rBurcc

f \ • i- ‘ ;ne iJii^ ^ry.

COMMERCIAL

STANDARDS

MONTHLY

CJ*

A Review of Progress in

Commercial Standardization and Simplification

Pliotograplu'd by Army Air Corps AIRPLANE VIEW OF BUREAU OF STANDARDS (LOOKING SOUTH)

ISSUED BY THE BUREAU OF STANDARDS OF THE UNITED

STATES DEPARTMENT OF COMMERCE, WASHINGTON, D. C., U. S. A.

Vol. 8, No. 9 MARCH, 1932

For sale by the Superintendent of Documents, Washington, D. C. See page 3 of cover for prices
U. S. DEPARTMENT OF COMMERCE

R. P. LAMONT, Secretary

BUREAU OF STANDARDS

GEORGE K. BURGESS, Director

COMMERCIAL STANDARDS MONTHLY, S. F. Tillman, Editor

The Commercial Standardization Group

DIVISION OF SIMPLIFIED PRACTICE

Edwin W. Ely

The division of simplified pracTtice cooperates with industrial and commercial groups to reduce wa^le, usually through

eliminating unnecessary variety of produdf, method, or

praiffcice. Its fundlion is to bring together all parties inter- ested in a projecfl of this characfler, and to coordinate their

work in developing a simplified pradlice recommendation.

Such work includes surveys of current pradtice, formulation of a simplified pradtice program, and presentation of

that program for adtion by a general conference representing

all interests. The division then transmits to all concerned

a full report of the general conference, with a requeSt for written acceptance of the adtion taken. When the volume

of acceptances is sufficient to indicate initial success, the

Department of Commerce indorses the program and publishes

the recommendation. The division thereafter cooperates

with a Standing committee appointed by the industry concerned, in condudting periodic surveys to determine the

degree of adherence, to maintain and extend support of the

recommendation, and to secure data for reaffirmation or

revision. Simplified pradtice may be applied to any com- modity or adtivity in which it will reduce

waSte. The division Stands ready to render

service in developing and making effedtive any application of simplified pradtice which

will reduce waSte, Stabiliz,e business, or extend commerce.

BUILDING AND HOUSING DIVISION

J. S. Taylor

The division of building and housing,

1921, cooperates

STANDARDIZATION

..IS.. A CONTINUING PROCESS

DIVISION OF SPECIFICATIONS

A. S. McAlliiler

The duties of the division of specifications are to promote

and facilitate the use and unification of specifications. In doing so it carries on adtivities involving cooperation with

technical societies; trade associations; Federal, State, and

municipal Government specifications making and using

agencies; producers, distributors, and consumers; and teSting

and research laboratories. It ascertains the Standardization

and specifications promoting adtivities of the associations and societies, and brings to their attention the work being

done by the commercial Standardization group. It brings the

Federal specifications and commercial Standards to the atten- tion of the maximum number of producers and users of commodities complying with these Standards and specifications.

It compiles and distributes liSts of sources of supply of materials guaranteed to comply with the Standards and specifi- cations. It shows both buyers and sellers the benefits from

handling nationally specified, certified, and labeled commodities. The division prepares directories of governmental and

nongovernmental teSting laboratories and the Directory of

Specifications, and is working on an encyclopedia of specifications, the firSt two volumes of which

have been issued, namely, “Standards and

Specifications in the Wood-Using Industries”

and “Standards and Specifications for Nonmetallic Minerals and their ProduCts.” It also aids in preparing the Standards Yearbook.

formed in 1921, cooperates with business,

technical, and professional groups in furthering construction activities. It works to modernize building codes and to encourage improved Standards for the quality of building conStruCtion, and the practical application of the lateSt development in design and use of building materials.

It encourages home ownership through the development

of an enlarged. Steadier, more intelligent, and more discriminating demand for dwellings—the largeSt single class of

buildings which the construction industries provide.

The division also cooperates with other governmental

agencies and with many private business and professional

groups in efforts to distribute building activity more evenly

throughout the year and to secure less fluctuation from

year to year. The work on city planning and zoning has the broad

objective of making buildings more useful through proper

location with respeCt to other Structures, Stabilizing of land

values and property uses, well coordinated thoroughfare

systems, and well laid out public works.

<r+o ITS AIM IS NOT FIXITY OR STAGNATION

..BUT. . TO ADD SERVICEABILITY

AS OFTEN AS THE

POTENTIAL GAIN

MAKES IT WORTH WHILE

DIVISION OF TRADE STANDARDS

I. J. Fairchild

The division of trade Standards, on requeSt,

assists industrial and commercial groups in

the voluntary establishment of Standards

covering grades, quality, dimensional interchangeability, or other acceptance criteria as a national

basis for marketing manufactured commodities.

The detail criteria are selected or determined voluntarily

by interested buyers or sellers, without any Government

dictation or domination, and adjusted at a general confer- ence of producers, distributors, and users so as to represent

the composite views of all branches. The division functions

chiefly as a neutral agency to see that all interested elements

are given full opportunity to be heard and satisfied; to

solicit and record acceptances; and to publish and promulgate

the Standard when a satisfactory majority of acceptances is obtained and provided there is no aCtive opposition.

Industries are encouraged to apply self-certifying labels to products meeting the commercial Standard requirements, as a means of protecting the consumer and the scrupulous seller from misrepresentation or unfair methods of marketing.

Provision is made for regular revision of the Standard

through the appointment of a Standing committee to consider periodically any necessity for revision of the Standard

in order that it may be kept constantly compatible with

progress in the induStry.

Address BUREAU OF STANDARDS, Washington, D, C., for further information
COMMERCIAL STANDARDS MONTHLY

A Review of Progress in

Commercial Standardization and Simplification

Volume 8 AVASHINGTON, D. C., MARCH, 1932 Number 9

SUBJECT ANALYSIS

AUTOMOTIVE

Page

S. A. E. 1932 annual meeting held in Detroit 260

Specification for free-wheeling lubricants amended 286

Truck rims 258

GROUP ACTIVITIES American Dental Association 269

American Road Builders’ Association holds annual meeting 280

American Standards Association 263

Federal specifications 282

Reorganized committee will aid home owners_.J 287

Standardization of county road specifications 268

INTERNATIONAL AND FOREIGN

Austrian Standards Committee 281

British standard issued for street lighting 278

Electric cut-outs 287

International comparison of X-ray standards 264

Norwegian Standardization Committee 277

The effects of standardization in British industry 273

METAL PRODUCTS

Laundry machinery 276

Simplification of wire screen cloth approved by industry. 282

Simplified list of metallic cartridges reaffirmed 268

Simplified schedule for forged tools revised 272 Standard rail 281

MISCELLANEOUS

Municipal controller for San Francisco 267

Time measurements in the laboratory 284

PUBLICATIONS

Page Cotton cloth for rubber and pyroxylin coating 277

Federal specification for builders’ hardware 262

Plywood standard released 272 QUALITY MARKS AND LABELS

American Dental Association 269

“Buy peas by label,” food official urges 286

Certification inspection of California produce 271

Certified concrete masonry units 283

Hospital rubber sheeting 262

Jam or jelly _ 286

Labeling canned sweet corn 270

SAFETY AND HEALTH

Clinical thermometers 280

Coal-mine blasting 285

Engineering inspection of airplane structures 278

Grading milk 279

Uniformity in regulating New Jersej'' traffic' assured 275

Uniformity in traffic laws reduces accidents 259

WOOD, TEXTILES, RUBBER, AND GLASS

Cotton cloth for rubber and pyroxylin coating 277

Flax and hemp twins simplified schedule recommended

by conference 270

Glass containers for mayonnaise and kindred products now in effect 276

Hospital rubber sheeting 262

Plywood standard I'eleased 272

Revision of Southern pine grading rules planned 287

Simplification of singletrees before industry 262

Standard for cedar closet lining reaffirmed 280

Thickness of textiles and similar materials 265

Wool and part wool blankets 264

AN INVITATION TO VISIT THE BUREAU OF STANDARDS

A cordial invitation is extended to all interested in scientific progress to visit the laboratories of

the Bureau of Standards when in Washington. A personally conducted trip is organized at 2.15 p. m.

daily except on holidays. Special trips for groups may be arranged at other times by writing to the

bureau in advance. The bureau’s illustrated Visitor’s Manual may be had for the asking. This lists the work in progress and gives an airplane view of the ensemble and a brief statement of tyihcal

discoveries and inventions which have been notable, basis contributions to radio, aviation, and other

modern arts and industries.

10D675—32- •1 257
TRUCK RIMS

T T

F

ew problems of the trucking industry have been

given more consideration in recent years than the

standardization of truck rims. It is generally recognized

by operators that the greatest economy can be obtained

by using, so far as possible, the same size, make, and

type of rims on the largest number of vehicles.

Many advantages are to be gained in fleet operation

where trucks and busses use the same size tire and rim

equipment and also use the same make of rim throughout. Tires can be changed to best suit requirements.

Extra wear can be obtained by placing partially worn

tires in lighter service and the newer tires in operations

that are more severe. Where either semi or four-wheel trailers are used, savings can be made in tire investment if all rims are of one

type, as it is thereby possible to eliminate the need of

carrying an extra spare for the trailer. The same is true

in having the same size tires front and rear on single or dual tired jobs. Only one spare will have to be carried

and the tires can be shifted around at will. —Editorial from February, 1932, FLEET OWNER.

258
MARCH, 1932 COMMERCIAL STANDARDS MONTHLY 259

UNIFORMITY IN TRAFFIC LAWS REDUCED ACCIDENTS

Oregon Adopted Uniform Vehicle Code in 1931 and Has Found That Compliance with Its Provisions Has

Reduced Accidents

By Hal E. Hoss, Secretary of State, Salem, Oreg.

The State of Oregon took a forward step in motorvehicle legislation in 1931, in the opinion of those

conversant with conditions, when it adopted the third

and fourth acts of the Uniform Vehicle Code, drafted

by the National Conference on Street and Highway

Safety, the former relating to the examination of operators and the latter to the regulation of traffic on the

highways. The first and second acts of the code,

adapted to state-wide legislation, provide motor vehicle registration and certificate of title laws, which

have been a part of the Oregon motor-vehicle system

since 1925. By overwhelming majorities, both houses

of the 1931 legislature approved the two new measures, wliich had been indorsed enthusiastically by

many prominent individuals, by organizations in the

State interested in the promotion, of safety and of uniformity in regulations, and by the office of the sec- retary of State, under who jurisdiction of motor-vehicle activities has been placed for many year. Observance of traffic conditions in Oregon during

the last few year, study of causes and results in Oregon and in other States, and helpful guidance of the

national conference in advancing the development of

better motor-vehicle legislation were responsible for

my interest in the Uniform Code with its recommendations for perfecting laws governing automobiles and

their operators. I attended the 1930 session of the

conference in Washington, D. C., and obtained from

it a general knowledge of the progress of other States

along automotive lines and a specific suggested plan,

analyzed and advocated by nationally known traffic experts, for the relief of the rapidly increasing traffic congestion with its attendant dangers.

Oregon, with a steady growth in motor-vehicle registration, with widely variant highway conditions, with

laws not definite enough to cover these variances in

conditions and to provide sufficient supervision over

the operation of automobiles, and with a citizenry

open minded toward changes, was ready for a re- vamping of its motor-vehicle statutes. After a study

of the Uniform Code, it appeared to me that it was

most vital for Oregon to consider those acts establishing a model highway traffic law, which included

the basic rule for speed regulation and a new rightof-way proviso, and authorizing tests for operators of

motor vehicles.

For many years motorists in Oregon had followed

the practice of the basic rule for the amount of speed

permitted. When the average driver was out in the

open country, where crossroads were few and vision was clear for long distances ahead, his rate of speed was a good deal above the old limit of 35 miles an

hour, and the factor of safety to himself and others

guided him in the speed at which he traveled. When

he was in the more closely settled districts, his rate was sharply reduced, and in the cities, even slower

travel was automatic with him. Enforcement of a 35-mile limit for all conditions of roadway was felt by officers concerned with this duty to be impractical

and nonessential to safety. Unfavorable publicity re- sulted in the elimination of speed traps, which sprang

up in the smaller communities in the State several

years ago, and officers were not put out on the road for

the purpose of “ getting ” the driver who traveled a few miles faster than the exact speed established in

the statutes, but for the enforcement of safety regulations for all. Since this basic rule was followed in

practice to such a great extent in Ox’egon, it was ar- gued that the law governing the speed of motor vehicles should be amended to permit the legal operation

of a car in conformity with the standard of good sense

as outlined in the basic rule. In other words, to keep

Mr. Average Driver from being a law breaker every

time he took his car out on the open highway a change

in the law was needed. Oregon has hundreds of miles

of hard-surfaced, straight stretches where the 35-mile

limit was slower than imperative either for the safety

of the driver or the users of the higliAvay. The logic

of this new recommendation and the other provisions

of the model traffic act was readily seen by members

of the legislature and the regulations for uniformity

in traffic control with other progressive States were

adopted.

Since the new traffic regulations became effective on June 6, 1931, public sentiment for the new law has

increased. Reduction in motor-vehicle accidents in

the State during the last six months of the year was

3.7 per cent and in fatalities a 33 per cent reduction was effected. Under Oregon’s former law, operators were required

to obtain a license to drive, but no restrictions other

than an age limit and a superficial inquiry as to the

driver’s possible physical inability to operate a car were made. A simple application form and a dollar

bill alone were needed to get a permit to drive in

Oregon. Watching the improvement in conditions

in other States where operators’ examinations had

been requisite over a period of years, I was impressed

by their definitely better traffic accident records.

With accident rates increasing rapidly in the other

States, it was clearly evident that the examination re- quirements were weeding out unfit drivers and above

all were educating all motor-vehicle operators in rules

of the road and in safe driving practices.

The value of the tests as educational factors was in

itself sufficient indorsement for the new law, which

became operative in Oregon Jul}'^ 1, 1931. While the

provisions enacted in this State did not require an immediate calling in of all drivers’ licenses outstanding, and allowed renewals to be mandatory some time

within the three years following the effective date,

interest was aroused at once in the law and its purposes and requirements, and this awakening of interest was at once beneficial. It was pleasing but sxir- prising to note the inquiries and requests for information on the law, as it indicated among other things

a healthy interest in any plan to promote greater

highway safety. One brief article in a motorists’
260 COMMEECIAL STANDARDS MONTHLY MARCH, 1932

magazine brought more than 400 requests in three

days following j)wblication for the “ Questions and

Answers ” booklets issued by this office to aid the in- dividual who wishes to stud}^ the rules of the road

preparatory to taking a drivers’ examination. A se- ries of radio talks resulted in another influx of re- quests for similar information, and probably 80 per

cent of these two groups of inquiries were not from new drivers but were from those who had operated

cars in Oregon for many years—drivers who wanted

to be prepared on traffic questions when their licenses were called in for renewal. This fact was significant

in demonstrating the average motorist’s insufficient knowledge of the motor-vehicle law. Many operators who have completed the tests since July 1, have

stressed that the examination has been most helpful

to them in showing how little they actually knew

about safe driving requirements and they have in- dorsed whole-heartedly the various features of the

tests. Oregon’s method of conducting operators’ examinations and the provisions of its law, including the regulations on revocations and suspensions of licenses, have

been approved by national authorities in motor-vehicle

administration. A study of the methods of examining

operators in other States was largely responsible for

the system that was built up and adapted to Oregon,

and our State profited to no small extent by the ex- periences and experiments in other sections of the

United States. Viewing the accomplishments that have already

been effected during the short time that these two acts of the Uniform Code have been operative and recognizing the value that similar legislation has had in

other States, I look forward not only to a great advancement in safe and sane motor-vehicle operation

in Oregon, but also to the time when uniform laAvs will be adopted in all States of the Union so that

familiarity with the laws of one’s own State will mean

a knowleclge of tlie requirements of the neighboring

CommoiiAvealth or the State through which one travels on vacation or business trips. From observation and

personal experience, I am thoroughly convinced that

the establishment of practical, workable, and uniform

motor-vehicle laws such as Oregon adopted at the rec- ommendation of the National Conference on Street and Highway Safety is at least a partial answer to the

Nation’s traffic problems.

S. A, E. 1932 ANNUAL MEETING HELD IN DETROIT

Meeting Considers Various Projects Relating to Standardization and Approves Report of Its Standards

Committee

Various aspects of standardization in the automotive field were considered by members of the Society

of Automotive Engineers attending the 1932 annual

meeting of tlie society held January 25 to 29, 1932,

in Detroit, Mich.

International standardization has received considerable recognition during the year 1931, the chairman

of the society’s standards committee, A. Boor, told

the conference, pointing out that a number of international standards association committees in whose Avork

the Society of Automotive Engineers is maintaining

contact through the American Standards Association, were A^ery active during the year. Among these are the committees on aeronautics, automobile parts, ball

bearings, brass, bronze, etc., bolts and nuts, classifica- tion of machine fits, iron and steel, screw threads, and

tires and rims for automobiles and airplanes.

The subject that has probably made the greatest

progress toAvard international standardization is that

of taper roller bearings. At the international con- ference on bearing standardization held at Copenhagen in May, 1931, Ernest Wooler, a member of the

Society of AutomotiA^e Engineers ball and roller bearings division, represented the society. As a result

of that conference on roller bearings, the ball and

roller bearings division of the society recommended to the standards committee the adoption of a recom- mendation for taper roller bearings. This report Avill serve as a basis for international standardization and

will be submitted through the American Standards

Association's sectional committee on ball bearings to the national standardizing bodies of other countries,

Mr. Boor said.

In concluding his report to the annual meeting Mr.

Boor said that the plans of the standards committee

are such that its work in the coming year will be commensurate with the requirements of the automotive

industry; existing standards Avill be brought up to date as becomes necessary, and the interests of the

industry in standardization will be advanced both

here and abroad.

The regular meeting of the standards committee

received the reports of its A’arious divisions, AAdiich were

approved as submitted, Avith the exception of those

noted as follows

:

The report of the aircraft division on airplane landing-wheel tires was amended to include revised tire loads for the 44 by 10 inch size as folloAvs : For the

45-pound pressure, the load was raised to 4,500

pounds; for 50-pound pressure, to 5,000 pounds; for

the 55-pound pressure to 5,500 pounds, and for the

60-pound pressure to 6,000 pouncls.

In the report of the aircraft-engine division on car- buretor flanges, four corrections in the tables of di- mensions Avere noted, and the folloAving flange thicknesses were added for all types of flange:

stud Flange

.

size thickness

u

Vi 6 H

1'Fj2

In the report of the electrical-equipment division on storage batteries, the minimum capacity in amperehours for motor-coach batteries Avas changed from the
MARCH, 1932 COMMERCIAL STANDARDS MONTHLY 261

8-hour rate to the 6-hour rate used in regular practice, and these ratings, together with the minimumcurrent ratings for 20 minutes, were changed by

agreement among the battery manufacturers and the

Automotive Electrical Association.

In the report of the gasoline-engine division on

crank-case drain plugs, the recommendation was amended to include a note to the effect that where the

socket type of plugs is used the internal-Avrench meas- urements shall conform to standard plugs. Another

column showing these dimensions will be added to the

table in the recommendation.

The report of the tire and lim division Avas, upon

request, referred back to the division for further consideration because of additional revisions now beingconsidered in the standard for balloon tire and rim

sizes shoAvn on page 401 of the Society of AutomotiA^e

Engineei’s Handbook.

Membei-s of the production-activity committee, the

production division of the standards committee, and

others considered the project to establish a standard

for finishes of machine surfaces that has been propo.sed under the procedure of the American Standards

Association, Avith the society acting as a joint sjionsor. A special investigating committee appointed by

the American Standards Association, in preparing to submit its recommendations, has prepared the fol- loAving scope for this project when a sectional committee is organized to proceed with it : Classification

of machined or ground surfaces according to quality

of finish, to include («) standards of quality of finish

for machined surfaces, (h) standards of quality of

finisli for ground surfaces, (c) methods of inspection

for the quality grades standardized, and (cl) designation of quality grades for use in specifications and

drawings.

Those attending this conference concurred in the

recommendation that the project be undertaken witli the Society of AutomotiA’e Engineers as a sponsor but

i-ecommended to the iiiA-estigating committee of the

American Standards Association that only that part

of the proposed scope included in items (a) and (b)

as applying to metal surfaces be undertaken first by

the sectional committee Avhen organized. This procedure Avas recommended because of the verj^ extensiA’e field to AAdiich it apjilies as to materials, classes of finish, and quantity of production. This standardization, it Avas pointed out, if properly developed and

applied, Avill be far-reaching in its effects, especially in

tlie extensiA’e field of automotive production, and for

thisrea.son it is considered unAvise to undertake matters

of too broad a scope over too Avide range of products

instead of by aiming at gradual, systematic progress. A recommendation of the pitches for diameters

above II/2 inches that are used for screAvs, bolts, nuts

and component parts, Avas approA^ed by the meeting of

the screw threads division of the standards committee. This recommendation was drafted on information secured through a national survey of the auto- motive and other mechanical industries. This surA'ey Avas made by the division at tlie request of the

sectional committee for the standardization of screAv threads, for Avhich the Society of Automotive Engineers and the American Society of Mechanical Engineers are joint sponsors, as a further step in the es- tablishment of an American standard for pitches

commonly used for various classes of Avork.

The recommendation of the division includes three

series of pitches—8, 12, and 16. The 8 and 12 series

of pitches Avill be referred to the sectional committee

for. inclusion in the American standard for screw

threads. The 16-inch series, Avhich corresponds to the

present S. A. E. standard extra-fine series for 1%-

inch diameter and larger, that is used largely for

threaded parts other than screws, bolts, and nuts, will

also be referred to the sectional committee for inclusion in the American standard if the sectional committee so desires.

A suggested standard for cap nuts, commonly re- ferred to as acorn nuts, Avas submitted and approA’ed

for circularizing for comments of the industry. In

formidating the specification, consideration Avas given

to machining, manufacturing cost, appearance, and

general commercial adaptability and includes both

high and low croAvn tjqies.

The division also considered the development of a rational classification of tolerances for screAv threads

in both the coarse and fine pitch series that Avould proAude for the selection of tolerances to meet all classes of application throughout the usual ranges of diameter. As soon as these tables of tolerances can be completed, they will be published in the Society of Automotive Engineers Journal to alford opportunity for

careful study before the society takes further action

toward their adoption. One of the important features

of the report will be the conformity of tolerances for

screAv threads Avith an established formula taking into

consideration A-ariations due to pitch, diameter, and

length of engagement. The present plan of the division is, if possible, to submit a report for approval at the semiannual meeting of the society next June.

The transportation and maintenance session of the

annual meeting Avas addressed by Joseph Geschelin,

engineering editor of AutomotiA^e Industries, on Repair and Junking Standards Needed for Economy and

Service Work. Repair standards proposed by Mr.

Geschelin are belieA^ed b}^ him to offer a means of administering more economically the tremendous capital

investment in motor A'ehicles. With regard to meeting the issue, he stated the consensus to be that a need

exists for a sensible, Avorkable code of instructions for

maintenance work, and that, if one is devised, it must come from the manufacturer. But it must be based on information Avliich has been thoroughly threshed out

betAveen factory engineers, their service organization,

and the users. MoreoA-er, the issue must be met. be- cause sei'A’ice stations are demanding definite action.

Denoting his proposed code as repair-service standards, the author said that it might consist of a system

of factoiy-approA'ed cleaj-ances and tolerances on fits for the vital reciprocating, oscillating, and revolvingelements and should arise only from a study based on a consideration of engineering and production

jiroblems. all related definitely to the accumulated ex- perience in tlie field, and lhat in such case the data can be segregated. Class 1 comprises the desirable

limit, Avliich Avill give the original factory dimensions

and clearances; class 2, the intermediate limit, Avhich is to be defined later; and class 3, the junking limit,

Avhich would specify the condition of maximum Avear for mating parts beyond Avhich it is not safe to

ojierate. SeA'en items of, additional information Avhich is de1 sired by practical service men Avere listed, and the
262 COMMERCIAL STANDARDS MONTHLY MARCH, 1932

author said that there are two broad classes of standards—specific standards and so-called universal standards. He pointed out in the course of his paper that a large group of passenger-car and truck manufacturers is making a decided effort to provide maintenance

men with more information.

The meeting of the military motor-transport advisory committee discussed what it could do in advising the War Department regarding its program of

motor transport equipment with respect to dimensional standardization of the units in these vehicles.

As a result of the discussion, a study of the Army’s

drawings and specifications was divided among six

groups, each to discuss the specifications and drawings

falling within its group and to cooperate with other

groups where the subjects of their studies come

together.

Col. Edgar S. Stayer, United States Army, repre- senting the Quartermaster Corps, had previousl}’’ dis- cussed the motor-coach and motor-truck session of the

annual meeting, in which he outlined the requirements

placed upon the Quartermaster Corps in furnishing

satisfactory motor-transport equipment. He called at- tention to the fact that motor transport must provide

SIMPLIFICATION OF SINGLETREES BEFORE

INDUSTRY

The simplified practice recommendation covering

singletrees, doubletrees, and neckyokes has been

mailed to all interests by the Bureau of Standards for

their consideration and written approval. The recom- mendation, if a|iproved by the industry, is to become

effective on Api’il 1, 1932. The simplification of singletrees Avas first suggested

early in 1928 by manufacturers, through the National

Singletree Institute. At a meeting held on May 25,

1928, in Cincinnati, a simplified practice committee was appointed by the industry to cooperate with the

division of simplified practice of the Bureau of

Standards in compiling the necessary data to show

the need for simplification, and for use in drafting

a tentative program. At subsequent meetings of the

committee, held in Washington, D. C., and Louisville,

Ky., siU'A^eys of production and sales were considered

and a tentative list of stock items developed. This

list Avas tentatively catalogued by manufacturers for

sales purposes for a trial i^eriod. At the conclusion

of this period, the manufacturers, acting through the

National Singletree Institute, requested the Bureau

of Standards to call a general conference of the in- dustry for the purpose of developing a definite simplified practice recommendation.

The general conference Avas held at Chicago on November 23, 1931. Manufacturers, distributors, and

users Avere invited to attend, or submit comments in

Avriting, to the end that any action taken would represent the experience and needs of all concerned. The

representative of the Bureau of Standards, in opening

the conference, explained the purpose of the meeting,

and the steps folloAved in the development of a simplified practice recommendation.

The industry estimates that this recommendation

will result in the elimination of approximately 90 per

cent of the items formerly listed as “ stock ” items in

manufacturers’ catalogues.

satisfactory transportation both to and in the theater

of conflict under severe conditions, such as terrain cov- ered with shell holes and other obstructions. He spoke

of the necessity for the closest cooperation between

industry and the Government departments in preparing to meet future conflicts and spoke of the need of

industry’s understanding what the requirements are in

times of peace so as to fortify the country against the

next war. Colonel Stayer discussed power plants and motor

trucks with respect to the needs of military transport.

Through many years of experimenting and testing

in the field of almost every type of driA^e in trucks of a number of capacities, the War Department has accumulated data that provide the basis for the compilation

of a chart covering the military motor-transport fleet. Maintenance of these vehicles, a function of the

Quartermaster Corps, is a problem of major importance, and the corps has found that some form of simplified practice must be followed in the designing of

the A^ehicles if maintenance is to be economical and

efficient. A standardization program has been developed whereby it seems feasible to place all the types

and ranges of capacity in five major series or groups.

HOSPITAL RUBBER SHEETING

A recommended commercial standard for hospital

rubber sheeting was mailed to the industry for accept- ance on February 4. This standard was drafted b}^

the American Hospital Association in cooperation

with the Rubber Manufacturers Association and fol- loAvs A"ery closely the Federal specification for this

commodity.

Acceptances are being receiA'ed from a large number of manufacturers, distributors, and important

users, indicating a widespread interest in the project.

The specification recommends a guarantee label certifying conformity to the specification and including the date of manufacture and manufacturer’s name. FEDERAL SPECIFICATION FOR BUILDERS’

HARDWARE

Based ujion the Federal specification for Builders’

Hardware (Nontemplate) FF-H-101, copies of which

are obtainable at 30 cents each from the Superintendent of Documents, Government Printing Office,

Washington, D. C., the National Association of Purchasing Agents has recently released pamphlet No. 15,

which is designed to assist purchasing agents in the more effective use of this specification. The National

Association of Purchasing Agents pamphlet explains

a number of the elementary fundamentals of builders’

hardware, including terminology ; describes the essential criteria which the purchasing agent should consider in making selections, and the items which are most important to look for on inspection of locks,

latches, hinges, and other items of builders’ hardware.

Provided a total of 500 copies are ordered, this

pamphlet will be available from the National Association of Purchasing Agents, 11 Park Place, New

Yoi’k City, at 30 cents each, $10 for 50 copies, and $20

for 100 copies, Avith mailing cost to be added to lots of

50 or 100.
MARCH, 1932 COMMERCIAL STANDARDS MONTHLY 263

AMERICAN STANDARDS ASSOCIATION

News of Associational Activities During Month of Februaiy

Current developments of the following standardization projects under the auspices and procedures of the

American Standards Association have been reported

by that association:

Standard symbols for mechanics approved.—Symbols for mechanics, structural engineering, and test- ing materials, have been approved as American standard. The standard consists of letter symbols for 69

quantities commonly used in these fields. Sponsors

for the project are the American Association for the

Advancement of Science, the American Institute of

Electrical Engineers, the American Society of Civil

Engineers, the American Society of Mechanical Engineers, and the Society for the Promotion of Engineering Education.

Dimensions of valves. —A proposed American standard giving center-to-face dimensions for three kinds

of ferrous flanged valves, namely, wedge gate valves,

globe valves, and angle valves, has been released for

general criticism and comment and may be borrowed

from the American Standards Association by anyone

interested (29 West Thirty-ninth Street, New York).

The proposed standard covers wedge gate valves in

sizes from 1 inch to 24 inches outside diameter (cast

iron, for 125 and 250 pounds steam pressure, and

steel for steam pressures of 150, 300, 400, 600, 900,

and 1,500 pounds) ; and globe and angle valves in

sizes from one-half to 8 inches (cast iron for 250

pounds steam pressure, and steel for steam pressures

of 300, 400, 600, 900, and 1,500 pounds). The draft was submitted in the fall of 1931 to a subcommittee

on face-to-face dimensions of ferrous flanged valves

of the sectional committee on pipe flanges and fit- tings. It was developed by the Manufacturers Standardization Society of the Valve and Fittings Industry,

one of the sponsor bodies for the work of the committee, and was adopted by the society to become

effective in so far as its members are concerned, on

July 1, 1932. The subcommittee, after considering

the draft, decided to have it distributed for general

criticism and comment and it has thus been released

to industry for this purpose.

Code for domestic ice refngerators. —The association has just approved the code for testing domestic

refrigerators using ice as American recommended

practice. The code establishes a method whereby defi- nite information may be obtained regarding the two

essential elements in the performance of iced refrigerators—internal temperatures and rates of ice meltage.

The code also stipulates the method of expression of

these test results in such terms as to render them intelligible to all. Temperatures within the refrigerator

are measured at four locations—one in the milk coml)artment, which should be the coldest section, and the

others at three points within the main body of the

refrigerator. The temperature of the milk compartment is stated separately, but the temperatures at the

three other locations are averaged to derive a state- ment of average temperature in the “ food compartment.”

The rate of ice consumption is expressed in terms

of meltage during 24 hours, beginning with a full

charge of ice. The test is continued for record purposes through a period of at least three days, the

record for each day being separated and those for the

three days averaged to obtain the final statement. The test code calls for a room temperature of 75° F. during the test, but there are recognized methods for

readily converting the observed data with fair accu- racy to represent performance at other room temperatures within a reasonable range.

Sponsors for the project are the American Society

of Kefrigerating Engineers and the Bureau of Home

Economics of the United States Department of Agriculture. The development of the code was in charge

of a subcommittee of the sectional committee on standards and specifications for refrigerators.

Proposed standards for symbols. —Drafts of proposed standards for graphical symbols for electric traction including railway signaling, for graphical

symbols for radio, and for graphical symbols used

for electric power and wiring, have been printed by

the American Institute of Electrical Engineers, one

of the sponsors for the project. The draft on electric

traction is that first proposal circulated on this subject by the committee. The present proposals for

graphical symbols for radio and for graphical symbols used for electric power and wiring are revisions

of drafts previously issued. The symbols have been

prepared by subgroups of the subcommittee on electro- technical symbols, sectional committee on scientific and engineering abbreviations and symbols. The

sponsors are the American Institute of Electrical Engineers, the American Association for the Advancement of Science, the American Society of Civil Engineers, the American Society of Mechanical Engineers, and the Society for the Promotion of Engineering Education.

Railway control apparatus. —A standard for electric railway control apparatus has just been approved

by the association as an American standard. The

standard applies to control apparatus for all electric railway ap2iaratus, including trackless trolleys and vehicles in which electric motors are used for propulsion. The provisions of the standard are divided into

the following grou})s : Service conditions, definitions,

rating, heating, limitations other than heating, and

dielectric tests. The standard is a revision of that

portion of the former standard for railway control

and mine locomotive control apparatus which dealt

with railway control. The revision was submitted by

the jiroprietary sponsor—the American Institute of

Electrical Engineers.

On September 9, 1924, a joint conference of representative manufacturers, distributors, and users of

.steel reinforcing bars drafted a simiilified jiractice

recommendation for cross-sectional areas. Tliis rec- ommendation was revised in A^iril, 1930, accejitcd by

the industry and promulgated by the Bureau of Standards as Simplified Practice Recommendation R26-30.

The schedule was submitted to the American Standards Association jointly by the Concrete Steel Iiisti- tute and the Bureau of Standards as indorsing spon-
264 COMMERCIAL STANDARDS MONTHLY MARCH, 1932

soi's. The association has just approved as an American standard for steel reinforcing bars this

schedule which gives 11 standard cross sectional areas, ranging from 0.05 to 1.56 square inches. The insti- tute, which represents a large percentage of the fabri- cators of steel reinforcing bars, has strongly promoted

the establishment of the standard in question.

Threads for lavi-p' sockets and bases. —An American

standard for rolled threads for screw shells of electric

sockets and lamp bases has been approved by the

association. The standard covers the climensions, tol- erances, and gages for rolled threads of Edison-type

screw shells intended for use in the manufacture of

lamp bases and plugs, and of lamp and fuse holders.

The dimensions concerned are given for five sizes

miniature, candelabra, intermediate, medium, and

mogul. The standard Avas set up liy a sectional committee organized in 1929 under the procedure of the

American Standards Association and jointly sponsored by the American Society of Mechanical Engineers and the National Electrical Manufacturers Association. The Edison type of base screAV shell as

coA^ered bj^ the standard has been in use for nearl}^

half a century. As early as 1888 the Edison Lamp

Works made socket screAv shells in accordance with

a gage which differed from the present standard

mainly in that it had a slight taper, but the pitch

of the thread has remained unchanged from the beginning. An American Society of Mechanical Engineers standard was laid doAvn in specifications published in 1915 in the transactions of the American

Society of Mechanical Engineers. These seiwed as a basis for the work of the sectional committee Avhich

resulted in the present standard.

Noise-measurement 'project. —The organization of a

sectional committee on noise measurement under the

procedure of the association Avas recommended by a general conference held in NeAV York on January 29.

It was also recommended that the committee function

under the technical leadership of the Acoustical Society of America. The scope of the project as recom- mended by a steering committee is as folloAVS : Preparation of general standards of nomenclature, units,

scales, and measurement in the field of acoustics, with

special reference to noise measurements.

The conference followed a request made by the

Acoustical Society of America to the association to set up a national committee to correlate the activities of

various technical and trade organizations which have

been attempting individually to set iqi standards for

noise measurement. Eight such organizations now

haA"e committees on this subject. It was pointed out

that the diA^erse nomenclature and methods of meas- | urement groAving out of these uncorrelated activities 1 were interfering Avith the progress of scientific Avork

| on the subject and that Avithout real national stand- ! ardization this condition Avould become worse as dif- I ferent individuals became accustomed to different concepts and terms. For the present the committee’s

Avork will be concentrated chiefly on the standardization of nomenclature, units, and scales. It is believed

that further progress in the science of noise measure- ment is necessary before effective standardization of i this phase of the subject can be completed. There is some confusion in the measurement of noise at the i

2)resent time because of the com^ilex nature of noises,

the innumerable different ty^Aes of noises and their . effect upon the ear, and the fact that none of the noise

meters yet designed can translate the a^iproximate

2ihysiological and j^sj^chological effects of noise into

definite units of measurement. Dr. HarA^ey Fletcher,

of the Bell Telejihone Laboratories, jiointed out at the

conference that to the average individual a noise com2iosed of Avidely se^Jarated frequencies is less disturbing than a noise of equal intensity but having comjAonents close together in the frequency range.

WOOL AND PART-WOOL BLANKETS

A jireliminary conference of rejDresentative manufacturers of wool and jDart-wool blankets Avas held

in NeAV York City on February 10, to consider a tentative draft of the Projiosed Commercial Standard for

Labeling Wool and Part-Wool Blankets, which had

been jiresented on January 12 as a substitute for the

draft adoiited by the general conference of November

20, 1931.

The substitute draft, Avhich was revieAved in detail

and accej)ted Avithout change by the manufacturers,

provides that no finished blanket containing less than

5 per cent avooI shall carry the word “ wool ” in any

form; that blankets containing between 5 and 25 per

cent wool shall be labeled “ Part wool, not less than

5 jier cent ”

; that all blankets carrying more than 25

25er cent wool shall be labeled with the guaranteed

(minimum) wool content in jiercentage and that all blankets aboA^e 98 per cent wool shall be labeled “All

Avool.” The conference recommended that co^iies of the jorojDosed standard be mailed to all manufacturers, dis- tributors, and users for comment and revieAV, together

Avith an invitation to attend a second general confer- ence to be held in New York City on March 11, 1932.

INTERNATIONAL COMPARISON OF X-RAY

STANDARDS

Direct comiiarisons betAveen the X-ray ionization

standards of the United States, England, France, and

Germany are described in the January number of

the Bureau of Standards Journal of Research. The

small guarded field ionization chamber designed and

constructed at the Bureau of Standards, which Avas used as the working standard, Avas transported to the

several lahoratories. Careful check of the instrument

calibration at each laboratory shoAved no change re- sulting from transportation.

Comjilete corrections were made for air absorjDtion, differences in current measurements, and differ- ences between chamber diajAhragms. The final agree- ment between the United States, English, and German standards Avas plus 0.5 per cent. The ratio be- tAveen the international Rontgen and Solomons unit

efor hard radiation (H. V. L. greater than 0.75 mm

cu.) was 2.29. As a result of dia|ihragm discrejiancies

found in England, a study of diaphragm measure- ments Avas made. It Avas found that the lead diajDhragms tended to Avarp with age, thereby rendering

difficult an accurate determination of their area. Plug gage and micrometer microscope measure- ments Avere averaged for the final residts.
MARCH, 1932 COMMEKCIAIi STANDARDS MONTHLY 265

THICKNESS OF TEXTILES AND SIMILAR MATERIALS

Limitation of Variety of Thickness Gages to Facilitate Measurement of Textiles

By Waeken E. Emley, Bureau of Standards

The thickness of a blanket is a matter of definition

rather than a matter of fact. It follows, therefore,

that if an agreement can be reached as to the exact meaning of the word thickness, then, and not till then, can the dimension be precisely measured.

For ordinary purposes, the thickness of an object is measured by means of a carpenter’s rule. If the

edges of the object are sufficiently clear cut, and the

eyesight and the care used by the operator are sufficiently good, it is possible to make such measure- ments to the nearest sixty-fourth of an inch. With

a machinist’s rule and optimum working conditions,

measurements to the nearest hundredth of an inch are

possible.

When it became necessary to make measurements

with greater precision, recourse was had to some kind

of optical magnifying device—a reading glass, or a

microscope. Unfortunately, this magnification emphasized the fact that

the bounding surfaces

of most objects are not

planes. The operator

looking at the cross

section of a blanket

under high magnification, IS confronted with

the difficulty of deciding just where are the

limiting surfaces between which the thickness is to be measured.

To overcome this difficulty, the object may be placed

between two flat plates. The distance between the

plates can then be measured with comparative ease and precision.

The machinist’s micrometer may be considered as an

adaptation of the above, wherein one of the plates is fixed, and the other is mounted on the end of a screw. The specimen is held in contact with the fixed plate,

and the movable plate is screwed into contact with it. The position of the movable plate is then read from a

suitable scale on the screw. Some of these micrometers are provided with ratchets which prevent the

operator from screwing the plates together too hard.

If a machinist’s micrometer were used to measure

the thickness of a blanket, difficulties would be en- countered similar to those which make the optical

devices impractical. Just when are the two plates in contact with the surfaces of the blanket?

The textile industry has, therefore, turned to an- other adaptation of the 2-plate method, known as the “thickness gage.” (See illustration.) The

lower plate is fixed in a horizontal position, and is called the anvil. The object to be measured is laid on the anvil. The upper plate called the presser

foot is lowered until it rests on the object, when its position is read from a suitable dial. The laws of physics tell us that, as the presser foot

rests on the object, it must sink in, more or less. The

amount to which it sinks in is directly subtracted by

the gage, the difference being the measured thickness

105G7.5—32 2

of the object. It is therefore imperative that we study

the factors which govern this phenomenon. There

are three groups of such factors—the elastic projoerties of the object; the shape and size of the object; and

the shape, size, and weight of the presser foot. The foot will sink more readly into a soft body than

into a harder one. As it sinks in, reacting forces will

develop within the body and will eventually come to equilibrium with the force of gravity acting on the

foot, when the foot will cease to move. The ability

of the body to resist compression is an important factor, and, since this ability is an inherent property of

the material, the depth to which the foot will sink

depends upon the kind of material which is being

measured.

In_ this connection, it is well to remember that the

elastic properties of materials are apt to vary with

conditions. Temperature and moisture may have important effects, and

should be controlled

where precise meas- urements are required.

Some materials are

plastic rather than

elastic, so that an appreciable time is re- quired for the foot to come to rest. The stresses set up

in the object by the weight of the presser foot are distributed throughout the object in accordance with

the regular physical laws. If all three dimensions are

so large in comparison with the size of the presser foot

that they may be considered infinite, the stresses will

be distributed in a regular, predictable manner. But

if any one of the dimensions is too small to meet this

condition, the stresses will be arranged differently, the

amount to which the presser foot sinks into the object

will be different, and the thickness as measured will

be affected correspondingly.

It is to be noted that the above argument involves

all three of the dimensions of the object. If the

amount to which the presser foot sinks into the specimen may be called the “ error of measurement,” then it is seen that this error is not a constant, but varies with

the very thing which is being measured—the thickness

of the object. This is a serious criticism of the thick- ness gage as a measuring instrument, and can be met

only by rigid adherence to empirical conditions set up for the use of the instrument.

Fortunately, the shape of the presser foot has been

pretty well standardized—a flat circular disk.

The amount to which the ]jresser foot sinks into the

object depends upon the load applied. A heavy foot

will sink farther than a lighter one if they are of the same size. A smaller foot will sink farther than a larger one if they are of the same weight. (The

weight of the foot includes that of all moving parts

attached to it.) If the weight is divided by the area, the result may be expressed in units of pressure

To eliminate the unnecessary varieties of thickness

gages, it is proposed to define thiclmess as the distance

between the presser foot and the anvil when they are in contact with the object and under a pressure of 1 pound per square inch, sufficient time being allowed

for the foot to come to rest.
266 COMMERCIAL STANDARDS MONTHLY MARCH, 1932

(pounds iier square inch), which permits intercomparison of different gages.

It might be expected that the amount to which the

foot sinks into the object would vary directly with the

pressure on the foot. A study of the strain distribution within the specimen, confirmed by experimental

evidence, proves that this is not so. With small pressures, any slight change in pressure makes a considerable difference in this “ error of measurements with

larger pressures, the effect of a similar slight change

will probably be negligible.

The size and weight of the presser foot are entirely

within the control of the gage manufacturer, who

seems to have adhered consistently to the position of

making whatever his customers demand.

One group of customers, the textile manufacturers,

has adopted a foot which is three-eighth inch in didiameter, with no load specified. The method for

measuring silk tape is the same as that for cotton,

but for rubber tape or friction tape, the %-inch

9-ounce foot must be used, and for asbestos tape, the

foot shall be seven-sixteenths inch to one-half inch,

and the pressure such that the specimen will “ slip

without stretching.”

The rubber manufacturers who buy tire cord must

not use the same gage for measuring the thickness of

the cord as they use for measuring the thickness of an inner tube, and a rubber glove requires the use of a third style of gage.

Any company which deals in a variety of materials

which are bought, sold, and tested according to nationally recognized specifications, must have available a battery of thickness gages. Since the measurement

of thickness is not usually considered as one which

Oage designed and Malt at the Bureau of Standards for measuring the thickness of carpets

ameter and weighs 6 ounces. Another group (the

rubber manufacturers) has adopted a foot which is one-fourth inch in diameter and weighs 9 ounces. From the above discussion it will be seen that there can be no more reason for one of these specifications

than for the other, and that if the thickness of the same object is measured by both gages, the results will

certainly be different.

Other industries have adopted, independently, different weights, different areas, and even different

methods of using these gages, until finally the situation became chaotic.

For instance, if cotton tape used for electrical insulation, is considered as a woven fabric (which it is),

its thickness should be measured with %-inch 6-ounce

foot. If it is considered as an electrical insulating

material, its thickness should be measured with a

ratchet micrometer, with the ratchet set to give a pressure of about 27 pounds per square inch. But

there happens to be a separate specification for this

tape, which says that the thickness shall be measured

with a foot of seven-sixteenths inch to one-half inch

requires any great skill, it is apt to be assigned to one of those employees who has had the least scientific training. This employee must select from the battery

the particular gage which must be used with the material he is testing. How many mistakes are made at

this point?

A change in the moisture content of a fabric, which

is quickly brought about by any change in the rela- tive humidity or the temperature of the air surrounding it, may change not only the actual thickness of the

fabric, but also its elastic properties and thus affect the indicated thickness. The indicated thickness will

likewise be decreased if the operator drops the foot

onto the sample instead of lowering it gently, or if he

lets the load stay on for a minute or more before taking the reading. The most prolific source of error is the probability that the gage used will be different

from the one required for the particular material

being measured.

Gages are generally graduated to thousandths of an

inch—some few to ten-thousandths. In view of the

probable errors indicated above, the value of the third
MARCH, 1932 COMMERCIAL STANDARDS MONTHLY 267

decimal place is decidedly questionable, except when

the material is sufficiently rigid or sufficiently thin to make these errors negligible.

Suppose, for example, one were called upon to measure the thickness of a sample of tire cord. The

trained scientist would refer to the specification, select the gage required, and use it according to the method

therein prescribed. He will find that he is required

to use a gage having a foot three-eights inch in di- ameter, and apply it with a pressure “ equivalent to that obtained by dropping a weight of 4 ounces a dis- tance of one-fourth inch vertically.” ^ Being a trained

scientist, he would realize that the quoted directions are ambiguous, to put it mildly, and would try to guess

what the people who wrote the specifications really

meant.

Suppose the reading obtained by the first measure- ment was 0.027 inch. Having in mind the defects in- herent in the method, the ambiguity of the directions,

and similar factors, the scientist would probably write

this 0.02^ inch, indicating that he was pretty sure of

the second decimal, but that the third was little better than a good guess. If he took 10 readings and

averaged them, he would feel a little more certain of

the third decimal, and might express the result as 0.027 inch.

But routine thickness measurements are not usually

made by trained scientists. The boy assigned to the

work could hardly be expected to recognize and eval- uate the probable sources of error. When he reads

the gage, he puts down 0.027 inch, or probably, in an

excess of zeal, he interpolates between the graduations, and calls it 0.0273 inch. Averaging 10 such

readings, he reports the result as 0.0273 inch. The

executive who receives the report undoubtedly knows

that the value in the third decimal is dubious, and the

fourth is absurd. But he probably becomes calloused

' A. S. T. M. specification D-179-30.

by repetition. Only in this way can the fact be ex- plained that this same specification places a tolerance

of 3 per cent on the thickness of tire cord. This toler- ance amounts to about 0.0008 inch, and is not enough

to allow for the probable errors of measurement. It can not accomplish the main purpose of a tolerance,

which is an allowance for actual variations in the

thickness of the material.

Measurements to this degree of precision can be

made with a thickness gage only when the design and

use of the gage are set forth in complete detail and

rigidly adhered to. The %-inch 6-ounce gage is in general use in the

textile industry; the ^-inch 9-ounce gage is in general use in the rubber industry. Neither of them is right; neither is wrong. They both represent trade

customs which have grown up through the years and

have finally been crystallized in the form of specifications. There are many laboratories wherein both textiles and rubber are tested. These laboratories are now required to have two gages (with the chance of

using the wrong one) when one would do just as well. Multipl}' this by the number of industries in the country, and it will be seen that here is a wonderful opportunity for simplification.

Suppose that the tire cord cited above, when meas- ured by the standard method, was found to be 0.027

inch thick. If the textiles gage (% inch 6 ounces)

had been used, the indicated thickness would probably be about 0.029 inch; with the rubber gage ()4

inch 9 ounces), about 0.024 inch. What is the “ thick- ness ” of this cord ? Obviously, it is a matter of

definition.

To eliminate the unnecessary varieties of thickness

gages, it is proposed to define thickness as the dis- tance between the presser foot and the anvil when they

are in contact with the object and under a pressure

of 1 pound per square inch, sufficient time being al- lowed for the foot to come to rest.

MUNICIPAL CONTROLLER FOR SAN FRANCISCO

A most significant change in San Francisco’s sys- tem of centralized purchasing was consummated on January 8, 1932, when the position of municipal controller, created under the charter recently adopted for

the city, went into operation. None the less significant, and auspicious, too, was the appointment to this

important office of Leonard S. Leavy, the then city

purchaser of the city and county of San Francisco,

who has for many years been chairman of the governmental group in the National Association of Purchasing Agents, and national vice president of the National Association of Purchasing Agents.

Under the new charter, the controller assumes, among other exacting duties, those of the county auditor. As such he becomes responsible for every penny

spent in each city department and is authorized by law

to refuse to approve contracts whenever he deems them

of no advantage to the city.

Aside from the more general demands of his office, alluded to in the preceding paragraph, the newly appointed controller for San Francisco has many lesser

calls upon his official time. He must, for example,

make a monthly report to the mayor and board of

supervisors, showing the exact status of every fund

and the remaining balance—no mean task in itself. He must attempt, in so far as is humanly possible, to prevent waste and departmental deficits; must esti- mate the yearly revenues and expenditures; and j)repare the annual budget for the mayor. Further, the

controller has been given the authority, under the new

charter, to supervise the work of the city purchasing

agent—an appointive position by the chief administrative officer. In order to make the controller’s position independent and more effective, he is protected by charter

against all political interference. Subservient to no

one after appointment, he may be removed from office only by a two-thirds vote of the supervisors upon a hearing of charges preferred against him. Incidentally, this position of trust carries a salary of

$10,000 a year.

It is expected that the city will profit greatly by

the changed order of things. San Francisco is now

having built, upon the controller’s recommendation,

an $800,000 central warehouse for the bui’eau of supplies, a structure which it is believed will, through

economies in handling supplies, pay for itself in the

first six months of its operation.
268 COMMEECIAIi STANDAEDS MONTHLY MARCH, 1932 STANDARDIZATION OF COUNTY ROAD SPECIFICATIONS

Present Differences Existing in Road Construction Due to Complicated Contract Forms Can Be Eliminated

Through Adoption of Uniform Specifications

By W. O. Washington ^

By specifications here is meant, in particular, those

items in the specifications and contract forms, usually

known as the “ general requirements,” which are largely common to all county road construction work,

and not to the special and technical detail specification

items that apply only to a specific job and must be

covered specifically in each case. Any contractor or other person who has

had occasion to examine county-road specifications in several localities, even in the same State, has noted

the confusion and the

effort usually required

to reconcile . and compare their requirements with work of

similar nature else- where done under different specifications.

Some counties have

specifications peculiar

to themselves, differing

from those used anywhere else for work

of standard kinds.

This condition leads

to higher prices for their work, due to the many

uncertainties as to the requirements and lack of

uniformity with other specifications.

This condition is unnecessary and can be easily remedied by the counties adopting uniform specifications.

An important objective of the county highway offi- cials’ division of the American Road Builders’ Association is to advocate and take the lead in assisting all counties in this standardization of specifications.

To bring about the adoption and use of standard

specifications is largely a matter of education and

leadership. Experienced persons connected with

1 Cameron County, Tex., county engineer, Brownsville. This article

is based on the report made by the county committee on legislation, administration, and finance, American Road Builders’ Association, to the annual convention of the association, Jan. 12, 1932, in Detroit.

county road work readily see the unsatisfactory conditions that have existed and still exist in many places

and are in sympathy with methods for correcting the

conditions. Standard specifications already worked

out to fit all general conditions, such as have been pre- pared by the American Road Builders’ Association, can be utilized. County authorities must be made to

realize that something

is wrong, be convinced

that it can be cor- rected then shown how

to make the needed

corrections.

Many of the more

progressive counties

throughout the United

States have already

adopted and are using

road specifications like or similar to those of

their respective State

governments. The

State governments

have already gone

through a standardization development

under the direction

or leadership of the

United States Bureau

of Public Roads. This process is a natural one as soon as the counties realize the necessity of action.

All experienced highway engineers realize the great

advantage in costs and in supervision of using specifications that are standard, at least in the State, and

with which the contractors are familiar.

With adoption of uniform standard specifications

by the counties will follow a lowering of unit prices

in most cases and a better understanding between contractors, inspectors, and engineers, with less fric- tion and confusion during the supervision of the work.

This end is to be greatly desired, especially at the

present time, when counties are assuming greater re- sponsibilities in the building of secondary and local roads in most States, and it is to be hoped that all agencies will cooperate in its accomplishment.

The need for standardization of the general re- quirements of county road specification and contract forms is apparent from the confusion which now exists. Unfavorable criticism and reduced competition

in county work are caused by lack of definiteness and

clearness of specifications and contract forms, as well

as unusual requirements or the entire absence of forms.

If uniform requirements on successive projects in the same county and standard provisions among counties

of the same State are established, county contract work will become more attractive to bidders and, in

many cases, costs will be reduced. In view of the

importance that the American Road Builders’ Association attaches to this matter, Mr. Washington’s

special article on the subject will be of considerable

interest to the readers of the Commercial Standards

Monthly.

SIMPLIFIED LIST OF METALLIC CARTRIDGES

REAFFIRMED

On October 19, 1926, a general conference of representatives of manufacturers and distributors of metallic cartridges approved a simplified list of stock items.

Following formal acceptance of the industry a simplified practice recommendation on the subject became

effective on January 1, 1927, under the procedure of

the division of simplified practice. Bureau of Standards. -

This recommendation was recently resubmitted to the industry for review and decision as to whether or not the list of stock items should be revised. The

standing committee of the industry in charge of this

program has reaffirmed the recommendation, without

change, for another active year. Through the promulgation of this recommendation

the number of stock varieties of metallic cartridges was reduced from 348 to 256, an elimination of ap- proximately 26 per cent.
MARCH, 1932 COMMERCIAL STANDARDS MONTHLY 269

AMERICAN DENTAL ASSOCIATION

Certification of Quality Is Backbone of Medicinal Association’s Program for Standardization

By De. Haeey B. Finney^

The American Dental Association is interested in

the standardization of the materials used in the construction of dental restorations and in the quality of

medicinal preparations used by the dental profession.

The research commission of the association has supported research activities at the Bureau of Standards

with the objects of developing specifications for the

materials entering into the manufacture of dental

restorations and in improving methods of utilizing

these materials. This activity has resulted in the publication of standards for dental amalgam alloys, inlay

casting investments, inlay casting waxes, and impression compounds. Specifications for three types of in- lay casting golds are being prepared for publication

and work is in progress toward the development of

specifications for wrought clasp and orthodontia al- loys. Specifications for other types of casting golds

and other dental materials are scheduled for development as rapidly as the available personnel will permit.

Manufacturers of dental materials have been asked

to certify that their products meet the published specifications. In addition to the certificate itself, satisfactory evidence of physical tests must be submitted to show that the manufacturer has tested his material

and that its properties meet the requirements. A list of products so certified is being prepared for publication. The association also maintains a bureau of chemistry in its Chicago headquarters. This bureau was or- ganized primarily to give to dentistry and to the

public information on dental pro^Drietary remedies and

dental nostrums. The bureau publishes reports on

these types of materials in the Journal of the American Dental Association. Articles on dental materia

medica have also originated in this bureau and preliminary investigations made of a number of products. The bureau also examines new proprietary

products with the view of preparing chemical specifications.

In order to advise the dental profession and the

public concerning dental proprietary and nonofficial

remedies and materials in regard to composition and

therapeutic usefulness, there has been organized a Council on Dental Therapeutics. The endeavors of

the council are directed toward the goal of protecting the dental profession and the public against fraud,

undesirable secrecy, and objectionable advertising in

the marketing of proprietary and nonofficial articles. The council consists of 10 members, 5 from the dental

profession and 5 from related scientific fields. The

council lists materials as “ accepted nonofficial dental

remedies ” when the articles are found to comply with

the rules of the council, which are as follows

:

Coviposition.—No article will be accepted for inclusion in the list, “ accepted nonofficial dental remedies,”

or retained therein, unless its composition is published.

For simple substances, the scientific name and the

chemical formula, rational or structural, if known.

‘ Secretary, American Dental Association, 212 East Superior Street, Chicago, III.

should be supplied. For mixtures, the amount of each

active medicinal ingredient in a given quantity of the

article must be stated. The general composition of the

vehicle, its alcoholic percentage and the identity of the

preservatives must be furnished.

Identi-fication.—No article will be accepted or re- tained unless suitable tests for determining its composition are furnished to the council. In the case of

chemical compounds, these shall consist of tests for

identity and purity. In the case of mixtures, description of methods for determining the amount of active

strength of the potent or otherwise important ingi'edi- ents shall be furnished if practicable.

Direct advertising.—No article that is advertised to the public will be accepted or retained, but this rule

shall not apply to (a) disinfectants, germicides, and

antiseptics, provided the advertising is limited to conservative recommendations for their use for oral hygiene purposes; and provided they are not advertised

as curative agents, either directly or inferentially ; (&)

dentrifices (tooth pastes and powders) ; provided, of

course, no such agent is known to contain harmful

materials and none of the lay advertising is contrary

to the council’s attitude on dentifrices; (c) other prophylactic agents about which the public should be

informed which would not lead to harmful self-medication provided (1) they are not advertised as curative agents, and provided (2) advertising does not go

beyond that passed by the council for dentists; and

{d) medicinal foods, except when advertised as curative agents.

Indirect advertising.-—No article will be accepted

or retained if the label, package, or circular accom- panying the package contains the names of diseases or conditions in the treatment of which the article is said to be indicated. The therapeutic indications and

properties may be stated, provided such statements

do not suggest self-medication. Dosage may be indicated. (This rule shall not apply to remedies with

which self-medication is altogether improbable.)

False claims as to origin.—No article will be ac- cepted or retained concerning which the manufacturer or his agents make false or misleading state- ments as to source, raw material from which made,

or method of preparation.

Unwarranted therapeutic claims.—No article will

be accepted or retained concerning which the manufacturer or his agents make unwarranted, exaggerated,

or misleading statements as to the therapeutic value.

Poisonous substances.—The principal label on an

article containing “ poisonous ” or “ potent ” substances must state plainly the amount of each of such

ingredients in a given quantity of the product.

Objectionable names.—Proprietary names for medicinal or dental articles coming within the scope of

this council will be recognized only when the council

shall deem the use of such exclusive names to be in the interest of public welfare. Names which are misleading or which suggest diseases, pathologic conditions, or therapeutic indications will not be recognized.
270 COMMERCIAL STANDARDS MONTHLY MARCH, 1032

In the case of joharmaceutic preparations or mixtures,

the name must be so framed as to indicate clearly the

most potent ingredients. In the case of dentifrices,

the council’s attitude on mixtures will guide the council in the interpretation on this rule. Products with protected names. —If the article is patented—either process or product, or both—the

number of such patent or patents must be furnished

to the council. Furthermore, if the name of an article is registered or the label copyrighted, the registration (trade-mark) number and a copy of the protected label should be furnished the council. In case of registration in foreign countries, the name under

which the article is registered should be supplied. In

the case of dentifrices, the provisions of the council’s

attitude on mixtures will guide the council in the re- tention of a dentifrice marketed under a protected name.

Unscientific and useless articles.-—No article will be

accepted or retained which, because of its unscientific

composition is useless or inimical to the best interest

of the public or of the dental profession. Thus a proprietary remedy, which is acceptable to the council on

ihe basis of these rules, may be considered a proprietary medicine of merit and which is honestly advertised. Booklets containing the rules and explanatory

comments thereon are available by writing to the sec- retary of the council. The board of trustees has at the request of the council, given further impetus to the

labors of the council by the following actions

:

That after July 1, 1930, advertising of proprietary remedies in the Journal will not be accepted unless the product and

the advertising has been accepted by the council, except in such cases as existing contracts legally obligate the association to continue advertising copy until the conclusion of the

contract. That the business manager be advised not to accept

for exhibit in the commercial exhibit proprietary remedies

which are not acceptable to the Council on Dental Therapeutics on and after 1931 ; and that after 1931 journals carrying

advertising matter relative to products not ‘acceptable to this council shall not be accepted as exhibitors. That the editor of the Journal be requested not to accept

for publication those papers presented to the Journal, which

indorse or introduce a new theretofore unconsidered remedy

until the council shall have examined the evidence submitted

and published a preliminary report. The intent of these resolutions is to aid manufacturers of worthy preparations against the almost

predatory exploitation of dealers, of useless and unscientific preparations, in supplying the profession

with honestly advertised products of therapeutic

usefulness.

LABELING CANNED SWEET CORN

“ Some States are known for distinctive packs of

canned sweet corn,” says V. B. Bonney, of the Federal Food and Drug Administration. “ Maine style ” sweet corn is prepared by crushing the grains to a creamy consistency. Such corn, packed outside

Maine, is called “ cream-st3de corn.” “ Maryland

style ” corn is jirepared by cutting the kernels from

the cob so as to leave them substanually whole. Such

com packed outside Maryland is called whole grain

or whole kernel.

Certain varieties of sweet corn make such excellent

packs that canners use the varietal name on the label. Some of the most popular of these varieties are Country Gentleman, Golden Bantam, Golden Giant, Improved Golden Bantam, Bantam Evergreen, and

Charlevoix.

Some packers print on their labels the official grades

established by the United States Department of Agriculture. Grade A (popularly known as Fancy) is the best quality, very young, tender corn, of bright

color, with superior flavor, and practically free from

defects. Grade B (frequently called Extra Standard) possesses the desirable characteristics of color,

tenderness, flavor, and freedom from defects to a

lesser, but reasonable degree. Grade C (Standard, so called) is corn in which the color may be dull, the

flavor only fair, the kernels rather “ doughy ” and the

presence of husk, cob, or silk distinctly noticeable.

Off grade (or Substandard), of course, is still lower

in desirability.

“Field or ‘horse’ corn is sometimes canned,” says

Bonney. “ Since field corn does not have the superior

eating qualities of sweet corn, the pure food law re- quires that the label plainly declare the product to be

field corn when such is the case. If starch is added to cream-style corn, it must be declared. Starch is never

used in large quantities, however.”

FLAX AND HEMP TWINE SIMPLIFIED SCHEDULE RECOMMENDED BY CONFERENCE

A general conference of manufacturers, distributors,

and users of flax and hemp twines was held in New

York City on February 15, 1932, to consider the simplification of these commodities. The tentative

schedule for this meeting was prepared by a simplified

practice committee of manufacturers, and was based on a survey of current variety made by the committee,

with the cooperation of the division of simplified practice of the Bureau of Standards. The program was

approved by the conference after a few minor changes were made, and if accepted by the industry, will be

issued as a simplified practice recommendation.

The recommendation covers fine finished hemp

twine, fine finished flax twine, and fine unfinished

hemp twine. Four kinds of twine comprise fine fin- ished hemp-—^AA Italian, AB Italian, B American,

and BC American. Numbers, yardage, and breakage

strength are specified for each, as well as a simplified

schedule of put-ups ; that is, weight of twine in balls,

tubes, etc. Fine unfinished flax twine is divided into first and

second grade ; the ply, yardage, and breaking strength

is given for each grade.

Fine unfinished hemp twine is divided into two general descriptions, Italian and American. Each of

these is subdivided into first and second grade. The

ply, yardage, and breaking strength are included.

A common schedule of put-ups is given for the two

kinds of unfinished flax and hemp twine.

The conference authorized the appointment of a standing committee of manufacturers, distributors,

and users to sponsor the recommendation for the in- dustry. If approved, the recommendation will go

into effect one month following the Department of

Commerce’s announcement that adequate support has

been received.
MARCH, 1932 COMMERCIAL STANDARDS MONTHLY 271

CERTIFICATION INSPECTION OF CALIFORNIA PRODUCE

Optional Certification and Inspection Service Has Proved to Be of Great Value to Fruit and Vegetable

Industry of the State

By H. W. Peterson '

The California department of agriculture, through

its bureau of .shipping point inspection, maintains an

optional certification and inspection service which has

proved to be of very great value to the fruit and vegetable industry.

This service is carried on in cooperation with the

United States Department of Agriculture. Certifi- cates of inspection are issued upon request to financially interested parties, which give the quality, condition and grade of the product at the time of the

shipment. Such certificates are receivable as prima

facie evidence in United States courts or in courts of the State of California.

Although the service is well established, we still have frequent inquiries from growers, shippers, buyers, and others asking how they may attain the maximum benefit that should result from the use of this

service.

The use of a certificate depends largely upon the

position of the applicant, depending on whether he be

a grower, shipper, buyer, or broker. The discussion

that follows explains the principal purposes of inspection and certification, and the benefits that may result

from its use. Through the use of established grades, the packer,

grower, or shipper is able to correct errors in packing at the shipping point, rather than become involved

in the difficulty of making adjustments at the receiving end. Carefully trained, reliable, and unbiased

inspectors can be furnished to assist the applicant in

packing the desired grade of product being shipped.

During recent years there has been a distinct at- tempt made by the greater part of the industry to improve the quality and pack of the products offered

f(u- shipment. In the fresh fruit industry the development of the pressure tests of pears for maturity and

the general inclination of the growers to hold the

fruits, such as apples, pears, and plums, until the

proper degree of maturity is reached, has increased

the palatability of these fruits. If these standards

are maintained consistently, a general benefit to the

industry will result. In the vegetable industry also, recent years have

brought improvements both in quality and pack.

During the 1930-31 lettuce shipping season from Imperial Valley, approximately 60 per cent of the cars shipped were inspected and certified. A consistent

effort was made by the packers to put up better and

tighter packs. There was an unusually large acreage

01 lettuce, and the prices received were low. However, it was the general opinion of the members of the

lettuce industry in that valley, that by using the in- spection service and striving toward a U. S. No. 1 grade as much as possible, enough undesirable lettuce was culled to keep the already low price from becoming disastrous. The pack and quality of the lettuce

' Field supervisor, bureau of shipping-point inspection, department

of agriculture. State of California.

was probably the most uniform and the best that had

been put out any season, and in spite of the low prices,

the number of rejections at the receiving end were few.

Unfortunately with lettuce, each season at the time

the supplies are limited the quality is the looorest and

prices are the highest. Accordingly, the quality that

is packed is also lowered. Usuall}^ it is at such times,

especially after slight increases in shipments, that re- duction in prices follow, with consequent claims for

adjustment in prices at destinations. In many cases

if the packer even under these conditions would call for inspection certificates, with the assistance of the

inspector, it would be possible to discard the poorest

stock and put up a pack of at least fair quality.

From a grower’s standpoint, a contract of sale based on grades, together with a certificate of inspection

at time of delivery to the packing house, furnishes

both grower and shipper a reliable document showing

the actual condition of the product at the time of

delivery.

In the above-mentioned case, the certificate is not

only valuable to the grower as a basis of settlement,

but as the inspector examines the product, he is able

to note irregular conditions, such as certain types of

decay which may cause severe losses in transit, and

consequently warn the grower. He can also render

other services to the grower, such as warning him

when his product reaches the limit of the grade tol- erance, or advise when vegetable containers are marked incorrectly.

Standard grades, together with a certificate of in- spection, assist materially in making f. o. 1). sales. Formerly, the chief use of the inspection service was to issue certificates which were used as the basis

of f. 0 . b. sales, but with the growth of the service

its use has become more diverse. But this is still a highly important use of the service.

In most f. o. b. sales the buyer requires that a certificate be furnished with the bill of lading. The certificate gives the buyer an impartial report and an

assurance that the quality of the product is up to the

grade that he requires, even though he does not see the product packed.

In connection with f. o. b. selling, last year an as- sociation of shiiipers in Imperial Valle}^ organized an

auction company. Each night the cars packed by the

shipper during the day were ])ut up for sale at the

auction room. Certificates of inspection were obtained on each car. The size, pack, quality, condition, and grade were ascertained from the certificate,

and quoted in the auction company’s catalogue. By

this means buyers were able to select cars of known

quality and offer bids accordinghn It was always

clearly apparent that the best (|uality and pack

brought the highest price. This fact had the effect of

improving the general quality of the lettuce being

shipped. Auction members, as well as others, would

endeavor to put up the best pack and quality possible

in order to compete favorably as to prices.
272 COMMERCIAL STANDARDS MONTHLY MARCH, 1032

In the exportation of oranges, apples, and pears

much of the selling is done on an f. o. b. basis. In this

business the importers invariably demand certification

when buying on an f. o. b. basis. Standard grades and inspection serve as a strong

advertising point with firms who advertise their

brands. The inspection of the product is of great

importance to those who, both as an advertising and

sales policy, place their best brands only on lots that

will grade U. S. No. 1 or 85 per cent U. S. No. 1 quality. Many regard a car that grades within 5 per

cent of a U. S. No. 1 for all practical purposes almost

equal to a car that meets the grade requirements. But

most shippers who are jealous of the reputation of

their brands will not place advertised labels on containers that show less than 85 per cent or 80 per cent U. S. No. 1 quality. In this State one well-known firm

that handles a number of products has adopted the

U. S. No. 1 grade as the basis of its best advertised

brand, on four or five of the principal products

shipped. Another organization that ships only celery

advertises and sells its best brand as a U. S. No. 1. Certificates of inspection are a valuable aid to the

sales organizations of large firms in assisting them

to sell carloads of known quality in desirable localities. Several large organizations have taken advantage of

this use of the certificates. With fresh fruits the

salesman can refer to the certificate and from it ascer- tain the degree of ripeness of fruit in order to know

how far it may be shipped with reasonable safety. If

it apjiears that a car of fruit, on account of advanced

maturity, or the possibility of showing heavy decay,

should be shipped to a near market, this can be done

and a reasonably satisfactory delivery made.

Each season many cars of pears are placed in

storage. They are carefully graded at the time they

are packed. Later at the time they are to be shipped an inspection is made, and from the degree of firm- ness of the fruit, the shipper may determine Avhether

the lot should be used for short or long shipment. In

most cases this fruit is held in storage and exported

as orders are received.

Since the recent freeze the demand for inspection of

oranges has increased. Freezing damage of oranges

is not readily determined from the external appearance of the orange. The most satisfactory way to find out the amount of damage is to cut a sample of

the fruit. The shipper may have each lot inspected,

and segregate the fruit according to the degree of

damage done. By the certificate the sales organization learns of the condition of the various cars and

delivers them accordingly. Lots which do not meet

the requirements of the law are not certified. Shippers of lettuce, tomatoes, and other vegetables use

the certificates as an aid to them in delivering the

cars. Various receivers in the markets provide different types of the trade with supplies of produce.

Shippers frequently have cars rejected especially on

a low or falling market upon some pretext or other.

In most of these cases acceptance can be forced by

advising the receiver that the cars carry a certificate of inspection and meet the gi’ade requirements.

In many instances shippers will make an allowance

to the receiver without a thorough investigation re- garding a complaint. Every shipper should remember that if his customer contests the grade given at shipping point he has the privilege of calling for an

appeal inspection. In an appeal inspection a thorough examination of the contents of the car is made

by inspectors of the Food Products Inspection Service

of the United States Department of Agriculture, and

the original certificate is sustained or reversed. When

it is considered that during 1930 only one car was re- versed as to grade for every 3,000 inspected, the

chances are very much in favor of the shipping point

certificate being sustained. The fact that shipping

point certificates are acceptable as prima facie evi- dence in courts make it a valuable document in set- tling claims with carriers and others.

SIMPLIFIED SCHEDULE FOR FORGED TOOLS

REVISED

The revised Simplified Practice Recommendation

R17-31, Forged Tools, is now available in printed

form from the Superintendent of Documents, Government Printing Office, Washington, D. C., at a cost of 15 cents per copy.

On September 12, 1923, manufacturers of forged

tools met in New York to consider a program of simplification for their industry. As a result of this

meeting, followed by a general conference of all interests held February 11, 1924, the industry adopted a simplified practice recommendation, which became ef- fective July 1, 1924. In 1925 the recommendation was

reaffirmed, without change, by the industry’s standing committee ; in 1927 the scope of the recommendation was extended to include simplification of eye

sizes; and in 1931 final action was taken on a tentative revision proposed in 1929. Several items have been included in the revised rec- ommendation so as to meet railroad requirements and

other_ consumer demands. The tool-eye number has

been incorporated in the list and is indicated opposite

each item where it is part of the tool in question. In

addition, a simplified list of lengths has been included,

where applicable. The variety of forged tool items

has been reduced from 665 to 431, and eye sizes from

120 to 10. PLYWOOD STANDARD RELEASED

The Bureau of Standards announces the release of

the Commercial! Standard for Plywood, CS35-31,

which covers grading rules for plywood of the com- monly used hardwood species, together with eastern red cedar.

It is the belief of the industry that these standard

grading specifications will clarify some of the misunderstandings that have been prevalent through the

use of various grade rules so that furniture manufacturers, architects, and others may definitely specify

their needs from universally recognized grades. The

commercial standard specifies certain general requirements of workmanship, gluing, packing, etc., and the

detail requirements of the face veneers required in

the several grades for each species.

Copies of the pamphlet are available at 10 cents each from the Superintendent of Documents, Government Printing Office, Washington, D. C.
MARCH, 1932 COMMERCIAL STANDARDS MONTHLY m

THE EFFECTS OF STANDARDIZATION IN BRITISH INDUSTRY

The Value of Standardization as a Remedy for Some of the Present Industrial Difficulties Discussed by

Director of the British Standards Institution

By C. LE Maistbe, Director, British Standards Institution '

The trade and industry of Great Britain are passing

through such a tremendous crisis, so prolonged and so far reaching in its effects, that it behooves each one of us in our various spheres of activity to maintain the

utmost confidence in the nation’s ability successfully

to meet and overcome the difficulties confronting it, however alarming they may appear to be. The spirit

of cooperation so notably on the increase in industry

everywhere, and the unity of action which comes from

such cooperation, are immensely constructive factors,

and should go far to help us in finding a remedy for

at any rate some of our industrial difficulties. My

purpose is to endeavor to show, in some small measure,

the contribution which standardization can make to- ward the solution of the problem by the introduction

of greater economy in manufacture and distribution.

As in most countries, so in Great Britain, standardization began in private firms and then passed on to being carried out by entire industries. So interdependent and interlocked, however, are the various in- dustries of the country, that experience has shown that

for the work to reach its highest efficiency and so confer the greatest benefit on the whole community, it has

to be carried out nationally under some sort of central

coordinating influence with, of course, a certain

amount of properly organized decentralization. Obviously there must be some authoritative, impartial

organization, not dependent upon any one of the interests concerned, able to call all those interests together,

to provide the opportunity of a satisfactory agreement

being reached. The added authority which Government support gives is essential. Then again, a national center is necessary in order to reduce overlapping and duplication to a minimum and so economize

effort. It also avoids the difficulty of setting lines of

demarcation in the work, and assists Government

departments which then have to deal with an

organization only, and have not to decide to which

organization they have to send any requests for

standardization.

Again, as finance is an important aspect, naturally

a national organization is bound to receive greater

financial support from industry, as there is no question of having to divide contributions, and the funds

can be more economically expended owing to the entire absence of any oveidapping. For these and many

other reasons the engineers of the country some 30

years ago decided to form a standards organization.

They had the foresight to realize that it must be impartial, and independent of Government control, yet

have the fullest Government support in order to give

that very necessary authority to which I have alluded ; and so the British Engineering Standards Committee,

now the British Standards Institution, came into

being in 1901. It has gradually gained to a mo.st marked degree the confidence of industry and,' undei'

^ Abstract of address recently delivered before the Royal Society of Arts in London.

its present title, its work is growing by leaps and

bounds.

Whilst a great number of people are converted to the idea and value of industrial standardization, and

are quite conversant with the principles upon which

the work is carried on, there are still certain critics

wffio, not being familiar with our procedure, fear that

standardization is going too far and that unless a halt

is called the country will be overstandardized. There

is, certainly, always this danger unless the movement

is most carefully watched and wisely guided through

the many difficulties inherent in such work. Safeguards have to be applied to prevent the too enthusiastic advocates from forcing on the community undesirable and unwise standards. So long, however, as the community interest of purchaser and producer is strictly maintained, and so long as provision is made

for periodic review and revision whenever these are

desirable, there should be no fear of overstandardization nor of interference with individual initiative and

invention. Again, the work must be protected from

too rapid change or from change merely for the sake

of change, as the recommendation must have some

measure of permanence if they are to obtain the confi- dence of industry.

As a general principle, it is of course desirable that

the specification should be limited to recommendations

as to performance and not, unless absolutely necessary,

touch upon the actual process of manufacture. This

allows the producer as much freedom as possible in

his methods of meeting the requirements and also

widens the market to the consumer. After 30 years’

experience in drawing up specifications the form has,

to a certain extent, naturally itself become standardized, though without any very hard and fast rules

being laid down.

The specifications include the technical provisions

necessary for the supply of the material or article re- ferred to and they do not attempt to comprise all the

necessary provisions of a contract; great care is exercised to preclude any matters not essential to the specification and which might tend to interfere with future

design. Tests are included where they are requisite

to establish the standard of quality. Contract clauses

of a nontechnical nature are deprecated, though, on the

other hand, coordination of such clauses would have

many advantages. If, however, a fully representative

committee decide that in the case of some piece of

apparatus for common everyday use the design has

practically reached finality, and desire that the com- munity as a whole shall reap the fullest benefit from

standardization and quantity production, it may be

found desirable completely to control interchangeability of the apparatus or commodity. The technical

committee is a standing committee, and so long as it watches the industrial situation carefully and reviews

it periodically and frequentl.y, there is nothing fundamentally wrong with crystallization.
274 COMMERCIAL STANDARDS MONTHLY MARCH, 1932

People in Great Britain .sometimes think that

American standardization is the ideal we should aim

at, and they are inclined to infer that we are very

much behindhand. Such criticisms are surely based on lack of knowledge of the entirely different conditions existing in the two countries. It is a question

as to whether the American ideal is altogether suit- able for us to aim at ; even in America they are beginning to think the work needs some review, and a good

deal of coordination. It must be remembered that

America is a commonwealth of nations trading

freely between themselves with an almost illimitable

home market. Great Britain, on the other hand, is a nation exporting to many different countries, each

of which has very different requirements rendered

necessary, no doubt, by climatic and other local conditions. If America has little to fear from competition, this country is hard up against it all the time,

often competing against low-paid foreign labor, sometimes financed by our own capital. It is no doubt true that standardization in America

has progressed further in individual firms than in

any other country. Overlapping, however, has be- come stupendous, and the American Standards Association has been formed to try to straighten things

out. It is interesting to notice that quite a number

of persons of high standing in America are beginning

to raise their voices against overstandardization. It

is true, I think, that these criticisms are directed more

against the standardized article or the appliance it- self than against anything else. Whilst possessing no legislative authority nor yet

subject to any Government control, the British Standards Institution has gained to a notable degree the

confidence of industry so that manufacturers find

themselves constrained to make use of the British

standard specifications, and the purchaser, although

free to order what he likes, in the great majority of

cases accepts the institution’s recommendations. The

result has been the saving of thousands of pounds a year to industry. One electrical cable firm, for in- stance, through the issue of a single British standard specification, admits having saved £500 a year, due to the decrease in the number of sizes of copper

wire it is obliged to stock for the making of its elec- tric cables. If one firm is able to liberate £10,000

which otherwise would have been locked up in one

item of their stock, how much industry as a whole

must have benefited.

Another notable example is that of the cement in- dustry, which, 25 or 30 years ago, was in a chaotic

condition. The cement makers, realizing that something must be done, cooperated as an industry with

the large users of cement, and produced, under the

aegis of our organization, the British standard specification for Portland cement, issued in 1904. The in- dustry has been reorganized, and since then has steadily progressed and become one of the great modernized

industries of the country, all based on the British

standards.

It is to be regretted that there are still many trades

and industries outside of the engineering and allied

industries, which so far have given but little attention

to this important matter. It is true that the work of

the institution is not at all widely known, and industries outside those already affiliated with it may even hardly know of its existence, and certainly do not

realize that they have at hand an organization which,

if made use of in the proper way, might immensely

benefit their position.

In the preparation of these specifications it has been

found necessary to secure technical data upon which

to base recommendations. This has often entailed

either testing or investigation and research by an in- dependent authority. The institution does not, as a rule, carry out this work, but it relies on the cooperation and assistance of the national physical laboratory

and the various research associations which are under

the Department of Scientific and Industrial Research.

The work, however, of preparing industrial standards, as is generally recognized, necessitates a differ- ent outlook from the work of research. The fact that

the practical recommendations based on research are so often prepared and issued by this institution has

quite definite advantages. Notably has this been the

case in the question of establishing a standard method

for the sampling and analysis of coal in which this

association has had the fullest cooperation of the Fuel

Research Board, who, in the most public-spirited

manner, placed all their information and the results of several years’ research work entirely at the dis- posal of the committees of the institution.

The question of a commercial specification for the

sampling and analysis of coal, which has recently been

issued, probably represents one of the most helpful

pieces of work which this institution has ever accomplished for industry. A delegation, headed by the

Minister of Mines, recently visited Scandinavia, where

they had heen to see what could be done to improve

our coal export trade with those countries. The white

paper presented to Parliament showed the urgent necessity of some standard method for the sampling and

analysis of coal, which would be acceptable to the for- eign purchasers of British coal. For the past three years this institution has been

bending every effort to find a solution of this problem,

and although the difficulties have sometimes been al- most insuperable—in fact, at times the task has ap- peared hopeless—success has been attained, so absolute was the necessity of finding a solution. And so, for the first time in the history of the coal trade, a British standard specification drawn up by the industry, quite apart from any Government control, giving

standards for everyday commercial use, has been

agreed upon. The foreign buyers of British coal have

been consulted during the process, and their criticisms

have been given the most careful consideration.

As the industrialists of this country more fully

grasp the fact that this national organization, entirely

impartial and independent of Government control,

actually exists in their very midst, and that its services are at their entire disposal, they will make more

use of it with increasing benefit in the home trade

and in foreign markets. Indeed, there is scarcely a firm producing either materials or commodities which

can afford not to be in touch with tliis work.
MARCH, 1032 COMMERCIAL STANDARDS MONTHLY 275

UNIFORMITY IN REGULATING NEW JERSEY TRAFFIC ASSURED

State Laws Relating to Safety Gives Equal Consideration to Rights of Motorists and Pedestrians

By Haeold G. Hofjman ^

Like most States, New Jersey has its distinctive and

individual problems growing out of motor-vehicle

use. While relatively small in geographic area, the

State has a motor-vehicle registration approaching the

1,000,000 mark. That means a high concentration of

automobiles in respect to both area and population.

The State’s geographic location gives it several

other conditions peculiar to itself. For instance, its seashore resorts attract thousands of motor tourists to New Jersey. Inland towns which are rich in his- toric and other forms of interest also have a wide appeal to those living outside the State. Still another

condition that serves to multiply traffic in New Jersey,

and one which grows out of the State’s geographic

position, is that its highways are the connecting link

between large centers of population such as New

York, Philadelphia, Boston, Baltimore, Washington,

and other points along the Atlantic seaboard.

New Jersey has tried to meet the requirements of its vast volume of traffic so much of which originates out- side its borders, with highways designed to carry a heavy burden of greatly varied traffic. Beyond that,

it seeks to regulate that traffic with the safest and,

at the same time, most liberal rules that can be devised. The varied character of the traffic traversing

New Jersey highways, in respect to its origin, clearly

dictates that traffic regulations shall be uniform to the greatest extent possible. Thus, the State motorvehicle department operates under a basic law which

gives it the widest jurisdiction.

Only in purely local traffic affairs, such as the designation of parking spaces, 1-way streets, and the like

is the jurisdiction of the State abridged by rights

conferred upon municipal agencies. Even in such

instances, the approval of the motor-vehicle commissioner is required upon a majority of traffic-control

ordinances adopted by municipalities.

This limitation—under which the smaller political

entity, the city or town, is protected by the right of

appeal to the State supreme court from decisions of

the motor-vehicle department—is one with the wisdom of which very few disagree. Substantially, the

entire State recognizes the solution of its peculiar

traffic problem as requiring the guiding hand of a

central agency. In bringing uniformity to every

traffic rule and regulation effective throughout the

State, the motor-vehicle department and the State

traffic commission are working hand in hand.

Safety, naturally, is the first objective of New Jersey’s motor-vehicle program. However, it is recognized that this is not the only consideration. The

fullest, freest, and most effective use of motor vehicles

demands that the rules governing their operation shall not be violently prohibitive, but as liberal as may be

consistent with the prevention of accidents.

Tlirough its driver’s license law, the State exercises

the power of selecting those of its citizens upon whom

it confers the privilege of using its highways. In this

activity. New Jersey recognizes its possession of a powerful check upon those unfit to drive. It demands that every applicant for a license shall demonstrate his qualifications through a practical driving

examination and a mental test based upon the motor

vehicle act and the traffic act. The driver’s license law continues always, as it begins, to be a check upon the individuals. Optional

revocation at the discretion of the motor-vehicle department for many offenses and mandatory withdrawal of the driving privilege for some is prescribed

in the basic law governing automobile use. The

power thus conferred is used most rigorously in the

case of drunken drivers. Without exception in cases of this character, the permit is revoked. In less seri- ous offenses, the penalty is applied as a last resort when it is evident no other will prove effective. Laws applying to the actual operation of vehicles are developed in New Jersey with the thought of

making them as few, simple, and liberal as possible

and, of course, uniform. The State permits a maximum speed of 40 miles an hour over its highways,

with exceptions to that regulation stated clearly and

succinctly. Business and residential district speeds

are specified at 15 and 20 miles an hour. The law

states that it shall be prima facie unlawful to exceed

any of the specific speed limits. New Jersey officials are aware that the maximum

speed limit differs from that of many other States; that some are more liberal, others less so. Their atti- tude on the subject, broadly speaking, is that the final word has not yet been spoken ; that time may modify

any or all of the various opinions now being enter- tained with regard to speed regulations.

The philosophy dictating New Jersey’s attitude on

speed of traffic flow is that it is conditioned by many

other factors than the maximum limit. A through

highway, or boulevard, on which a speed of 40 miles an hour is made possible by establishing unqualified

right of way for vehicles using it will permit an aver- age speed perhaps higher than could be made with no maximum limit, but with the highway unprotected

by “ stop ” signs at intersecting roads. In the matter of such signs. New Jersey has embarked upon a policy which it regards as of vast importance to the

task of moving traffic swiftly, smoothly, and safely. It is selecting boulevards throughout the State—roads

that serve the gi’eatest volume of traffic in their ter- ritories—and along these it is erecting the barricade;

of “ stop ” signs. Elsewhere it is rigidly prescribing

the use of this traffic device which has been so abused

over many years. The same policy applies to electric

traffic signals, a vast excess of which has adversely

affected New Jersey traffic movement in the ])ast. Signs and signals are intended to strike a balance

in road use, not to unbalance it to a degree that makes

^ them outright obstructions. Commissioner of motor vehicles, State of New .Tersey.
276 COMMERCIAL STANDARDS MONTHLY MARCH, 1032 An important phase of New Jersey’s direct attack on the highway-safety program is that which seeks

the exact causes of accidents. Determination of the cause is the first step in effecting the remedy. Accident data are tabulated and carefully analyzed in

every single instance. The result of this study of

mishaps is to indicate in New Jersey, as elsewhere,

that the personal element is the most important factor

in accidents. It is recognized that the personal equation is susceptible to legal restraint only to a limited

degree, and all laws governing this element are evolved with the idea of obtaining a maximum result

in this direction.

However, many other causes are shown to contribute

to the accident .situation. Some of them are purely

physical, such as deficiencies in highway width, visi- bility, and the like. The highway and motor-vehicle

departments together are capable of remedying these. The condition of the vehicle is another common fac- tor in accidents. New Jersey now has a law requiring

compulsory mechanical inspection of vehicles as to

GLASS CONTAINERS FOR MAYONNAISE AND

KINDRED PRODUCTS NOW IN EFFECT

Simplified practice recommendation No. R131-32,

covering glas,s containers for mayonnaise and kindred

products, which was approved at a general conference

of representatives of the industry on June 30, 1931,

is now in effect, a sufficient number of signed accept- ances to the recommendation having been received

by the Bureau of Standards.

For several years it has been the belief of the Mayonnaise Manufacturers Association that the simplification of jars (capacities) would result not only in

fewer sizes, but in less confusion and healthier competition. In a survey made by the foodstuffs division of the Bureau of Foreign and Domestic Commerce of the United States Department of Commerce

in 1928, it was observed that at least 25 different sizes of containers were being used in marketing mayonnaise, salad dressing, and sandwich spread. The sur- vey developed the further information that only six

of these sizes were required for the distribution of 85

per cent of the total production. It appeared also that more than 70 per cent of the sizes in which

mayonnaise jars were manufactured could easily be

dispensed with.

In consequence, the Mayonnaise Manufacturers Association requested the division of simplified practice

of the Bureau of Standards to assist in conducting a survey among the manufacturers of mayonnaise products to ascertain their views with respect to a proposed simplification of container sizes. Replies were

received from more than 130 firms, the great majority

of which indicated their readiness to support such a program. Accordingly, a general conference of all interests was held on June 30, 1931.

As approved by the general conference, and later accepted by the trade, simplified practice recommendation No. R131-32 provides for five stock sizes of

glass containers, based on liquid capacity. They are the 3-fluid ounce; the one-half pint, or 8-fluid ounce;

the pint; the quart; and the gallon. The recommendation is concerned with only capacities, and does not

lights, brakes, steering, and general safety equipment.

With no sense of intruding punitively into the affairs of the individual car owner, the motor-vehicle department thinks his own welfare and that of the public

at large is best served by requiring all cars to pass a safety examination.

The theory basing this is that modern traffic conditions must bring new considerations into the safety

picture. Once it was .sufficient, perhaps, merely to

specifiy the character of safety equipment a car must

possess along with standards of condition in which

such equipment must be maintained. Traffic to-day moves at a pace and in a volume that demands an official inspection of the individual car to see that it meets legal specifications of this character.

The broad view governing motor-vehicle use in New

Jersey in so far as the motor-vehicle department is concerned is that the department exists as an agency

not to harass motorists or pedestrians but to serve them in every way po.ssible.

affect the distinctive shapes of containers in use by the

various manufacturers. The program became effective

January 1, 1932, with a transitional period of six

months allowed for the clearance of all stocks of eliminated varieties of containers.

In discussing the possibilities of the recommendation, a representative of the industry said that the

greatest benefits to be gained through the general

adoption of this recommendation are better marketingmethods, and the elimination of confusion, in both

production and distribution. In brief, this simplification program, if effectively applied, should result in savings and benefits all along the line from the

container manufacturer to the consumer of mayonnaise and kindred products. He pointed out, however, that the realization of the economies and advantages inherent in this program is definitely dependent

upon the whole-hearted voluntary cooperation of all elements of the industry in the matter of adherence

to the simplified list of sizes.

LAUNDRY MACHINERY

At a meeting of manufacturers of machinery used

in commercial laundries there were drawn up tentative programs covering the simplification of washers,

tumblers, ironers, and extractors. It was suggested

by the members of the conference that the proposed

programs be submitted to general conferences of all interests, to be held in conjunction with a meeting of

the Laundry and Cleaners Allied Trades Association,

in Washington, D. C., in May, 1932. While there are available no figures indicating the

reduction in variety which would result from adoption of the proposed recommendations, the industry

believes that concentration of production and demand

upon a simplified list of sizes and types of these machines would make it possible to eliminate certain of

the avoidable wastes which have existed because of the

excessive variety of the machines themselves, and

parts therefor.
MARCH, 1932 COMMERCIAL STANDARDS MONTHLY 277

NORWEGIAN STANDARDIZATION COMMITTEE

Committee Has Developed 226 Standards Since it Was Created in 1923

By Kaaee Heiberg’

During and after the World War there was a constantly growing need for a central standardization

organization in Norway which could bring together

the more or less scattered work already started in different branches of Norway’s industries. The credit

for realizing such a plan belongs to the Norges In- dustriforbund, on whose initiative an independent

standardization committee was started in 1923, consisting of representatives from the following larger

industrial organizations, technical and social societies,

Government departments, municipalities, and scientific institutions; Departments of Labor, Commerce,

and Defense; agricultural colleges, labor associations,

commercial organizations, industrial organizations,

shipowners, farmers, civil engineers, and insurance

companies; this committee consists of 53 members,

representing both producers, consumers, and scientists. The method of the committee is similar to other foreign committees. Its council decides which problem

shall be taken up and appoints technical subcommittees, either for the different branches or the individual

problems, the subcommittees submitting the proposals

for standardization. As far as possible all groups

of people (producers, dealers, consumers, etc.) are to be represented in these subcommittees. Following approval by the council, the proposals for standardization are published and made available to the public

for comments and criticisms. These comments and

criticisms are reviewed by the proper subcommittee

before the recommendation is submitted to the council

for approval as a Norwegian standard.

Members of the various subcommittees receive no

pay, nor traveling expenses, and the revenue received

by the central standardization organization is ex- pended for printing and for participation in the international cooperative work of this kind.

In the formulating of its standards, the Norwegian

Standardization Committee does not only take into

consideration present Norwegian practices but en- deavors, where not in conflict with Norwegian interests, to conform to the standards of other countries.

For this purpose the committee has taken an active

* General secretary, Norges Industriforbunds Standardization Committee.

part in the international work of standardization from

the beginning, and has been a member of the International Federation of National Standardizing Associations ever since it was formed.

Originally the Norwegian Standardization Committee was appointed for the purpose of industrial

standardization, but later the scope of the work was

enlarged so as to include nonindustrial standardization activities, such as relating to agriculture and

fisheries. At the end of the seventh year of its exist- ence the committee had approved 226 standards.

Norwegian standards are now being used to an in- creasing extent. This is especially true with regard

to standards for packing and paper sizes. In standardizing paper sizes, the standards used are those al- ready in effect in several countries—the so-called metric paper sizes. These have now been accepted offi- cially everywhere in the Government service, in a number of the municipalities, and private industries.

Considerable advantages have been gained through

the adoption of these standards.

All standards are published in the weekly magazine

Norges Industri. From time to time new standards

adopted by similar foreign committees, and other interests, are inserted. Once a year the committee publishes its annual report and an index covering the

standardization pamphlets. The report contains a resume of the work done generally and by the various

subcommittees, as well as a list of the members who

comprise the respective committees.

The standards before the committee at the present

time concern quality and trial regulations for iron

and steel, and for ordinary building activity. The

committee is also working on standardization of tools,

standards for axles and wheels for horse-drawn vehicles, and for agricultural implements. Of special

interest is the work which has been started for standardization of qualities and classes of agricultural

products.

With increased knowledge of the importance of

standardization and the possibilities for the different

industries, the committee is constantly receiving re- quests for the development of new standards. Standardization work in Norway is therefore assured of

greater develoiDment.

COTTON CLOTH FOR RUBBER AND PYROXYLIN COATING

The printed pamphlet entitled “ Cotton Cloth for

Rubber and Pyroxylin Coating, Commercial Standard CS32-31,” has iDeen released and was distributed

to acceptors of record on February 10, 1932.

The specification and requirements for this standard cover in a general way, quality, width, thread

count per inch, unit weight, and tensile stren^h, and more specifically the length of cut, major and minor

defects, the amount of sizing allowed, injurious chemicals, and methods of inspection and test. The standard also includes a list of acceptors and a roster of the standing committee that was appointed to consider any comment or suggestions relative to the

standard in order that it may be kept in harmony

with the needs of the industry.

Copies of the publication may be obtained from the

Superintendent of Documents, Government Printing

Office, Washington, D. C., for 5 cents (stamps not

accepted )

.
278 COMMERCIAL STANDARDS MONTHLY MARCH, 1932 ENGINEERING INSPECTION OF AIRPLANE STRUCTURES

Tests Applied by Department of Commerce to Determine Airworthiness of Manufacturer’s Models

By Richard C. Gazley, Aeronautics Branch, Department of Commerce

In order to obtain an approved type certificate for an airplane the manufacturer is required to submit

to the Department of Commerce a complete set of

drawings, technical data, and stress analysis.

A close inspection of the airplane is conducted by

the engineering inspection to determine whether it meets the airworthiness requirements.

In addition to the inspection, the airplane is also

tested under static loads, designed to ascertain the

strength of stationary surfaces and parts and the

strength and ease of operation of moving parts of the

aii’craft in order to determine its ability to operate

under the loading conditions for which it was designed. These tests are conducted by the manufacturer in the presence of a Department of Commerce

inspector.

General Ij'' these tests include wing-rib static tests, control-surface tests, control-system tests, and pres- sure tests on the fuel and oil tanks. However, the department may require additional tests on different

parts of the aircraft where the design or data indi- cates the necessity. As an illustration of the procedure

followed in static tests, the wing ribs are loaded with

sand bags or lead shot, the amount vaiying with the

aircraft, in order to test their strength. The strength

of the landing gear may be tested, when it is thought

necessary, by actually dropping the aircraft from a prescribed height. The control surfaces, such as

ailerons, rudder, elevators, and stabilizers, are tested

both for strengdi and ease of operation by placing

weights on them and then working the controls. The

control system, which includes the cables and levers

which move the surface, is also tested for strength

and ease of operation, special care being taken to ascertain that there is no jamming, excessive friction, or undue deflection.

Reports of these tests are made by the manufacturer

to the dejiartment and are signed by the inspector who

witnessed them. The results of the tests, as submitted

to the department, describe fully the method of loading, the load-distribution curves, deflection readings

or curves, and include a log of the test describing all failures or repairs made during the tests. Photographs of all failures in structure and a photograph

of suitable size showing the test set-up and the points

from which deflections were measured are inclosed.

In particular cases where the structure can not be

satisfactorily analyzed and static tests are submitted

as the only proof of compliance with the strength re- quirements, such static tests are carried to destruction, or to 150 per cent of the design load, and samples of

the major structural parts are included with the main

test report.

An inspection is subsequently made to determine

that the workmanship and materials incorporated in

the airplane are such as to produce an air-worthy

machine.

The airplane then undergoes flight tests of such a nature as to demonstrate its balance, stability, maneuverability, and general flying and taxiing characteristics. Prior to, or at the time of presentation of an

airplane to the Aeronautics Branch for flight tests, the manufacturer submits to the department inspector

designated to make the tests, a detailed report of the

manufacturer’s flight tests on the particular airplane

involved. The report submitted is signed by the manufacturer’s test pilot and shows that the aircraft has

been fully test flown, including all the required maneuvers, such as tests for longitudinal, lateral, and di- rectional balance, and tests for stability. If the flight

tests given by the Aeronautics Branch inspector are successfully accomplished, the airplane will be approved for license. If, in addition, suitable manufacturing facilities are in evidence, and the manufacturer so desires, an approved type certificate will

be issued.

In the event an approved type certificate is desired,

the inspector also conducts an examination of the fac- tory in order to determine whether it has the facilities to produce aircraft in quantities. He investigates

the efficiency of the personnel, the equipment available, whether or not the factory is equipped for exact duplication of parts and assemblies, the factory-inspection system emjiloyed, and the factory’s source of

supplies. He also ascertains the dependability of the

organization, its attitude toward quantity and quality

production, and the shop practices employed. The

primary object of this inspection is to determine

whether the factory can produce aircraft in large

quantities of the same standard and quality as that

embodied in the aircraft submitted for inspection if an approved type certificate is issued.

BRITISH STANDARD ISSUED FOR STREET

LIGHTING

The British Standards Institution has issued a re- vision of its specification (No. 307-1931), dealing with

street lighting, which was originally promulgated in

1927.

The revision has a number of new definitions, but

there is no change in the classification of street lighting installations, nor in the basis of minimum rated

mean test-point horizontal dhimination. More complete information is to be supplied both by parties

inviting bids for street lighting and by prospective

bidders.

In regard to the question of glare, it was found that even the simplified method of assessing glare, given

in the 1927 edition of the specification, was considered

by many to be too involved and was not being used.

No numerical expression of glare has, therefore, been

included in the revision, but guidance is offered as to the means by which glare may be mitigated.
MARCH, 1932 COMMERCIAL STANDARDS MONTHLY 279

GRADING MILK

United States Public Health Service Sets Up Model Ordinance Used in Eight States

By William B. Dubyee'

The problems that immediately arise under a dis- cussion of grades and standards for milk are so numerous both in jirinciple and in detail as to preclude the

possibility of fair presentation in an article of this

type. There is little uniformity in State regulations on the subject and yet all States, except two, have legislation governing some phase of the dairy industry.

The establishment of grades and standards for milk,

together with an effective control system, is essential

to the welfare of the producer. The only way by

which the producer of milk can develop the sale of his

product is through the establishment of quality in that

product and the ability to convince the public that it is a product in which confidence may be placed.

Through the establishment of standards which serve

to prevent the marketing of milk of substandard

quality, the producer has an opportunity to push the

sale of his product on the basis of its inspection by a disinterested and official organization.

The value of grades to the distributor is generally

accepted. It enables him to purchase milk on a quality basis from producers and to sell the better grades

at correspondingly higher prices to discriminating consumers. The distribution of milk on the basis of

grades is a stabilizing influence in milk production

and consumption, and it is unquestionably helpful to the distributor of milk wherever an effective grading

system is operative.

To consumers, grades of milk can be made popular

in so far as the system itself is concerned. It is es- sential, however, that there be public confidence in the

grades that are placed upon the milk bottle caps if consumer confidence is to be maintained.

There is an earnest group of men who sincerely

doubt the value of grades for milk. This group has

succeeded in bringing about a clearer conception of

milk quality and in preventing enthusiasts from run- ning wild on the subject of grades. They call atten- tion to the foibles in many systems of miUi inspection

and grading, especially to those directed more along

the lines of equipment than in the quality of the product itself. The argument is advanced, for example,

that there is no reason for academic requirements as

to the number of windows in a stable, since that would

probably have no more effect upon the quality of the

product than would the number of windows in a kitchen upon the quality of the food produced in that

kitchen. There is also the argument against allowing a bacteria count larger than the stated maximum

to place the milk in an unsafe category, whereas the

milk that shows a smaller number of bacteria is con- sidered safe. The critics of the grading system also point to the

tremendous diversity of regulations prevailing

throughout the country as establishing the doubtfulness of all such regulations. Attention is directed to the fact that milk considered unsafe in one State is

‘ Secretary of agriculture, State of New Jersey.

considered safe in another State, and the people in

that State drink the milk without any ill effects. A survey of the situation throughout the country

shows ample grounds for this critical attitude toward

grades and standards. About 10 per cent of all major

cities in the country prohibit the sale of raw milk

other than certified, presumably on the basis of its being unsafe, while 90 per cent continued to permit raw

milk to be marketed. Fourteen States have defined

grades of milli and 31 States have defined adulteration

by law. Twenty-seven States require that milk must

be free from colostrum and must not be sold 15 days

before or 5 days after calving. Fifteen States limit

bacterial counts and 15 require that all milk sold must

be from cows free from tuberculosis. Fourteen States have regulations regarding light and ventilation in

barns and 17 States require a separate milk house.

Four States require a barn score to be made of the

farmers’ premises. In 16 States there are regulations

as to cooling of milk. Eight of these specify a max- imum of 50°. The balance have higher temperature

requirements, extending to 70°. This regulation usually states that the milk shall be cooled to this temperature after milking and kept at that temperature,

or below, until delivered to the collecting station or the bottling plant. There are 10 different definitions

of pasteurization in the various States, the principal

differences being in regard to temperatures of heating

and cooling.

In the effort to secure some national uniformity in

regard to miUc, the United States Public Health Service has set up a so-called model ordinance which has

been put into operation in eight States, either as rec- ommended by the Public Health Service or with some

minor modifications. Many States do not agree ivith

the grading principles laid down by the Public Health

Service and will be very slow to adopt these standards

for that reason.

It is, of course, impossible to give any details in

regard to plans in effect in the States of the Union

in this paper, but I wish to outline the major points

in the milk regulations of two States which are on

opposite sides of the continent geographically and

which have systems which appear to be working satis- factorily for the conditions prevailing in those Commonwealths.

The California plan ^ of milk control has attracted

nation-wide attention, and is frequently referred to by those qualified to judge as one of the best systems

in the country. Milk in California is classified as “ Certified,” “Guaranteed raw,” “ Grade A raw,”

“ Grade A pasteurized,” and “ Grade B pasteurized.”

While the control of milk standards is vested in the

California Department of Agriculture, the grading

of milk is permitted by law only where produced and

distributed under the supervision of a local milkinspecting department operating as a part of the local

2 See Commercial Standards Monthly, Issue of July, 1931.
280 COMMERCIAL STANDARDS MONTHLY MARCH, 1932

health department, which shall include in its organization at least one regularly licensed physician and

shall provide for field inspections of dairies and milk

plants, veterinary inspection of all dairy cattle and

chemical and bacterial examination of the product.

Such local departments become operative only after

approval by the State department of agriculture. It

is not only necessary for the local departments to have

proper equipment in personnel and apparatus, but it

is also required that the work be conducted in such a manner as will meet the State standard of efficiency,

thus insuring uniformity throughout the State. Beginning in 1923 there were five local departments

cooperating with the State department of agriculture

and this list had grown to 72 in 1930. A number of

these local departments extend over entire counties

and several to groups of cities, thereby extending the

benefits of a graded miUi supply to 680 cities and

towns in California, the population of which con- sumes over 96 per cent of all the market milk sold in

the State. The fact that most of the work in milk

control is being done by the municipalities is shown by

the number of men who are in the California Department of Agriculture and are concerned with this work.

Only three full-time market-milk specialists maintain

the supervision of 72 local departments now in exist- ence and render assistance in organization work in

other communities desiring this service.

The central office conducts a surprise system of in- spection to determine the effectiveness of the local health departments and the quality of milk being sold.

Samples of milk are taken and studied on the basis

of the United States official milk score card, which

allows 35 per cent for bacterial analysis, 15 per cent

for flavor and odor, 10 per cent for sediment, 15 per

cent for butterfat content, 15 per cent for solids not

fat, 5 per cent for acidity, and 5 per cent for bottle

and cap, making a total of 100 per cent. Another type of a milk regulation law is in effect in Connecticut that provides for a milk regulation

board consisting of the commissioner of health, the

commissioner of agriculture, the commissioner of domestic animals, and dairy and food commissioner, and

two qualified electors of the State who are actively

engaged in the production of milk. This regulation

board drafts rules and regulations for the carrying

out of the act relating to milk control and serves as a policy board in relation to the whole subject. The

enforcement is administered by the dairy and food

commissioner of Connecticut. In addition to a law

specifying minimum standards, there are grades provided which include “ certified milk,” “ Grade A raw

milk and cream ” and “ Grade A pasteurized milk

and cream.” While other grades are permitted, they

must comply with the standards set up in the minimum code.

The Connecticut plan is recommended, not only be- cause it is working effectively but because it brings

into the regulation of the milk supply both agricultural and health organizations on a state-wide basis,

and the preponderance of influence on the milk regulation board lies with the production side.

AMERICAN ROAD BUILDERS’ ASSOCIATION

HOLDS ANNUAL MEETING

Standardization of highway construction and

maintenance is approached through establishing cur- rent practice in highway activities. One of the most

potent influences in this process of establishing cur- rent practice is the annual convention and road show

of the American Road Builders’ Association.

At the twenty-ninth annual meeting held this year

in Detroit during the week of January 11, State,

county, and city highway officials, contractors, engineers, commercial highway users and others, totaling

22,600, attended the convention sessions and inspected

the road and street equipment and materials on dis- play. At the 24 convention sessions there were 70

technical reports and papers all of which dealt with

current practice. These reports will be published

later on by the association.

In commenting on the reports presented, the Engineering News-Record said

:

The coverage leaves little more to be said of current practice in road surfacing. These reports on construction mark

the high spot in the work of the association committees for

1931. In particular, the census and appraisal of equipment for low-cost road construction are the most complete ever recorded. The reports were siionsored by the several divisions

of the association and reiiresent the results of a year’s

work by the various committees. Special effort was

directed to prevent unnecessary duplication of work

being done by other associations, and 15 of the reports were joint efforts by the American Road Builders’

Association with other organizations interested in

road building.

CLINICAL THERMOMETERS

A widespread desire on the part of manufacturers

of clinical thermometers to secure coordination between the commercial .standard and regulations cover- ing clinical thermometers as enforced by a few States

and municipalities, resulted in a meeting held for this

purpose on January 12, 1932. The States of Michigan and Connecticut and the city of New York were

represented at this meeting, a representative of

Massachusetts being unable to attend. The resulting

draft of a revision of the present commercial standard for clinical thermometers has been circulated to the industry for acceptance.

STANDARD FOR CEDAR CLOSET LINING

REAFFIRMED

The commercial standard for Aromatic Red Cedar

Closet Lining, CS26-30, has been reaffirmed, without

change, for another year ending October 1, 1932.

This course was pursued by the standing committee

after considering the results of an adherence survey

undertaken in cooperation with the manufacturers of

this product which indicated adherence of 83 per cent based on the unweighted averages of nine manufacturers. It will be recalled that this standard embraces the

minimum requirements for aromatic red cedar closet lining covering sizes, permissible defects, and requisite heartwood which shall be not less than 75 per

cent.
t*

V

I

»i

MARCH. 1932 COMMERCIAL STANDARDS MONTHLY 281

STANDARD RAIL

The Pennsylvania Railroad Adopts a New Rail Standard on Main- Line Track

By T. J. Skillman '

On May 16, 1831, one hundred j^ears ago, there ar- rived in Philadelphia from England the first T rails ever produced. These rails wej-e rolled of iron,

weighed 36 pounds to the j'ard and measured 3^2

inches in height and 3^4 inches at the base. They were

laid in track of the Camden & Amboy Railroad, which

line is in operation to-da}?^ as part of the New York

division of the Pennsylvania Railroad.

Since the above date the trend of railroading has

been toward increased capacity of lading of freight

cars, increased weight of passenger equipment, in- creased length of trains in both branches of service,

with steadih' advancing speeds, and larger sections of

different types of rail have been used from time to time to meet these conditions.

This year the Pennsylvania Railroad has put in

service a new rail section weighing 152 pounds to the

yard, 8 inches in height and 6% inches at base,

which is heavier and stronger than an}^ heretofore in

regular use on any railroad.

The new rail, both design and chemical composition, has been worked out by a committee of representatives of the United States Steel Corporation,

the Bethlehem Steel Co., and the Pennsylvania Railroad.

‘ The Pennsylvania Railroad, Philadelphia, Pa.

They set for their aim a rail design that would meet

the requirement of sustaining 100,0U0-pound axle loads

at a speed of 100 miles per hour, as compared with

maximum present requirements of 80,000-pound axle

loads at a speed of 80 miles per hour. The new rail

is 1% inches higher than the present 130-pound sec- tion and possesses approximately 75 ^ler cent greater

.stiffness. The deficiencies in splicing, causing rail to batter

and make poor riding track, were met by utilizing the

greater fisliing space provided in the higher web of

the new rail. This has made it possible to design a simpler but more effective form of splice, which re- sults in a much improved rail joint. Features of design have been introduced which produce greater

vertical stiffness as well as lateral resiliency. The lat- ter makes it possible to take up the wear and tear that occurs between the underside of the head of

the rail and the top of the splice.

The 130-pound standard rail section, used during

the past 15 years, has been revised to accord with the

principles of the 152-pound rail. The result has been

to add 22 per cent to the stiffness of the rail, with an increase of only 1 pound per yard in weight. This new 131-pound section will hereafter be the standard on main-line track, except where extraordinary conditions of traffic require the 152-pound section.

AUSTRIAN STANDARDS COMMITTEE

Standardization in Austria Places Particular Emphasis on Simplification

By Dr. .Taro Tomaides

The Austrian standards committee, Osterreicher

Normenauschass fur Industrie und Gewerber, established in 1920 on the initiative of the National Society

for Austrian Industry and the Austrian Union of

German Engineers, functions as the central Austrian

standards-making body.

The O. N. I. G., whose 800 members are representative of various Austrian associations and professional

societies, is directed by a main committee of 18 members, which has for its chief function the control of

the relationships of each technical committee with

other committees having fields of work which may

overlap, or have other interrelationships requiring co- ordination or provision for intercommittee conferences.

The work of i^reparing standards is carried on by

technical committees, whose membership, for the

facilitation of work, is generally limited from 8 to 10

persons. A draft is developed by a working committee of 3 or 4 men.

Draft standards are published for a period varying

from two months to a year, for public examination

and criticism. Each standard submitted has its own

editorial committee, the chairman of which meets with

the technical committee which prepared the standard.

This chairman is a permanent officer who is in charge

of all of the various editorial committees.

The final approval of standards is a function of the

main committee.

The 2M'esent status of Austrian standardization is summarized in the following table.

Industrial groups Completed

standards

Published

for criticism Work

under way

Total

A. General standards 7 10 27 44 B. Building C7 44 11 122 BII. Mining and smelting 42

21

17 5U C. Chemical industry 18 5 44 E. Electrical engineering 55 11 37 103 F. Fire fighting 1 6 i K. Hospitals 0 1 9 L. Agriculture 8 It) M. Mechanical engineering 358 28 33 419 V. Traffic 34 8 8 50

Total - 587 127 153 867

One of the most im2)ortant jJi'ojects carried out l)y

the (). N. I. G. relates to general specifications
282 commercial standards monthly MARCH, 1932

for petroleum oils, applying to steam, gas, oil engines,

and refrigerating machinery. These specifications were completed after two years of research.

Another subject of study is hospital standardization, with special reference to appliances used by the

patient, equipment, including beds, cabinets, tables,

and surgical instruments. Such work is similar to that now being carried on in Germany.

Standardization is being conducted in the field of

mining on such items as mine cars, crown drills, compressed air motor connections, ventilating air pipes,

splice plates, track gates, tools, including drills, picks.

SIMPLIFICATION OF WIRE SCREEN CLOTH

APPROVED BY INDUSTRY

For many years the wire screen cloth industry has

been manufacturing a complete line of black painted,

electro-galvanized, bright galvanized, copper, and

commercial bronze wire sci'een cloth, in meshes 12, 14,

16, and 18, and in an ever increasing variety of widths.

Because of change in demand, many of the items

manufactured were no longer required.

Recognizing the need for simplification in the in- dustry, the Wire Screen Cloth Manufacturers’ Insti- tute appointed a committee to study production and

demand, and to prepare a simplified list of varieties.

The Bureau of Standards was then requested to call a general conference of manufacturers, distributors,

and users of the commodity, to consider the program

and develop a simplified practice recommendation.

This general conference was held June 18, 1931, in

New York City. Following the informal approval on

the part of the general conference, the program was

submitted to the entire industry for written approval,

which it has been accorded.

The recommendation provides for screen made from

two kinds of wire, steel and nonferrous. Two descriptions of steel screen wire are included, painted and

zinc coated by the electrolytic method. In the nonferrous group, two descriptions are included, and these are commercial bronze and hard-drawn copper. The

former is a trade term to designate wire made of copper and zinc, and is not to be confused with bronze

which is made of copper and tin. Although the demand for 12-mesh screen is declining rapidly, the committee found that some sections

of the country still use it, on account of the low price,

and for that reason retained this mesh in painted

screen. It was also retained in the zinc-coated material, along with 14, 16, and 18. The same size wire,

0.0110, is specified for both painted and zinc-coated

wire. The adoption of the same size wire for all meshes is a desirable step Avhich it is expected will

result in economies to manufacturers because it will

simplify manufacturing processes and reduce inventory of Avire stock. For screen wire made of commercial bronze or hard-drawn copper, 14, 16, and 18

mesh is retained. As in the case of steel-wire screen, one size wire, 0.0113, is specified for both varieties. This, as in the former case, is expected to result in economies in production.

For each description of screen wire, 14 widths of

roll are sjDecified. These start at 18 inches and inaxes, and mine insertion of the handles of common

tools. Austrian standardization places particular emphasis on simplification. By standardizing the height of

nuts at eight-tenths diameter, substantial savings have

been effected by industry. Eighty per cent of all roofing paper produced is made in 4 thicknesses, in- stead of 11 thicknesses as formerly. Lumber, formerly manufactured in 35 widths and 24 thicknesses,

is now produced in 25 widths and 14 thicknesses. One

type of mine car now replaces the 32 once used for

carrying coal, ore, and salt. Sixteen mine-track gages

have been reduced to four.

crease by 2-inch steps to and including 42 inches.

The widest roll is 48 inches, a 6-inch step from 42. All rolls contain approximately 100 linear feet. For

those who desire a quick check on copper and commercial-bronze cloth, there is included in the recom- mendation a table showing the weight for 100 square

feet of 14, 16, and 18 mesh scx’een. Production figures compiled by the Wire Screen

Cloth Manufacturers’ Institute disclosed that the re- tained varieties will meet the normal requirements of

the trade. The schedule retains 154 items, covering

description, meshes and widths. Formerly there were

360 items. The elimination of 206 items represents

a reduction of approximately 57 per cent. The eliminated items are four meshes of bright galvanized and

three meshes of painted screen cloth in 20 widths

each. Six widths of all retained have been eliminated.

Wire insect screen cloth, generally called fly screen,

is used principally for screening residences and buildings, but also finds some use in specialty fields, such

as protecti\"e covering for growing tobacco.

FEDERAL SPECIFICATIONS

Thirteen specifications Avere acted on by the Federal Specifications Board during the month of February. Of this number, 10 were submitted for revision

and 3 for consideration as proposed specifications.

Copies of these specifications (in mimeographed form)

and further information can be obtained from the

Federal Specifications Board, Bureau of Standards,

Washington, D. C.

New designation Specifications to be revised F. S. B. No.

Plumbing fixtures (for land purposes) 448 W-F-80I Fuses, cartridge, inclosed, nonrenewable 56 ZZ-T-381a Tires, automobile and motor cycle, pneumatic

QQ-B-71 Bars, reinforcement, concrete 350a QQ-I-686 Ron, wrought (refined), bars 391 QQ-S-611 Spiegeleisen.. 273 QQ-S-711 Steel, structural, for bridges 351a QQ-S-721 Steel, structural, for buildings 352a QQ-S-731 Steel, structural, for cars 373a CCC-T-191... Textiles, test methods.. . ...... 345a

Specifications proposed

W-F-.W Fire-alarm systems, electric, hand operated, shunt type. .
MARCH, 1932 COMMERCIAL STANDARDS MONTHLY 283

CERTIFIED CONCRETE MASONRY UNITS

Underwriters’ Laboratories Inspection and Certification Seiwice Helps to Maintain Products of Standard

Quality

By W. D. M. Allan "

The present inspection service on hollow concrete building units of Underwriters’ Laboratories (Inc.) was established in 1927 to supersede a label service

form of factory supervision which was inaugurated

in 1926 and the purpose of which was identical with

that of to-day’s service.

The purpose of the present service is to assist the

concrete masonry industry “ in maintaining a jiroduct

of standard quality and to supply such information as may be needed by regulatory and insurance rating

bodies throughout the country concerning respective

manufacturers of the material.”

Certificates of inspection, which are prepared by

the concrete masonry manufacturer and issued by au- thorized engineers and inspectors of Underwriters’

Laboratories, to-day are “ furnished buildings and

other constructions as evidence to the user of the

material and to building authorities that the product

covered by same is of standard uniform quality con- forming to existing requirements as determined by

factory and field inspection.”

The service for concrete masoniy units is operated

under classes B-5 (12-inch walls) and C-3 (8-inch

walls) as listed in the Bulletin of Fire Retardant

Glassifications of Building Materials and Assemblies,

issued July 16, 1930, by Underwriters’ Laboratories.

Class B-5 includes “ materials and assemblies,” which

are classified as “ between 5-hour and 8-hour fire re- tardants”; C-3, those classified as “between 3-hour

and 5-hour fire retardants.”

At present the inspection and certification service

is operating in 17 States and 1 Province of Canada,

according to reports from Underwriters’ Laboratories.

The service also is available to other concrete masonry

manufacturers in other or the same States, if and when

these producers request it. In California, Florida, Georgia, Illinois, Indiana,

Louisiana, Massachusetts, Michigan, Mississippi, Nebraska, New Jersey, New York, North Carolina,

Texas, Virginia, Washington, Wisconsin, and British

Columbia there are 52 manufacturers of concrete masonry units which are operating under the inspection service. Many of these plants enjoy State-wide

distribution of their products and some do considerable interstate business, indicating that certification

of concrete masonry buildings and constructions has

a broader field than the 17 States in which the factories are located. Since the establishment of the

service millions of conceret masonry units have been

certified throughout the country.

Insurance inspection and rating bureau in forty-odd

States and in one or two Provinces in Canada recognize certified concrete masonry by preferential rat- ing treatment, and a number of building officials throughount the country also recognize its quality

' Manager, Cement Rroducts Bureau, Portland Cement Association, 33 West Grant Avenue, Chicago, 111.

svithout the necessity of additional periodic tests by

their departments.

Manufacturers operating under the inspection service on hollow concrete building units have agreed with

Underwriters’ Laboratories to issue certificates only

under the following conditions, and compliance with

these conditions is determined by field inspections by

the laboratories before certificates are issued : “(a) Material for which certificates are prepared will be made

in accordance with requirements developed as a result of a number of major series of fire tests. (Note.

The

requirements of the present standard are indicated in

Underwriters’ Laboratories standard for hollow concrete building units, dated September 26, 1930.) (6)

No material, known to be substandard, will be used

in the same wall assemblies in conjunction with standard material for which certificates are prepared, (c)

All standard material included in a specific assembly

referred to by certificate shall be properly covered by

the certificate, {d) All certified material shall be used

for the purposes described on the certificate unless the

laboratories are informed of the change, (e) The lab- oratories reserve the right to cancel certificates for material shipped since the preceding factory and field inspection in the event that inspection of a representative percentage of such material develops substandard

features or misuse in connection with the above and

other rules of the service.”

Complete factory and field inspections of the products of listed manufacturers are made at intervals of

from once a month to once a week, depending on the

production of each plant, and the service is of such

form that it can be temporarily suspended during periods of temporary inactivity in the production of

standard material.

Manufacturing processes, raw materials, and fin- ished product are checked in detail at each factory

inspection. Strength, design, dimensions, composition, proportion, consistency, and curing methods arc reviewed to determine compliance with the requirements. Periodically samples of aggregate and finished

units are selected for chemical analysis and strength

test, the majority of strength samples being selected

from the field. Field inspections are conducted in conjunction with

the inspections at the factory. A minimum of 2 and

a maximum of 10 buildings are inspected at each field inspection. When a manufacturer has certificated

material at a considerable number of buildings since

the preceding inspection, care is taken that the maximum of 10 buildings visited fairly represents the

general use of the material, including both large and

small shipments.

The use, size, and amount of material is checked

with that indicated on the certificate, and the appearance and condition are noted. At each factory and

field inspectioji, an average of five sample blocks are, selected for strength test. General condition and qual-
284 COMMEKCIAL STANDARDS MONTHLY MARCH, 1932

ity of the product are roughly determined by observation of the number of broken and damaged units.

When any quantity of such material is noted, it is essential that strength samples be selected from the

location in question. A field inspector usually breaks one or two units at each building visited to determine

the approximate amount and kind of coarse aggregate

used.

Additional information concerning the inspection

and certification service, which this article has described and which is helping manufacturers to maintain a high standard of quality in concrete masonry

units and concrete masonry construction, is given in

a bulletin. Inspection Service on Hollow Concrete

Building Units, published by Underwriters’ Laboratories (Inc.), 207 East Ohio Street, Chicago, 111.

TIME MEASUREMENTS IN THE LABORATORY

In the te.sting of timepieces at the Bureau of Standards a liiefler astronomical clock is used as a stiindard

because of its extremely small daily variation, about

0.02 second a day, or within about 1 part in 4,000,000.

This clock is kept at constant temperature and air pressure. It has a contact wheel from which electrical

signals are made to operate the pen of a chronograph,

and thus make a permanent record of the time intervals. In order to determine accurately the rate of

this clock the signals from it are compared daily with

those received from the Naval Observatory through

the Arlington Radio Station. (See illustration.)

Constant tempei’ature i-ooms, which are electrically

controlled, are maintained for testing purposes.

In measurements involving short intervals of time.

Avatches, clocks, and timekeeping instruments of this

nature are not sufficiently accurate, and other means

must be found to obtain and maintain standards.

Much research has been carried out on tuning forks,

vibrating crystals, and pendulums for this purpose

with this end in Anew. One use of the pendulum, Avhich gives promise of

successful results, involves Jdoe- use of a photo-electric

cell to obtain a signal from a pendulum without any

mechanical contact and at the same time to cause an

electric impulse to be given to the pendulum. A light

beam is caused to fall upon a mirror attached to the

pendulum and to be reflected through a narrow slit to a photo-electric cell. The action of the cell is amplified by means of a i-adio amplifier and operates a sensitiA'e rela}^ from Avlnch signals may be distributed.

Signals from this relay can be made to operate a contacting device Avhich Avill cause a small electric cur- rent to be sent through the coils of an electromagnet

at predetermined interAuils. A small iron bar, at- tached horizontally to the loAver end of the pendulum

rod, SAvings into this coil and the magnetic effect upon

it causes the pendulum to be kept in motion. By set- ting the slit in front of the photo-electric cell so that

the light falls upon the cell only Avhen the pendulum

is in the vertical position the instant of impulse and

of the signals may be controlled. Seconds signals re- ceived in this Avay are good to better than 0.001 second,

and by inclosing the pendulum in a case at constant temperature and pressure signals accurate to 0.0001

second should result.

A corner of the time section tahorntorif at the Bureau of Standards shotcrn<i (a) the ehrono(/raph, (l>) the time stamp, (c) the radio receiving set, and (d) the switchhoa.rd for distrihiiting the time signals fretn the

Rieflcr clock
MARCH, 1932 COMMERCIAL STAXDAEDS MO^TTHLY 285

COAL-MINE BLASTING

Bureau of Mines Actively Engaged in Reducing Mine Hazards by Testing and Classifying Explosives

By A. C. Fieldxeb and Alden H. Emery '

Every ton of coal which is mined must be broken

from a solid lump, so to speak, acres in areal extent and many feet thick, into sizes which can be handled

by the miners and used by consumers. This is done

with explosives. Holes are drilled into the coal, ex- plosives are placed in the holes, and they are fired. The broken pieces are removed from the mine to be

put on the market ; and the process is repeated.

This necessary operation of blasting introduces sev- eral hazards into the life of the miner. He may

handle the material carelessly and be blown to pieces.

The flame, which accompanies the discharge of all explosives, may ignite inflammable gas, always pres- ent in the air of some mines and a possible constitu- ent of the atmosphere in all mines. The least that

such ignited gas can do is to burn a few luckless in- dividuals. More frequently it initiates a widespread

explosion, in which hundreds of lives may be wiped

out in a single disaster. Therefore, one of the first investigations of the newly formed Bureau of Mines

was to develop methods for reducing the danger from

the legitimate use of explosives.

These studies showed that the size, duration, and in- tensity of the flames from the explosives then in use

in mining coal varied with the composition of the

explosives. For example, a sample of black blasting

powder gave a 50-inch flame lasting 1,540 milliseconds,

while another type of explosive had only a 20-inch

flame of 0.3 millisecond duration. It is obvious that

the larger, more prolonged, more intense flame gives

greater opportunity for the ignition of any flammable

gases or dusts present in the air. From these studies came the idea of classifying all explosives into two groups—those that are relatively

safe and those that will readily ignite explosive mixtures ; or, as they have been designated “ pei’inissible,”

and “ nonpermissible ” explosives. Thorough tests for

safety were therefore developed, and through the co- operation of the manufacturers, who now submit to

this bureau all new coal-mining exjDlosives for test before placing them on the market, it is possible for

miners to work with a minimum of risk from this source. At present there are 138 explosives which

have passed these Bureau of Mines safety tests and are designated as permissible.

The liability of an explosive fired in a mine to initi- ate a wholesale explosion is determined in a steel gallery 100 feet long. Various quantities of coal dust

may be distributed throughout this gallery, or gas in

dift'erent amounts may be admitted, or both, and the

effect noted of the discharge of diffei’ent explosives

under different conditions. From these data the safest

composition of explosiA’es and the least hazardous

methods of use can be determined.

While investigating means for reducing the liability

of ignition of gas and dust in mine air, the Bureau of

Mines did not forget the possibility of fatal accidents

from the discharge of explosives in handling. As

‘ Chief engineer and assistant to chief engineer, experiment stations

division, U. S. Bureau of Mines.

part of its accident-reduction program, the bureau has

encouraged the production of explosives which are not

too sensitive to sudden impact, friction, or other exter- nal influences. To tins end, it has studied the sensitivity of many types of material and has determined

the relation between composition and sensitivity. It must not be thought that the reduction of flame

and increase of stability are effected simply by reducing the power of the explosive. These materials are used for the definite purpose of producing a force

sufficient to break the massive coal or rock into sizes that can be handled and used. To be sure that the

tested explosives are not only safe, but that they will

do the work for which they were manufactured, tests are made in a ballistic pendulum. In this test the

explosive is discharged in contact with a steel pendulum weighing 16 tons. The swing imparted to this mass is a measure of the strength of the explosive.

The detonation of all explosives results in the liberation of gases, many of which are very poisonous. Determinations of the amount and composition of these

gases, which vary with the composition of the explosive, are made to ascertain the material which can be

usecl with the least danger from gaseous products.

Safetjq stability, and strength are not the onty qualities desired in these materials. Lump coal brings a higher price than fine sizes. Therefore, the proportion of lump coal produced by explosives of various

kinds and under different conditions of use has been

determined. As a result of this study, one mine in- creased its lump coal 7Y2 per cent and decreased its exj)losive consumption 31 per cent. From these and similar physical studies conducted

at the Explosives Experiment Station, Bruceton, Pa.,

and from chemical tests made at the Pittsburgh Experiment Station have come recommendations for the

manufacture of explosives of maximum safety and

efficienc3L The recent discovery, development, and marketing

of new and better products for fumigation, refrigeration, ansesthesia, and other purposes, has brought the

question of their safety to the public attention. Therefore, studies have been made of the explosibility of

many of these compounds and the effect of inert gase- ous diluents upon their explosive limits. The application of these results will materially reduce the

hazards from the use of such newer articles of commerce. Other problems that have engaged the attention of

the explosives section of the Pittsburgh Experiment

Station since its establishment have included the se- lection of the proper explosives for engineering and

mining operations, the testing of detonators, the

measurment of the sensitivity of trinitrotoluene

(T. N. T.), the selection of primers for high explosives, the use of liquid oxygen explosives (L. O. X.),

the adaptation of liquid carbon dioxide (CO^) to blasting, the photography of explosive flames as an

aid to the study of the rate of detonation of explosives, and other studies of a similar nature.
286 COMMERCIAL STANDARDS MONTHLY MARCH, 1932 “BUY PEAS BY LABEL,” FOOD OFFICIAL

URGES

“Peas are not jnst peas to the discerning housewife,” says Dr. P. B. Dunbar, assistant chief of the

Federal Food and Drug Administration. “One of

the first vegetables to be canned, peas remain one of

the most popular with consumers. Canners generally

are helping the housewife make her choice by making

their labels more informative.”

The buyer who consistently reads labels will soon come to know the difference between such terms, for

example, as “ early peas ” and “ sweet peas,” according to Doctor Dunbar. The former are early June

peas, having a smooth skin. Sweet or sugar peas mature later, have a wrinkled skin and a sweet taste. When canned, early peas usually are separated into

various sizes by the sieve method. The small No. I’s are called “ small peas,” or “ petit pois.” The next, or No. 2’s, are called “early June extra sifted.” No.

3’s are called “ early June sifted,” and the large peas. No. 4’s or larger, are generally labeled merely “ early

June.” Some peas, when not graded as to size, are

called the “ run of the pod.”

“ The national pure food law does not require can- ners to label their peas as to variety or as to size, but

when such labels appear they must be accurate,” states Doctor Dunbar. “ Canners, recognizing that buyers

are rapidly learning to buy by label more and more,

are adding to the information which they print upon

their labels. The law does require that the manufacturer print upon his labels the statement as to the

quantity contained in the can, and this statement must

be truthful.”

The canners’ bill, a recent amendment to the Federal

food and drugs act, requires that canned peas, as well

as other foods, which do not meet certain defined

standards, be labeled with the wording, “ Below U. S. Standard, Low Quality but Not Illegal.” Under this

law, the canner who does not fill his cans to at least 90 per cent of their capacity is required to brand the

goods as “ slack filled.” The buyer may find on some

canned foods both of the above designations, but she

need have no fear that she is getting an unwholesome

or inedible product.

SPECIFICATION OF FREE-WHEELING

LUBRICANTS AMENDED

A joint meeting representing the Society of Automotive Engineers, the American Society for Testing

Materials, and the American Petroleum Institute, held

January 22, 1932, in Washington, in considering proposed specifications for free-wheeling lubricants modified them so as to make the restrictions somewhat less severe. The amended specifications differ from those

already offered in that the viscosity tolerances are wider. The meeting voted to have the amended specification published in the official journal of the Society

of Automotive Engineers for the information of the

members with the idea that at the next opportunity

(which is the summer meeting in June) they may be

brought up for adoption as Society of Automotive Engineers’ recommended practice.

For free-wheeling lubricant No. 110, the minimum

permissible temperature for operation was increased to 40° F. Although the temperature originally specified was 35° F., the Avording oT-the specification actually

defined a limit of 38°. A table of viscosities was substituted for the Auscosity factor in order to keep the

minimum temperatures at the desired values instead

of permitting a variation, as Avould result by the use of the factor. The viscosity numbers for free-wheeling lubricants

constitute a classification in terms of viscosity and

consistency only. Other factors of quality or character are not considered. These lubricants must be

Avell-refined products Avhich do not contain any substances to build up artificial viscosity, nor are fillers or abrasives, such as talc, pulp, cork, fuller’s earth,

graphite, mica, asbestos, etc., permissible.

The purpose of the changes in each case has been to extend the source of supply to provide for more nearly

universal distribution and availability of these lubricants, and it is largely on this basis that the lubri- cants division of the Society of AutomotiA^e Engineers,

representing both the automotive and oil industries,

has delayed its recommendation for adoption in the

anticipation that further study and use of the foregoing classification will lead to its adoption by the soci- ety this coming June.

JAM OR JELLY

“ Many women who once Avere proud of their ability

to make james and jellies noAV buy these foods at the

store, but usually with much less care than they would

have exercised in putting up fruits in their own

kitchens,” says W. J. Sale, of the Federal Food and

Drug Administration.

Mr. Sale points out that there are three classes of

jams and jellies on the market—pure goods, compounds, and imitations. There is a great deal of difference in the amount of fruit contained in compounds

and in pure jams and jellies, and there is a still greater

| difference in relative quality between an imitation and

the pure article. The legal requirement as to the

proportion of fruit to sugar is not less than 45 parts

of fruit to each 55 of sugar for pure jams and jellies.

When a label contains the name of a fruit in conjunction with the word “ jam ” or “ jelly,” without further i qualification, it may be taken as a pure article. Mr.

Sale explains that a compound jam or jelly must contain a sufficient proportion of the fruit or fruit juice,

indicated by the labeling, to characterize it definitely.

The proportion, in the case of preserves, is not less than 25 parts of fruit to each 55 of sugar. The label- ing of these compounds clearly differentiates them

from the genuine.

Imitation jams or preserves differ from the com- pounds in that they contain less than 25 parts of fruit to each 55 of sugar, and the lower fruit content is additionally supplemented with pectin-acid solution.

Imitation jams or jellies may contain added artificial color and flavor, but these must be declared upon the

label. Labels on this class of foods declare them to be imitations and also inform the buyer as to the in- gredients present.

“ Some manufacturers put up packages containing a

full 16 ounces,” says Sale, “ but others sell packages

containing 15 or 14 ounces, or even less. The buyer

who wants a full pound of jam or jelly should not be content to pay the price of a pound for a package

containing less than 16 ounces. The quantity is al- ways printed on the label.”
MARCH, 1932 COMMERCIAL STANDARDS MONTHLY 287

REORGANIZED COMMITTEE WILL AID HOME

OWNERS

The committee on reconditioning, remodeling, and

modernizing, organized to help carry out the recom- mendations of the President’s Conference on Home

Building and Home Ownership, has been reorganized

as a continuing group. It comprises an impartial body

of representative persons from the technical, architectural, financial, public, social welfare, and commercial fields of business.

It is the purpose of this committee to assist home

owners, local organizations, and others interested in

home improvements, through educational work emphasizing benefits resultant from constructive plans

for reconditioning, remodeling, and modernizing.

The committee particularly hopes to be able to furnish information which will assist home owners of

limited resources to make their homes more comfortable at relatively small expense. The committee

also hopes to offer advice and cooperation in securing

best results when using the various general classifica- tions of building materials.

Another phase of this work is to keep the wheels of

industry more evenly balanced. The use of construction materials in reconditioning, remodeling, and modernizing calls for employment of persons engaged in

developing them from their basic condition to the fin- ished products. Employment and business are therefore created. Many opportunities are offered to decrease unemployment in periods of depression.

Buying power, sales, and services are stimulated in

the construction and allied fields. In general, the

entire community benefits through the progressive

influences caused by continuous improvements to properties.

REVISION OF SOUTHERN PINE GRADING

RULES PLANNED

An important part of the activities of the Southern

Pine Association during the last several months has

been the revision and refinement of its grading rules. This work has been handled largely by two subcommittees of a general committee, the first subcommittee

dealing with the question of grading rules revisions

and the second dealing with grading rules refinement.

These two subcommittees met at New Orleans on January 26 and 27, 1932, to bring their work into

definite and final form for submission to the general

meeting of the Southern Pine Association at its convention. If the revision and refinements which the}^

propose are approved at this meeting, they will then

become a part of the general grading rules of the

association.

The discussions at New Orleans resolved themselves

into three parts, the first, involved largely the ijolicy

of extending the association’s grade marking to nonsubscribing mills. The principal topic of discussion on this subject was “ What shall be the basis of charging unsubscribing mills for this service ? ” There was

considerable divergence of opinion among those pres- ent as to what charges were proper. This question,

of course, is quite important since if the Southern

Pine Association should make their charges too high

they would defeat their own purpose. On the other

hand, they are entitled to something more than actual

cost of inspection because of the burden of expense

they have borne in promoting the idea. The actual

basis of making charges to nonsubscribing mills will

not be determined until their next annual meeting.

This subject of grade marking to nonsubscribing

mills is quite important to purchasers of southern

yellow pine. It will mean a clecided extension of the

possible sources of supply of grade-marked lumber

and will make the idea of purchasing nothing but

grade-marked southern pine stock more practical.

The second part of the discussion of these meetings was devoted to grade revisions. Complete grading

specifications were proposed for dimension, factory

flooring, structural timbers, small timbers, heavy

joists, decking and heavy ship-lap, structural joists

and plank; separate specifications being written for

longleaf and shortleaf yellow pine, and provisions

being made for specie marking on the basis of the new rules. The setting up of separate grading specifications for long and shortleaf 5^ellow pine is of

much importance to the industrial buyer. It will en- able him to buy with assurance the specie he desires,

under grading rules providing for its natural characteristics. The new grading rules for longleaf and

shortleaf yellow pine conform to American Lumber

Standards (Simplified Practice Recommendation

No. 16).

The president of the Southern Pine Association

considers this as the most important piece of work

that the association has done in recent years, and

doubtless these rules will be adopted at their comingconvention.

The last activity, namely, grading refinements, has

to do with additional definitions, change in the wording of present definitions, or additional specifications on lumber thinner than 2 inches. Consequently it involved very largely the discussion of finished materials. Their aim in this phase of activity is primarily to clarify any part of the existing rules that

may be incomplete or ambiguous. Any actual changes

for the most part are of minor importance.

A considerable part of their study had to do with

changes in the definitions of the various defects and

in so far as possible attempting to bring their

definitions into line with those found in the American

Lumber Standards and the American Society for

Testing Materials standards.

ELECTRIC CUT-OUTS

The British Engineering Standards Association

(now named The British Standards Institution) has

issued a revision of specification No. 88, which deals

with electric cut-outs. The scoiie of the new specification is, as in the old edition, confined to “ ordinaryduty ” cut-out, the term “ ordinary duty ” being defined as a function of the maximum short-circuit cui-- rent in the circuit. The cut-outs are intended for use

in 2-wire, 3-wire, and multiphase circuits in whicli

the voltage to earth does not exceed 250 volts. Five

sizes are standardized, as against four sizes in the

old specification, this difference being due to the old

10-ampere size being displaced in favor of a 5-ampere

and a 15-ampere size, corresponding to the standard

ratings of plugs and sockets. The most import aiit point wherein the new edition differs from the old

is the introduction of a scientific test for t)lowing current, this test being desigr^^d to insure compliance
288 COMMEECIAL STANDARDS MONTHLY MARCH, 1932

Avith the requirements in the I. E. E. AAuring regulations that the fuse link shall be of such size that it Avill melt, in one minute or less, by a current equal to tivice the rating of the smallest cable protected by it. This

test, at the same time, is designed to insure that a fuse carrier and link Avill have a reasonable life Avhen

carrying its rated current, and proAudes for the effect

of preheating of the fuse carrier and tolerances in the

size and composition of the fuse link. Further neAA* tests introduced into the specifications are an insulation-resistance test, a test for breaking capacit}^ and

a test for temperature rise. Certain general requirements of a constructional nature are also included, but

the physical dimensions are not standardized.
sciehtific, technical, aajd commercial

PERIODICAL PUBLICATIOKS ISSUED BY

THE BUREAU OF STAJ^DARDS

BUREAU OF STANDARDS

JOURNAL OF RESEARCH

The new Journal describes the bureau’s re- search results in science and technology. The

union of science and its applications in one

journal shortens the lag between discovery

and application.

All engaged in industry and commerce should

have available for current use and permanent

reference the Bureau of Standards Journal of

Research.

Early in its fir^l year the Journal developed a hit of paid subscribers double the anticipated

maximum.

This Journal is full of intereil to executives

and technicians controlling induilries and

commercial enterprises. It enables them bet- ter to promote efficiency by determining the

scientific measured controls ofprocess through

experimental and theoretical research.

Issued monthly

Subscription price, $3 per year

COMMERCIAL STANDARDS

MONTHLY

TECHNICAL NEWS BULLETIN

The Bureau of Standards periodical with a WAR RECORD! Started during the dark

days of 1917 to keep the Army and Navy and

other branches of the Government informed

of progress in scientific war research at the

bureau. Upon urgent request this publication was continued and expanded to serve the

Government, science, and industry.

The TECHNICAL NEWS BULLETIN will

keep you informed of current progress in the

scientific and technical work of the bureau’s

laboratories, and gives each month a li^t of

the publications of the bureau. A complete

cross index is published with the December

issue.

You can not afford to be without the TECHNICAL NEWS BULLETIN. Every article is short and to the point. The busiest executive can afford the time to read it. Issued monthly

Subscription price, 25 cents per year

STANDARDS YEARBOOK

FOR 1931

This new governmental periodical is a review

of progress in commercial simplification and

^andardiz,ation. It is the only journal of its kind. It covers the national movement initiated by President Hoover for the reduction

of needless siz,es and varieties of products and

the promotion of voluntary commercial

standardization by induStry.

The Secretary of Commerce in the firSt issue

of this new journal said: “Certain Standards,

such as those used for weights and measures,

* * * have been fixed by legislative enacft- ment. Mandatory Standards of this character, however, are few in number when compared with the large and steadily growing

volume of Standards developed by induStry

and commerce and voluntarily maintained.

* * * The adtivities of the Commercial

Standardization Group of the Bureau of

Standards are concerned with Standards

adopted by voluntary agreement.’’

Subscription price, $1 per year

The new Standards Yearbook for 1931 is the

fifth annual issue of a publication devoted

to the great and growing field of Standardization in its broad aspedts. It gives a summary

of progress.

Standardization is a world-wide movement.

It covers all industries. It is part of the application of scientific methods to induStry. Its achievements are of interest and concern to business men and manufadturers as well as to

engineers. To the technician it is full of

example of methods and results of suggeStive

and Stimulating value. To business men it discloses trends which deeply concern their

interest.

NOW READY Price, $1 ORDER AT ONCE

“Standardization is becomiyig an aspect of all welL

ordered activity rather t/van an incideyital

activity supplemental to others.”

To obtain regularly the above-described monthly Periodicals send your order, with remittance, addressed: Superintendent of Documents, Government Printing Office, Washington, D. C. Foreign prices (countries other

than the United States and its possessions, Canada, Mexico, Newfoundland, Cuba, and Republic of Panama) arc: Journal, $3.50; Bulletin, $0.40; Monthly, $1.25; Yearbook, $1.20
THE UNITED STATES DEPARTMENT OF COMMERCE

R. P. LAMONT, Secretary of Commerce

department * * * is devoted solely to aiding and fostering the development of higher standards of living and comfort of our people * * * its ideals are clear: That by cooperation and not by compulsion it should seek to assist in maintaining and giving the impulse of progress to commerce and industry in a nation whose successful economic life underlies advancement in every other field.” —President Hoover, at the laying of the corner stone of the new building

of the U. 6'. Defoartment of Commerce, June 10, 1929.

AERONAUTICS BRANCH, Clarence M. Young, Assistant Secretary of Commerce for Aeronautics. Establishment of civil airways and maintenance of aids to air navigation; inspection and registration of aircraft and licensing

of pilots; enforcement of air traffic rules; investigation of acci- dents; encouragement of municipal air ports; fostering of air commerce; scientific research in aeronautics; and dissemination of information relating to commercial aeronautics. (Some

of these functions are performed by special divisions of the Lighthouse Service, the Bureau of Standards, and the Coast and Geodetic Survey.)

BUREAU OF THE CENSUS, William M. Steuart, Director. Taking censuses of population, mines, and quarries, water

transportation, and religious bodies every 10 years; censuses of agriculture and electrical public utilities every 5 years; and a

census of manufactures every 2 years. Compilation of statistics of wealth, public debt and taxation, including financial statistics of local governments, every 10 years; annual compilation of financial statistics of State and municipal governments.

Compilation of statistics of marriage, divorce, births, deaths,

and penal and other institutions annually, and of death rates in

cities and automobile accidents weekly.

Compilation quarterly or monthly^ of statistics on cotton, wool, leather, and other industries; annually of forest products.

BUREAU OF FOREIGN AND DOMESTIC COMMERCE,

F. M. Feiker, Director. The collection of timely information concerning world market

conditions and openings for American products in foreign countries, through commercial attaches, trade commissioners, and

consular officers, and its distribution through weekly Commerce

Reports, bulletins, confidential circulars, the news and trade

press, the monthly Survey of Current Business, and district and

cooperative offices in 65 cities The maintenance of commodity,

technical, and regional divisions to afford special service to American exporters and manufacturers. The compilation and distribution of lists of possible buyers

and agents for American products in all parts of the world and

publication of weekly lists of specific sales opportunities abroad. The publicity of statistics on imports and exports. The study of the processes of domestic trade and commerce. BUREAU OF STANDARDS, George K. Burgess, Director. Custody, development, and construction of standards of measurement, quality, performance, or practice; comparison of standards used by scientific or other institutions; determination

of physical constants and properties of materials; researches and tests on materials and processes; and publication of scientific and technical bulletins reporting results of researches and

fundamental technical data. Collection and dissemination of information concerning

building codes and the planning and construction of houses. Establishment of simplified commercial practices through

cooperation with business organizations in order to reduce the wastes resulting from excessive variety in commodities.

BUREAU OF MINES, Scott Turner, Director. Technical investigations in the mining, preparation, and

utilization of minerals, including the study of mine hazards, and

safety methods and of improved methods in the production

and use of minerals. Testing of Government fuels and management of the Govern- ment Fuel Yard at Washington.

Research on helium and operatkrrrof plants producing it.

BUREAU OF MINES—Continued.

Studies in the economics and marketing of minerals and col- lection of statistics on mineral resources and mine accidents. The dissemination of results of technical and economic

researches in bulletins, technical papers, mineral resources series, miners’ circulars, and miscellaneous publications.

BUREAU OF FISHERIES, Henry O’Malley, Commissioner.

The propagation and distribution of food fish and shellfish, in order to prevent the depletion of the fisheries; investigations

to promote conservation of fishery resources: the development

of commercial fisheries and agriculture; study of fishery methods,

improvements in merchandising, and collection of fishery statistics; administration of Alaska fisheries and fur seals; and the

protection of sponges off the coast of Florida. BUREAU OF LIGHTHOUSES, George R. Putnam,

Commissioner.

Maintenance of lighthouses and other aids to water navigation. Establishment and maintenance of aids to navigation

along civil airways. Publication of Light Lists, Buoy Lists, and

Notices to Mariners. COAST AND GEODETIC SURVEY, R. S. Patton, Director. Survey of the coasts of the United States and publication of charts for the navigation of the adjacent waters, including

Alaska, the Philippine Islands, Hawaii, Porto Rico, the Virgin

Islands, and the Canal Zone; interior control surveys; magnetic

surveys; tide and current observations; and seismplogical investigations. Publication of results through charts, coast pilots, tide tables, current tables, and special publications.

BUREAU OF NAVIGATION, Arthur J. Tyrer, Commissioner.

Superintendence of commercial marine and merchant seamen.

Supervision of registering, enrolling, licensing, numbering,

etc., of vessels under the United States flag, and the annual

publication of a list of such vessels. Enforcement of the navigation and steamboat inspection laws,

including imposition of fees, fines, tonnage taxes, etc STEAMBOAT INSPECTION SERVICE, Dickerson N. Hoover,

Supervising Inspector General. The inspection of merchant vessels, including boilers, hulls, and life-saving equipment, licensing of officers of vessels, certifi- cation of able seamen and lifeboat men, and the investigation of violations of steamboat inspection laws. UNITED STATES PATENT OFFICE, Thomas E. Robertson,

Commissioner.

The granting of patents and the registration of trade--marks,

prints, and labels after technical examination and judicial

proceedings.

Maintenance of library with public search room, containing

copies of foreign and United States patents, and trade-marks. Recording bills of sale, assignments, etc., relating to patents

and trade-marks. Furnishing copies of records pertaining to patents Publication of the weekly Official Gazette, showing the patents and trade-marks issued. RADIO DIVISION, W. D. Terrell, Chief. Inspection of radio stations on ships; inspection of radio

stations on shore, including broadcasting stations; licensing radio operators; assigning station call letters; enforcing the terms of the International Radiotelegraphic Convention; and

examining and settling international radio accounts.

U. S. GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE: 1932 ^