DEHP) 

were found in the cigarette filters with detection frequency for each phthalate less than 20

% (Zhang et al. 2012). 

NPAHs in cigarette filters have been measured using toluene extraction followed by electron 

monochromator-mass spectrometry (EM-MS) (John Dane et al. 2002).

3.3.4 Mainstream and Sidestream Smoke Chemicals Potentially in Cigarette Butts

The previous sections of this report reviewed chemicals that were present in a cigarette butt or 

emitted into air or water from a cigarette butt. In addition to the chemicals identified in cigarette 
23

This publication is available free of charge from: http://dx.doi.org/10.6028/NIST.IR.8147

butts (Table 2), chemicals found in cigarette smoke may also be present in cigarette butts despite 

not having been identified as such in a previous study. Hence, the literature on chemicals in 

cigarette smoke was reviewed to guide the planning process for investigating airborne emissions 

from cigarette butts by (1) more broadly identifying the types of compounds that may be emitted 

from cigarette butts into the air, and (2) identifying a wider range of the analytical tools available.

Preliminary experiments (section 4.2.5) show that many of the components in cigarette smoke are 

similar to the components measured in air above a freshly-smoked, extinguished cigarette butt

and an aged cigarette butt.

Cigarette smoke is a complex mixture of 40 000 to 100 000 compounds (Dalluge et al. 2002)

including metals, hydrocarbons, phenols, quinones, alcohols, phytosterols, aldehydes, ketones, 

carboxylic acids, ethers, carbohydrates, esters, anhydrides, amines, amides, nitriles, inorganic 

gases (e.g. CO2, CO, NOx), free radicals and other compounds. Most of the organic compounds are

in the range of n-heptane to n-dodecane. Cigarette smoke is comprised of mainstream and 

sidestream smoke. Mainstream smoke is the term used for smoke drawn through “the butt end of 

the cigarette during the smoking process” (ISO3308 2012) and can also be applied to the smoke 

that a smoker exhales. Sidestream smoke refers to the smoke that wafts off the lit end of the

cigarette during the smoking process (ISO3308 2012). Sidestream smoke makes up about 85 % of 

environmental tobacco smoke (Pieraccini et al. 2008). Mainstream smoke includes several 

chemicals classified by the International Agency Research On Cancer (IARC) as Group 1 Human 

Carcinogens: benzene, cadmium, arsenic, nickel, chromium, 2-naphthyl-amine, vinyl chloride, 4-

aminobiphenyl and beryllium (Smith et al. 1997). Sidestream smoke contains higher 

concentrations of some chemicals than mainstream smoke due to incomplete combustion. The 

chemical composition of sidestream and mainstream smoke is also different, because the

combustion temperature of a smoldering cigarette is much lower than the temperature during a 

puff. For instance, aromatic amines (Luceri et al. 1993) and PAHs (Lodovici et al. 2004) are found 

at higher levels in sidestream smoke than in mainstream smoke as a result of incomplete 

combustion as cigarettes smolder.

The sample collection methods for chemicals in cigarette smoke are based on their inherent 

stability or some aspect of their chemical reactivity (Liu et al. 2011). There is greater diversity in 

the trapping and analysis techniques used for volatile compounds in smoke than in the extraction 

techniques of cigarette butts presented in the previous section. Compounds such as tar, nicotine, 

phenols, tobacco-specific nitrosamines (TSNA) and benzo[a]pyrene are typically collected onto 

glass fiber filters. Aromatic amines, hydrogen cyanide, ammonia, certain semi-volatiles, and 

certain carbonyls and volatile compounds are often trapped using impingers or glass fiber filters. 

Other trapping techniques include sorbent tubes (for certain semi-volatiles), activated silica gel 

(for hydrogen cyanide and certain carbonyls) and DNPH treated filters (for certain carbonyls). Solid 

sorbent trapping and thermal desorption-gas chromatography has been used extensively over the 

last few decades to measure gas phase and particulate matter components in cigarette smoke 

(Higgins et al. 1984). Inorganic gases, such as carbon monoxide and nitric oxide, are sampled using 

gas collection bags. 

Real-time smoke analytical techniques have highlighted the dynamic and reactive nature of some 

of the compounds in cigarette smoke (Liu et al. 2011). Boldridge and Ingebrethsen (1986)

developed a model to predict the changes in cigarette smoke aerosol as it travels through a length 

of tobacco-filled rod.

Compounds in cigarette smoke that can readily volatilize are more likely to appear in airborne 

emissions from cigarette butts. Compounds with high boiling points (e.g. metals, compounds with 
24

This publication is available free of charge from: http://dx.doi.org/10.6028/NIST.IR.8147

high molecular weights) are unlikely to get volatilized from cigarette butts. Sections 3.3.4.1 and 

3.3.4.2 categorize compounds in cigarette smoke into these two classes and discuss the analytical 

techniques used to measure these compounds. These sections do not attempt to be an 

authoritative or exhaustive analysis of compounds in mainstream or sidestream smoke. Rather, 

they provide a background on analytical techniques in order to support the discussions of

experimental investigations described in Section 4.

3.3.4.1 Chemicals in Cigarette Smoke Unlikely to be Present in Airborne Emissions from 

Cigarette Butts

Only some compounds from cigarette smoke that are retained on the discarded cigarette 

butt are likely to emit into the air. Some compounds can be too volatile to get fully retained 

in the cigarette filter, and others can get retained but are very unlikely to be emitted from 

cigarette butts because they are not volatile enough. Petraru et al. (2013) examined the 

ability of 29 different cigarette filters to retain chemicals, showing that lower molecular 

weight chemicals breakthrough filters faster. These lower molecular weight chemicals 

included methane, ethane, propane, 2-methylpropane, ethene, acetylene, 1-butene, 1,3 -

butadiene, 2-butene, cis-2-butene, 2-methyl-2-butene, benzene, toluene, furan, 2-

methylfuran, 2,5 meththylfuran, acetaldehyde, acrolein, propionaldehyde, 2-

methylpropanal, crotonaldehyde, acetone, methyl vinyl ketone, methyl ethyl ketone, 

acetonitrile, propionitrile, methyl acrylate, methanol and chloromethane. Other compounds 

may get retained in cigarette butts but are unlikely to volatilize from cigarette butts at 

significant rates if their boiling points are high. These compounds can, however, leach out of 

the discarded cigarette butt into water, soil, and other media, as described in section 3.3.2.

Analytical techniques and measurements of these compounds in cigarette smoke is 

described below.

3.3.4.1.1 Metals

Most particulate phase compounds emitted in cigarette smoke are collected with glass 

fiber filters (Cambridge Filter Pads) and analyzed using a range of extraction solvents 

and analytical techniques (Liu et al. 2011). Metals present in cigarette smoke are 

typically associated with particles. Hence, most airborne metal studies collect 

particulate matter on filters and measure metals on the filter using inductively-coupled 

plasma mass spectrometry (ICP-MS) or graphite furnace atomic absorption 

spectrometry (GFAAS). Wagner et al. (2001) measured arsenic, cadmium and lead in this 

manner. Due to the association with particles, it is unlikely that metals will emit into the 

air from cigarette butts. 

Although most metal emissions are typically associated with particles, there is some 

potential for organometallic compounds to be present and volatilize. The emission of 

nickel tetracarbonyl from cigarettes was investigated by Torjussen et al. (2003). Nickel 

tetracarbonyl has a boiling point of 43 °C, and hence it could be emitted from a butt if 

present. 

3.3.4.1.2 Tobacco-Specific Nitrosamines

Tobacco-specific nitrosamines (TSNAs) are carcinogens (Sleiman et al. 2009, Verdolotti 

et al. 2012), and TSNA urinary metabolites can be detected after secondhand smoke 

exposure (Schick et al. 2013). TSNAs are typically associated with particles and sorbed 

to indoor surfaces (Schick et al. 2014). TSNAs have been analyzed by trapping particles 

on glass fiber filters and extracting them using various methods including supercritical 

fluid extraction (carbon dioixide with 10 % methanol) (Brunnemann et al. 1996, Sleiman 
25

This publication is available free of charge from: http://dx.doi.org/10.6028/NIST.IR.8147

et al. 2009). The elution is then analyzed using gas chromatography–ion-trap tandem 

mass spectrometry. 

Emission of TSNAs vary over an order of magnitude between different cigarettes. 

Analyzing secondhand smoke particles, Brunnemann et al. (1996) found 

N-nitrosonornicotine (NNN) from 28 ng to 730 ng per cigarette, and for 

4-(methylnitrosamino)-1-(3-pyridyl-1-butanone (NNK) from 16 ng to 369 ng per 

cigarette depending on the cigarette composistion. The TSNA concentrations correlated 

with nicotine concentrations. Haorah et al. (2001) measured N-nitroso compounds and 

their precursors in cigarette smoke using sampling filters to collect the smoke. The 

method employed measured the total amount of N-nitroso compounds present, not 

individual species, as is possible with GC-MS methods. The total amount of N-nitroso 

compounds was found to be more than an order of magnitude higher than previously 

published values of TSNAs, including NNN and NNK, indicating that most of the Nnitroso compounds do not consist of these nitrosamines. The concentrations of 

precursors of N-nitroso compounds correlated with particulate and tar concentrations.

All known TSNAs methods require the TSNA to be located in a solid phase (on particles 

or filters). Hence, since TSNAs are primarily seen associated with particles, they are

unlikely to be present when no particles are generated, as with cigarette butts.

3.3.4.1.3 Carbon Monoxide

Yang et al. (2015) analyzed carbon monoxide in mainstream cigarette smoke from four 

different types of cigarettes using tunable diode laser absorption spectroscopy (TDLAS) 

with a modified single port smoking machine. Carbon monoxide is a very volatile gas 

that is generated due to incomplete combustion. It is therefore not expected to persist 

at significant concentrations in cigarette butts. 

3.3.4.2 Chemicals in Cigarette Smoke that may be Present in Airborne Emissions from 

Cigarette Butts

Compounds with moderate volatility in cigarette smoke that do get retained in the cigarette 

butt can potentially be emitted from a cigarette butt after it is disposed, depending on the 

environmental conditions (temperature, relative humidity, UV intensity, etc.) to which it was 

exposed. Analytical techniques and measurements of these types of compounds are 

described below.

3.3.4.2.1 Nicotine

Nicotine is more volatile than most TSNAs, making a wider range of analytical methods 

available, in addition to extraction from particles on particle collection filters. Ishizu et

al. (2013) used a passive XAD-4/PDMS (styrene-divinylbenzene copolymer with 

polydimethylsiloxane) coated glass fiber filter (extracted and analyzed using GC-MS) to 

show that the ratio of nicotine to 3-ethenylpyridine decreased as the secondhand 

smoke aged. Watson et al. (2004) analyzed nicotine concentrations using SPME followed 

by GC-MS. Fu et al. (2013) measured nicotine in secondhand smoke using sodium

bisulphate-treated filters and GC-MS.

Nicotine can exist in three forms: 1) a diprotonated molecule that exists when in 

contact with envrionments with pH < 3, 2) a monoprotonated molecule that can exist in 

a tobacco filter (where 5 < pH < 6), and 3) the free-base molecule (Liang and Pankow 

1996, Ishizu and Ishizu 2013). Only the free-base species is volatile (Liang and Pankow 

1996). Free-base nicotine is thought to be the dominant species in cigarette smoke
26

This publication is available free of charge from: http://dx.doi.org/10.6028/NIST.IR.8147

because cigarette smoke is generally alkaline. Adding ammonia-releasing chemicals to 

the tobacco can ensure the alkaline nature of the smoke, pushing more of the nicotine 

into the free-base form (Liang and Pankow 1996). Free-base nicotine is also the 

dominant form of nicotine on the cigarette filter when freshly smoked, although the pH 

and nicotine species can change with environmental exposures. Free-base nicotine is 

lipophilic and more readily absorbed across membranes, increasing its bioavailability. 

Watson et al. (2004) showed that fewer ventilation holes blocked in the filter resulted in 

a greater fraction of free-based nicotine in the mainstream smoke particulate matter. 

3.3.4.2.2 PAHs

Several studies have measured PAHs in cigarette smoke. The sampling technique used 

most often is to collect sidestream smoke onto glass fiber filters, extract the samples 

with a solvent, and analyze the extracts using HPLC or GC-MS. Two- and three-ring PAHs 

are relatively volatile, which makes them likely to desorb from discarded cigarette butts 

and be emitted to the surrounding air. Five and six-ring PAHs (benzo[a]pyrene) are less 

volatile and less likely to be emitted to the surrounding air at measurable rates.

Endo et al. (2000) analyzed seven PAHs (including benzo[a]pyrene) collected on filters, 

which were extracted with ethanol/benzene and analyzed on HPLC. Demirci and Alver (2013) analyzed PAHs using hollow, fiber-liquid-phase microextraction and HPLC-UV. 

Lodovici et al. (2004) measured PAHs in mainstream and sidestream smoke from 14 

commercial brands of cigarettes using HPLC. PAH concentrations in mainstream smoke 

varied by three-fold for the different brands, and were ten times higher in sidestream 

smoke compared to mainstream. They also found that most tobacco-related PAHs 

occurred in the particulate phase. 

Daher et al.(2010) captured particulate PAHs from sidestream smoke on glass fiber 

filters and analyzed them using GC-MS. Xie et al. (2012) analyzed 14 PAHs that were 

collected on filters, extracted, cleaned with a silicon cartridge, concentrated, and finally 

injected into a GC-MS. Liang et al. (1996) captured secondhand smoke particles on 

filters and measured the partitioning coefficient between particle phase and gas phase 

for PAHs (fluorene, phenathrene, flouranthene, pyrene and chrysene) and nitrogen-

containing PAHs (quinoline and isoquinoline) using thermal desorption tubes and GC-

MS. This study highlights that lighter PAHs will likely be present in the air phase near 

cigarette butts. 

Schick et al.(2014) studied the effects of aging on the concentration of 16 PAHs, 

nicotine, cotinine and TSNAs in cigarette smoke as it was passed through a flow reactor 

at 1 air change per hour to simulate residential air change rates when a mechanical

ventilation system is on. Measurements were made with GC-MS and showed that the 

levels of PAHs, nicotine and TSNAs were reduced by 60 % to 80 % over a 60-minute 

period, but the levels of cotinine did not decrease over this period. Other studies in 

controlled indoor environments have also shown that nicotine is removed faster than 

gas-phase hydrocarbons and some particulate species (Eatough 1990). Schick et al. also 

measured sorption and deposition of nicotine, cotinine and TSNAs on materials placed 

in a flow reactor. They concluded that the majority of these compounds deposit on 

room surfaces when cigarettes are smoked in indoor environments, which can lead to 

the accumulation of carcinogens on indoor surfaces. Gradual desorption of these 

chemicals and their reaction with common indoor pollutants leads to chemical being 

present for extended periods of time after a cigarette has been smoked.
27

This publication is available free of charge from: http://dx.doi.org/10.6028/NIST.IR.8147

3.3.4.2.3 Other Organics

Other organic gases have been studied using unique analytical techniques. Zheng et al.

(2014) identified 67 gas-phase components in mainstream cigarette smoke using 

sorption tubes containing 3 beds of adsorbents (Carbopack C, Carbopack B and 

Carboxen III) analyzed using thermal desorption gas chromatography mass spectrometry 

(TD-GC-MS). Hertz-Schunemann et al. (2015) studied the evolution of organic gases 

during a two-second cigarette puff using a novel microprobe to extract gases from 

inside a burning cigarette and analyzed them with a photoionization mass spectrometer.

The concentrations of various pyrolysis and combustion products such as 1,3-butadiene, 

toluene, acetaldehyde and phenol were monitored at different sampling locations

within cigarettes. The measurements were combined to generate time-resolved 

concentration maps, showing the formation and destruction zones of the investigated 

compounds in the burning cigarette.

Reactive oxygenated species (ROS) are a broad class of chemicals that are reactive and 

contain oxygen. Cigarette filters have been shown to remove 26 % of the gas-phase ROS

and 17 % of particle phase ROS (Zhao and Hopke 2012). However, gas-phase ROS is only 

a small fraction of total ROS (Zhao and Hopke 2012). Hence, volatile ROS may be 

present in cigarette butts, but likely not in large quantities. 

3.3.4.2.4 Hydrogen Cyanide

Hydrogen cyanide has been measured in cigarette smoke using continuous flow analysis 

(Guo et al. 2015). Liu et al. (2014) noted that nitrogen oxides in cigarette smoke can 

dissolve in the alkaline solution used for the measurement of hydrogen cyanide in 

cigarette smoke, and can produce nitrates and nitrites, which further react with cyanide 

and result in underestimating the yield of hydrogen cyanide. They improved upon this 

method by collecting hydrogen cyanide on a Cambridge filter pad treated with a

solution of sodium hydroxide and then analyzing it with a continuous flow analyzer 

containing isonicotinic acid and 1,3-dimethylbarbituric acid. Compared to the 

conventional method, this method was shown to be simpler, and the collected 

hydrogen cyanide had greater stability.

3.4 Factors that Potentially Influence Airborne Emissions from Cigarette Butts

There are a wide range of factors that can impact the airborne chemical emissions from cigarette butts. 

These include the brand of the cigarette, the length of the cigarette butt, the temperature during the 

aging process, the airflow around the butt, the airflow through the butt, the number of puffs taken 

while the cigarette was being smoked, the degradation of the cigarette butt, and if the butt was smoked 

by a machine or human. The following section highlights the studies that have looked at these factors. 

3.4.1 Brand

The chemical content of cigarettes varies with the cigarette brand and the source of the tobacco, 

and each cigarette brand is engineered to have different performance. As a result, cigarette butts 

from various brands will have different emission characteristics. Demirci et al. (2013) was able to 

differentiate between brands by extracting cellulose acetate cigarette filters (with acetonitrile/nhexane) and analyzing them with HPLC-UV.

In a 2008 study, tar yield data were collected for 172 cigarettes sold in the United States, Canada, 

Australia, and the United Kingdom. A total of 11 cigarette design parameters were measured, 

including filter ventilation, cigarette pressure drop, filter pressure drop, tobacco rod length, filter 

length, cigarette diameter, tipping paper length, tobacco weight, filter weight, rod density and 
28

This publication is available free of charge from: http://dx.doi.org/10.6028/NIST.IR.8147

filter density. Filter ventilation was found to be the main design parameter that accounted for the 

tar yield differences among different brands (O'Connor et al. 2008).

Cigarettes of different brands use different types of tobacco. Ding et al. (2008) demonstrated 

nitrate contents are different in different types of tobacco, which can influence the levels of 

nicotine, TSNAs and PAHs in mainstream smoke. 

Jenkins et al. (1979a, 1979b) showed that the tar, nicotine and carbon monoxide content of 

smoke varies between samples of a given brand of cigarettes, depending on the nation in which 

they are purchased. Djordjevic et al. (1991) compared cigarettes from the former Union of Soviet 

Socialist Republics (USSR) with those from the United States and Western Europe, and found that 

the nicotine level and the total alkaloid content of the cigarettes from the western countries were 

slightly higher than in the cigarettes from the former USSR. They observed that non-filter and filter 

cigarettes from the former USSR had slower burning rates and yielded 14 to 16.7 puffs per 

cigarette, while cigarettes in the western countries yielded 11 puffs per cigarette. Tar, 

benzo[a)pyrene and nitrosamines yields were reported to be especially high in the smoke of 

cigarettes with filters. 

However, not all studies have shown a large difference between cigarette brands. Pieraccini et al. 

(2008) developed a SPME-GC-MS method to determine the components of mainstream and 

sidestream smoke for 15 different cigarette brands. The quantitative compositions of mainstream 

and sidestream smoke for all brands of cigarettes were similar, with 67 chemicals identified. For 

the quantified chemicals (benzene, toluene, p-xylene, m-xylene, pyridine, o-xylene, limonene, 

naphthalene, phenol and nicotine), the concentration difference among different brands was 

within an order of magnitude for both mainstream and sidestream smoke. 

3.4.2 Filter Material

Cigarette filters are typically constructed from cellulose acetate, but the filter can be designed in 

each brand to enhance flavor properties and reduce toxic compounds in the mainstream smoke. 

While filter additives can reduce chemical concentrations in mainstream smoke (i.e., nitric oxide, 

carbon monoxide, hydrogen peroxide, aldehydes, vinyl chloride, 1,3-butadiene, isoprene, 

acrylonitrile, benzene, toluene and nitroso-compounds) (Smith et al. 1997, Valavanidis and 

Haralambous 2001, Liu et al. 2013, Awji et al. 2015), they can also increase the chemicals present 

in the filter that can emit later from the cigarette butt. 

Each chemical may behave differently in the cigarette filter. Qin et al. (2014) studied the retention 

of crotonaldehyde in cigarette filters. Longitudinal concentration distribution of crotonaldehyde in 

the cigarette filter was found to be different from the distribution of nicotine, phenol and other 

smoke components.

Several studies have been conducted on reducing compounds in cigarette smoke by making 

modifications to cigarette filters (Dittrich et al. 2014, Duan et al. 2014, Chen et al. 2015, Marcilla 

et al. 2015). The filter modification can be engineered from a chemical or mechanical perspective. 

For instance, a study on the effect of cellulose acetate and polypropylene filter materials on semi 

volatiles in smoke indicated that the polar cellulose acetate filter selectively retains polar 

compounds, such as phenols and furans, while the non-polar polypropylene filter shows a nonselective retention behavior (Formella et al. 1992). Grooves can be added to cigarette filters to 

change the inertial impaction of particles and diffusion of chemicals. Duan et al. (2014) studied the 

effects of 35 kinds of grooved filters on the yield of particles, tar, nicotine and carbon monoxide in 

mainstream cigarette smoke. They found that increasing the length of the grooved section in the 
29

This publication is available free of charge from: http://dx.doi.org/10.6028/NIST.IR.8147

filter reduced the yields (up to a length of 20 mm after which filtration efficiency of particles and 

nicotine decreased), while the position of the grooved section did not influence the yields. 

3.4.3 Butt Length

The length of the cigarette butt has been shown to impact the chemicals present in the cigarette 

butt. A longer cigarette butt will have more unburned tobacco and greater tobacco associated 

emissions than a shorter cigarette butt. Green et al (2014) reported that nicotine released into 

water increases as the butt length increases, as more nicotine is retained in tobacco than in the 

filter of cigarette butts. In contrast, the shorter cigarette butt will have a greater proportion of 

pyrolysis products and metals present. 

Cigarettes can either be extinguished by the smoker or be self-extinguished. . There is no defined

standard cigarette butt length for testing emissions. However, Watson et al. (2004) used a butt 

length of 23 mm or the length of the filter overlap plus 3 mm, whichever was longer, for their 

research. 

3.4.4 Temperature

Cigarette butts discarded outdoors are in a dynamic environment with a changing temperature, 

which can impact the chemicals present in the butt over time. Clayton et al. (2010) showed that 

nitrosamines levels in cigarette butts decreased after three weeks of storage at 22 o

C, especially 

for 4-(methylnitrosamino)-1-(3-pyridyl)-1-butanone (NNK). However, the nitrosamines levels in 

cigarette butts were relatively consistent over four weeks of storage at -17 o

C and 4 oC. 

3.4.5 Cross flow

The cigarette burning process can be influenced by environmental conditions, which in turn can 

influence the components retained in the cigarette butt post-smoking. Modeling of combustion of 

a cigarette has indicated that increasing the ambient cross flow surrounding the cigarette

increases the burn rate and temperature in the cigarette column (Saidi et al. 2006, Saidi et al. 

2007). Different combustion temperatures will result in the formation of different pyrolysis 

products that can eventually deposit in the cigarette butt. 

3.4.6 Ventilation

Ventilation through the cigarette during smoking can also influence the chemicals present. The 

burn rate, temperature and delivery of chemicals through a burning cigarette to the cigarette filter 

increases as a result of the increasing of ventilation through the cigarette (Saidi et al. 2006, Saidi 

et al. 2007). The change to these parameters can then result in the formation of different pyrolysis 

products. Dittrich et al. (2014) placed a band of porous paper in the center of the filter to 

minimize the loss of filter ventilation that occurs at the high flow rates encountered during 

human-smoking. This “split-tipping” facilitates the diffusional loss of volatile chemicals. Mouth 

level exposure to tar and nicotine was also lower in low-tar split-tipped cigarettes. 

3.4.7 Puff Number

The number of puffs that a smoker draws through a cigarette has been shown to impact the 

chemicals present. Li et al. (2002) found that formaldehyde concentrations in mainstream smoke

were higher in the first puff compared to subsequent puffs. The authors concluded that the heat 

exposure of the tobacco from previous puffs was the largest factor in differing formaldehyde 

concentrations. Li et al. (2002) also showed that heat treatment of cigarettes (200 o

C to 250 oC) 

prior to lighting reduced formaldehyde concentration by 20 % to 90 %. This was attributed to the 

conversion of cellulose to other products at temperatures below 500 o

C. 
30

This publication is available free of charge from: http://dx.doi.org/10.6028/NIST.IR.8147

3.4.8 Degradation

Cigarette butts will eventually degrade due to microbial degradation, photo-oxidation, mechanical 

abrasion and chemical degradation. However, not all components of cigarette butts are readily 

biologically degradable or photo-oxidized. Filters typically contain plasticized cellulose acetate 

fibers that are slow to degrade (Puls et al. 2011). Cellulose can be degraded by organisms with 

cellulose enzymes, but the acetyl groups in cellulose acetate first need to be removed to a certain 

extent (via the action of esterases or by chemical hydrolysis) for biodegradation of the cellulose 

backbone to initiate. Cellulose acetate can be photochemically degraded by UV wavelengths 

shorter than 280 nm, but has limited photo-degradability in sunlight due to the lack of 

chromophores for absorbing UV light (Puls et al. 2011). Cellulose acetate cigarette butts tend to 

linger in the environment for extended periods of time for these reasons. After two years of 

outdoor decomposition, 13C -cross-polarization magic angle spinning (CPMAS) nuclear magnetic 

resonance (NMR) spectroscopy analysis indicated minimal microbial degradation of cigarette 

filters (Bonanomi et al. 2015). This stability may be due to the nitrogen limitations in the butts. 

Studies have been conducted to develop methods to accelerate the degradation of cigarette 

butts. Honso et al. (2007) found that radical reactions of cellulose acetate by photo-irradiation can

lead to oxidation and random cleavage of cellulose acetate. In addition, the authors found 

benzophenone additives effectively accelerated the degradation of cellulose acetate under 

ambient environment conditions. 

Some states have considered legislation that would require filters to degrade faster (Robertson et 

al. 2012). One method to meet this requirement is to alter filters so they start degrading once 

they have been impacted by water. Robertson et al. (2012) showed that hydrolysis can be 

accelerated by adding weak acids encapsulated in sulfate/phosphate esters. When in contact with 

water, the encapsulation breaks down and releases weak acids that attack the cellulose acetate. 

3.4.9 Smoking Method

The demand for data regarding the health impacts of mainstream and sidestream smoke led to 

the development of complex smoking machines. The operation of these machines is guided by ISO 

3308:2012: Routine analytical cigarette-smoking machine - Definitions and standard conditions, 

details of which are summarized in Section 4.2.4 (ISO3308 2012). The standard gives a single set of 

operating conditions for smoking machines, while in reality smokers have a wide range of habits 

that can impact emissions. For instance, Purkis et al. (2010) demonstrated that increased puffing 

intensity decreased the tar, nicotine and carbon monoxide yields due to more rapid burning of the 

cigarette. Another study evaluated the tar and nicotine emissions from both human smoking and 

machine smoking across seventeen brands of cigarettes (St Charles et al. 2010). The comparison 

of nicotine and tar yields between human smoking and machine smoking was non-linear and 

scattered. In addition, the relationship was not consistent across various brands. A third study

found lower environmental tobacco concentrations generated by smokers compared to smoking

machine-generated sidestream smoke (P.R. Nelson 1998). However, the authors did not account 

for sorption to the smokers’ clothes and skin. 

Hence, there can be differences in emissions from a cigarette using a smoking machine compared 

to a human-smoked cigarette. If the mainstream smoke is different, it is likely that the chemical 

composition of a cigarette butt is also different. 

3.5 Impacts of Cigarette Butts on Human Health and Environment

Cigarette butts may impact human health and the environment through direct and indirect exposure 

routes. Only two studies have reported direct human health effects related to the ingestion of cigarette 
31

This publication is available free of charge from: http://dx.doi.org/10.6028/NIST.IR.8147

products. Novotny et al. (2011) reviewed published and grey literature regarding cigarette butt waste 

consumption by children, pets and wildlife, and found that accidental ingestion of cigarettes and butts 

were not uncommon among children, especially those under 6 years of age. Significant toxicity from the 

ingestion of cigarette products in children has been reported to be rare, with vomiting within 20 

minutes being the most common symptom (McGee et al. 1995). The impacts of cigarette butts on cells 

and animals have been documented in a broader series of studies, as described below.

3.5.1 In Vitro Assay

In vitro assays have been used to evaluate the genotoxic potential of cigarette butts. Di Giacomo, 

et al., (2015) tested the methanol extract from cigarette butts in the bacterial reverse mutation 

assay (with Salmonella typhimurium TA98 and TA100 and Escherichia coli WP2uvrA strains) and 

found that it was mutagenic. On the other hand, some compounds can provide protection from 

the mutagenic effects of cigarette butts. Di Giacomo et al. (2015) found that natural 

sesquiterpenes (caryophyllene and caryophyllene oxide) can be used to inhibit the mutagenicity of 

cigarette butts. Such compounds may have a place in remedial strategies to decontaminate

cigarette butt waste.

3.5.2 Animal Exposure

A variety of detrimental effects have been observed in animals exposed to cigarette butts directly 

or indirectly via leachate in water. However, no studies were found on the effects of cigarette 

butts in animals via airborne exposure routes. Animals reported to be affected by cigarette butts 

include birds, mosquitoes, snails, ragworms and fish. Birds use cellulose from smoked cigarette 

butts as lining material in nests, which helps to reduce ectoparasites in the nests, possibly because 

nicotine repels anthropods (Suarez-Rodriguez et al. 2013, Waters 2013). However, signs of 

genotoxicity in house finches have been seen to increase with the amount of butt cellulose in their 

nests (Suarez-Rodriguez and Garcia 2014). In addition, mosquitoes that have hatched in water 

environments containing cigarette butts have been shown to have shorter life spans (Dieng et al. 

2014) and higher mortality rates during developmental stages (Dieng et al. 2013). Cigarette butt 

leachate in seawater has also been shown to cause mortality and behavioral modifications in 

snails (Booth et al. 2015). Ragworms experienced significant weight loss and DNA damage when 

exposed to levels of filtration that were over sixty times less concentrated compared to average 

runoff in urban settings (Wright et al. 2015).

Slaughter et al. (2011) investigated the LC50 (concentration in water at which 50 % of test subject 

will die) of cigarette butt leachate in fish. Their results indicated that the toxicity of cigarette butt 

leachate increases from unsmoked cigarette filters (no tobacco) to smoked cigarette filters (no 

tobacco) to smoked cigarette butts (smoked filter + tobacco). Smoked cigarette butts had an LC50 

of about one cigarette butt L-1 in both the marine topsmelt (Atherinops affinis) and the freshwater 

fathead minnow (Pimephales promelas).

3.6 Alternative Uses for Cigarette Butts

Cigarette butts are frequently randomly discarded in the urban environment. However, there can be

productive uses for cigarette butts. For example, they have been used as a media for biofilm growth in 

anaerobic digestors (Sabzali et al. 2012). Cigarette filters have also been used to store energy by heat 

treating them under a nitrogen atmosphere to prepare N-doped mesoporous / microporous carbon 

material (Minzae et al. 2014). This material provides a favorable pathway for electrolyte permeation 

and contact probability. The latent energy in cigarette filter waste has also been harnessed to supply 

heat recovery units in industry (Nagarajan 2014).
32

This publication is available free of charge from: http://dx.doi.org/10.6028/NIST.IR.8147

Another application of used cigarette filters is as a source of porous carbon material for producing 

activated carbon (Masoudi Soltani and Kazemi Yazdi 2012, Salman et al. 2014, Soltani et al. 2015).

Soltani et al. (2015) showed that the charred carbon from cigarette filters can remove lead from water.

Chen et al. (2015) synthesized mesoporous carbonaceous materials on the surface of cigarette filters,

and these materials exhibited enhanced performance in phenol adsorption and carbon dioxide capture. 
33

This publication is available free of charge from: http://dx.doi.org/10.6028/NIST.IR.8147

4 Experimental Plan for Phase II

The above literature review on emissions from cigarette butts shows that airborne emissions from 

cigarette butts is not well understood and needs further study. The purpose of Section 4 is to describe 

an experimental plan intended to quantify the emissions of a selected number of chemicals emitted 

from cigarette butts into air under a variety of environmental conditions. The design of the experimental 

plan focuses on three potential exposure scenarios for discarded cigarette butts:

• Outdoor Exposure. In this scenario, discarded cigarette butts in a park or playground may 

impact children or adults. Furthermore, emissions from discarded cigarette butts in a trash or 

cigarette receptacle may impact people or even be drawn into a building if it is located near an 

outdoor air intake or other building opening.

• Indoor Exposure. In this scenario, discarded cigarettes butts located in an ashtray in a building 

may impact occupants.

• Car Exposure. In this scenario, occupants may be present in hot cars with discarded cigarettes 

butts despite not being present during the smoking event. 

The experimental plan aims to be a screening analysis that can help address these potential exposure 

scenarios.

4.1 Screening Tool: Headspace Analysis

As discussed in the literature review, air emissions from cigarette butts can be a complex mixture of 

thousands of chemicals. These chemicals will interact with the environment, whether it be the photooxidation of the volatile chemicals or sorption to surfaces and particles of less volatile chemicals. Given 

there is a lack of data on what chemicals will emit from cigarette butts, it is proposed to first develop a 

screening tool to first determine which chemicals are important and estimate how long these chemicals 

are present. The screening tool to be used for this task is automated headspace analysis. 

Once a cigarette butt is placed in a headspace vial, chemicals will be emitted from the butt under the

given test conditions (temperature, flow rate and desorption time). While the emission rate of the 

chemical in the vial will not be the same emission rate of the cigarette butt in the exposed environment, 

the mass released during headspace analysis will allow comparison of the emission from a cigarette butt 

expose to different conditions. For instance, the headspace analysis would show different masses 

released for cigarettes stored outdoors for three months during summer and in an indoor controlled 

environment for three months. Further details of the headspace analysis are described in Section 4.2.1. 

If resources permit, the emittable mass over time generated from headspace analysis (Figure 2) will be 

compared with an emission experiment conducted in a large chamber. 
34

This publication is available free of charge from: http://dx.doi.org/10.6028/NIST.IR.8147

Figure 2: Illustrative data from headspace analysis of a chemical in two different experiments (e.g. 

squares from cigarettes in an outdoor environment versus triangles from cigarettes in an 

indoor environment). Each symbol represents the mass of the chemical derived from 

headspace analysis for a cigarette butt exposed under different, controlled environmental 

conditions over time.

This screening tool will be used in the tasks described below to allow comparison of how cigarette butts 

age under different conditions for Tasks 2 through Tasks 5.

• Task 1: Method development

• Task 2: Initial experiments

• Task 3: SPHERE experiments

• Task 4: Large chamber experiments

• Task 5: Roof top experiments

The following sections describe the proposed activities for each of the tasks.

4.2 Task 1: Method Development

There are a range of parameters that need to be determined prior to conducting the experiments in 

Tasks 2 through 5. The parameters include but are not limited to the following: 

• Parameters for headspace analysis (temperature, flow, sample volume, split, etc.)

• Cigarette brand

• Length of cigarette butts

• Method for generation of cigarette butts

• Compounds to be quantified

• Method validation

These parameters will be determined based on experimental results and discussion with FDA. NIST 

First Level Hazard Reviews and standard practices for all NIST laboratory work will also be developed 

as part of this task.

4.2.1 Headspace Analysis

Headspace analysis will be used to determine the emittable mass of each tested cigarette butt. 

After exposing a cigarette but to under a specific set of environmental conditions for a defined 

time, the cigarette butt will be placed in a sealed headspace vial and incubated at a defined 

temperature (above room temperature) for a defined time (Figure 3A). A constant volume of air 

from the headspace of the vial will then be collected using conditioned Tenax-TA tubes (Figure 

3B). The sample will be thermally desorbed (TD) and quantified using GC-MS under defined 

conditions. To increase the sensitivity and reduce the analysis time of the method, experiments 

Time, t
35

This publication is available free of charge from: http://dx.doi.org/10.6028/NIST.IR.8147

will be conducted to optimize the parameters, including the incubation temperature, incubation 

time, sampling volume, and TD-GC-MS conditions. 

Figure 3: A) Incubation of cigarette butts in headspace vials. B) Sampling from headspace vials.

4.2.2 Selection of Cigarette Brand

Unless otherwise noted, three of the most popular cigarette brands based on FDA information will 

be selected for preliminary study during the method development period. One of these three 

brands will be selected for all other experiments based on its performance in the headspace 

analysis. 

4.2.3 Determination of Butt Length

Roughly 50 cigarette butts will be randomly collected from a variety of public places. These 

cigarette butt lengths will be measured. The median value of the measured lengths will be used as 

the butt length for all the experiments.

4.2.4 Generation of Cigarette Butt

To make data comparable across different experiments, the generation of cigarette butts must be 

consistent. Hence, a smoking machine will be employed, as described below, to generate most of 

the cigarette butts. To determine how representative smoking machine butts are, they will be 

compared with butts generated by human smoking. Cigarette butts will be collected from NIST 

outdoor ashtrays shortly after humans complete smoking. Smokers will not be asked to smoke. 

Rather signs will be placed at designated smoke areas asking smokers to place cigarette butts in 

provided headspace vials. The signs will also ask the smokers to record the number puffs and 

brand on the vial. This collection method has preliminary approval from the by the NIST 

Institutional Review Board (IRB) and will be fully reviewed prior to conducting the research.

Freshly generated cigarette butts of the same brand and similar lengths from both the smoking 

machine and human smoking will be measured using the headspace analysis. Both the qualitative 

and quantitative differences between emissions of cigarette butts by the smoking machine and 

human smoking will be examined to determine the representativeness of the smoking machine. 

Adjustments for the butts generated from the smoking machine will be made if necessary.

A smoking machine will be constructed to partially fulfill the requirements described in ISO 3308.

This device will draw a fixed volume of air through the cigarette (a puff) in a sequence similar to 

the puff profile defined in ISO 3308 (2012). As per ISO 3308:2012, the device will hold 9.0 mm of 

the butt end of the cigarette using labyrinth seals in a restricted smoking fashion (filter ventilation 
36

This publication is available free of charge from: http://dx.doi.org/10.6028/NIST.IR.8147

holes covered). The device will be placed in a NIST fume hood configured to allow air speeds of 

170m/s to 230 m/s, temperatures of 22 °C ± 2 °C, and relative humidity of 60 % ±5 %.

The device will deviate from ISO 3308:2012 in two important ways: 1) a smoke trap will not be 

included in the machine, since measurement of the mainstream smoke is outside the scope of this 

research; and 2) the machine may not produce a bell-shaped puff profile due to technical 

challenges. This will likely not influence the experiments in this study as long as the puff profile is 

consistent for different cigarette butts.

4.2.5 Target Compound List

The above literature review shows that certain compounds with high boiling points in cigarette 

smoke, such as metals and TSNAs, mainly exist in the particle phase in mainstream and sidestream 

smoke due to their low volatility. Since, it would be difficult to detect these chemicals in the air 

emissions from cigarette butts, we are not selecting them as target compounds for quantification

in this investigation. Compounds which have moderate boiling points and weak to moderate

sorption will be the main target compounds; these include nicotine, and PAHs. Both compounds 

are found on the United States Food and Drug Administrations’ Harmful and Potentially Harmful 

Constituents in Tobacco Products and Tobacco Smoke: Established List. It is unclear whether other 

compounds such as hydrogen cyanide will be able to be detected with the proposed experimental 

techniques.

Preliminary headspace analyses were conducted using two cigarette butts (one freshly smoked

and one found on the ground). The results showed that cigarette butts can emit a large number of 

chemicals, with over 50 different peaks identified from the chromatograms shown in Figure 4. 

Figure 4: Illustrative data from headspace analysis for two different cigarette butts. The blue trace was 

from a freshly smoked cigarette; the black trace was from a cigarette found on the ground.

The x-axis represents time in minutes, while the y-axis represents chemical abundance in 

dimensionless units. 

For the freshly generated cigarette butt, the peaks with top five largest areas were identified as dlimonene, toluene, pyridine, benzene and styrene. The top five peaks for the cigarette butt found 

on the ground were nicotine, 3-methyl-pyridine, furfural, pyridine, and methyl-pyrazine, which is 

very different from the chemicals emitted from the freshly generated cigarette butt. This indicates 
37

This publication is available free of charge from: http://dx.doi.org/10.6028/NIST.IR.8147

that the target chemicals to be quantified need to be carefully chosen to ensure that the data 

captures both short- and long-term emissions.

For proposed experiments, the compounds will be first tentatively identified with the NIST mass 

spectral library and chosen as target compounds for qualitative analysis when the quality of the 

match is higher than 90 %. Then, the top ten identified chemicals based on response area, and 

being both carcinogenic and with good peak shapes, will be chosen as target compounds for 

quantitative analysis. 

4.2.6 Method Validation

Once method parameters and target chemicals are determined method validation will be 

conducted. TD-GC-MS parameters for the quantitative target compounds will be determined to 

ensure the linear correlation coefficient of the corresponding standard curve is higher than 0.98. 

The recovery of quantified chemicals in the headspace vials will be determined. In addition,

method detection limit and repeatability experiments will be conducted. Reported data will 

include combined uncertainties. 

4.3 Task 2: Initial Experiments

As described in Section 3.4, there are a wide range of factors that can influence the emissions from a 

cigarette butt. The cigarette butt length and brand (which will dictate the filter type) will be defined 

during Task 1: Method Development. Task 2: Initial Experiments will examine the influence of some of 

the remaining factors described in Section 3.4, including: 1) smoking condition (puffing parameters); 2) 

temperature; and 3) moisture (to account for rain).

4.3.1 Smoking Condition

Freshly generated cigarette butts from a smoking machine with different puffing parameters 

(number and airflow) will be examined using headspace analysis. All butts will be analyzed after 

they have reached room temperature.

4.3.2 Temperature

A micro-chamber system, as shown in Figure 5, will be used for studying the cigarette butt 

emissions after aging at different temperatures. The butts will be placed in the micro-chambers 

for up to a week at different temperatures with constant flows. Then, the conditioned cigarette 

butts will be put into the headspace vial for analysis. The exact number of experiments will be 

determined based on technical complexity.
38

This publication is available free of charge from: http://dx.doi.org/10.6028/NIST.IR.8147

 

Figure 5: A) Different kinds of micro-chambers. B) Markes micro-chamber system

4.3.3 Moisture

Cigarette butts will be saturated with water to simulate a rain event. Added moisture to the 

cigarettes will be measured by mass change. After wetting, the butts will be placed in headspace 

vials for analysis. A subset of the wet butts will be placed in a micro-chamber system for up to a 

week to simulate a drying event prior to the headspace analysis. The exact number of experiments

will be determined based on technical complexity.

4.4 Task 3: Large Chamber Experiments

To mimic indoor conditions, cigarette butts will be placed in a large stainless steel walk-in chamber, 

shown in Error! Reference source not found., for a defined time. The chamber will be operated at 

typical indoor test conditions (20 °C, air change rate of 1 h-1

). After placement in the chamber, butts will 

be removed at various points in time for headspace analysis. The exact number of butts and length of 

aging will be determined based on technical complexity and experimental design. The emissions from 

the cigarette butts in the large chamber will be compared to emissions from butts in the ultra violet 

radiation exposure (Section 4.5) and rooftop experiments (Section 4.6) to determine the impact of 

exposure to radiation and outdoor conditions on emissions, respectively. 
39

This publication is available free of charge from: http://dx.doi.org/10.6028/NIST.IR.8147

 

Figure 6: A) Inside of the large chamber. B) Outside of the large chamber

If there is enough time, a chamber emission study will be conducted using the large chamber. In these 

experiments, a large number of cigarette butts will be placed in the large chamber. The air will be 

sampled at regular intervals using a Tenax TA sorbent tube. At some point in time, a 100 cm2 section of 

the wall will be wiped with a methanol impregnated pad. The pad will be extracted to determine the 

sorption rate of the chemicals to the chamber walls, which will be used to determine the average 

emission rate in the chamber. The chamber will be ventilated with outdoor air, which will contain 

particles. Particle concentrations in the chambers will be measured to allow for estimation of the 

chemical concentrations on particles using established methods (Little et al. 2012Little et al. 2012). 

Once the average cigarette butt emission rate in the chamber is known, it will be compared to the 

screening headspace analysis to demonstrate the relevance of the screening data (Error! Reference 

source not found.).

Figure 7: Illustrative data comparing mass recovered during headspace analysis to average emission 

rate at different times in a large chamber). Mass Released to Headspace (ng) for One Chemical at time t

Average Emission Rate (μg h-1 cigarette butt-1) at 

time t
40

This publication is available free of charge from: http://dx.doi.org/10.6028/NIST.IR.8147

4.5 Task 4: SPHERE Experiments

Another factor that possibly can influence the emissions from the cigarette butts is radiation exposure. 

The NIST Simulation Photo-degradation via High Energy Radiation Emission (SPHERE) chambers, as 

shown in Figure 8, will be used to study cigarette butt emissions under different UV radiation conditions. 

Fresh cigarette butts from a smoking machine will be placed in the SPHERE chamber with different UV 

radiation intensities. After placement in the chamber for different aging durations, cigarette butts will 

be put in headspace vials for analysis. 

Figure 8: A) Simulation Photo-degradation via High Energy Radiation Emission (SPHERE) system.

B) An individual SPHERE chamber.

4.6 Task 5: Roof Top Experiments

To understand cigarette butt emissions in the outdoor environment, this task will compare emissions 

from cigarette butts that have been placed on a rooftop during four different seasons. Solar irradiance, 

UV radiation, cloud cover, temperature, wind speed, pressure, relative humidity, rain and snow 

accumulations will all be recorded while the butts are exposed on the roof to determine if any of these 

parameters has a significant impact on the emissions. After placement on the roof for different time

periods, butts will be removed for headspace analysis. Some butts may be placed on the roof under 

cover that limits direct sunlight and rain but maintains butts at the same temperature, humidity and 

wind conditions. The exact number of butts and length of aging will be determined based on technical 

complexity and experimental design.

Figure 9: NIST solar observation equipment. Cigarette butts aged for Task 7 would be located near this 

infrastructure. 
41

This publication is available free of charge from: http://dx.doi.org/10.6028/NIST.IR.8147

4.7 Schedule

The experimental tasks are scheduled to take two years to complete. The experimental schedule will 

commence at the conclusion of Phase 1 of this project, which corresponds to final delivery of this 

document to FDA.

Table 4: Proposed Experimental schedule

Task Purpose Duration Headspace 

Analysis

Method 

Development

Determine brand and length of 

cigarette butt, method to generate

cigarette butt, and parameters for 

headspace analysis

6 months N/A

Initial 

experiments

Examine the influence of factors on 

emissions, including smoking 

condition, temperature, and 

moisture

3 months Weekly

SPHERE 

experiments

Examine the influence of UV 

radiation on emissions

12 months* Monthly

Large Chamber 

Experiments

Study the emissions in a large 

chamber environment

6 months* Monthly

Roof Top 

Experiments

Study the emissions in the outdoor 

environment

6 months* Monthly

Data Evaluation/

Report

Document all project tasks 3 months N/A

* concurrently

5 Summary

Cigarette butts can contain many of the same chemicals found in mainstream and sidestream smoke,

making them a potential source of chemical exposure in both indoor and outdoor environments. Many 

studies have analyzed chemicals in cigarette butts and quantified chemicals emitted from cigarette butts 

into water. However, there are limited data on emissions from cigarette butts into air. The emission 

rates from cigarette butts to the air may be minimal for some heavy chemicals (e.g., metals, TSNAs), but 

could be high for more volatile chemicals (e.g., nicotine, pyridine, benzene). In addition, the airborne 

emissions of cigarette butts can be influenced by the cigarette brand, filter material, butt length, 

environmental temperature, airflow around the cigarette, number of puffs during smoking, degradation 

of the butt, and smoking method. Based on the results of the literature review presented in this report, 

more data are needed on the airborne emission rates of cigarette butts. The proposed research aims to 

fill this data gap by using a screening tool (e.g. headspace analysis) to examine the airborne emission of 

chemicals from cigarette butts under various environmental conditions (small chamber, large chamber, 

outdoor, and chamber with enhanced ultra violet radiation).
42

This publication is available free of charge from: http://dx.doi.org/10.6028/NIST.IR.8147

6 Disclaimer

Certain trade names or company products are mentioned in the text to adequately specify the 

experimental procedure and equipment used. In no case does such identification imply 

recommendation or endorsement by the National Institute of Standards and Technology, nor does it 

imply that the equipment is the best available for the purpose.

7 Acknowledgements

This work was funded under U.S. Food and Drug Administration Interagency Agreement #244-15-9012.

8 References

Ashley, D. L., R. J. O'Connor, J. T. Bernert, C. H. Watson, G. M. Polzin, R. B. Jain, D. Hammond, D. K. 

Hatsukami, G. A. Giovino, K. M. Cummings, A. McNeill, L. Shahab, B. King, G. T. Fong, L. Q. Zhang, Y. 

Xia, X. Z. Yan and J. M. McCraw (2010). Effect of differing levels of tobacco-specific nitrosamines in 

cigarette smoke on the levels of biomarkers in smokers. Cancer Epidemiology Biomarkers & 

Prevention 19(6): 1389-1398.

Awji, E. G., H. Chand, S. Bruse, K. R. Smith, J. K. Colby, Y. Mebratu, B. D. Levy and Y. Tesfaigzi (2015). 

Wood smoke enhances cigarette smoke-induced inflammation by inducing the aryl hydrocarbon

receptor repressor in airway epithelial cells. American Journal of Respiratory Cell and Molecular 

Biology 52(3): 377-386.

Baker, R. R. (1987). A review of pyrolysis studies to unravel reaction steps in burning tobacco. Journal of 

Analytical and Applied Pyrolysis 11: 555-573.

Becherucci, M. E. and J. P. S. Pon (2014). What is left behind when the lights go off? Comparing the 

abundance and composition of litter in urban areas with different intensity of nightlife use in mar 

del plata, argentina. Waste Management 34(8): 1351-1355.

Boldridge, D. W. and B. J. Ingebrethsen (1986). Coagulation and filtration of mainstream cigarette smoke 

in the tobacco rod of a cigarette. Aerosols: Formation and Reactivity, Proceedings - Second 

International Aerosol Conference: 459-461.

Bonanomi, G., G. Incerti, G. Cesarano, S. A. Gaglione and V. Lanzotti (2015). Cigarette butt 

decomposition and associated chemical changes assessed by c-13 cpmas nmr. Plos One 10(1).

Booth, D. J., P. Gribben and K. Parkinson (2015). Impact of cigarette butt leachate on tidepool snails. 

Marine Pollution Bulletin 95(1): 362-364.

Brinkman, M. C., J. C. Chuang, S. M. Gordon, H. Kim, R. R. Kroeger, G. M. Polzin and P. A. Richter (2012). 

Exposure to and deposition of fine and ultrafine particles in smokers of menthol and nonmenthol 

cigarettes. Inhalation Toxicology 24(5): 255-269.

Brunnemann, K. D., E. J. Mitacek, Y. Liu, T. Limsila and M. Suttajit (1996). Assessment of major 

carcinogenic tobacco-specific n-nitrosamines in thai cigarettes. Cancer Detection and Prevention

20(2): 114-121.

Carolina Talio, M., M. Alesso, M. Acosta, R. Olsina and L. P. Fernandez (2013). Determination of 

cadmium in tobacco by solid surface fluorescence using nylon membranes coated with carbon 

nanotubes. Talanta 107: 61-66.

Chapman, S. (2006). Butt clean up campaigns: Wolves in sheep's clothing? Tobacco Control 15(4).
43

This publication is available free of charge from: http://dx.doi.org/10.6028/NIST.IR.8147

Chen, A., Y. Li, Y. Yu, Y. Li, L. Zhang, H. Lv and L. Liu (2015). Mesoporous carbonaceous materials 

prepared from used cigarette filters for efficient phenol adsorption and co2capture. Rsc Advances

5(130): 107 299-107 306.

Chen, B., W. D. Wang and Y. M. Huang (2012). Cigarette filters as adsorbents of solid-phase extraction 

for determination of fluoroquinolone antibiotics in environmental water samples coupled with 

high-performance liquid chromatography. Talanta 88: 237-243.

Chen, S., Y. He, G. Shen, X. Sun, C. Nie, X. Zhang, Y. Lai, X. Li and H. Liu (2015). Application of materials 

for reducing volatile carbonyl compounds in cigarette filter. Acta Tabacaria Sinica 21(1): 6-12.

Claereboudt, M. R. (2004). Shore litter along sandy beaches of the gulf of oman. Marine Pollution 

Bulletin 49(9-10): 770-777.

Clark, T., E. Kaussmann, E. Romer and G. Schepers (1998). The fate of imidacloprid in tobacco smoke of 

cigarettes made from imidacloprid-treated tobacco. Pesticide Science 52(2): 119-125.

Clayton, P. M., A. Cunningham and J. D. H. van Heemst (2010). Quantification of four tobacco-specific 

nitrosamines in cigarette filter tips using liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry. 

Analytical Methods 2(8): 1085-1094.

Coggins, C. R. E., W. J. McKinney and M. J. Oldham (2013). A comprehensive evaluation of the toxicology 

of experimental, non-filtered cigarettes manufactured with different circumferences. Inhalation 

Toxicology 25: 69-72.

Daher, N., R. Saleh, E. Jaroudi, H. Sheheitli, T. Badr, E. Sepetdjian, M. Al Rashidi, N. Saliba and A. 

Shihadeh (2010). Comparison of carcinogen, carbon monoxide, and ultrafine particle emissions 

from narghile waterpipe and cigarette smoking: Sidestream smoke measurements and assessment 

of second-hand smoke emission factors. Atmos Environ (1994) 44(1): 8-14.

Dalluge, J., L. L. P. Van Stee, X. Xu, J. Williams, J. Beens, R. J. J. Vreuls and U. A. T. Brinkman (2002). 

Unravelling the composition of very complex samples by comprehensive gas chromatography 

coupled to time-of-flight mass spectrometry: Cigarette smoke. Journal of Chromatography A 974(1-

2): 169-184.

Demirci, A. (2014). Factorial design optimization of solid-phase microextraction for high-performance 

liquid chromatography-ultraviolet spectrometry analysis of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons in 

cigarette filter tar. Polycyclic Aromatic Compounds 34(2): 115-134.

Demirci, A. and E. Alver (2013). Determination of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons in cigarette filter tar 

by means of hollow-fiber liquid phase microextraction-hplc-uv system. Journal of Liquid 

Chromatography & Related Technologies 36(5): 628-647.

Demirci, A. and M. Ekiz (2013). Statistical classification of cigarettes using high pressure liquid 

chromatograms of cigarette filter tar as fingerprint. Asian Journal of Chemistry 25(17): 9860-9864.

Di Giacomo, S., G. Mazzanti and A. Di Sotto (2015). Mutagenicity of cigarette butt waste in the bacterial 

reverse mutation assay: The protective effects of -caryophyllene and -caryophyllene oxide. 

Environmental Toxicology and Chemistry.

Dieng, H., S. Rajasaygar, A. H. Ahmad, H. Ahmad, C. S. M. Rawi, W. F. Zuharah, T. Satho, F. Miake, Y. 

Fukumitsu, A. R. Saad, I. Abd Ghani, R. E. M. Vargas, A. H. Ab Majid and S. AbuBakar (2013). Turning 

cigarette butt waste into an alternative control tool against an insecticide-resistant mosquito 

vector. Acta Tropica 128(3): 584-590.
44

This publication is available free of charge from: http://dx.doi.org/10.6028/NIST.IR.8147

Dieng, H., S. Rajasaygar, A. H. Ahmad, C. S. M. Rawi, H. Ahmad, T. Satho, F. Miake, W. F. Zuharah, Y. 

Fukumitsu, A. R. Saad, S. A. Hamid, R. E. M. Vargas, A. H. Ab Majid, N. Fadzly, N. F. Abu Kassim, N. A. 

Hashim, I. A. Ghani, F. B. Abange and S. AbuBakar (2014). Indirect effects of cigarette butt waste on 

the dengue vector aedes aegypti (diptera: Culicidae). Acta Tropica 130: 123-130.

Ding, Y. S., J. Ward, D. Hammond and C. H. Watson (2014). Mouth-level intake of benzo a pyrene from 

reduced nicotine cigarettes. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health

11(11): 11898-11914.

Ding, Y. S., L. Q. Zhang, R. B. Jain, N. Jain, R. Y. Wang, D. L. Ashley and C. H. Watson (2008). Levels of 

tobacco-specific nitrosamines and polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons in mainstream smoke from 

different tobacco varieties. Cancer Epidemiology Biomarkers & Prevention 17(12): 3366-3371.

Dittrich, D. J., R. T. Fieblekorn, M. J. Bevan, D. Rushforth, J. J. Murphy, M. Ashley, K. G. McAdam, C. Liu 

and C. J. Proctor (2014). Approaches for the design of reduced toxicant emission cigarettes. 

Springerplus 3.

Djordjevic, M. V., C. W. Sigountos, D. Hoffmann, K. D. Brunnemann, M. R. Kagan, L. P. Bush, R. D. Safaev, 

G. A. Belitsky and D. Zaridze (1991). Assessment of major carcinogens and alkaloids in the tobacco 

and mainstream smoke of ussr cigarettes. International Journal of Cancer 47(3): 348-351.

Duan, L., Y. Gu, Y. Zhang, P. Sheng, X. Yan, X. Xu and C. Wang (2014). Effects of length and position of 

grooved section in grooved acetate filter on yield of cigarette smoke. Tobacco Science and 

Technology(11): 5-9.

Eatough, D. J., L. D. Hansen, E. A. Lewis (1990). The chemical characterization of environmental tobacco 

smoke. Environmental Technology.

Endo, O., M. Koyano, S. Mineki, S. Goto, K. Tanabe, H. Yajima, T. Ishii and H. Matsushita (2000). 

Estimation of indoor air pah concentration increases by cigarette, incense-stick, and mosquitorepellent-incense smoke. Polycyclic Aromatic Compounds 21(1-4): 261-272.

Formella, K., T. Braumann and H. Elmenhorst (1992). The influence of different filter parameters on the 

semivolatile composition of mainstream smoke. Beitrage Zur Tabakforschung International 15(3): 

123-128.

Fu, M., J. M. Martinez-Sanchez, I. Galan, M. Perez-Rios, X. Sureda, M. J. Lopez, A. Schiaffino, A. Moncada, 

A. Montes, M. Nebot and E. Fernandez (2013). Variability in the correlation between nicotine and 

pm2.5 as airborne markers of second-hand smoke exposure. Environ Res 127: 49-55.

Fukuhara, K., T. Sakaki, H. Sakuma and S. Sugawara (1985). Odor analysis of cigarette butts by a 

headspace technique. Agricultural and Biological Chemistry 49(7): 2177-2179.

Gaddamidi, V., W. T. Zimmerman, M. Ponte and L. Ruzo (2011). Pyrolysis of c-14 -chlorantraniliprole in 

tobacco. Journal of Agricultural and Food Chemistry 59(17): 9424-9432.

Galazyn-Sidorczuk, M., M. M. Brzoska and J. Moniuszko-Jakoniuk (2008). Estimation of polish cigarettes 

contamination with cadmium and lead, and exposure to these metals via smoking. Environmental 

Monitoring and Assessment 137(1-3): 481-493.

Green, A. L. R., A. Putschew and T. Nehls (2014). Littered cigarette butts as a source of nicotine in urban 

waters. Journal of Hydrology 519: 3466-3474.

Guo, J., P. Shang, J. Cai, L. Zhao, H. Liu and H. Wang (2015). Determination of hydrogen cyanide 

retention in cigarette filters with continuous flow analysis. Acta Tabacaria Sinica 21(3): 1-4.
45

This publication is available free of charge from: http://dx.doi.org/10.6028/NIST.IR.8147

Haorah, J., L. Zhou, X. J. Wang, G. P. Xu and S. S. Mirvish (2001). Determination of total n-nitroso 

compounds and their precursors in frankfurters, fresh meat, dried salted fish, sauces, tobacco, and 

tobacco smoke particulates. Journal of Agricultural and Food Chemistry 49(12): 6068-6078.

Healton, C. G., K. M. Cummings, R. J. O'Connor and T. E. Novotny (2011). Butt really? The environmental 

impact of cigarettes. Tobacco Control 20: I1-I1.

Hertz-Schunemann, R., S. Ehlert, T. Streibel, C. Liu, K. McAdam, R. R. Baker and R. Zimmermann (2015). 

High-resolution time and spatial imaging of tobacco and its pyrolysis products during a cigarette 

puff by microprobe sampling photoionisation mass spectrometry. Analytical and Bioanalytical 

Chemistry 407(8): 2293-2299.

Hertz, R., T. Streibel, C. Liu, K. McAdam and R. Zimmermann (2012). Microprobe sampling-photo 

ionization-time-of-flight mass spectrometry for in situ chemical analysis of pyrolysis and 

combustion gases: Examination of the thermo-chemical processes within a burning cigarette. 

Analytica Chimica Acta 714: 104-113.

Higgins, C. E., W. H. Griest and M. R. Guerin (1984). Sampling and analysis of cigarette smoke using the 

solid adsorbent tenax. Technical Report. United States, Oak Ridge National Lab., TN (USA): 23p.

Hosono, K., A. Kanazawa, H. Mori and T. Endo (2007). Photodegradation of cellulose acetate film in the 

presence of benzophenone as a photosensitizer. Journal of Applied Polymer Science 105(6): 3235-

3239.

Hu, N., W. Du and Y. Dai (2015). Determination of major phenolic compounds retained by cigarette filter 

with high performance liquid chromatography. Tobacco Science and Technology 48(4): 49-55.

Huang, G., Y. Fang, H. Yu, L. Tao and X. Tang (2013). The determination of lead (pb) in cigarette filter 

using graphite furnace atomic absorption spectrometry with microwave assisted digestion. Acta 

Tabacaria Sinica 19(4): 5-10.

Huang, H., H. Liang, X. Liu and Y. Yu (2014). Determination of vocs in cigarette tipping paper by hs-gc/ms. 

Acta Tabacaria Sinica 20(1): 15-20.

Huang, Y. B., S. X. Tuo, Y. Zhao, X. Y. Xiong, Q. Yang, Y. Y. Chen, B. Chen and H. W. Yang (2014). Gc-ms 

investigation of the transfer behavior of alkalescent flavors in moderate/low-tar cigarettes. 

Chromatographia 77(1-2): 171-178.

Ishizu, Y. and Y. Ishizu (2013). A new diffusive sampler for determining nicotine and 3-ethenylpyridine 

contents in second-hand smoke. Indoor and Built Environment 22(3): 520-527.

ISO3308 (2012). Routine analytical cigarette-smoking machine - definitions and standard conditions. 

International Standard.

Jenkins, R. A., R. B. Quincy and M. R. Guerin (1979a). Selected constituents in the smokes of u.S. 

Commercial cigaretts: Tar, nicotine, carbon monoxide and carbon dioxide. United States: 46p.

Jenkins, R. A., R. B. Quincy and M. R. Guerin (1979b). Selected constituents in the smokes of foreign 

commercial cigaretts: Tar, nicotine, carbon monoxide, and carbon dioxide. United States: 62p.

Ji, H., J. Man, J. Liu, N. Liu, F. Wang and W. Han (2015). Determination of benzene compounds in 

mainstream cigarette smoke entrapped by filter using static headspace gc/ms method. Acta 

Tabacaria Sinica 21(2): 23-28.

John Dane, A., K. J. Voorhees and R. B. Cody (2002). The identification of nitropolycyclic aromatic 

hydrocarbons in tobacco smoke using electron monochromator mass spectrometry. Proceedings -
46

This publication is available free of charge from: http://dx.doi.org/10.6028/NIST.IR.8147

50th ASMS Conference on Mass Spectrometry and Allied Topics, June 2, 2002 - June 6, 2002, 

Orlando, FL, United states, American Society for Mass Spectrometry.

Kadir, A. A. and N. A. Sarani (2015). Cigarette butts pollution and environmental impact - a review. 

Applied Mechanics and Materials 773-774: 1106-1110.

Kowalski, R. and J. Wiercinski (2009). Mercury content in smoke and tobacco from selected cigarette 

brands. Ecological Chemistry and Engineering S-Chemia I Inzynieria Ekologiczna S 16(2): 155-162.

Li, S., J. L. Banyasz, M. E. Parrish, J. Lyons-Hart and K. H. Shafer (2002). Formaldehyde in the gas phase of 

mainstream cigarette smoke. Journal of Analytical and Applied Pyrolysis 65(2): 137-145.

Liang, C. K. and J. F. Pankow (1996). Gas/particle partitioning of organic compounds to environmental 

tobacco smoke: Partition coefficient measurements by desorption and comparison to urban 

particulate material. Environmental Science & Technology 30(9): 2800-2805.

Little, J. C., C. J. Weschler, W. W. Nazaroff, Z. Liu and E. A. Cohen Hubal (2012). Rapid methods to 

estimate potential exposure to semivolatile organic compounds in the indoor environment. Environ 

Sci Technol 46(20): 11171-11178.

Liu, C., K. G. McAdam and T. A. Perfetti (2011). Some recent topics in cigarette smoke science. MiniReviews in Organic Chemistry 8(4): 349-359.

Liu, H., J. Guo, S. Sun, C. Nie, Y. Zong and J. Xie (2013). Effects of auxiliary material parameters on 

deliveries of free radicals in mainstream cigarette smoke. Tobacco Science and Technology(7): 63-

67.

Liu, X. Y., L. Ma, J. Zhou, Y. J. Ma, R. S. Bai and L. H. Yan (2014). The influence of nitrogen dioxide on the 

determination of hydrogen cyanide in mainstream and sidestream cigarette smoke and the 

improvement of the determination method by continuous flow analyzer. Analytical Methods 6(24): 

9841-9849.

Lodovici, M., V. Akpan, C. Evangelisti and P. Dolara (2004). Sidestream tobacco smoke as the main 

predictor of exposure to polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons. Journal of Applied Toxicology 24(4): 

277-281.

Luceri, F., G. Pieraccini, G. Moneti and P. Dolara (1993). Primary aromatic-amines from side-stream 

cigarette-smoke are common contaminants of indoor air. Toxicology and Industrial Health 9(3): 

405-413.

Marcilla, A., M. I. Beltran, A. Gomez-Siurana, I. Martinez and D. Berenguer (2015). Effect of the 

concentration of siliceous materials added to tobacco cigarettes on the composition of the smoke 

generated during smoking. Industrial & Engineering Chemistry Research 54(6): 1916-1929.

Masoudi Soltani, S. and S. Kazemi Yazdi (2012). Effect of dry physical mixing of cigarette filters as carbon 

source with koh on final physical characteristics of the synthesized porous carbon. 2012 12th IEEE 

International Conference on Nanotechnology, NANO 2012, August 20, 2012 - August 23, 2012, 

Birmingham, United kingdom, IEEE Computer Society.

McGee, D., T. Brabson, J. McCarthy and M. Picciotti (1995). 4-year review of cigarette ingestions in 

children. Pediatric Emergency Care 11(1): 13-16.

Merckel, C. and F. Pragst (2007). Tobacco additives in cigarettes - intended purpose and potential of 

danger. Journal Fur Verbraucherschutz Und Lebensmittelsicherheit-Journal of Consumer Protection 

and Food Safety 2(3): 287-301.
47

This publication is available free of charge from: http://dx.doi.org/10.6028/NIST.IR.8147

Minzae, L., K. Gil-Pyo, S. Hyeon Don, P. Soomin and Y. Jongheop (2014). Preparation of energy storage 

material derived from a used cigarette filter for a supercapacitor electrode. Nanotechnology

25(34): 345 601 (345 608 pp.).

Moerman, J. W. and G. E. Potts (2011). Analysis of metals leached from smoked cigarette litter. Tobacco 

Control 20: I30-I35.

Nagarajan, S. (2014). Harnessing energy in wasted toxic materials. 32nd West Coast Energy 

Management Congress, EMC 2014, June 25, 2014 - June 26, 2014, Seattle, WA, United states, AEE 

Energy Books.

Novotny, T. E., S. N. Hardin, L. R. Hovda, D. J. Novotny, M. K. McLean and S. Khan (2011). Tobacco and 

cigarette butt consumption in humans and animals. Tobacco Control 20: I17-I20.

Novotny, T. E. and F. Zhao (1999). Consumption and production waste: Another externality of tobacco 

use. Tobacco Control 8(1): 75-80.

O'Connor, R. J., D. Hammond, A. McNeill, B. King, L. T. Kozlowski, G. A. Giovino and K. M. Cummings 

(2008). How do different cigarette design features influence the standard tar yields of popular 

cigarette brands sold in different countries? Tobacco Control 17: I1-I5.

P.R. Nelson, F. W. C., and S.P. Kelly, R.J. Reynolds (1998). Comparison of environmental tobacco smoke 

to aged and diluted sidestream smoke. J. Armsol Sci 29: 281-282.

Patel, V., G. W. Thomson and N. Wilson (2013). Cigarette butt littering in city streets: A new 

methodology for studying and results. Tobacco Control 22(1): 59-62.

Pelit, F. O., R. E. Demirdogen and E. Henden (2013). Investigation of heavy metal content of turkish 

tobacco leaves, cigarette butt, ash, and smoke. Environmental Monitoring and Assessment 185(11): 

9471-9479.

Petraru, C., D. Balalau, M. Ilie and C. Balalau (2013). Evaluation of different kind of cigarette filters ability 

of to retain the toxic compounds of the vapor phase. A comparative graphical study. Farmacia

61(4): 736-741.

Pieraccini, G., S. Furlanetto, S. Orlandini, G. Bartolucci, I. Giannini, S. Pinzauti and G. Moneti (2008). 

Identification and determination of mainstream and sidestream smoke components in different 

brands and types of cigarettes by means of solid-phase microextraction-gas chromatography-mass 

spectrometry. Journal of Chromatography A 1180(1-2): 138-150.

Polzin, G. M., W. J. Wu, X. Z. Yan, J. M. McCraw, S. Abdul-Salaam, A. D. Tavakoli, L. Q. Zhang, D. L. Ashley 

and C. H. Watson (2009). Estimating smokers' mouth-level exposure to select mainstream smoke 

constituents from discarded cigarette filter butts. Nicotine & Tobacco Research 11(7): 868-874.

Puls, J., S. A. Wilson and D. Holter (2011). Degradation of cellulose acetate-based materials: A review. 

Journal of Polymers and the Environment 19(1): 152-165.

Purkis, S. W., V. Troude, G. Duputie and C. Tessier (2010). Limitations in the characterisation of cigarette 

products using different machine smoking regimes. Regulatory Toxicology and Pharmacology 58(3): 

501-515.

Qin, L., J. Wen, D. Ding, W. Du, B. Peng, X. Zhang, F. Xie, H. Liu and K. Zhong (2014). Filtration and 

retention characteristics of crotonaldehyde in cigarette filters. Tobacco Science and Technology 47: 

64-70.
48

This publication is available free of charge from: http://dx.doi.org/10.6028/NIST.IR.8147

Robertson, R. M., W. C. Thomas, J. N. Suthar and D. M. Brown (2012). Accelerated degradation of 

cellulose acetate cigarette filters using controlled-release acid catalysis. Green Chemistry 14(8): 

2266.

Sabzali, A., M. Nikaeen and B. Bina (2012). Performance evaluation of cigarette filter rods as a biofilm 

carrier in an anaerobic moving bed biofilm reactor. Environmental Technology 33(15): 1803-1810.

Saidi, M. S., M. R. Hajaligol, A. Mhaisekar and M. Subbiah (2007). A 3d modeling of static and forward 

smoldering combustion in a packed bed of materials. Applied Mathematical Modelling 31(9): 1970-

1996.

Saidi, M. S., A. Mhaisekar, M. R. Hajaligol and M. Subbiah (2006). Effects of thermo-physical and flow 

parameters on the static and dynamic burning of a cigarette. Combustion Theory and Modelling

10(6): 939-960.

Salman, M. S., S. K. Yazdi, S. Hosseini and M. K. Gargari (2014). Effect of nitric acid modification on 

porous characteristics of mesoporous char synthesized from the pyrolysis of used cigarette filters. 

Journal of Environmental Chemical Engineering 2(3): 1301-1308.

Schick, S. F., K. F. Farraro, C. Perrino, M. Sleiman, G. van de Vossenberg, M. P. Trinh, S. K. Hammond, B. 

M. Jenkins and J. Balmes (2014). Thirdhand cigarette smoke in an experimental chamber: Evidence 

of surface deposition of nicotine, nitrosamines and polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons and de novo 

formation of nnk. Tobacco Control 23(2): 152-159.

Schick, S. F., G. van den Vossenberg, A. Luo, A. Whitlatch, P. Jacob, J. Balmes and D. Shusterman (2013). 

Thirty minute-exposure to aged cigarette smoke increases nasal congestion in nonsmokers. Journal 

of Toxicology and Environmental Health-Part a-Current Issues 76(10): 601-613.

Seco Pon, J. P. and M. E. Becherucci (2012). Spatial and temporal variations of urban litter in mar del 

plata, the major coastal city of argentina. Waste Management 32(2): 343-348.

Slaughter, E., R. M. Gersberg, K. Watanabe, J. Rudolph, C. Stransky and T. E. Novotny (2011). Toxicity of 

cigarette butts, and their chemical components, to marine and freshwater fish. Tobacco Control 20: 

I25-I29.

Sleiman, M., R. L. Maddalena, L. A. Gundel and H. Destaillats (2009). Rapid and sensitive gas 

chromatography-ion-trap tandem mass spectrometry method for the determination of tobaccospecific n-nitrosamines in secondhand smoke. J Chromatogr A 1216(45): 7899-7905.

Smith, C. J., S. D. Livingston and D. J. Doolittle (1997). An international literature survey of "iarc group i 

carcinogens" reported in mainstream cigarette smoke. Food and Chemical Toxicology 35(10-11): 

1107-1130.

Smith, S. D. A., C. L. Gillies and H. Shortland-Jones (2014). Patterns of marine debris distribution on the 

beaches of rottnest island, western australia. Marine Pollution Bulletin 88(1-2): 188-193.

Soltani, S. M., S. K. Yazdi, S. Hosseini and I. Bayestie (2015). Lead removal from aqueous solution using 

non-modified and nitric acid-modified charred carbon from the pyrolysis of used cigarette filters. 

Desalination and Water Treatment 53(1): 126-138.

St Charles, F. K., A. A. Kabbani and M. F. Borgerding (2010). Estimating tar and nicotine exposure: Human 

smoking versus machine generated smoke yields. Regulatory Toxicology and Pharmacology 56(1): 

100-110.
49

This publication is available free of charge from: http://dx.doi.org/10.6028/NIST.IR.8147

Suarez-Rodriguez, M. and C. M. Garcia (2014). There is no such a thing as a free cigarette; lining nests 

with discarded butts brings short-term benefits, but causes toxic damage. Journal of Evolutionary 

Biology 27(12): 2719-2726.

Suarez-Rodriguez, M., I. Lopez-Rull and C. M. Garcia (2013). Incorporation of cigarette butts into nests 

reduces nest ectoparasite load in urban birds: New ingredients for an old recipe? Biology Letters

9(1).

Sun, Y., W. Li, J. Wang, J. Bi and S. Su (2012). Determination of rutin in cigarette tobacco, filters, 

mainstream smoke and burned ash of different branded cigarettes by high performance liquid 

chromatography. Molecules 17(4): 3751-3760.

Sun, Y. S., W. Li, J. H. Wang, J. J. Bi and S. D. Su (2012). Determination of rutin in cigarette tobacco, 

filters, mainstream smoke and burned ash of different branded cigarettes by high performance 

liquid chromatography. Molecules 17(4): 3751-3760.

Torjussen, W., H. Zachariasen and I. Andersen (2003). Cigarette smoking and nickel exposure. Journal of 

Environmental Monitoring 5(2): 198-201.

Valavanidis, A. and E. Haralambous (2001). A comparative study by electron paramagnetic resonance of 

free radical species in the mainstream and sidestream smoke of cigarettes with conventional 

acetate filters and 'bio-filters'. Redox Report 6(3): 161-171.

Verdolotti, L., A. Salerno, R. Lamanna, A. Nunziata, P. Netti and S. Iannace (2012). A novel hybrid pualumina flexible foam with superior hydrophilicity and adsorption of carcinogenic compounds from 

tobacco smoke. Microporous and Mesoporous Materials 151: 79-87.

Wagner, K. A., R. McDaniel and D. Self (2001). Collection and preparation of sidestream cigarette smoke 

for trace elemental determinations by graphite furnace atomic absorption spectrometry and 

inductively coupled plasma mass spectrometry. Journal of Aoac International 84(6): 1934-1940.

Wang, W. and B. J. Finlayson-Pitts (2003). Measurement of trace metals in tobacco and cigarette ash by 

inductively coupled plasma-atomic emission spectroscopy. Journal of Chemical Education 80(1): 83-

85.

Wang, Y., X.-Y. Yao, D. Li, X. Jin, Q.-C. Li, B. Sun, Y.-H. Han, L. Fan and Q.-P. Qi (2007). Determination of hg 

and as in cigarette filter components with hydride generation-atomic fluorescence spectrometry. 

Tobacco Science and Technology(9): 41-45.

Waters, H. (2013). Bird butts used cigarette filters in nests may protect hatchlings. Scientific American

308(2): 24-24.

Watson, C., J. McCraw, G. Polzin and D. Ashley (2004). Development of a method to assess cigarette 

smoke intake. Environmental Science & Technology 38(1): 248-253.

Watson, C. H., J. S. Trommel and D. L. Ashley (2004). Solid-phase microextraction-based approach to 

determine free-base nicotine in trapped mainstream cigarette smoke total particulate matter. 

Journal of Agricultural and Food Chemistry 52(24): 7240-7245.

Wilson, N., J. Oliver and G. Thomson (2014). Smoking close to others and butt littering at stops: Pilot 

observational study. Peerj 2.

Wright, S. L., D. Rowe, M. J. Reid, K. V. Thomas and T. S. Galloway (2015). Bioaccumulation and biological 

effects of cigarette litter in marine worms. Scientific Reports 5.
50

This publication is available free of charge from: http://dx.doi.org/10.6028/NIST.IR.8147

Wu, D., S. Landsberger and S. M. Larson (1997). Determination of the elemental distribution in cigarette 

components and smoke by instrumental neutron activation analysis. Journal of Radioanalytical and 

Nuclear Chemistry 217(1): 77-82.

Wu, Y. P., Q. F. Zhang, L. Wang, Z. B. Su, B. He and G. Y. Yang (2012). Determination of trace lead in 

cigarette paper by flame atomic absorption spectrometry. Asian Journal of Chemistry 24(1): 126-

128.

Xia, G., L. Ma, H. Huang and X. Zhang (2012). Comparison of hazard indexes of some domestic and 

imported cigarettes. Tobacco Science and Technology(6): 37-40.

Xie, Y. Q., H. W. Tong, X. Y. Yan, X. P. Yang, B. Ding and S. M. Liu (2012). Determination of 14 polycyclic 

aromatic hydrocarbons in mainstream smoke from flue-cured cigarettes by gc-ms using a new 

internal standard. Asian Journal of Chemistry 24(8): 3499-3503.

Yang, K., H. Cui, H. Li, L. Fan, L. Zhang, X. Wu, Z. Li, A. Wang, Y. Liu and M. Ji (2015). On-line analysis of 

puff-by-puff release characteristics of co in gas phase of mainstream cigarette smoke by tdlas 

technology. Tobacco Science and Technology 48(10): 36-42.

You, J., G. Zhu, Y. Zhang and J. Ni (2014). Determination of menthol in mentholated cigarettes by 

headspace gas chromatography. Tobacco Science & Technology(8): 51-54.

Yu, J., S. Wang, B. Wang, X. Zhao, J. Cai, Q. Yan, L. Pan, F. Xie and X. Zhang (2013). Determination of eight 

volatile carbonyl compounds in cigarette filter by lc-esi-ms/ms. Tobacco Science and Technology(9): 

39-46.

Zhang, H., N. Liu, Z. Bian, G. Tang and Q. Hu (2012). Determination of phthalic acid esters in cigarette 

filter by gc/ms. Tobacco Science & Technology(3): 52-56.

Zhang, H. F., G. L. Tang, N. Liu, Z. Y. Bian and Q. Y. Hu (2012). The fate of maleic hydrazide on tobacco 

during smoking. Scientific World Journal.

Zhang, X. T., H. W. Hou, L. K. Shi, Y. Liu, A. Wang and Q. Y. Hu (2014). Novel method to analysis benzo a 

pyrene in filter by liquid chromatography/tandem mass spectrometry: Application to assess mouth 

level benzo a pyrene exposure. Rapid Communications in Mass Spectrometry 28(13): 1468-1472.

Zhao, J. and P. K. Hopke (2012). Concentration of reactive oxygen species (ros) in mainstream and 

sidestream cigarette smoke. Aerosol Science and Technology 46(2): 191-197.

Zhao, J., N. S. Zhang, C. T. Qu, X. M. Wu, J. T. Zhang and X. Zhang (2010b). Cigarette butts and their 

application in corrosion inhibition for n80 steel at 90 degrees c in a hydrochloric acid solution. 

Industrial & Engineering Chemistry Research 49(8): 3986-3991.

Zhao, J., N. S. Zhang, C. T. Qu, J. T. Zhang and X. A. Zhang (2010a). Comparison of the corrosion inhibitive 

effect of anaerobic and aerobic cigarette butts water extracts on n80 steel at 90 degrees c in 

hydrochloric acid solution. Industrial & Engineering Chemistry Research 49(24): 12452-12460.

Zheng, S., B. Liu, Z. Xu, W. Sun and D. Wu (2014). Analysis of gas phase components in mainstream 

cigarette smoke by bag sampling-thermal desorption-gc/ms. Acta Tabacaria Sinica 20(2): 9-17.