Frequently Asked Questions 

About License Applications 

for New Nuclear Power 

Reactors

Office of New Reactors 

NUREG/BR-0468
Frequently Asked Questions 

About License Applications 

for New Nuclear Power 

Reactors 

Manuscript Completed: November 2009 

Date Published: December 2009 

Office of New Reactors 

NUREG/BR-0468 
 iii 

Abstract 

With the number of applications for new licenses for commercial nuclear power plants 

increasing, the staff of the U.S. Nuclear Regulatory Commission (NRC) realized that members 

of the public had similar questions related to the environmental review and licensing process. 

Therefore, this report uses a question-and-answer format to respond to frequently asked 

questions (FAQs) about these issues for new commercial nuclear power reactors. The 

questions were taken from a variety of sources, including public comments on the new licensing 

process, written inquiries to the NRC, and questions from informal discussions with NRC staff. 

The staff has attempted to provide answers in a clear and nontechnical form. 

In addition to answering the FAQs, this document describes the NRC’s licensing process, the 

types of reviews conducted on applications for new nuclear power plants, and the types of 

licenses an applicant can seek. It also describes the stages and issues examined during the 

environmental review, including the consideration of alternative sites, reviews of severe accident 

mitigation alternatives, and the processes of eventual decommissioning. Although this 

document focuses on the environmental review process, it also briefly addresses general 

questions about the impacts and risks of nuclear power. These topics include waste 

management, radiological safety, storage and disposal of waste, the effects of radiation on 

human health, and security concerns. Finally, the document covers questions about public 

involvement in the licensing and review process and how members of the public can obtain 

more information about the process.

 v 

Contents 

Abstract.........................................................................................................................................iii

Contents........................................................................................................................................ v

Abbreviations ..............................................................................................................................xiii

1.0 Regulatory and Licensing Processes...................................................................................1

1.1 Licensing Process .......................................................................................................1

1.1.1 What is the NRC’s job in regulating nuclear power? .......................................1

1.1.2 Why is the NRC starting to license new plants?..............................................1

1.1.3 When was the last time a new reactor was licensed and built? ......................1

1.1.4 Is the licensing process different than it was 40 years ago? ...........................2

1.1.5 Who makes the decision to license a nuclear power facility?..........................2

1.1.6 Who makes the final decision to grant or deny the license? ...........................2

1.1.7 Can the NRC refuse to grant a license?..........................................................3

1.1.8 Has the NRC ever denied an application for a license? ..................................3

1.1.9 Do other Federal agencies participate in the NRC’s NEPA review? If 

so, which agencies? ........................................................................................3

1.1.10 I heard the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers can be a cooperating 

agency on an EIS. What does that mean? .....................................................4

1.1.11 When should an applicant engage the Corps?................................................4

1.1.12 If an inland site is not near water (i.e., more than 5 miles from a river 

or lake) and outside of the 100-year flood zone, does the Army Corps 

still get involved? .............................................................................................4

1.1.13 EPA has requirements under Clean Water Act (CWA) sections 316(a) 

and (b). How does the Corps interface with the NRC and EPA for 

these NEPA requirements?.............................................................................4

1.1.14 What does the Corps require under section 404(b)(1) of the CWA?...............5

1.1.15 Can State, county, local, Tribal, or other Federal (not NRC) agencies 

reject or not approve a license (or permit)?.....................................................5

1.1.16 Who pays for the license application (or early site permit application) 

and the review of the application?...................................................................5

1.1.17 Who actually builds the facility?.......................................................................6

1.1.18 Who pays for building the facility?...................................................................6

1.1.19 What are the roles of the State and the NRC in reviewing the financial 

aspects of constructing, operating, and decommissioning a nuclear 

power plant?....................................................................................................6

1.1.20 How does the NRC make sure the facility is built correctly? ...........................7

1.1.21 Once it issues the license (or permit), does the NRC just walk away 

from the process?............................................................................................7

1.1.22 For how long are the licenses good?...............................................................7
 vi 

1.1.23 Can the utility renew the license?....................................................................7

1.1.24 What happens when the license expires?.......................................................8

1.2 License Reviews .........................................................................................................8

1.2.1 When does a license for new nuclear power plant need to be issued?...........8

1.2.2 What is the licensing process for new reactors? .............................................8

1.2.3 What other types of licenses related to reactors does the NRC 

review? ............................................................................................................8

1.3 Types of Licenses .......................................................................................................9

1.3.1 Combined License.........................................................................................10

1.3.1.1 What is a combined license (COL)? ...............................................10

1.3.1.2 What is required of a COL applicant ?............................................10

1.3.1.3 How long does it take to complete the review of a COL 

application?.....................................................................................10

1.3.1.4 What happens during the review process?.....................................10

1.3.1.5 How is the public involved in the application review process?........11

1.3.1.6 How can the public find out about upcoming public 

meetings? .......................................................................................11

1.3.1.7 What is the process for getting approval to build a nuclear 

reactor?...........................................................................................11

1.3.1.8 What must a COL application include?...........................................11

1.3.1.9 What is the NRC’s review process for a COL? What kinds of 

documents must the applicant submit? ..........................................12

1.3.1.10 What opportunities are there for public meetings and 

hearings during a COL review? ......................................................13

1.3.1.11 What happens after the NRC issues a COL? Can the utility 

just start operating the facility? .......................................................13

1.3.1.12 How many COL reviews has the NRC performed? ........................13

1.3.2 Early Site Permits..........................................................................................14

1.3.2.1 What is an early site permit (ESP)? And why would a utility 

apply for an ESP rather than just a COL? ......................................14

1.3.2.2 What is the NRC’s process for reviewing an ESP request? ...........14

1.3.2.3 What must be included in an ESP application? ..............................15

1.3.2.4 How can the NRC assess environmental impacts without 

knowing what kind of reactor will be built?......................................16

1.3.2.5 Has the NRC ever reviewed an ESP application?..........................17

1.3.2.6 What are the opportunities for public meetings and hearings 

during an ESP review? ...................................................................17

1.3.2.7 For how long is the ESP valid?.......................................................17

1.3.3 Design Certification .......................................................................................18

1.3.3.1 What is a design certification? ........................................................18

1.3.3.2 What is required in the application for a design certification?.........19

1.3.3.3 What types of designs have been certified? ...................................19

1.3.3.4 What types of designs are currently being reviewed for 

certification?....................................................................................19
 vii 

1.3.3.5 What makes these new designs better?.........................................20

1.3.3.6 What is the design certification process like? .................................20

1.3.3.7 What are the opportunities for public meetings and hearings 

during a design certification review?...............................................21

1.3.4 Limited Work Authorizations..........................................................................21

1.3.4.1 What is a limited work authorization (LWA)? ..................................21

1.3.4.2 What construction activities are included in an LWA? ....................21

1.3.4.3 What construction activities are not included in an LWA? ..............21

1.3.4.4 What is required in an application for an LWA?..............................22

1.3.4.5 What type of review does the NRC conduct on an LWA? ..............23

1.3.4.6 What regulations cover LWAs?.......................................................23

1.4 Regulatory Basis for the Review ...............................................................................23

1.4.1 How does the NRC develop its regulations? .................................................23

1.4.2 What if you disagree with the regulations? How do you get the 

regulations changed? ....................................................................................24

2.0 The NRC Environmental Review .......................................................................................25

2.1 What is the National Environmental Policy Act (NEPA)? ..........................................25

2.1.1 What does NEPA require? ............................................................................26

2.1.2 Why does the NRC conduct an environmental review? ................................26

2.1.3 Which actions (licenses or permits) require an environmental review?.........26

2.1.4 What is not required by NEPA?.....................................................................27

2.1.5 What is an environmental impact statement (EIS)? ......................................27

2.1.6 How does the NRC implement NEPA? .........................................................28

2.1.7 Does any other governmental agency review the EISs written by the 

NRC?.............................................................................................................28

2.1.8 What other environmental laws or, regulations, are involved in building 

a new reactor?...............................................................................................28

2.1.9 Does the NRC coordinate or consult with other Federal agencies as 

part of its environmental reviews? .................................................................29

2.2 The NRC’s Environmental Review Process..............................................................30

2.2.1 What steps does the NRC take before receiving an application? .................30

2.2.2 What steps does the NRC have to take to complete the environmental 

review after the application has been submitted? .........................................30

2.2.3 What is scoping? ...........................................................................................32

2.2.4 Why does the NRC have a scoping process and what information is it 

specifically looking for during this process? ..................................................32

2.2.5 What technical areas are included in the environmental review?..................33

2.2.6 What geographical area is considered in the review? ...................................33

2.2.7 Who actually performs the environmental review?........................................34

2.2.8 Which State, Tribal, county, or local agencies does the NRC contact 

during the review of the application and the development of the EIS?..........34
 viii 

2.2.9 Where does the NRC publish the results of the environmental review? .......35

2.2.10 What are cumulative impacts, and how does NRC evaluate them?..............35

2.2.11 What is mitigation? ........................................................................................36

2.2.12 What issues are precluded from consideration? ...........................................36

2.2.13 How are environmental impacts categorized?...............................................37

2.2.14 Does the NRC only review information provided by the applicant in the 

environmental report? Can it introduce new information in the review 

process?........................................................................................................37

3.0 General Questions Related to Environmental Review Topics ...........................................39

3.1 Need for Power .........................................................................................................39

3.1.1 Does the NRC evaluate the need for power?................................................39

3.1.2 Why does the NRC review the need for power? ...........................................39

3.1.3 Why does the NRC evaluate the need for power? ........................................40

3.1.4 Doesn’t expansion of nuclear power commit us to centralized (versus 

distributed) generation of energy for a long time to come? ...........................40

3.1.5 Why does the NRC evaluate alternatives, such as alternative energies 

and alternative sites, when it can only approve or deny a license for a 

nuclear power plant? .....................................................................................40

3.2 Socioeconomics ........................................................................................................40

3.2.1 What percentage of jobs is filled by workers in the locality of the new 

plant?.............................................................................................................40

3.2.2 Is it true that siting a nuclear plant in an area will chase away other 

businesses?...................................................................................................41

3.2.3 Does the NRC take into account the influx of workers and their effect 

on public services?........................................................................................41

3.2.4 How does the construction and operation of new nuclear plants affect 

the socioeconomic conditions of an area? For instance, is there a 

boom-bust effect?..........................................................................................41

3.2.5 Constructing a new nuclear plant probably involves many specialized 

workers coming into an area. Is housing a problem? ...................................42

3.2.6 Has deregulation reduced the amount of taxes added to localities’ 

coffers from the siting of nuclear plants?.......................................................42

3.2.7 How does the NRC consider environmental justice in its 

environmental review?...................................................................................43

3.3 Transportation ...........................................................................................................43

3.3.1 What are the transportation impacts of a new plant? Will it require 

new roads and more aggressive maintenance of existing roads?.................43

3.3.2 Transportation accidents in shipping fuel and parts seem likely to 

occur. What has the NRC done to anticipate this possibility? ......................44

3.4 Human Health Issues................................................................................................45

3.4.1 What is radiation and where does it come from? ..........................................45
 ix 

3.4.2 Is radiation harmful?......................................................................................46

3.4.3 How much radiation is released from a nuclear power facility?.....................47

3.4.4 Does radiation from nuclear power facilities cause cancer? .........................48

3.4.5 I have read reports stating that there are excess cases of a specific 

type of cancer in the vicinity of a specific nuclear facility. Doesn’t that 

mean that radiation from nuclear power facilities causes cancer? ................48

3.4.6 How are radiation and releases of radioactive material regulated and 

monitored at nuclear power facilities? ...........................................................50

3.4.7 What radiological monitoring is done around nuclear plants? What if 

something goes wrong? ................................................................................51

3.4.8 How are standards set for safe levels of exposure to radiation?...................51

3.4.9 Aren’t radiation protection dose limits and calculations based on 

“standard man?” ............................................................................................52

3.4.10 I’ve heard that leakage of strontium-90 is a particular danger around 

nuclear plants. Is that true? ..........................................................................52

3.4.11 Have there been studies showing an increase in strontium-90 

radiation levels in baby teeth and corresponding cancer incidence as 

a result of releases of radioactive material from nuclear power plants?........52

3.4.12 I’ve heard that power plants release tritium into the water around the 

plants. What is tritium and how much is released? ......................................53

3.4.13 How do people become exposed to tritium? .................................................54

3.4.14 Is tritium harmful to people? ..........................................................................54

3.4.15 I’ve read that the BEIR VII report says that there is no safe level of 

radiation. Doesn’t that mean that nuclear power plants are unsafe 

because they emit radiation?.........................................................................55

3.4.16 Does the NRC monitor the bodies of people living near nuclear power 

plants for radioactive substances? It seems that this might be one 

way to identify leaks that endanger the public...............................................55

3.4.17 Does the NRC have any regulatory limits on safe doses for workers 

and the public at nuclear power plants? ........................................................56

3.4.18 Has the NRC established dose limits for fish and wildlife?............................56

3.4.19 Doesn’t radioactive material tend to accumulate and concentrate in 

the environment?...........................................................................................57

3.5 Transmission Lines and Human Health Impacts.......................................................57

3.5.1 Are the electromagnetic fields from transmission lines really safe? ..............58

3.6 Alternatives................................................................................................................58

3.6.1 Why does the NRC consider alternatives to the action proposed by 

the applicant? Who proposes the alternatives for siting nuclear 

plants—the applicant or the NRC? ................................................................58

3.6.2 Why doesn’t the NRC encourage conservation or green alternative 

energy sources such as solar or wind power? ..............................................59
 x 

3.6.3 If an alternative is found that clearly has less environmental impact, 

why doesn’t the NRC require the applicant to pursue the alternative?..........59

3.6.4 How much attention has been given to energy-generation 

alternatives? ..................................................................................................60

3.6.5 How are potential (alternative) sites compared for suitability? ......................60

3.6.6 Can the NRC require the applicant to use an alternative site?......................60

3.6.7 Can the NRC require the applicant to use an alternative energy 

source?..........................................................................................................60

3.7 Accidents and Severe Accident Mitigation Alternatives Review................................60

3.7.1 Accidents can cause environmental impacts, so does the 

environmental review consider accidents?....................................................61

3.7.2 What is a severe accident mitigation alternatives (SAMAs) review?.............61

3.7.3 What is the process for the SAMAs review? .................................................61

3.7.4 What is the outcome of the review? ..............................................................63

3.7.5 Who would pay for an accident, if one were to happen? What is the 

Price-Anderson Act?......................................................................................63

3.8 Decommissioning Review .........................................................................................63

3.8.1 What is decommissioning?............................................................................63

3.8.2 Is decommissioning considered during the review of new reactor 

licenses or early site permit applications? .....................................................64

3.8.3 What are the costs of decommissioning?......................................................64

3.8.4 If the first estimate of decommissioning costs is made at the time that 

the facility is licensed, are there methods for adjusting for inflation? ............65

3.8.5 How can the NRC be sure the money will still be available when the 

plant permanently ceases operation?............................................................65

3.8.6 Who pays for decommissioning and where does the money come 

from? .............................................................................................................66

4.0 Issues Not Considered in the Scope of the Environmental Review ...................................67

4.1 Understanding Scope and Getting Answers to Out-of-Scope Questions..................67

4.1.1 Why are there limits on the scope of the environmental review? ..................67

4.1.2 How do I get answers to my questions that fall outside the scope of 

the environmental review from the NRC?......................................................67

4.2 NRC Safety Review...................................................................................................68

4.2.1 Why are safety issues outside the scope of the environmental review? .......68

4.2.2 What is the basis for the NRC’s safety review of a new reactor?..................68

4.2.3 How is the safety review performed? ............................................................69

4.2.4 What documents are reviewed during the NRC staff’s safety review? 

What documents are generated during the NRC staff’s safety review? ........69

4.2.5 Is the public provided the opportunity to comment on the NRC staff’s 

safety review?................................................................................................70
 xi 

4.2.6 What is the Advisory Committee on Reactor Safeguards (ACRS) and 

how is it involved in the safety reviews for new reactors? .............................70

4.3 Security .....................................................................................................................71

4.3.1 Why are security issues outside the scope of the environmental 

review? ..........................................................................................................71

4.3.2 Why are acts of terrorism considered outside the scope of the 

environmental review?...................................................................................71

4.3.3 What is the NRC doing to address the threat of terrorism?...........................72

4.3.4 What has the NRC done to improve security as a result of the terrorist 

attacks on September 11, 2001?...................................................................73

4.3.5 Is the security of the nuclear waste stored onsite being reviewed? ..............73

4.3.6 Are onsite storage facilities secure from terrorist attacks? ............................74

4.3.7 Has the NRC revised its requirements regarding aircraft impacts on 

nuclear reactors?...........................................................................................74

4.4 Emergency Preparedness.........................................................................................74

4.4.1 Does the NRC evaluate emergency preparedness before licensing a 

new reactor?..................................................................................................74

4.4.2 Is emergency preparedness part of the environmental review?....................74

4.5 Storage and Disposal of Spent Nuclear Fuel ............................................................74

4.5.1 What is the Nuclear Waste Policy Act? .........................................................75

4.5.2 What is the status of Yucca Mountain? .........................................................75

4.5.3 If the repository is not yet finished, where is the spent nuclear fuel 

being stored for plants that are operating now? ............................................75

4.5.4 What will happen if Yucca Mountain is never finished or approved for 

storing nuclear waste?...................................................................................76

4.5.5 Who is paying for the storage of spent fuel now and who will pay for 

the transportation to and storage of spent fuel at Yucca Mountain? .............77

4.5.6 What is low-level waste and how will the Barnwell closure affect lowlevel waste disposal?.....................................................................................77

4.5.7 How is an onsite storage facility licensed? ....................................................78

4.5.8 What is the policy of the United States concerning reprocessing?................79

4.5.9 What is the NRC’s position on the onsite storage of spent fuel?...................79

4.5.10 What is the NRC’s policy on high-level waste management, such as is 

required for waste generated by operating nuclear power plants?................80

5.0 Public Involvement during New Reactor Licensing ............................................................81

5.1 Public Involvement ....................................................................................................81

5.1.1 How does a member of the public know that a utility is applying for a 

license to build and operate a new nuclear power plant?..............................81

5.1.2 Where do I find information related to a new reactor licensing action 

for a specific nuclear power facility?..............................................................82
 xii 

5.1.3 What are the kinds of meetings that the public can be involved in and 

how does the public find out about them? .....................................................82

5.1.4 What are the opportunities for public participation during the 

environmental review of the new reactor application?...................................83

5.1.5 What happens during the public meetings held during the 

environmental review process?.....................................................................84

5.1.6 When can I submit written or electronic comments and concerns 

during the environmental review?..................................................................85

5.1.7 Does the NRC do anything to ensure that members of the public who 

oppose nuclear power know about the review? ............................................85

5.1.8 Does the NRC hold a hearing for each plant that requests a new 

license? .........................................................................................................86

5.1.9 As a member of the public, how do I request intervention in the 

proceedings for a new license? What is the timetable? ...............................86

5.1.10 What must be included in the request for a hearing or the petition to 

intervene?......................................................................................................86

5.1.11 How do I bring safety and security issues to the attention of the NRC?........87

5.2 Obtaining Additional Information ...............................................................................87

5.2.1 Where are documents kept that the applicant submitted for review?............87

5.2.2 Are documents locally available during the license application review? .......88

5.2.3 May I add my name to a list to receive information during the 

environmental review?...................................................................................88

5.2.4 Does the NRC have a Web site?...................................................................88

5.2.5 What kind of information about new reactor license applications can I 

get from the NRC’s Web site? .......................................................................88

5.2.6 What is the Federal Register and how can I get a copy of it? .......................88

5.2.7 How can I get a copy of the Code of Federal Regulations dealing with 

new reactor license applications?..................................................................89

5.2.8 How does a member of the public obtain a copy of a license 

application for a proposed nuclear power plant?...........................................89

5.2.9 How do I get a copy of the draft EIS related to a specific facility?.................90

5.2.10 How do I get a copy of the staff’s safety evaluation report related to a 

specific facility?..............................................................................................90

5.2.11 How can I get answers to additional questions that this document did 

not address?..................................................................................................91

6.0 Bibliography of Published Material Relevant to New Reactor Licensing............................93
 xiii 

Abbreviations 

ABWR Advanced Boiling-Water Reactor 

ACR-700 Atomic Energy of Canada, Limited, Advanced CANDU Reactor 

ACRS Advisory Committee on Reactor Safeguards 

ADAMS Agencywide Documents Access and Management System 

AP1000 Advanced Passive pressurized-water reactor (Westinghouse) 

ASLB Atomic Safety Licensing Board 

CANDU Canada Deuterium Uranium Reactor 

CEQ (President’s) Council on Environmental Quality 

CFR Code of Federal Regulations

COL combined license 

CWA Clean Water Act 

DOE U.S. Department of Energy 

EIS environmental impact statement 

EPA U.S. Environmental Protection Agency 

ESBWR Economic Simplified Boiling-Water Reactor 

ESP early site permit 

ESRP Environmental Standard Review Plan 

FAQ frequently asked question 

FR Federal Register

GE General Electric 

GPO Government Printing Office 

ICRP International Commission on Radiological Protection 

IPE individual plant evaluation 

IPEEE individual plant evaluation of external events 

IRIS International Reactor Innovative and Secure 

LWA limited work authorization 

MAB maximum attainable benefit 

mSv millisievert 

MWe megawatt-electric 

NCRP National Council on Radiation Protection and Measurements 

NEPA National Environmental Policy Act 
 xiv 

NPDES National Pollutant Discharge Elimination System 

NRC U.S. Nuclear Regulatory Commission 

PARS Publicly Available Records System 

PPE plant parameter envelope 

PSA probabilistic safety assessment 

SAMA severe accident mitigation alternative 

SRP Standard Review Plan 

Toshiba 4S reactor design by Toshiba (Super Safe, Small and Simple) 

UNSCEAR United Nations Scientific Committee on the Effects of Atomic Radiation 

U.S. United States 
 1 

1.0 Regulatory and Licensing Processes 

Members of the public have asked similar questions about the 

U.S. Nuclear Regulatory Commission’s (NRC’s) regulatory and 

licensing processes. This section responds to frequently asked 

questions about the plant licensing and licensing review 

processes, types of licenses, and the regulatory basis for the 

reviews related to new commercial nuclear power reactors. 

1.1 Licensing Process 

1.1.1 What is the NRC’s job in regulating nuclear power? 

The NRC regulates the Nation’s civilian use of byproduct, source, 

and special nuclear material to ensure adequate protection of 

public health and safety, to promote the common defense and 

security, and to protect the environment. The NRC carries out this 

mission through an extensive regulatory process with five main 

components: (1) developing regulations and guidance for applicants and licensees, 

(2) licensing or certifying applicants to use nuclear materials or operate nuclear facilities, 

(3) overseeing licensee operations and facilities to ensure that licensees comply with safety 

requirements, (4) evaluating operational experience at licensed facilities or involving licensed 

activities, and (5) conducting research. 

1.1.2 Why is the NRC starting to license new plants? 

The NRC does not operate nuclear power plants and does not initiate the licensing of new 

nuclear power facilities. Instead, the NRC reviews applications for new licenses when they are 

submitted to the agency. The NRC performs new reactor licensing work in response to 

applications submitted by commercial utilities and power producers. The NRC staff is engaged 

in numerous other ongoing interactions with vendors and utilities regarding prospective new 

reactor applications and licensing activities. As of October 2009, the staff has received 

18 applications (for a total of 28 new nuclear units) and is preparing to receive several more 

over the next few years. 

1.1.3 When was the last time a new reactor was licensed and built? 

The NRC issued the most recent operating license for a power reactor in 1996, to the Watts Bar 

Nuclear Station, Unit 1, in Tennessee. 

The NRC’s mission is 

to regulate the 

Nation’s civilian use of 

byproduct, source, and 

special nuclear 

material to ensure 

adequate protection of 

public health and 

safety, to promote the 

common defense and 

security, and to protect 

the environment. 
 2 

1.1.4 Is the licensing process 

different than it was 40 years 

ago? 

In the past, the NRC licensed nuclear 

power plants under a two-step process 

described in Title 10 of the Code of 

Federal Regulations (10 CFR) Part 50, 

“Domestic Licensing of Production and 

Utilization Facilities.” This process 

requires separate reviews for a 

construction permit and then for an 

operating license. The NRC licensed 

all of the currently operating reactors 

under this process and the process is still a valid approach for licensing a nuclear power plant. 

In an effort to improve regulatory efficiency and increase the predictability of the process, in 

1989 the NRC established alternative licensing processes in 10 CFR Part 52, “Licenses, 

Certifications, and Approvals for Nuclear Power Plants,” including an option for an early site 

permit and a combined license. 

1.1.5 Who makes the decision to license a nuclear power 

facility? 

It is helpful to distinguish the act of “seeking a license (or permit)” 

or “applying for a license (or permit)” from “granting or denying a 

license (or permit).” The decision to seek a license or permit 

rests entirely with the utility that wishes to build and operate the 

facility. This decision is typically based on the perceived 

projected need for electrical energy, the anticipated economic 

benefit of the facility, and the investment necessary to build it 

and meet the NRC’s safety and environmental requirements. 

The NRC makes the decision to grant or deny a license based 

on whether the applicant has demonstrated that the 

requirements in the NRC’s regulations can be met during the 

construction and operation of the facility. If the applicant meets 

the requirements given in the regulations, then the NRC can be 

expected to approve the license. 

1.1.6 Who makes the final decision to grant or deny the license? 

The NRC Commission has delegated the authority to grant or deny licenses issued under 10 

CFR Part 50 to the Director of the NRC’s Office of Nuclear Reactor Regulation and the Director 

of the Office of New Reactors has authority for licenses issued or denied under 10 CFR Part 52. 

Watts Bar Nuclear Station 

The NRC makes the 

decision to grant or 

deny a license, based on 

whether the applicant 

has demonstrated that 

the environmental and 

safety requirements in 

the NRC’s regulations 

can be met during the 

construction and 

operation of the facility. 
 3 

1.1.7 Can the NRC refuse to grant a license? 

Yes. As described in the NRC’s regulations, based on the findings of the licensing board or the 

staff’s review, the NRC can deny an application for a license. However, if an applicant meets 

the applicable requirements, then the NRC would grant a license 

1.1.8 Has the NRC ever denied an application for a license? 

During the 1980s, the NRC refused to issue operating licenses for the William H. Zimmer 

Nuclear Power Station, in Ohio. The NRC issued this ruling based on a charge that the plant 

had failed to meet construction and safety codes. Because of the high cost of completing the 

Zimmer facility and the uncertainty that it would eventually meet the Federal regulations, the 

utility, Cincinnati Gas and Electric, decided not to continue to pursue an operating license. In 

other cases, applicants elected to amend or revise their requests for approval in order to receive 

a license from the NRC and its predecessor, the Atomic Energy Commission. 

1.1.9 Do other Federal agencies participate in the NRC’s NEPA review? If so, which agencies? 

The NRC is the lead agency for 

its NEPA review of an application 

for a new reactor. The NRC’s 

environmental scoping process 

invites other governmental 

agencies to consider becoming a 

“cooperating agency” under the 

NRC’s program for fulfilling its 

responsibility under the National 

Environmental Policy Act of 1969 

(NEPA). The scoping process 

also invites agencies to identify their particular expertise on issues that may be valuable to the 

NRC or to play a consultation role under other statutes that may have a bearing on site-specific 

issues. The NRC has developed agreements with State and Federal agencies, such as the 

U.S. Army Corps of Engineers (Corps), where both parties believe that partnering is the most 

effective means of fulfilling each agency’s mission. 

Shortly after the NRC receives a license application, the agency posts a notice in the Federal 

Register that indicates where copies are available and how they can be obtained. The NRC 

issues a notice of intent to prepare an environmental impact statement (EIS) and conduct 

scoping, which alerts other agencies of the opportunity to take part in the scoping process. 

Other Federal agencies that are interested in reviewing the application can obtain a copy and 

provide comments to the NRC during the scoping process or after publication of the draft EIS. 

During the preparation of the draft EIS and related analyses, the NRC staff consults with 

appropriate Federal agencies. The NRC usually contacts the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service 

(U.S. Department of the Interior) and the National Marine Fisheries Service (U.S. Department of 

Commerce) regarding environmental issues related to the impact on any threatened or 

endangered species or critical habitat that may be in the vicinity of the proposed reactor and 

Potential Cooperating Federal Agencies 
 4 

that could be affected by the licensing action. The NRC also contacts other agencies if they 

have actions or jurisdiction over areas directly related to the review. 

In addition to NRC-coordinated consultation, various Federal agencies review the draft EIS at 

their discretion, most commonly the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA), the Corps, 

and the Department of the Interior. The NRC considers the comments from these agencies and 

addresses them in the final EIS as the NRC deems appropriate. . 

1.1.10 I heard the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers can be a cooperating agency on an EIS. What 

does that mean? 

The Corps and the NRC have developed a memorandum of understanding (Volume 73 of the 

Federal Register, page 55546 [73 FR 55546]) to work together, with the NRC as the lead 

agency, to produce one EIS that meets the needs of both agencies. The memorandum 

streamlines the agencies’ regulatory processes associated with the authorizations required to 

construct and operate nuclear power plants. The memorandum established a framework for 

early coordination and participation between these two organizations to ensure the timely review 

of proposed nuclear plant applications. 

1.1.11 When should an applicant engage the Corps? 

The applicant should engage the Corps and the NRC at the same 

time in the process. It is beneficial to the applicant to involve the 

Corps early in the process because the Corps requires applicants 

to avoid impacting wetlands to the maximum extent possible. If the 

applicant does not consult with the Corps before picking a spot on 

the site to build and performing its seismic and radiological 

analyses, the Corps may require the applicant to move the reactor 

and the support structures in order to avoid wetlands. If that 

scenario were to happen, a lot of work would need to be redone. 

1.1.12 If an inland site is not near water (i.e., more than 5 miles 

from a river or lake) and outside of the 100-year flood zone, 

does the Army Corps still get involved? 

A Corps permit is required to discharge dredged or fill material into waters of the United States, 

including certain wetlands, and/or work in navigable waters of the United States. If the project 

will not result in impacts to waters of the United States, the Corps will not be involved. 

1.1.13 EPA has requirements under Clean Water Act (CWA) sections 316(a) and (b). How does 

the Corps interface with the NRC and EPA for these NEPA requirements? 

The Corps only deals with section 404 of the CWA under EPA regulations. The NRC’s EIS 

evaluates the impacts of cooling water intake and discharge systems on the aquatic 

environment, including water use and water quality. The NRC does not have the authority to set 

limits on discharges; under the CWA that authority rests with EPA. In many cases, EPA has 

delegated the authority to issue such permits to States with adequate programs protecting water 

It is beneficial to the 

applicant for the 

Corps to be involved 

early in the process 

because the Corps 

requires applicants to 

avoid wetlands to the 

maximum extent 

possible. 
 5 

resources. The burden is on the applicant to submit an application to EPA or the State for a 

National Pollution Discharge Elimination System (NPDES) permit. 

1.1.14 What does the Corps require under section 404(b)(1) of the CWA? 

The guidelines in 40 CFR Part 230, “Section 404(b)(1) Guidelines for Specification of Disposal 

Sites for Dredged or Fill Material,” state the following: 

Except as provided under section 404(b)(2), no discharge of dredged or fill 

material shall be permitted if there is a practicable alternative to the proposed 

discharge which would have less adverse impact on the aquatic ecosystem, so 

long as the alternative does not have other significant adverse environmental 

consequences. 

These guidelines for section 404(b)(1) of the CWA are based on the rebuttable presumption that 

a less environmentally damaging practicable alternative exists for projects that are not water 

dependent. A water-dependent project, such as a marina or a port, is one that must be built on 

the water in order to perform its function. A project where water can be piped to the project is 

not water dependent, because the project can be located away from the water or wetland areas, 

thereby avoiding impacts to wetlands. The applicant must demonstrate that there are no other 

practicable alternatives available. The least environmentally damaging practicable alternative 

under section 404(b)(1) cannot result in egregious environmental impacts (e.g., to human 

safety, endangered species) beyond aquatic impacts. This is one practical test for the 

rebuttable presumption. Remember that the purpose of and need for the project guide the 

analysis of the alternatives. 

1.1.15 Can State, county, local, Tribal, or other Federal (not NRC) agencies reject or not approve 

a license (or permit)? 

The Atomic Energy Act of 1954, as amended, delegates the licensing action to the NRC, so only 

the NRC can approve or deny the application to construct and operate a nuclear power plant. 

However, the NRC will consider any comments provided by the State, county, local, Tribal, or 

other Federal agencies during the period of the NRC’s review and analysis. In addition, some of 

these agencies (such as EPA) have separate authorities to specify conditions or reject other 

permits that the applicant must obtain, such as the NPDES permit. The NRC will consider the 

views of any cooperating agency; however, the NRC is the lead agency and as such has 

responsibility to review the license application and develop the draft and final EISs. 

1.1.16 Who pays for the license application (or early site permit application) and the review of 

the application? 

The applicant pays for the preparation of the application. Once it submits the application to the 

NRC, the NRC recovers a fee for resources expended in the review. Applicants pay fees to the 

U.S. Treasury, not to the NRC, to reimburse the Government for the cost of the review. 

Congress provides funding for the NRC through annual appropriations. Thus, the applicant 

pays for the costs to develop the license application and to review it. 
 6 

1.1.17 Who actually builds the facility? 

The utility that applies for the license builds the facility and/or contracts out to construction and 

engineering firms to build the facility. The NRC inspects the work related to building the facility 

to ensure it meets applicable requirements. 

1.1.18 Who pays for building the facility? 

The applicant (usually a utility) will pay for the construction of the facility. The cost of building 

the facility may be included in the rates that are charged to electrical customers that use the 

power produced by the facility. 

1.1.19 What are the roles of the State and the NRC in reviewing the financial aspects of 

constructing, operating, and decommissioning a nuclear power plant? 

The NRC clearly recognizes the traditional responsibility of the States in regulating utilities for 

determining the need for the facility and the cost of the facility. The State Public Service 

Commission and the power producer generally exchange information and a hearing is held by 

the State Public Service Commission before the State can pass judgment on a request for a 

new power facility. The NRC does require that power producers ensure that they have the 

financial resources to construct and operate the facilities safely and to provide funds for 

decommissioning. Separately, the NRC performs a benefits assessment as part of its 

responsibilities under NEPA. 

The NRC requirements in 10 CFR 50.33(f) differentiate between utilities, such as those whose 

rates are regulated by the State Public Service Commission and for whom adequate funding 

assurance is assumed, and independent power producers, who must provide information 

regarding the source of funding for construction, fuel, and operations. Under the NRC 

requirements in 10 CFR 50.33(k), 10 CFR 50.75, “Reporting and Recordkeeping for 

Decommissioning Planning,” and 10 CFR 50.82, “Termination of License,” the applicant must 

provide information regarding funding assurance for decommissioning activities. 
 7 

1.1.20 How does the NRC make sure the facility is built 

correctly? 

Part of the NRC’s responsibility in licensing applicants to 

build and operate nuclear facilities is to verify that the 

facility has been constructed in accordance with the 

approved design and the applicable regulations. This 

verification is performed by the NRC’s construction 

inspectors. The licensee’s quality assurance program 

includes all of the planned and systematic actions 

necessary to provide adequate confidence that a structure, 

system, or component will perform satisfactorily when in service. 

In addition to reviewing and inspecting applicant activities, the NRC reviews and inspects the 

quality assurance programs, including their implementation, for all nuclear suppliers, architect 

engineering firms, suppliers of safety-related and commercial-grade products and services, 

calibration and testing laboratories, and holders of NRC construction permits, operating 

licenses, and combined licenses in quality-related areas. 

1.1.21 Once it issues the license (or permit), does the NRC just walk away from the process? 

The NRC oversees all nuclear power facilities from the time applications are submitted, through 

the operation of the facility, and through the decommissioning process until the residual 

radioactivity at the facility site has been reduced to a level that permits termination of the NRC 

license. In addition to regulating reactor siting and construction, the NRC regulates reactor 

operations through a combination of regulatory requirements, licensing, and oversight, including 

inspections. 

1.1.22 For how long are the licenses good? 

The Atomic Energy Act allows the NRC to issue licenses for commercial power reactors to 

operate for up to 40 years. This license is based on licensee adherence to the applicable 

regulations described in Title 10 of the Code of Federal Regulations. The 40-year limit on the 

licenses was imposed for economic and antitrust reasons, rather than technical limitations of the 

nuclear facility. Other licenses, such as early site permits, have different terms; the NRC can 

issue an early site permit for no less than 10 years and for no longer than 20 years. 

1.1.23 Can the utility renew the license? 

Yes, the NRC regulations allow the renewal of licenses for nuclear power facilities for up to an 

additional 20 years, depending on the outcome of an assessment to determine whether the 

nuclear facility can continue to operate safely and whether the protection of the environment can 

The licensee’s quality 

assurance program includes 

all of the planned and 

systematic actions necessary 

to provide adequate 

confidence that a structure, 

system, or component will 

perform satisfactorily 

in service. 
 8 

be ensured during the 20-year period of extended operation. Neither the Atomic Energy Act nor 

the NRC’s regulations contain specific limitations on the number of times a license may be 

renewed. The process of conducting the assessment and renewing the license, called “license 

renewal,” includes a clear set of requirements. More information about license renewal appears 

in NUREG-1850, “Frequently Asked Questions on License Renewal of Nuclear Power 

Reactors,” issued March 2006, which is available on the NRC’s Web site at 

http://www.nrc.gov/reactors/operating/licensing/sr1850_faq_lr.pdf. 

1.1.24 What happens when the license expires? 

If an operating license or combined license expires without the utility taking action to renew it, 

the license would cease operation of the nuclear power plant and would begin 

decommissioning. 

1.2 License Reviews 

1.2.1 When does a license for new nuclear power plant need to be issued? 

The NRC must issue a license before a nuclear power plant 

can be built and operated. The NRC’s licensing processes 

allow the agency to maintain oversight of reactor siting and 

facility construction and operation throughout the facility’s 

lifetime to ensure compliance with regulations for the 

protection of public health and safety, the common defense 

and security, and the environment. 

1.2.2 What is the licensing process for new reactors?

Two types of licensing processes exist for nuclear power plants: 

Two-step licensing process—Under this licensing process, the NRC reviews an application for a 

construction permit and, if it issues a construction permit, will review a second application for an 

operating license as construction nears completion. The NRC used this process to license all 

currently operating commercial nuclear power facilities. However, to increase regulatory 

efficiency and predictability in the licensing process, the NRC established an alterative process 

called a combined license. 

• Combined license—A combined license includes both the construction authorization and the 

operating license into a single license. After the construction is complete; the required 

inspections, tests, and analyses performed; and the acceptance criteria met; the Commission 

authorizes the operation of the plant. A combined license application may reference an early 

site permit, a certified design, a final design approval, or a manufacturing license. 

1.2.3 What other types of licenses related to reactors does the NRC review? 

The NRC reviews and grants initial and renewed licenses for research reactors, as well as 

independent spent fuel storage installations. The NRC also reviews applications and grants 

Before a nuclear power 

plant can be built and 

operated, the NRC must 

grant its approval. 
 9 

licenses for facilities related to the production of fuel for nuclear reactors or the storage or 

disposal of waste from reactor operations. The production facilities, which are located away 

from power reactor sites, include those that possess and use source material (e.g., uranium 

milling facilities that produce yellowcake or conversion facilities that produce uranium 

hexafluoride) or special nuclear material (e.g., enrichment and fuel fabrication facilities). Scrap 

recovery and low-level waste storage and disposal sites are other examples of facilities located 

away from power reactor sites that are licensed by the NRC. 

1.3 Types of Licenses 

This FAQ document focuses on the licensing process under 10 CFR Part 52. The NRC 

regulates the siting, construction, and operation of new commercial nuclear power facilities. 

The NRC is responsible for issuing combined licenses (COLs), early site permits (ESPs), design 

certifications, and limited work authorizations for commercial nuclear power facilities. Nuclear 

power facilities can license a facility solely with a COL, or they can combine licensing 

processes, such as by combining a COL with an ESP or a design certification. 

 Figure 1.3-1 General Process for Licensing a New Reactor. 

Combined License, Early Site Permit, 

and Design Certification 

Early Site Permit

Mandatory Hearing

Combined License

Mandatory Hearing

Reactor Construction Reactor Operation

Verification of Inspections,

Tests, Analyses, and

Acceptance Criteria

Design Certification

Rulemaking
 10 

1.3.1 Combined License 

1.3.1.1 What is a combined license (COL)? 

A COL authorizes construction and conditional operation of a new nuclear facility. Once the 

required inspections, tests, and analyses are performed, and the acceptance criteria are met, 

the Commission can authorizes the operation of the facility. 

1.3.1.2 What is required of a COL applicant ? 

The specific requirements are contained in 10 CFR 52.79 and 10 CFR 52.80. The application 

for a COL for a new nuclear facility must address; the design, environmental impacts, site 

safety, financial and technical qualifications, emergency plans, security plans, quality assurance 

programs, and inspections, tests, analyses, and acceptance criteria. It must also include a final 

safety analysis report and the inspections, tests, and analyses that are necessary to 

demonstrate that the facility has been constructed and will operate in accordance with the 

licensed design. 

1.3.1.3 How long does it take to complete the review of a COL application? 

Generally, the NRC performs an acceptance review in 60 days, followed by a nominal 30-month 

detailed review for an application that references a certified design. Non-certified designs would 

take 48 to 60 months to review. The NRC also allows 12 months for completion of the hearing 

process. There are many factors that could impact the review schedule, including requests from 

the NRC for additional information and the timely availability of that information from the 

applicant, and other factors outside the control of the NRC. The agency develops specific 

review schedules for each application based on its completeness and quality. 

1.3.1.4 What happens during the review process? 

The NRC staff reviews the documents in the application to ensure that they demonstrate 

conformance with the NRC’s regulations for a COL and that there is reasonable assurance that 

the facility will be constructed and operated in conformity with the license, the provisions of the 

Atomic Energy Act, and the Commission’s regulations. During the review the NRC staff may 

also request additional information from the applicant in order to complete the review. In 

addition, the NRC holds numerous public meetings at various stages of the review process in 

the vicinity of the proposed site and at NRC Headquarters. Applicants and the NRC must 

comply with the Atomic Energy Act, NEPA, and NRC regulations. 
 11 

1.3.1.5 How is the public involved in the application review process? 

The public can take part in the application review process in 

several ways. One is to participate in public meetings that occur at 

various stages of the application process. Some meetings will be 

held in the local area near the proposed new reactor site, while 

others take place at NRC regional or headquarters offices. 

Another way the public can become involved is to review copies of 

the application, provide comments, and participate in the hearing 

process. In addition, the public can follow the progress of an 

application via the NRC external Web site (http://www.nrc.gov). 

1.3.1.6 How can the public find out about upcoming public meetings? 

The simplest way for a member of the public to learn about upcoming meetings is to access the 

NRC external Web site (http://www.nrc.gov). The NRC may mail notices of local meetings to 

citizen’s groups and civic and government leaders in the community and may advertise 

meetings in local newspapers. The agency also publishes notices of opportunities for 

involvement in the Federal Register (see the response to Question 5.2.6 for information on 

accessing the Federal Register). 

1.3.1.7 What is the process for getting approval to build a nuclear reactor? 

The NRC regulations in 10 CFR Part 52 specify the process 

for obtaining a COL license, shown below. Figure 3.1-1 shows 

the general licensing process. An applicant submits an 

application that contains all of the siting and design 

information, or references an ESP and/or a standard design 

certification. After the NRC reviews the application against the 

regulations and holds a hearing, the agency determines whether it is appropriate to grant the 

license. The Atomic Energy Act requires a hearing to take place before the NRC can issue the 

license; the agency also provides an opportunity for a contested hearing. FAQ 1.3.1.10 provides 

more detail on the hearing process. After construction, the NRC verifies that the applicant has 

completed the required inspections, tests, and analyses and has demonstrated that the 

acceptance criteria have been met. Upon verification that the acceptance criteria are met, the 

Commission may authorize operation of the reactor. 

1.3.1.8 What must a COL application include? 

The COL application must include financial information, the technical qualification of the 

applicant, and an assessment of the need for power. The application also must describe the 

inspections, tests, analyses, and acceptance criteria that are necessary to ensure that the plant 

has been properly constructed and will operate safely. 

Although not required 

by regulation, the 

NRC generally holds 

an introductory 

meeting near the 

proposed site before 

an application is 

submitted for a COL. 

A hearing is mandatory 

before a COL is granted. 
 12 

A COL application can reference an ESP, a standard design certification, both, or neither. If an 

application does not reference an ESP and/or a standard design certification, the applicant must 

provide an equivalent level of information in the COL application. 

A COL application must include an environmental report; if an ESP is referenced, then the 

application must demonstrate that the design of the plant is compatible with the ESP. The 

application also must include information about the site-related issues that may have been 

deferred at the ESP stage, such as the need for power from the proposed plant, and all matters 

that were not resolved in the ESP. If the application does not reference an ESP, then the 

applicant must provide the site information that would have been included in an ESP and also 

must include a complete emergency plan. A COL application must also include a safety 

analysis report and a security plan. 

The application can also reference a standard design certification or an application for a 

standard design certification (at its own risk). If it does, then the applicant must include the 

inspections, tests, and analyses, and acceptance criteria from the certified design and 

supplement it with inspections, tests, and analyses, and acceptance criteria for the site-specific 

design features. If the application does not reference a standard design certification, the 

applicant must provide complete design information, including the information that would 

otherwise have been resolved with a standard design certification. 

1.3.1.9 What is the NRC’s review process for a COL? What kinds of documents must the applicant 

submit? 

During its review of a COL application, the NRC evaluates the applicant’s safety analysis report, 

which contains the design information and criteria for the proposed reactor and comprehensive 

data for the proposed site. This report also discusses the safety features of the plant that 

prevent or reduce the consequences of accidents. The NRC reviews the application to 

determine whether the plant design and the site meets all of the applicable regulations. When 

the NRC completes its review, it prepares a safety evaluation report documenting that the 

design meets the regulations. The NRC staff also performs an environmental review to fulfill its 

responsibility under NEPA. The NRC issues a draft EIS that addresses the potential 

environmental impacts and benefits of the proposed facility. After receiving comments from the 

appropriate Federal, State, Tribal, and local agencies as well as the public, the agency issues a 

final EIS that addresses all the comments. 

After the final safety evaluation report and final environmental impact statement are issued, a 

hearing is held. Following the hearing the license is either issued or denied by the NRC. 
 13 

1.3.1.10 What opportunities are there for public meetings and hearings during a COL review? 

The NRC reaches out to the public by holding meetings near the 

proposed site for the COL. The staff uses these meetings to 

familiarize the public with the safety and environmental aspects of 

the application, the planned location for the plant(s), the regulatory 

process, and opportunities for public participation in the licensing 

process. During these meetings the staff seeks comments from 

the public on the scope of the NRC’s environmental review. The 

NRC uses those comments from the public to inform the scope of 

issues evaluated in the draft EIS. The NRC holds another public 

meeting to receive comments on the draft EIS, and then responds 

to the comments in the final EIS. Although not required, these meetings provide an important 

platform for public participation and for NRC interaction with the public and local officials. 

During the safety review, a number of public meetings are held with the applicant that are open 

to the public. In addition, public meetings are held before the Advisory Committee on Reactor 

Safeguards. Most Committee meetings are open to the public, and any member of the public 

may request an opportunity to make an oral statement during the meeting. 

Following the completion of the final safety evaluation report and the final environmental impact 

statement a hearing is held. In the hearing, the Commission or its Atomic Safety and Licensing 

Board reviews the applicant’s final safety analysis report, together with the NRC staff’s related 

safety evaluation report and the NRC staff’s final EIS. The public is also given the opportunity 

to petition for a hearing. A hearing is required for each COL. 

1.3.1.11 What happens after the NRC issues a COL? Can the utility just start operating the facility? 

After issuing a COL, the Commission will only authorize operation of the facility after verifying 

that the licensee has completed the required inspections, tests, and analyses and that the 

acceptance criteria have been met. The NRC will consider petitions for a second hearing if the 

petitioner demonstrates that the licensee has not met or will not meet the acceptance criteria. 

Before a plant can operate, the Commission must make a finding that the acceptance criteria 

have been met. 

1.3.1.12 How many COL reviews has the NRC performed? 

The NRC has not yet completed a COL review. As of October 2009, the NRC was reviewing 18 

COL license applications for 28 units. The NRC staff is also engaged in ongoing interactions 

with vendors and utilities regarding prospective new reactor applications and licensing activities. 

Based on these interactions, the staff expects to receive several more COL applications over 

the next few years. 

Public Meeting 
 14 

1.3.2 Early Site Permits 

1.3.2.1 What is an early site permit (ESP)? And why would a utility apply for an ESP rather than just a 

COL? 

An ESP is a licensing option provided under 10 CFR Part 52 that 

allows an applicant to obtain approval for a reactor site without 

specifying the design of the reactor(s) that could be built there. An 

ESP resolves issues involving site safety and environmental 

characteristics and emergency preparedness that are independent 

of a specific nuclear reactor design. This permitting approach 

provides an applicant with an opportunity to “bank” a site for up to 

20 years, reduces licensing uncertainty, and resolves siting issues 

before construction. 

Although not required by regulation, the NRC generally holds an 

introductory or public outreach meeting near the proposed site 

before an application is submitted for an ESP. The staff uses this 

meeting to familiarize the public with the safety and environmental 

aspects of a typical ESP review, the planned location for the 

plant(s), the regulatory process, and opportunities for public 

participation in the licensing process. 

1.3.2.2 What is the NRC’s process for reviewing an ESP request? 

The NRC staff reviews the ESP application in three areas: site safety, environmental protection, 

and emergency planning. The review determines whether the application meets NRC 

regulations, the requirements of the Atomic Energy Act, and any other applicable regulations. 

The NRC documents its findings regarding site safety and emergency planning in a safety 

evaluation report and findings regarding environmental protection issues in draft and final EISs. 

The staff’s safety evaluation report documents its conclusions about whether there is 

reasonable assurance that the site can safely host a future nuclear power reactor or reactors. 

In addition, the report contains a determination regarding emergency planning based on the 

level of detail in the information provided by the applicant. The applicant has several options for 

the level of emergency planning detail that can be submitted with an ESP application. If the 

information submitted by the applicant is relatively limited, the staff’s finding on emergency 

planning will focus on whether there are significant impediments to the development of 

emergency plans. If the applicant also includes the major features of the emergency plans, the 

staff will make a determination regarding the adequacy of those features. If the applicant 

submits complete emergency plans, the staff will determine whether these plans provide 

reasonable assurance that adequate protective measures can and will be taken in the event of a 

radiological emergency. If the ESP application does not include complete emergency plans, 

then the COL application that references the ESP must address the remaining issues. The 

NRC reviews the emergency planning information in consultation with the Federal Emergency 

Management Agency. 

The NRC documents 

its findings regarding 

site safety 

characteristics and 

emergency planning 

in a safety evaluation 

report, and findings 

regarding 

environmental 

protection issues in 

draft and final 

environmental 

impact statements. 
 15 

The NRC staff also will prepare an EIS in accordance 

with NEPA and 10 CFR Part 51, “Environmental 

Protection Regulations for Domestic Licensing and 

Related Regulatory Functions.” The EIS will focus on 

the environmental effects of construction and operation 

of a nuclear power plant or plants whose design 

characteristics fall within the site characteristics and 

design parameters identified in the ESP application. In 

addition, it will include an evaluation of alternative sites 

to determine whether there is any obviously superior 

alternative to the proposed site.

1.3.2.3 What must be included in an ESP application? 

The ESP application must address the safety and 

environmental characteristics of the site and evaluate 

potential physical impediments to developing an 

acceptable emergency plan. The application contains 

the following information: 

• the site’s boundaries, including a discussion of the 

exclusion area, where the applicant has the 

authority to remove persons or property 

• site characteristics, including seismic, 

meteorological, hydrologic, and geologic data 

• the location and description of any nearby 

industrial, military, or transportation facilities and 

routes 

• the existing and projected future population of the 

area surrounding the site, including a discussion of 

the expected low-population zone around the site 

and the locations of the nearest population centers 

• an evaluation of alternative sites to determine whether there is any obviously superior site 

• the proposed general location of each plant on the site 

• the number, type, and power level of the plants, or a range of possible plants planned for the 

site 

• the maximum radiological and thermal effluents expected 

• the type of cooling system expected to be used 

• radiological dose consequences of hypothetical accidents 

• plans for coping with emergencies 

In terms of the emergency plans, the application must identify physical characteristics of the site 

(such as a drawbridge) that could significantly hinder the development of a complete emergency 

Varied Environments
 16 

plan. The application also must describe contacts and 

arrangements made with local, State, and Federal 

government agencies with emergency planning 

responsibilities, or at least show that the applicant has 

made a good-faith effort to obtain the participation of 

these organizations in the emergency planning 

process. The application may include major features 

of the emergency plan or a complete emergency plan. 

1.3.2.4 How can the NRC assess environmental impacts 

without knowing what kind of reactor will be built? 

If an applicant has decided on a reactor design, its 

ESP application may reference that specific reactor 

design. An ESP applicant may elect to provide, as a 

surrogate for actual reactor design information, a set of 

values for plant design parameters that it expects will 

bound the design characteristics of any reactor or 

reactors that might be constructed at the site. This set 

of values, called a plant parameter envelope (PPE), 

may reflect the attributes of several different designs. 

This approach allows an ESP applicant to defer its 

decision on what design to build until it is prepared to 

apply for a license to construct and operate the plant. 

Because the PPE values do not reflect a specific 

design, the NRC’s decision to grant an ESP does not 

indicate agency approval of the site for any specific 

plant or type of plant. In addition to the emergency 

preparedness and environmental impact findings, site 

approval will be contingent on the staff’s ability to find 

that a reactor or reactors having design characteristics 

that fall within the PPE can be constructed and 

operated without undue risk to public health and 

safety. 

This combination of site characteristics and PPE values will comprise the ESP bases. The NRC 

will compare the design proposed in any COL application for the site against the ESP bases. 

COL applicants who reference an ESP bear the risk that the design ultimately selected for the 

approved site might fall outside of the terms and conditions of the ESP. 

Clinton 

Grand Gulf 

North Anna 
 17 

1.3.2.5 Has the NRC ever reviewed an ESP application? 

The NRC staff has issued four Early Site Permits (Exelon Generation Company, LLC, for the 

Clinton site in Illinois; System Energy Resources, Inc., for the Grand Gulf site in Mississippi; 

Dominion Nuclear, LLC, for the North Anna Site in Virginia; and Southern Nuclear Operating 

Company, Inc., for the Vogtle Electric Generating Plant in Georgia). 

1.3.2.6 What are the opportunities for public meetings and hearings during an ESP review? 

The NRC reaches out to the public by holding meetings near the proposed site for the ESP. 

The staff uses these meetings to familiarize the public with the safety and environmental 

aspects of the application, the planned location for the plant(s), the regulatory process, and 

opportunities for public participation in the licensing process. During these meetings the staff 

seeks comments from the public on the scope of the NRC’s environmental review. The NRC 

uses those comments from the public to inform the scope of issues evaluated in the draft EIS. 

The NRC holds another public meeting to receive comments on the draft EIS, and then 

responds to the comments in the final EIS. Although not required, these meetings provide an 

important platform for public participation and for NRC interaction with the public and local 

officials. During the safety review, a number of public meetings are held with the applicant that 

are open to the public. In addition, public meetings are held before the Advisory Committee on 

Reactor Safeguards. Most Committee meetings are open to the public, and any member of the 

public may request an opportunity to make an oral statement during the meeting. 

Following the completion of the final safety evaluation report and the final environmental impact 

statement a hearing is held. In the hearing, the Commission or its Atomic Safety and Licensing 

Board reviews the applicant’s final safety analysis report, together with the NRC staff’s related 

safety evaluation report and the NRC staff’s final EIS. The public is also given the opportunity 

to petition for a hearing. A hearing is required for each ESP. 

1.3.2.7 For how long is the ESP valid? 

An ESP is initially valid for no less than 10 years and for no more 20 years; it can be renewed 

for 10 to 20 years. 
 18 

1.3.3 Design Certification 

1.3.3.1 What is a design certification? 

A design certification approves a standard 

nuclear power plant design, independent 

of a site approval application or an 

application to construct or operate a plant. 

A standard reactor design certification is 

valid for 15 years and can be renewed for 

additional 15-year periods. 

A design certification application 

describes the design basis and the limits 

of reactor operation. It also includes a 

safety analysis of the structures, systems, 

and components of the facility. The level 

of detail included in the design 

certification application is equivalent to 

the level of detail found in a final safety 

analysis report for a currently operating 

plant. This information must demonstrate 

that the design complies with applicable NRC regulatory safety standards (10 CFR Parts 20, 50, 

52, 73, and 100). The application must also include proposed inspections, tests, analyses, and 

acceptance criteria for the standard design and a detailed risk analysis of the design’s 

vulnerability to certain accidents or events (probabilistic risk assessment) and an evaluation of 

design alternatives to mitigate the potential impacts of severe accidents (severe accident 

mitigation design alternatives). 

The NRC reviews the application to address safety issues for an essentially complete nuclear 

power plant design at an unspecified generic site. The NRC staff prepares a safety evaluation 

report that describes its review of the plant design and demonstrates how the design meets 

applicable regulations. When the design certification application review is complete, the NRC 

will commence rulemaking. As part of the rulemaking process, the public has an opportunity to 

submit comments, and the comments will be addressed in the final rule which will certify the 

standard design in an appendix to 10 CFR Part 52. 

An applicant for a combined license to build and operate a nuclear reactor that references a 

certified design must (1) demonstrate that the proposed site for the reactor falls within the 

bounds of the generic site referenced in the design certification review, (2) provide site-specific 

design features, (3) address interface requirements, (4) describe any departures from the 

certified design, and (5) update the probabilistic risk assessment to account for site-specific 

design features. The license application may incorporate the standard design certification final 

safety analysis report by reference. 

Advanced Boiling-Water Reactor 
 19 

1.3.3.2 What is required in the application for a design certification? 

Design certification applicants must provide the technical information necessary to demonstrate 

compliance with the applicable safety standards set forth in NRC regulations (refer to 

10 CFR 52.46 and 52.47). An application must contain design information at a level of detail 

sufficient to enable the NRC to reach a final conclusion on all safety questions associated with 

the standard design. In general terms, a design certification application should provide an 

essentially complete nuclear plant design, with the exception of site-specific design features 

such as intake structures and the ultimate heat sink. 

Applicants also must provide information to close out unresolved and generic safety issues, as 

well as issues that arose after the Three Mile Island accident in 1979. The application must 

include a detailed analysis of the design's vulnerability to certain accidents or events and 

inspections, tests, analyses, and acceptance criteria to verify the key design features. 

The application presents the design basis, the limits on operation, and a safety analysis of the 

structures, systems, and components of the facility. The scope and contents of the application 

are equivalent to the level of detail found in a final safety analysis report for a currently operating 

nuclear plant. 

1.3.3.3 What types of designs have been certified? 

The Commission has certified the following four reactor designs 

that can be referenced in an application for a nuclear power 

plant: 

• Advanced Boiling-Water Reactor design by General Electric 

(GE) Nuclear Energy (May 1997) 

• System 80+ design by Westinghouse Electric Company 

(formerly ABB-Combustion Engineering) (May 1997) 

• AP600 design by Westinghouse (December 1999) 

• AP1000 design by Westinghouse (February 2006) 

1.3.3.4 What types of designs are currently being reviewed for certification? 

As of July 2009, the NRC staff is reviewing GE’s Economic Simplified Boiling-Water Reactor 

(ESBWR), AREVA’s Evolutionary Power Reactor, Westinghouse’s amended AP1000 reactor, 

and the US-Advanced Pressurized-Water Reactor from Mitsubishi Heavy Industries, Ltd. 

In general terms, a 

design certification 

application should 

provide an essentially 

complete nuclear plant 

design, with the 

exception of site-specific 

design features such as 

intake structures and the 

ultimate heat sink. 
 20 

The NRC staff is performing pre-application reviews for the 

following: 

• Pebble Bed Modular Reactor sponsored by PBMR (Pty) 

Ltd. 

• International Reactor 

Innovative and 

Secure (IRIS) by 

Westinghouse 

• NuScale, a 40-

megawatt-electric 

(MWe) naturalcirculation design 

sponsored by the U.S. Department of Energy 

• Toshiba 4S (Super Safe, Small and Simple), a 10-MWe 

reactor with a compact core design by Toshiba 

Pre-application discussions occur before the certification 

application is submitted. These discussions identify major 

safety issues that could require NRC policy guidance, major 

technical issues, and any research needed to resolve identified issues. 

1.3.3.5 What makes these new designs better? 

The new designs reflect evolutionary and advanced features and enhancements as compared 

to the designs of currently operating reactors. For example, several new designs use improved 

electronics, computer, turbine, and fuel technologies. The designs are expected to increase 

plant availability, operating capacity, safety, and reliability. Some designs contain passive 

safety systems, simplified system designs, and redundant systems. 

1.3.3.6 What is the design certification process like? 

Upon receipt of an application for design certification, the NRC staff performs an acceptance 

review to determine if the application is acceptable for docketing and, if so, reviews the 

application against the applicable regulations. The NRC staff prepares a safety evaluation 

report that describes its review of the plant design. The safety review of the application is based 

primarily on design information submitted by the applicant. 

The Commission’s Advisory Committee on Reactor Safeguards reviews each application for 

design certification, together with the NRC staff’s safety evaluation report and issues a report to 

the Commission. After receiving the report from the Advisory Committee on Reactor 

Safeguards, the Commission determines if the application meets the relevant standards and 

requirements of the Atomic Energy Act and the Commission’s regulations. Following the 

determination, the Commission proposes a rule to certify the standard design as an appendix to 

the regulations set forth in 10 CFR Part 52. After considering public comments on the proposed 

rule, the Commission issues a final rule. The design certification then becomes a part of these 

regulations. The NRC can certify a reactor design for 15 years, independent of a specific site. 

Westinghouse AP1000 

The new designs are 

expected to increase 

plant availability, 

operating capacity, 

safety, and 

reliability. Some 

designs contain 

passive safety 

systems, simplified 

system designs, and 

redundant systems. 
 21 

Codifying the design certification in the NRC’s regulations provides finality for the safety issues 

resolved in a design certification rulemaking. That is, a certified design can only be modified if 

one of the requirements in 10 CFR 52.63(a) is met. 

1.3.3.7 What are the opportunities for public meetings and hearings during a design certification 

review? 

The rulemaking process for drafting and justifying final regulations includes a public comment 

period. In addition, the Commission may hold public meetings on the rulemaking. 

1.3.4 Limited Work Authorizations 

1.3.4.1 What is a limited work authorization (LWA)? 

An NRC-issued LWA allows holders of ESPs, as well as COL applicants, to perform certain 

limited construction activities before the issuance of the COL, at their own risk. 

1.3.4.2 What construction activities are included in an LWA? 

Construction activities that could be covered by an 

LWA are specified in 10 CFR 50.10(d) and include 

the driving of piles, subsurface preparation, 

placement of backfill, concrete or permanent 

retaining walls within an excavation, and 

installation of the foundation, including placement 

of concrete. 

1.3.4.3 What construction activities are not included 

in an LWA? 

The activities listed below are preconstruction 

activities and do not require any permit from the 

NRC and therefore can be conducted at any time, before during or after the issuance of any 

NRC permit or license. However other Federal agencies may require an environmental impact 

statement before allowing activities that would require a permit from their agency. In accordance 

with 10 CFR 50.10, “License Required; Limited Work Authorization,” the definition of 

“construction” does not include the following: 

• changes for temporary use of the land for public recreational purposes 

• site exploration, including necessary borings to determine foundation conditions or other 

preconstruction monitoring to establish background information related to the suitability of 

the site 

• preparation of a site for construction, including clearing of the site; grading; installation of 

drainage, erosion, and other environmental mitigation measures; and construction of 

temporary roads and borrow areas 

• erection of fences and other access control measures 

Construction Workers 
 22 

• excavation 

• erection of support buildings (such as construction equipment storage sheds, warehouse 

and shop facilities, utilities, concrete mixing plants, docking and unloading facilities, and 

office buildings) for use in connection with the construction of the facility 

• building of service facilities, such as paved roads, parking lots, railroad spurs, exterior utility 

and lighting systems, potable water systems, sanitary sewage treatment facilities, and 

transmission lines 

• procurement or fabrication of components or portions of the proposed facility occurring at 

locations other than the final, in-place location at the facility 

• manufacture of a nuclear power reactor under a manufacturing license under Subpart F, 

“Manufacturing Licenses,” of 10 CFR Part 52 to be installed at the proposed site and to be 

part of the proposed facility 

In accordance with 10 CFR 50.10(a)(2)(ii), the NRC does not consider site investigations 

required by 10 CFR 100.23(c) to be construction. In addition, the definition of construction given 

above excludes excavation. Excavation includes the removal of any soil, rock, gravel, or other 

material below the final ground elevation to the final parent material. Thus, all of these 

excavation activities may be conducted without a COL, LWA, or ESP authorizing LWA activities 

or any NRC permit. 

However, these activities may require permits from other Federal agencies, such as the Corps if 

wetlands are impacted or if dredging is needed (section 404 of the CWA), and from State 

agencies under section 401 of the CWA. The NRC and the Corps signed a memorandum of 

understanding in which the agencies agreed that the NRC will be the lead agency for writing the 

EIS for nuclear power facilities and the Corps will be a cooperating agency. The Corps may 

require issuance of a final EIS before allowing preconstruction activities that impact wetlands. 

Therefore, before conducting preconstruction activities, the project owner should consult with 

the State and Federal regulatory bodies that have authority over preconstruction activities. 

During the pre-application period, the NRC encourages the project owner to engage in early 

interaction with all regulatory bodies that are required to issue permits. 

1.3.4.4 What is required in an application for an LWA? 

The requirements for a request for an LWA include: 

 a safety analysis for the activities requested 

 a detailed description of the activities requested 

 design and construction information for portions of the facility affected by the requested 

activities 

 an environmental report in accordance with 10 CFR 51.49, “Environmental Report—Limited 

Work Authorization” 

 a plan for redress of the activities performed under the LWA 
 23 

 inspections, tests, analyses, and acceptance criteria for the requested activities, as 

necessary, per 10 CFR 52.80(a) 

 the applicant’s technical qualifications to perform the activities authorized. 

1.3.4.5 What type of review does the NRC conduct on an LWA? 

The NRC performs both a safety review and an environmental 

review of an application for an LWA. The safety review 

process includes acceptance review, requests for information, 

public meetings, safety evaluation, and ACRS review. The 

environmental review process and the number and scope of 

EISs prepared by the NRC staff will depend on the requests in 

the LWA application and the approach chosen by the 

applicant. The basic environmental review process will 

remain the same: acceptance review, scoping, public scoping 

meeting, draft EIS, public meeting on the draft EIS, resolution 

of comments on the draft EIS, and final EIS. The safety and 

environmental review process for a stand-alone LWA 

application is expected to be narrower in scope and shorter in 

duration than the process for a COL application. 

1.3.4.6 What regulations cover LWAs? 

The NRC sets forth the requirements for an LWA in 10 CFR 50.10. The agency amended this 

section on October 9, 2007, as published in the Federal Register (72 FR 57416). The revised 

LWA rule went into effect on November 8, 2007. The major change to the LWA rule involved 

the definition of construction. 

1.4 Regulatory Basis for the Review 

1.4.1 How does the NRC develop its regulations? 

The NRC develops regulations through the rulemaking process. In 

addition, as discussed above, design certifications require a rulemaking. 

Usually, the NRC’s technical staff initiates a change to a regulation 

because of a safety or environmental concern, an improvement in technical 

understanding, or an improvement in the regulatory process. The 

Commission may also direct changes to the regulations. However, any 

member of the public may petition the Commission under 10 CFR 2.802, 

“Petition for Rulemaking,” to develop, change, or rescind a regulation. 

The rulemaking process has several steps. In a rulemaking initiated by the NRC, the rule is 

proposed after the NRC decides on the need for and general framework of a rule. The 

proposed rule, published in the Federal Register, usually contains background information, an 

address for submitting comments, a date by which comments should be received in order to 

guarantee their consideration by the staff, an explanation of why the regulation change is 

The environmental review 

process and the number 

and scope of environmental 

impact statements prepared 

by the NRC staff will 

depend on the requests in 

the application for limited 

work authorization and the 

approach chosen by the 

applicant. 

The NRC 

welcomes 

public 

participation 

in the 

rulemaking 

process. 
 24 

thought to be needed, and the proposed changes to the text of the regulation. Usually, the 

public has 75 to 90 days to provide written comments. Once the public comment period is 

closed, the staff analyzes the comments, makes any needed revisions to the proposed rule, and 

forwards the final rule for the Commission’s approval and publication in the Federal Register. 

Once approved, the final rule is published in the Federal Register and usually becomes effective 

30 days after publication. 

The NRC does not issue all rules for public comment. Generally, rules not published for 

comment are related to NRC organization, procedures, or practices; are interpretations of rules; 

or of a nature that delaying their publication to receive comments would be impracticable, 

unnecessary or contrary to the public interest. 

1.4.2 What if you disagree with the regulations? How do you get the regulations changed? 

The NRC welcomes public participation in the rulemaking process. There are several ways for 

the public to participate in rulemaking: 

• The public may provide comments in response to Federal Register notices. The NRC 

publishes notices of rulemaking activities in the Federal Register to solicit public comment, 

and it may also publish a notice of a meeting or workshop to be held regarding a rule. The 

Federal Register notice contains information about how to provide specific comments on a 

proposed rule to the NRC. 

• The NRC's Rulemaking page facilitates public participation in the rulemaking process by 

providing a means for members of the public to access NRC rulemaking documents. The 

page links to proposed rules and petitions for rulemaking recently published by the NRC in 

the Federal Register and to other types of documents related to rulemaking proceedings. 

Members of the public can send questions to the NRC staff via Web form, 

http://www.nrc.gov/about-nrc/regulatory/rulemaking/contact-us.html. NRC Rulemaking 

documents can also be found on the Regulations.gov website. This site provides access to 

a government-wide, on-line database that includes NRC's public dockets for its rulemaking 

actions. The dockets include publicly-available documents such as NRC-issued Federal 

Register Notices, supporting documents, public comments, and other related documents. 

• Members of the public may petition the NRC to develop, change, or rescind a rule by filing a 

petition for rulemaking in accordance with the regulations at 10 CFR 2.802. Information 

about the petition for rulemaking process is located at http://www.nrc.gov/aboutnrc/regulatory/rulemaking/petition-rule.html. 

. 
 25 

2.0 The NRC Environmental Review 

The U.S. Nuclear Regulatory Commission 

(NRC) review of an applicant’s license 

application includes determining the 

environmental effects of constructing and 

operating the proposed nuclear power 

facility on a particular proposed site. The 

Commission determined that the NRC 

would prepare an environmental impact 

statement (EIS) for each major Federal 

action to fulfill its responsibilities under the 

National Environmental Policy Act of 1969 

(NEPA). The Commission may also 

prepare an EIS for other actions when it 

determines that it furthers the purpose of 

NEPA. NEPA requires that all Federal 

agencies consider environmental values in 

conducting their work. This section 

provides responses to frequently asked questions about NEPA and the related environmental 

review process. 

2.1 What is the National Environmental Policy Act (NEPA)? 

NEPA defined a national policy for the environment and established the basis for considering 

environmental issues in the conduct of Federal activities. 

The Act establishes a national policy that 

• encourages productive and enjoyable harmony between man and his environment 

• promotes efforts that will prevent or eliminate damage to the environment and biosphere 

and stimulate the health and welfare of man 

• enriches the understanding of the ecological systems and natural resources important to the 

Nation. 

The legal citation for NEPA in the United States Code is 42 U.S.C. 4321 et seq. The text can be 

found in Public Law 91-190, 42 U.S.C. 4321–4347, January 1, 1970, and in its subsequent 

amendments (Public Law 94-52, July 3, 1975; Public Law 94-83, August 9, 1975; and Public 

Law 97-258, paragraph 4(b), September 13, 1982). NEPA also established the President’s 

Council on Environmental Quality (CEQ). On November 29, 1978, CEQ issued regulations 

(Title 40 of the Code of Federal Regulations [CFR] Part 1500, “Purpose, Policy, and Mandate”) 

implementing NEPA. These regulations became effective for and binding upon all Federal 

executive branch agencies within a year after their publication. The regulations direct Federal 

agencies on matters related to environmental policy, including the public scoping process, use 

Wildlife Refuge 
 26 

of lead agencies, and selection of alternatives. The NRC is an independent executive agency 

and is not in the executive branch of the Federal Government. In establishing its own 

regulations, the Commission has announced its policy to voluntarily take into account CEQ’s 

1978 regulations, subject to certain conditions (see 10 CFR 51.10, “Purpose and Scope of 

Subpart; Application of Regulations of Council on Environmental Quality”). 

The NRC’s regulations at 10 CFR Part 51, “Environmental Protection Regulations for Domestic 

Licensing and Related Regulatory Functions,” implement NEPA. The NRC uses these 

regulations as the basis for developing EISs or conducting environmental assessments in 

support of NEPA. 

2.1.1 What does NEPA require? 

NEPA requires all Federal agencies considering a major Federal action to take the following 

actions: 

• Use a systematic, interdisciplinary approach for decision-making on actions that may have 

an impact on the environment. 

• Inform and involve the public in the decision-making process. 

• Consider significant environmental impacts associated with the action. 

• Consider alternatives and their impacts on the proposed action. 

2.1.2 Why does the NRC conduct an environmental review? 

The NRC performs an environmental review of an applicant’s license application to determine 

the environmental effects of constructing and operating the proposed nuclear power facility on a 

particular proposed site. The NRC conducts an 

environmental review because it recognizes a continuing 

obligation to implement its domestic licensing and 

regulatory functions in a manner that is both receptive to 

environmental concerns and consistent with the NRC’s 

responsibility, as an independent executive agency, to 

protect the radiological health and safety of the public. 

2.1.3 Which actions (licenses or permits) require an 

environmental review? 

The NRC defines the actions requiring an environmental 

review in the regulations at 10 CFR 51.20, “Criteria for and Identification of Licensing and 

Regulatory Actions Requiring Environmental Impact Statements,” and 10 CFR 51.21, “Criteria 

for and Identification of Licensing and Regulatory Actions Requiring Environmental 

Assessments.” In summary, the NRC prepares an EIS if the proposed action is (1) a major 

Federal action significantly affecting the quality of the human environment, and (2) a matter that 

the Commission has determined should be covered by an EIS, such as issuance of a permit to 

construct a nuclear power reactor. In 10 CFR 51.20(b), the NRC lists the matters that the 

Commission has determined should be specifically covered. The NRC prepares an 

The NRC performs an 

environmental review of an 

applicant’s license application 

to determine the environmental 

effects of constructing and 

operating the proposed nuclear 

power facility on a particular 

proposed site. 
 27 

environmental assessment for any licensing or regulatory action that is not specified by 

10 CFR 51.20(b) as requiring an EIS, or that is not identified in 10 CFR 51.22(c) and 

10 CFR 51.22(d) as an action that will not have a significant environmental effect and can be 

categorically exclude from the environmental review. Early site permits, combined license 

applications, and limited work authorizations require an environmental review in the form of an 

EIS. Design certifications require an environmental assessment for severe accident mitigation 

alternatives, since these alternatives are most effectively considered at the time the NRC is 

reviewing the design for certification. 

2.1.4 What is not required by NEPA? 

NEPA does not require that the Federal agency choose the alternative with the least impact; 

instead, the agency must disclose all potential impacts so that it can make a fully informed 

decision. NEPA does not provide for adjudication of contested actions. Each agency’s 

administrative procedures specify the conditions under which it holds administrative hearings. 

NEPA does not require the review or re-analysis of actions other than the action being 

considered. For example, the NEPA review for a combined license would not include an 

environmental review of an existing facility located on the same site, a review of an independent 

spent fuel storage installation being built nearby, or an analysis of a waste repository, each of 

which has or would have its own separate NEPA review. 

2.1.5 What is an environmental impact statement (EIS)? 

An EIS is a written analysis of the reasonably foreseeable 

effects of an activity on the environment, including the air, 

water, animal life, vegetation, and natural resources, and on 

any property of historic, archaeological, or architectural 

significance. The review evaluates cumulative, economic, 

social (including environmental justice), cultural, and other 

impacts. The preparation of an EIS includes the following: 

• publication of a notice of intent to prepare the EIS 

• scoping, that is, preliminary analysis and consultation with 

other agencies and stakeholders (including the public) to 

determine the scope of the EIS, defining the range of 

actions, alternatives, and impacts to be considered 

• analysis leading to a draft EIS 

• public review and comment, NRC responses to the 

comments, and possibly further analyses, amendments, or revision of the draft EIS 

• publication of a final EIS that includes discussion of the comments made during the public 

review period for the draft EIS 

 

An environmental impact 

statement (EIS) is a 

written analysis of the 

reasonably foreseeable 

effects of an activity on 

the environment, 

including the air, water, 

animal life, vegetation, 

and natural resources, 

and on any property of 

historic, archaeological, 

or architectural 

significance. 
 28 

2.1.6 How does the NRC implement NEPA? 

The NRC implements NEPA according to its regulations in 10 CFR Part 51. The agency uses 

these regulations as the basis for preparing EISs or environmental assessments in support of 

NEPA. 

2.1.7 Does any other governmental agency review the EISs written by the NRC? 

Section 309 of the Clean Air Act gives EPA the responsibility to review EISs that are prepared 

by other Federal agencies (including the NRC). In addition to reviewing the EIS for adequacy, 

EPA also provides the sponsoring agency (in this case, the NRC) with an assessment of each 

EIS as a measure of the NRC’s adherence to NEPA. EPA provides its comments to the NRC to 

use in developing on future EISs. Additionally, EPA comments on draft EISs under its statutory 

areas of responsibility, such as clean water and clean air. The NRC also invites other Federal 

agencies to participate in the scoping process and gives them the opportunity to review and 

comment on the draft EISs.

2.1.8 What other environmental laws or, regulations, are involved in building a new reactor? 

 The following are some of the laws and regulations that potentially apply to a new reactor,: 

• Endangered Species Act of 1973, with respect to protecting threatened and endangered 

species and critical habitats and initiating formal or informal consultation with the U.S. Fish 

and Wildlife Service and/or National Marine Fisheries Service 

• Federal Water Pollution Control Act of 1972 (commonly called the Clean Water Act), 

requiring the restoration and maintenance of the chemical, physical, and biological integrity 

of water resources 

• Fish and Wildlife Coordination Act of 1958, ensuring consideration of fish and wildlife 

resources in the planning of development projects that 

affect water resources 

• Migratory Bird Treaty Act, as amended, controlling the 

endangerment or taking of migratory birds 

• Coastal Zone Management Act of 1972, with respect to 

natural resources and land or water use of the coastal 

zone 

• Marine Mammal Protection Act of 1972, requiring the protection of marine mammals 

• Marine Protection, Research and Sanctuaries Act of 1972, controlling the dumping of 

dredged material into the ocean 

• Rivers and Harbors Appropriations Act of 1899, controlling the deposition of debris in 

navigable waters or tributaries to such waters 

• National Historic Preservation Act of 1966, related to the protection and preservation of 

significant historic properties during construction, refurbishment, and operation of a plant 

• Native American Graves Protection and Repatriation Act of 1990, related to disturbance of 

Native American burial grounds and cultural sites 

In addition to reviewing 

the EIS for adequacy, EPA 

also provides the 

sponsoring agency with an 

assessment of each EIS. 
 29 

• National Electrical Safety Code, regulating shock hazards from transmission lines 

• 40 CFR Part 122, “EPA Administered Permit Programs: The National Pollutant Discharge 

Elimination System,” and 40 CFR Part 124, “Procedures for Decision-making,” 

implementing the National Pollutant Discharge Elimination System permit conditions for 

discharges, including storm water discharges 

• 40 CFR Part 125, “Criteria and Standards for the National Pollutant Discharge Elimination 

System,” addressing water quality standards 

• 40 CFR Part 165, “Pesticide Management and Disposal” 

• 40 CFR Part 403, “General Pre-Treatment Regulations for Existing and New Sources of 

Pollution,” regulating waste effluents 

• 40 CFR Parts 700–716, defining practices and procedures for managing toxic chemicals

2.1.9 Does the NRC coordinate or consult with other Federal agencies as part of its 

environmental reviews? 

One of the first requirements for developing an EIS is to publish, in the Federal Register, a 

notice of intent to prepare the EIS and conduct scoping. This Federal 

Register notice alerts other agencies (including other Federal agencies) 

that may have an interest in participating in the review or wish to 

participate in the scoping process. The NRC and the U.S. Army Corps 

of Engineers (Corps) signed a memorandum of understanding that 

establishes a framework for early coordination and participation among 

the agencies. During the analysis and preparation of the EIS, the NRC 

staff consults with appropriate Federal agencies. The NRC usually 

contacts the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service (U.S. Department of the 

Interior) and the National Marine Fisheries Service (U.S. Department of 

Commerce) for environmental issues related to the impact on any 

threatened or endangered species that may be in the vicinity of the site 

or on any critical habitat that could be affected by the licensing action. 

The NRC also consults with State and Tribal Historic Preservation 

Officers on issues related to historic preservation. If other agencies 

have actions or jurisdiction over areas directly related to the review, the 

NRC would also contact them directly.

In addition to NRC-coordinated consultation, various Federal agencies review the draft EIS at 

their discretion. For example, at the Federal level, the draft EISs for combined licenses and 

early site permits are most commonly reviewed by EPA, the Advisory Council on Historic 

Preservation, and the Department of the Interior. The NRC considers the comments from these 

agencies and includes them in the final EIS, as appropriate. 

Green Turtle 
 30 

2.2 The NRC’s Environmental Review Process 

2.2.1 What steps does the NRC take before receiving an application? 

There are no regulatory requirements for the NRC 

to perform pre-application activities. However, the 

NRC encourages prospective applicants to 

discuss with the NRC regarding their plans for 

submitting an application. The purpose of the 

pre-application activities is to prepare the 

appropriate NRC staff resources needed to 

conduct an environmental review for combined 

license and early site permit applications. At the 

request of the applicant, the NRC conducts a 

number of readiness assessments at the 

proposed site. These activities determine the 

readiness of the application to be submitted on 

the date forecasted by the prospective applicant. These pre-application assessments include a 

tour of the site, discussions with key staff that are familiar with the site and are involved in 

developing the environmental report and the process for selecting sites, and a records 

assessment of the environmental portions of the application. Pre-application activities may 

begin as early as 2 years before submission of the application, although the NRC commonly 

conducts them 6 months to 1 year before the review. 

2.2.2 What steps does the NRC have to take to complete the environmental review after the 

application has been submitted? 

The environmental review begins when an applicant sends its license application to the NRC. 

One part of the application, the applicant’s environmental report, serves as the starting point for 

the NRC staff’s environmental review. The following activities occur after the NRC receives the 

license application: 

• The NRC staff places a notice in the Federal Register that it has received the application. 

The notice tells the public how to access copies of the application. 

• The NRC staff places another notice in the Federal Register if the staff determines that the 

information in the application is sufficient and acceptable to begin the review. Either this 

notice or yet a third notice placed in the Federal Register establishes a 60-day period for 

interested persons to file a request to participate in a hearing. 

• The NRC staff places another notice in the Federal Register generally about 1 month after 

accepting the application. This notice informs the public of the NRC’s intent to prepare an 

EIS and provides information about the scoping process. The scoping process defines the 

proposed action, determines the scope of the EIS, and identifies the significant issues to be 

analyzed in depth. One or more public scoping meetings take place near the proposed site 

of the nuclear power reactor. The Federal Register notice provides the time and location of 

the public scoping meeting(s). 

NRC Reviewer Examining a Site 
 31 

• Approximately 30 days after publishing the notice of intent, the NRC staff usually hosts one 

or more public scoping meetings within the vicinity of the proposed nuclear power reactor. 

The NRC generally advertises the meeting in local papers, through a press release, and 

through outreach to public interest groups to ensure that interested members of the public 

are aware of the public scoping meeting. The NRC staff considers the written comments 

and meeting transcript comments and then determines which comments are within the 

scope of the environmental review; comments on safety matters are sent to the safety 

reviewers. The staff then issues a scoping report, which defines the scope of the EIS and 

the range of actions, alternatives, and impacts to be considered. 

• The NRC staff typically conducts an audit at the site and in the surrounding area. This visit 

familiarizes the NRC and its contractor team with the site and its environs and helps the 

agency determine whether it should investigate additional issues as part of the 

environmental evaluation. The NRC/contractor team is composed of experts in the fields 

pertinent to the environmental review. 

• The NRC staff also conducts an audit of the alternative sites that were considered in the 

environmental report to aid in determining whether there is any obviously superior 

alternative to the site proposed. 

• The NRC publishes the draft EIS after the agency completes its detailed reviews, 

approximately 1 year after accepting the application. The NRC staff places a notice of 

availability in the Federal Register telling the public and other interested parties how to 

obtain copies. The NRC also sends copies to all individuals on facility distribution lists and 

provides individual copies to members of the public upon request. The notice requests 

public comments on the draft EIS, usually within a 75-day period. This period reflects the 

required 45-day comment period and two 15-day extensions to ensure that the public and 

other organizations have adequate time to participate. The notice also alerts the public to 

one or more public meetings to be held in the vicinity of the proposed nuclear power plant. 

The NRC also issues a press release so that local media are aware of the draft EIS and the 

meetings and can report on them. The meeting(s) present an overview of the draft EIS and 

give the public a forum to comment on the document. Transcripts of the public meeting(s) 

are made available to the public. The NRC gives comments received at these transcribed 

meetings the same consideration as those provided in written form. 

• After the receipt of the comments from the public, the applicant, and any interested local, 

State, Tribal, or Federal agencies, the NRC staff considers the comments and makes any 

appropriate changes which are incorporated into the final EIS. The agency then publishes 

the final EIS, including the list of the comments and the NRC staff’s resolution of each 

comment. The NRC usually issues the final EIS approximately 2 years after accepting the 

application. The NRC staff includes a recommendation in the final EIS regarding the 

environmental review to the Commission or its designee. 
 32 

2.2.3 What is scoping? 

Scoping is one of the steps in preparing an EIS. The 

NRC’s regulations (10 CFR 51.28 and 29) direct the staff 

to engage in a scoping process is to determine the range 

of actions, alternatives, and impacts that should be 

considered in the EIS. Scoping is intended to ensure that 

problems are identified early and are properly studied, 

that issues of little significance do not consume time and 

effort, that the draft EIS is thorough and balanced, and 

that delays because of an inadequate draft EIS are 

avoided. 

An effective scoping process can help reduce unnecessary paperwork and time delays in 

preparing and processing the EIS by clearly identifying all relevant issues and procedural 

requirements. NEPA does not require public meetings during scoping but leaves it up to the 

individual agency to decide its method for seeking public input. For new reactor licensing, the 

NRC has elected to conduct public meetings as a part of the scoping process. These meetings 

take place in the vicinity of the power reactor facility early in the review process. The NRC 

invites the public to attend the meetings to provide its insights on the scope of the environmental 

assessment.

2.2.4 Why does the NRC have a scoping process and what information is it specifically looking 

for during this process? 

The NRC conducts the scoping process to define the proposed action, determine the scope of 

the environmental review, and identify the significant issues to be analyzed in depth. A scoping 

meeting is held in the vicinity of the proposed project to receive input from the public on the 

scope of the review. Specifically, the scoping process 

accomplishes the following: 

• defines the proposed action 

• determines the scope of the EIS and identifies the significant 

issues to be analyzed in depth 

• identifies and eliminates from detailed study those issues that 

are peripheral or that are not significant 

• identifies any environmental assessments and other EISs that 

are being or will be prepared that are related to but are not 

part of the scope of the EIS 

• identifies other environmental review and consultation 

requirements related to the proposed action 

Scoping is intended to ensure 

that problems are identified 

early and are properly studied, 

that issues of little significance 

do not consume time and effort, 

that the draft EIS is thorough 

and balanced, and that delays 

occasioned by an inadequate 

draft EIS are avoided. 

American Alligator 
 33 

• indicates the relationship between the timing of the preparation of environmental analyses 

and the NRC’s tentative planning and decisionmaking schedule 

• identifies any cooperating agencies and, as appropriate, allocates assignments for EIS 

preparation, and determines schedules for completing the EIS 

• describes how the EIS will be prepared, including any contractor assistance to be used 

2.2.5 What technical areas are included in the environmental review? 

The NRC performs reviews of the environmental impacts of license applications in accordance 

with NEPA and the NRC’s requirements in 10 CFR Part 51. The review commonly includes the 

following technical areas: 

• land use 

• ground and surface water use and quality 

• air quality 

• aquatic resources 

• terrestrial resources 

• threatened and endangered species 

• radiological impacts 

• socioeconomic factors 

• environmental justice issues 

• historical and archaeological resources 

• related Federal project activities 

• postulated accidents 

• uranium fuel cycle and solid waste management 

• decommissioning 

• alternative sites 

• alternative energy sources (not required for an ESP) 

• system design alternatives 

• cumulative impacts 

• need for power (not required for an ESP) 

• cost-benefit analysis (not required for an ESP) 

• irreversible or irretrievable resource commitments 

The review may include other areas as a result of information obtained during the NRC staff’s 

review or from public comments received during or after meetings held in the vicinity of the 

proposed nuclear power reactor. 

2.2.6 What geographical area is considered in the review? 

The NRC considers environmental impacts at the site itself and in surrounding areas that the 

project could affect. The NRC also evaluates the facility’s contribution to impacts from 

nonfacility-related activities as cumulative impacts. 
 34 

2.2.7 Who actually performs the environmental review? 

The environmental review is performed by a team of experts, including NRC staff members 

supported by contractor staff from national laboratories and other contractors. The team 

consists of experts in a variety of fields, including the following: 

• atmospheric science 

• hydrology (surface and ground water use and quality) 

• terrestrial ecology 

• aquatic ecology 

• land use 

• archaeology/cultural resources 

• socioeconomics/environmental justice 

• radiation protection 

• accident analysis 

• nuclear safety 

• regulatory compliance 

2.2.8 Which State, Tribal, county, or local agencies does the NRC contact during the review of 

the application and the development of the EIS? 

The NRC staff contacts State offices for input during its analysis of the license application. 

These offices include organizations dealing with health and human services, cultural resources, 

and environmental protection and natural resources. The NRC staff also contacts county or 

local agencies, specifically those that may provide the staff with cultural and historic or 

socioeconomic information related to the staff’s review of the application. The NRC staff also 

contacts recognized Tribal nations that may have ties to the land in the vicinity of the proposed 

plant. Although the NRC does not provide copies of the application to State, Tribal, county, or 

local agencies, the applicant may provide it directly to specific offices, and the NRC makes it 

available electronically via the NRC’s public web site (http://www.nrc.gov). The NRC publishes 

a notice in the Federal Register indicating the receipt of the license application shortly after it 

receives the application. The notice indicates where hard copies are available and how they 

can be obtained. The NRC makes arrangements to have a hard copy of the application 

available at a public library close to the site. 
 35 

2.2.9 Where does the NRC publish the results of the environmental review? 

The NRC first publishes the results of the review as a draft EIS, which includes the NRC’s 

analysis of the environmental impacts of the proposed action and the alternatives to the 

proposed action. The draft EIS also includes a preliminary recommendation concerning the 

license based on the NRC staff’s consideration of the information about the environmental 

impacts of the proposed action and the alternatives contained in the EIS. The staff issues a 

final EIS after considering public comments on the draft EIS. Both the draft and final EISs are 

available on the NRC’s Agencywide Documents Access and Management System (ADAMS). 

The ADAMS Public Electronic Reading Room is accessible from the NRC Web site at 

http://www.nrc.gov/reading-rm/adams.. The NRC provides copies of the draft and final EIS to 

libraries in the vicinity of the proposed power plant. 

2.2.10 What are cumulative impacts, and how does NRC evaluate them? 

Cumulative impacts on the environment result 

when impacts of an action are added to other past, 

present, and reasonably foreseeable future actions. 

Cumulative impacts can result from individually 

small impacts that become significant when taken 

collectively over a geographic area or a period of 

time. Any agency (Federal or non-Federal) or 

private entity can contribute to cumulative effects through its actions or approval of actions. 

These combined impacts are defined as “cumulative” and include individually minor but 

collectively significant actions taking place over a geographic area or a period of time. The NRC 

evaluates cumulative effects during the site visit and scoping process by identifying the impacts 

that have affected the environment surrounding the facility. For example, the close proximity of 

another nuclear reactor or another industrial facility that also discharges warm water into the 

same river may have a cumulative impact on aquatic ecology that is greater than the impact of 

just one facility. The staff would take into consideration the potential for cumulative impacts 

from both facilities. The staff considers preconstruction activities in its cumulative impact 

analysis. 

Cumulative impacts can result from 

individually small impacts that 

become significant when taken 

collectively over a geographic area 

or a period of time. 
 36 

2.2.11 What is mitigation? 

According to CEQ regulations at 40 CFR 1508.20, “Mitigation,” mitigation can include the 

following: 

• avoiding the impact altogether by not taking a certain action or parts of an action 

• minimizing impacts by limiting the degree or magnitude of the action and its implementation 

• rectifying the impact by repairing, rehabilitating, or restoring the affected environment 

• reducing or eliminating the impact over time by preservation and maintenance operations 

during the life of the action 

• compensating for the impact by replacing or providing substitute resources or 

environments 

As defined in NUREG-1555, “Standard Review Plans for Environmental Reviews for Nuclear 

Power Plants,” mitigation is the process of modifying a design or practice (either a construction 

practice or an operating procedure) to lessen its impacts. Typically, the impacts are 

environmental in nature, but mitigation also applies to historical and cultural resources, and 

environmental justice. In terms of the impacts during the construction or operation of the facility, 

this definition can include activities such as using best management practices to mitigate the 

impact of dredging; relocating a project, such as additional storage or lay-down yards to avoid 

impacting an historic or archaeological site; reconfiguring intake structures to reduce 

impingement or entrainment of fish and shellfish larvae; and making structural changes to 

equipment to mitigate the potential for severe accidents. 

During the review process, the applicant makes the first attempt to identify areas needing 

mitigation and the specific mitigation actions to be taken. The NRC then assesses the validity of 

those strategies and determines whether the applicant identified all necessary areas for 

mitigation. 

2.2.12 What issues are precluded from consideration? 

The NRC does not consider a number of issues in its environmental reviews for licensing 

actions, including, but not limited to, safety, operational issues that require a separate NEPA 

review (such as an independent spent fuel storage installation), security and safeguard issues, 

emergency preparedness (including distribution of potassium iodide), spent fuel disposal and 

storage after cessation of reactor operations (10 CFR 51.23, “Temporary Storage of Spent Fuel 

after Cessation of Reactor Operation—Generic Determination of No Significant Environmental 

Impact”), and economic feasibility. The NRC addresses safety, security, and emergency 

preparedness issues in the safety review that the agency conducts in parallel with the 

environmental review. The NRC conducts a benefit-cost analysis during the environmental 

review. It requires financial assurance for decommissioning for all applicants, who also must 

carry nuclear accident insurance under the Price-Anderson Act. However, the final decision 

about whether to build the facility remains with the utility. 
 37 

2.2.13 How are environmental impacts categorized? 

To guide its assessment of environmental impacts for a proposed action or alternative actions, 

the NRC has established a standard of significance for impacts using CEQ guidance in 

40 CFR 1508.27, “Significantly.” Using this approach, the NRC has established three levels—

small, moderate, or large—that provide a common framework for each of the technical 

disciplines assessed in the EIS. Once the impacts are evaluated and analyzed, they are 

categorized. The three levels are defined below: 

• SMALL – Environmental effects are not detectable or are so minor that they will neither 

destabilize nor noticeably alter any important attribute of the resource. 

• MODERATE – Environmental effects are sufficient to alter noticeably, but not to destabilize, 

important attributes of the resource. 

• LARGE – Environmental effects are clearly noticeable and are sufficient to destabilize 

important attributes of the resource. 

2.2.14 Does the NRC only review information provided by the applicant in the environmental 

report? Can it introduce new information in the review process? 

The applicant’s environmental report is intended to assist the Commission in complying with 

NEPA. The NRC staff may make extensive use of the environmental report as a starting point 

for its review. However, the NRC staff independently evaluates information contained in the 

environmental report. In addition, through its scoping process, the NRC gathers information 

from the public and from State and Federal agencies. Ultimately, the NRC staff is responsible 

for the reliability of any information used in the EIS. 

 39 

3.0 General Questions Related to Environmental Review Topics 

Responses in this section are related directly to the topic areas that the U.S. Nuclear Regulatory 

Commission (NRC) evaluates in the environmental impact statement (EIS), which include the 

need for power, socioeconomics, transportation, human health issues, transmission lines and 

human health impacts, alternatives to the proposed actions, accidents and their mitigation, and 

decommissioning. 

3.1 Need for Power 

3.1.1 Does the NRC evaluate the need for 

power? 

The NRC evaluates the need for power on a 

case-by-case basis. Title 10 of the Code of 

Federal Regulations (10 CFR) 52.17(a)(2) 

specifically states that an application for an early 

site permit need not include a need-for-power 

analysis. The applicant has an option to decide 

when to address the issue. Therefore, if the 

applicant submits the information in the 

environmental report at the early site permit 

stage, the NRC will consider the need for power 

at that time. If the early site permit environmental 

impact statement (EIS) has not addressed the issue, the NRC will take it up at the combined 

license stage. 

3.1.2 Why does the NRC review the need for power? 

As part of the NRC’s compliance with the National 

Environmental Policy Act (NEPA), the need for power is 

addressed in connection with the construction of a new 

nuclear power plant so that the NRC may weigh the likely 

benefits (for example, electrical power) against the 

environmental impact of constructing and operating a 

nuclear power reactor. In considering the need for power, 

the NRC does not supplant the role of the States that have 

traditionally been responsible for assessing the need for 

power facilities and their economic feasibility, and for 

regulating rates and services. 

Night View of the United States Showing 

Power Use 

In considering the need for 

power, the NRC does not 

supplant the states that have 

traditionally been responsible 

for assessing the need for 

power facilities and their 

economic feasibility and for 

regulating rates and services. 
 40 

3.1.3 Why does the NRC evaluate the need for power? 

The NRC’s regulations (10 CFR Part 51, “Environmental Protection Regulations for Domestic 

Licensing and Related Regulatory Functions”) implementing NEPA require the NRC to evaluate 

the need for power in a combined license review, if such an evaluation has not already been 

performed by the NRC. 

3.1.4 Doesn’t expansion of nuclear power commit us to centralized (versus distributed) 

generation of energy for a long time to come? 

The NRC has no authority or regulatory control over the ultimate selection of future energy 

alternatives. Moreover, since the NRC does not have any authority in the general area of 

energy planning, the NRC's identification of a superior alternative does not guarantee that such 

an alternative will be used instead of a specific nuclear plant under review. Likewise, the NRC 

cannot ensure that environmentally superior energy alternatives will be used in the future. The 

NRC makes its decision whether or not to issue a license based on safety and environmental 

considerations. The NRC's requirements to consider the environmental impacts of various 

alternatives are based on NEPA, which ensures that relevant agencies examine and disclose 

the potential environmental impacts of their actions before taking the action. NEPA is a 

procedural statute that does not dictate a decision based on relative environmental impacts. 

Utility, State, and Federal (non-NRC) decisionmakers make the final decision about whether or 

not to build and operate the nuclear plant based on economics, energy reliability goals, and 

other objectives over which other entities may have jurisdiction. 

3.1.5 Why does the NRC evaluate alternatives, such as alternative energies and alternative 

sites, when it can only approve or deny a license for a nuclear power plant? 

NEPA requires the evaluation of alternatives. 

3.2 Socioeconomics 

3.2.1 What percentage of jobs is filled by workers in the locality of the new plant? 

The percentage of jobs filled by workers in the locality of a new plant varies based on two 

factors: 

• the population within the region of the plant 

• the skill base of local workers 

The estimates also vary between the construction period and the period of plant operations. 

EISs that have been completed for early site permits show an estimated number of total 

construction workers that ranges from 3,150 to 5,000 workers. For some of the nuclear power 

plant sites that are located within commuting distance to more populous metropolitan areas, 

estimates have figured that more than 80 percent of the construction labor pool would be drawn 

locally. In many cases, it is likely that workers in more highly specialized occupations, such as 
 41 

pipe fitters, nuclear operators, engineers, technicians, and supervisors with specific nuclear 

experience, would have to be recruited outside of the area. 

Based on estimates from the four completed early site permit reviews, new nuclear plants would 

employ anywhere from 580 to 1,160 permanent workers during the period of plant operations, 

depending on the size, number of units and type of plant. In the four recent cases, the planned 

facilities would be co-located with existing facilities. The existing pool of administrative and 

support staff would be leveraged, and other existing staff would be efficiently distributed 

between the newer and existing plants as appropriate. If the facility were built at a new site 

some distance from any existing site owned by the same utility, the estimates would be 

expected to be higher. Because of the specialized skill requirements, estimates of the sources 

of permanent plant employees to operate the new plants vary dramatically, depending on the 

skill set of the local labor pool. 

3.2.2 Is it true that siting a nuclear plant in an area will chase away other businesses? 

Historically, the siting of a nuclear plant increases the number of businesses in the surrounding 

towns established to provide services to the additional workers and their families who move into 

the region to work at the site. Generally, with additions to the tax base from the nuclear power 

plant, more funds are available to improve public services, including education and recreational 

opportunities. 

3.2.3 Does the NRC take into account the influx of workers and their effect on public services? 

The NRC’s regulations implementing NEPA require that the EIS describe the affected 

environment and the impact of the proposed action on the environment. This includes a 

discussion of socioeconomic impacts on community infrastructure and services such as 

education, water supply, waste treatment, police, and fire and emergency services. The 

impacts during the period of construction are evaluated in a separate chapter of the EIS from 

the impacts during the period of operation. The impacts will vary depending on the size of the 

surrounding population and whether new workers choose to commute from a larger city or live 

in a smaller rural setting. 

3.2.4 How does the construction and operation of new 

nuclear plants affect the socioeconomic 

conditions of an area? For instance, is there a 

boom-bust effect? 

The socioeconomic impacts from the construction and 

operation of new nuclear plants depend to a large degree 

on the location of the site and the population in the 

vicinity of the site. 

In its four reviews for early site permits to date, the NRC has mostly considered the 

socioeconomic impacts to be small to moderate. Thus, although the effects are, in some cases, 

sufficient to be noticeable, they are not large enough to destabilize important attributes, as 

would be the case in a boom-bust cycle. However, small local municipalities may experience 

The impacts will vary 

depending on the size of the 

surrounding population and 

whether new workers choose to 

commute from a larger city or 

live in a smaller rural setting. 
 42 

large impacts. In the case of the Grand Gulf plant, which is located in a rural area of 

Mississippi, the NRC estimated a large demographic impact for one specific community, 

presuming that the new rate of incoming workers and their families followed a pattern similar to 

that for the original plant construction on the site. 

3.2.5 Constructing a new nuclear plant probably involves many specialized workers coming 

into an area. Is housing a problem? 

The housing-related impacts from additional workers for 

the construction and operation of a new nuclear plant 

depend to a large degree on the location of the site and 

the existing housing market, especially the current 

number of vacant dwellings. Although construction 

workers would outnumber workers during plant 

operations, construction workers more often commute 

from further distances than do the operational workers 

because construction workers have a shorter average 

duration of employment at the plant. In addition, some 

relocated construction workers might bring mobile homes 

for the duration of their employment. 

Housing impacts for the four completed environmental 

reviews for early site permits range from small to 

moderate, assuming that conservatively high numbers of 

workers reside in the communities least able to handle the influx. 

3.2.6 Has deregulation reduced the amount of taxes added to localities’ coffers from the siting 

of nuclear plants? 

The effect of deregulation on the amount of taxes paid to localities differs between States and 

depends on how a State administers the taxes. For many States that are in the process of 

deregulating, the impacts are not yet known. The NRC has no regulatory control over the 

amount of taxes paid by a utility that owns a nuclear power plant. However, the environmental 

impact of taxes paid to the localities is discussed in the environmental impact statement as it 

relates to public services. 

Although construction workers 

would outnumber operational 

workers, construction workers 

more often commute from 

further distances than do the 

operational workers because 

construction workers have a 

shorter average duration of 

employment at the plant. In 

addition, some relocated 

construction workers might 

bring mobile homes for the 

duration of their employment. 
 43 

3.2.7 How does the NRC consider environmental justice in its environmental review? 

On February 11, 1994, the President issued Executive 

Order 12898, “Federal Actions To Address 

Environmental Justice in Minority Populations and Low 

Income Populations.” This order requires each Federal 

executive branch agency to identify and address, as 

appropriate, disproportionately high and adverse human 

health or environmental effects on minority and lowincome populations resulting from its actions. The 

memorandum accompanying the Executive order 

directed Federal executive agencies to consider 

environmental justice. The President’s Council on 

Environmental Quality provided guidance for addressing environmental justice. Although 

complying with the executive order is not mandatory for independent agencies, the Commission 

has voluntarily committed to undertake environmental justice reviews as part of its NEPA 

responsibilities. The Commission’s “Policy Statement on the Treatment of Environmental 

Justice Matters in NRC Regulatory and Licensing Actions” contains guidance and information 

for addressing issues of environmental justice (Volume 69 of the Federal Register, page 52040 

[69 FR 52040]). To perform a review of environmental justice in the vicinity of a nuclear power 

plant, the NRC staff examines the geographic distribution of minority and low-income 

populations within 50 miles of the site. The staff uses the most recent census data available. 

The staff also supplements its analysis with field inquiries to groups such as county planning 

departments, social service agencies, agricultural extension personnel, and private social 

service agencies. Once the locations of minority and low-income populations are identified, the 

staff evaluates whether any of the environmental impacts of the proposed action could affect 

these populations in a disproportionately high and adverse manner. 

3.3 Transportation 

3.3.1 What are the transportation impacts of a new plant? Will it require new roads and more 

aggressive maintenance of existing roads? 

The transportation impacts of a new plant will depend largely on 

the location of the site and the current condition of the roads that 

lead to the site. Where new units are being built at existing sites, 

the transportation infrastructure has previously (during 

construction of the existing units) accommodated the large 

numbers of construction workers that are anticipated during the 

construction period. At some sites, improvements may need to be 

made to the access road leading to the site; for construction on a 

new site (greenfield), the access roads may not yet be in place. In 

some locations, the major impact will be additional congestion on 

roads, particularly if the roads already contain traffic bottlenecks 

and are already congested with traffic. 

Although compliance with the 

executive order is not mandatory 

for independent agencies, the 

Commission has voluntarily 

committed to undertake 

environmental justice reviews as 

part of its National 

Environmental Policy Act 

responsibilities. 

Transportation Impacts 
 44 

During the construction period, a number of shipments of large components (reactor vessel, 

steam generators, etc.) are anticipated. Because of the size of these components, they are 

most likely to arrive via rail or barge. Many sites may need to upgrade the existing barge slip or 

rail spur into the site. For some sites, upgrades may be necessary, such as improving bridge 

supports, dredging shipping channels, or constructing a new barge slip. 

3.3.2 Transportation accidents in shipping fuel and parts seem likely to occur. What has the 

NRC done to anticipate this possibility? 

The NRC has conducted several transportation studies to evaluate the risks associated with 

transporting radioactive material. The NRC issued NUREG-0170, "Final Environmental 

Statement on the Transportation of Radioactive Material by Air and Other Modes," in 

December 1977 to support its rulemaking set forth in 10 CFR Part 71, “Packaging and 

Transportation of Radioactive Material.” Based on this study, the NRC concluded that the 

transportation regulations are adequate to protect the public against unreasonable risks from 

the transport of radioactive materials, including spent fuel. The NRC sponsored another study, 

NUREG/CR-4829, “Shipping Container Response to Severe Highway and Railway Accident 

Conditions,” issued February 1987, known as the “Modal Study.” Based on the results of this 

study, the NRC staff concluded that NUREG-0170 overestimated spent fuel accident risks by 

about a factor of three. The NRC initiated another spent fuel study, issued as NUREG/CR6672, “Reexamination of Spent Fuel Shipment Risk Estimates,” in March 2000. This study 

focused on the risks of a modern spent fuel transport campaign from reactor sites to possible 

interim storage sites and/or permanent geologic repositories. This study concluded that 

accident risks were much less than those estimated in NUREG-0170 and that more than 

99 percent of transportation accidents are not severe enough to impair the function of the NRCcertified spent fuel package. While very severe accidents could cause damage the package, 

the studies show that any release of material would be very small and pose little risk to the local 

population/public. 

The NRC’s regulations for the safe transportation of radioactive materials have evolved over the 

years; for example, the revisions in 2004 were made to achieve compatibility with International 

Atomic Energy Agency transportation safety standards. However, the basic specifications for 

shipping containers have largely not changed. For instance, shipping containers, such as those 

used for spent fuel, be tested to evaluate the effects of a 30-foot drop, 1-meter puncture, fire, 

and immersion. Generally, after these tests, the radiological dose rates from spent fuel 

packages are unchanged. While the NRC has changed some of the details in the regulations, 

the staff believes that the regulations properly account for the basic safety standards for the 

performance of shipping containers under normal conditions of transport and hypothetical 

accident conditions. 

The NRC has sponsored studies to analyze the consequences of specific accident scenarios on 

rail and truck transportation packages carrying spent fuel. For example, the NRC undertook an 

investigation of a July 2001 accident that involved a freight train carrying hazardous materials 

that derailed and caught fire while passing through the Howard Street railroad tunnel in 

downtown Baltimore, MD, to determine the possible regulatory implications of this particular 

event for the transportation of spent fuel by railroad. The NRC assembled a team of experts 

from the National Institute of Standards and Technology, the Center for Nuclear Waste 
 45 

Regulatory Analyses, and the Pacific Northwest National Laboratory to determine the thermal 

conditions that existed in the Howard Street tunnel fire and to analyze the effects of this fire on 

various spent fuel transportation package designs. The staff concluded that the spent fuel 

transportation packages analyzed would withstand a fire with thermal conditions similar to those 

that existed in the Baltimore tunnel fire event. No release of radioactive materials from the 

packages would result from such an event. 

3.4 Human Health Issues 

The most commonly asked questions relating to human health issues include the potential for 

radiation exposure to the public and the potential for adverse effects from such exposure. This 

section responds to commonly asked questions regarding radiation exposure and its effect on 

human health. 

3.4.1 What is radiation and where does it come from? 

Radiation is naturally present in our environment and has been since the planet was formed. 

Radiation is a form of invisible energy waves or particles emitted from unstable atoms as they 

change to become more stable. Such unstable atoms are termed “radioactive,” and materials 

containing significant amounts of radioactive atoms are called “radioactive material.” Life has 

evolved in an environment that has significant levels of ionizing radiation. It comes from outer 

space (cosmic), the ground (terrestrial), and even from within our own bodies. It is present in 

the air we breathe, the food we eat, the water we drink, and the construction materials we use to 

build our homes. Certain foods, such as bananas and Brazil nuts, naturally contain higher 

levels of radioactive material than other foods. Brick and stone homes have higher natural 

radiation levels than homes made of other building materials, such as wood. During the late 

19th century, scientists discovered natural radioactive elements. In the early 20th century, 

scientists created radioactive elements from stable elements. In 1942, scientists were able to 

split atoms deliberately, which released the energy that was in the nucleus and created unstable 

atoms in the process. Although there are different types of energy and particles emitted from 

different types of radioactive material, there is no difference between natural and human-made 

radiation. 

Radiation dose is measured in a unit called a rem, which is 

based on the effect of radiation on the human body. It 

takes into account both the amount and type of radiation 

deposited in body tissues. Radiation dose is often 

measured in millirem, or one thousandth of a rem. The 

average person in the United States receives about 600 millirems of radiation a year. About 

300 millirems are from natural sources and 300 millirems are from human-made sources. 

Approximately 50 percent of our total exposure to radiation comes from natural sources, 

including radon and thoron gas (approximately 37 percent of our exposure), the 

Radiation is present in the air 

we breathe, the food we eat, 

the water we drink, and the 

construction materials we use 

to build our homes. 
 46 

sun and outer space (5 percent), the earth’s soil and 

rocks (3 percent), and the human body itself (5 percent). 

Two percent comes from consumer products. The 

remaining approximately 48 percent of our total radiation 

exposure comes from medical procedures. The nuclear 

fuel cycle is responsible for less than 1/100th of 1 percent 

of the total annual radiation dose to the average person 

(based on the calculated dose from all facets of the 

nuclear power cycle divided by the population of the 

United States). This information was discussed in the 

National Council on Radiation Protection and 

Measurements (NRCP) Report No. 160, Ionizing 

Radiation Exposure of the Population of the United 

States. The report provides a complete review of 

radiation exposures for 2006. 

3.4.2 Is radiation harmful? 

Health effects from exposure to radiation range from no effect at all to death; radiation exposure 

can be responsible for inducing diseases such as leukemia, breast cancer, and lung cancer. 

Very high (hundreds of times higher than a rem), short-term doses of radiation have been 

known to cause prompt (or early, also called acute) effects, such as vomiting and diarrhea, skin 

burns, cataracts, and even death. When radiation interacts within the cells of our bodies, 

several events can occur. First, the damaged cells can repair themselves and permanent 

damage does not result; this is the most common outcome for x-rays, gamma radiation, and 

beta radiation. Second, the cells may die, much like large numbers of cells do every day in our 

bodies, and dead cells may be replaced through normal biological processes. Third, the cells 

may either incorrectly repair themselves, resulting in a change in the cells’ genetic structure that 

can mutate and subsequently be repaired without any effect, or can sometimes form 

precancerous cells that may become cancerous. 

Radiation is only one of many agents with the potential for causing cancer, and cancer caused 

by radiation cannot be distinguished from cancer attributed to other causes, such as chemical 

carcinogens. The associations between radiation exposure and the development of cancer are 

primarily based on studies of populations exposed to 

relatively high levels of ionizing radiation (for instance, 

the Japanese atomic bomb survivors and the recipients 

of selected diagnostic or therapeutic medical 

procedures). Although radiation can cause cancers at 

high doses and high dose rates, currently there are no 

data to unequivocally establish the occurrence of cancer 

following exposures to low doses and dose rates below 

about 5 rems (5000 millirems). The chance of getting 

cancer from a low dose of radiation is not known 

precisely because the few cases that may occur cannot 

be distinguished from cancers occurring from other causes. 

Natural Radiation Comes from 

Space 

Although radiation can cause 

cancers at high doses and high 

dose rates, currently there are 

no data to unequivocally 

establish the occurrence of 

cancer following exposures to 

low doses and dose rates below 

about 5 rems (5000 millirems). 
 47 

The actual amount of radiation any member of the public receives from activities occurring at 

nuclear power facilities is so small that scientists have been unable to make empirically based 

estimates of radiation risk from such low levels of exposure with any precision. There are many 

difficulties involved in designing research studies that can accurately measure the projected 

small increases in cancer cases that might be caused by low exposures to radiation when 

compared to the normal rate of cancer. The best that scientists can do is to make an 

unsubstantiated assumption that any amount of radiation may pose some risk for causing 

cancer or having some hereditary effect and that the risk is higher for higher radiation 

exposures. This is called a linear, no-threshold dose response model, and it is used to describe 

the relationship between radiation dose and the occurrence of cancer. This model errs on the 

side of overestimating radiation risks. It suggests that any increase in dose above background 

levels, no matter how small, results in an incremental increase in risk above existing levels of 

risk. Although the NRC has accepted this approach as a conservative (i.e., cautious) model for 

determining radiation standards, the NRC, like other authoritative bodies, recognizes that this 

model probably overestimates radiation risk. 

3.4.3 How much radiation is released from a nuclear power facility? 

The NRC has established strict limits on the amount of 

radioactive releases to the environment allowed from 

nuclear power facilities and the resulting exposure for 

members of the public. These requirements appear in 

Table 2 of Appendix B, “Annual Limits on Intake (ALIs) and 

Derived Air Concentrations (DACs) of Radionuclides for 

Occupational Exposure; Effluent Concentrations; 

Concentrations for Release to Sewerage,” to 

10 CFR Part 20, “Standards for Protection against 

Radiation” (http://www.nrc.gov/reading-rm/doc-collections/cfr/part020/part020-appb.html). 

Whereas contaminants may be present and detectable offsite, the release limits have been 

designed and proven to be protective of the health and safety of the public (including sensitive 

populations) and the environment. The NRC sets limits on radiological effluents, requires 

monitoring of effluents and foodstuffs to ensure that those limits are met, and has set dose limits 

to regulate the release of radioactive material from nuclear power facilities. All reactor licensees 

monitor their effluents and calculate offsite doses caused by radioactive liquid and gaseous 

effluents and direct radiation. These calculations are performed to demonstrate the licensee’s 

compliance with its technical specifications and NRC regulations. Requirements for redundancy 

in monitoring as well as the monitoring of various pathways that could result in the release of 

radioactive material to the environment ensure that unmonitored and unplanned releases are 

avoided. The licensee’s Offsite Dose Calculation Manual provides for collection and analysis of 

a variety of samples such as soil, water, plants, and animals. Actual measurements are made 

of the liquid and airborne releases from the facility, and they are verified by the monitoring 

program described in the manual. As a result of these criteria, the average person (not 

including a radiation worker employed at the facility) living within 50 miles of a nuclear power 

facility receives less than 1 millirem per year of radiation dose from the nuclear power facility. 

This is compared to the approximately 300 millirems per year received from natural sources and 

300 millirems per year from human-made sources, as discussed in the response to 

The NRC has established 

strict limits on the amount of 

radioactive releases to the 

environment allowed from 

nuclear power facilities and 

the resulting exposure for 

members of the public. 
 48 

Question 3.4.1. This dose can also be compared to the radiation received from the earth’s 

crust, which ranges from 23 millirems per year along the Atlantic Coast to 90 millirems per year 

on the Colorado Plateau. Other sources of radiation that are common in our lives include airline 

flights, which give about 1 millirem of radiation dose per 1,000 miles flown. A round-trip crosscountry airplane trip would give a dose of about 5 millirems. The dose from watching television 

is about 1 to 2 millirem per year, and from a single medical x-ray is about 40 millirems. 

3.4.4 Does radiation from nuclear power facilities cause cancer? 

The average annual dose to a member of the public from a nuclear power facility is in the range 

of less than 1/1,000th rem (1 millirem) per year. This is compared to the 5 rems 

(5000 millirems) discussed in the response to Question 3.4.2. At doses above 5 rems, a 

relationship between radiation and health effects can be observed. There are no data to clearly 

establish the occurrence of health effects or cancer following exposures to low doses at dose 

rates below 5 rem. Although there is a statistical chance that radiation levels that small could 

result in a cancer, it has not been possible to calculate with any certainty the probability of 

receiving cancer from a dose this small. Because many agents cause cancer, it is often not 

possible to say conclusively whether the cancer is radiation induced. At the request of 

Congress, the National Cancer Institute published a study in 1990 entitled, “Cancer in 

Populations Living Near Nuclear Facilities,” which looked at cancer mortality rates around 

52 nuclear power facilities, 9 U.S. Department of Energy facilities, and one former commercial 

fuel reprocessing facility. The study concluded that there is “no evidence that an excess 

occurrence of cancer has resulted from living near nuclear facilities.” Additionally, the American 

Cancer Society has concluded that although reports about clusters of cancer cases in such 

communities have raised public concern, studies show that clusters do not occur more often 

near nuclear plants than they do elsewhere in the population. 

3.4.5 I have read reports stating that there are excess cases of a specific type of cancer in the 

vicinity of a specific nuclear facility. Doesn’t that mean that radiation from nuclear power 

facilities causes cancer? 

Authors of various reports have stated or implied that there are cause-and-effect relationships in 

the statistical associations between cancer rates and reactor operations. While it is true that 

cancer rates vary among locations, it is very difficult to ascribe the cause of a cluster of cancer 

cases to some local environmental exposure, such as radiation from a nuclear power facility. 

Statistical association alone does not demonstrate causation. Well-established scientific 

methods must be used to determine if two things that appear to be associated over time are 

indeed causally related so that it can be concluded that one causes the other. For example, a 

person could say, “In the winter I wear boots, and in the winter I get colds.” While there is a 

strong statistical association between wearing boots and getting colds, it would be inappropriate 

to say that wearing boots causes colds. The scientific community adheres to several principles 

of good science that need to be used before a cause-and-effect claim can be made. These 

principles include whether the study can be replicated; whether the study considered all the data 

or was selective (e.g., in the population or in the years studied); whether it evaluated all possible 

explanations for the observations; whether the data were valid and reliable; and whether its 

conclusions were subjected to independent peer review, evaluation, and confirmation. A 
 49 

number of studies using these accepted scientific principles 

have been performed to examine the health effects around 

nuclear power facilities: 

• National Cancer Institute—In 1990, at the request of 

Congress, the National Cancer Institute conducted a study 

of cancer mortality rates around 52 nuclear power plants 

and 10 other nuclear facilities. The study covered the period 

from 1950 to 1984 and evaluated the change in mortality 

rates before and during facility operations. The study found 

no evidence of a causal link between nuclear facilities and 

excess deaths from leukemia or other cancers in 

populations living nearby. 

• University of Pittsburgh—Investigators from the University of 

Pittsburgh found no link between radiation released during the 1979 accident at the Three 

Mile Island nuclear station and cancer deaths among nearby residents. For a period of 20 

years, their study followed more than 32,000 people who lived within 5 miles of the facility at 

the time of the accident (Talbott et. al. 2003). 

• Connecticut Academy of Sciences and Engineering—In January 2001, the Connecticut 

Academy of Sciences and Engineering issued a report on a study around the Haddam Neck 

nuclear power plant in Connecticut and concluded that exposures to radionuclides were so 

low as to be negligible and found no meaningful associations to the cancers studied. 

• American Cancer Society—In 2004, the American Cancer Society concluded that although 

reports about cancer clusters in some communities have raised public concern, studies 

show that clusters do not occur more often near nuclear plants than they do by chance 

elsewhere in the population. Likewise, there is no evidence that links the isotope strontium90 with increases in breast cancer, prostate cancer, or childhood cancer rates. Radiation 

emissions from nuclear power plants are closely controlled and involve negligible levels of 

exposure for nearby communities. 

• Florida Department of Health, Bureau of Environmental Epidemiology—In 2001, the Bureau 

of Environmental Epidemiology in Florida reviewed claims that there are striking increases in 

cancer rates in southeastern Florida counties caused by increased radiation exposures from 

nuclear power plants. However, using the same data to reconstruct the calculations on 

which the claims were based, Florida officials were not able to identify unusually high rates 

of cancers in these counties compared with the rest of the State of Florida and the Nation. 

• Illinois Department of Public Health—In 2000, the Illinois Department of Public Health 

compared childhood cancer statistics for counties with nuclear power plants to those for 

similar counties without nuclear plants and found no statistically significant difference. 

In summary, there are no studies to date that are accepted by the scientific community that 

show a correlation between radiation dose from nuclear power facilities and cancer incidence in 

the general public. The amount of radioactive material released from nuclear power facilities is 

well measured, well monitored, and known to be very small. The doses of radiation that are 

received by members of the public as a result of exposure to nuclear power facilities are so low 

that resulting cancers have not been observed and would not be expected. 

While it is true that 

cancer rates vary among 

locations, it is very 

difficult to ascribe the 

cause of a cluster of 

cancer cases to some 

local environmental 

exposure, such as 

radiation from a nuclear 

power facility. 
 50 

3.4.6 How are radiation and releases of radioactive material regulated and monitored at nuclear 

power facilities? 

NRC regulations require licensees to control and limit releases to the environment (the air and 

water) to very small amounts. As part of the NRC’s requirements for operating a nuclear power 

facility, licensees must not only comply with radiation dose limits for the public as given in the 

regulations in 10 CFR Part 20, but they must also keep releases of radioactive material to 

unrestricted areas during normal operation as low as reasonably achievable (as described in 10 

CFR 50.36a, “Technical Specifications on Effluents from Nuclear Power Reactors”). In addition, 

NRC regulations require licensees to maintain various effluent and environmental monitoring 

programs so that the impacts from plant operations are minimized and the extent of releases 

are accurately recorded and reported. 

The control of releases is accomplished by barriers. One method used to control the release of 

radioactive material to the environment is to keep contaminated areas of the plant under 

negative pressure so that air leaks into the building, rather than out. In addition, exhaust 

pathways out of the building may be filtered to prevent the movement of radionuclides into the 

environment. Exhaust pathways are monitored so that material that may be leaving the plant is 

properly characterized. Workers in contaminated areas are also monitored, along with any tools 

or equipment that are moved from the building, in order to prevent the spread of radioactive 

material. The NRC requires licensees to report plant discharges and the results of 

environmental monitoring around their plants to ensure that potential impacts are detected and 

reviewed. Licensees must also participate in an interlaboratory comparison program, which 

provides an independent check of the accuracy and precision of environmental measurements. 

Licensees are required to keep accurate records of releases to the air and water. In annual 

reports, licensees identify the amount of liquid and airborne radioactive effluents discharged 

from plants and calculate associated doses. Licensees also must report environmental 

radioactivity levels around their plants annually. These reports, which are available to the 

public, include sampling from thermoluminescent dosimeters (which measure radiation dose 

levels); airborne radioiodine and particulate samplers; samples of surface, ground, and drinking 

water and downstream shoreline sediment from existing or potential recreational facilities; and 

samples of ingestion sources such as milk, fish, invertebrates, and broad-leaf vegetation. Most 

State radiological health departments also conduct radiological environmental monitoring 

programs around nuclear power plants. 

The NRC conducts periodic onsite inspections of each licensee’s effluent and environmental 

monitoring programs to ensure compliance with NRC requirements. The NRC documents 

licensee effluent releases and the results of their environmental monitoring and assessment 

activities in inspection reports that are available to the public. Over the past 25 years, 

radioactive effluents released from nuclear power facilities have decreased significantly. During 

the early part of that period, a significant contributor to the reduction was the addition of special 

systems (called augmented offgas systems) to boiling-water reactors. These systems process 

some of the noncondensible gases formed in the reactor to limit the radioactive gases released 

to the environment. In recent years, improved fuel performance and upgrades to licensee 

effluent control programs further contributed to reducing radioactive effluents. 
 51 

3.4.7 What radiological monitoring is done around nuclear plants? What if something goes 

wrong? 

Current NRC regulations require each commercial reactor site to have a radiological 

environmental monitoring program. The purpose of the 

radiological environmental monitoring program is to 

sample, measure, analyze, and monitor the radiological 

impact of reactor operations on four pathways: direct 

radiation, atmospheric, aquatic, and terrestrial. The results 

of the radiological environmental monitoring program are 

summarized each year in the Annual Environmental 

Radiological Operating Report. Effluent releases are 

summarized annually by the licensee in an annual 

radioactive effluent release report. The reports are 

submitted to the NRC and are available electronically from 

the Public Electronic Reading Room which is accessible 

from the NRC Web site at http://www.nrc.gov/reading-rm/adams.html. In addition, each site 

must monitor gaseous and liquid effluent in real time. Effluent monitors will alarm if routine 

release levels are exceeded. 

3.4.8 How are standards set for safe levels of exposure to radiation? 

The NRC ensures that effluents from operating plants under its oversight are within established 

limits. The purpose of radiation regulatory limits is to protect workers and the public from the 

harmful health effects of radiation on humans. The limits, including effluent release limits, are 

based on the recommendations of standards-setting organizations. Radiation standards reflect 

extensive ongoing study by national and international organizations (the International 

Commission on Radiological Protection [ICRP], National Council on Radiation Protection and 

Measurements [NCRP], and National Academy of Sciences) and are conservative to ensure 

that the public and workers at nuclear power plants are protected. The U.S. Environmental 

Protection Agency (EPA) has established a whole body dose limit of 25 millirem per year (see 

40 CFR Part 190, “Environmental Radiation Protection Standards for Nuclear Power 

Operations”). The NRC’s radiation exposure standards, which implement the EPA limits, and 

regulations related to radiological effluents and dose to the public are presented in 

10 CFR Part 20 and are based on the recommendations in ICRP 26, “Recommendations of the 

International Commission on Radiation Protection,” and ICRP 30, “Limits for Intakes of 

Radionuclides by Workers.” Finally, Appendix I, “Numerical Guides for Design Objectives and 

Limiting Conditions for Operation To Meet the Criterion ‘As Low as is Reasonably Achievable’ 

for Radioactive Material in Light-Water-Cooled Nuclear Power Reactor Effluents,” in 

10 CFR Part 50, “Domestic Licensing of Production and Utilization Facilities,” provides dose 

design objectives for exposure of the public to radioactive effluents from nuclear reactors. 

There is almost unanimous consensus among the scientific community on the adequacy of 

current radiation protection standards. 

Regarding health effects to populations around nuclear power plants, the NRC relies on the 

studies performed by the National Cancer Institute. The National Cancer Institute conducted a 

The purpose of the 

radiological environmental 

monitoring program is to 

sample, measure, analyze, and 

monitor the radiological 

impact of reactor operations 

on four pathways: direct 

radiation, atmospheric, 

aquatic, and terrestrial. 
 52 

study in 1990, entitled “Cancer in Populations Living Near Nuclear Facilities,” to look at cancer 

mortality rates around 52 nuclear power plants, 9 U.S. Department of Energy facilities, and 

1 former commercial fuel reprocessing facility. This study concluded from the evidence 

available that there is no suggestion that nuclear facilities may be linked causally with excess 

deaths from leukemia or from other cancers in populations living nearby. Additionally, the 

American Cancer Society had concluded that although reports about clusters of cancer cases in 

such communities have raised public concern, studies show that clusters do not occur more 

often near nuclear plants than they do by chance elsewhere in the population. 

3.4.9 Aren’t radiation protection dose limits and calculations based on “standard man?” 

The NRC has based its dose limits and dose calculations on a descriptive model of the human 

body referred to as “standard man.” However, the NRC has always recognized that dose limits 

and calculations based on “standard man” must be informed and adjusted in some cases for 

factors such as age. For example, the NRC has different occupational dose limits for declared 

pregnant women because the rapidly developing human fetus is more radiosensitive than an 

adult woman. NRC dose limits are also much lower for members of the public, including 

children and elderly people, than for adults who receive radiation exposure as part of their 

occupation. Finally, NRC dose calculation methods have always included age-specific dose 

factors for each radionuclide because they may used differently by infant, child, and teen 

bodies, which are also generally smaller than adult bodies. Additionally, the calculation 

methods have always recognized that the diets (amounts of different kinds of food) of infants, 

children, and teens are different from adults. (See Regulatory Guide 1.109, “Calculation of 

Annual Doses to Man from Routine Releases of Reactor Effluents for the Purpose of Evaluating 

Compliance with 10 CFR Part 50, Appendix I,” Revision 1, issued October 1977.) 

3.4.10 I’ve heard that leakage of strontium-90 is a particular danger around nuclear plants. Is 

that true? 

Strontium-90 is produced in roughly 5.8 percent of nuclear fissions in a reactor’s fuel elements 

and undergoes radioactive decay with a half-life of almost 29 years. Strontium-90, and its 

radioactive decay product yttrium-90, are not harmful unless they are near or inside the body. 

They are easily shielded if outside the body, resulting in no radiation exposure. NRC licensees 

perform environmental monitoring for radionuclides, including strontium-90, in the vicinity of 

nuclear reactors. Based on the results of environmental monitoring programs, no elevated 

levels of strontium-90 attributed to plant operation have been detected in the environment. 

3.4.11 Have there been studies showing an increase in strontium-90 radiation levels in baby 

teeth and corresponding cancer incidence as a result of releases of radioactive material 

from nuclear power plants? 

In 2000, the Radiation and Public Health Project published a report entitled, “Strontium-90 in 

Deciduous Teeth as a Factor in Early Childhood Cancer.” The report alleges that there has 

been an increase in cancer incidence as a result of strontium-90 released from nuclear power 

facilities. The report claimed that elevated levels of strontium-90 in deciduous (baby) teeth were 

evidence for cause of the increase in childhood cancer. 
 53 

Three sources of strontium-90 exist in the environment: fallout from nuclear weapons testing, 

releases from the Chernobyl accident in Ukraine, and releases from nuclear power reactors. 

The largest source of strontium-90 is from weapons-testing fallout as a result of aboveground 

explosions of nuclear weapons (approximately 16.9 million curies of strontium-90) (United 

Nations Scientific Committee on the Effects of Atomic Radiation 2000). The Chernobyl accident 

released approximately 216,000 curies of strontium-90. 

The total annual release of strontium-90 into the atmosphere from all U.S. nuclear power plants 

is typically 1/1,000th of 1 curie, which is so low that the only chance of detecting strontium-90 is 

sampling the nuclear power plant effluents themselves. The NRC regulatory limits from effluent 

releases and subsequent doses to the public are based on the radiation protection 

recommendations of international and national organizations such as ICRP and NCRP. Nuclear 

power facilities monitor gaseous effluent releases, and licensees report the results of their 

monitoring to the NRC annually. The NRC reviews the effluent release program and the 

licensee’s monitoring programs during the environmental review of the license application. 

In a report published in 2001, the American Cancer Society concluded that although reports 

about clusters of cancer cases in communities surrounding nuclear power plants have raised 

public concern, studies show that clusters do not occur more often near nuclear plants than they 

do by chance elsewhere in the population. NCRP has found no statistically significant excess of 

biological effects from strontium-90 exposures at levels characteristic of worldwide fallout, which 

is the greatest source of strontium-90 in the environment. Likewise, there is no new evidence 

that links strontium-90 with increases in breast cancer, prostate cancer, or childhood cancer 

rates. The American Cancer Society recognizes that public concern about environmental 

cancer risks often focuses on risks for which no carcinogenicity has been proven or on 

situations where known exposures to carcinogens are at such low levels that risks are 

negligible. The report states that “ionizing radiation emissions from nuclear facilities are closely 

controlled and involve negligible levels of exposure for communities near such plants.” 

The staff has concluded that the claims of elevated levels of childhood cancer in the vicinity of 

nuclear reactors in the United States caused by the release of strontium-90 during routine 

operations are questionable and without scientific basis to support the claims. No causal 

relationship has been established between the levels of strontium-90 being reported by the 

Radiation and Public Health Project in deciduous teeth and childhood cancer. Furthermore, 

there is almost unanimous consensus among the scientific community on the adequacy of 

current radiation protection standards. 

3.4.12 I’ve heard that power plants release tritium into the water around the plants. What is 

tritium and how much is released? 

Tritium is a naturally occurring radioactive form of hydrogen that is produced in the atmosphere 

when cosmic rays collide with air molecules. As a result, tritium is found in very small or trace 

amounts in water throughout the world. It is also a byproduct of the production of electricity by 

nuclear power plants. 

Tritium emits a weak form of radiation. The radiation emitted from tritium is a low-energy beta 

particle that is similar to an electron. Moreover, the tritium beta particle does not travel very far 
 54 

in air and cannot penetrate human skin. Therefore, tritium must be ingested, inhaled, or 

absorbed through the skin to deliver a radiation dose to a human.

Nuclear power plants generate the heat to make steam through the process of atomic fission 

(atom splitting). The steam is used to generate electricity. Fission occurs when the nucleus of 

a heavy atom, such as uranium or plutonium, splits in two when struck by a neutron. Most of 

the tritium produced in a reactor is as a byproduct of the absorption of neutrons by a chemical 

known as boron. Boron is a good absorber of neutrons, which nuclear reactors use to help 

control the fission chain reaction. Tritium can also be produced (to a lesser extent) from the 

fission process itself, or when neutrons are absorbed by other chemicals in the coolant water. 

Like normal hydrogen, tritium can bond with oxygen to form water. When this happens, the 

resulting water (called "tritiated water") is radioactive. Tritiated water is chemically identical to 

normal water, and the tritium cannot be filtered out of the water. 

Nuclear power plants routinely and safely release dilute concentrations of tritiated water. These 

authorized releases are closely monitored by the utility and reported to the NRC. Information 

about these releases is made available to the public on the NRC's Web site at 

http://www.reirs.com/effluent/. 

Recently, attention has been focused how much tritium is inadvertently released into the 

environment by spills or leaks into the soil or ground water. In response to concerns about 

tritium in ground water, nuclear power plants have instituted programs to minimize the potential 

for tritium leakage and have put in place more extensive groundwater monitoring programs. 

3.4.13 How do people become exposed to tritium? 

Tritium is almost always found as a liquid and primarily enters the body when people eat or 

drink food or water containing tritium or absorb it through their skin. People can also inhale 

tritium as a gas in the air. 

Tritium generally enters the body as “tritiated water.” Much of the human body is made up of 

soft tissues that have a high water content, so the tritium generally disperses quickly and is 

uniformly distributed throughout the soft tissues. Some of the tritium can be become bound to 

hydrocarbons in the body and tends to reside in the body longer than the tritium bound to the 

water. Half of the tritium is excreted within approximately 10 days after exposure. 

Everyone is exposed to small amounts of tritium every day, because it occurs naturally in the 

environment and the foods we eat. Workers in Federal weapons facilities; medical, biomedical, 

or university research facilities; or nuclear fuel cycle facilities may receive increased exposures 

to tritium. 

3.4.14 Is tritium harmful to people? 

The EPA drinking water standard allows up to 20,000 picocuries per liter of tritium in drinking 

water; a person drinking water with tritium at this concentration for a year would receive a dose 

of about 4 millirem. The tritium dose from nuclear power plants is much lower than the 

exposures attributable to natural background radiation and medical administrations. Humans 

receive approximately 50 percent of their annual radiation dose from natural background 
 55 

radiation, 48 percent from medical procedures (e.g., x-rays), and 2 percent from consumer 

products. Doses from tritium and nuclear power plant effluents are a negligible contribution to 

the background radiation to which people are normally exposed, and they account for less than 

0.1 percent of the total background dose, consistent with EPA standards. 

The NRC assumes that any exposure to radiation poses some health risk, and that risk 

increases as exposure increases in a linear, no-threshold manner. The linear, no-threshold 

assumption suggests that any increase in dose, no matter how small, incrementally increases 

risk. Conversely, lower levels of radiation proportionately decrease the risk, such that very 

small radiation doses have very little risk. The doses from tritium around nuclear power plants 

are very small; hence, any risk to human health is correspondingly very small. The NRC 

regulations set limits on the release of tritium to levels considered protective of human health.

3.4.15 I’ve read that the BEIR VII report says that there is no safe level of radiation. Doesn’t that 

mean that nuclear power plants are unsafe because they emit radiation? 

The National Academy of Sciences published its seventh Biological Effects of Ionizing Radiation 

(BEIR VII) report, entitled “Health Risks From Exposure to Low Levels of Ionizing Radiation,” on 

June 29, 2005. This report examines the many uncertainties associated with low dose (less 

than 100 millisieverts [mSv] or 10 rem) radiation exposure. The report states that “At doses of 

100 mSv or less, statistical limitations make it difficult to evaluate cancer risk in humans....The 

report concludes that the preponderance of information indicates that there will be some risk, 

even at low doses, although the risk is small.” The most likely result from a radiation dose less 

than 100 millirem per year to any individual is no health impact. 

The true implication of the linear, no-threshold theory (i.e., risk incrementally increases as 

exposure increases, no matter how small the dose) is that low doses are low risk. Much as 

driving 30 miles per hour is considered a much lower risk than driving 80 miles per hour, lower 

radiation doses are considered much lower risk than higher radiation doses. There is a point 

when the risks associated with anything we encounter in our lives are so low that we accept 

them or consider them safe, even though we are aware of the possible risks. 

3.4.16 Does the NRC monitor the bodies of people living near nuclear power plants for 

radioactive substances? It seems that this might be one way to identify leaks that 

endanger the public. 

The NRC does not monitor the bodies of people living near nuclear power plants for radioactive 

material. The amounts of radioactive materials are monitored in the effluents from the plants 

and in the environment near the plants, including the pathways for human exposure such as air, 

water, soil, milk, meat, and vegetables. These monitoring programs show that the doses to 

people living near plants are low, within the EPA standards and NRC limits. Therefore, it is very 

unlikely that monitoring the bodies of people would show significant levels of radioactive 

material from nuclear power plants. 

Additionally, the interpretation of measurements of radioactive materials in people is difficult 

unless one knows what each individual was exposed to, when the exposures occurred, and by 
 56 

what routes they occurred (ingestion, inhalation, etc.). Radioactive substances may come from 

a variety of sources. In the case of strontium-90, for example, the primary source has always 

been fallout from atmospheric weapons tests (United Nations Scientific Committee on the 

Effects of Atomic Radiation 2000). Travel must be accounted for, because even a couple of 

days in a high-fallout area could swamp any effect of local exposures if inhalation were 

suspected to be a primary route. Finally, migration must be accounted for in interpreting 

measurements, because people may have lived somewhere else for the better part of their 

lives. Substances in the human body are dynamic, not static. This includes radioactive and 

nonradioactive substances. The dynamic processes include intake of material; uptake to 

systemic circulation from the gastrointestinal tract, respiratory tract, or skin; translocation 

throughout the body system; retention over time; and elimination via excretion and radioactive 

decay. Therefore, monitoring the bodies of people near nuclear plants to identify leaks that 

could endanger the public is not as accurate or effective as monitoring the effluents from the 

plant in the nearby environment including pathways for human exposure such as air, water, soil, 

milk, meat, and vegetables. 

3.4.17 Does the NRC have any regulatory limits on safe doses for workers and the public at 

nuclear power plants? 

The NRC has set regulatory limits related to the doses to workers and members of the public 

from radioactive materials released from nuclear power plants. The NRC ensures that effluents 

from operating plants under its oversight are within the established limits. The NRC regulations 

also incorporate, by reference, EPA’s generally applicable environmental radiation standards in 

40 CFR Part 190. The regulations are set to protect workers and the public from the harmful 

health effects of radiation on humans, with the understanding that if levels are kept this low, they 

would be appropriate for animals as well. 

The nuclear power plant licensee verifies that the doses to the public from radioactive materials 

released to the environment are within the regulatory limits and documents this information in its 

annual Radioactive Effluent Release Report which is available through the NRC’s Web site. 

3.4.18 Has the NRC established dose limits for 

fish and wildlife? 

The NRC has not 

established radiation 

exposure standards for fish 

and wildlife. The NRC 

believes the radiation 

protection controls at nuclear 

power plants that ensure that 

human dose standards are 

met will also ensure the 

protection of fish and wildlife. National and 

international bodies that have examined the issue, 

including NCRP, ICRP, and the International Atomic Energy Agency, have upheld the validity of 

this belief. In EPA’s proposed standards for environmental radiation protection for nuclear 

The NRC ensures 

that effluents from 

operating plants 

under its oversight 

are within the 

established limits. 

Taking Field Radiation Measurements
 57 

power operations (40 FR 23420), EPA discusses the basis for the dose limits for humans and 

adds that "Standards developed on this basis are believed to also protect the overall ecosystem 

since there is no evidence that there is any biological species sensitive enough to warrant a 

greater level of protection than that adequate for man." 

The radiological environmental monitoring programs conducted around nuclear power plants 

have also substantiated this belief. These programs monitor air, water, soil, sediments, fish, 

milk, meat, and vegetation. The results of these programs show little or no accumulation of 

radionuclides in the environment around nuclear power plants. 

3.4.19 Doesn’t radioactive material tend to accumulate and concentrate in the environment? 

Research studies have shown that radioactive materials can concentrate in the environment; 

radioactive and stable nuclides of the same chemical behave the same in the environment. 

NRC dose calculation methods include bioaccumulation factors that are specific to the nuclide 

and the environmental material of interest. For example, radioactive iodine concentrates in cow 

or goat milk. 

Radiological environmental monitoring programs are conducted around all nuclear power plants 

to ensure the amount of bioaccumulation is within expected bounds. These programs monitor 

pathways for human exposure and other environmental media such as water, soil, air, 

sediments, plants, milk, meat, and fish. These monitoring programs generally find little or no 

bioaccumulation of radioactive material in the environment with the exception of tritium. Tritium 

does tend to concentrate in lakes, reservoirs, and other surface water impoundments into which 

nuclear power plants release liquid effluents. However, licensees monitor these concentrations 

to ensure they remain within the EPA drinking water standard of 20,000 picocuries per liter. 

3.5 Transmission Lines and Human Health Impacts 

The impacts on the environment from transmission line construction and maintenance of 

transmission line corridors during operation are considered in the EIS, as are the impacts from 

these activities on human health. 
 58 

3.5.1 Are the electromagnetic fields from transmission lines really safe? 

The chronic effects of 60-hertz electromagnetic fields from power lines have been studied at 

length, but studies have failed to uncover consistent experimental and epidemiological evidence 

linking harmful effects with field exposures. The NRC will continue to monitor the issue until a 

consensus has been reached by appropriate Federal health agencies concerning health effects 

from electromagnetic fields. 

3.6 Alternatives 

The EISs for new reactor licenses contain a chapter 

related to alternatives to the proposed action. NEPA 

requires consideration of these alternatives. This 

section responds to questions regarding the selection 

and consideration of alternatives. 

3.6.1 Why does the NRC consider alternatives to 

the action proposed by the applicant? Who 

proposes the alternatives for siting nuclear 

plants—the applicant or the NRC? 

The NRC’s regulations for implementing NEPA require that environmental reports for new 

reactor licensing discuss alternatives to the proposed action (10 CFR 51.45(b)(3)). The 

alternatives analysis must take into account the purpose of and need for the proposed project. 

For example, if the purpose of and need for the project is to supply baseload electricity within a 

defined service area within a certain timeframe, then the alternatives would need to be able to 

fulfill that need. Therefore, the NRC evaluates three types of alternatives to the applicant’s 

proposed action: 

• Alternative Energy Sources—NUREG-1555, “Standard Review Plans for Environmental 

Reviews for Nuclear Power Plants” (referred to as the ESRP), directs the staff’s analysis, 

evaluation, and comparison of alternative means of generating electricity with the 

proposed project. A competitive alternative is one that is feasible and compares 

favorably with the proposed project in terms of environmental and health impacts. If the 

proposed project is intended to supply baseload power, a competitive alternative would 

also need to be capable of supplying baseload power. A competitive alternative could 

be composed of combinations of individual alternatives. The scope of the review is 

limited to those alternative energy sources that are available to the applicant and 

potentially competitive with the proposed project. The NRC has no authority to require 

an applicant to use an alternative energy source. 

• Alternative Systems—In the same way, the ESRP also directs the staff to analyze 

alternatives to certain proposed systems. Again the alternative systems analyzed must 

be feasible, competitive, and available to the applicant. 

Transmission System 
 59 

• Alternative Sites—NRC regulations (10 CFR 52.17, “Contents of Applications; Technical 

Information) require an applicant for an early site permit or combined license to evaluate 

alternative sites to determine whether there is any obviously superior alternative to the 

site proposed. Not all possible alternative sites must be considered, just a “reasonable” 

subset of possible alternatives. The review process used by the NRC involves a twopart sequential test outlined in the ESRP. The first stage of the review uses 

reconnaissance-level information to determine whether there are environmentally 

preferable sites among the alternatives. If environmentally preferable sites are 

identified, the second stage of the review considers economic, technological, and 

institutional factors for the environmentally preferred sites to see if any of these sites is 

obviously superior to the proposed site. If an alternative site is 

found to be obviously superior to the proposed site the staff 

would recommend denial of the permit or license. 

3.6.2 Why doesn’t the NRC encourage conservation or green 

alternative energy sources such as solar or wind power? 

The NRC’s responsibility is to ensure the safe operation of nuclear 

power facilities and not to formulate energy policy or encourage or 

discourage conservation or the development of specific alternative 

power generation. The staff’s evaluation of alternatives in an EIS is limited to assessing their 

environmental impact rather than recommending energy alternatives. 

3.6.3 If an alternative is found that clearly has less environmental impact, why doesn’t the NRC 

require the applicant to pursue the alternative? 

The NRC’s requirement to consider the environmental impacts of various alternatives is based 

on NEPA. The purpose of NEPA is to ensure that relevant agencies examine and disclose the 

potential environmental impacts of their actions before taking the action. NEPA is a procedural 

statute that does not dictate a decision based on relative environmental impacts. Furthermore, 

the NRC has no authority or regulatory control over the ultimate selection of future energy 

alternatives. Likewise, the NRC cannot ensure that an environmentally superior energy 

alternative or site is used in 

the future. The NRC makes a 

decision to license a facility 

based on safety and 

environmental considerations. 

The NRC can only approve or 

deny the request for the 

license. The applicant and 

State and Federal (non-NRC) 

decisionmakers make the 

final decision about whether 

or not to operate the nuclear 

facility based on economics, 

energy reliability goals, and 

Not all possible 

alternative sites 

must be 

considered, just a 

“reasonable” 

subset of possible 

alternatives. 

Solar Panels 
 60 

other objectives over which other entities may have jurisdiction. Moreover, given the absence of 

the NRC’s authority in the general area of energy planning, the NRC’s identification of an 

obviously superior alternative would not guarantee that such an alternative would be used. 

3.6.4 How much attention has been given to energy-generation alternatives? 

NRC regulations implementing NEPA provide for the consideration of alternatives 

(10 CFR 51.71(d)). The NRC regulations (10 CFR 51.10(a)) also provide that the Commission 

will take into account voluntarily the regulations of the Council on Environmental Quality (CEQ), 

published November 29, 1978 (43 FR 55978–56007), subject to certain conditions. Although 

the CEQ regulations are not binding on the NRC when the agency has not expressly adopted 

them, they are entitled to considerable deference (see Limerick Ecology Action, Inc., v. the 

NRC, 869 F.2d 719, 725, 743 [3d Cir. 1989]). CEQ advises that when faced with a potentially 

very large number of alternatives, an EIS must analyze and compare only a reasonable number 

of examples, covering the full spectrum of alternatives (46 FR 18027; March 23, 1981). It would 

not be practical for an EIS prepared in conjunction with an application for an early site permit to 

analyze all potential sites for wind and solar energy development in the applicant’s region of 

interest. 

3.6.5 How are potential (alternative) sites compared for suitability? 

The review process involves the two-part sequential test outlined in the ESRP. At the first stage 

of the review, the NRC staff uses reconnaissance-level information to determine whether there 

are environmentally preferable sites among the alternatives. If the NRC identifies 

environmentally preferable sites, then during the second stage of the review, it considers 

economic, technological, and institutional factors for the environmentally preferred sites to see if 

any of these sites is obviously superior to the proposed site. The NRC staff performs an 

independent analysis of the applicant’s review. If an alternative site is not found to be obviously 

superior to the preferred site, it does not mean that the alternative site cannot be considered for 

future nuclear development. 

3.6.6 Can the NRC require the applicant to use an alternative site? 

No, the NRC staff cannot require an applicant to use an alternative site 

3.6.7 Can the NRC require the applicant to use an alternative energy source? 

No. 

3.7 Accidents and Severe Accident Mitigation Alternatives Review 

The environmental review of an application for a combined license includes an analysis of 

severe accident mitigation alternatives (SAMAs); it is not required for an early site permit. This 

section defines SAMAs and explains why they are included in the environmental review. It also 

discusses the process used to evaluate SAMAs and the types of changes that may occur in the 

plant as a result of the analysis. 
 61 

3.7.1 Accidents can cause environmental impacts, so does the environmental review consider 

accidents? 

The environmental review does take into account the environmental effects of postulated plant 

accidents that might occur during plant operation. It also includes a review of the alternatives to 

mitigate severe accidents if this has not previously been evaluated for the applicant’s plant. 

This consideration ensures that plant changes (i.e., hardware, procedures, and training) with the 

potential for improving severe accident safety performance are identified, evaluated, and, if 

appropriate, implemented. In this way, the NRC considers the impacts of accidents within the 

scope of the environmental review. 

3.7.2 What is a severe accident mitigation alternatives (SAMAs) review? 

The SAMAs review is an evaluation of alternatives to 

mitigate severe accidents. Severe accidents are 

those that could result in substantial damage to the 

reactor core, whether or not there are serious offsite 

consequences. The NRC staff reviews and evaluates 

SAMAs to ensure that changes that could improve 

severe accident safety performance are identified and 

evaluated. Potential improvements could include 

hardware modifications, changes to procedures, and 

changes to the training program. 

3.7.3 What is the process for the SAMAs review? 

The evaluation of SAMAs is a four-step process, as shown in Figure 3.1. The first step is to 

characterize overall plant risk and the leading contributors to that risk. This typically involves 

the extensive use of a plant-specific probabilistic safety assessment (PSA) study. The PSA 

identifies the different contributors, in terms of system failures and human errors, that would be 

required for an accident to progress either to core damage or to containment failure. The 

second step is to identify potential improvements that could reduce the risk. Information from 

the PSA, such as dominant accident sequences, equipment failures, and operator actions, is 

used to identify plant improvements that would have the greatest impact in reducing risk. 

Improvements identified in other NRC and industry studies, as well as SAMAs analyses for 

other plants, are also considered in this process. 

The SAMAs review is an 

evaluation of alternatives to 

mitigate severe accidents. Severe 

accidents are those that could 

result in substantial damage to the 

reactor core, whether or not there 

are serious offsite consequences. 
 62 

Figure 3.1. Generalized Process for Identifying and Evaluating Potential Severe Accident Mitigation Alternatives 

(SAMAs) 

The third step is to quantify the risk-reduction potential and the implementation cost for each of 

the improvements. The risk reduction is typically estimated using a conservative analysis that 

generally overestimates the risk-reduction potential by assuming that the plant improvement is 

completely effective in eliminating the accident sequence that the improvement is intended to 

address. Implementation costs are generally underestimated by neglecting certain cost factors, 

such as maintenance costs or surveillance costs associated with the plant modification. 

Overestimating the risk-reduction potential and underestimating the implementation costs in this 

step make it more likely that a potentially useful safety improvement would be retained for 

further consideration in the final step. 

The final step makes use of the risk-reduction potentials and the implementation cost estimates 

to determine whether implementation of any of the improvements is justified. In determining 

whether the improvement is justified, the NRC staff looks at two factors: (1) whether the 

improvement is cost-beneficial; in other words, whether the estimated benefit is greater than the 

estimated implementation cost of the SAMA; and (2) whether the improvement provides a 
 63 

significant reduction in total risk; in other words, 

whether it eliminates a sequence or containment 

failure mode that contributes to a large fraction of 

plant risk. 

3.7.4 What is the outcome of the review? 

The outcome of the SAMAs analysis is a list of 

plant improvements that meet the criteria of being 

cost-beneficial and providing a significant reduction 

in total risk. 

3.7.5 Who would pay for an accident, if one were to happen? What is the Price-Anderson Act? 

The Price-Anderson Act, which became law on September 2, 1957, was designed to ensure 

that adequate funds would be available to satisfy liability claims of members of the public for 

personal injury and property damage in the event of a catastrophic nuclear accident. The 

legislation helped encourage private investment in commercial nuclear power by placing a cap, 

or ceiling, on the total amount of liability each holder of a nuclear power plant license faced in 

the event of a catastrophic accident. Over the years, the "limit of liability" for a catastrophic 

nuclear accident has increased the insurance pool to over $10 billion. 

Under existing policy, utilities that operate nuclear power plants pay a premium each year for 

$300 million in private insurance for offsite liability coverage for each reactor unit. This primary 

insurance is supplemented by a second policy. Because virtually all property and liability 

insurance policies issued in the United States exclude nuclear accidents, claims resulting from 

nuclear accidents are covered under the Price-Anderson Act. It includes any accident (including 

those that come about because of theft or sabotage) in the course of transporting nuclear fuel to 

a reactor site; in the storage of nuclear fuel or waste at a site; in the operation of a reactor, 

including the discharge of radioactive effluent; and in the transportation of irradiated nuclear fuel 

and nuclear waste from the reactor. The Energy Policy Act of 2005 extended the PriceAnderson Act to December 31, 2025. 

3.8 Decommissioning Review 

The EIS includes information related to the costs and impacts of decommissioning a facility. 

Common questions from the public related to decommissioning include those addressed here. 

3.8.1 What is decommissioning? 

The definition given in 10 CFR 50.2, “Definitions,” states that decommissioning is the safe 

removal of a facility from service and the reduction of residual radioactivity to a level that permits 

termination of the NRC license. 
 64 

3.8.2 Is decommissioning considered during the review of 

new reactor licenses or early site permit applications? 

The EIS considers the impacts from decommissioning. 

3.8.3 What are the costs of decommissioning? 

The total cost of decommissioning depends on many factors, 

including the sequence and timing of the various stages of the 

program, location of the facility, current radioactive waste burial 

costs, and plans for spent fuel storage. The minimum amounts 

that are required to provide a reasonable assurance of funds for decommissioning are $290 

million for pressurized-water reactors and $370 million for boiling-water reactors (NUREG 1628,

Staff Responses to Frequently Asked Questions Concerning Decommissioning of Nuclear 

Power Reactors). These costs are in 1999 dollars and are adjusted annually, as further 

specified in the regulations. These are minimum amounts to show reasonable assurance, 

rather than estimates, of what it would cost to decommission a specific nuclear reactor. Actual 

site-specific costs incurred and estimated costs of decommissioning give a better indication of 

the cost of the process: 

• The Fort St. Vrain nuclear plant, which was a 330-megawatt-electric (MWe) 

high-temperature gas-cooled reactor, ceased power operations in 1989 and underwent 

immediate decontamination and dismantlement. Decommissioning ended in late 1996, and 

the license was terminated. The total cost of decommissioning was $189 million. 

• The cost for decommissioning the Trojan nuclear plant (a 1,130-MWe pressurized-water 

reactor) was estimated to be on the order of $210 million in 1993 dollars, which did not 

include $42 million for nonradioactive site remediation or $110 million for the independent 

spent fuel storage installation and related fuel management. The Trojan nuclear plant 

planned an immediate decontamination and decommissioning from shutdown in 1993 to 

license termination in 2002. 

• The estimated cost for decommissioning the Haddam Neck nuclear plant, a 619-MWe 

pressurized-water reactor, was $344.4 million in 1996 dollars, not including $82.3 million in 

spent fuel storage costs (for a total of $426.7 million). 

• The estimated cost for decommissioning Maine Yankee, an 830-MWe pressurized-water 

reactor, was $274.9 million in 1997 dollars. This did not include costs for spent-fuel 

management ($53.4 million) or for site restoration ($49.2 million), for a total of 

$377.6 million. 

• The estimated cost for decommissioning Big Rock Point, a 67-MWe boiling-water reactor, 

was $290 million in 1997 dollars. 

• The estimated cost for decommissioning Yankee Rowe, a 175-MWe pressurized-water 

reactor, was $306.4 million in 1995 dollars. 

Decommissioning costs vary, based on plant size and design, local labor and radiological waste 

burial costs, and the specific process that is being used for decommissioning. 

Decommissioning costs 

vary, based on plant size 

and design, local labor 

and radiological waste 

burial costs, and the 

specific process that is 

being used for 

decommissioning. 
 65 

The U.S. Department of Energy commissioned the “Study of Construction Technologies and 

Schedules, O&M Staffing and Cost, and Decommissioning Costs and Funding Requirements for 

Advanced Reactor Designs,” issued in 2004, to support the development of advanced reactors 

for the production of electric power and to establish the requirements for providing reasonable 

assurance that adequate funds for performing decommissioning will be available at the end of 

plant operations. The study estimates the costs to decommission four advanced reactor 

designs following a scheduled cessation of plant operations: the Toshiba and General Electric 

(GE) Advanced Boiling-Water Reactor (ABWR), the GE Economic Simplified Boiling-Water 

Reactor (ESBWR), the Westinghouse Advanced Passive pressurized-water reactor (AP1000), 

and the Atomic Energy of Canada, Limited, Advanced Canada Deuterium Uranium Reactor 

(CANDU) Reactor (ACR-700). The cost analysis described in the study is based upon the 

prompt decommissioning alternative, or DECON as defined by the NRC. The DECON 

alternative is also the basis for the NRC funding regulations (10 CFR 50.75, “Reporting and 

Recordkeeping for Decommissioning Planning”), and the use of the DECON alternative for the 

advanced reactor designs facilitates the comparison with the NRC’s own estimates and financial 

provisions. 

The projected cost for Southern Nuclear Operating Company, Inc., to decommission one 

AP1000 using the DECON alternative is estimated to be $427.4 million, as reported in 2006 

dollars. The minimum certification amounts were calculated using the formula delineated in 

10 CFR 50.75(c)(1) and escalation indices provided in NUREG-1307, Revision 11, “Report on 

Waste Burial Charges: Changes in Decommissioning Waste Disposal Costs at Low-Level 

Waste Burial Facilities,” issued June 2005, for both waste recycling and burial-only options. The 

funding levels calculated for the AP1000, in 2006 dollars, are $340.6 million for the waste 

recycling option and $664.1 million for the burial-only option. 

3.8.4 If the first estimate of decommissioning costs is made at the time that the facility is 

licensed, are there methods for adjusting for inflation? 

NRC regulations provide an adjustment factor for cost escalation that takes into account 

escalation factors for labor, energy, and waste burial. The labor and energy escalation factors 

are obtained from regional data issued by the U.S. Department of Labor’s Bureau of Labor 

Statistics. The waste-burial cost escalation factor is taken from NUREG-1307. 

3.8.5 How can the NRC be sure the money will still be available when the plant permanently 

ceases operation? 

The NRC regulations at 10 CFR 50.33(k) require that applicants for combined licenses must 

provide a report indicating how reasonable assurance will be provided that funds will be 

available to decommission the facility. The report must contain an estimate of the minimum 

amounts that are required to demonstrate reasonable assurance of funds for decommissioning. 

It also must contain a certification that financial assurance will be provided in an amount not less 

than that estimated. Tables for estimating the minimum amount appear in 10 CFR 50.75 and 

are based on the type of reactor and the power level. 
 66 

According to the regulations, financial assurance is 

provided by the following methods: 

• Prepayment—In this case, at the start of operations, 

the licensee deposits into an account enough funds 

to pay the decommissioning costs. The account is 

segregated from the licensee’s other assets and 

remains outside of the licensee’s administrative 

control of cash or liquid assets. Prepayment may be 

in the form of a trust, escrow account, government 

fund, certificate of deposit, or deposit of government 

securities. 

• External sinking fund—An external sinking fund is a fund established and maintained by 

setting licensee funds aside periodically into an account segregated from licensee assets 

and outside of the licensee’s administrative control. The total amount of these funds would 

be sufficient to pay decommissioning costs at the time that it is anticipated that the licensee 

will cease operations. An external sinking fund may be in the form of a trust, escrow 

account, government fund, certificate of deposit, or deposit of government securities. 

• Surety method, insurance, or other guarantee method—A surety method may be in the form 

of a surety bond, letter of credit, or line of credit. Any surety method or insurance used to 

provide financial assurance must be open-ended or, if written for a specific term, such as 

5 years, must be renewed automatically. An exception is allowed when the issuer notifies 

the Commission, the beneficiary, and the licensee of its intent not to renew within 90 days or 

more preceding the renewal date. The surety or insurance must also provide that the full 

face amount be paid to the beneficiary automatically preceding the expiration date without 

proof of forfeiture if the licensee fails to provide a replacement acceptable to the 

Commission within 30 days after receipt of notification of cancellation. In addition, the 

surety or insurance must be payable to a trust established for decommissioning costs, and 

the trustee and trust must be acceptable to the Commission. The surety method or 

insurance must remain in effect until the Commission has terminated the license. 

3.8.6 Who pays for decommissioning and where does the money come from? 

The particular licensee that holds the license for the facility pays for decommissioning. Subject 

to the public utilities commission that regulated the utility, the money for decommissioning is 

collected as part of the price of electricity; thus, the funds for decommissioning are ultimately 

paid by the ratepayer in the electric bill. As the electric utility industry deregulates, many States 

are choosing to require payment of decommissioning costs through the imposition of a 

nonbypassable charge as part of a customer’s electric bill. 

The regulations in 

10 CFR 50.33(k) require that 

applicants for combined 

licenses must provide a report 

indicating how reasonable 

assurance will be provided that 

funds will be available to 

decommission the facility. 
 67 

4.0 Issues Not Considered in the Scope of the Environmental Review 

This section answers questions related to the U.S. Nuclear Regulatory Commission (NRC) 

safety review process, security, emergency preparedness, and storage and disposal of spent 

nuclear fuel, all of which fall outside of the scope of the environmental review process. 

4.1 Understanding Scope and Getting Answers to Out-of-Scope Questions 

4.1.1 Why are there limits on the scope of the environmental review? 

The scope of the environmental review consists of the 

range of actions, alternatives, and impacts to be 

considered in an environmental impact statement. The 

purpose of scoping is to identify the significant issues 

related to a proposed action. Scoping also identifies and 

eliminates from detailed study those issues that are not 

significant or have been covered by a prior 

environmental review. Having a defined scope for the 

environmental review allows the NRC to concentrate on 

the essential issues for actions under consideration 

rather than on issues that may have been or are being 

evaluated through different regulatory review processes, 

such as a safety review. 

4.1.2 How do I get answers to my questions that fall outside the scope of the environmental 

review from the NRC? 

Members of the public have three ways to receive answers to questions that fall outside the 

scope of the environmental review: 

• Public meetings—Members of the public are invited to plant-specific public meetings (see 

the response to Question 5.1.3), where NRC staff members are available to answer any 

questions related to NRC-regulated activities, including those that are outside the scope of 

the environmental review. 

• NRC Web site—Answers to many questions that are outside the scope of the environmental 

review also appear on the NRC Web site, http://www.nrc.gov. The NRC has posted a 

number of “frequently asked questions” documents, informational brochures, and fact sheets 

that address issues that are of concern to the public. 

• NRC environmental project manager—For plant-specific questions that are outside the 

scope of the environmental review, members of the public can contact the environmental 

project manager assigned by the NRC for that plant’s license review. The agency provides 

the telephone number for each of the NRC environmental project managers on the NRC 

Web site, in Federal Register notices, and at the public meetings. The NRC environmental 

project manager can either answer questions or direct callers to the appropriate person in 

the agency for responding to their questions that are outside the scope of the review. 

Having a defined scope for the 

environmental review allows 

the NRC to concentrate on the 

essential issues for actions 

under consideration rather than 

on issues that may have been or 

are being evaluated through 

different regulatory review 

processes, such as a safety 

review. 
 68 

4.2 NRC Safety Review 

This section answers key questions about why a safety review is performed, how it is 

conducted, and what type of public involvement occurs as a part of the safety review process. 

4.2.1 Why are safety issues outside the scope of the environmental review? 

The National Environmental Policy Act (NEPA) process focuses on environmental impacts 

rather than on issues related to the safety of an operation. Safety issues become important to 

the environmental review when they could result in environmental impacts. Because the NEPA 

regulations do not include a safety review, the NRC has codified the regulations for preparing an 

environmental impact statement separately from the regulations for reviewing safety issues. 

The regulations governing the environmental review are set forth in Title 10 of the Code of 

Federal Regulations (10 CFR) Part 51, “Environmental Protection Regulations for Domestic 

Licensing and Related Regulatory Functions,” and the regulations covering the safety review 

are in 10 CFR Part 52, “Licenses, Certifications, and Approvals for Nuclear Power Plants.” For 

this reason, the license process includes an environmental review that is distinct and separate 

from the safety review. Because the two reviews are separate, operational safety issues are 

considered outside the scope of the environmental review, just as environmental issues are not 

considered part of the safety review. However, the staff forwards safety issues that are raised 

during the environmental review to the appropriate NRC organization for consideration and 

appropriate action. 

4.2.2 What is the basis for the NRC’s safety review of a new reactor? 

The regulations in 10 CFR Part 52 provide the basis for 

the NRC’s safety review, while NUREG-0800, “Standard 

Review Plan for Review of Safety Analysis Reports for 

Nuclear Power Plants” (referred to as the SRP), gives 

detailed guidance on the NRC’s safety review. The 

purpose of the SRP is to ensure the quality and uniformity 

of staff reviews. The SRP is also intended to make 

information about regulatory matters widely available and 

to improve communication between the NRC, interested 

members of the public, and the nuclear power industry, 

thereby increasing understanding of the NRC’s review 

process. The SRP is the most definitive basis available 

for specifying the NRC's interpretation of an acceptable 

level of safety for light-water reactor facilities. 

Safety Standard Review Plan 
 69 

In 2005, the Commission directed the staff to revise 

applicable sections of the SRP and other guidance 

documents to ensure that up-to-date guidance would be 

available for the next generation of staff who would be 

responsible for reviewing and licensing new sites and 

new reactors. The NRC published the revised SRP in 

March 2007 and makes it available in the NRC 

electronic reading room or on the NRC’s Agencywide 

Documents Access and Management System (ADAMS) 

http://www.nrc.gov/reading-rm/adams.html. The NRC 

continues to update and clarify its review guidance, as 

necessary, and issues Interim Staff Guidance (ISG) documents for this purpose. The guidance 

included in these ISGs will ultimately be incorporated into the SRPs. These ISGs are available 

on the NRCs web site (http://www.nrc.gov/reading-rm/doc-collections/isg/col-app-designcert.html). 

4.2.3 How is the safety review performed? 

The SRP is intended to be a comprehensive and integrated document that provides the NRC 

reviewer with guidance that describes methods or approaches that the staff has found 

acceptable for meeting NRC requirements. Implementation of the criteria and guidelines 

contained in the SRP by staff members in their review of applications provides assurance that a 

given design will comply with NRC regulations and provide adequate protection of public health 

and safety. The SRP also makes the staff’s review guidance for licensing nuclear power plants 

publicly available; it is intended to improve industry and public stakeholder understanding of the 

staff’s review process. It should be noted that the SRP is not a substitute for NRC regulations, 

and compliance with the SRP is not required. 

In addition to documenting current methods of review, the SRP provides a basis for the orderly 

modification of the review process. The NRC disseminates information regarding current safety 

issues and proposed solutions through various means, such as generic communications and 

the process for treating generic safety issues. When current issues are resolved, it is necessary 

to determine the need, extent, and nature of the revision that the staff should make to the SRP 

to reflect new NRC guidance.

4.2.4 What documents are reviewed during the NRC staff’s safety review? What documents are 

generated during the NRC staff’s safety review? 

To construct and operate a nuclear power plant, an applicant must submit a final safety analysis 

report to the NRC for review and approval. This document contains detailed information about 

the design of structures, systems, and components of the proposed facility, and comprehensive 

data about the proposed site. It also discusses various hypothetical accident situations and the 

safety features of the plant that prevent accidents or, if accidents should occur, lessen their 

effects. Other subject areas in the final safety analysis report include the reactor and fuel 

NRC Guidance Documents 
 70 

design, electric power, radioactive waste management, radiation protection, accident analysis, 

and quality assurance. 

The staff develops a safety evaluation report to document its review of the safety analysis 

report. 

4.2.5 Is the public provided the opportunity to comment on 

the NRC staff’s safety review? 

During the safety review process, the staff meets with the 

applicant to discuss the review of the application. The public is 

invited to observe and has the opportunity to comment at the 

conclusion of the technical portion of the meeting. 

The results of the staff’s safety review are available to the 

public. However, the highly technical nature of the staff’s 

safety review does not lend itself to a public involvement 

process such as that used for the environmental review. As a 

result, there is no notification in the Federal Register related to 

an opportunity to comment on the safety review before its issuance. However, a safety 

evaluation report is available electronically from the Publicly Available Records System (PARS) 

component of the NRC’s ADAMS. The ADAMS Public Electronic Reading Room is accessible 

from the NRC Web site at http://www.nrc.gov/reading-rm/adams.html. Additionally, the public 

can provide comments to the Advisory Committee on Reactor Safeguards (ACRS) on the staff’s 

review of the application in advance of the ACRS meeting. Additionally, the staff presents its 

safety review to the Advisory Committee on Reactor Safeguards (ACRS) during a series of 

public meetings. The staff’s safety review is made available to the public in ADAMS in advance 

of the ACRS meetings and the public can provide comments on the staff’s review of the 

application to the ACRS in advance of the ACRS meeting or during the meeting. 

4.2.6 What is the Advisory Committee on Reactor Safeguards (ACRS) and how is it involved in 

the safety reviews for new reactors? 

ACRS, an independent group that provides advice about reactor safety to the five-member 

Commission, reviews each application to construct or operate a nuclear power plant. The 

Committee has three primary purposes: 

• to review and report on safety studies and reactor facility license applications 

• to advise the Commission on the hazards of proposed and existing reactor facilities and the 

adequacy of proposed reactor safety standards 

• to initiate reviews of specific generic matters or nuclear facility safety-related items 

ACRS is independent of the NRC staff and reports directly to the Commission, which appoints 

its members. ACRS is composed of technical experts recognized in their fields. It is structured 

so that experts representing many technical perspectives can provide independent advice, 

which can be factored into the Commission’s decisionmaking process. Most Committee 

The results of the staff’s 

safety review are 

available to the public. 

However, the highly 

technical nature of the 

staff’s safety review does 

not lend itself to a public 

involvement process such 

as that used for the 

environmental review. 
 71 

meetings are open to the public, and any member of the public may request an opportunity to 

make an oral statement during the meeting. 

The ACRS review begins early in the licensing process, and the Committee meets with the 

applicant and the NRC staff at appropriate times in the review process. When ACRS has 

completed its review, it submits its recommendations on the safety aspects of the application in 

a report to the Commission via a letter to the NRC Chairman. The ACRS mandate does not 

include NEPA reviews. 

4.3 Security 

4.3.1 Why are security issues outside the scope of the environmental review? 

The environmental impact statement for a new license does not include security issues, such as 

physical protection and the capability to respond to an external attack. The NRC staff considers 

them as part of the safety review, separately from the environmental review. Some of the 

detailed information pertaining to security is considered to be safeguards information; as such, it 

cannot be shared with the public for security reasons. After the license is issued, security 

issues are periodically reviewed, inspected and updated at every operating plant. These 

reviews continue throughout the period of an operating license, whether it is for the original or 

renewed license. If issues related to security are discovered at a nuclear plant, they are 

addressed immediately, and any necessary changes are reviewed and incorporated under the 

operating license. 

4.3.2 Why are acts of terrorism considered outside the scope of the environmental review? 

The NRC and other Federal agencies have heightened vigilance to acts of terrorism and have 

implemented initiatives to evaluate and respond to possible threats posed by terrorists, including 

the use of aircraft against commercial nuclear power facilities and independent spent fuel 

storage installations (as discussed in the response to Question 4.3.3). Malevolent acts are 

beyond the scope of a NEPA review. The NRC routinely assesses threats and other 

information provided by other Federal agencies and sources. The NRC also ensures that 

licensees meet specific security-level requirements. The NRC 

will continue to focus on preventing, deterring and mitigating 

terrorist acts for all nuclear facilities and will not perform sitespecific evaluations of environmental impacts resulting from 

terrorist acts. 

Access Control Terminal 
 72 

4.3.3 What is the NRC doing to address the threat of terrorism? 

The NRC is devoting substantial time and attention to terrorism-related matters, including 

coordination with the U.S. Department of Homeland Security. As part of its mission to protect 

public health and safety and the common defense and security pursuant to the Atomic Energy 

Act of 1954, as amended, the NRC staff is conducting vulnerability assessments for the 

domestic use of radioactive material. In the time since the terrorist events of 

September 11, 2001, the NRC has identified the need for license holders to implement 

compensatory measures, has issued several orders imposing enhanced security requirements, 

and has completed a significant update of the security rules that apply to nuclear power plants. 

Finally, the NRC has taken actions to ensure that applicants and license holders maintain 

vigilance and a high degree of security awareness. Major NRC actions include the following: 

• ordering plant owners to sharply increase physical security programs to defend against a 

more challenging adversarial threat 

• requiring more restrictive site access controls for all personnel 

• enhancing communication and liaison with the intelligence community 

• improving communication among military surveillance 

personnel, the NRC, and its licensees to prepare power plant 

operators and to effect safe shutdown if necessary 

• ordering plant owners to improve their capability to respond 

to events involving explosions or fires 

• enhancing the readiness of security organizations by 

strengthening training and qualifications programs for plant 

security forces 

• requiring vehicle checks at greater stand-off distances 

• enhancing force-on-force exercises to provide a more realistic test of plant capabilities to 

defend against an adversary force 

• improving liaison with Federal, State, and local agencies responsible for the protection of the 

national critical infrastructure through integrated response training 

• working with national experts to predict the realistic consequences of terrorist attacks on 

nuclear facilities, including one from larger commercial aircraft 

• completed a significant update to the security rules 

The NRC will continue to consider measures to prevent and mitigate the consequences of acts 

of terrorism in fulfilling its safety mission.

The NRC routinely 

assesses threats and 

other information 

provided by other 

Federal agencies and 

sources. 
 73 

4.3.4 What has the NRC done to improve security as a result of the terrorist attacks on 

September 11, 2001? 

Before September 11, 2001, the security measures in place provided high assurance that public 

health and safety would be protected in the event of an attack that involved radiological 

sabotage. The security measures were designed to protect against the threats described in 

10 CFR 73.1, “Purpose and Scope.” However, since September 11, 2001, the defensive 

capability of the nuclear power industry has been significantly enhanced. The NRC issued 

orders requiring security enhancements, conducted a three-phase audit of licensees’ security 

programs in the weeks following the terrorist attacks, improved the process for conducting 

background investigations of new 

employees at nuclear power facilities, 

initiated a number of studies related to the 

protection of nuclear material and facilities, 

and completed a significant update to the 

security rules applicable to nuclear power 

plants. The NRC completed a number of 

studies on the effects of a crash of a large 

commercial aircraft into a nuclear power 

plant. In addition, the NRC issued a new 

rule requiring new applicants for design 

certifications to perform an assessment of 

the effects on the facility of the impact of a 

large, commercial aircraft. The NRC has 

issued more than 60 advisories to its 

licensees describing changes in the threat environment and providing guidance on ways to 

enhance security. 

In addition, the NRC works with a variety of other Federal agencies, in particular the Department 

of Homeland Security and the Homeland Security Council, to ensure that security around 

nuclear power plants is well coordinated and that responders are prepared if a significant event 

occurs. If an event were to occur, the Federal Bureau of Investigation (FBI) would lead the 

response and would coordinate the resources of more than 18 Federal agencies including 

Federal Emergency Management Agency (FEMA) and the NRC in response to any radiological 

emergency. 

4.3.5 Is the security of the nuclear waste stored onsite being reviewed? 

Since the events of September 11, 2001, the NRC has conducted a comprehensive evaluation, 

including the consideration of potential consequences of terrorist attacks. The precise amount 

of contamination resulting from a release depends on many factors, such as the type and 

amount of damage to the pool or dry cask storage facility, the location of the damage, the 

proximity of the storage facility to populated areas, and the meteorological conditions at the time 

of the event. As part of this evaluation, the NRC will consider the need for additional 

requirements to enhance licensee security and public safety. 

Security Exercise 
 74 

4.3.6 Are onsite storage facilities secure from terrorist attacks? 

The NRC considers spent fuel storage facilities to be robust. Unlike the structures that were 

destroyed on September 11, 2001, spent fuel pools and dry storage casks are not constructed 

of flammable material that would fuel fires of long duration. If an attack were to occur, licensees 

have approved emergency plans, tested biennially, that coordinate local, State, and Federal 

government responses. The NRC believes that the health and safety of the public are well 

protected. 

4.3.7 Has the NRC revised its requirements regarding aircraft impacts on nuclear reactors? 

The NRC amended its regulations to require applicants after July 13, 2009, for design 

certifications and COL, among others, to perform a design-specific assessment of the effects on 

the facility of the impact of a large, commercial aircraft. Using realistic analyses, the applicant 

shall identify and incorporate into the design those design features and functional capabilities to 

show that, with reduced use of operator actions 1) The reactor core remains cooled, or the 

containment remains intact; and 2) Spent fuel cooling or spent fuel pool integrity is maintained. 

 

4.4 Emergency Preparedness 

4.4.1 Does the NRC evaluate emergency preparedness before licensing a new reactor? 

Yes. NRC regulations (10 CFR 50.47) prohibit the issuance of a operating license or a 

combined license unless a finding is made by the NRC that there is reasonable assurance that 

adequate protective measures can and will be taken in the event of a radiological emergency. 

The NRC bases it finding on review of the Federal Emergency Management Agency findings, 

and on the NRC’s assessment of the applicant’s onsite emergency plans. 

4.4.2 Is emergency preparedness part of the environmental review? 

Emergency preparedness is not part of the environmental review. The NRC documents its 

findings related to emergency planning in the safety evaluation report, along with the findings 

regarding site safety characteristics. 

4.5 Storage and Disposal of Spent Nuclear Fuel 

Although the storage and disposal of spent fuel or high-level waste are not within the scope of 

environmental issues pertaining to a new license, the NRC frequently receives questions about 

these topics during public meetings and other opportunities for public comment. To give a full 

picture of the issues associated with nuclear power facilities, this section provides information 

about the Nuclear Waste Policy Act, the status of Yucca Mountain as a repository for spent 

nuclear fuel from commercial reactors, and the storage of spent fuel at nuclear power facilities. 
 75 

4.5.1 What is the Nuclear Waste Policy Act? 

The Nuclear Waste Policy Act and amendments thereto, 

establishes the Federal Government’s responsibility to 

provide a place for the permanent disposal of high-level 

radioactive waste and spent nuclear fuel and the 

responsibility of the generators (commercial nuclear power 

facilities) to bear the costs of permanent disposal. The Act 

authorizes and requires the U.S. Department of Energy 

(DOE) to locate and build a permanent repository and an 

interim storage facility (as needed), and to develop a 

transportation system to safely link nuclear plants to the 

repository and interim storage facility. President Ronald 

Reagan signed the Act into law on January 7, 1983. The 

Act obligated DOE to begin disposal of spent fuel and highlevel radioactive waste from commercial nuclear facilities by 

January 31, 1998. In June 2008, DOE applied to the NRC 

for an authorization to construct a repository at Yucca 

Mountain. 

4.5.2 What is the status of Yucca Mountain? 

In June 2008, DOE submitted a license application to the NRC to construct a repository. The 

NRC staff is reviewing the application. In accordance with the Nuclear Waste Policy Act as 

amended, the NRC has 3 years to review the application; however, the agency could request a 

fourth year from Congress, if needed, to make its determination on licensing. If licensed, the 

next step is construction of the facility. If construction is authorized and completed, DOE would 

then need to apply to the NRC for permission to receive and dispose of spent fuel and high-level 

waste in order to operate the facility. 

4.5.3 If the repository is not yet finished, where is the spent nuclear fuel being stored for plants 

that are operating now? 

Every 1 to 2 years, approximately one-third of the nuclear fuel in an operating reactor needs to 

be unloaded and replaced with new fuel. The used fuel is commonly called “spent nuclear fuel.” 

Current nuclear power facilities have temporary storage for spent fuel in steel-lined concrete 

pools that are filled with water (spent fuel pools). The water acts as a natural barrier for 

radiation from the fuel assemblies and keeps the fuel thermally cool while it decays and 

becomes less radioactive. Because the designers of the current nuclear power facilities 

originally anticipated that the spent fuel would be reprocessed (see the response to Question 

4.5.8), they designed the nuclear facilities to store about a decade’s worth of used fuel. 

Every 1 to 2 years, 

approximately one-third of 

the nuclear fuel in an 

operating reactor needs to 

be unloaded and replaced 

with new fuel. The used fuel 

is commonly called “spent 

nuclear fuel.” Nuclear 

power facilities have 

temporary storage for spent 

fuel in steel-lined concrete 

pools that are filled with 

water (spent fuel pools). 
 76 

However, at this time, commercial reprocessing is not being pursued. As the storage capacity 

of the spent fuel pool is approached, licensees may consider alternatives, such as aboveground 

dry storage casks. In dry storage casks, spent fuel is surrounded by inert gas inside a sealed 

metal cylinder that is enclosed within a metal or concrete outer shell. Depending on the design 

of the casks, they are either placed horizontally or vertically on a concrete pad. The pad, casks, 

and associated security infrastructure are called an independent spent fuel storage installation. 

The NRC approves the design of the casks after conducting a technical review to ensure that 

the casks are safe and secure for use at nuclear power facilities. The NRC has approved 16 

cask designs for use. By the beginning of 2009, independent spent fuel storage 

installations were in use at the following locations: 

• 39 nuclear power reactor sites 

• 8 decommissioned or decommissioning nuclear power reactor sites 

• 2 storage facilities operated by DOE at the Idaho National Engineering and Environmental 

Laboratory near Idaho Falls, ID 

• 1 pool independent spent fuel storage installation at the General Electric Morris facility in 

Illinois 

4.5.4 What will happen if Yucca Mountain is never finished or approved for storing nuclear 

waste? 

The NRC’s Waste Confidence Rule, found in 10 CFR 51.23, “Temporary Storage of Spent Fuel 

after Cessation of Reactor Operation—Generic Determination of No Significant Environmental 

Impact,” states the following: 

The Commission has made a generic determination that, if necessary, spent fuel 

generated in any reactor can be stored safely and without significant 

environmental impacts for at least 30 years beyond the licensed life for operation 

of that reactor at its spent fuel storage basin or at either onsite or offsite 

independent spent fuel storage installations. Further, the Commission believes 

there is reasonable assurance that...sufficient repository capacity will be 

available within 30 years beyond the licensed life for operation of any reactor to 

dispose of the commercial high-level waste and spent fuel originating in such 

reactor and generated up to that time. 

The staff is confident that there eventually will be a licensed high-level waste repository. If the 

site near Yucca Mountain is eventually found to be unsuitable, then alternative sites will be 

considered. Until a permanent high-level waste repository is operational, the spent nuclear fuel 

will be safely stored either onsite or at offsite interim storage facilities. On October 9, 2008 

(Volume 73 of the Federal Register, page 59551 [73 FR 59551]), the Commission proposed an 

update of its Waste Confidence Decision. The Commission proposes that sufficient repository 

capacity can reasonably be expected to be available within 50 to 60 years beyond the licensed 

life for operation of any reactor, and that spent fuel generated in any reactor can be stored 

safely without significant environmental impacts for at least 60 years beyond the licensed life for 

operation. 
 77 

4.5.5 Who is paying for the storage of spent fuel now and who will pay for the transportation to 

and storage of spent fuel at Yucca Mountain? 

Licensees, and ultimately their electricity consumers, pay for the storage of spent fuel onsite 

(either in a spent fuel pool or an independent spent fuel storage installation). The transportation 

and disposal of spent fuel at a centralized repository (such as Yucca Mountain) is also funded 

by electricity consumers. The Nuclear Waste Policy Act established the Nuclear Waste Fund as 

a means to pay for a permanent repository, an interim storage facility (if needed), and the 

transportation of used fuel. Since 1982, electricity consumers have paid into the fund a fee of 

one tenth of one cent for every nuclear-generated kilowatt-hour of electricity consumed. By the 

end of 2008, more than $20 billion had been paid into this fund. 

4.5.6 What is low-level waste and how will the Barnwell closure affect low-level waste 

disposal? 

Low-level wastes, generally defined as radioactive 

wastes other than high-level wastes and wastes 

from uranium recovery operations, are commonly 

disposed of in near-surface facilities rather than in 

a geologic repository (like Yucca Mountain) that is 

required for high-level wastes. Low-level waste 

includes items that have become contaminated 

with radioactive material or have become 

radioactive through exposure to neutron radiation. 

From nuclear power plants, this waste typically 

consists of contaminated protective shoe covers 

and clothing, wiping rags, mops, filters, reactor 

water-treatment residues, equipment, and tools. 

Low-level waste may also arise from the use of 

radioactive material in medicine, research, and 

industry. Such waste includes luminous dials, medical tubes, swabs, injection needles, 

syringes, and laboratory animal carcasses and tissues. The radioactivity can range from just 

above background levels found in nature to much higher levels in certain cases, such as parts 

from inside the reactor vessel in a nuclear power plant. 

Low-level waste is classified in accordance with NRC regulations (10 CFR Part 61, “Licensing 

Requirements for Land Disposal of Radioactive Waste”), from least to greatest hazard, as 

Class A, B, C, and Greater than Class C. The first three classes can be disposed of at licensed 

commercial disposal facilities. By law, DOE is responsible for the disposal of low-level waste 

that is classified as greater than Class C. 

Licensees typically store low-level waste onsite, either until it has decayed away (as is the case 

for much short-lived waste generated by medical and research users) and can be disposed of 

as ordinary trash, or until amounts are large enough for shipment to a low-level waste disposal 

site in containers authorized by the U.S. Department of Transportation. 

Yucca Mountain 
 78 

The Barnwell low-level waste disposal facility, located in South Carolina, is one of four 

commercial low-level waste disposal facilities currently operating in the United States. Because 

of declining disposal capacity and other concerns, the State of South Carolina said that, as of 

July 1, 2008, the site would only accept waste from States that are members of the Atlantic lowlevel waste compact (South Carolina, New Jersey, and Connecticut). The closure of Barnwell 

left licensees in 36 States with no disposal options for Class B and C waste. About 95 percent 

of Class B and C waste is generated by nuclear power plants, which have the space, expertise, 

and experience needed to store radioactive wastes for extended periods. Most Class A lowlevel waste is eligible for disposal at a commercial disposal facility in Utah. 

4.5.7 How is an onsite storage facility licensed? 

The NRC’s process for licensing onsite storage facilities 

for spent fuel and high-level waste is separate from the 

reactor licensing process. The NRC authorizes the 

storage of spent nuclear fuel at an independent spent 

fuel storage installation under two licensing options: a 

site-specific license or a general license. Under a sitespecific license, an applicant submits a license 

application to the NRC and the NRC performs a technical 

review of all the safety aspects of the proposed 

independent spent fuel storage installation. If the 

application is approved, the NRC issues a site-specific 

license that is valid for 20 years. The spent fuel storage 

license contains technical requirements and operating 

conditions (fuel specifications, cask leak testing, 

surveillance, and other requirements) and specifies what 

the licensee is authorized to store at the site. The sitespecific license is a stand-alone license, independent of 

the NRC license issued to possess and operate a 

nuclear power facility. 

A general license authorizes a nuclear power plant 

licensee to store spent fuel in NRC-approved casks at an existing site that is licensed for 

operating a power reactor under 10 CFR Part 50, “Domestic Licensing of Production and 

Utilization Facilities.” An NRC-approved cask is one that has undergone a technical review of 

its safety aspects and been found to meet all of the NRC’s requirements in 10 CFR Part 72, 

“Licensing Requirements for the Independent Storage of Spent Nuclear Fuel and High-Level 

Radioactive Waste, and Reactor-Related Greater than Class C Waste.” The NRC issues a 

Certificate of Compliance for a cask design to a cask vendor after an NRC rulemaking 

determines the design’s technical adequacy. The cask certificate expires 20 years from the 

date of issuance. Licensees are required to perform evaluations of their sites to demonstrate 

that the site is adequate for storing spent fuel in dry casks. These evaluations must show that 

the conditions in the Certificate of Compliance, technical specifications, and safety analysis 

report can be met. The licensee also must review its security program, emergency plan, quality 

assurance program, training program, and radiation protection program and make any 

The cask certificate expires 20 years 

from the date of issuance. Licensees 

are required to perform evaluations of 

their sites to demonstrate that the site is 

adequate for storing spent fuel in dry 

casks. 

Independent Spent Fuel Storage Installation 
 79 

necessary changes to incorporate the independent spent fuel storage installation at its reactor 

site. 

Onsite storage of low-level waste arising from plant operations can be accomplished in 

accordance with a license issued under 10 CFR Part 50. 

4.5.8 What is the policy of the United States concerning reprocessing? 

Reprocessing (or recycling) of spent nuclear fuel involves the chemical treatment of the fuel to 

separate unused fissionable material from radioactive fission products to be used in new fuel 

assemblies. When most U.S. nuclear plants were built, the industry, with the Federal 

Government’s encouragement, planned to recycle or reprocess used nuclear fuel. In 1979, 

President Jimmy Carter decided to ban commercial nuclear fuel reprocessing because of 

concerns about possible proliferation of weapons-grade material. President Reagan lifted the 

reprocessing ban in 1981; however, the nuclear industry had little or no interest in pursuing this 

option, at that time. In 2008, NRC received three letters of interest from the nuclear industry to 

pursue licensing of reprocessing facilities. These letters indicated license application submittal 

in the 2012-2014 timeframe. The NRC staff responded by providing a gap analysis identifying 

the regulatory gaps that exist for licensing reprocessing facilities (SECY-09-0082). Staff is 

currently pursuing the technical basis development that would support rulemaking for licensing 

reprocessing facilities. 

4.5.9 What is the NRC’s position on the onsite storage of spent fuel? 

In its original Waste Confidence Decision, the Commission found reasonable assurance that 

safe independent onsite or offsite spent fuel storage will be made available if such storage 

capacity is needed. Recently, the Commission proposed to update its Waste Confidence 

Findings. The notice of this update, published in the Federal Register (73 FR 59551) states the 

following: 

The Commission finds reasonable assurance that, if necessary, spent fuel 

generated in any reactor can be stored safely without significant environmental 

impacts for at least 60 years beyond the licensed life for operation (which may 

include the term of a revised or renewed license) of that reactor in a combination 

of storage in its spent fuel storage basin and either onsite or offsite independent 

spent fuel storage installations. 

Regarding the onsite storage of low-level waste, the Commission believes that permanent 

disposal is a superior management alternative. However, as discussed above, a disposal 

option is not available in some cases. Therefore, the Commission has updated guidance to 

continue to ensure the safe, secure storage of low-level waste for which no disposal option is 

available. 
 80 

4.5.10 What is the NRC’s policy on high-level waste management, such as is required for waste 

generated by operating nuclear power plants? 

The regulations in 10 CFR 51.23 (the Waste 

Confidence Rule) set forth the Commission’s policy on 

high-level waste. The NRC has evaluated the safety 

and environmental effects of the long-term storage of 

spent fuel onsite and, as set forth in the Waste 

Confidence Rule, has generically determined that 

such storage can be accomplished without significant 

environmental impact. In the Waste Confidence Rule, 

the Commission determined that spent fuel can be 

stored onsite for at least 30 years beyond the licensed 

operating life, which may include the term of a 

renewed license. The NRC is currently in the process of updating this rule (see Question 4.5.9). 

DOE has submitted an application to obtain a license from the NRC to construct a high-level 

waste repository. In the interim, onsite spent fuel storage in pools and in dry-cask storage 

facilities continues in accordance with NRC regulations. The NRC has a certification process 

for such casks, as set forth in 10 CFR Part 72, and has evaluated the environmental effects of 

the long-term storage of spent fuel onsite. As set forth in the Waste Confidence Rule (see 

10 CFR 51.23), the NRC generically determined that such storage can be accomplished without 

significant environmental impact. 

The NRC has evaluated the safety 

and environmental effects of longterm storage of spent fuel onsite 

and, as set forth in the Waste 

Confidence Rule, has generically 

determined that such storage can 

be accomplished without 

significant environmental impact. 
 81 

5.0 Public Involvement during New Reactor Licensing 

Public involvement is a very important part of the NRC evaluation of a new reactor licensing 

application. This section discusses the means by which members of the public may participate 

in the licensing process. It also describes how members of the public can access the 

documents upon which the U.S. Nuclear Regulatory Commission (NRC) bases its evaluation. 

5.1 Public Involvement 

5.1.1 How does a member of the public know that a utility is applying for a license to build and 

operate a new nuclear power plant? 

Many members of the public obtain information about upcoming licensing reviews for new 

nuclear plants from articles published in local and regional newspapers many months before the 

NRC receives the application. The NRC also routinely holds an informational meeting in the 

vicinity of the future facility several months before it receives the application. This gives the 

NRC an opportunity to inform the public about the 

process for reviewing the application and gives the 

public the opportunity to ask questions about the 

review process. After it receives an application for a 

new license, the NRC will also notify the public 

through the Federal Register, press releases, and 

local advertisements. The agency routinely places a 

notice in the Federal Register within 1 month after 

receiving the application. 

Applicants notify the NRC of their plans to submit an 

application for a license often years in advance of 

their submittal. The advance notice assists the NRC 

in planning its workload and ensures that staff will be 

available to review the application upon its arrival. 

The NRC currently posts a list of expected new 

nuclear power plant applications and updates it 

every 2 to 3 weeks. The list appears on the NRC’s 

“New Reactor” Web page located at 

http://www.nrc.gov/reactors/new-reactors.html. Federal Register 
 82 

5.1.2 Where do I find information related to a new reactor licensing action for a specific nuclear 

power facility? 

The NRC posts the status of new reactor licensing activities on the NRC Web site at 

http://www.nrc.gov/reactors/new-reactors/col.html. 

The staff adds the following information to the Web site when available: 

• contact information for the NRC safety and environmental project managers 

• a copy of the application 

• the review schedule 

• a list of meetings that are open to members of the public, along with the agenda for the 

meetings 

• a transcript or meeting summary (as appropriate), copies of slides that were used at the 

meeting, or copies of inspection reports, if pertinent 

• the draft and final environmental impact statement (EIS) 

• the safety evaluation report 

• any license or permit issued 

5.1.3 What are the kinds of meetings that the public can be involved in and how does the public 

find out about them? 

The NRC holds three types of public meetings with different purposes and varying degrees of 

public participation. The first type of meeting 

(Category 1) is commonly held with the 

applicant for a specific plant. Category 1 

meetings provide the public with an opportunity 

to observe the NRC’s interactions with the 

applicant, obtain information that assists the 

public in understanding regulatory issues, and 

offer constructive comments. The public is 

invited to observe the meeting and has the 

opportunity to speak with the NRC staff before 

the end of the meeting. Although most 

questions can be answered at the meeting, 

some questions may require followup by 

telephone or e-mail. 

Category 2 meetings are typically held with a 

Public Meeting for Turkey Point Nuclear Plant
 83 

group of representatives of industry, licensees, vendors, or nongovernmental organizations, 

such as public interest and citizen groups, and focus on issues that could apply to several 

facilities. 

Category 3 meetings are typically open to all external stakeholders, including representatives of 

nongovernmental organizations, private citizens or interested parties, and various businesses or 

industries. The NRC actively seeks public participation in Category 3 meetings to obtain a 

range of views, information, concerns, and suggestions about regulatory issues. This type of 

meeting provides the public the widest participation opportunities. Category 3 meetings include 

environmental scoping meetings or the public meeting to discuss a draft EIS. 

For a typical license application, the following meetings are open to the public, listed in the order 

in which they occur for most reviews: 

• meetings with the applicant to provide the NRC staff an overview of the license application 

(Category 1) 

• an outreach meeting to introduce the public to the NRC and present an overview of the 

licensing process (Category 3) 

• meetings with the applicant and members of the public to discuss the environmental review 

scoping process (Category 3) 

• meetings with the applicant and members of the public to discuss and receive comments on 

the draft EIS (Category 3) 

• meetings with the applicant to discuss issues related to the safety evaluation report 

(Category 1) 

• a meeting with the Advisory Committee on Reactor Safeguards to discuss the safety review 

for a specific facility (Category 1). 

5.1.4 What are the opportunities for public participation during the environmental review of the 

new reactor application? 

Although the NRC invites and encourages public 

involvement and comments throughout the 

environmental review for a particular site, the agency 

specifically appreciates input at two critical stages during 

the environmental review of the early site permit or 

combined license application. The first stage is during 

the scoping process for the draft EIS. This begins 

approximately 3 months after the applicant has submitted 

its application for a new license. The NRC notifies the 

public at the beginning of the scoping process through 

the publication of a Federal Register notice, a meeting 

notice on the NRC Web site, advertisements placed in 

local newspapers in communities near the nuclear power 

facility, and flyers distributed throughout the local community. The agency conducts the scoping 

process to define the proposed action, determine the scope of the EIS, and identify the 

Although the NRC invites and 

encourages public involvement 

and comments throughout the 

environmental review for a 

particular site, the agency 

specifically appreciates input at 

two critical stages during the 

environmental review of the early 

site permit or combined license 

application. 
 84 

significant issues to be analyzed in depth. The NRC Web site, Federal Register notice, and 

advertisements provide addresses for written comments to be submitted, by mail, or 

electronically. Scoping comments can also be given orally or submitted in writing at the public 

meetings. In addition, the notice contains the time and location of the public scoping meetings 

(see Question 5.1.5) that occur in the vicinity of the nuclear plant. 

The deadline for scoping comments is usually 60 days after the publication of the notice in the 

Federal Register. The NRC evaluates the comments received and considers them in preparing 

the site-specific analysis, as appropriate. An appendix to the draft EIS lists the comments 

considered to be in scope and provides the NRC staff’s decision about whether it will further 

evaluate the comment as part of the analysis during the preparation of the draft EIS. 

The second opportunity for public participation occurs after the NRC publishes the draft EIS, 

which occurs approximately 1 year after receipt of the application. To notify the public, the NRC 

staff places a notice of availability in the Federal Register (and on the NRC Web site) with 

instructions on how the public and other interested parties can obtain copies. The agency also 

sends a copy of this notice, along with a copy of the draft EIS, to those persons attending the 

public scoping meeting who place their names on a list to receive further information about the 

licensing process for that specific plant. The notice requests comments on the draft EIS and 

provides addresses for delivering and sending the comments to the appropriate NRC staff 

member by mail or electronically. The NRC allocates 75 days for the public to review the 

document and submit comments. 

The NRC staff holds a public meeting near the nuclear plant to provide an overview of the draft 

EIS and to accept additional public comments about the document. Again, the public receives 

notification through a Federal Register notice, a meeting notice on the NRC Web site, 

advertisements placed in local newspapers in communities near the nuclear power facility, and 

flyers distributed throughout the local community. The Federal Register notice provides the time 

and location of the public meeting(s). The NRC staff considers every comment received and, if 

appropriate, incorporates it into the final document. An appendix to the final EIS lists all of the 

comments on the draft EIS, along with the NRC staff’s decision about whether the comment 

was within the scope of the review and, if appropriate, where the staff changed the text of the 

final EIS in response to the comment. 

5.1.5 What happens during the public meetings held during the environmental review process? 

The NRC holds two types of public meetings during the environmental review process. At 

scoping meetings, the NRC staff orally presents an outline of the proposed action and 

regulatory process being undertaken. Then, the staff opens the meeting to any members of the 

public who wish to state their comments. For meetings about draft EISs, the NRC staff will 

orally present the findings stated in the EIS and then open the meeting to any members of the 

public who wish to state their concerns regarding the draft EIS. A court reporter transcribes 

both types of public meetings, and the NRC addresses comments submitted at the meeting 

either in a scoping report (for scoping meetings) or in the final EIS (for meetings about the draft 

EIS). 
 85 

5.1.6 When can I submit written or electronic comments and concerns during the 

environmental review? 

Although the NRC invites and encourages public 

involvement and comments throughout the 

environmental review for a particular site, the agency 

solicits both written and oral comments from members 

of the public at two particular times during the review. 

The first period of time is during the scoping process 

(see the response to Question 2.2.4), which is 

conducted to define the proposed action, determine 

the scope of the EIS, and identify significant issues to be analyzed in depth. Public scoping 

meetings take place near the nuclear plant that is seeking a license. The NRC invites members 

of the public to provide comments orally or in writing during these meetings. 

The NRC staff publishes a Federal Register notice that provides the times and locations of 

scoping meetings. It also places a notice in newspapers in communities near the plant and on 

the NRC’s Web site for the specific plant undergoing review. The notices provide addresses for 

written comments to be submitted in person, by mail, or electronically. The deadline for 

comments is usually 60 days after the NRC publishes in the Federal Register the notice of intent 

to conduct scoping. 

The NRC also solicits written comments from members of the public after publication of the draft 

EIS. The NRC staff places a notice in the Federal Register and on the NRC Web site stating 

that it has issued the draft EIS and providing instructions for the public and other interested 

parties on obtaining copies. Copies of the draft EIS are also available on the NRC Web site or 

can be obtained as discussed in the response to Question 5.2.9. The agency also sends a copy 

of the notice and the draft EIS to those people from the first meeting who requested a copy. 

The notice requests comments on the draft EIS and provides addresses for delivering or 

sending the comments to the appropriate NRC staff member. Usually, the NRC allows 75 days 

for the public to review and submit comments. The NRC then holds a second set of public 

meetings in the vicinity of the nuclear facility to present the results of the draft EIS to the public 

and to obtain public comments, both oral and written. 

5.1.7 Does the NRC do anything to ensure that members of the public who oppose nuclear 

power know about the review? 

The NRC attempts to notify all stakeholders of any upcoming reviews. This includes Federal, 

State, and local agencies, as well as the applicant’s staff, and members of the public or citizen 

advocacy groups that have previously expressed an interest in the regulatory activities related 

to a specific nuclear power facility. This also includes members of the public and organizations 

that oppose nuclear power. In addition to notices placed in the Federal Register, 

advertisements in local newspapers, and flyers distributed throughout the local community, the 

NRC staff notifies stakeholders (including members of the public or representatives of groups) 

who have previously attended public meetings related to a specific nuclear power facility or to 

license applications. Frequently, these groups also receive a courtesy telephone call to ensure 

Public scoping meetings are held 

near the nuclear plant that is 

seeking a license. Members of the 

public are invited to provide 

comments orally or in writing 

during these meetings. 
 86 

that they have been notified of public meetings on scoping and of the preliminary conclusions in 

a draft EIS. 

5.1.8 Does the NRC hold a hearing for each plant that requests a new license? 

Yes. Hearings on license applications are mandatory; that is, the NRC automatically holds 

hearings. 

5.1.9 As a member of the public, how do I request intervention in the proceedings for a new 

license? What is the timetable? 

A member of the public must follow the instructions in the notice of the opportunity to request a 

hearing. This notice will be published in the Federal Register soon after the NRC dockets the 

application and generally provides 60 days to request a hearing. 

5.1.10 What must be included in the request for a hearing or the petition to intervene? 

The regulations (10 CFR 2.309) provide that a request for a hearing or a petition for leave to 

intervene must show the interest of the petitioner in the proceeding and how that interest may 

be affected by the results of the proceeding. The petition must specifically explain the reasons 

that intervention should be permitted, with particular reference to the following factors: (1) the 

nature of the petitioner’s right to be made a party to the proceeding, (2) the nature and extent of 

the petitioner’s property, financial, or other interest in the proceeding, and (3) the possible effect 

of any order that may be entered in the proceeding 

describing the petitioner’s interest. The petition also 

must set forth the contentions sought to be raised in 

accordance with 10 CFR 2.309. 

The petitioner must provide 

sufficient information to show 

that a genuine dispute exists with 

the applicant on a material issue 

of law or fact. Contentions must 

be limited to matters within the 

scope of the license application 

(the action under consideration). 
 87 

5.1.11 How do I bring safety and security issues to the attention of the NRC? 

There are two methods of reporting safety or security concerns to the NRC. The choice 

depends on whether the concern is considered an emergency or not. Emergency concerns 

include any accident involving the following: 

• a nuclear reactor 

• a nuclear fuel facility 

• radioactive materials 

• lost or damaged radioactive materials 

• any threat, theft, smuggling, vandalism, or terrorist activity involving a nuclear facility or 

radioactive materials 

Members of the public reporting an emergency concern should call the NRC’s 24-hour 

Headquarters Operations Center at (301) 816-5100. Collect calls are accepted. All calls to this 

number are recorded. Nonemergency concerns should be brought to the attention of the NRC 

project manager assigned to a specific plant. The list of NRC project managers is located at 

http://www.nrc.gov/reactors/operating/project-managers.html#pwr. This page also contains a 

link to the NRC telephone directory. You can also give your concern to any NRC employee, 

who will pass it to the responsible person. 

5.2 Obtaining Additional Information 

5.2.1 Where are documents kept that the 

applicant submitted for review? 

The NRC places all documents and 

correspondence related to the application in the 

Agencywide Documents Access and 

Management System (ADAMS) and the NRC 

Public Document Room located in Rockville, MD. 

The NRC issues a press release to the media 

near the proposed plant announcing the receipt 

of the application and sends copies of the 

announcement to Federal, State, and local officials. The NRC publishes a notice of receipt of 

the application in the Federal Register. 

NRC Offices in Rockville, MD 
 88 

5.2.2 Are documents locally available during the license application review? 

The NRC makes hard copies of documents pertinent to the environmental review for the new 

reactor licensing application available to the public at one or more local community libraries in 

the vicinity of the facility. The documents include a copy of the licensee’s application containing 

its environmental report and other associated documents (for example, the site safety analysis 

report or final safety analysis report, emergency plan, and site redress plan if applicable) and a 

copy of the pertinent draft EIS. The location of the libraries appears in the Federal Register

notices related to the environmental review; it can also be obtained by calling the environmental 

project manager listed on the NRC Web site for each specific facility. 

5.2.3 May I add my name to a list to receive information during the environmental review? 

Members of the public may add their names to a list to receive information, including a copy of 

the draft and final EISs for the new reactor licensing review. A signup sheet is available in the 

lobby outside of the public meetings related to the environmental reviews. Members of the 

public may also contact the NRC’s environmental project manager listed on the NRC Web site 

for each specific facility. 

5.2.4 Does the NRC have a Web site? 

Yes, the NRC has a Web site that is updated almost daily. The Web site address is 

http://www.nrc.gov. 

5.2.5 What kind of information about new reactor license applications can I get from the NRC’s 

Web site? 

Information about new reactor licensing can be found on the NRC Web site at 

http://www.nrc.gov. The new reactor page, which is linked to the home page, provides 

information about combined license applications, early site permits, and design certifications, as 

well as regulations and guidance regarding the new reactor process. In addition, the site 

provides links to opportunities for public involvement in the EIS process and rulemaking. 

Schedules and full applications, including the environmental reports and safety evaluation 

reports, are also available from the NRC Web site. 

5.2.6 What is the Federal Register and how can I get a copy of it? 

The Federal Register is the official daily publication for rules, proposed rules, and notices of 

Federal agencies and organizations, as well as Executive orders and other Presidential 

documents. It is published by the Office of the Federal Register, National Archives and Records 

Administration. The public can search the Federal Register database online at 

http://www.gpoaccess.gov/fr/index.html. This site contains volumes of the Federal Register 

published since 1994 (Volume 59). 
 89 

Federal Register citations are commonly given in a form that states the volume first and then, 

after the acronym FR, the page number (e.g., 60 FR 22461, indicating that it is Volume 60 and 

page 22461). Searches on the Government Printing Office (GPO) Access Web site can be 

conducted by Federal Register date, volume, and page or by key word 

(http://www.gpoaccess.gov/index.html). Other options for obtaining the Federal Register include 

purchasing a subscription (instructions are on the GPO Web site) or viewing issues from a local 

Federal depository library. The GPO Access Website also provides the addresses of such 

libraries. 

The NRC Web site posts announcements of the publication of Federal Register notices that 

deal with new reactor licensing at http://www.nrc.gov/reactors/new-reactors.html. They are 

listed by the name of each facility that has applied for an early site permit or a combined license. 

The date and purpose of the Federal Register notice are provided and can be used to search for 

the actual Federal Register notice on the GPO Web site. 

5.2.7 How can I get a copy of the Code of Federal Regulations dealing with new reactor license 

applications? 

The regulations for new reactor licensing reviews are in Title 10, “Energy,” of the Code of 

Federal Regulations, which can be viewed and printed from the NRC Web site at 

http://www.nrc.gov/reading-rm/doc-collections/cfr/. In addition, copies of the Code of Federal 

Regulations may be purchased from GPO or the National Technical Information Service: 

The Superintendent of Documents 

U.S. Government Printing Office 

Mail Stop SSOP 

Washington, DC 20402-0001 

Internet: http://bookstore.gpo.gov 

Telephone: 202-512-1800 

Fax: 202-512-2250 

 or 

The National Technical Information Service 

Springfield, VA 22161-0002 

Internet: http://www.ntis.gov

Telephone: 1-800-553-6847 or, locally, 703-605-6000 

5.2.8 How does a member of the public obtain a copy of a license application for a proposed 

nuclear power plant? 

The Federal Register notice that indicates that the NRC has received an application from a 

specific site also provides information on how the public can access the application. Copies of 

the application are available electronically on the NRC Web site at 

http://www.nrc.gov/reactors/new-reactors.html. 
 90 

The application is also available electronically from the NRC’s Agency-wide Documents Access 

and Management System (ADAMS). The ADAMS Public Electronic Reading Room is 

accessible from the NRC Web site at http://www.nrc.gov/reading-rm/adams.html. 

In addition, a copy or copies are available to local residents at one or two local libraries in the 

vicinity of the facility. The Federal Register notice related to the environmental review identifies 

the local library at which copies are available, as discussed previously in the response to 

Question 5.2.2. 

5.2.9 How do I get a copy of the draft EIS related to a specific facility? 

A single copy of each NRC draft EIS is free, to the extent of availability, upon written request to 

the following address: 

Office of the Chief Information Officer, 

Reproduction and Distribution Services Section 

U.S. Nuclear Regulatory Commission 

Washington, DC 20555-0001 

E-mail: distribution@nrc.gov 

Fax: 301-415-2289 

Members of the public who sign up at the public scoping meeting for a copy of the draft EIS for 

that specific facility will automatically receive a copy once the draft EIS is published. A copy is 

also available to local residents at the local libraries identified in the Federal Register notice, as 

discussed in the response to Question 5.2.2. 

In addition, the draft EIS is available for review from the NRC Web site at 

http://www.nrc.gov/reading-rm/doc-collections/nuregs/staff/. 

5.2.10 How do I get a copy of the staff’s safety evaluation report related to a specific facility? 

A copy of the staff’s safety evaluation report is available electronically from the NRC’s Agencywide Documents Access and Management System (ADAMS). The ADAMS Public Electronic 

Reading Room is accessible from the NRC Web site at http://www.nrc.gov/readingrm/adams.html. In addition, copies of the safety evaluation report related to a specific facility 

are available electronically on the NRC Web site at http://www.nrc.gov/reactors/newreactors.html. When the staff finalizes its safety evaluation report, that final safety evaluation 

report (FSER) will also be available electronically in ADAMS and will be available on the NRC 

web site. In addition, the FSER will be published in a NUREG that will also be available 

electronically from ADAMS or can be obtained in hardcopy from the NRC (see the response to 

Question 5.2.9 above). 
 91 

5.2.11 How can I get answers to additional questions that 

this document did not address? 

Members of the public are invited to plant-specific public 

meetings, where NRC staff members are available to answer 

both generic and site-specific questions (see also the responses 

to Questions 5.1.3–5.1.5). In addition, many answers to 

questions that are not included in this document can be found 

on the NRC Web site at http://www.nrc.gov. The NRC has 

developed a number of “frequently asked questions” 

documents, as well as informational brochures and fact sheets, 

all of which can be accessed from http://www.nrc.gov/reading-rm/faqlist.html. 

For plant-specific safety and environmental questions related to new reactor applications, 

members of the public can contact the safety and/or environmental project manager assigned 

by the NRC for the license review for the specific plant. The name for each of the NRC safety 

and environmental project managers is given on the NRC Web site, and their telephone 

numbers can be obtained from the telephone directory on the NRC Web site. In addition, 

contact information is provided in the appropriate Federal Register notices and at the public 

meetings. The NRC safety and environmental project managers can either answer questions or 

direct callers to the appropriate person at the NRC 

The NRC has developed 

a number of “frequently 

asked questions” 

documents, as well as 

informational brochures 

and fact sheets, all of 

which can be accessed 

from http://www.nrc.gov/

reading-rm/faqlist.html. 

 93 

6.0 Bibliography of Published Material Relevant to New Reactor Licensing 

10 CFR Part 2. “Rules of Practice for Domestic Licensing Proceedings and Issuance of 

Orders.” Code of Federal Regulations, U.S. Nuclear Regulatory Commission. 

10 CFR Part 20. “Standards for Protection Against Radiation.” Code of Federal Regulations, 

U.S. Nuclear Regulatory Commission. 

10 CFR Part 50 “Domestic Licensing of Production and Utilization Facilities.” Code of Federal 

Regulations, U.S. Nuclear Regulatory Commission. 

10 CFR Part 51. “Environmental Protection Regulations for Domestic Licensing and Related 

Regulatory Functions.” Code of Federal Regulations, U.S. Nuclear Regulatory Commission. 

10 CFR Part 52. “Early Site Permits; Standard Design Certifications; and Combined Licenses 

for Nuclear Power Plants.” Code of Federal Regulations, U.S. Nuclear Regulatory Commission. 

10 CFR Part 60. “Disposal of High-Level Radioactive Wastes in Geologic Repositories.” Code of 

Federal Regulations, U.S. Nuclear Regulatory Commission. 

10 CFR Part 71. “Packaging and Transportation of Radioactive Material.” Code of Federal 

Regulations, U.S. Nuclear Regulatory Commission. 

10 CFR Part 72. “Licensing Requirements for the Independent Storage of Spent Nuclear Fuel, 

High-Level Radioactive Waste, and Reactor-Related Greater than Class C Waste.” Code of 

Federal Regulations, U.S. Nuclear Regulatory Commission. 

10 CFR Part 73. “Physical Protection of Plants and Materials.” Code of Federal Regulations, 

U.S. Nuclear Regulatory Commission. 

10 CFR Part 100. “Reactor Site Criteria.” Code of Federal Regulations, U.S. Nuclear Regulatory 

Commission. 

40 CFR Part 122. “EPA Administered Permit Programs: The National Pollution Discharge 

Elimination System.” Code of Federal Regulations U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. 

40 CFR Part 125. Criteria and Standards for the National Pollution Discharge Elimination 

System.” Code of Federal Regulations U.S. Environmental protection Agency. 

40 CFR Part 190 “Environmental Radiation Protections Standards for Nuclear Power Plant 

Operations.” Code of Federal Regulations U.S. Environmental Protection Agency 

40 CFR Part 230. “Section 404(b)(1) Guidelines For Specifications of Disposal Sites for 

Dredged or Filled Material.” Code of Federal Regulations U.S. Environmental Protection Agency 
 94 

40 CFR Part 403. “General Pretreatment Regulations for Existing and New Sources of 

Pollution.” Code of Federal Regulations U.S. Environmental Protection 

40 CFR Part 1500. “NEPA and Agency Planning.” Code of Federal Regulations, Council on 

Environmental Quality. 

40 CFR Part 1508. “Terminology and Index.” Code of Federal Regulations, Council on 

Environmental Quality. 

69 FR 52040–52048. August 24, 2004. “Policy Statement on the Treatment of Environmental 

Justice Matters in NRC Regulatory and Licensing Actions.” Federal Register, U.S. Nuclear 

Regulatory Commission. 

72 FR 57416–57450. October 9, 2007. “Limited Work Authorizations for Nuclear Power 

Plants.” Federal Register, U.S. Nuclear Regulatory Commission. 

73 FR 55546. September 25, 2008. “Notice of Availability of Memorandum of Understanding 

Between U.S. Army Corps of Engineers and the U.S. Nuclear Regulatory Commission on 

Environmental Reviews Related to the Issuance of Authorizations to Construct and Operate 

Nuclear Power Plants.” Federal Register, U.S. Nuclear Regulatory Commission. 

73 FR 59551–59571. October 9, 2008. “Waste Confidence Decision Update.” Federal 

Register, U.S. Nuclear Regulatory Commission. 

American Cancer Society 2001. Cancer Facts and Figures. Available URL: 

http://www.cancer.org/docroot/STT/stt_0_2001.asp?sitearea=STT&level=1 (Accessed August 

20, 2009). 

American Cancer Society. 2004. Cancer Facts and Figures—2004. 

http://www.cancer.org/downloads/STT/CAFF_finalPWSecured.pdf. 

Atomic Energy Act of 1954, as amended, 16 U.S.C. 1531, et seq. 

Bureau of Environmental Epidemiology, Florida Department of Health. 2001. “Report 

Concerning Cancer Rates in Southeastern Florida.” In Letter from David R. Johnson to 

Interested Parties. July 18, 2001. http://www.fpl.com/about/nuclear/contentsfdh_report.shtml. 

Clean Air Act 42 U.S.C. 7401-7671q 

Clean Water Act 33 U.S.C. §1251 et seq. (1972) 

Connecticut Academy of Science and Engineering. Spring 2001. Bulletin of the Connecticut 

Academy of Science and Engineering, Volume 16.2. Hartford, Connecticut. 

Division of Epidemiologic Studies, Illinois Department of Public Health. Fall 2000. Health and 

Hazardous Substances Registry Newsletter, Springfield, IL. 

Endangered Species Act of 1973 as Amended 16 U.S.C.A. §§ 1531 et seq. 
 95 

Executive Order 12898. February 16, 1994. “Federal Actions To Address Environmental 

Justice in Minority Populations and Low-Income Populations.” Federal Register, Volume 59, 

No. 32, page 7629. 

International Atomic Energy Agency. 1992. Effects of Ionizing Radiation on Plants and Animals 

at Levels Implied by Current Radiation Protection Standards. Technical Reports Series 

No. 332, Vienna, Austria. 

International Commission on Radiological Protection (ICRP). 1977. “Recommendations of the 

International Commission on Radiological Protection.” ICRP Publication 26. Pergamon Press 

Oxford; New York. 

International Commission on Radiological Protection (ICRP). “Limits for Intakes of 

Radionuclides by Workers.” ICRP Publication 30, in Annals of the ICRP. Elsevier. 

International Commission on Radiological Protection (ICRP). 1991. “1990 Recommendations of 

the International Commission on Radiological Protection.” ICRP Publication 60, in Annals of the 

ICRP. Elsevier. 

National Cancer Institute. 1990. “Cancer in Populations Living Near Nuclear Facilities.” 

Bethesda, MD. 

National Council on Radiation Protection and Measurements. 1987. “Ionizing Radiation 

Exposures of the Population of the United States.” Report No. 93, Bethesda, MD. 

National Council on Radiation Protection and Measurements. 1988. “Exposure of the 

Population in the United States and Canada from Natural Background Radiation.” Report 

No. 94, Washington, DC. 

National Council on Radiation Protection and Measurements. 2001. “Evaluation of the LinearNonthreshold Dose Response Model for Ionizing Radiation.” Report No. 136, Bethesda, MD. 

National Council on Radiation Protection and Measurements. 1991. “Effects of Ionizing 

Radiation on Aquatic Organisms.” Report No. 109, Bethesda, MD. 

National Council on Radiation Protection and Measurements. 1988. “Public Radiation 

Exposure from Nuclear Power Generation in the United States.” Report No. 92, 

Washington, DC. 

National Environmental Policy Act of 1969. U.S.C. 4321-4347 

National Research Council. 1990. “Health Effects of Exposure to Low Levels of Ionizing 

Radiation: BEIR V.” Committee on the Biological Effects of Ionizing Radiations, Board on 

Radiation Effects Research Commission of Life Sciences, National Research Council, National 

Academy Press, Washington, DC. 

National Research Council. 2006. “Health Risks from Exposure to Low Levels of Ionizing 

Radiation: BEIR VII—Phase 2.” Committee to Assess Health Risks from Exposure to Low 
 96 

Levels of Ionizing Radiation, National Research Council, National Academy Press, 

Washington, DC. 

Talbott, E.O., A.O. Youk, K.P. McHugh-Pemu, and J.V. Zborowski. 2003. “Long-Term Followup of the Residents of the Three Mile Island Accident Area: 1979–1998.” In Environmental 

Health Perspectives 111(3):341–348. 

U.S. Department of Energy. 2004. “Study of Construction Technologies and Schedules, O&M 

Staffing and Cost, and Decommissioning Costs and Funding Requirements for Advanced 

Reactor Designs.” Washington, DC. 

U.S. Nuclear Regulatory Commission. 1976. “Preparation of Environmental Reports for 

Nuclear Power Stations.” Regulatory Guide 4.2, Rev. 2. Washington, DC. 

U.S. Nuclear Regulatory Commission. October 1977. “Calculation of Annual Doses to Man from 

Routine Releases of Reactor Effluents for the Purpose of Evaluating Compliance with 10 CFR 

Part 50, Appendix I.” Regulatory Guide 1.109, Rev. 1. Washington, DC. 

U.S. Nuclear Regulatory Commission. 1977. “Final Environmental Statement on the 

Transportation of Radioactive Material by Air and Other Modes.” NUREG-0170. 

Washington, DC. 

U.S. Nuclear Regulatory Commission. 1987. “Shipping Container Response to Severe 

Highway and Railway Accident Conditions—Main Report.” NUREG/CR-4829, Vols. 1 and 2. 

Washington, DC. 

U.S. Nuclear Regulatory Commission. 1999. “Standard Review Plans for Environmental 

Reviews for Nuclear Power Plants.” NUREG-1555. Washington, DC. 

U.S. Nuclear Regulatory Commission. 2000. “Reexamination of Spent Fuel Shipment Risk 

Estimates.” NUREG/CR-6672. Washington, DC. 

U.S. Nuclear Regulatory Commission. 2001. “Standard Review Plan for Review of Safety 

Analysis Reports for Nuclear Power Plants.” NUREG-0800. Washington, DC. 

U.S. Nuclear Regulatory Commission. 2006. “Frequently Asked Questions on License 

Renewal of Nuclear Power Reactors.” NUREG-1850. Washington, DC. 

U.S. Nuclear Regulatory Commission. 2008. “Report on Waste Burial Charges.” 

NUREG-1850, Rev. 13. Washington, DC. 

U.S. Nuclear Regulatory Commission. “Office of Nuclear Reactor Regulation Office Procedural 

Guidance for Preparing Environmental Assessments and Considering Environmental Issues.” 

Washington, DC. 

United Nations Scientific Committee on the Effects of Atomic Radiation. 2000. “Sources and 

Effects of Ionizing Radiation: The UNSCEAR 2000 Report to the General Assembly, with 

Scientific Annexes,” Vols. 1 and 2. United Nations, New York.