COMMERCIAL

STANDARDS

MONTHLY

A Review of Progress in

Commercial Standardization and Simplification

ISSUED BY THE NATIONAL BUREAU OF STANDARDS OF THE

UNITED STATES DEPARTMENT OF COMMERCE, WASHINGTON, D.C., U. S. A.

Vol. 8, No. 2 AUGUST, 1931

For sale by the Superintendent of Documents, Washington, D. C. Price $1.00 per Year
U. S. DEPARTMENT OF COMMERCE

R. P. LAMONT, Secretary

NATIONAL BUREAU OF STANDARDS

GEORGE K. BURGESS, Director

COMMERCIAL STANDARDS MONTHLY, S. F. Tillman, Editor

The Commercial Standardization Group

DIVISION OF SIMPLIFIED PRACTICE

Edwin W. Ely

The division of simplified pradfice cooperates with industrial and commercial groups to reduce wadle, usually through

eliminating unnecessary variety of produdl, method, or

pradfice. Its fundfion is to bring together all parties inter- ested in a projedt of this charadter, and to coordinate their

work in developing a simplified pradfice recommendation.

Such work includes surveys of current pradfice, formulation of a simplified pradtice program, and presentation of

that program for adlion by a general conference representing

all interests. The division then transmits to all concerned

a full report of the general conference, with a requeSl for written acceptance of the adtion taken. When the volume

of acceptances is sufficient to indicate initial success, the

Department of Commerce indorses the program and publishes

the recommendation. The division thereafter cooperates

with a Standing committee appointed by the induSlry concerned, in condudling periodic surveys to determine the

degree of adherence, to maintain and extend support of the

recommendation, and to secure data for reaffirmation or

revision. Simplified pradtice may be applied to any com- modity or adtivity in which it will reduce

waSte. The division Stands ready to render

service in developing and making effedtive any application of simplified pradtice which

will reduce waSte,. Stabilize business, or extend commerce.

BUILDING AND HOUSING DIVISION

J. S. Taylor

The division of building and housing,

formed in 1921, cooperates with business,

technical, and professional groups in furthering conStrudtion adtivities. It works to modernize building codes and to encourage improved Standards for the quality of building conStrudtion, and the practical application of the lateSt development in design and use of building materials.

It encourages home ownership through the development

of an enlarged. Steadier, more intelligent, and more discriminating demand for dwellings—the largeSt single class of

buildings which the construction industries provide.

The division also cooperates with other governmental

agencies and with many private business and professional

groups in efforts to distribute building adtivity more evenly

throughout the year and to secure less fludluation from

year to year. The work on city planning and zoning has the broad

objedtive of making buildings more useful through proper

location with respedt to other Strudtures, Stabilizing of land

values and property uses, well coordinated thoroughfare

systems, and well laid out public works.

STANDARDIZATION

..IS.. A CONTINUING PROCESS

(T^ ITS AIM IS NOT FIXITY OR STAGNATION

. . BUT.. TO ADD SERVICEABILITY

AS OFTEN AS THE

POTENTIAL GAIN

MAKES IT WORTH WHILE

DIVISION OF SPECIFICATIONS

A. S. 'McAlliiler The duties of the division of specifications are to promote

and facilitate the use and unification of specifications. In doing so it carries on adtivities involving cooperation with

technical societies; trade associations; Federal, State, and

municipal Government specifications making and using

agencies; producers, distributors, and consumers; and teSting

and research laboratories. It ascertains the Standardization

and specifications promoting adtivities of the associations and societies, and brings to their attention the work being

done by the commercial Standardization group. It brings the

Federal specifications and commercial Standards to the atten- tion of the maximum number of producers and users of commodities complying with these Standards and specifications.

It compiles and distributes liSts of sources of supply of materials guaranteed to comply with the Standards and specifi- cations. It shows both buyers and sellers the benefits fron

handling nationally specified, certified, and labeled commodities. The division prepares direcftories of governmental and

nongovernmental teSting laboratories and the Direcflory of

Specifications, and is working on an encyclopedia of specifications, the firSt two volumes of which

have been issued, namely, “Standards and

Specifications in the Wood-Using Industries”

and “Standards and Specifications for Nonmetallic Minerals and their Produdls.” It also aids in preparing the Standards Yearbook.

DIVISION OF TRADE STANDARDS

tl. ]. Fairchild]

The division of trade Standards, on requeSt,

assists industrial and commercial groups in the voluntary establishment of Standards

covering grades, quality, dimensional interchangeability, or other acceptance criteria as a national

basis for marketing manufactured commodities.

The detail criteria are selected or determined voluntarily

by interested buyers or sellers, without any Government

dictation or domination, and adjuSted at a general confer- ence of producers, distributors, and users so as to represent

the composite views of all branches. The division functions

chiefly as a neutral agency to see that all interested elements

are given full opportunity to be heard and satisfied; to

solicit and record acceptances; and to publish and promulgate

the Standard when a satisfactory majority of acceptances is obtained and provided there is no aCtive opposition.

Industries are encouraged to apply self-certifying labels to products meeting the commercial Standard requirements, as a means of protecting the consumer and the scrupulous seller from misrepresentation or unfair methods of marketing.

Provision is made for regular revision of the Standard

through the appointment of a Standing committee to consider periodically any necessity for revision of the Standard,

in order that it may be kept constantly compatible with

progress in the industry.

Address NATIONAL BUREAU OF STANDARDS, Washington, D. C., for further information
COMMERCIAL STANDARDS MONTHLY

A Review of Progress in

Commercial Standardization and Simplification

Volume 8 WASHINGTON, D. C., AUGUST, 1931 Number 2

SUBJECT ANALYSES

CODES Page

Developments in zoning legislation 38 Metal mining code revised (standardization briefs) 61 Model traffic law used by 38 cities 60 Telegraph code for the electrical industry (standardi- zation briefs) 62 Uniformity of vehicle traffic rules sought 54 ELECTRICITY A simple time meter 49

Standardization in transport of electrical energy 48

Standardization of electrical units an international problem 47 Telegraph code for the electrical industry (standardi- zation briefs).^ 62 FOODS

Approval of food products by medical association 51 Egg grading now universal 43 Costa Rica requires certificates on hog-lard imports

(standardization briefs) 61 Federal standards for farm products 35 Food industries favor standards for their products 60 Poland standards for butter revised 59 Revision of food standards (standardization briefs) 62 FOREIGN ITEMS

A. P. I. standards effective in Germany and England. . 53 Costa Rico requires certificates on hog-lard imports

(standardization briefs) 61 Egg grading now universal 43

Identification colors for gas cylinders (standardization

briefs) 62

International Association for Testing Materials to meet

at Zurich 45 National industry standards committee in China (stand- ardization briefs) 61 Poland standards for butter revised 59 Standards Commission of Sweden (standardization briefs) . 61 Valve fittings for compressed gas cylinders (standardization briefs) 61 Wrought-aluminium alloys (standardization briefs) 61 NEWS FROM STANDARDIZING BODIES

Activities of the American Standards Association 40 American Society for Testing Materials 41

A. P. I. standards effective in Germany and England 53

Federal specifications 60

International Association for Testing Materials to meet

at Zurich 45

Standardizing railway specifications 55 METALS

A. P. I. standards effective in Germany and England.. 53 Hack-saw blades 59

Steel-pipe nipples (standardization briefs) 61 Valve fittings for compressed gas cylinders (standardization briefs) 61 Wrought-aluminium alloys (standardization briefs) 61 WOOD

Government specifications on boxes (new publications) . . 50 Lead pencils 58 Plywood standard 59

GLASS Page Glass containers for majmnnaise, salad dressing, and

sandwich spread 59 Schedule for glass containers for preserves, jellies, and

apple butter revised 59 MISCELLANEOUS

American industries play part in national defense 46 Approaching an ideal specification 56 Dental lathe grinding wheels 51 Indexing manufacturers in California 51

10,000 acceptors to simplified practice 34 Making fireworks by specification (standardization briefs) . 61 Pennsylvania to promote campaign for elimination of waste 52

Standardization briefs 61 Sulphonated oils (standardization briefs) 62

Tolerance and tolerances 44 MINING

Diamond core drill fittings 58 Metal mining code revised (standardization briefs) 61 Wasteful variety in coal-mining equipment proves costly. 42 NEW PUBLICATIONS

Fast-selvage terry towels 50 Government specifications on boxes 50 Ice-cream brick molds and cartons 50 Handbook of X-ray safety rules 50 PAPER AND TEXTILES

Advertisement of quality in the paper-bag industry

(standardization briefs) 62 Consumers’ specifications for textiles 52 Eliminating the “just as good” quality of paper 39

Fast-selvage terry towels (new publications) : 50 Government specifications on boxes (new publications) . . 50 Ice-cream brick molds and cartons (new publications).. 50 Knit I’ayon underwear 57

Polished cotton twine 60

Raj’on specifications 53 Standards for wool to])s 58

Testing the strength of manila rope 57 QUALITY MARKS AND LABELS

Approval of food products by medical association 51 Barber supply house corrects labeling of its goods

(standardization briefs) 62 Costa Rico requires certificates on hog-lard imports

(standardization briefs) , 61 Grapefruit j nice found misbranded (standardization briefs). 62

Identification colors for gas cylinders (standardization

briefs) 62 Indorsement of labeling by consumer group 60 Muskrat hide dealer stops use of word “seal” (stand- ardization briefs) 62 Poland standards for butter revised 59

Quality advertising in the jewelry industry 62

Selling gasoline on quality basis 50 To label “antifreeze” mixtures 59 To prosecute for false labeling (standardization briefs) 61 To stop false advertising of watch cases (standardization briefs) 61

AN INVITATION TO VISIT THE NATIONAL BUREAU OF STANDARDS

A cordial invitation is extended to all interested in scientific progress to visit the laboratories of

the National Bureau of Standards when in Washington. A personally conducted trip is organized at

2.15 p. m. daily except on holidays. Special trips for groups may he arranged at other times by writing

to the bureau in advance. The bureau’s illustrated Visitor's Manual ma}^ be had tor the asking. This

lists the work in progress and gives an airplane view of the ensemble and a brief statement of typical

discoveries and inventions which have been notable, basic contributions to radio, aviation, and other

modern arts and industries.

69773—31 1 33
10,000 ACCEPTORS

TO SIMPLIFIED PRACTICE

ig^i Fiscal Tear Shows Marked Increase

in Promulgation of Programs

^^I^WENTY new simplified -practice recommendations were developed by industry during the

/ fiscal year ending June 30, 1931. These additions raised the total number of recommendations to 117, exclusive of one regional recommendation and one limitation of variety

recommendation. Other programs are in course of acceptance.

Ten thousand different associations and firms are now listed as acceptors of these 117 rec- ommendations, several having accepted two or more programs. The total number of acceptances

recorded for the recommendations is approximately 30,000.

The most remarkable thing about this steady rise in number during the past 10 years is the

increasing interest in simplified practice as shown by consumers of the commodities simplified.

This interest is maintained not only in the existing recommendations, but also extends to the

establishment of new simplification programs. For example, one simplified -practice recommendation that was originated during the past year by consumers, and which is now before industry

for acceptance, is the packaging of certain items of overhead electric railway material. Similarly,

two other projects were proposed by representative users and are now being developed. This

interest, on the part of the consumer, is not confined to individuals. Such national associations

as those composed of purchasing agents, storekeepers, building and construction contractors,

architects, department stores, groceries, and druggists, are constantly increasing their efforts to eliminate waste through the application of simplified practice.

During the same fiscal year 15 simplified -practice recommendations were issued as printed

pamphlets. The total number of printed recommendations to date is 115. A total of 3 7 existing recommendations were reviewed by their respective standing committees

during the same 12-month period. Of these, 31 were reaffirmed without change for additional

periods, and 6 were revised.

Surveys of production, distribution and use, were made of adherence to 13 simplified-practice

recommendations. The acceptors reporting indicated that, on the average, approximately 90

per cent of their volume of production conformed with the recommendations. Similar surveys

made during the previous year revealed that the percentages of adherence for 25 commodities

averaged 87 per cent.

Responsible agencies in the various industries affected have reported to the National Bureau

of Standards that savings due to the adherence to the entire program of 117 simplified -practice

recommendations, total more than $250,000,000 a year. Individual firms have reported that they

are saving thousands of dollars annually.

34
AUGUST, 1931 COMMERCIAL STANDARDS MONTHLY 35

FEDERAL STANDARDS FOR FARM PRODUCTS

Federal Standards and Certification Have Greatly Facilitated Future Trading in Agricultural Commodities

By Nils A. Olsen *

The standardization of farm products by the United

States Department of Agriculture roots deeply in the

needs of our agriculture. The work has developed logically from the desire of producers, dealers, and con- sumers for a uniform and universal yardstick with

which to measure variations in the quality of farm

products as a basis for trading. Local' standards or brands set up by individuals, associations, chambers of

commerce, and States had served in a limited way, but

they could not prevent confusion and misunderstandings, since these local standards varied from region to region and almost from market to market. Increasing

distance between producer and consumer brought about

by the specialization of agriculture in areas far re- moved from markets intensified the problem.

Need for measures of quality as a basis for market

quotations and information also favored the development of Federal standards. Without standards it was

impossible to make adequate price comparisons between markets or between periods. When Congress

made an apiiropriation in 1916 especially for a market

information service, the formulation of standards be- came imperative.

The financing necessities of agriculture provided

further reasons for Federal activity in standardization. The passage of the Federal warehouse act, largely brought about by the condition of the cotton market in 1914, was designed primarily to provide

warehouse receipts carrying information that would

enable bankers at a distance to appraise the market

value of cotton covei-ed by such receipts and convince

bankers that there was responsibility back of the ware- housemen who issued the receipts.

Other conditions developed by the World War hastened the Federal work in standardization of farm

products. The cotton futures act passed in 1914 re- quired the use of Federal standards in future trading

in cotton; the grain standards act of 1916 required the

use of Federal standards in interstate commerce when

grain was sold on grade ; the food products act of 1917

provided authority for the establishment of permissive

or optional standards and an inspection on fruits,

vegetables, and other products. These acts, together

with the cotton standards act of 1923, requiring the

use of Federal standards in all cotton transactions

based on grade, and the inclusion annually of authorit}'^ in the appropriation acts of the department, have

given the standardization and the resulting inspection

service of the department a permanent legislative

status. Standards for farm products are a result of evolution and have been shaped by conditions both within

and without the industry. Inevitably they reflect variations in agricidtural commodities themselves. As

contrasted with most products of industry, farm prod

nets present a wide range in qualities, because of

varietal, environmental, and seasonal influences. In

' Chief. Bureau of Agricultural Economics, U. S. Department of

•Agriculture.

our efforts to eliminate undesirable varieties in agriculture we have something perhaps akin to the “ simplified commercial practice ” of industry, but the

process of eliminating undesirable varieties and undesirable qualities of the products of agriculture is a

slow one at best; therefore standards must be develo^ied for agricultural products as they come from the

soil in all their variation. Emphasis on quality factors

necessarily varies with the commodity. For example,

since foreign material is more readily removed from

beans than from wheat, it is given a different emphasis

in the standards for beans than in the standards fox- wheat.

Farm commodities change with production practices. A class of wheat as grown to-day contains less admixture of other wheats than was ti'ue some years

ago. This makes it desirable to reduce the admixture

of other wheats pi’eviously allowed under the standards.

On the other hand, the demand for agricultural

products is not unifoi’m. Preferences and requirements of consumers often vary materially from market to market as well as from period to period in

regard to any given commodity. The Boston mai'ket

pays a substantial premium for green asparagus,

whereas Springfield consumers, 100 miles or so away,

disclose no like preference for color in asparagus.

The standards can not accommodate themselves to all graduations in consumer requirements, but they seek

to cover as far as practicable the major variations in

market demand.

Changes in industrial technique or in methods of

marketing may greatly alter the importance of quality

factors or quality standards. Hard wheat previously

sold at a discount, but, as a result of revolutionary

developments in methods of milling, it now sells at a premium. Progress in research and standardization

technique has an important influence. The improved

colorimeter, for example, pei’mits the definitions and

measurement of the color factor with an accuracy

never before possible. Progress in the field of price

analysis is now making it possible to measure quantitatively the market importance of certain quality

factors. Certain broad principles are recognized as fundamental in the development of Federal standards.

Such standards cover significant gradations in

quality; thei’efore the standai'ds established for trading in agi'icultural commodities ai-e not the minimum

standards of the food and drug legislation and are not directly comparable with the commercial standards of industi’y. Instead, they cover all segments

of the supply and afford a basis for trading in all qualities of the pi-oducts.

The .standards reflect, to a lai’ge degree, the normal

spreads in the market value of a commodity. It is contemplated that steps between grades, on the

average, will correlate fairly closely with the price

diffei'entials that obtain in the market, but until

recently thei’e has been no adequate measure of the
36 COMMERCIAL STANDARDS MONTHLY AUGUST, 1931

jirice significance of separate quality factors; in fact, some quality factors that affect prices may not yield to

statistical measurements. Observation and judgment,

therefore, must be employed in measuring the market

significance of quality factors while more adequate

measurements are being devised.

On the other hand, we can not expect the relationship between the grades and market price differentials to remain constant. Apart from the influence of variations in the supply upon price differentials, it is apparent that these differentials are not always based

upon differences in the intrinsic or objective value of

the product. Premiums and discounts may reflect bu}^ers’ opinions as toi value which do not always cor- respond to intrinsic value. Prior to the adoption of

Federal standards, for instance, “pea-green color” was the factor of quality in alfalfa hay that com- manded a premium, but as studies have disclosed that

the feed value of alfalfa hay correlates more closely

with its leafiness, the factor of leafiness is given

greater emphasis than color in the standards. The in- fluence of the standards and the educational work

accompanying their introduction is apparently reflect- ed in the steadily increasing premiums paid for

“ leafy ” as compared with “ pea-green ” alfalfa. Thus for some commodities standards are formulated that express the relative food, feed, processing, or manufacturing utility of the product. Such stand-,

ards assist in bringing about a better adjustment between market prices and variations in quality.

Stability from year to year is a further requirement.

The standards are not shifted from season to season, •depending upon the quality of the crop, and they are uniform within reasonable limits throughout the

country. They cover characteristics common to products groAvn in all major regions and do not reflect the

characteristics that are peculiar to products in only

limited areas, except where differences in quality of a product are so marked as to differentiate them as sep- arate classes of the product. Yet the standards are

flexible enough to allow for occasional adjustment to significant long-time changes in the character of the

product, in market requirements, and in technique.

In the standardization work effort is made to keep

the standards thoroughly practicable in the buying and

selling of farm products. Established trade practices are reflected in the grades as far as possible, and the

cooperation of the trade is enlisted to secure the adoption of the standards by the industry. The experience

•of the trade with private standards has played no small

2iart in the development of the Federal standards.

The factors selected to represent quality and the emphasis placed upon quality factors vary with the commodity. Grain is graded on numerous factors of quality, among which test weight, moisture content, foreign

material, damage, and the various factors of condition,

such as coolness, heating, sweetness, and sourness, are

•of fundamental importance. The wool standards, on

the other hand, are at present based on only one factor,

the diameter of the fiber. Color is more important as

a factor in the market value of hay than of wheat, and

color is regarded as a more important index of quality

in timothy than in alfalfa hay.

The points at which the upper and lower limits of

grades are placed likeivise differ with commodities.

The limits of a grade must be wide enough apart to avoid technicalities that impair their practical use, but

iif the Junits ai-e not reasonabl,y marrow, significant differences in quality between commodities near the bottom and those near the top limits of the grade Avill result. Quantitative measurement of quality factors in agricultural commodities presents unusual difficulties, and

researches to date have not developed mechanical or chemical tests with which to measure all of them, but

increased definiteness in the specifications of the standards and in certification according to them is gradually

being attained. Ten years ago only a few mechanical

and chemical tests Avere used successfully by the department in measuring quality factors, and they Avere used in the ca^se of only three or four commodities ; to- day such tests are constantly increasing in number and

efficiency and are applied to many products.

A feAV examples Avill suffice. Three of the factors

of quality in grain—moisture content, test weight,

and cleanliness—are determined by chemical and mechanical tests. A new device for determining the

moisture contents, based on the principle of measuring the resistance to an electric current as it passes

through a body of grain, is in process of development

and promises to replace the old method commercially.

The new method requires only 30 seconds for a determination as compared Avith 40 minutes under the old

method. Both Federal and State departments of

agriculture are employing technical tests in measuring certain quality factors in fruits ; the saccharimeter

is used in ascertaining the sugar content of grapes, the

sugar acid test for maturity of citrus fruits, and the

specific gravity test for maturity of cantaloupes. In

the examination and grading of canned fruits and

vegetables a pressure gauge is used to ascertain the

“ vacuum condition ” of the can, the density of sirups

is tested with hydrometers, brine solutions are tested

Avith salinometers, and penetrometers are used in determining the consistency of such products as canned

pumpkin. An improA^ed cotton-fiber sorting machine

measures fiber lengths Avith a high degree of accuracy

and Avith the bundle fiber test the strength of cotton

fibers can be ascertained. Additional tests are constantly in process of development. Studies of the

palatability of meat, for instance, are expected to help

establish the relationship between external evidences

of quality and the quality of the product itself. The tendency throughout is to substitute accurate

technical tests for human judgment. It will be diffi- cult to deAdse technical tests for the quantitative meas- urement of such factors as flavor and odor ; moreover,

the tests must be of a simple and practical nature if they are to serve in the commercial certifying of commodities. But though the difficulties to overcome are many, the possibilities in this field are Avell nigh limitless, and encouraging progress is being made.

The best test of the practicability of the standards

is the use to which they are put. The Federal standards haA'e not as yet completely established themselves

in all parts of our agriculture; because of their very

nature it can not reasonably be expected that they will

meet all requirements of producers, consumers, and

dealers. But during the 15 years of this work there

has been wide adoption of these standards for use in

this country and in many foreign lands.

Some of the Federal standards are mandatory, their use being required in interstate transactions based on

grade, as in the case of cotton and grain; and Federal

standards must be used on Federal warehouse receipts

except where depositors request that grade certifica-
AUGUST, 1031 COMMERCIAL STANDARDS MONTHLY 37

tion be omitted. All other Federal standards are of a permissive character and their use is wholly voluntary,

except that certain States have made the use of cer- tain Federal standards obligatory under specified

conditions.

Since 1914, standards for practically every agricultural commodity have been issued. AVithin each com- modity may be several classes or types for which separate sets of standards have been provided. In man}'^ cases these standards have been adopted as official standards by States, exchanges, and associations.

Under a special agreement, reached in 1923, with the

European Cotton Exchanges, the grade standards for cotton were issued as universal standards. The standards for grain and other commodities are also receiving recognition in many foreign countries.

Concrete evidence of the usefulness of the Federal

standards is found in the records of the inspection

service. Certification under the standards is made in

large part by inspectors licensed by the Department

of Agriculture. Unfortunately, a common basis for

comparing certification of the various commodities is not available. The certification of grain and cotton according to Federal standards is mandatory when

the commodity is sold according to grade ; for other

commodities certification is wholly voluntar3^ A

total of 1,353,800 carloads of grain were inspected in

1918-19; 10 years later (1928-29) these inspections

had mounted to 1,916,940, an increase of 42 per cent. Similar data covering inspections by licensees are not

available for cotton, but the increased distribution of

type samples and the growing number of licensed cot- ton classes are indicative of the growing use of Federal standards in the merchandising of cotton. The record of inspections under the permissive

standards shows substantial progress with regard to

all commodities in volume of product inspected,

although in the majority of cases the inspections

account for only a small percentage of the commercial

supply, ranging from less than 1 per cent in meats to as high as 80 per cent in the case of potatoes. For a group of products as a whole, the use of the per- missive standards is probably most marked in fruits

and vegetables. During the current year the quantity

inspected amounted to more than 288,000 carloads,

representing more than 25 per cent of the car-lot

movement for the entire country. The use of standards by the fruit and vegetable industry has expanded

markedly at shipping points; 94 per cent of the certificates issued during the current year were based on

Federal grades, and 85 per cent of all inspections were made at shipping point. This growing use of inspections at shipping points forcefully illustrates the value

that shippers attach to the service. The inspections

are made for a fee and the shipping point inspection

is practically self-supporting ; evidently this service is selling itself. Demand for standardization and certification of

farm products recently has come from some new

directions. Canners expressed a wish to pui'chase

vegetables from producers on the basis of grades, and

canning-tomato grades were accordingly issued in

1926. This year 57 canners, located in 10 States, indicated their intention of contracting with their growei’s

for the 1930 crop on the basis of Federal grades.

Standards for canned fruits and vegetables' are fast becoming an important factor in the financing of the

canning industry. Recently the demand has broadened to cover their use in the buying and selling of

canned foods. Under present legislation, however,

the use of Federal standards for canned fruits and

vegetables is limited to products stored in federally

licensed warehouses. The growing demand for this- service on canned products for merchandising purposes is illustrated by the stipulation of a large chain

grocery company that all canned tomatoes purchased

for its account have to be shipped to federally licensed

warehouses, the avowed purpose being to have the

goods inspected on the basis of Federal standards.

In the short span of a decade and a half. Federal

standardization and certification of farm products

have become integral parts of our agricultural structure. It now remains to perfect this service. Thecountry at last has a common language in which tO' express gradations in the quality of farm products.

Federal standards provided this language. This was

a fundamental step in agricultural marketing. The

standards supplied an indispensable basis for price

quotations the country over, and made possible a comprehensive nation-wide market information service.

Federal standards and market news have brought

widely separated buyers and sellers closer together.

They have helped the farmer to obtain the price to which the quality of his products and the condition

of the market entitle him; Ave are gradually Avorking

away from the flat, average price paid to the producer for his product, irrespective of its quality. This

double service has helped to make the farmers’ market world-Avide. The area over which demand can

operate quickly and sensitively has been vastly broadened. Distant buyers can purchase on the basis of

grade and be reassured, within narroAV limits, as to the characteristics of the product they buy. Under

such conditions every product, according to its quality,

is helped to find its most advantageous market.

The guarantees of quality afforded by an impartial national service of standards and certification re- duce the merchandising risk incident to undersirable

or fraudulent deliveries on contracts. Federal standards and certification have greatly facilitated future

trading in agricultural commodities. In future trading the buyer can not choose the particular seller with

whom he will trade ; his protection, therefore, must be

in the accurate certification of the product under

standards that adequately describe it. It is the general observation of those associated with

the inspection service that Federal standards and certification have facilitated a meeting of minds between

buyer and seller and placed the ethics of the market

place on a higher level. AVhere the service is regularly used, deception and fraud by either buyer or

seller are more difficult. In the administration of the

perishable agricultural commodities act, passed in the

recent session of Congress, which requires the licensing

of car-lot dealers in fresh fruits and A'egetables ancl the supervision of certain transactions in that trade,

the standardization and inspection service of the department Avill be of inestimable A^alue. The reflection to producers of pidce differentials ac- cording to quality is registering a gradual influence

upon agricultural production. Farmers are sensitiA^e to the price incentive—the shifts that have taken place

in the production of fruit and ATgetable AUirieties, for

instance, illustrate the response of farmers to price differentials and the desire to produce Avhat the public

Avants to buy.
38 COMMERCIAL STANDARDS MONTHLY AUGUST, 1931 To carry this work through to the buying housekee]ier is now a great need. We have made a promising beginning in the ivay of stamping the grade of cuts of beef, attaching a statement of grade on holiday tur- keys, using certificates of quality in the butter cartons

and related work, but we must go much further. Until the individual consumer thinks in terms of qualities and buys on the basis of grades that signify quality, there can not be the most sensitive adjustment of

price to quality.

DEVELOPMENTS IN ZONING LEGISLATION

Smaller Communities Adoption of Zoning Laws Outstanding in 1930

The control of municipal growth of smaller communities by zoning is one of the recent striking developments in the zoning field, according to a survey

of zoning laws and ordinances for 1930 just completed

by the division of building and housing of the National Bureau of Standards. Of 77 municipalities

adopting zoning ordinances for the first time last 3^ear,

70 had population not in excess of 40,000, whereas in

the early days of zoning it was the larger cities, for

the most jDart, that took it up. The ordinances adopted last year brought the number of communities having them nearly up to the

1,000 mark, representing more than 46,000,000 persons,

Avhich is equal to more than 67 jier cent of the urban

liopulation of the United States. Zoning, it is pointed out in the report, is designed

to regulate the kind and density of uses of private

land, and the use, height, and bulk of private buildings in the interest of the community as a whole, in

order that its inhabitants may enjoy the greater degree

of health and safety and the economic benefits that

attend a more open, orderly, and stable development.

It is not claimed for zoning that all future needs

of a community may be foreseen and provided for. Maps are not fixed nor ordinances immutable. Zoning

cuts off premature and sporadic exploitation of districts by their utilization in a harmful manner, at the same time being sufficiently flexible to yield to a defi- nite need and demand for the oiiening up of an area

to a different type of use than that for which it had

previously been set aside. Like all other governmental

measures, the success of zoning rests largely in wise

administration.

Zoning authority extending at least to some municipalities had been granted in all States, but additional

zoning legislation was enacted in Kentucky, New Jersey, and Virginia at the 1930 legislative sessions, and

other minor zoning laws were enacted during the year

in other States. The exjDansion in zoning in smaller communities is regarded as a recognition of the fact that the environment for work, play, and pleasant home life may be

imj)roved through the iirevention of hurtful invasions

into the various zoning districts by incompatible uses. These invasions are as detrimental to the small com- munity as to the large city.

Another significant development containing many

possibilities for improved enjoyment of the outdoors

is the enactment of zoning ordinances by townships in several States. Through this adaptation of zoning

the control of land uses is applied to larger areas of more or less open development. Among other things,

it offers a valuable means of improving roadside conditions. It has largely been applied in resort and suburban areas, but it is equally applicable elsewhere.

The greatest activity in zoning in 1930 was in New

Jersey, 33 municipalities either adopting new ordi- nances or revising and amending their existing ordi- nances. New York showed the next greatest activity,

and California was third, Avith Ohio, Massachusetts,

Iowa, and Michigan folloAving in the order named.

Ordinances Avere amended or adopted, moreover, in

30 other States. New York ranks first in the number of zoned municipalities, having 159 of the total of 981 for the country. NeAV Jersey is second Avith 120 and California

third with 98. The majority of the zoning ordinances in effect on January 1, 1931, are comprehensive in scope. Of the

total, 655, or 68 per cent, regulate the use, height, and

area of buildings. Of the 77 new ordinances adopted

last year, 45 are considered comprehensive.

The only city of more than 100,000 population that

adopted a zoning ordinance for the first time in 1930 was San Antonio. Only 11 of the 93 cities in this population group are without zoning ordinances, and re- ports from them indicate a substantial activity in zon- ing study. Philadelphia, the third largest city of the

United States, is one of tliese cities. Five cities haAung

40,000 to 100,000 population passed zoning ordinances

in 1930. They Avere Springfield, Mo., Springfield,

Ohio, Elmira, N. Y., Union City, N. J., and Phoenix,

Ariz. Many of the unzoned cities in this group are

also carrying on zoning studies.

An anal3

fsis of the remaining municipalities that

enacted ordinances during 1930 for the first time shows

that there Avere 10 cities having less than 40,000 and more than 20,000 ; 12 having less than 20,000 and more

than 10,000 ; 19 having less than 5,000 ; and one county

of 65,000 population.

The development of aviation has brought new problems into the field of zoning in the regulation of the

height of structures in areas adjacent to aviation fields. A number of studies have been made of the problems

involved, an important contribution being made last year in the issuance of a report of the committee on

airport zoning and eminent domain, working under

the auspices of the Aeronautics Branch of the Department of Commerce.

The report stated that under the police power the

main protection of airports from uses of abutting or neighboring land is in the regulation of these uses by

zoning. It Avas pointed out by the committee, hoAvever, that there can be no such regulation solely in

the interest of the port, but that, rather, such regulation must be for the protection of the interests of the

public itself in its enjoyment of aerial transportation.
AUGUST, 1931 .COMMERCIAL STANDARDS MONTHLY 39

ELIMINATING THE “JUST AS GOOD” QUALITY OF PAPER

The Federal Government Has Purchased Paper on Quality Specifications for More than 20 Years

By R. H. SiMiioNs, Government Printing Office^

Standardization in the paper industry may be

roughly classed under three heads—size, weight, and

quality. Standardization of quality has met with the

most opposition from paper manufacturers, and is the

bone of contention when standardization is mentioned.

It is evident that standardization of sizes should

take the interest of the consumer into account as well

as those of the producer. Some odd sizes must still be produced, but the standardization of sizes has been

of assistance in the standardization of olRce equipment,

press sizes, and paper converting machinery. It has

also reduced toi a minimum the number of stock sizes carried by manufacturers. The manufacturer can in- crease the quantity of these standard items with a rea- sonable assurance that there will be a demand for

them. It also helps the purchasing agents in that they

are assued a ready supply. They can standardize their

forms to match the standard sizes of paper and cut the cost of excess waste in conversion.

The standardization of weights of paper has also

been fairly well taken care of by the manufacturer.

Simplified Practice Recommendation No. 22 (a National Bureau of Standards publication) included the

recommendation of a basis weight size of 25 by 40

inches, since calculation to 1,000 square inches is easier

to figure than calculation to 17 by 22 as for bonds or 25 by 38 as for book papers. The adoption of the

standard 1,000-sheet unit in place of reams varying in

count from 480 to 516 sheets is another step in the

right direction. This simplifies calculations for the

printer, who sells in units of 1,000.

The standardization of quality, however, has been

woefully neglected as far as the paper maker is concerned. There have been several attempts to bring

about standardization in quality, but the effort .was not sufficiently sustained. The fact that the quality

of paper can be standardized has been demonstrated

by the United States Government, which for more

than 20 years has bought its pajier on quality specifications. There has been considerable opposition to these specifications at various times by individual contractors, but the fact that the opposition was not justi- fied is becoming more and more evident, as shown by

those manufacturers who readily make paper to con- form with specifications. Thirty-nine manufacturei’s

and jobbers submitted bids this year on the annual

contracts for 408 items of paper purchased for use in Government printing and binding. All bids must be on specification ; if a bidder submits merely a samiile

his bid is not considered.

The original specifications drawn up by the Government for the purchase of paper were necessarily

rather meager, due to lack of data as to what consti-

^Alistract of an address delivered before the Sixteenth Annual Convention of the National Association of I’urchasing Agents, Toronto,

Canad.a, .Tune, 1931.

tuted satisfactory paper. At the time these specifications went into effect there were few instruments for

paper testing, and so there were few tests made. In

1925, the United T3qTothet8e of America and the Government Printing Office cooperated in testing a large

number of samples of commercial bond and ledger

papers. The report on these tests included tentative

specifications for bond and ledger papers which were

later adopted for use in the purchase of these papers

used by the Government. Additional factors to aid in

insuring permanency constitute the few changes which

liave since been made in these specifications.

That there should be standards of quality in paper

as well as in other products of manufacture lias been

recognized by many of the leading paper manufacturers. Standards are creeping into various parts of the

paper industry, but the major class of papers—namely,

printing and book papers—have not been touched by

the trade. Fine papers, such as bonds and ledgers, are maintained by some individual manufacturers to their

own standards.

Several mills have gone so far as to watermark their

paiiers according to the grade which the paper is supposed or guaranteed to meet. They have standardized

their products according to their own grades, which

are not necessarily comiiarable to the grades of their

competitors. Many paper companies have standardized in this manner, but are apparentl}^ not willing to adopt the national standards which would result from

a definite program of standardization b^^ the paper

industrjR

To be successful, standardization must show a benefit to the consumer as well as the producer. The standardization of paper will be constructive and not destructive. The reduction of the number of grades of

paper should be an advantage to both producer and

consumer. If a mill can cut its stock from 40 grades

to 20 or less, a saving should result in that there will

be only half as many changes of “ furnish.” Eveiy

paper maker knows how much this would mean in his

mill. Nothing cuts down the production so much as continual changing of “ furnish.” Then, the number

of grades which they will have to stock will be cut onehalf, which in turn will cut the cost of iiiventor}\

These are a few points in favor of standardization for

the paper maker.

From the purchaser’s point of view standardization

should give better value for money expended and better qualitv in that the paper maker should be able

through the increased manufacture of a few grades to improve the quality of his product and at the same

time cut costs. Standardization should inci-ease the speed of deliveries due to manufacturers and merchants stocking the

standard grades in larger (juantities. It should sim-

])lifv purchasing due to the fact that fewer grades,

with more marked dill'erences lietween them, would

not confuse the purchaser. Standardization of (pialit^v

would not permit of the “just as good” salesman
40 COMMERCIAL STANDAEDS MONTHLY AUGUST, 1931

offering an inferior product. Standard grades of

paper ivould make it clecidedly easier to get the same

grade and quality for reprints or for such jobs where

there is an annual publication, and it is desired to keep the same grade and color. Color, finish, and formation are mill characteristics

and since the appearance and distinction of the fin- ished job depends to a considerable extent on them, a good portion of the cost of the paper is often repre- sented by these items. It is conceivable that of two

papers of the same basic quality one might cost, and

be well worth, considerably more than the other, due

toi its superiority in these respects.

Standardization of paper should result in a decided saving and ease in estimating costs for printing.

It would eliminate guesswork and make it possible to buy or order printing on a more businesslike basis. In other words, standardization will put a common

language intoi the hands of the paper maker and the

purchaser of paper by which they can carry on their

business in more harmony than has been heretofore

evidenced.

ACTIVITIES OF THE AMERICAN STANDARDS ASSOCIATION

New Standards and Specifications Approved—Revision of Codes and Specifications Under Way

Current developments of the following standardization projects under the auspices and procedures of the

American Standards Association have been furnished

by that association

;

Portland cement.—Specifications for Portland ce- ment, divided into two standards in the latest revision,

have been approved as American standards. The two

divisions of the standard are : Ala-1931, Standard specifications for Portland cement; Alb-1931, Standard

methods of testing Portland cement. The original standard ivas one of a group over which

the American Society for Testing Materials exercises

sole sponsorship, under A. S. A. procedure. The sectional' committee which prepared the revision is an

enlargement of the A. S. T. M. committee on cement.

Through the addition of the members more adequate

representation of the industry was obtained.

Reorganization of sectional committee.—The A. S. A. Standards Council has approved the complete

reorganization of the sectional committee on the

Safety Code for Brakes and Brake Testing. Since

the present code, which was approved in 1927, covered

only 2-wheel braking systems for passenger cars, a revision is necessary to include all types of brakingsystems now in use on passenger cars and trucks.

The reorganized committee, under the sponsorship

of the American Automobile Association and the

National Bureau of Standards, will begin active

preparation of the revised code as soon as sufficient funds have been provided to carry on the research

work contemplated by the committee.

As the result of the work of a sectional committee

under the sponsorship of the American Mining Congress, which has been active since 1924, the Safety

Code for Coal Mine Transportation lias been approved

as American recommended practice. Five complete

drafts of the code were prepai-ed by the committee

before a standard-—satisfactory to all interests—was

obtained. The new standard deals with transportation on level and inclined tracks, both underground

and in the mine yards; and haulage, whether by

motors, animals, or men. Complete systems of signals

and safety rules are given.

A revision of the Safety Code for the Protection of

Industrial Workers in Foundries is being prepared by

the newly organized sectional committee under the

sponsorship of the American Foundrymen’s Association and the National Founders Association. The personnel of the committee was approved by the A. S. A.

Standards Council at its meeting on June 8. The original code was approved in 1922 as American

tentative standard. It is now proposed to bring the

code up to date and advance the status to American

standard.

Since the recent approval of the scope of the proposed safety code for grand stands, work has been going forward in the organization of subcommittees to prepare tentative drafts of various sections of the code.

The sections which are in process of preparation will

include the following subjects : General design and construction, concrete structures, portable steel' and

wooden structures, permanent steel and wooden structures, and fire protection and exits. The scope of the

project, which has just been approved is as follows:

The design and construction of permanent and temporary outdoor stands and temporary and portable in- door stands for the seating of audiences, stability and

strength, volume and facility of exits from the standpoint of flow of traffic and prevention of panic jams,

fire hazards and the provision of fire-fighting equipment for wooden or other combustible stands, sanitary

arrangements, methods of erection of temporary and

jiortable stands.

Nexv methods of installation of equipment.—Vxo\isio'ns concerning new methods of installation of equipment and new materials have been incorporated in the

fifth draft of the proposed safety code for window

cleaning which has just been sent to letter ballot of

the sectional committee. If the draft is approved by

the members of the committee, it will be presented to the executive committee of the National Safety Council, sole sponsor for the project, for approval and submission to A. S. A.

Specifications for zinc-coated {galvomized) sheets.

The specifications for zinc-coated (galvanized) sheets

(A. S. T. M. standard A 93-27) were approved as American tentative standard on June 20, with the designation G8bl-1931. The specifications were submitted

to A. S. A. for approval by the American Society for

Testing Materials, sponsor of the Sectional Committee on Specifications for Zinc Coating of Iron and Steel. American standards for wood poles.—The American

Standards Association has approved the following

American standards for wood poles: Dimensions of

northern white cedar poles (05b2-1931), dimensions

of western red cedar poles (05c2-1931), dimensions
AUGUST, 1931 COMMERCIAL STANDARDS MONTHLY 41

of chestnut poles (05d2-1931), and. dimensions of

southern pine poles (05e2-1931). The following have

been approved as American tentative standards : Specifications for northern white cedar poles (05bl1931), specifications for western red cedar poles

(05cl-1931), specifications for chestnut poles (05dl1931), specifications for southern pine poles (0541-

1931).

The standards are the result of six years of work

by the sectional committee, which has taken into consideration data compiled for the use of the subcommittee on fiber strengths, and were used in the preparation of the American standard, ultimate fiber stresses for wood poles (O5a-1930), approved in December,

1930. The work of the subcommittee on knot limitations was also of assistance. Graphs showing the

numerical distribution of knots of various sizes in

representative lots of poles were prepared; and from

these curves, tables of knot limitations were drawn up.

These constitute part of the specifications.

The circumference dimensions, at 6 feet from the

butt, are based on the standard ultimate fiber stresses, poles of the same class of all four species being rated

as having equal initial strengths. Minimum circumferences are specified for the tops. The dimensions

and specifications have been phblished as four pamphlets, each pamjihlet containing the dimensions and

specifications for one species of wood.

AMERICAN SOCIETY FOR TESTING MATERIALS

Scope of Current Standardization Projects Reviewed

The following current information concerning developments in standardization projects under the auspices and procedures of the American Society for

Testing Materials has been furnished by that society

New tentative standards.—The society approved by

action at the annual meeting the publication as tentative standards of the following 17 new specifications

and 8 new methods of test, which increases the total

number of current tentative standards to 169. Metals.-—Specifications for normalized and tempered alloy-steel forgings for locomotives, drawn or

rolled 80 per cent nickel, 20 per cent chromium alloy

for electrical heating elements ; drawn or rolled alloy,

60 per cent nickel, 15 per cent chromium, balance iron,

for electrical heating elements; aluminum-base alloy

die castings; and zinc-base alloy die castings; method

of test of chemical analysis of silver solders; determining the temperature-resistance constants of re- sistance alloys.

Concrete.—Specifications for curing Portlandcement concrete ; curing Portland-cement concrete

slabs with bituminous coverings; curing Poiflandcement concrete slabs Avith calcium chloride admixture; curing Portland-cement concrete slabs by sur- face application of calcium chloride ; and curing

Portlancl-cement concrete slabs Avith wet coA^erings.

INIethods of test for structural strength of fine aggregate using constant water-cement-ratio mortar;

routine analysis of the cement content of hardened

Portland-cement concrete ; and test for apparent

specific gravity of coarse aggregates in a saturated

condition.

Paint solvents.; figments^ enamels.-—Specifications

for acetone; beta ethoxy ethanol (synthetic) ; and for

beta butozy ethanol (synthetic) ; method of test for

tinting strength of pigments; and for testing nitrocellulose clear lacquers and lacquer enamels.

Rubber jrt'oducts.—Specifications for rubber-pump

valves. Textile materials.—Specifications and test methods

for cotton goods for rubber and pyroxylin coatings,

for 0.007-inch cotton tape, and for enameling duck

for the tire industry. Method of determining relative

humidity.

The following four specifications were also appi’oved for publication as tentatiA^e to supersede, when

69773—31 2

adopted, present standards haAung corresponding

titles and serial designations : Specifications for steel plates of flange and fire-box qualities for forge welding; gypsum wall board; gypsum lath; and toler- ances and test methods for silk and cotton tapes.

The annual meeting of the societj'^ also directed that

the folloAving 18 tentative standards and proposed

revisions of 14 existing standards be referred by letter ballot vote to the membership for adoption as standard.

Tentative standards to be adopted as standard.

TentatiA'e specifications for aluminum-base alloy cast- ings, aluminum-base casting alloys in ingot form,

aluminum-alloy (duralumin) sheet, aluminum-manganese alloy sheet, aluminum-powder for paints

(aluminum bronze powder), gold bronze powder, and

the toxic ingredients in antifouling paints. Tentative

methods of testing brick (compression, flexure, and

absorption) ; alkalinity or acidity of pigments; bleeding of j)igments; hydroscopic moistui'e (and other

matter volatile under the test conditions) in pigments;

oil absorption of pigments; routine determination of acetone extract in dry lampblack and dry bone black

;

determination of polishing lubricant in aluminum

poAvder for paints (aluminum bronze powder) ; size

of anthracite ; Avater absorption of slate ; and flexure

testing of slate (determination of modulus of rupture

and modulus of elasticity).

Tentative definitions of terms relating to refractories (terms “ spalling” and “ p3U'ometric cone equivalent ”).

Revisions of existing standards.—Standard specifications for allo}’-steel bolting material for high-temperature service; Avelded wrought-iron pipe; high-test

gray-iron castings ; hydrated lime for structural purposes; specifications and tests for hollow burned-clay

load-bearing wall tile ; hollow burned-clay fireproofing,

partition, and furring tile; holloAv burned-clay floor

tile; basic carbonate AA’hite lead; and red lead. Standard methods of test for softening point of fire-clay

brick; making and storing compression test specimens

of concrete in the field ; securing specimens of hardened concrete from the structure; and testing electrical

insulating oils. Standard definitions of terms relating to holloAV

tile.
42 COMMERCIAL STANDARDS MONTHLY AUGUST, 1931 WASTEFUL VARIETY IN COAL-MINING EQUIPMENT PROVES COSTLY

Standardization Program of Industry Has Served to Reduce Cost of Operation and Yet Improve the Safety

Factor

By J. M. Hadley, The American Mining Congress

Common usage has developed standards of practices,

weights, and measures as well as standards of quality

for commodities. Thege have come into general use through the ages to survive as long as their usefulness

continued, only to be discarded when of no further

value. The indictment that standardization means

stagnation, so frequently heard in this generation, is hardl}^ fair. Quite the reverse is true, for standardization is dimamic, not static. It does not mean standing still, but rather moving forward together.

A standard of practice or of equipment represents

the best thought of an industry concerned with its use, and furnishes the best possible means to eliminate

wastefulness and promote efficiency. Naturally, it is desirable to revise and, in some cases, discard standards as better methods are brought forward and as better machinery and equijnnent are developed; new

standards then take the place of old. The mining industry started its standards program

shortly after the close of the World War. Traveling

the rough road of experience, this country has learned

that a standard means something in the purchase of

the vast supplies for the armies of the world.

When the American Mining Congress organized the

coal mining branch of its national standardization di- vision to standardize coal-mining methods, practice

and equipment. Col. Warren E. Roberts, who had been

affiliated with the coal-mining industry for many

years, and served during the World War as a member

of the staff of the Quartermaster General and was ac- tive in bringing order out of chaos in the purchasing of

Army supplies, was appointed the national chairman.

The standardization program of the coal mining

branch was an ambitious one, calling for sectionalizing

coal-production methods. This was brought about

through the development of IT major projects, each

properly subdivided and headed by a man who had

done conspicuous Avork along the line under consideration. The idea immediately took root; about 300 men

joined in the campaign and amazing results have

followed.

Committees undertook actii^ely such projects as a standard code for installing and using electrical equipment underground, standards for drainage, ventilation,

tracks, wire rope, and many others. That ivas 11 years

ago, and the names found on those original committees

represent a real “ Who’s Avho in coal mining ” to-day.

An attempt will be made in this article to tell how,

why, and Avliat has been accomplished by this branch

of the national standardization division of the Ameri-^ can Mining Congress.

Consisting largely of coal-mine operators, the original committees had only a smattering of representatives from the manufacturing field. It Avas early found,

hoAvever, that many other factors Avei’e involved, if the

proposed program Avas to be successful. Immediate reorganization of the committees Avas undertaken to include representatiA^es of the manufacturers, Avhose equipment was involved and whose co- operation Avas essential if the woi’k was to go forward.

Further, it Avas found that the Government was no

small factor in the field. Certain recommendations

had already been evolved by the United States Bureau

of Mines, Avhich were held to tenaciously.

When the Avork finally got under way, the coal- mining branch Avas organized to include (1) the coal- mine operator; (2) the manufacturer of coal-mine

equiinnent; (3) United States GoA^ernment; (4) representatives of all national associations, including

safety organizations, insurance groups, mechanical,

electrical, and civil engineering groups; and (5) a small number of nationally Imown consulting engi- neers for the coal industry.

The work Avent forward rapidly from that point.

Regular meetings Avere called at convenient places,

and through much consultation and correspondence,

potential standards were issued and sent to the coal- mining industry. National attention was attracted to them. The American Engineering Standards Committee (now the American Standards Association),

issued an invitation to this group to present its standards under, and by authority of, that national standardizing body.

As a clearing house for mining standardization, the

American Standards Association created the mining

standardization correlating committee. This committee developed the group of coal-mining standards that

are to-day the pride of the American Mining Congress, their promulgator and sponsor, and the industry

they serve. From the welter of SAveat, brains, and determination,

and through the cooperation of all these agencies, the

industry noAv has national standards representing the

folloAving subjects, approved by the highest standardizing bodies : Safety Rules for Installing and Using

Electrical Equipment, 1926 (U. S. Bureau of Mines

and American Mining Congress, joint sponsors) ; CoalMine Drainage, 1927 (revised in 1930) ; Tracks, Signals, and Switches, 1927 ; Wire rope, 1927 ; Miscellane- ous Outside Coal-Handling Equipment, 1926 ; Ladders

and Stairs for Mines, 1928; Ventilation, 1929. (Completed but not under A.S.A. procedure.)

Cooperating with other organizations which have

acted as the sponsors, the standardization division has

assisted in the bringing out of two additional standards

that haA-e far-reaching effects: Recommended Practice for Rock Dusting, approved in 1928 ; A.I.M.M.E.,

and Recommended Practice for the Use of Explosives

in Bituminous Coal Mines, Mine Inspectors’ Institute

of America, approved in 1930.

Many projects remain to be completed and many

more liaA^e been proposed for consideration. Continually ncAv projects are suggested to the division for

development. Standards covering the preserA^ative

treatments of mine timbers and a standard safety code

for coal-mine transportation are now nearing comple-
AL’GDST, 1931 COMMERCIAL STANDARDS MONTHLY 43

tion. Added to all these, committees are engaged in

the development of a standard classification of coals

with the American Society for Testing Materials as sponsor; and specifications for locomotives for coal

mines, including trolley, storage battery, and combination types, with the American Mining Congress and

the National Electrical Manufacturers’ Association

acting as joint sponsors. The activities of the mining and loading section of

the coal mining branch of the national standardization division, have had especially far-reaching effects. This section in the early stages in mechanical-loading

development found little that would lend itself to standardization, and, therefore, confined activities to the collection and dissemination of information re- garding successful mechanical loading installation.

Out of this activity grew the National Committee on Mechanized Mining now making an extensive study

of the subject.

For the time being, therefore, the mining and loading section became inactive and subordinate to the National Committee on Mechanized Mining, but it was

arranged that, as the work progressed, and as mechanization became universal, certain items that showed

possibilities of standardization should be referred to the section for consideration, development, and action.

The point has now been reached where it is apparent

that several such items have presented themselves.

These are: (1) Standardizing neAv poAvder, cartridge

.sizes; (2) clrill-hole sizes; (3) conA’eyor pans; (4)

coiiA’eyor sprockets; and (6) conveyor chains.

Consideration was giA^en these recommendations at the meetings held in Washington, D. C., on December

4, 1930, Avhen both the National Committee on ]\Iechanized Mining and the mining and loading section

held group conferences.

Tavo new projects to be undertaken in the near

future are of particular importance. The first invoIa’Cs the design and details of construction for coal- mine cars, and the other fire-fighting and fire-prevention methods. In the case of the former, the desire

for this standard has long been felt, evidencing itself seA’eral years ago. It resulted in the organization of

a committee to do the work. Many obstacles intervened ; perhaps both manufacturers and operators not

originally connected Avith the movement feared that it was proposed to limit indiA’iduality of structural

features.

The hope is merely for some interchangeability of

parts and possibly a decrease of car cost. In this case, rather than call it standardization, Ave might use the

term “ abandonment.” All will agree that some designs could be abandoned to the benefit of all concerned. The spread of mechanization and the general

moA^ement to increase underground operating efficiency

and demand neAv types and sizes of cars. Noav, it is belieA^ed, is the time to arrive at some general standards which ncAV installations can follow.

If general agreement can not be reached to standardize the cars themselves, it is certainly worth while

to consider the tremendous possibilities for economies,

if only some of the elements of construction of coalmine cars can be uniformly standardized.

The “ run-of-mine ” day in coal operation witnesses

the use of hundreds of standards that are not thought

of as such. Several important standards coA^er bolts,

cement, concrete reinforcing spiral steel rods, fire hose

and fire-hose couplings, machine tools, motor ratings,

pipe flanges and fittings, pipe threads, rails, lUA-ets, screAv threads for bolts, machine screws, nuts and commercial tap holes, shafting, and wire.

Seldom, if ever, are these recognized as representing the conscious effort of some organization or group

of organizations to standardize. These as well as the

mining standards enumerated aboA^e, represent a barrage of heavy artillery that can be effectively laid

down to make the enemy position of high production

cost untenable. These missiles of modern business

Avarfare should be put to use intensiA^ely and intel- ligently. Many others should be created to folloAV up. Without the use of many of the existing standards,

the condition of industry to-day Avould be chaotic.

Wasteful variety in design and construction of mining equipment is inexcusable and expensiA’e. Wasteful and unsafe practices are still more expensive and

even less excusable. The moA^ement is naturally aAvay

from such Avaste, as a brief look in retrospect at mining conditions will quickly reveal. This moA’ement is being accelerated by the activities of 300 men Avho are earnestly engaged in the activity of creating coalmining standards.

The fulfillment of this great program for coal lies in the general adoption and use of the standards by

every single coal company in the countiw and the

interest and assistance of these companies in the formulation of neAV ones as needed.

EGG GRADING NOW UNIVERSAL

Eggs may be only “ fresh ” or “ otherwise ” to most

consumers, but to the egg trade in 20 countries, quality

of shell eggs is noAv more or less uniformly expressed

in terms of air cells, condition of shells, yolks, Avhites,

and germs.

Egg quality standards, according to the Bureau of

Agricultural Economics, United States Department of

Agriculture, are uoav recognized in 20 countries. Of

17 foreign countries, 15 maintain standards in connection Avith an export trade in eggs, and 2 countries—

Germany and the United Kingdom—recognize standards for the domestic trade only. There is considerable uniformity in the standards.

Canadian egg standards Avere the first to be systematically formulated. United States standards AA'ere

prepared later, and folloAved in essential respects the. Canadian standards. Foreign countries in general

have considered the same quality factors in formulating egg gi’ades, and have adopted practicality the same methods of describing the Auirious degrees of

quality.

In practically all of the standards, the s]iecifications

for the air cell deal Avith its depth. Similarly, dilfer- ences in quality, as evidenced by the condition of

the yolk, are indicated in terms of visibility of

the yolk. Countries Avhich liaA'e established standards

of quality for shell eggs are: Belgium. Canada,

Danzig, Denmark, England, Estonia, Finland. Germany. Latvia, Lithuania, Ireland, Netherlands. Norway, Poland, Rumania, South African Union, SAveden,

Union of Socialist Soviet Republics, United States,

and Wales.
44 COMMERCIAL STANDARDS MONTHLY AUGUST, 1931 TOLERANCE AND TOLERANCES

A Discussion of Permissible Variations from Weights and Measures Standards of Value and Performance

By Ralph W. Smith, National Bureau of Standards

Tolerance in its broad sense and tolerances in the

Meights and measures sense, though closely related, are essentially different ; but each has its place

and an important place—in weights and measures

administration.

It is first necessary to establish clearly just what is meant by “ tolerance ” and by “ tolerances.” The

word “ tolerance ” is used in its general sense of a dis- position to be patient with or indulgent to the opinions or practices of others. For example, the tolerant

individual is characterized by freedom from undue

severity in judging the conduct of others. Expressed

somewhat differently, tolerance is a condition of

mind, reflected in the reactions of the individual to

the events, the persons, the things, and the ideas comprising his environment, whereby forbearance is shown with reference to matters with which the individual is not himself fully in sympathy.

And now as to “ tolerances.” The word “

toler- ances ” is used in the weights and measures sense of

written rules, established % competent authority, designed to control definitely the physical or performance characteristics of things subject to official inspection. In other words, tolerances are the maximum

variations from the true standard which are to be

2iermitted by the weights and measures officer when

he makes his official tests. Let us consider some of the characteristics of toler- ance and of tolerances, and at the same time contrast them, so that their essentials and their differences may

be emjihasized. Both tolerance and tolerances are rel- ative, in that each can exist or can be exercised only

with reference to some standard. But tolerance is general; tolerances are sjiecific. Tolerance is elastic and not suscejitible of close definition; tolerances are

fixed and are, of necessity, defined with exactness. Tolerance varies with the individual; tolerances are intended to be invariable and subject to but one interpretation. Tolerances set up numerical limits of permissible tolerance. With the fixing of tolerances in a given field, the discretionary exercise of tolerance

therein is eliminated ; that is to say, tolerances preclude further tolerance.

In weights and measures administration the standards which are set uji, with relation to which tolerance

may be exercised or tolerances observed, are those es- tablished by statute or by rule and regulation under

statutory authority. These include standards of con- duct and standards of weight or measure. An ideal

situation would be one in which these various standards were fully and precisely met at all times. But

practically this is impossible. Faced with human and

mechanical imjierfections as we have always been and

as we will continue to be until the arrival of the millenium, some dejiarture from every standard is to be

anticii^ated. Even our material weights and measures

standards—test weights, capacity measures, linear measures, etc.—are not jierfect; designed as they are

for testing purposes, carefully made from selected materials, and 2Dainstakingly adjusted, they still differ

from the theoretical standards by greater or lesser amounts. The impossibility of jierfect equality is con- ceded ; the inevitability of error is recognized. Safety

is secured, however, by limiting the magnitude of the

error to a value which, for the standard in question,

is below the danger point, and in addition, in very

jirecise work, by determining the magnitude of this error and ajijilying a suitable correction when the

standard is used.

Now, if it be true that material standards, precisely

made under closely controlled conditions, fail of perfection, how much more is it to be anticipated that

human conduct will fail to measure up to the standard

of perfection established by our weights and measures

statutes. For in his business dealings, as in other

pursuits, man is swayed by his emotions, his personal

conception of his own and others’ rights, his natural

cujiidity, and the stress of circumstances under which

he labors. So it is that in weights and measures administration we are faced with the necessity for this course of ac^ tion : That a reasonable tolerance be exercised with re- spect to those standards which are not suscejjtibie of

or which do not readily lend themselves to numerical

treatment and that reasonable tolerances be established and observed with respect to those standards

which are susceptible of numerical treatment. Such

action is necessary to the end that the rights of all interested parties may be conserved without the imposition of unnecessary restraint, hardship, expense, or losses upon any one of them.

“ Reasonableness ” is perhaps the |

9 rincipal crite- rion in this connection; it is our justification for jiermitting a departure from the standard, and at the same time it should dictate the extent of our clemency.

The official who is unreasonably severe is subject to censure as well as the one who is unreasonably lenient

;

neither will equal the accomplishments of the officer who chastens with moderation yet does not pamper

with inordinate forbearance.

You may ask, “Is it not highly desirable that these

instrumental errors be reduced to a minimum? ” To

which the answer would be that this is desirable within

reasonable limits but that an extreme position in this

relation is to be avoided. Errors should be held down

to a point where they will not seriously affect the rights

of either buyer or seller, but unnecessarily strict demands should not be made, because to do so will in- crease the difficulties, and consequently the costs, of

manufacture and maintenance, and this increased cost burden—which always reaches the consumer eventually—will be incurred without corresjionding benefits.As to the supervisional side of weights and measures

work, perhajDS the cases which the official brings to court form one of the best criteria of the kind of toler- ance which he is exercising. The subject of weights

and measures prosecutions is discussed in considerable
AUGUST, 1931 COMMERCIAL STANDARDS MONTHLY 45

detail in National Bureau of Standards Handbook No.

11, and the following short extract from that discussion is appropriate to the present consideration

Notwitlistancllng the customary language of the weights and

measures statute to the effect that the ofiBcial shall institute a prosecution upon the discovery of a violation of the law, this should not be construed to mean that a prosecution must in- variably be instituted every time any violation of the provi- sions of the statute is discovered. To do so would result in unfairness to many, the court calentlars would be crowded with

large numbers of cases of a kind never intended by the legis- lature to be brought into court, very many of these cases would

necessarily be lost by the State to the consequent discredit of the department or official responsible for starting them, and

the effectiveness of weights and measures supervision would be

greatly decreased instead of increased. It is an unwritten but

well recognized principle in connection with all law enforce- ment that certain discretionary power resides in the executive

officer as to when prosecution shall be resorted to, and this principle is just as applicable to weights and measures supervision as to any other branch of governmental control. Here, of necessity, the official must rely upon his

judgment which will improve with his experience; no

mathematical table can be arranged which will tell when to prosecute and wdien not to prosecute. Violations of the statute identical in themselves may properly result in prosecution in one instance and not in

another. In reaching his decision the official must be

guided by the results of a careful consideration of all of the circumstances attending the violation, with the

ultimate object of securing the greatest degree of protection to all without undue hardship to any. Punishment should be sought where punishment is believed

to be deserved and where some constructive good can

be accomplished by inflicting it; punishment should

be avoided where it is believed that greater good can

be accomplished by other means. As it is with prosecutions, so it is with many other

phases of supervisory work. While realizing the

necessity for the exercise of a proper tolerance, the

thoughtful official will guard against laxity and carelessness in his enforcement program, will remain

observant of conditions at all times, and will be alert to check every abuse within the scope of his authority

before it becomes a menace to the integrity'' of the

commercial weighing and measuring under his supervision. And he will endeavor, in so far as possible, to gage his tolerance in these matters to a uniform

standard of fairness, impartiality, and reasonableness.

But as to the mechanical side of weights and measures work, having to do specifically with weighing and

measuring devices, the desirability of effecting standardization is readily apparent. Numerical treatment

of the permissible errors on mechanical equipment is logical and entirely practicable. It is desirable be- cause the accuracy of piece of apparatus concerns the

manufacturer of the apparatus, his service representatives, the user of the apparatus, and from one to several weights and measures inspectors, and without a

definite schedule of allowable variations no one of

these interested parties can know what to expect from

the other with respect to the degree of accuracy produced or demanded. It is practicable because in the

case of apparatus we are dealing primarily with machines rather than with men ; performance characteristics may be very definitely determined, and numerical limits may readily be applied to deviations from

the standard; and these limits may be applied easily

and uniformly by any number of interested persons,

acting independently.

Thus, when pro23erly observed, tolerances insure

uniformity of treatment of all devices of a given

grou23, whether made by the same or by different

manufacturers and whether tested by one or another

inspector.

It should now be clear that the most im23ortant difference between tolerance and tolerances is that wherever tolerances have been fixed further tolerance

should not be granted. If the tolerances are pro2ier

and reasonable, they represent the maximum of liberality which should be extended toward equi2Dment

within their purview, because all of the relevant factors are 23resumed to have been given consideration

when the numerical values of the tolerances were

decided u23on. Tolerances are sup2iosed to represent

the greatest errors which will be countenanced. It is zero error and not the tolerance value which re23resents the standard, and the tolerances are the limits beyond

which the errors should never be permitted to go. Thus, in conclusion, it is urged that weights and

measures officials be guided by two general 2iolicies

First, with res2)ect to su23ervisional activities where

numerical tolerances are not a2

i2)ro2)riate or 23racti- cable, observe a reasonable tolerance founded upon

careful judgment and avoiding the extremes of too great severity on the one hand and too great leniency on the other. Second, with res2iect to mechanical activities involving the testing of weighing and measuring

ap2>aratus. Wherever tolerances have been ado2ited

for your guidance, enforce them. If our tolerances

are reasonable and 25 i‘oper, they should be enforced.

If they are unreasonable and improper, the remedy

lies not in being tolerant in the enforcement of them,

but in having their values so changed that they can

be enforced with a clear conscience. Unenforced tol- erances on the books of regulations are like unenforced

laws on the statute books—they generate a disres2iect not only for themselves but for other regulations as

well. As to mechanical equipment, the 2^foper en- forcement of pro2Derly established tolerances denies to the official the individual exercise of additional toler- ance. Only trouble and uncertainty can follow a

2:)olicy of tolerances 2

^ 1 ns tolerance.

INTERNATIONAL ASSOCIATION FOR TESTING MATERIALS TO MEET AT ZURICH

The first international congress of the new Inter- national Association for Testing iNIaterials will meet

at Zurich, Switzerland, September G to 12, 1931, in

accordance with the decision of the International Congress for Testing Materials held in Amsterdam, Seti- tember, 1927. The object of the congress is to 23fomote and to facilitate the international exchange of ideas in the field

of material testing. A limited number of present-day

2Droblems will be j^tit forward and discussed, the selec- tion of problems having been determined by modern

requirements and tendencies. The congress will enable each member to ex2iound the various points of

view accoi’ding to the various countries, and the di- versity of ex 2Dcrimental methods eiu 2fio3'ed in the study

of materials. It will denionsti'ate the ca 2 )ital importance of international exchange of ideas and of knowledge acquired.
46 COMMERCIAL STANDARDS MONTHLY AUGUST, 1931 AMERICAN INDUSTRIES PLAY PART IN NATIONAL DEFENSE

Standard Items of Everyday Use Provided for in War Plans, Involving 15,000 Factories

By Feedeeick H. Payne, Assistant Secretary of War^

Following the World War there was a consensus of

feeling everywhere that the experiences gained should

be capitalized in approj)riate legislation. Major defects in military organization caused much of the diffi- culty and confusion in the World AVar. Those defects

with which we are concerned here Avere those relating

to the procuring activities of the Army.

No effectii^e coordinating agency was set over those

branches of the Army that were responsible for the

procurement of military supplies and munitions. The

several branches and services reported directly to the

Secretary of AVar and naturally in the stress of greatly

augmented activity of Avar no one officer could possibly

coordinate and supervise all. Relief was giAnn in the

spring of 1918 Avhen the Overman Act Avas passed.

This permitted the President to reorganize the AVar

Department. Such reorganization, however, Avas only

temporary, and upon the proclamation of peace the

old organization Avould again be set up. The amended national defense act of 1920 corrected some of the more important defects of the act of 1916. Detailed provisions were made for the mobilization

of the man-poAver resources of the Nation. Like

detailed provision Avas made for the mobilization of

the industrial and economic resources of the Nation.

The Assistant Secretary of War assumed his new

duties in 1921. His statutory mission divided itself naturally under two headings. First, the control and

supervision of the business activities of the AVar

Department in peace and Avar, and second, the formulation of plans to mobilize and make effective the complete industrial and economic resources of the Nation

for the support of military effort. The first duty Avas comparatiAnly simple. There has

been developed in my office a supervision and control

of the seven supply branches of the Army (Ordnance

Department, Quartermaster Corps, Medical Department, etc.), Avhich Avill assure freedom from competitive buying, and the utilization of the best obtainable information for the economical purchasing of

needed supplies. Measurable progress has been made

in the establishment in the AVar Department of businesslike systems and methods. The Army has also

been alert to, and in step Avith, the modern trend to- Avard standardization and simplification.

The second duty Avas not so simple of definition, nor has it been found so easy in performance. In the

beginning, time and energy were given to the- study

and evaluation of the experiences of the AVorld AVar.

It Avas, of course, necessary to provide an agency

through which special training could be given to regular officers and to officers of the civilian components

of the Army (National Guard and Organized Reserves). To meet this need there was set up the Army

Industrial College.

The next step was naturally the determination by

the supply branches, based uiion the military studies

^Address delivered July 11, 1931, before the Institute of Public

Affairs, University of Virginia, Charlottesville, Va.

of the General Staff, of the requirements in finished

articles needed in Avar to effectuate our military plans.

Satisfactory progress has been made in the computation of these requirements.

HaAung determined in some detail what is needed,

the problem of supply has been presented to the industrial leaders of the country. With them has been

Avorked out the extent and content of the contribution

of the several industrial establishments of the Nation.

So, to-day, Ave have reasonably dependable estimates

of what will be needed and where and in Avhat time Ave can obtain it. The cooperation of industry in this

work has been given in a spirit which assures prompt,

orderly, and effective procluction in Avar. Much time has been devoted to the formulation of

specifications for Army supplies and munitions, which

Avill be intelligible to industry, which will insure

speedy production, and Avhich Avill utilize to the greatest extent possible articles normally manufactured in peace. AVith certain exceptions, plans contemplate the procurement of any one item, by one procuring branch

only. This aAmids competition in planning, as Avell as comiietition later in procurement.

Industrial America has been divided into 14 districts. At the industrial center of each, agencies repre- senting the several supply branches have been set up

to deal Avith, and to plan Avith, the industrial establishments thereof. The procurement headquarters located

in the south are Baltimore, Birmingham, Cincinnati,

find St. Louis. At these points are being made plans

Avliich look toAvard the fulfillment of inqjortant parts

of our estimated Avar load, and here, too, in time of

Avar, Avill be carried on the actual business of procurement.

Not including facilities for the supply of food—in

Avhich no Avar problem is anticipated—approximately

16,000 facilities throughout the Nation have been allo- cafed to the seA^eral procuring branches. Of these, more than 2,000 are in the Southern States. Present

plans contemplate that in a major emergency the

Southern States Avill be called upon to carry approximatel}^ 10 per cent of the total Avar load of manufacture

of ordnance. This class of material includes a great

variety of items. Orders would necessarily be placed

for millions of shells and their component parts, packing boxes, machine tools, gages, fixtures, ferromanganese, ammonium sulphate, small mortars and can- non, and small-arms ammunition, as Avell as other orders

calling for delivery of 2,000,000 pounds of T. N. T.

]ier month. There is, too, de]iendence upon the South

for the major part of the supply of fixed nitrogen. A

considerable portion of the steel requirements ai’e also expected from the South. It may be noted that in this

respect Alabama, for example, is the most self-sufficient of any State in the Union, both in the production of

steel itself and in the inclusion Avithin its borders of

requisite raAV materials.

The contribution of the South in cotton textiles is equally significant. The raw material, of course.
AUGUST, 1931 COMMERCIAL STANDARDS MONTHLY 47

comes almost wholly from the South. Under present

plans the South would contribute 66 per cent of cotton

cloth for uniforms, 82 per cent of denim, 88i/^ per cent of duck, and in like proportion other cotton textiles. Extensive tests have been made looking toward the

substitution of cotton jiowder bags for silk bags. It

is necessary that the cotton be specially treated. There

is a definite liope now of success in these efforts. Another important use of cotton of interest to the Southern States is the utilization of long-staple sea-island cotton for airplane fabrics. In harness, the South ivill contribute 43 per cent, in service shoes 20 per cent, in wagons 63 per cent, and so on. The mission which Congress has assigned to the

Assistant Secretary of War is not fulfilled, even after

the formulation of the most comprehensive plans for

Army procurement. For the general control of the

Nation’s industrial effort there must be plans for governmental agencies which will lie entirely outside of

the military organization.

In recent months many of these problems have been

studied intensively by the War Policies Commission.

This commission, of which the Secretary of War is chairman, is composed of Cabinet officials. Senators,

and Congre.ssmen. It was created by Congress to consider methods for removing the profits from and for

equalizing the burdens of war. Its investigations have

naturally included a consideration of the economic

and industrial prolffems of war. Many eminent men

have appeared before this body to offer suggestions

concerning the financial, indnstrial, economic, organization, and other programs that the Government

should adopt in the event of a major emergency. The

commission’s conclusions and recommendations, which

are to be submitted to Congre.ss next December, should

be most helpful to us in further development of our

plans.

The War Department plan that I have briefiy

sketched to you, Ave believe, Avould back the military

poAA’er of the Nation Avith its full industrial poAver.

It Avould assure a mobilization of resources for the

conduct of any future Avar Avith the Avidest and fairest

possible distribution of economic and human burdens.

STANDARDIZATION OF ELECTRICAL UNITS AN INTERNATIONAL PROBLEM

Electrical units, their modernization, international

standardization, precise determinations, and proper

application is a subject occupying a great deal of the

time of many learned technologists throughout the

world. Advancement in the art and science of electri- cal engineering has given rise to a rather concerted

study of electrical units along the lines as just indicated, to say nothing of international effort to arrive

at a logical and representatiA^e nomenclature. Reflecting the importance and timeliness of the subject, the

fourth session of the AsheAulle convention of the

American Institute of Electrical Engineers was devoted to a symposium of four jiapers on various phases

of the subject.

H. B. Brooks, of the National Bureau of Standards,

treated at length the unit of electrical resistance, going

into its past history and outlining impending changes.

He described the mercury ohm as having been so long

legalized as a material standard of resistance that it is regarded Avidely as a permanent institution of rela- tively precise proportions, but stated that practicallj'

it is obsolescent because of the technical difficulties attending its use. The author further characterized

the mercury olun as a necessary but expensive evil holding its place because formerly it could be reproduced more pi’ecisely than could the agreement be- tAveen the results of absolute determination of the

ohm. He concluded his presentations saying that tlie teclmique of absolute determination has improved until noAV it may be said to be at least on a par Avith the

mercury ohm as to reproducibility. Consequently, the

method should be used to obviate the laborious and

time-consuming effort of high-grade men now going

into repetitions of mercury ohm determinations.

In a discussion of electrical units and their api)lication, L. T. Robinson, of the General Electrical Co.,

Schenectady, N. Y., emphasized the necessity of pro- viding for the advancement of precise definitions and

precision standards to keep pace Avith contemporary

adA’ances in equipment. In speaking of the importance of accurate measurement as far as scientific ad- vance is concerned, he said “ progress and improvement are made possible onl}^ to the extent that those

interested in and Avorking along the line of developing and improving measuring methods and instruments are able to anticipate the needs of those interested in the development and operation of systems, deAuces, and apparatus.”

Pertaining to the international standard of elec- tromotiAn force and its loAv-temjDerature coefficient form, Marion Eppley, of the Epplej'^ Research Laboratory, NeAvport. R. I., described at length the great

difficulty in achieving the physical conditions pre- scribed in the officially agreed upon fundamental defi- nitions of certain electrical units. He described briefl}^ seA^eral different types of so-called standard cells for

reproducing physically a standard volt, discussing also

A^arious tests made on and the characteristics of the

cells. He concluded definitely that his 15 yeai's of

Avork on the cadmium cell have giA^en him “ eA’or- increasing confidence in its reliability,” even if it " is by no means foolproof.”

Information ])ertaining to the design of d. c. laboratory ty]ie of potentiometers Avas given by I. jM. Stein,

of the Leeds & Northrup Co.. Philadelphia. 'I'he au- thor ti'eated his subject under the folloAving 10 headings: (1) Early history. (2) factors affecting voltage

range, (3) factors affecting potentiomelei' resistance.

(4) loAV-voltage j)otentiometers. (5) analysis of pol(>ntiometer en-ors. (6) .self-checking featui'es of potentiometers, (7) galvononieter considei'ations, (S) com- ments on volt boxes. (9) deflection poli-ntiometers, and

(10) the potentiometer in industry.
48 COMMERCIAL STANDARDS MONTHLY AUGUST, 1931 STANDARDIZATION IN TRANSPORT OF ELECTRICAL ENERGY

Development of Standards in the Electrical Field Made Possible Through the Cooperative Efforts of

the Industry

By William McClellan and R. H. Baeclay, Stone Webster Engineering Corporation

Standardization in the transport of electrical power

has made more rapid progress during the past decade

than ever before. Formerly most systems were operated as separate isolated units, each having some

standards adapted to its own needs.

With the advent of interconnection, these problems

peculiar to the isolated system which previously had

received only a small amount of general consideration,

required reconsideration from the broader standpoint

of their effect upon the enlarged system and this has

furnished the added stimulus for more universal

standardization.

The development of standards has been made possible largely through the cooperative efforts of the

American Institute of Electrical Engineers, National

Electric Light Association, and National Electrical

Manufacturers’ Association representing respectively

the engineering, operating, and manufacturing

branches of the industrju

These organizations have not only compiled a large

number of standards in their own particular fields,

but in cooperation with others have assisted in the

production of the National Electrical Safety Code

sponsored by the National Bureau of Standards, and

the National Electrical Code sponsored by the

National Fire Protection Association. The former

deals largely with such factors as safety to life or property, and the latter with the minimum electrical

and mechanical requirements of electrical installations. Like all standards in an art which is still in

a period of development, these codes are modified or enlarged from time to time to keep abreast of recent

progress. Standardization of electrical characteristics, such as voltage, number of phases, and frequency, is virtually

obligatory, because, with relatively few exceptions

where apparatus has been specially designed, it is not

possible to use equipment designed with one set of

characteristics on a system operating under different

characteristics. For the same reason it is likewise impossible to interconnect several systems of different

electrical characteristics without the use of special

couiffiug means. At the time of their initial adoption, direct current and alternating current, single and 2 phase systems

were, in turn, the ultimate in the electrical transmission of energy. The decision was, of course, reached

after considering the economic and technical aspects

of electrical science as it was then known, and the

ability of manufacturers to produce apparatus having

the proper characteristics. The elimination and re- tirement of these systems are now rapidly taking place

except for certain special applications where their

characteristics are peculiarly suited or where economic

considerations are the governing factors. The pres- ent standard is to emjaloy the 3-phase, 3-wire system

for the transmission of energy in varying amounts

from moderate to large quantities.

Twenty-five and sixty cycles, the latter being more

nearly universal, are now regarded as standard fre- quencies. A notable exception exists in large systems,

however, in the case of the Southern California Edison

Co., which operates at 50 cycles. A multiplicity of

distribution and transmission system voltages have

been standardized to meet the conditions encountered

in the i^arious systems throughout the country, the

highest being 220,000 volts. Systems employing this

potential exist in California, New Jersey, Pennsylvania, and Maryland, and the most recent application

has been made in New England in the States of New

Hampshire and Massachusetts.

Certain electrical and physical characteristics of a

high-potential transmission system are governed by

the conditions of the particular problem under consideration and can be varied by the designing engineers, within certain limits, generally in accordance

with standard practice. Natural conditions, however,

such as ice, sleet, wind, temperature, lightning, and

topography of the country are unfortunately not subject to universal standardization and extremely wide

variations in these conditions occur in different parts

of the country.

General agreement is to be found, however, in cer- tain details not directly affected by sectional variations in natural conditions, and other details more

directly affected will be found in general agreement

in particular areas. In transmission systems where use is made of fer- rous and nonferrous metals, textiles, ceramic, and

petroleum products, rubber, paper, and timber, the

result of standardization has been not only to assist the engineer in specifying the proper material, but

has enormously simplified the manufacturing and

marketing procedure involved in the progress of raw

materials from their natural state to the point of

utilization. For instance, standards relating to con- ductors include specifications for quality, standardized

tests, and uniformity in dimensions.

In the case of insulators, there has been so much

development in matters of design that standardization

has been limited largely to methods of testing and to eliminating some of the older and less used designs in

the smaller sizes. Standardization of wood poles has

not progressed so very well, largely due to the fact

that poles are a product of nature and not of manufacturing processes. Dimensions have been standardized and a minimum quality has been established, but

of those which are “ passed,” no definite standards

have as yet been established for segregating them into

various grades. Standardization of cross arms has

had princijially to do with establishing uniformity of

dimensions and drilling for distribution arms. A sur- vey is now being made in the field which it is hoped

will lead to the standardization of steel towers. Standardization of physical characteristics, such as the size of apparatus used in the transport of electrical

power in terms of its electrical units, physical dimen-
AUGUST, 1931 COMMERCIAL STANDARDS MONTHLY 49

sions, and location of terminals, is particularly desirable from the standpoint of low manufacturing costs and interchangeability of apparatus. Whereas physical dimensions of a particular piece of apparatus may

vary somewhat between different manufacturers, elec- trical capacities, and location of terminals have been

standardized within the ranges most commonly found

in practice.

Considerable latitude is permitted the manufacturer

in the selection of materials entering into the construction of apparatus, but through the agenc}^ of the vari- ous organizations j>reviously referred to, standards

have been adopted by which to judge the electrical and

physical limitations of the materials and thereby obtain a measure of their value in any particular

instance.

A SIMPLE TIME METER

National Bureau of Standards Constructs Apparatus for Integrating Detached Time Intervals

By H. B. Brooks, National Bureau of Standa7-ds

In the use of some kinds of laboratory apparatus it is desirable to be able to integrate detached time intervals. For example, the total time of burning of in- candescent lamjDS, used as standards of light or color,

is of importance as affecting their properties.

At one stage in the deA^elopment of the electric

power industry in Germany, rates for the sale of elec- trical energy for the intermittent operation of motors

were made on the basis of a certain sum per hour of

use. To integrate the total hours of use during a month, “ time meters ” were developed, some of which

were essentially self-starting, electrically operated

clocks having heavy iron balance wheels with a period

of several seconds. Such a meter, connected in parallel with the motor, would run only as long as the

motor was in operation. The timing element of the

meter was connected to a register, similar to that of an ordinary watt-hour meter, but registering hours.

A German meter of this sort has been used for years

in the optical division of the National Bureau of

Standards to register the time of operation of lamps

used as color standards. This meter had been bought

in the early years of the bureau as a sample of this

construction, unusual to American meter practice. It proved useful in the optical division. The attempt to purchase a duplicate revealed the fact that meters of

this sort had become obsolete. It was, therefore, decided to take advantage of the controlled-frequency

electrical energy supplied by the local power company,

as is done in the use of electrically operated clocks. The ordinary self-starting electric clock is a time

meter, and can be used to integrate disconnected time

intervals, but it has the disadvantage of having a

“ register ” reading only to 12 hours. It was seen that

the combination of a clock motor and a suitable meter

register would extend this registration range to 10,000

hours. Two features were desired—first, that the

register should be direct-reading, and second, that the

registration of relatively short intervals should be

readable with accuracy. It was found possible to ac- complish both of these ends, using a regular clock

motor and a standard meter register, with no intermediate translation gearing.

The following illustration shows the “ time meter ” with cover removed. The “ Telechron ” motor is supported on the bakelite base by two brackets bent up

from heavy sheet brass. The shaft which projects

from the motor gear box revolves once per minute

when the motor is connected to a 60-cycle circuit. This

shaft is directly connected to the shaft which projects,

from the back of the meter register.

Ti))ie meter with cover removed. The “Telechron” clock motor on the right drives an electric-meter register which

records time up to 10,000 hours. As received, the Telechron motor had a direction

of rotation opposite to that required for the direct

operation of the register. The reversal of the direction of rotation was easily effected in the mannerdescribed in the instructions accompanying the motor..

'Time meter complete with cover The above illustration shows the complete time

meter with cover in place. It will be noted (hat the

register has not onl}' the four dials customary in American practice, but also a smaller dial marked
50 COMMEKCIAL STANDARDS AIONTHLY AUGUST, 1931 “ tenths.” As received from the maker, the register

bore the words “ kilowatt hours.” The erasure of the

word “ kilowatt ” left the register properly marked

for its function in the time meter.

It was mentioned above that it had been found possible to couple the motor directly to the shaft projecting from the rear of the register. Obviously, almost

any register could be used by the interposition of suit- able translating gearing between the two. Such gearing was not necessar}^ because it happens that one American meter manufacturer makes a Canadiantype register with a

“ register constant ” of 600

;

which means that 600 revolutions of the shaft at the

rear of the register produce 1 revolution of the pointer

on the black dial of lowest denomination; that is, a registration of 10 hours. On an accurately controlled

60-cycle circuit the shaft ji rejecting from the motor

gear box makes exactly 600 revolutions in 10 hours.

The time meter above described is thus a “ clock ” which integrates time intervals up to a total of 10,000

hours, readable directly to 0.1 hour and by estimation

to 0.01 hour. If the device with which it is to be used

is also operated from a 60-cycle 110-volt circuit, the

time meter is simply connected in parallel with the

device. If the device is ojjerated from some other

kind of current, the switch which connects the device to

its supply circuit is provided with an extra blade which

connects the time meter to a OO-cj^cle 110-volt circuit.

SELLING GASOLINE ON QUALITY BASIS

Twenty-five States Now Specify Quality of Gasoline Sold Within Their Borders

Twenty-five States now specify the quality of gasoline Avhich can be sold Avithin their borders, according

to a neAV digest of State inspection laAVS issued by the

Western Petroleum Refiners Association.

Thirteen States noAv require that gasoline meet the

Federal specifications. These States are Arizona,

Colorado, Florida, Geoi-gia, Illinois, loAva, Mississippi,

Montana, Nebraska, North Dakota, Tennessee, Virginia, and Wyoming.

Colorado requires that gasoline shall not be colored

except to identify special qualities. The State Avill issue licenses to color gasoline after the inspector has

passed on the gasoline to see that it has the special

qualities claimed. He may revoke the license later if he finds gasoline colored Avhich does not possess these

special qualities.

Octane number has made its first appearance in

State specifications this j^ear. The North Dakota

Legislature amended its laAv to proAude that any gasoline shoAving antiknock characteristics equal to Octane

No. 60 may be colored by the use of any harndess dye.

Any gasoline not meeting this standard must be sold

Avithout the addition of any foreign coloring matter. The neAV North Dakota laAv also gives the State food

commissioner and chemist the authority to prohibit

the sale of any so-called gasoline improver or dope

Avhich may be cletrimental to public health or to motors

or for Avhich unsubstantiated claims are made. The

State ma}^ not prohibit, hoAvever, the sale of any dopes

favorably reported on by the National Bureau of

. Standards, the Surgeon General, or the Bureau of

Public Health.

Montana requires gasoline meeting Federal specifications to be sold, except that it has raised the sulphur

tolerance to 0.20 per cent, from the maximum of 0.10 per cent alloAved by the Government. Illinois alloAvs the sale of gasoline not meeting the Federal specifications jArovided it is labeled “ substandard.”

TAvelve States haA^e their own specifications for gasoline Avhich do not correspond to present Federal

specifications. Several have kept old Federal specifications. Others alloAv a 450 end point or have other

Ami'iations. These 12 States with specifical specifications are Alabama, Arkansas, Kansas, Maine, Minnesota, Missouri, New York, North Carolina, South

^Carolina, South Dakota, Texas, and Wisconsin.

NEW PUBLICATIONS

Fant -selvage terry towels.—The printed pamphlet

on the simplified recommendation for fast-selvage

terry toAA'els (R119-31) is now aA’ailable for purchase

from the Superintendent of Documents, Government

Printing Office, Washington, D. C., for 5 cents each.

This recommendation establishes a simplified list of

six stock sizes for this type of turkish toAvel. Price

5 cents.

Governrrient sfeducations on boxes.—Federal specifications for boxes of all types, including fiber, solid

;

fiber, corrugated; Avood. cleated-plyAvood construction;

Avood, nailed and lock corner; Avood, Avire-bound, etc., are available in printed form and of standard size,

perforated for use in a loose-leaf binder. Price, 5

cents.

Ice cream brick molds and carfuns.—Some time ago

the industry adopted a simplified schedule of dimensions for the 2-gallon ice cream brick mold, and for

machine-filled jAint and quart cartons. This recom- mendation noAv is in printed form. This program has

been instrumental in reducing the number of molds

from 30 to 1, and the sets of dimensions for the machine-filled pint and quart cartons from 31 to 2. Price,

5 cents.

Handhook of X-ray safety rules.—Complete rules for the lAi'otection of those engaged in X-ray Avork—

•

physicians, technicians, or other operators—as Avell as for hospitals, doctors’ offices, or similar places Avhere

X-ray apparatus may be used, as formulated by the

American Advisory Committee on X-Ray and Radium

Protection, are contained in a neAV handbook released

by the National Bureau of Standards. Tliis pamphlet

is divided into five sections : Protection from X rays,

electrical protection. X-ray equipment, and anaesthetic rooms, storage of X-ray films, and operating rules, in- cluding personnel Avorking conditions. Price, 10 cents.

The above-listed publications may be purchased from

the Superintendent of Documents, Government Printing Office, Washington, D. C., at the prices stated.
-AUGUST, 1931 COMMEECIAL STANDARDS MONTHLY 51

INDEXING MANUFACTURERS IN CALIFORNIA

Up-to-Date Central Information Bureau to Serve as Buyers’ Guide

By William R. Gage '

Collection and classification of information for a commodity index listing manufacturers and producers

of all California products is now under way by the

State bureau of commerce, State of California.

In addition to providing a central information

bureau for the use of buyers of California commodities, the service will provide special information con- cerning the sources and geographical locations of producing plants. The work will centralize not only data

heretofore collected by public and private agencies,

but will supplement and clarify to make available for

the first time a complete state-wide tabulation.

Cross indexing will break down the larger classifi- cations to present a clear picture of the specialties

produced by each jilant. The completed work, unlike

the ordinary directory or buyers’ guide, will be specific in each detail of production. Twelve thousand manufacturing plants in California Avill be broken down to several hundred basic classifications, and these in turn

will be subdivided to the greatest possible degree.

There exists at present no standardized commodity

classification enumerating all the articles and products. The buyer seeks specific articles and can not be

satisfied with the general listing such as is now available in assorted unstandardized guides. The prospective purchaser of cotton tea bags, for example, would

still be unserved when supplied with 30 cotton-bag

classifications, including bags for beans, cement, lime,

and flour. To make such a service available, cross indexing is resorted to by duplicate classification.

1 Chief, bureau of commerce, State of California.

As an average example of the problem facing purchasers, the general classification of “ diyers ” is subdivided into 116 minor groups. Of this number 40

are manufactured in California. They must be classified, not only as to what they dry, but how they dry it. They may be used to di'y cement, milk, coconuts, fruit,

asphalt, laundry, or even glue; they may be of the

drum or cylinder type, rotary or steam-jacketed, or they may use a vacuum process. Obvioushu the pros- pective buyer of a steam-jacketed laundry diwer ivould

be helped very little without a cross index to lead him

from the 115 other minor classifications. Hundreds of

basic groups ivill be thus broken down to yield specific

information available in no other way. The index

Avill, of course, serve not only prospective purchasers,

but will provide jiroducers with a key to everj^ possible

California outlet. Sources of basic information will be chambers of

commerce, state departments, trade directories, trade

associations, telephone directories, and returns from

questionnaires.

Once the index is established, the bureau of commerce will maintain it by periodic checking Avith the

sources. Preliminaiy work indicates that 100,000 sep- arate listings Avill be made in completing the project.

Preidous directory “ mortality ” experience points to an annual change, removal, or addition, of 5,000 list- ings. The Avork Avill probably take from six to eight

months, after Avhich it Avill be ready for printing if the costs are approved.

APPROVAL OF FOOD PRODUCTS BY MEDICAL

ASSOCIATION

Far-reaching changes in the merchandising of foodstuffs are indicated as a result of the entrance of the

American Medical Association into the field of food

indorsing and advertising, according to a report made

by the committee on food, made to the association’s

convention, held the first part of June in Philadelphia.

Dr. INIorris Fishbein, chairman of the committee on

foods, said that manufacturers of packaged foods,

realizing the importance of the indorsement by the

American Medical Association, had submitted 455

jiroducts to be te.sted by the committee during the first year of its existence. The committee granted the use

of the seals of the association to 111 of these products,

Avith action pending on 340 products. INIaiiufacturers

Avhose products are accepted by the committee are

alloAved to advertise them as “passed by the committee on foods of the American Medical Association.”

All foods Avhich liaA^e the indorsement of the asso- ciation Avill be tested frequently to make sure that the

standard of excellence has been maintained, and the

advertising Avill be subjected constantly to the censor-

;ship of the association’s committee on foods. -

DENTAL LATHE GRINDING WHEELS

A simplified schedule of sizes for dental lathe grinding AA'heels Avas adopted by a general conference of the

industry, held at White Sulphur Springs, W. Va.,

June 22, in conjunction Avith the annual meeting of the

American Dental Trade Association.

The sizes of the AA'heels adopted range from V/j

inches in diameter by one-fourth inch in thickness to

3 inches in diameter by one-half inch in thickness, and

include a total of 10 sizes, all to hai’e one-fourth inch

Avide arbor hole, and all to be square edge. The survey

of demand upon Avhich this schedule Avas based shoAA'cd

a total of 91 varieties of Avheels in production, considei-ing diameter, thickness, hole diameter, and types of

edge.

This recommendation is one of a series of such ]U'oj- ects prepared by the simplilication and standardization committee of the American Dental Ti ade Association. and makes the foui-th to be completed. Three

programs, covering dental hyiiodermic needles, dental

bl ush Avheels, and packaging of dental plaster and

investment, have alread}' been issued in printed Iqrm.

Others are in the process of deA'elojmient at this time.
52 COMMERCIAL, STANDARDS MONTHLY AUGUST, 1031 CONSUMERS’ SPECIFICATIONS FOR TEXTILES

Service and Durability of a Fabric Essential to Purchaser

By Waeken E. Emlet, National Bureau of Standards

Every man, woman, and child in the United States

is a user of textiles. Most *of us are also purchasers of clothing, household linens, carpets, draperies, upholstery, rope, tents, awnings, belts, or other of the many items included

under this general heading. As purchasers and con- sumers, we have two inalienable rights—we have the

right to demand that the material shall be suitable for

the purpose intended when purchased, and that it shall retain that suitability to a reasonable degree

during a reasonable period of use. We buy a service,

not a fabric.

Many of the projDerties required in a fabric when

neiv are hard to describe. In dress goods we demand

the proper draping quality, sheerness, or nonwrinkleability ; in carpets, a pleasing appearance and softness

of texture ; in household linens, a certain degree of

whiteness and luster. The desired durability is still more difficult to specify because it is so closely associated with conditions

of service which can not be standardized. A blanket

should not shrink excessively when laundered, but the

amount of shrinkage is as much dependent upon the

way in which the laundering is done as it is upon the

quality of the blanket.

Because of the difficulty of giving exact expression

to the properties desired in a texBle, and the still greater difficulty of estimating its probable durability, consumers have naturally fallen back upon their oath

experience. Experience has taught us that a certain

kind of fabric will give satisfactory service when put

to a certain use. We, therefore, examine this fabric

carefully to ascertain just what it is made of and hoAv

it is made. This information is embodied in a specification which is used for repeat orders. Some of the

larger purchasers, like the Government and numerous

retailers, prepare these specifications as formal documents; in the vast majority of individual cases, the

information is handed down by word of mouth from

mother to daughter.

There are so many faults inherent in this method of

procedure that it should be abandoned as soon as a more logical method can be found to replace it. It

effectually stops all attempts which the manufacturers

might make to improve his product, and will not per- mit the application of the neAv knoAvledge which is be- ing constantly jiroduced by modern research. If the

deliA^e red fabric does not quite meet the specification,

the consumer knows only that it is different from the one AAffiich he has ordered ; he can not know whether it is better or worse for his purpose. If it meets the

specification, he must accept it, and then if the fabric

does not suit his purpose so well or so cheaply as some

other fabric Avhich could be used, the consumer has

only himself to blame.

A more logical method of preparing a specification

for a textile would be to study the use to which the

material is to be put, and base the requirements upon

the information thus obtained.

Suppose we take an evening gown, for example, a certain minimum strength is required, so that it will

not tear too easily or rip out at the seams. A minimum

elastic limit is also necessary, so that it will not sag

and lose its shape. A requirement coA^ering color and

luster must be included, for appearance is very important. The color must be fast to perspiration, but

need not be fast to light. The gown must “ hang ”

right so a requirement for draping quality must be

included. The gOAvn must be able to withstand either

dry cleaning or laundering without injury, the manufacturer to state Avhich process is to be used, and what

peculiar precautions are to be taken, if any.

Most of the test methods required for such a series of specifications are now available; others are being

developed by research workers in many laboratories.

The greatest need at present is a careful study by

consumers of the uses to which they put fabrics and

the requirements which should be included in the

specifications. It is particularly to be noted that this type of specification includes no statement as to the material of

which the fabric is made nor of the way in Avhich it is constructed. The manufacturer is given an entirely

free hand to make it of anything and in any way that

he can, provided only that the fabric is suitable for the

purpose intended and is i-easonably durable. This is all that most consumers desire.

PENNSYLVANIA TO PROMOTE CAMPAIGN

FOR ELIMINATION OF WASTE

A state-wide simplification and elimination of

waste program among Pennsylvania producers, dis- tributors, and consumers is to be sponsored and con- ducted by the Pennsylvania State Chamber of Commerce, with the active assistance of the division of

simplified practice of the National Bureau of

Standards.

Pennsylvania industries have been in the forefront

in promoting simplification and elimination of waste

programs. For instance, more than 100 of their

organizations have adopted the simplified invoice

form Avhich has been nationally recognized as a time

and money saver. This action on the part of the

State chamber of commerce will add considerable

impetus to these efforts. The general secretary of the Pennsylvania State

Chamber of Commerce states that the major objectives

of his organization, in sponsoring this campaign, are

to coordinate the present waste-eliminating activities

among producers, distributors, and consumers in

Pennsylvania, extend the present scope and application of simplification, and effect savings for all interests in the State through cooperative action. The

plans noAv being formulated Avill probably be put into

operation about the middle of September.
AUGUST, 1931 COMMERCIAL STANDARDS MONTHLY 53

RAYON SPECIFICATIONS

Tested Specifications for Rayon Yarn Based Upon Requirements of Consumers

By John A. Spoonek, Merchandising Director, Viscose Co.

If we manufactured rayon yarn into merchandise

ready for retail distribution doubtless the title of my

statement would be “ tested merchandise ” instead of

“ tested specifications,” because it is our desire to sell the highest quality of rayon yarn produced, and we

would be satisfied to have our merchandise tested. As

it is we manufacture only rayon yarn, therefore, our

cooperation with the retail merchant must be limited

to providing the manufacturer-consumer of rayon

with specifications for making the kind of rayon

goods we know the retailer wants to buy as the purchasing agent for his community of consumers. Though it is customary for the retailer to look upon

labels in merchandise as simply trade-marks advertising the manufacturer, a label means a great deal more

to the buyer when it identifies garments made to tested

specifications of cloth and size. The quality-control

plan of labeling only merchandise made to consumer

specifications has not only established a sound reason

for labels in merchandise, but it has sent forth a challenge to retailers against their policy of considering

labels so lightly as to practically object to manufacturers jDlacing them in merchandise.

The quality-control insignia on a label is not a manufacturer’s advertisement to the retailer and consumer.

It is an identifying mark that stamps the merchandise

as being of high rayon quality in the meaning of the

ultimate consumer, made of serviceable cloth, cut to correct size, which insures comfortable fit of the garment and durable wear proportionate to the care exercised in laundering it. The efforts of retail buyers who were working individually and collectively through the National Retail

Dry Goods Association to -establish methods for determining the consumer serviceability of rayon merchandise is recognized as a step in scientific retail buying.

The retailers’ experience with so-called run-of-market

rajmn merchandise having proved expensive through

customer complaints, it became desirable to cooperate

with merchants in all fields of retailing to devise means for relieving the retailer of a good proportion

of his customer returns and complaints by adopting a plan of identifying serviceable rayon goods.

The first task undertaken preparatory to adopting

the quality-control plan was to determine by scientific tests what cloth specifications were requii’ed to make

a fabric that would give serviceable wear to the ulti- mate consumer in customary use and establish size specifications for manufacturing the garment to insure

its proper fit of normal figures based on body measure- ments adopted by the Government.

The quality-control plan specifications, therefore, are based upon consumer requirements without regard

for costs of cloth or manufacturers’ practices except to provide that minimum quality of the cloth and the

workmanship must be high enough to give expected

service of the garment in consumer use. The Better Fabrics Testing Bureau, official laboratory of the National Retail Dry Goods Association (see Commercial

Standards Monthly for June, 1931), was delegated to

establish the specifications of consumer serviceability

because it is operated by retail merchants and has national recognition in its contacts with the National

Bureau of Standards, the National Association of

Dyers and Cleaners, the Laundryowners’ National

Association, and a background of testing experience

in the analysis of returned merchandise through daily

service to adjustment bureaus of the largest retail stores throughout the country.

Every step in the manufacture of rayon merchandise designed to bear the quality-control label is based on consumer-tested specifications and, as a protection

to the retail merchant, the Better Fabrics Testing Bureau maintains a department in which two. analysts

and one chemist devote their entire time to check tests of merchandise sold by licensed manufacturers under

the quality-control plan. The label identifies good

rayon merchandise and, in addition, insures “ tested

quality ” to the retail buyer and, in turn, to the ulti- mate consumer. The Better Fabrics Testing Bureau

is authorized to cooperate with retail buyers in the

preparation of buying specifications based on both the

fabric specifications and size standards of the qualitycontrol iilan without charge to the retailer.

A. P. I. STANDARDS EFFECTIVE IN GERMANY

AND ENGLAND

Under date of June 9, 1931, the Physikalisch-Technische Reichsanstalt, Berlin, Germany, Avas advised b^' the secretary of the division of production, American

Petroleum Institute, that the Reichsanstalt had been

granted authority to test and certify screAV thread

gages made in conformity Avith A. P. I. standard specifications 5A, coA^ering casing, drill pipe, and tubing;

and 5L, covering line pipe.

Similar authority haA'ing been preAuously granted

the National Physical Laboratory, Teddingtqn, England, it is now possible for English, German, and other

European manufacturers and users of A. P. I. standard pipe to have their gages tested and certified in

Germany and England without the expense and delay

incident to sending them to the National Bureau of

Standards, official custodian of the institute’s master

gages. Copies of all certificates and reports on A. P. I. gages

issued by the Reichsanstalt and by the National Physical Laboratory, are sent to the institute and to the National Bureau of Standards, and the bureau keeps in

close touch with the other national laboratories at all times as to equipment and methods of measurement

employed, to the end that international uniformity of

standards may prevail.
54 COMMERCIAL STANDARDS MONTHLY AUGUST, 1931 UNIFORMITY OF VEHICLE TRAFFIC RULES SOUGHT

Standardized Brake and Headlight Tests Aid Motorist to Keep His Car Mechanically Safe

By Ernest N. Smith, Executive Vice President American Automobile Association

Adoption of an effective and harmonious system of

traffic rules, as ivell as an orderly procedure for promoting safety, offers the only hope for the efficient and

safe movement of the 35,000,000 motor vehicles that

will be on the streets and highways by 1940. The greatest problem will be, as it has been in the

past, within the limits of cities and towns where the

principal streets were laid out prior to the advent of

the automotive area. In the past, as facilities for

expediting traffic were provided and safety plans were

perfected, they jiroved obsolete when considered from

the standpoint of the yearly increase in the number of

automobiles. As a result it has become apparent that

all efforts to set up standards for the desired smoothness in the flow of traffic, with safety to those at the

wheel and pedestrians alike, must be considered in

the light of future needs. The so-called saturation

point with regard to the number of motor vehicles in

use, often predicted, is not yet in sight.

Scientific research, however, has made it possible

to consider present-day traffic and anticipate the fu- ture volume on the basis of experience. Therefore,

much progress has been made and much more will be

made. But the progressive nature of the problem

necessarily makes it a continuing one requiring con- stant study and research.

The goal sought is a system which will facilitate

understanding by the highway user of the requirements of any State or locality in which he may find

himself. This objective, in terms of industry, is standardization. In the field of traffic, it is customary to use the term uniformity.

AAA urges uniform laws.

The American Automobile Association, since its organization in 1902, has always been to the forefront

in sponsoring uniformity and encouraging a coordinated program for all agencies interested in facilitat- ing the use of the automobile with safety. It has

sponsored uniformity in rules of the road, in the

meaning of warning and direction signs, as well as

traffic signals. It has sponsored uniformity in rules

and regulations governing the operation of motor vehicles on the streets and highways. It has sponsored

uniformity in the methods used to promote safety.

Through its National Committee on Highway Widening and Planning, the AAA has also sought to develop

a uniform program for the use of political subdivisions and municipalities in “ building safety into the

highways ” through the elimination of “ bottle necks ” and other points of congestion, as well as in planning

ai'teries of travel to assure maximum use. Noteworthy progress has been made in all of these

fields. The achievements in securing uniformity in

marking the highways have been particularly impressive. The car owner now finds standard warning and

dii’ection signs on virtually all of the interstate highways, and State agencies are rapidly placing them on

secondary roads. But there are fields of even greater

importance.

When the number of automobiles in use passed the

15,000,000 mark six years ago the American Automobile Association reaffirmed its belief that the multiplicity of diverse State and local laws governing car operation threatened to strangle motor transportation.

The support of President Hoover, then Secretary of

Commerce, was enlisted and plans formulated for a national conference on street and highway safety.

Out of this and subsequent conferences there was

developed the Uniforiu Vehicle Code and the Model

Municipal Traffic Ordinance. The unqualified support of the more than 1,000 affiliated AAA motorclubs was thrown behind this program of model legislation and it has contributed in no small way to the

revision of motor laws throughout the country. Without this effort, traffic conditions to-day would be much

Avorse. Aside from lending its prestige and support to unified national efforts to improru conditions, the AAA

has met with signal success in its individual actirdties. Through a national committee of 17 it promulgated

the safety responsibility law in 1928 and offered it as an effective rveapon to curb the reckless driver.. Although this suggested legislation, designed to en- courage uniform larvs affecting the drivers of automobiles, has been before the country less than three

years, more than a third of the motor vehicle owners

in the United States and half of those in Canada are

are operating under one or more of the essential principles. Its appeal comes through the equitable idea

of curbing the reckless without penalizing the great

majority of careful drivers.

Uniformity has also been extended to the great

humanitarian work of educating children to protect

themselves and in assuring their safe passage across the lanes of traffic en route to and from the school- room. This program includes the distribution of

safety lessons and posters to more than 3,000,000^

school childi’en. It also includes the activity of

175,000 schoolboy patrolmen in 500 cities who daily

guide 2,500,000 children through the maze of vehicular

traffic. The result has been a steady decline in fatalities and accidents among children of school age. Space does not admit a lengthy review of every

phase of uniformity as it has been applied by organized

motordom, so, in conclusion, let me turn to the phases

of AAA activity where the industrial term standardization may be well used. In this classification comes

the standardized brake and headlight tests engaged in over the countiy to aid the motorist to keep his car mechanically safe. In it falls the standardization of 5,000,000 maps and

tour publications issued annually. In it falls the national reciprocal' service at the touring counter Avhere

the motorist in tlie far West receives the identical service offered in the more populous East. But it is suffi- cient to say that the standards sponsored by the national organization for its member clubs have improved

the general conditions under which the oivners and operators of 26,000,000 motor vehicles now enjoy the new

freedom that the automobile has offered.
AUGUST, 1931 COMMERCIAL STANDARDS MONTHLY 55

STANDARDIZING RAILWAY SPECIFICATIONS

An Eifort to Nationalize the Specification of Bridges Is in Progress

By W. C. Cushing, Engineer of Standards, the Pennsylvania Railroad

To the railways standardization means the economical purchase and use of materials, tools, appliances,

and supplies. To the industrial manufacturing establishments, it has the signification of mass production.

The entire train of operations is mechanized and

standardized, and elimination of waste the effort of constant watchfulness. In both services it is unified

practice.

In the resulting efforts of studious technical associations, lacking organization authority, it becomes rec- ommended practice. In the semiaccomplishment of

reduction in variet}" and numbers for selection, it be- comes simplified practice. “ It is a widely known fact

that the average consumer’s knowledge of market

values is so hopelessly inadequate that a persistent

sales campaign can make him believe almost an}dhing.

The greater the multiplication of varieties, sizes, and

terms the worse his confusion becomes.”

Standard practice is expressed by (1) specifications,

(2) plans in more or less complete detail, (3) a code

of instructions or rules (Eailways’ Book of Rules),

and (4) a selected list of suitable materials or articles,

similar and equalized.

Specifications are a description of the article, appliance, device, or material desired, together Avith methods of examination and proof testing for ascertaining

their compliance Avith the recpurements. They are prepared in such form that they can be used in the

regular routine of office work and avoid the necessity

for dealing with each ncAv request as though it Avere a new subject, thus clogging the working machinery

and limiting the effect h^eness and range of accomplishments of the daily task. When rightly prepared

they save time and dispose of a problem so that it will be dealt Avith Avithout delay in a routine Avay

through systematic prescription coA'ering all the steps

to be taken.

Specifications should be prepared so that (1) they

Avill inform the purchasing agent of the kind and

quality of the article required; (2) they Avill instruct

the manufacturer upon the terms and conditions in

precise statement of desired attainments, AA’hich Avill be proof tested in the manner prescribed for checking

(he fulfilment; (3) they Avill inform the inspector of

the purchaser of the conditions of purchase, manufacture, examination, and proof testing so that he Avill be the final authorit}^ for acceptance for the purchaser

;

(4) they Avill keep at hand conveniently for the ready

reference of the engineers charged with the preparation of specifications, and of those aaRo use the articles, appliances, deAuces, or materials, a statement of

the details of preparation in each case. ConA’enient

' Industrial Standardization, published by National Industrial Conference Board (Inc,), New York, 19l!9.

infoi’mation of this kind saves time in searching else- Avhere, when the multiplicity of articles required for

construction and maintenance are borne in mind. To

many of them they are desirably instructiA^e. It Avould be impossible for a busy officer offhand to

state clearly and precisely the description necessary

for the purchase of the hundreds of things required

daily. When the description of the article to be purchased iuA'olves the general physics, that is the science

of forces or forms of energy of inorganic nature, the

research laboratory becomes the A^aluable instrument

for the study of the mechanics of materials and of

applied chemistry in the arts and manufactures.

These research and proof-testing laboratories have be- come the fundamental basis for maintaining the in- tegrity of materials, tools, and machinery upon which

the safety of the vast transportation business depends.

Approachment in perfection of specification writing

leads to a wider field of usefulness, and the resultant

acceptance as a national standard. For this accomplishment, the cooperative assistance of the manufacturers is desirable and necessary. The actii^e agencies

for bringing about this result are in many cases the

enmneerino- “ osocieties and the associations of manufacturers. In this way the specifications for crossties

haA"e been made a national standard, and in like manner, it is expected that the principal features of track

bolts Avill become a national standard. Much work of

this kind is in progress, notably the effort to nationalize the specifications for bridges.

Standardization by the railways began probably by

the elimination of odd gages for tracks. Then fol- loAved the necessary unification of interchange dimensions for rolling stock, September 19, 1866.^ Then

occurred in 1875 the general time coiiA^ention, which

Avorked out the plan for standard time in the United

States in 1883, without which it would be difficult to

adhere to the transportation regularity of the present

time.

The name of this group of railway organizations

changed to American Railway Association in 1891,®

since Avhich time it has been enlarged by the incorporation of technical railway associations, and is the

influential central agency of the railways for mutual

standardization.

Specifications are thus a standardized description

of the article to be purchased, but the utmost vigilance

must be at hand for the revision made necessary by

the increased seA'erity of the use. Frozen standardization is an enemy to be aA'oided.

IMobile standardization is the friend and assistant

of well organized business, the fundamental unit of

Avhich is the transportation industry.

= The Railway Age, p. 1423; ,Tune 22. 1929.

» Proceedings, American Railway Engineering Association, vol. 30,

p. 78 ; 1929.
56 COMMEKCIAL STANDARDS MONTHLY AUGUST, 1931 APPROACHING AN IDEAL SPECIFICATION

Commodity Acceptance Testing Should Comply with Specification Requirements

By B. Siegel, National Bureau of Standards

Purchasing on specifications is becoming more popular and recognized in commercial life. The Federal

Government, States, cities, counties, industry, commerce, and individuals are now purchasing on specifications or are becoming specification minded.

Frequently when specification is mentioned to the

layman, the first thing that comes to his mind is that

it is a scientific or technical description, tooi complicated to be understood by the ordinary individual.

While this may be true to some extent, such is not al- ways the case. As a matter of fact, the simpler the

description, and the simpler the performance test re- quirements, provided they are adequate, the nearer

the approach to an ideal specification. Few of us

realize that specifications are used by people every

day. A person who goes in a store to buy the very

necessities of life—that is, food and clothing—gives a

specification of what is wanted and the price he ex- pects to pay. When the housewife attempts to buy

a particular piece of meat, she usually specifies such

requirements as 1 pound of fresh and tender sirloin

steak, not too fat. The butcher knows what is wanted

in language simply stated and understood by both the

purchaser and the seller. There are, of course, some

requirements which can not be readily checked, as in

this instance, “ tender.” Most butchers, and some of

us, can identify a tender steak by intimate inspection,

but so far as known, there is no standard by which

everyone can be governed with regard to this particular requirement, although some thought has probably

been given toward this end. It is well known that two

totally different parts of the same animal may be different as to its physical strength or toughness. Such

differences, due to the nature of the material, add to the difficulties in preparing specifications, in that they

frequently entail much research, testing, and actual

experience.

Efforts are being made to bring the test requirements more nearly in conformity with actual per- formance requirements. In the case of automobile

tires, accelerated performance tests have been devised.

Accelerated tests have also been developed for a number of other commodities purchased under specifications. The automobile industry has developed acceler- ated tests for fan belts. Under previous conditions

of use, it was frequently found that the belt soon

failed. Research and tests resulted in the development of belts having tremendously increased useful

life and performance. In a comparatively few hours

accelerated service tests give information that would

take many months to obtain in actual performance.

Such tests can not always be developed nor are they

always satisfactory in all respects. However, they

serve a very useful purpose and they form the basis

for further improvement.

For a commodity such as window shades, there have

been developed certain accelerated laboratory tests

which are not complete tests. In addition, actual performance tests are conducted over a period of months

to cover such details as washability, fading, cracking,

etc., until some more satisfactory accelerated tests are developed.

Unless a commodity is purchased in sufficient quantity to justify the cost of test, it is frequently found more economical either to eliminate the test and accept

the manufacturer’s certificate that the material meets

the requirements of the specification or to purchase in

the open market without regard to specification re- quirements.

The purchasing officer who keeps informed as to the

cost of various tests involved in specifications un- doubtedly keeps the total cost of his purchases at a minimum.

The cost of testing purchases for compliance with

specifications might bring the total cost of commodities high above the original cost or the cost of a satis- factorjr commercial article. In developing specifications for test requirements,

attempt should be made to avoid elaborate and costly

tests. If elaborate tests are found necessary, some

simpler tests that can be performed by the purchasing

officer in emergencies, or for small- quantity purchases,

should also be developed and included. Tests which can be performed by the purchasing

officer should not be referred to the testing laboratory.

This fact is sometimes overlooked when shipments are received for inspection and test. Tests are made, notwithstanding costs, where lives are dependent upon products; such as wire cable for use in elevators or for commodities that are to be used

over indefinite periods without replacement.

Purchasing officers and users are devoting more time

to specification requirements, instead of leaving them

up to the technical' men. On the other hand, the technical men are becoming better acquainted with the ac- tual needs rather than the theoretical needs of the purchasers and users. Reduction or elimination of excessive costs of testing

might well be given more consideration by those con- cerned in research, testing, and in preparing specifications. Perhaps there might be better acquaintance

with the comparative cost of tests and cost of commodities. Recommendations might be made that purchases under certain definite amounts should consist of

known reputable commodities or to accept the vendor’s

certificate that the product meets the specification re- quirements. In the latter case when goods prove unsatisfactory, the vendor could be penalized by future

debarment, return of goods, or possibly repurchasing on his account. Commodity acceptance testing, however, is probably

the only way to insure absolute compliance with specification requirements.
AUGUST, 1931 COMMERCIAL STANDARDS MONTHLY 57

TESTING THE STRENGTH OF MANILA ROPE

By H. L. Whittemoee, National Bureau of Standards

The strength of textiles as determined by tensile

tests varies with the rate of applying the load. The

strength of fiber rope also may depend upon the rate of loading, but no information was found in the technical literature as to the most satisfactory rate of

loading. Fairness in acceptance tests requires that

the best rate of loading be ascertained by experiment

and specified so as to insure a true measure of rope

strength.

Eighteen test specimens were numbered consecutively as they were cut from a coil of manila rope,

having a nominal diameter of 1 inch, and were grouped

for testing. Each specimen was provided with eye

splices, the free length between splices being 5 feet. The specimens were held under laboratory conditions

for several days before testing. The temperature and

the relative humidity of the air in the laboratory were

recorded when each specimen was tested. The rope complied with the requirements of Federal specification No. 61b for manila rope. Under this

specification the standard speed of the head of the

testing machine is 3 inches per minute with a plus or minus tolerance of 1 inch.

The specimens were tested in a vertical-screw, lever- type testing machine. The sjieeds of the moving head

of the machine were 0.046, 0.46, 0.94, 2.03, 3.23, and

4.16 inches per minute. Three specimens were tested

at each speed. All of the specimens broke at the inner

end of one of the eye splices.

The temperature ranged from 67.8° to 76° F. and

the relative humidity from 56 to 73 without appreciable effect upon the observed strength of the rope. The results of the tests are shown graphically in the

illustration.

The average breaking strength of the 12 specimens,

tested at speeds from 0.94 to 4.16 inches per minute, is 9,310 pounds. The average departure of a single determination from this average is 2.1 per cent and the

maximum departure is 3.3 per cent.

It is evident that between 1 and 4 inches per minute

the speed of the moving head had little effect on the

observed strength of the rope. The results of tensile tests of manila rope, nominal

diameter 1 inch, showed that the observed breaking;

10 000

8000

I a; 6000

O’c

a;

O’c

lxo

<u

L. CD

4000

2000

o

O

R H A

L •

o-ino

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'liv/olu 'ragea/ re. resu,wit

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12 3 4- Speed of head of testinq machine - in. per min. Relation between the ot>served strength of manila rope and

different speeds of the moving head of the testing machine

strength was practically constant for speeds of the

moving head of the testing machine between 1 and 4

inches per minute.

For speeds less than 1 inch per minute the observed

strength of manila rope (nominal diameter 1 inch)

decreased as the speed was reduced.

KNIT RAYON UNDERWEAR

The measurements and tolerances for women’s cir- cular flat knit and men’s circular ribbed and circular

flat knit rayon underwear proposed by the Better

Fabrics Testing Bureau and the Associated Knit

Underwear Manufacturers of America were adopted

by the general conference on knit underwear held at New York City on June 24. These specifications are the result of the best efforts of the industry to find a list of measurements and tol- erances which, if adhered to in the manufacture of knit

rayon underwear, would produce garments that Avill prove satisfactory to the greatest number of users. The immediate object of the adoption of standard

measurements for knit rayon underwear is to provide

a better understanding between buyer and seller as to

Avhat constitutes proper measurements and tolerances

for a gii^en size of garment; to set up a basis upon

which satisfactory full-size garments may be certified to the user ; and from which the dealers or buyers may

determine whether or not they are receiving skimp-cut

merchandise.

Each garment to be measured is laid out without

tension on a smooth flat surface so that creases and

Avrinkles will not affect the measurements. All meas- urements are taken to the nearest one-eighth inch, with

a steel tape Avhich is recommended as being more

convenient and accurate than other ordinary measuring devices.

It is understood that formal adoption of these standard measurements and tolerances will not entail any

material changes in present commercial practices on

the part of the more reputable producers who have
58 COMMERCIAL STANDARDS MONTHLY AUGUST, 1931

been following these measurements for a number of

years. A rejiort of the general conference, including a revised draft of the recommended commercial standard has been circulated among producers, distributors,

and consumers for written acceptance.

LEAD PENCILS

In an article on lead pencils in the June number of

this monthly, pages 389 and 390, the following state- ment occurs

:

By far the best wood is the common red cedar of the eastern United States, and the wood of a ciosely related Mexican tree. The wood has straight, tine, and even grain, and is just brittle enough to break away easily when the pencil is sharpened. A

more suitable wood could hardly be imagined, and no wholly

satisfactory substitute for it has ever been found. Since this was ivritten it has come to our attention

that increasingly larger quantities of western incense

cedar are being used in the manufacture of pencil's. As

mentioned in the article, only 8.7 per cent of all the

wood used for pencils and penholders in 1928 was

•eastern red cedar. The available published statistics showed that 91 per cent of the total consumption of

wood was “ western cedars,” of which there are several

species. It now appears that practically all of this 91

per cent was incense cedar. These two kinds, eastern red and western incense cedar, make up 99.7 per cent of the total consumption. The remaining 0.3 per cent, or only 125,000 feet, was red gum and birch.

Incense cedar is said to have all of the good qualities

of eastern red cedar, except the characteristic odor and

color, which can be supplied by suitable treatment. Incense cedar is also cheaper and more abundant than

red cedar. Because of the diminishing supply of red

cedar and its increasing use for closet linings, it is fortunate that the industry discovered that incense cedar

is so eminently suitable for making pencils.

DIAMOND CORE DRILL FITTINGS

In a recent survey to determine the extent to which

the Commercial Standard for Diamond Core Drill

Fittings, CS17-30, was being followed in commercial

practice, an adherence of 14.3 per cent was indicated

by unweighted rejilies from producers.

The following reasons were given for deviation

from the commercial standard requirements: {a) Inactivity among drillers due to depressed conditions

resulting in use of stock on hand and little demand for new material, (h) insufficient time to change from

standards widely used in anthracite coal fields, (c)

tendency of purchasers to reorder old-type equipment

and to keep old equipment until worn out, and {d)

longer time required to change designs than antici- pated.

Although certain tolerances specified in the commercial standard have been modified to improve manufacturing conditions, there has been no change in

nominal dimensions or in the general plan to obtain

interchangeability, and the majority believe it inadvisable to revise the standard at the present time, since

the new tolerances have not been subjected to adequate trial in actual practice. It seems probable that

revisions will be circulated for approval in 1932. As recommended by the standing committee, the

existing standard is reaffirmed without change for

another year beginning January 1, 1931.

STANDARDS FOR WOOL TOPS

Wool is among the agricultural products for which

standards have been established b}^ the United States Department of Agriculture. The significant grade

factor, diameter of fiber, is made the basis for the

official standards. The standards comprise 12 grades,

embrace all gradations from fine to coarse, and apply

to both grease and clean wool.

Representation of the official standards in physical

form is made through selected specimens of wool and

wool top to mark the divisional lines. For wool in

the raw or grease state, sets are prepared in 12-grade

and 7-grade form. In the one the complete range of

the standards is provided; in the other the more

prominent grades of the series are given. In this

form they meet the requirements for grading wool in

the fleece, for classroom instruction, and for other jiurposes where the complete form would prove too highly technical. The wool top sets are prepared in the 12-grade or complete form onlj’.

Official standards of the United States for grades of icool top The official standards of the United States for grades of wool top

are’ based on diameter of fiber. In the practical forms of the stand- ards the maximum diameter of the fiber for each of the grades is shown. In formulating and establishing these standards cooperation was received from the wool industry of the United States and from

the Bradford Chamber of Commerce and the British Wool Federation. As wool is a world commodity and a prominent item

in this country’s imports, the international aspect of

the commodity and of trade practices and customs i.s recognized in the standards, which were developed

through the aid and cooperation of the trade and in- dustry in the United States and the leading wool asso- ciations of England.

Commercially the standai'ds are used in the grading

of wool by wool merchants and in the sorting of wool

by manufacturers. For educational purposes they are used by colleges of agriculture, textile schools, and

other institutions interested in the study of wool and

wool grades. Their use for trade and educational purjioses is optional. For Government purposes, however,

the standards have official significance and are manda-
4.UGUST, 1931 COMMERCIAL STANDARDS MONTHLY 59

tory for grading of wool in warehouses licensed under

the United States Government warehouse act. Likewise, they are used in the custom houses, being stipulated in the tariff acts as the authority for grades of

wool imported into the United States. SCHEDULE FOR GLASS CONTAINERS FOR

PRESERVES, JELLIES, AND APPLE BUTTER

REVISED

The proposed revision of the simplified schedule on

glass containers for preserves, jellies, and apple butter

(R91-29) has just been mailed by the National Bureau

of Standards to all interests for their consideration

and written approval.

The revision iirogram was prompted by the action

of a recent meeting of the standing committee of the

industry where it was felt that a d8-ounce jar for preserves should be included in the simplified list of sizes. With this additional size in the recommendation it is expected by the committee that the progTam as a whole

will receive more widespread and closer adherence.

Subject to the approval by the industry, the revised

recommendation will become effective one month after

the bureau’s formal announcement that the schedule is in effect. PLYWOOD STANDARD

On August 1 the division of trade standards an- nounced the successs of the commercial standard for

plywood, as indicated by acceptances from practically

all the plywood manufacturers, a large number of dis- tributors, and many consumers. These standard grading rules apply to plywood

made from hardwood species in addition to. eastern red cedar. They specify certain general requirements on workmanship, gluing, packing, etc., and the detail

requirements of the face veneers required in the sev- eral grades for each species. It is hoped that their universal acceptance and use

will clarify the misconceptions as to grades often en- tertained by certain buyers, so that furniture manufacturers, architects, and others may definitely specify

their needs.

The standard will be printed in due time as a publication of the National Bureau of Standards. Mimeographed editions of the recommended commercial

standard, which is essentially the same as the printed

edition, will be available while the supply lasts, from

the division of trade standards. National Bureau of

Standards, Washington, D. C. POLAND STANDARDS FOR BUTTER REVISED

In its desire to raise the standard of Polish export

butter and thereby to increase the volume of trade in

that product, the Polish Government has recently

issued a new decree (“ Dz. Ust. R.P.” No. 21, item 126)

which partially amends the old order of November

15, 1930, in respect of the duty-free export of butter.

Regulations governing the use of exporters’ marks

are covered by the decree. Exporting firms register

their special distinguishing marks and designs witli the Ministry of Agriculture.

Minor details covered by the decree are such matters

as the sealing of butter containers after inspection.

and the limitation of the validity of an export certifi- cate to a term of 8 days after its issue, or of If days if the butter is placed in a cold-storage plant at one of

the Polish ports. If the butter is not exported within

the time-limit fixed, it must be examined anew before

being exported duty-free, special attention being paid

to tests covering the possible development of rot, stale- ness, or rancidity.

HACK-SAW BLADES

The proposed revision of the simplification for hack- saw blades, is now before the members of the industry

for their consideration and written approval. This

recommendation (R90-29) which Avas originally approved at a general conference of the industry held

in April, 1928, and revised by the standing committee

in May, 1929, is divided into two, classes of blades,

namely, standard tungsten and carbon blades and

high-speed blades. In each class there are two tables

of sizes. In the former there is a table listing 4 sizes of hard and flexible hand hack-saAV blades and one list- ing 13 sizes of hard power hack-saw blades. In the

latter class there are 2 sizes listed in the table of hand

blades, and 12 sizes in the table of power blades.

In the proposed revision program, three sizes have

been added to the high-speed power blade table by the

standing comihittee. This action was prompted by

the necessity of servicing new designs of extraheavy

duty hack-saAv machines. The revised recommendation Avill be effective one month after the issuance of

the announcement by the National Bureau of Standards that the required degree of acceptance has been

receii'ed. GLASS CONTAINERS FOR MAYONNAISE, SALAD DRESSING, AND SANDWICH

SPREAD

A reduction from 25 varieties of glass containers to

5, was effected by a general conference of the industry,

held June 30, under the auspices of the National

Bureau of Standards, in approving a proposed simplified-practice recommendation covering the capacities of glass containers for mayonnaise, salad dressing,

and sandwich sjAread.

The five sizes recommended to the industry by the

conference are the 3-fluid ounce, the one-half pint or

8-fluid ounce, the pint, the quart, and the gallon. It was pointed out at the conference that the simplified

schedule Avill not affect the distinctive shapes of containers in use by different manufacturers.

Subject to the Avritten approval by the industry, the

recommendation Avill become effective for new i^roduction on January 1, 1932, and for the clearance of exist- ing stocks on July 1, 1932.

TO LABEL “ANTIFREEZE” MIXTURES

Automobile “ antifreeze ” mixtures of more than 15

per cent methanol hencefortli are to be identified by

added quantities of pui-ple coloring matter, tartar

emetic, and chloracetophenone, or tear gas, under the

provisions of an agreement, effectiA^e July 1, 1931,

i-eached by the United States Public Health Service

Avith industries concerned. The plain marking of this

mixture is deemed necessary to prevent persons from
60 COMMERCIAL STANDARDS MONTHLY AUGUST, 193X

drinking it and from the careless and dangerous use

of it. By the agreement, moreover, all solutions of more

than 15 per cent free methanol, whether used in in- dustry or in “ antifreeze ” mixtures, are to be labeled

plainly “ Poison,” and, as well, when used in “ antifreeze ” products, are to contain the prescribed additional amounts of identifying coloring matter and

chemicals. The agreement provides also that the pro- ducers will' not introduce new uses for methanol until

the condition under which these uses may be developed

are investigated scientifically.

MODEL TRAFFIC LAW USED BY 38 CITIES

Promotion of the “ Model Municipal Traffic Ordi- nance ” and the “ Traffic Sign and Signal Code ” in

cities, and of the “Uniform Vehicle Code” in State

legislatures of 1932 and 1933, was the chief topic of

discussion at a meeting of the executive and publicity

committees of the National Conference on Street and

Highway Safety held in New York, June 23. Legislative progress reported in 1931 includes seven new drivers’ license laws (with four legislatures still in session at the time of committee meeting) and four new laws requiring periodic insjiection of vehicles under State auspices. The opposition of a few local groups is due to lack of understanding and will eventually yield to a persistent campaign of education, it was stated at the conference.

Special attention will be given to securing adoption

by cities of the Model Ordinance and the Sign and

Signal Code before the next legislative sessions. The

ordinance is already in force in at least 38 cities.

FEDERAL SPECIFICATIONS

Fourteen Federal specifications, ranging from cheesecloth to safes, were considered during the month of

July by the Federal Specifications Board. Of this

number 11 were proposed for revision and 3 were proposed for promulgation as new specifications. Copies

of these specifications (in mimeographed form) and

further information can be obtained from the Federal

Specifications Board, National Bureau of Standards,

Washington, D. C.

New designation Specifications under revision F. S. No.

C-F-201 Felt, hair. . .... 158 AA-S-81 Safes, insulated ... ... 60a JJ-N-191 Netting, mosquito (unbleached bobbinet)... 540a QQ-B-611 Brass, commercial, bars, plates, rods, shapes, sheets. 392 and strips. QQ-C-501 Copper, bars, plates, rods, shapes, sheets, and strips— 467 QQ-F-191 Ferrbtitanium _ . 144 CCC-D-731 Duck, numbered cotton.. . . 53 CCC-D-751 Duck, light weight, gray (Army duck) :... 159 CCC-J-191 Jean, bleached 641 DDD-S-251 Shades, window, rollers, slats, cords and accessories. 367b Cheesecloth for wiping purposes (remnants and 251a & 344 seconds). Rugs, American oriental (washed) V-T-276 Thread, cotton. . . Knives, putty and scraping . .. FOOD INDUSTRIES FAVOR STANDARDS FOR

THEIR PRODUCTS

The food industries are showing a tendency to support legislation for standardization of all manufactured food products and for more extensive legal control of sanitary conditions in food-manufacturing

plants and establishments where foods are handled

and sold, stated a recent announcement of the Federal

Food and Drug Administration, United States Department of Agriculture.

With Federal standards in effect for three of the

principal canned foods, and standards for three more

in the course of promulgation, the department feels that substantial pi’ogress has been made in the task of

placing in operation the McNary-Mapes Act providing for such standards.

The pioneer nature of the work is shown by the

fact that the department had to invent a device for

measuring accurately the tenderness of such products

as peas, peaches, and apricots. Much time was spent

in adapting existing systems of color measurements

to canned tomatoes, color being important in determining the quality of this product.

POLISHED COTTON TWINE

Effecting a reduction in variety of approximately

75 per cent in twine sizes, yarn sizes, colors, put-ups,

and packaging, a general conference of manufacturers, distributors, and users, held in New York on June 16, adopted a simplified-practice recommendation for polished cotton twine. The retained varieties will, in the opinion of those concerned, satisfy the

requirements of the trade.

Polished cotton twine is a special kind, made from

cotton fibers and processed to give a smooth finished

surface. It is this finish which distinguishes it from

the ordinary or unfinished cotton twine. It is used

for wrapping purposes where a polished twine is pre- ferred to an unfinished twine, and in the last few

years has found an ever-increasing market. The

methods employed in calculating yarn size and other

characteristics follow those used for unfinished twine.

The report of the conference, which has been sent to

all concerned for examination and formal acceptance,

contains a description of the calculations used in

determining these characteristics.

INDORSEMENT OF LABELING BY CONSUMER

GROUP

At its annual business meeting in Detroit, June 25,

1931, the American Home Economics Association

adopted the following resolution

;

The association has for some time been cooperating with

manufacturers and distributors through the Departments of Commerce and Agriculture and the American Standards Association in the development of standard specifications as to the

composition, construction, and performance of household goods.

It is frequently true that standards now available are not used by retailers in selling over the counter because they do

not realize the value of accurate information to the household

buyer. The association can perform a valuable service by

establishing contacts between progressive retailers and home

makers desirous of increasing the efficiency of their buying.

Resolved that the members of the association cooperate in every way with the I’etailers in their own communities to further the purchase and sale of consumers’ goods labeled according to standards set up through the American Standards

Association, the National Bureau of Standards of the United

States Department of Commerce, or the Bureau of Agricultural Economics of the United States Department of Agriculture, or labeled in some other way with accurate measurements

as to quality and performance.
^\UGrSl'. 1931 COMMEECIAL STANDARDS MONTHLY 61

STANDARDIZATION BRIEFS

Standards Commission of Sweden.—The name of

the Swedish Industrial Standardization Committee

was recently changed to the Standards Commission of

Sweden. This change was found necessary as the

Swedish Government is expanding its standardization program to include other activities besides in- dustry.

National Industry Standards Committee in China.

A national industry standards committee was established May 2, 1931, by the National Government of the

Republic of China. The membership of this committee will be selected from the different central governmental departments, the industrial organizations,

factories, technical societies, and experts along special

lines.

To 'prosecute for false labeling.—As a result of

extensive surveys during the last year which show

that many medicinal products are on the market bearing label claims which their compositions do not

justify, a notice of warning has been sent to manufacturers of medicinal preparations by the Food and

Drug Administration of the Department of Agriculture, that a vigorous program against such falsely

labeled preparations will be continued by the

department.

To stop false advertising of watehcases.—A watchcase company of New York City has been ordered by

the Federal Trade Commission to discontinue sell- ing watehcases which are stamped with the phrase

“ Rolled gold plate ” or words of like import, and

from using that phrase in advertising watehcases

unless the cases contain not less than three one- thousandths of an inch in thickness of gold on the outside thereof, and not less than one one-thousandth

of an inch in thickness of gold on the inside.

Making fireworks l>y specification.—Having experienced considerable difficulty with fireworks purchased

in the open market, the city officials of Milwaukee,

Wis., sought means to overcome this objection. In

cooperation with a manufacturing concern that had

specialized in the manufacture of railroad signals,

built to specification, the central board of purchases of

Milwaukee, developed specifications for the manufacture of their 1931 fireworks, which proved highly sat- isfactory. This year the city repeated its experiments

of having the fireworks made to specifications.

Steel pipe nipples.—As a result of a survey among

the manufacturers to determine adherence to the commercial standard for steel pipe nipples (CS5-29) a summarized report has been released by the National

Bureau of Standards indicating that among the re- porting manufacturers 93.7 per cent of production

conformed to the requirements of the standard. In

accordance Avith the recommendation of the standing

committee, the existing standard has been reaffirmed,

Avithout change, for another year, as of January 1, 1931.

Wrouglit-aluminum alloys.—A specification relat- ing to wrought-aluminum alloys for general engineerc ing purposes has been published by the British Engineering Standards Association. This relates to heattreated sheets and strips and covers the material

generally known as Y-alloy. The chemical composition of the alloy, the tolerances permissible on the

finished sheets and strip, and the tensile strength,

proof stress, and elongation are specified. Appended

to the specification is a useful memorandum dealing

Avith the preiAaration and heat-treatment of the alloy.

Costa Rica requires certificates on hog lard imports.—A Costa Rican executive decree, effective July

24, 1931, prohibits the importation of hog lard unless

accompanied by a certificate issued by a competent

sanitary authority in the country of origin showing

that the animals from which the lard was obtained has

received both antemortem and postmortem examination and found to be free from disease, according to a cable from American Consul J. D. Myers, San Jose. This requirement is similar to that of the meat-inspection service of the United States Department of Agriculture, whose certificates cover both ante and post

mortem inspections.

Metal Mining Code Revised.—Revision of the Utah

Metal mining code, scheduled to become effective August 1, 1931, was recently announced at Salt Lake

City by O. F. MeShane, a member of the industrial

commission of Utah. The new code, he said, proAudes

for an improved cross head on buckets used in shafts

of 300 feet or deeper; the establishment of an auto- matic stop on hoisting engines to prevent the cage or bucket from being carried too high in the hoisting

frame ; prohibitioir of anything but electrical firing in any shooting done in a shaft, except in the case of

prospect holes; and requiring a hoisting engineer to

be present at all times Avhen men, Avorking in a mine,

are using a vertical shaft.

Yalve fittings for compressed gas cylinders.—British Engineering Standards Association has issued a specification for valve fittings for compressed gas cylinders. This specification provides for vah’e fittings

for compressed gas CAdinders for practically all the

gases in general use, and requirements have been in- cluded for a safety release for carbon-dioxide cylinders. Particulars are given in an appendix of inspection gages for checking the threads on the valves and

the threads in the cylinder necks, and the National

Physical Laboratory is the custodian of tlie standard

gages, so that the Avorking gages necessary for the production of cylinders and valves can be checked at a reasonable cost.
62 COMMERCIAL STANDARDS MONTHLY AUGUST, 1931

Advertisement of quality in the faper-lag industry.—The paper-bag industry, represented by both

members and nonmembers of the Paper Bag Manufacturers Association, has accepted eight trade practice rules formulated by the industry and revised by

the Federal Trade Commission. Among the rules per- taining to iiractices held to be violative of law is one which defines as an unfair trade practice the making

of any false or deceptive statement by way of advertisement concerning the grade, quality, quantity, substance, character, nature, origin, size, or properties of

any product of the industry, having the tendency and

capacity to mislead or deceive purchasers or prospective purchasers.

Telegraph code for the electrical industry.—

A

standard telegraph code for the electrical industry,

sponsored by the National Electrical Manufacturers’

Association and other electrical associations, has been

compiled under expert supervision for the use of the

entire electrical field not only for economy in communication, but to provide means for more frequent,

accurate, and comprehensive exchange of information

of immediate necessity. According to the announce- ment it is the first instance of an entire industry uniting on a general code, and its cheap distribution is dependent upon the response to the prepublication offer as detailed in the prospectus which is available upon

application to the N.E.M.A.

Revision of food standards.—Tentative revision of

the Federal definition for milk bread, restatement of

the definition for rye bread, and issuance of a tentative

definition for farina macaroni, farina spaghetti, and

farina vermicelli, have been announced by the United

States Department of Agriculture. In the case of

milk bread, the proposed new definition requires that

all the liquid used be milk or its equivalent, instead of

the present requirement that only one-third of the

liquid need be milk or its equivalent. The department has also announced new definitions and standards for whole wheat bread, raisin bread, Boston

brown bread, sorghum sirup, canned tomato juice, and

dextrose.

SuXphonated oils.-—The cooperation of the National

Bureau of Standards in the establishment of a commercial standard for sulphonated oils has been re- quested by one of the large users. According to pres- ent information this specification will cover nomenclature, chemical requirements, and other consumer

criteria as well as methods of testing and labeling of

sulphonated oils, which are used mainly in the textile

field as softeners in finishing; wetting and boiling out

agents; mordants in some classes of dyeing; and as a means of leveling or evening some of the basic or substantive colors on cotton.

QUALITY ADVERTISING IN THE JEWELRY

INDUSTRY

One of the revised trade practice rules of the jewelry

industry recently approved by the Federal Trade

Commission sets forth as an unfair trade practice

“ the making or causing oiy_permitting to be made

Muskrat hide dealer stops use of word “ sealT—TheFederal Trade Commission has obtained from a cor- poration distributor, an agreement stipulating that na

longer will muskrat hides, skins, or pelts sold by it be so represented as to imply, or have the tendency to deceive customers into the belief that such goods are the skins, hides, or pelts of the seal. The company

also agreed to stop using in its advertising the word

“ seal ” either independently or in connection with the

word “ hudson ” or with other words, or in any way

. so as to imply that the products sold are the skins,,

hides, or pelts of the seal when such is not true.

Grapefruit juice found misbranded.—More than

2,000 cases of canned grapefruit juice, either adulterated with undeclared sugar or su^ar sirup or misbranded as to quantity of contents have been recently

seized by the Food and Drug Administration of the

United States Department of Agriculture. The department contends that buyers who want pure fruit

juices should not be obliged to pay for those whick

have been sweetened or watered. To this end the department has urged the housewife, when buying fruit

juices, to read the label for statements of quantity in

the container and for declarations of sugar that may

be added.

Barber supply house corrects labeling of its goods.

A corporation engaged in importing supplies for use

in barber shops and beauty parlors and selling them at wholesale and retail, has signed a stipulation with the

Federal Trade Commission agreeing to stop advertising and labeling one of its products with the words

“ tempered,” “ special steel ” or “ forged steel.” These

terms will not be used either independently or with

each other, or with other similar words or phrases

which would confuse buyers into believing that the

product so represented is made of forged steel, or that

it is tempered or specially hardened in any way, when

this is not true.

Identification colors for gas cylinders.—The British

Engineering Standards Association has just published

a specification for identification colors for gas cylinders for gases most commonly in use. The underlying principle of the scheme is that yellow should represent toxic or poisonous gases, and red or maroon

inflammable gases; for example, hydrogen and coalgas cylinders are to be colored red ; chlorine cylinders- are to be colored yellow ; and the color of cylinders for

carbon monoxide is a yellow ground with a red band.

The committee responsible for the preparation of the

schedule has recognized that there are other gases

used in limited quantities for which a color has not

yet been allocated, and it points out that it is important that the colors so far adopted should not be

used for gases other than those indicated.

or published any false, untrue, or deceptive state- ment by way of advertisement or otherwise concern- ing the grade, quality, quantity, substance, character,,

nature, origin, size, or preparation of any product

of the industry having the tendency and capacity

or mislead or deceive purchasers or prospective purchasers.”
AUGUST, 1931 COMMERCIAL STANDARDS MONTHLY 63

Represented at the trade pTactice conference of the

jewelry industry which resulted in the formulation of

the rule referred to were the National Wholesale

Jewelers’ Association, National Jewelers’ Board of

Trade, American National Retail Jewelers’ Association, New England Manufacturing Jewelers’ and Sil- versmiths’ Association, National Jewelers’ Publicity

Association, Wholesale Jewelers of Chicago, Milwaukee District Jewelers’ Club, Jewelry Trade Association, Retail Jewelry Association of Missouri, Kansas City Wholesale Jewelers’ Association, Wisconsin

Retail Jewelers’ Association, Jewelry Crafts’ Association, Jewelers’ Vigilance Committee, Jewelers’ 24- Carat Club, National Retail Drygoods Association,

Trunk, Luggage & Leather Goods Manufacturers of

America.

SCIENTIFIC, TECHNICAL, AND COMMERCIAL

PERIODICAL PUBLICATIONS ISSUED BY THE

national bureau of standards

BUREAU OF STANDARDS

JOURNAL OF RESEARCH

The new Journal describes the bureau’s re- search results in science and technology. The

union of science and its applications in one

journal shortens the lag between discovery

and application.

All engaged in industry and commerce should

have available for current use and permanent

reference the Bureau of Standards Journal of

Research.

Early in its fir^t year the Journal developed a

li^t of paid subscribers double the anticipated

maximum.

This Journal is full of interest to executives

and technicians controlling industries and

commercial enterprises. It enables them better to promote efficiency by determining the

scientific measured controls ofprocess through

experimental and theoretical research. - Issued monthly

Subscription price, $2.75 per year

COMMERCIAL STANDARDS

MONTHLY

TECHNICAL NEWS BULLETIN

The Bureau of Standards periodical with a WAR RECORD! Started during the dark

days of 1917 to keep the Army and Navy and

other branches of the Government informed

of progress in scientific war research at the

bureau. Upon urgent request this publication was continued and expanded to serve the

Government, science, and industry.

The TECHNICAL NEWS BULLETIN will

keep you informed of current progress in the

scientific and technical work of the bureau’s

laboratories, and gives each month a liil of

the publications of the bureau. A complete

cross index is published with the December

issue.

You can not afford to be without the TECHNICAL NEWS BULLETIN. Every article is short and to the point. The busiest executive can afford the time to read it. Issued monthly

Subscription price, 25 cents per year

STANDARDS YEARBOOK

FOR 1931

This new governmental periodical is a review

of progress in commercial simplification and

standardization. It is the only journal of its kind. It covers the national movement initiated by President Hoover for the redudlion

of needless sizes and varieties of producffs and

the promotion of voluntary commercial

Standardization by induStry.

The Secretary of Commerce in the firSt issue

of this new journal said: “Certain Standards,

such as those used for weights and measures,

* * * have been fixed by legislative enadlment. Mandatory Standards of this character, however, are few in number when compared with the large and steadily growing

volume of Standards developed by induStry

and commerce and voluntarily maintained.

* * * The activities of the Commercial

Standardization Group of the Bureau of

Standards are concerned with Standards

adopted by voluntary agreement.’’

Subscription price, $1 per year

The new Standards Yearbook for 1931 is the

fifth annual issue of a publication devoted

to the great and growing field of Standardization in its broad aspeCts. It gives a summary

of progress.

Standardization is a world-wide movement.

It covers all industries. It is part of the application of scientific methods to induStry. Its achievements are of interest and concern to

business men and manufacturers as well as to

engineers. To the technician it is full of

example of methods and results of suggeStive

and Stimulating value. To business men it discloses trends which deeply concern their

interest.

NOW READY Price, $1 ORDER AT ONCE

“Standardization is becoming an aspect of all welL

ordered activity rather than an incidental

activity supplemental to others.”

To obtain regularly the above-described monthly Periodicals send your order, with remittance, addressed; Superintendent of Documents, Government Printing Office, Washington, D. C. Foreign prices (countries other

than the United States and its possessions, Canada, Mexico, Newfoundland, Cuba, and Republic of Panama) are: Journal, $3.50; Bulletin, $0.40; Monthly, $1.25; Yearbook, $1.20
THE UNITED STATES DEPARTMENT OF COMMERCE

R. P. LAMONT, Secretary of Commerce

" * * * this department * * * is devoted solely to aiding and fostering the development of higher standards of living and comfort of our people * * * its ideals are clear: That by cooperation and not by compulsion it should seek to assist in maintaining and giving the impulse of progress to commerce and industry in a nation whose successful economic life underlies advancement in every other field.” —President Hoover, at the laying of the corner stone of the new building

of the U. S. Department of Commerce. June 10, 1929.

AERONAUTICS BRANCH, Clarence M. Young, Assistant Secretary of Commerce for Aeronautics. Establishment of civil airways and maintenance of aids to air navigation; inspection and registration of aircraft and licensing

of pilots; enforcement of air traffic rules; investigation of acci- dents; encouragement of municipal air ports; fostering of air commerce; scientific research in aeronautics; and dissemination of information relating to commercial aeronautics. (Some

of these functions are performed by special divisions of the Lighthouse Service, the Bureau of Standards, and the Coast and Geodetic Survey.)

BUREAU OF THE CENSUS, William M. Steuart, Director. Taking censuses of population, mines, and quarries, water

transportation, and religious bodies every 10 years; censuses of agriculture and electrical public utilities every 5 years; and a

census of manufactures every 2 years. Compilation of statistics of wealth, public debt and taxation, including financial statistics of local governments, every 10 years; annual compilation of financial statistics of State and municipal governments.

Compilation of statistics of marriage, divorce, births, deaths,

and penal and other institutions annually, and of death rates in

cities and automobile accidents weekly.

Compilation quarterly or monthly of statistics on cotton, wool, leather, and other industries; annually of forest products.

BUREAU OF FOREIGN AND DOMESTIC COMMERCE,

William L. Cooper, Director. The collection of timely information concerning world market

conditions and openings for American products in foreign countries, through commercial attaches, trade commissioners, and

consular officers, and its distribution through weekly Commerce

Reports, bulletins, confidential circulars, the news and trade

press, the monthly Survey of Current Business, aqjl district and

cooperative offices in 65 cities The maintenance erf- commodity,

technical, and regional divisions to alford special service to American exporters and manufacturers. The compilation and distribution of lists of possible buyers

and agents for American products in all parts of the world and

publication of weekly lists of specific sales opportunities abroad. The publicity of statistics on imports and exports. The study of the processes of domestic trade and commerce. BUREAU OF STANDARDS, George K. Burgess, Director. Custody, development, and construction of standards of measurement, quality, performance, or practice; comparison of standards used by scientific or other institutions; determination

of physical constants and properties o'' materials; researches and tests on materials and processes; and publication of scientific and technical bulletins reporting results of researches and

fundamental technical data. Collection and dissemination of information concerning

building codes and the planning and construction of houses. Establishment of simplified commercial practices through

cooperation with business organizations in order to reduce the wastes resulting from excessive variety in commodities.

BUREAU OF MINES, Scott Turner, Director. Technical investigations in the mining, preparation and

utilization of minerals, including the study of mine hazards, and

safety methods and of improved methods in the production

and use of minerals. Testing of Government fuels and management of the Govern- ment Fuel Yard at Washington.

Research on helium and operation of plants producing it.

BUREAU OF MINES—Continued.

Studies in the economics and marketing of minerals and col- lection of statistics on mineral resources and mine accidents. The dissemination of results of technical and economic

researches in bulletins, technical papers, mineral resources series, miners’ circulars, and miscellaneous publications.

BUREAU OF FISHERIES, Henry O’Malley, Commissioner.

The propagation and distribution of food fish and shellfish, in order to prevent the depletion of the fisheries; investigations

to promote conservation of fishery resources; the development

of commercial fisheries and agriculture; study of fishery methods,

improvements in merchandising, and collection of fishery statistics; administration of Alaska fisheries and fur seals; and the

protection of sponges off the coast of Florida. BUREAU OF LIGHTHOUSES, George R. Putnam,

Commissioner.

Maintenance of lighthouses and other aids to water navigation. Establishment and maintenance of aids to navigation

along civil airways. Publication of Light Lists, Buoy Lists, and

Notices to Mariners. COAST AND GEODETIC SURVEY, R. S. Patton, Director. Survey of the coasts of the United States and publication of charts for the navigation of the adjacent waters, including

Alaska, the Philippine Islands, Hawaii, Porto Rico, the Virgin

Islands, and the Canal Zone; interior control surveys; magnetic

surveys; tide and current observations; and seismological investigations. Publication of results through charts, coast pilots, tide tables, current tables, and special publications. , -BUREAU OF NAVIGATION, Arthur J. Tyrer, Commissioner.

Superintendence of commercial marine and merchant seamen.

Supervision of registering, enrolling, licensing, numbering,

etc., of vessels under the United States flag, and the annual

publication of a list of such vessels. Enforcement of the navigation and steamboat inspection laws,

including imposition of fees, fines, tonnage taxes, etc. STEAMBOAT INSPECTION SERVICE, Dickerson N. Hoover,

Supervising Inspector General. The inspection of merchant vessels, including boilers, hulls, and life-saving equipment, licensing of officers of vessels, certifi- cation of able seamen and lifeboat men, and the investigation of violations of steamboat inspection laws. UNITED STATES PATENT OFFICE, Thomas E. Robertson,

Commissioner.

The granting of patents and the registration of trade-marks

prints, and labels after technical examination and judicial

proceedings.

Maintenance of library with public search room, containing

copies of foreign and United States patents, and trade-marks. Recording bills of sale, assignments, etc., relating to patents

and trade-marks. Furnishing copies of records pertaining to patents Publication of the weekly Official Gazette, showing the patents and trade-marks issued RADIO DIVISION, W. D. Terrell, Chief. Inspection of radio stations on ships; inspection of radio

stations on shore, including broadcasting stations; licensing radio operators; assigning station call letters; enforcing the terms of the International Radiotelegraphic Convention; and

examining and settling international radio accounts.

U.S. GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE: 1931