National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration 

In Cooperation with Federal, State, Academic, 

Non-profit Marine Laboratories and Industry Partners 

September, 2003 

CORAL DISEASE AND HEALTH: 

A NATIONAL RESEARCH PLAN 
 

 

About This Document
 

Editors’ Acknowledgements - This document was prepared and printed with support from NOAA 

through the Coral Conservation Program and the Living Oceans Foundation. Layout and design was provided 

by Andrew Bruckner, NOAA Fisheries. Sylvia Galloway and Cheryl Woodley, NOAA CCEHBR and Andrew 

Bruckner, NOAA Fisheries compiled working group reports and provided technical edits. 

Photo CreditsImages were provided by: Biscayne National Park - Richard Curry; FDA - Sherry Curtis; Hawaii Institute
 

of Marine Biology - Teresa Lewis; Johns Hopkins University - Gary Ostrander; Medical Univ. of South
 

Carolina - Sara Polson, Shawn Polson; NOAA AOML, Miami - Monica Gurnee, Jim Hendee; NOAA
 

CCEHBR, Charleston - John Bemiss, Marie DeLorenzo, Cheryl Woodley, Darren Wray; NOAA CCEHBR,
 

Oxford - Dorothy Howard, Shawn McLaughlin, Kathy Price; NOAA Fisheries, Miami - Charles Fasano;
 

NOAA Fisheries, Silver Spring, - Andy Bruckner; NOAA, NESDIS, Silver Spring - Gang Lui, Al Strong;
 

Tel Aviv Univ. - Eugene Rosenberg; TetraTech - Esther Peters; USGS - Paul Mendenwaldt, Thierry Work;
 

Virgin Islands National Park - Jeff Miller; Waikiki Aquarium, Univ. Hawaii, Manoa - Cindy Hunter.
 

Cover Photos: Montastraea faveolata with white plague, Bonaire, 2001 (photo by Andrew Bruckner);
 

diver surveying M. annularis for white plague in Virgin Islands National Park (photo by Jeff Miller); coral
 

tissue destruction by algal turf on the skeleton of a colony of Stephanocoenia intersepta. Stained with Harris's
 

hematoxylin and eosin (photomicrograph by Esther Peters).
 

Back page: Red-band disease on a sea fan; white-band disease on Acropora palmata; partially bleached
 

Diploria labyrinthiformis; dark-spots disease on Siderastrea siderea; yellow-blotch disease on Montastraea
 

faveolata; spot biting by Sparisoma viride on M. annularis; white plague on Diploria strigosa and blackband disease on M. faveolata (all photos by Andrew Bruckner).
 

Citation- Please cite this report as follows: 

Woodley, C.M., A.W. Bruckner, S.B. Galloway, S.M. McLaughlin, C.A. Downs, J.E. Fauth, E.B. Shotts 

and K.L. Lidie. 2003. Coral Disease and Health: A National Research Plan. National Oceanic and 

Atmospheric Administration, Silver Spring, MD. 72 pp. 
 

 

 

TABLE OF CONTENTS 

Page 

EXECUTIVE SUMMARY..................................................................... 1
 

PREFACE........................................................................................... 5
 

I. INTRODUCTION...................................................................... 7 

II. BIOLOGY................................................................................ 9 

III. DISEASE IDENTIFICATION AND DISEASE INVESTIGATION............. 17 

IV. DIAGNOSTICS........................................................................ 23 

V. ENVIRONMENTAL FACTORS AFFECTING INFECTIVITYAND 

SUSCEPTIBLITY...................................................................... 35 

VI. SUMMARY.............................................................................. 49 

VII. ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS........................................................... 51 

VIII. REFERENCES.......................................................................... 53 

IX. WORKSHOPAGENDA............................................................... 56 

X. PARTICIPANTS........................................................................ 58 

XI. APPENDICES........................................................................... 62 

Appendix I: CDHC Mission, Objectives, Partners and Structure ............. 62 

Appendix II: Time Lines for Objectives .......................................... 64 

Appendix III: Recommended CDHC Committees and Participants............ 66 
CORAL DISEASE AND HEALTH: A NATIONAL RESEARCH PLAN 

EXECUTIVE SUMMARY 

The health and continued existence of coral reef ecosystems are threatened by an increasing array of environmental 

and anthropogenic impacts. These causes of decline, including global climate change, invasive species, shoreline 

development, habitat destruction, polluted runoff, sedimentation and over-exploitation overwhelm the natural 

plasticity of these systems and have contributed to an estimated loss of 27% of the world’s reefs. If current 

pressure continues unabated, nearly 60% of the world’s reefs may be lost by 2030, due to reduced coral 

growth rates, bleaching, disease outbreaks and increased mortality. These ecosystems, which are among the 

most complex and biologically diverse habitats on earth, provide economic and environmental services to 

millions of people worldwide. In order to preserve and protect these ancient marine ecosystems, an understanding 

of the effects of natural and anthropogenic stressors on reef-building coral communities is essential. 

Coral diseases have not been thoroughly characterized 

and etiologies, including many of the causative agents 

remain uncertain. In an effort to form a cohesive national 

strategy to conserve and protect these ecosystems, the 

federal government was directed to strengthen its 

stewardship of the nation’s reef ecosystems and coral 

reefs around the world. This executive order, issued by 

President William Jefferson Clinton on June 11, 1998, 

resulted in the establishment of the United States Coral 

Reef Task Force (CRTF). A collective response was 

produced by this Task Force in the form of a National 

Action Plan to Conserve Coral Reefs, which represents 

the road map for U.S. coral reef conservation efforts. 

This was followed by a National Coral Reef Action 

Strategy, which is a report to Congress that fulfills the 

requirements of the Coral Reef Conservation Act of 2000 

and helps track implementation of the National Action 

Plan. Conservation actions of this plan and strategy 

encompassed two fundamental themes: an understanding 

of coral reef ecosystems and a reduction of the adverse 

impacts of human activities. To fill a gap in our 

understanding of the rapidly emerging threats to reefs 

worldwide, the CRTF’s Working Group on Ecosystem 

Science and Conservation recommended the formation 

of a Coral Disease and Health Consortium (CDHC). The 

primary objectives of the CDHC are to organize and 

coordinate scientific resources nationally and 

internationally to address coral health issues, with 

emphasis on the diagnosis, etiology and epizootiology of 

coral diseases and bleaching. 

Many of the emerging coral diseases have not been 

fully characterized such as yellow-blotch disease (YBD), 

shown here. Outbreaks of YBD have been reported from 

several Caribbean localities, primarily affecting star 

corals in the genus Montastraea; little is known about 

causes or long-term impact. (Photo: Andy Bruckner). 

1 
The first official meeting of the CDHC was convened in Charleston, South Carolina, from January 22-25, 

2002. This workshop brought scientists, resource managers, and regulatory officials together to identify gaps 

in our understanding of the causes of the worldwide coral reef decline; provide a coordinated focal point for 

research on and tracking of the occurrence and progression of bleaching and disease events; and help identify 

environmental influences that affect these phenomena. A number 

of nationally recognized experts in the areas of biology, ecology, 

pathology, coral disease, biochemistry, molecular biology, cellular 

physiology, environmental microbiology, human and veterinary 

medicine and biotechnology were selected to represent critical 

scientific disciplines. Position papers, on 10 relevant topics and 

written by participants, were distributed and formed the basis for 

discussion within four working groups. The working groups were 

organized around four themes: Biology, Environmental Factors 

Affecting Infectivity and Susceptibility, Disease Identification 

and Disease Investigation, and Diagnostics. Participants were 

divided among the working groups according to their areas of expertise. Roundtable discussions within groups 

were convened over a three-day period. Conclusions of the working groups were presented to all participants 

in one plenary session. 

Plenary session at the first CDHC Workshop 

in Charleston, SC. (Photo: Darren Wray). 

Regional and global bleaching 

events have increased in 

frequency since the mid 1980s 

with widespread mortality 

observed with the 1998 

bleaching event. Bleaching 

has been correlated with a wide 

range of environmental and 

physiological stresses, but its 

physiological mechanisms are 

not fully understood. 

Bleached colony of 

Montastraea faveolata (left) 

regains most of its 

pigmentation (right) six months 

later. (Photos: Andy Bruckner). 

2 
 

 

Many strategic research objectives were identified. The major objectives can be summarized as follows: 

Establishment of standard terminology, methodology and protocols: There is limited application of 

human and veterinary medical knowledge to the study of coral health and disease; standard medical 

terminology has not been used in descriptive interpretations of clinical anomalies noted during field collections 

or in the laboratory, resulting in ambiguous and often misleading communication of findings. This is 

compounded by inadequate diagnostic tools and a deficiency in consistent, comprehensive monitoring, 

assessment and collection protocols. A review of the existing and emerging coral disease syndromes that 

institutes clinical diagnostic criteria, including visual and descriptive details is paramount to understanding and 

combating coral disease. 

Expansion of knowledge in basic coral physiology, biology and disease etiology: There is limited 

information on the physiological parameters that define healthy coral and even less on coral disease dynamics. 

By expanding our understanding in areas of cellular physiology, genomics and proteomics we will be able to (1) 

define baseline measures of coral health and vitality such as non-stress levels and deviations that indicate an 

altered state; (2) identify normal changes in physiological parameters occurring seasonally, annually, and along 

geographic, bathymetric, and other physical and/or environmental gradients to increase diagnostic accuracy; 

(3) identify mechanisms of resistance and susceptibility to disease and factors that modulate defense 

mechanisms; and (4) characterize processes at individual, population and community levels that affect 

ecological connectivity of reefs and discover critical control points for management strategies. 

Development of model coral species: All aspects of coral disease and health research have been hampered 

by the lack of an established coral laboratory model species (analogous to “lab rats”), coral cell lines and 

standardized sources of algal and bacterial cultures that are routinely available for research. There is a critical 

need to develop models and provide the infrastructure to maintain these living stock collections. Providing 

well-characterized and documented experimental organisms to domestic and international researchers will 

enable rapid advances through the use of modern biomedical techniques to investigate coral health and disease 

and by focusing research on fundamental biological concepts broadly applicable across the taxon. 

Development of a Centralized Data/Knowledge System, Website, Repository and Core Diagnostic 

Facilities: Understanding mechanisms of coral disease in order to devise appropriate treatment, mitigation 

or management regimes has been limited by static databases, comprised of independent datasets that are 

incompatible with modern integrated analyses. New analytical technologies of bioinformatics now allow the 

development of an “intelligent” system that can assimilate data of all types into information that can be 

synthesized into knowledge. Application of bioinformatics to the study and investigation of coral health and 

disease is critically needed to disentangle the multi-factorial nature of coral disease dynamics. The logistics of 

this approach demands a centralized system that receives data from field units and is supported by regional 

response teams, diagnostic laboratories with critical assay capabilities and an underpinning of training and 

voucher specimen archive. 

3 
 

 

 

VISION: “To understand and address the effects of 

natural and anthropogenic stressors on corals 

in order to contribute to the preservation and 

protection of coral reef ecosystems.” 

Recommendations to address strategic research were proposed during working group deliberations and 

various post workshop committees were established. Recommendations, too numerous to list in this summary, 

and committee tasks are described in detail in this report. They are also embodied in the following Vision and 

Goals statements (non-prioritized) adopted by the Coral Disease and Health Consortium. 

The primary deliverable of the CDHC workshop was to develop a Strategic National Research Plan directed 

towards the study of coral disease and health that highlights the following SPECIFIC GOALS: 

•	 Establish targeted committees of experts to review, assess, develop, organize and implement coral disease 

and health needs and approaches highlighted in the CDHC National Research Plan. 

•	 Establish and promote standardization of coral disease and health research through development of 

common terminology, interpretations, monitoring protocols, collection techniques, reporting standards, 

and laboratory protocols. 

• Determine the occurrence, causes and effects of declines in coral health. 

• Define effects of point and non-point discharges and environmental and climatic stressors on coral health 

through understanding mechanisms of action. 

• Provide technical information and practical diagnostic tools to help managers and scientists understand, 

evaluate, track, predict and remedy coral diseases. 

•	 Strengthen and coordinate opportunities for multidisciplinary collaborations and provide cross disciplinary 

training for scientists and managers. 

Students receiving training in laboratory 

techniques for the study of coral disease at a 

Molecular Techniques workshop in Hawaii. 

(Photo: Teresa Lewis). 

4 
 PREFACE 

Decline in live cover, species richness, and condition of reef building corals is rising in frequency and 

distribution worldwide. This is most apparent through reduced coral reef growth rates, bleaching, disease 

outbreaks and increased mortality. A growing number of coral species and associated coral reef organisms 

have been affected. Cause and effect relationships have not been well documented and new disease 

syndromes continue to emerge. Presumably, emerging diseases are caused by the interaction of biotic and 

abiotic stressors, however, coral health and diseases have not been thoroughly characterized and disease 

etiologies, including the causative agents, remain uncertain. The nature of this problem has changed 

considerably over the last two decades and today’s research, monitoring, and regulatory infrastructure are not 

adequately prepared to meet the expanding threat. 

Over the last few years, there has been a major expansion in international efforts to monitor the world’s 

coral reefs and promote sound coral reef conservation strategies through various international and 

regional fora including the International Coral Reef Initiative (ICRI), Convention on International Trade 

in Endangered Species of Fauna and Flora (CITES), Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD), Ramsar 

Convention on Wetlands, and the Asia Pacific Economic Cooperative (APEC). These efforts began in 1994, 

with the formation of ICRI and establishment of its major operational unit, the Global Coral Reef Monitoring 

Network (GCRMN). The GCRMN currently has representatives from 86 countries or states, and has issued 

reviews of the status of the world’s reefs every two years since 1998 (Wilkinson C (ed), 1998). One of the 

primary sources of information on the global health of coral reefs used in these reports has come from Reef 

Check, a program based at the University of California involving an international network of regional, national 

and local volunteers that monitor coral reefs in over 50 countries. These and other data are incorporated into 

Reefbase, an ongoing effort of assembling available knowledge about coral reefs into one information 

repository. 

In June 1998, President Clinton introduced Executive Order 13089, urging all arms of the US Government to 

do their utmost to map, document, research and conserve the coral reefs under US jurisdiction, as well as 

assist and collaborate with international agencies, partners and governments including ICRI and the GCRMN 

to promote conservation and sustainable use of coral reef resources worldwide. This order established the US 

Coral Reef Task Force (CRTF), chaired by the Secretary of the Interior and the Secretary of Commerce and 

comprised of many federal, state and territorial government agencies, whose primary responsibilities were to 

oversee implementation of policy and Federal agency responsibilities to preserve and protect the biodiversity, 

health, heritage, and social and economic value of U.S. coral reef ecosystems and the marine environment. 

More recent efforts include, the International Coral Reef Information Network (ICRIN), established in 1999, 

to raise awareness about coral reefs and particularly targeted senior decision makers. The U.S. government, 

through NOAA, has created the Coral Reef Information System (CORIS), an internet-based repository for 

U.S. data on coral reefs. In addition, through the Coral Reef Conservation Act of 2000 Congress has 

mandated the development of a biennial report on The State of Coral Reef Ecosystems of the United States 

and Pacific Freely Associated States, with the first report issued in 2002 (Turgeon et al., 2002). 

5
6

One of the key findings of most, if not all monitoring programs, is that coral reefs are declining globally, and 

coral diseases and bleaching are recognized as one of the key threats. In an effort to combat expanding threats 

to our coral reef ecosystems, the Coral Disease and Health Consortium (CDHC) was formed at the 

recommendation of the US CRTF (2000) to organize and coordinate scientific resources and address 

ecosystem-scale threats impacting stony corals and soft corals. The Consortium is being implemented through 

interagency partnerships of NOAA, EPA and DOI, with involvement by over 35 partner institutions, both 

domestic and international. The main objective of the CDHC was to focus on the issues surrounding coral 

health and disease. In January of 2002, the CDHC held its first organizational workshop to address relevant 

issues of coral health and disease in the context of coral reef biology and ecology. Participants represented 

critical scientific disciplines and many geographic regions. These individuals were selected from the ranks of 

academia, state and public health services, the biotechnology industry, non-profit institutions, as well as 

several US government agencies: The Department of Interior (DOI), the Environmental Protection Agency 

(EPA), and the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA). Attendance was limited to key 

experts to promote close working relationships during the workshop. 

Several workshop participants were assigned topics to review within their areas of expertise and 

requested to prepare a position paper. The position papers were to address background, current state of 

knowledge, impediments limiting progress, and prioritized research topics. Position papers were 

distributed to all participants prior to the workshop. 

Four working groups formed the basis of the workshop: Biology, Disease Investigation and Disease 

Identification, Environmental Factors Affecting Infectivity and Susceptibility, and Diagnostics. During 

individual working group deliberations, lists of information gaps, issue driven research objectives and recommendations were prepared. These lists were presented to all participants in a plenary session at the end of the 

four day workshop. 

Given this procedure and the related nature of the issues discussed by the different working groups, it is 

not surprising that some issues appear several times in the lists of research objectives and 

recommendations that follow. Rather than arbitrarily removing these common issues from subsequent 

sections after their first mention, the overlapping issues were highlighted in each group and left 

unchanged to emphasize the cross-disciplinary importance of certain issues. 

There was considerable discussion on the need to prioritize the recommendations. The attempt to do 

this in some of the working groups was not successful, as most participants felt that the list of 

recommendations had already been distilled from a much larger list and thus reflected priority issues. 

Another concern was that it was difficult to establish absolute priorities between very different topics 

since such decisions would vary dramatically among individuals or agencies with different 

responsibilities or interests, and priorities also vary among coral reefs in different regions. 

Accordingly, the recommendations in this Research Plan are not prioritized. They are grouped by topic, 

so that agencies developing forecasting, monitoring and assessment, or research programs can work 

from the lists that most closely match their purview. All are deemed of high (and equal) priority, though 

it should be recognized that several recommendations appear in each of the four topic areas and thus 

have general applicability across all disciplines. 

6 
I. INTRODUCTION 

Coral reefs are the most complex and biologically diverse marine ecosystems on the planet. These systems 

provide economic and environmental services to millions of people as areas of natural beauty and recreation, 

sources of food, jobs, chemicals, pharmaceuticals, and shoreline protection. Today, the world’s coral reefs 

are continually threatened by an increasing array of stressors including over-exploitation, pollution, habitat 

destruction, invasive species, disease, bleaching and global climate change. 

Worldwide, coral reefs are found in over 100 

countries and cover an estimated 284,300 square 

kilometers (ICRIN, 2002). Global climate change 

as well as the direct and indirect effects of 

anthropogenic stressors have contributed greatly 

to the degradation and loss of an estimated 27 

percent of the world’s coral reefs and a much 

greater percentage is under increasing threats. 

Coral reefs are a crucial life support system of the 

biosphere and may be the first major marine 

ecosystem to show significant impacts from 

global climate change. In recent years, there has 

been progress in implementing global monitoring 

networks and providing sound information on the 

status of the world’s reefs. However, there are large 

regions of the world where data are insufficient 

to determine the condition of many coral reefs, as well as locations for which no baseline assessments exist. 

Research teams have made some progress in investigating coral disease and documenting the distribution of 

certain outbreaks, although these efforts have largely targeted areas in the wider Caribbean near human 

population centers. Despite these efforts we remain uncertain of the complex mechanisms underlying the 

increases in coral bleaching events, disease outbreaks and perhaps most disturbing, the influence of human 

activities on these processes. Also many of the technologies and tools needed for an efficient and accurate 

health assessment of these systems await development or adaptation from existing medical knowledge. 

Our lack of understanding of the underlying mechanisms of coral pathologies inhibits the ability to 

manage these growing coral health problems as reflected in the major bleaching events documented in 

1997-98, early 2000 and in 2001, and in increases in disease incidence and prevalence (Porter and Porter, 

2002; Hoegh-Guldberg, 1999). The United States Executive Order 13089 of 1998 brought local emphasis to 

the global problem and manifested a growing awareness that more of our national resources must be focused 

on coral reef preservation. Sound input is urgently needed from scientists, industry, resource managers, and 

regulatory officials to keep these new research initiatives focused on high priority, productive endeavors that 

contribute to a better understanding of these pathologies and to the development of management measures to 

mitigate their impacts. Therefore, the primary goal of this workshop was to formulate a National Research 

Plan consisting of a series of recommendations intended to address the major gaps in the research arena of 

Coral Disease and Health. 

Tiger grouper and coral (Montastraea cavernosa, Eusmilia 

fastigata and Psuedoterigorgia sp.). (Photo: Andy Bruckner). 

7 
The Workshop participants formulated the following overall Vision and Goals for a National Research Plan 

on Coral Disease and Health: 

VISION:
 

“To understand and address the effects of natural and anthropogenic stressors on corals

 in order to contribute to the preservation and protection of coral reef ecosystems.”
 

Elkhorn coral (Acropora palmata) thicket on Mona Island, Puerto Rico. (Photo: Andy Bruckner). 

SPECIFIC OBJECTIVES: 

•	 Establish targeted committees of experts to review, assess, develop, organize and implement coral disease 

and health needs and approaches highlighted in the CDHC National Research Plan. 

•	 Establish and promote standardization of coral disease and health research through development of 

common terminology, interpretations, monitoring protocols, collection techniques, reporting standards, 

and laboratory protocols. 

•	 Determine the occurrence, causes and effects of declines in coral health. 

•	 Define effects of point and non-point discharges and environmental and climatic stressors on coral health 

through understanding mechanisms of action. 

•	 Provide technical information and practical diagnostic tools to help managers and scientists understand, 

evaluate, track, predict, and remedy coral diseases. 

•	 Strengthen and coordinate opportunities for multidisciplinary collaborations and provide cross disciplinary 

training for scientists and managers. 

8 
II. BIOLOGY 

1. Background 

Coral reefs and their associated sea grass, algae and mangrove habitats are among the most diverse and 

valuable ecosystems on earth. Such reef systems are storehouses of immense biological wealth and provide 

economic and environmental services to millions. 

The 2002 NOAA report on the state of coral reef 

ecosystems calculated an annual 45 million 

visitors to the US coral reefs, generating an 

estimated $17.5 billion annually (Turgeon et al., 

2002). The global estimate of the value of coral 

reefs to the world economy in 1997 was $US375 

billion in economic and environmental services, 

including sources of food, pharmaceuticals, 

employment, coastal protection, recreation and 

tourism (Costanza et al., 1997). However, the 

investment in research, monitoring and 

management is less than 0.05% of that value 

(Wilkinson, 2002). 

Coral reefs are massive calcium carbonate structures that result from biomineralization by anthozoan animals 

(corals) and coralline algae. Although small in cumulative area (< 0.2% of the ocean floor), coral reefs are 

among the world’s most diverse ecosystems, 

supporting >25,000 described species and 

possibly another 1-8 million undescribed species 

(Connell, 1978; Birkland, 1997; Dustan 1999; 

Koop et al., 2001; Reaka-Kudla, 1996). These 

represent 32 of the 34 animal phyla, including a rich 

invertebrate and fish fauna (Karlson and Cornell, 

1998, 1999). In addition, coral reefs protect 

shorelines from erosion, and shelter other 

associated ecosystems (i.e., mangroves, sea grass 

beds) that are important nursery grounds for 

commercially and recreationally important fishes and 

invertebrates. Coral reefs are critical habitat for over 

20% of the world’s fisheries and over 50% of all 

US federally managed fisheries species, providing 

much of the protein consumed by human populations in coastal tropical zones (Hoegh-Guldberg 1999). 

Fishers and community members in Priory, Jamaica are retrieving 

the days catch (Photo: Andy Bruckner). 

Many species of grouper are commercially harvested from coral 

reefs worldwide, including this Nassau grouper from the 

Caribbean. (Photo: Andy Bruckner). 

9 
Over the past three decades, coral reefs have experienced extensive degradation worldwide, with both 

anthropogenic and non-anthropogenic forces implicated in declining coral reef health. Anthropogenic stresses 

include global warming, changes in salinity and turbidity, and agricultural, suburban, and industrial discharges, 

as well as increasing pressure associated with unsustainable extraction of corals and coral reef species for 

food, building materials, pharmaceuticals, curios and other uses. Non-anthropogenic factors include 

biological agents such as predation, competition from algae and other encrusting organisms, and diseases, 

which may be exacerbated by anthropogenic effects (Richmond, 1993; Bryant and Burke, 1998; Wilkinson, 

1999; 2000, 2002; Turgeon et al., 2002). Despite the important ecosystem services they provide and their 

critical role sustaining marine biodiversity in shallow tropical waters, relatively little is known about many basic 

aspects of coral biology. This presents major challenges in identifying, understanding, and ultimately controlling 

coral diseases. 

2. Challenges and Recommendations 

The Biology Working Group (BWG) identified six strategic objectives as crucial to understanding coral health 

and disease. These objectives emerged during roundtable discussions, and all participants agreed that the best 

strategy for pursuing them was through peer-reviewed, competitive grants unrestricted either geographically or 

taxonomically. The BWG recognized that some goals could be achieved quickly (given adequate funding) 

while others require more substantial commitment. Ideally, investigations should enhance collaborative 

research and infuse coral biology with new techniques and ideas, including those from areas not traditionally 

considered “marine biology.” Mechanisms to achieve this include interdisciplinary graduate and post-doctoral 

fellowships, and training grants. To translate research findings into management strategies, the BWG 

advocates close collaboration between scientists and resource managers, publishing results in peer-reviewed 

journals, educating the public, and including all parties in problem-solving. 

One of the main challenges highlighted by the BWG is the availability of funding to conduct the 

necessary research and education. The group recommends that funding research on coral diseases and 

the establishment of supply facilities for research organisms through merit-based competitive grants 

and cooperative agreements should be encouraged. One way to achieve this goal is through targeted 

RFPs from The National Science Foundation (NSF) and/or other cognizant agencies (Environmental 

Protection Agency [EPA], National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration [NOAA], and the 

Department of the Interior [DOI]) for the development of an international collection of live corals as 

research model organisms along with techniques to culture and maintain specific coral species for use 

in laboratory studies as well as coral and zooxanthellae cell cultures. For example, NSF’s Division of 

Biological Infrastructure supports Living Stock Collections and the development and maintenance of 

repositories of research organisms, genetic stocks and cell lines, as well as DNA clones associated with 

whole organisms in a collection. NSF may also provide funds for curatorial databases, and for linking 

the information associated with the collection to other information resources and scientific databases, 

such as the CDHC database. A portion of federal, state and NGO funding supporting coral reef efforts 

should be directed towards the establishment of supply facilities and the development and maintenance 

of specific databases, repositories and websites that compile and link information resources and scientific 

databases that will synthesize information through advanced computational analyses of bioinformatics and 

systems biology. In addition, new funding is necessary for these activities as well as specific research, 

monitoring, forecasting, and assessment programs geared towards understanding and addressing the 

underlying cellular physiological mechanisms controlling coral health. These resources are considered essential 

for the support of national and international scientific research in the biological sciences and specifically for the 

development of coral and zooxanthellae culturing facilities. 

10 
STRATEGIC OBJECTIVE 1: Determine the mechanism(s) of coral bleaching. 

RECOMMENDATION: Conduct research on the cellular and molecular 

mechanisms of coral bleaching. 

In 1998, there was a major paradigm shift among coral reef scientists and managers regarding major causes of 

the degradation of reefs. While direct anthropogenic impacts of nutrient and sediment pollution and overfishing 

were previously identified as the major threats to reefs, global climate change was identified as a new and 

comparable threat due to major switches in climate, warming surface waters and increases in CO2 

concentrations responsible for massive coral “bleaching” and mortality over large areas of reefs worldwide. 

Bleaching, which occurs when corals lose their algal (dinoflagellate) symbiont or the symbionts’ photosynthetic 

pigments degrade, can be caused by a wide range of environmental and physiological stresses, such as heat, 

cold, solar radiation, pollution, reduced salinity, changes in oxygen concentration and microbial pathogens. In 

the laboratory, bleaching is induced by diverse factors, including elevated water temperature, cold 

temperature, supersaturating light and bacterial infection. However, most models of coral bleaching are 

phenomenological, and do not specify the cellular and molecular mechanisms required to understand the 

degradative process, or to identify what causes bleaching on individual reefs. 

Currently, there are two popular, competing models of coral bleaching, the oxidative stress model and 

the pathogen model: 

1.	 The oxidative stress model postulates that elevated temperature destabilizes the electron-transport 

chain of the photosynthetic algae, causing increased production of reactive oxygen species. As a 

last defense against these damaging molecules, the coral expels its algal symbionts. 

2.	 The pathogen model proposes bleaching is caused by opportunistic infections by the bacterium 

Vibrio. This model postulates high temperature lowers coral resistance to infection and/or increases 

bacterial virulence, perhaps by enhancing its ability to adhere to the coral. 

Testing these and other possible models of coral bleaching to determine the prevalence, relative importance, 

and geographic amplitude of the mechanisms of coral bleaching is vital for resolving whether bleaching events 

ascribed to global warming actually are caused or accelerated by opportunistic infections and to develop 

strategies to address bleaching impacts. 

Controlled laboratory experiments highlight the ability of certain bacteria to become infectious, meeting 

Koch’s postulates. Photomicrographs above show diseased coral skeleton (left), bacteria on diseased/ 

denuded skeleton (middle), and the putative disease agent (right). (Photos: Shawn Polson). 

11 
 

STRATEGIC OBJECTIVE 2: Develop model laboratory species (i.e., the coral 

equivalent of a “lab rat”) to spur advances in coral research. 

RECOMMENDATION: Identify and develop model species that are well 

characterized and easy to culture, and create a facility to culture, maintain 

and supply model species to scientists. 

To investigate normal coral biology and disease states using modern scientific techniques, it is necessary to 

identify and develop model species, and make them routinely available for research. Model laboratory 

species share well-known desirable characteristics, including ease of culture, high growth and fecundity rates, 

and relatively simple genetics. Model corals 

will be analogous to “lab rats,” and enable 

rapid advances by focusing research on 

fundamental biological concepts broadly 

applicable across the taxon. Model corals 

must be representative of coral diversity, and 

include IndoPacific and Caribbean species, 

autotrophs and heterotrophs, branching and 

boulder growth forms, species with different 

calcification rates, and with different algal 

symbionts. They also must include taxa 

susceptible to bleaching and disease and 

resistant taxa. Developing a living stock 

collection for model corals will provide 

infrastructure critical for basic research 

by providing well-characterized and 

documented experimental organisms to 

domestic and international researchers at 

a modest charge (the Indiana University Axolotl Colony [http://www.indiana.edu/~axolotl/] is a working model 

of such a facility). The BWG recommends developing model species and establishing supply facilities through 

merit-based, peer-reviewed grants. 

Laboratory culturing of Acropora cervicornis. Under the direction of 

Dr. Erich Mueller, Mote Marine Laboratory, Center for Tropical Research 

in the Florida Keys has been propagating several coral species. The 

ability to propagate and culture corals of known genotypes is the first 

step toward developing laboratory model species for scientific research 

and conservation efforts. (Photo: John Bemiss) 

Species that are resistant to 

diseases and have varying life 

histories are also cultured for 

research models, such as Porites 

astreoides, which broods larvae 

(left) or the Pacific pocilloporid, 

Pocillopora damicornis (right). 

(Photos: Andy Bruckner). 

12 
STRATEGIC OBJECTIVE 3: Establish coral and zooxanthellae cell cultures for use 

in laboratory research. 

RECOMMENDATION: Determine the special requirements needed to establish 

and maintain coral and zooxanthellae cell cultures, and establish facilities 

that can maintain these cultures and supply them to scientists. 

Developing short- and long-term primary coral cultures in addition 

to immortalized cell lines as an alternative to animal 

experimentation is essential to laboratory studies of normal and 

disease states, including gene sequencing and expression. It also is 

essential for augmenting dwindling native stocks of rare corals for 

use in research. Currently, there are only a few investigators able 

to establish primary coral cultures but no immortalized coral cell 

lines are available in such repositories as the American Type 

Culture Collection (ATCC). Culture collections of the coral’s 

symbiotic algae are limited to a few private collections. 

Determining the special requirements needed to establish and 

maintain coral and zooxanthellae cell cultures will enable 

researchers to use modern biomedical techniques to investigate coral 

health and disease. Once cell lines are successfully established and 

maintained, they should be incorporated in the ATCC, where they 

are available to researchers for a nominal fee. One approach 

involves encouraging facilities that maintain living cultures of algae 

(i.e., Provasoli-Guillard National Center for Culture of Marine 

Phytoplankton) to add zooxanthellae to their collection. 

Explant culture of P. damicornis coral 

cells. (Photo: Gary Ostrander). 

Phase micrograph of various types of 

coral cells in primary culture after 48 

hours. (Photo: Gary Ostrander). 

Symbiodinium cultures. The symbiotic algae from coral is being 

grown in large quantities for laboratory studies. Cultures provided 

by Drs. Todd La Jeunesse and Bill Fitt. (Photo: Cheryl Woodley). 

13 
STRATEGIC OBJECTIVE 4: Determine physiological parameters typical of normal, 

healthy coral. 

RECOMMENDATION: Determine boundaries of normal variation in coral health, 

including ontogenetic, temporal, bathymetric, geographic, and 

species-specific responses. 

Coral physiology is poorly understood and quantified, making it difficult to 

distinguish disease states from natural variations in condition. Therefore, it is vital 

to determine baseline measures of coral health and vitality at the genetic, 

molecular, cellular, tissue and whole organism levels. Determining nominal (nonstressed) levels of relevant parameters requires reference values from healthy 

individuals, as inferred from both laboratory and field studies. Deviations from the 

nominal range then indicate an altered state, which is defined as diseased, if it is 

associated with a deteriorating condition that ultimately reduces individual performance (i.e., growth, reproduction, immunological competence, etc.). Therefore, 

investigations must quantify what is normal in representative coral species 

(preferably in the “model species”), and determine how physiological parameters 

and fitness components change during ontogeny, seasonally, annually, and along 

geographic, bathymetric, temperature, and other clinal gradients. Once nominal 

values are defined, investigators can more readily identify disease states, diagnose 

likely causal agents, and forecast the ecological and economic consequences of 

epizootics. Achieving this goal requires supporting long-term research, and 

multi-investigator teams working at multiple levels of biological organization. The 

BWG recommends vertically integrating field studies to take advantage of ongoing 

monitoring projects, and emphasizes the importance of experimental studies, both 

in the laboratory and on coral reefs. 

Laboratory maintained 

Oculina varicosa receive 

regular feeding of Artemia 

larvae. (Photo: Dorothy 

Howard). 

Laboratory experiments are critical to understanding how corals respond to individual stressors and combinations of stressors. Such experiments give us controlled conditions to explore the effects of both biotic (i.e., disease pathogen) and 

abiotic (i.e., xenobiotic) stressors. Here Oculina varicosa fragments, supported 

on plastic platforms in individual dosing chambers, are being challenged with a 

putative bleaching pathogen. (Photo: Darren Wray). 

14 
STRATEGIC OBJECTIVE 5: Determine the basic host defense mechanisms and 

immune responses of corals. 

RECOMMENDATION: Conduct basic research on coral defense mechanisms 

and immune system. 

Despite increased attention to coral bleaching and disease outbreaks, little is known about host defense 

mechanisms. Coral mucus serves a protective role, and is active in the removal, lysis, and consumption of 

bacteria. Both the coral and its symbiotic algae produce amino acids that act as natural sunscreens, and can 

regulate enzymatic activity to remove noxious oxygen radicals produced by heat and light stress. 

Comparatively little is known about coral immune systems; researchers suspect lipopolysaccharides and 

glucan-binding proteins are involved with host defense and that corals have lytic systems, and surfacerecognition systems ancestral to those commonly found in innate immunity. Beyond these generalities, extremely little is known about coral host defense mechanisms and immunology. Bridging this data gap is a major 

challenge for the Coral Disease and Health Consortium. Fortunately, considerable expertise already exists in 

biological sub-disciplines outside the realm of coral biology. Therefore, the BWG recommends encouraging 

interdisciplinary research by funding proof-of-concept and training grants, and dissertation and postdoctoral 

fellowships to attract immunologists and biochemists to conduct basic research on defense mechanisms and 

immune systems in corals, sea fans, and their relatives. 

Diagram of components associated with 

innate immune systems. Corals like other 

invertebrates possess an innate immune 

system. This system is characterized by its 

ability to rapidly respond to microorganisms 

because its detection mechanism is based 

on recognizing surface structures that are 

common among large groups of microbes. 

(Artwork: Sara Polson). 

15 
STRATEGIC OBJECTIVE 6: Determine patterns of coral gene expression, and 

genetic mechanisms of resistance and susceptibility to disease. 

RECOMMENDATION: Sequence the genomes of representative coral species 

and their symbiotic dinoflagellates. 

Sequencing the genome of a representative coral species and their symbiotic dinoflagellate algae will allow 

researchers to interpret gene function in healthy and diseased colonies. The objective is to identify all the genes 

in coral DNA, determine their sequences, store the information in accessible databases, and compare them 

with reference DNA sequences in 

organisms that are better understood 

(i.e., human, mouse, fruit fly) to 

understand gene function. Benefits 

include identifying genes expressed in 

normal versus stressed or diseased 

individuals, including genes that 

increase susceptibility or confer 

resistance to bleaching and disease. 

Recent technological advances in gene 

sequencing and bioinformatics, 

coupled with the relatively small size 

(1.12 x 109 bp/haploid genome vs 

3.45 x 109 bp/haploid genome of 

humans) of many coral genomes (ca. 

28 pairs of chromosomes) permit this 

goal to be accomplished quickly once 

funding is secured and research efforts 

are coordinated. The symbiotic dinoflagellates, however, have genome 

sizes estimated to be 100X larger than the coral genome. Thus new strategies will likely need to be employed 

in order to sequence the dinoflagellate genome. 

Biology Working Group Members (BWG) 

John Argyle - Biolog, Incorporated 

Mohamed Faisal – Michigan State University, Living Oceans Foundation 

John Fauth (Chair) - College of Charleston 

Sylvia Galloway – NOAA/National Ocean Service 

Thomas MacRae - Dalhousie University 

Jeff Miller - Virgin Islands National Park 

Gary Ostrander - Johns Hopkins University 

James Porter - University of Georgia 

Caroline Rogers - USGS Caribbean Field Station, USVI 

Bette Willis - James Cook University 

Molecular diagnostic techniques used to study coral disease: DNA sequencing 

chromatogram (upper left), protein concentration assay (lower left) and DGGE 

(denaturing gradient gel electrophoresis) (right). (Figures: Sara Polson). 

16 
II. DISEASE IDENTIFICATION AND DISEASE INVESTIGATION 

1. Background 

“Disease” is defined by the CDHC as any deviation from or interruption of the normal structure or 

function of any body part, organ, or system, which is manifested by a characteristic set of signs and 

whose etiology, pathology and prognosis may be known or unknown. 

Emerging coral disease causation has been linked to biotic and 

abiotic stressors and to their synergistic interactions. However, 

traditional coral health assessment has only been able to detect 

effects after degradation or disease outbreaks have occurred, thus 

providing only indirect measures of stressor effects. Although 

over 35 different coral diseases and syndromes have been reported 

worldwide (Green and Bruckner, 2000), only a limited number of 

these have been verified through the peer-reviewed literature 

(Richardson, 1998). The majority of described coral diseases 

have not been thoroughly characterized, most pathogens 

associated with these diseases are unknown, and the mechanisms 

and pathways involved in transmission of a pathogen, infection and 

subsequent mortality are poorly understood. In the western 

Atlantic, only black-band disease (BBD), white plague, yellowblotch disease, white-band disease (WBD) and neoplasia are readily 

identifiable in the field, while other conditions such as dark-spots 

disease, white pox, red-band disease (RBD) and various “types” 

of diseases (e.g., plague type II and III; WBD type II) can be 

easily misidentified as another disease or syndrome, or can be 

confused with signs of predation or other causes. 

Furthermore, the presumed pathogens have only 

been verified to meet Koch’s postulate for plague 

type II (Aurantimonas coralicida, gen nov. sp. 

nov., Denner et al., 2003; Richardson et al., 

1998), Aspergillosis (sea fan disease) (Smith et 

al., 1996), white pox (Serratia marcescens, 

Patterson et al., 2002, and bleaching (Vibrio spp., 

Kushmaro et al., 1996; 1997; Rosenberg and 

Ben-Haim, 2002). In other diseases such as BBD 

and RBD, a consortium consisting of various 

bacteria, cyanobacteria, fungi and/or other 

microorganisms have been found associated with 

infected colonies, but these microorganisms have 

not been demonstrated to be the causative agents 

through vigorous laboratory studies that fulfill 

Koch’s postulate. 

Coral diseases can be easily confused with 

other causes of mortality. For instance, 

predation by Coralliophila abbreviata snails 

(shown above) may be misidentified as whiteband disease (shown below) if the snails are 

on the underside or base of the colony. 

(Photos: Andy Bruckner). 

17 
In addition, for those diseases whose pathogens have been fully characterized (e.g., white pox, plague type II) 

samples involved a small number of affected corals from one or a few locations, and it is not known whether 

the disease in corals exhibiting the same field characteristics and signs from other locations is caused by an 

identical pathogen. 

The incidence and severity of reef degradation associated with coral disease has increased considerably over 

the last two decades. Coral biologists today are not adequately prepared to combat the expanding threat nor 

equipped with the specialized training in pathology, histology, and disease etiologies to handle the crisis. 

Currently, there is no mechanism to translate advances in biomedical and veterinary sciences, pathology, 

toxicology, biotechnology, and resource management to the study of coral disease and health and no sustained 

funding to support coral disease research programs. As a result, the most basic procedures to ensure sample 

integrity for diagnosis are not followed; basic research tools including a model research organism, cell cultures, 

and bioindicators for diagnostics, have not been developed; and there is an insufficient capacity of existing 

coral research laboratories for handling samples and conducting research. We must therefore modify current 

approaches to studying reef degradation by integrating technologies capable of elucidating underlying 

mechanisms of disease and couple these efforts to the identification of stressors and determination of causality. 

For many diseases, the 

causative agent(s) remain 

unknown, such as yellowblotch disease, while several 

different microorganisms have 

been identified as the cause of 

other diseases, like black-band 

disease. Adding to the 

confusion, a coral may be 

infected by multiple disease at 

one time: the Montastraea 

faveolata colony to the left 

was first infected by YBD and 

subsequently by BBD. 

(Photo: Andy Bruckner). 

2. Challenges and Recommendations 

The Disease Identification and Disease Investigation Working Group (DIDIWG) acknowledged that the coral 

reef research community is in critical need of: 

(1) a common descriptive language for coral syndromes; 

(2) standard disease assessment and reporting protocols; and 

(3) designation of core laboratories with critical assay capabilities. 

They also recognized the need to constitute a subcommittee to coordinate outreach and education activities 

(workshops, training curricula, and symposia) in coral health and disease. The ultimate aim of these activities 

is to provide a consistent, integrated body of scientific information that will guide the development of 

management strategies for the recovery of the world’s coral reef ecosystems. 

18 
STRATEGIC OBJECTIVE 1: Standardize common terms and descriptive 

interpretations of clinical abnormalities noted in field observations. 

RECOMMENDATION: Publish a manual with a glossary of common coral 

health terms and a review of known clinical syndromes. 

The lack of standardization of common medical terms and descriptive interpretations of clinical 

abnormalities noted in field observations has resulted in ambiguous and often misleading 

communication of findings. To address these deficiencies, the DIDIWG recommended compiling a 

manual containing both a glossary of common health terms and visual and descriptive details of 

existing clinical syndromes. The review of clinical syndromes will emphasize data supported by peerreviewed publications. The manual will promote a standard basic vocabulary and a descriptive 

understanding of observations used in communicating information relative to coral health and disease. 

The DIDIWG recommends that the CDHC form a committee to develop standardized nomenclature in 

coral health and disease studies. It also recommends that the Nomenclature Committee: 

(1) develop a glossary of common 

medical terms applicable to describing 

coral condition; and 

(2) review existing clinical syndromes. 

The Nomenclature Committee should 

make their report available to the 

public through the CDHC website: 

http://www.coral.noaa.gov / 

coral_disease/cdhc.shtml. 

A glossary of disease terms is one 

means to establish a common 

language among coral disease 

researchers and promote effective 

and accurate communication. 

19 
STRATEGIC OBJECTIVE 2: Establish standardized monitoring protocols for field 

assessments. 

RECOMMENDATION: Standardize field collection practices and protocols, 

and develop a database for storing, compiling and disseminating data. 

To understand spatial and temporal patterns of bleaching and disease, it is necessary to make field 

assessments in a consistent and comprehensive manner. Unfortunately, there is a diversity of 

monitoring protocols being used, by a variety of interest groups, for assessing condition of corals and 

other reef organisms. This coupled with a lack of common terms to describe conditions affecting 

organismal health results in data that cannot be compared, making it difficult to determine the impacts 

of diseases on a region-wide basis. Field assessment personnel must be equipped with a good working 

-knowledge of the basic terms used to describe coral conditions and be able to apply them accurately 

during reef monitoring. Clear and consistent descriptions of coral health conditions and syndromes 

must be developed and implemented, along with standard recording procedures and formats. 

The DIDIWG recommends that the CDHC establish a Field Assessment Committee to develop 

standardized assessment protocols based on a review of existing monitoring programs and integration 

of established epidemiological principles. In addition, the DIDIWG suggests that this committee will 

incorporate rigorous Quality Assurance/Quality Control (QA/QC) procedures to maximize data 

integrity. Implementation of a coordinated and standardized field assessment protocol will ensure that 

the information being collected can be integrated with other data for bioinformatic analyses. 

The DIDIWG recommends that the CDHC establish a Bioinformatics Committee to develop and 

organize a CDHC database that will interface with existing coral databases and provide synthesis, 

exploratory, and inferential analysis capabilities. 

Scientist at Virgin Islands National Park 

using meter-square quadrats along 

permanent transects to monitor the 

coral disease, White Plague, at Tektite 

Reef, St.John. This reef, dominated by 

Montastraea annularis illustrates the 

complexity of disease monitoring 

techniques based on counting the 

number of coral colonies (Photo: Jeff 

Miller). 

20 
 

STRATEGIC OBJECTIVE 3: Establish Regional Coral Disease Diagnostic 

Centers 

RECOMMENDATION: Improve response to disease outbreaks by 

establishing regional diagnostic laboratories that are staffed with 

knowledgeable diagnosticians and equipped with modern clinical 

diagnostics. 

In order to achieve the goal of understanding coral diseases and then using this information to develop 

technologies for curing and/or preventing the spread of these diseases, there must be a strong laboratory 

component to the CDHC. Establishing regional laboratories would ensure local access to diagnostic 

services and close cooperation between field and laboratory research groups. 

The DIDIWG envisions that these laboratories would function in:

 (1) setting diagnostic criteria and standard operating procedures for sample handling, transport, and

 analysis;

 (2) obtaining and archiving voucher samples of healthy and diseased tissue from field surveys and

 experiments;

 (3) performing clinical diagnostic tests on diseased specimens;

 (4) assist in developing and testing of new bioindicators for coral disease diagnosis;

 (5) performing research investigations on the etiology of coral diseases (emphasizing the most devastating

 diseases and coral bleaching), remembering that it is important to not only determine the causative

 agent, but also the mechanisms of the disease, how it is transmitted, and factors that exacerbate the

 occurrence and impacts; and

 (6) providing a learning environment for researchers interested in entering the field of coral disease, in

 particular microbial ecologists, molecular biologists and infectious disease scientists. Some of the

 responsibilities of this function include efforts to:
 

• Develop a draft curriculum for cross-disciplinary training for graduate degrees with a specialty in

 coral health & disease. 

•	 Organize an annual meeting of coral reef health & disease specialists (consider a Gordon 

Conference format). 

•	 Identify sources of funding for these programs. 

•	 In all cases, efforts should be made to ensure international collaboration. 

Each laboratory is envisioned to implement strict clinical procedures through the use of standardized protocols 

for the transfer and evaluation of samples from the field to the laboratory. 

The DIDIWG recommends that the CDHC form a Laboratory Committee with five sub-committees 

responsible for developing Standard Operating Procedures (SOPs) for sample collection and transport 

including a Field Assessment, Histopathology, Microbiology, Molecular, and Toxicology Committee. 

21 
STRATEGIC OBJECTIVE 4: Devote training programs to the mechanisms 

underlying coral disease. 

RECOMMENDATION: Educate the general public about infectious versus noninfectious causes of coral diseases and provide cross disciplinary training 

for scientists and managers charged with caring for coral reefs. 

The DIDIWG emphasizes that there is a need for 

training programs in coral health and disease. 

There are many programs available on coral reefs, 

but few are devoted to the mechanisms 

underlying disease in corals. There is a critical 

need to provide training for the general public on 

the nature and impacts of infectious versus noninfectious diseases affecting coral reef ecosystems. 

Similarly, there is also a critical need to provide 

cross disciplinary training for scientists 

conducting coral reef research and monitoring, and 

managers who are charged with the care of reefs 

as well as the next generation of scientists. 

The DIDIWG recommends that the CDHC form 

a Training Committee that will: 

•	 Identify the courses available on coral reef health and disease; 

•	 Recommend a method for coordinating short courses or workshops; 

•	 Develop a website for communicating information about coral health and the activities of the 

CDHC; 

•	 Develop draft curricula for a training or certification program in coral health & disease; and, 

•	 Develop training materials for courses (videos, identification cards, etc.), compiling existing 

training information to serve as the foundation. 

Disease Identification and Disease Investigation 

Working Group Members (DIDIWG) 

Bill Costerton – Montana State University 

Diego Gil-Agudelo – University of South Carolina, Aiken 

John Halas – NOAA, Florida Keys National Marine Sanctuary 

Hal Helbock – Children’s Hospital of Oakland Research Institute 

Brian Keller – NOAA, Florida Keys National Marine Sanctuary 

Jo-Ann Leong – University of Hawaii 

Erich Mueller – Mote Marine Laboratory 

Pam Parnell – Clemson Veterinary Diagnostic Center 

Laurie Richardson – Florida International University 

Eugene Rosenberg – Tel Aviv University 

Emmett Shotts (Chair) – U.S. Geological Survey (Retired) 

Dr. Esther Peters provides training in coral histology to students 

attending a summer workshop at the Hawaii Institute of Marine 

Biology Coconut Island, Hawaii. (Photo: Teresa Lewis). 

A student counting extracted 

zooxanthellae using a compound 

microscope. (Photo:Teresa Lewis). 

22 
 

IV. DIAGNOSTICS 

1. Background 

Coral diseases have increased significantly over the last decade and are causing widespread mortality of 

important reef-building species. The frequency, intensity, and geographic range of coral disease and 

bleaching events appear to be accelerating at unprecedented rates. The etiologies of most coral diseases 

including the biotic and abiotic factors contributing to their occurrence and spread have not been fully 

discerned. Some pathogens of scleractinian corals and gorgonians have been identified; however, the 

agent(s) of most coral diseases are undescribed. Many abnormalities are not adequately characterized 

and are indistinguishable to the untrained eye. Because coral health and disease have not been well 

documented in the past, the diagnostic processes for investigation of disease outbreaks are still in their 

infancy. 

Diagnostics may be defined as: “A variety of observations and tests used to determine the composition 

and function of an organism and its environment, which allows determination of the organism’s health 

and/or disease state, including susceptibility to disease.” Thus, diagnostics are biological tests used to 

define boundaries of disease, and to define the state of health. It is a process by which potential causes 

are eliminated. The steps involved include: 

a) collecting comprehensive case histories; 

b) recording gross observations; 

c) developing a flow chart of steps used to identify patterns; 

d) implementing diagnostic tools; and 

e) deriving a final diagnosis from total body information. 

Two diagnostic strategies are commonly employed. 

Community Level Diagnostics: Analysis of community level response to a disease event provides historical 

information including the identification of stages of declining health. Information is generally gathered after an 

outbreak or deaths have occurred. To the coral biologist this represents the analysis of the impact of declining 

health or disease on coral ecology. 

Individual Level Diagnostics: Analysis of individual organisms focus on identifying causative agents, 

characterizing mechanisms of disease, and elucidating patterns of transmission to identify a probable cause and 

suggest preventative strategies or treatments. This type of diagnosis generally reflects both an analyst’s and 

pathologist’s points of view, e.g., defining coral as abnormal through gross observation, collection of samples, 

processing of tissues, and microscopic observation coupled with clinical tests. 

The study of coral diseases requires a modified approach from that taken for terrestrial organisms as well as 

other aquatic organisms during the initial phases of the disease investigation. The coral diagnostician must have 

a broad knowledge of the aquatic environment in order to relate clinical findings to disease entities. Initially 

classifying visual categories and deviations from normal patterns in the field (aquatic environment) is necessary 

to relate tissue damage to stressors. Therefore, dependence upon correlations between community level 

diagnostics and individual diagnosis is critical for the marine organism. 

23 
Step 1: Sick coral are noticed and reported to the proper authority. 

Step 2: The environmental (ecological) historical background of the event is investigated. This type of 

information is epizootiological. Gathering this information might be done by a marine biologist or a 

disease specialist. The background information provides the first clues about what is going on. 

Step 3: A Coral Health Specialist will examine the coral in situ, study the lesions, take photographs, make 

a provisional diagnosis and collect the proper samples to confirm that diagnosis. For a coral event, 

samples are collected for the bioindicator tests that form an important part of a coral health investigation 

and for microscopic examination. 

Step 4: Lab work is conducted by a number of diagnosticians with different expertise. Histopathology 

may serve in Steps 4, 5 and 6. In many laboratories the pathologist that did the necropsy (sample 

examination) will also do the microscopic examination of the tissues, review all the available information 

about the event, and make the final diagnosis. 

Step 5: A summation of all available information is used to confirm the preliminary diagnosis. In animal 

and human diagnostics this is usually done by a pathologist. 

Step 6: Making the final diagnosis. 

Step 7: The final diagnosis and as much of the other information as possible should be stored in 

electronic databases for epizootiological and other kinds of research. 

2 24
2. Challenges and Recommendations 

The Diagnostic Working Group (DWG) was charged with identifying gaps in knowledge, research needs, 

and challenges that impede improved understanding of coral health and the ability to diagnose coral diseases. 

The lack of standard terminology and diagnostic criteria required to describe coral diseases/syndromes have 

constrained researchers’ ability to delineate specific disease cause and effect. This situation is complicated by 

the regular reporting of field and laboratory information using non-comparable methods. In addition, 

associated environmental information related to physicochemical condition of sediments, water column, and 

nearby land masses is often unavailable. 

The standard diagnostic processes used in medical and veterinary pathology have not been routinely applied to 

the study of coral disease. The challenge for the study of coral disease is to develop standard observation, 

sample collection, and analytical protocols based on a standardized diagnostic approach, yet tailored for 

corals, and paralleling those used in medical and veterinary pathology. Most of the individual level diagnostic 

tests cannot be conducted in the field thus samples must be shipped to laboratory sites, often outside of the 

country of sample origin. Since transportation of coral across international borders is regulated by CITES and 

collection of coral is regulated by individual state laws, the permitting process may be a significant deterrent to 

rapid response to disease outbreaks. The established steps in the diagnostic process, identified above, were 

evaluated by the DWG in terms of coral disease, leading to the following set of Strategic Objectives and 

relevant recommendations. 

Histological section of blackband disease on Diploria 

strigosa. Lysed tissue caused by 

the microbial consortium in the 

mat on the left is pale and has lost 

structure in comparison to normal 

tissue on the right. Stained with 

Taylor’s modification of Brown 

and Brenn’s for Gram-positive 

and Gram-negative bacteria. 

(Photomicrograph: Esther 

Peters). 

A 

One way to verify the identification of a pathogen 

is by sequencing its DNA. In this example, nucleic 

acids from the cyanobacteria associated with BBD 

and RBD were isolated and run on minigels to

observe purity (a). After extraction of DNA, 16s rRNA was amplified using the polymerase 

chain reaction. The amplified material was introduced into host E. coli cells that are 

grown on agar (b). The amplified plasmid from the E. coli cells was extracted and the 16s 

rRNA sequence was determined using Sequenase T7 polymerase and denaturing 

polyacrylamide gel electrophopresis (c). (Photos: Andy Bruckner). 

B C
 

Diploria strigosa with blackband disease. (Photos: Andy 

Bruckner). 

25 
 

STRATEGIC OBJECTIVE 1: Improve methods of taking case histories by 

developing response teams, implementing standard monitoring protocols, 

and integrating ecosystem level data. 

RECOMMENDATIONS: 

a) Develop Standard Operating Procedures (SOPs) for sample collection. 

The DWG recommends the establishment of a Field Assessment Committee in support of the 

CDHC to develop standard protocols and associated data collection forms incorporating 

rigorous QA/QC procedures for data collection. Determining whether the amount, type, and 

quality of data are appropriate and sufficient to test the hypotheses under investigation is an 

important aspect of research. Numerous techniques have been developed for coral collection; 

however, methods typically are not planned in conjunction with other studies, such as microbial 

or chemical assays. Many quantitative techniques are used to evaluate the distribution and 

impacts of disease; however, standard procedures must be developed for assessing water and 

sediment conditions, recording visual observations (i.e. photography), and taking physicochemical 

measurements. In addition, standard protocols for sample collection must be implemented to 

accurately compare aspects of coral health and disease across broad geographic regions. 

b) Establish rapid response teams and regional diagnostic centers. 

The DWG recommends the establishment of coordinated teams of researchers, resource 

managers, dive masters, and recreational divers that could be mobilized on short notice to 

investigate bleaching and disease events. To enhance the timing of the field response, the teams 

would consist of a core group responsible for coordinating activities as well as several regional 

teams that are able to respond in their particular areas. Teams would be responsible for rapidly 

assessing reef condition utilizing SOPs and directing sample collections using appropriate 

diagnostic approaches. The objective is to integrate field researcher’s (e.g., ecologists, marine 

biologists, chemists, oceanographers) and laboratory researcher’s (microbiologists, pathologists, and 

veterinarians) descriptions of the disease state and conditions associated with the event. 

Students at a Molecular Techniques workshop held in 

Hawaii. Students are learning standardized approaches 

and techniques for laboratory studies on coral 

diseases. (Photo: Teresa Lewis). 

26 
c) Integrate ecosystem level data to assist in diagnosis. 

The DWG recommends that the CDHC develop a standardized list of ecosystem level data that should be 

collected to complement descriptive and quantitative organismal level information collected on coral condition, 

changes in coral health, and coral mortality. Types of data could include: 

1) benthic community composition including various coral measures 

such as cover, diversity, abundance, size frequency; algal community 

composition; composition of the coral cover, and abundance of 

non-coral invertebrates with emphasis on taxa that play a key role in 

the structure and function of reef ecosystems; 

2) fish community dynamics; 

3) water and sediment measures, including circulation patterns, wave 

data, temperature, nutrient analysis; 

4) linkages among species, such as the density or abundance of coral 

predators, key missing trophic levels or organisms (e.g., Diadema), 

and unusual occurrences such as an outbreak of a pest species; 

5) socio-economic data, including extent of fishing and gear types; 

recreational uses; and land-based activities; and human impacts. 

Wherever possible, ecosystem level understandings should be 

coordinated at large spatial scales (regional studies) using a random 

stratified approach with standardization of methodologies, 

parameter measures, and quality control measures that would be 

comparable among related studies. Diver recording data at a CARICOMP site 

in the northern Bahamas (Photo: Gary 

Ostrander). 

STRATEGIC OBJECTIVE 2: Implement standard terminology for describing 

changes in coral health. 

RECOMMENDATION: Organize a manual providing common terminology for 

use in coral field research to promote efficient communication with other 

researchers, medical/veterinary correspondents, and resource managers. 

The DWG recommends that the CDHC form a Nomenclature Committee to develop standardized 

terminology in coral health and disease studies, publish this information on the CDHC website (http:// 

www.coral.noaa.gov/coral_disease/cdhc.shtml), and in a booklet for distribution. This manual should include 

descriptions, photographs and diagnostic criteria to assist in field identification of recognized diseases, as well 

as a separate section discussing other described syndromes and anomalies, signs of predation, overgrowth, 

competition and other sources of mortality, and newly identified but unpublished syndromes. The booklet 

could also include a second level of detail involving laboratory diagnosis of peer-reviewed coral diseases. The 

Nomenclature Committee should also include a glossary of common human medical and veterinary terms 

applicable to coral diseases. This recommendation coincides with the one made by the DIDIWG. 

27 
STRATEGIC OBJECTIVE 3: Incorporate standard protocols, routine collection 

permits, cross-border transportation, and adequate bio-containment measures 

in coral sampling. 

RECOMMENDATIONS: 

a) Establish standard coral sample collection protocols using standardized

 terminology. 

The DWG emphasizes the need for a standard coral sample 

collection protocol to allow analysis and comparison of 

findings and information sharing among researchers and 

managers. This should include the development of a 

sampling program that incorporates the visual observations 

that should be made for each affected coral (e.g., color of 

tissue and affected area, shape, distribution, size, and 

pattern of the lesion); how to photograph the sampled corals 

(including distance and macro-photographs before and after 

sample collection); how to remove, collect, preserve and 

transport coral tissue, skeleton and mucus samples; sediment 

and/or water samples that should be collected; and techniques 

to minimize damage to host coral and the associated 

community. Diver removing cores from Montastraea faveolata 

using a pnuematic drill. (Photo: Andy Bruckner). 

Example of core removed 

from M. faveolata at the 

interface between normal 

tissue, diseased tissue 

and exposed skeleton. 

(Photo: Andy Bruckner). 

Divers involved in a disease investigation collecting 

samples of staghorn coral (Acropora cervicornis) using 

a pair of clippers and wearing disposable gloves to 

minimize gear contamination and inadvertant 

transmission of disease to healthy colonies. (Photo: 

Charles Fasano). 

Diver using a leather punch to remove a 

small sample from a colony of 

Montastraea faveolata. This approach 

may be preferable to the example shown 

above, as it is less invasive. (Photo: 

Richard Curry). 

28 
b) Develop an atlas of diseased and normal coral tissue. 

Knowledge of the microscopic structure and composition of coral tissues has been accumulating for more than 

a century, but many questions remain to be explored. For example, the basic anatomy and histology of corals 

is fairly straightforward, while the composition and functions of the various cell types and the variation found 

among different species, genera, and families require further analysis and coordination with studies of 

biochemistry and metabolism. A comparison of cells and tissues from organisms considered to be healthy with 

those from organisms whose health is considered to be impaired has been instrumental in the diagnosis and 

treatment of diseases in other organisms. These same approaches should be applied to corals to study the 

adverse effects of chemicals or pollutants, to understand the functioning of the immune system in response to 

pathogens or for other purposes. 

Live colony of Oculina spp. Puerto 

Rico, 15 m depth.(Photo: Andy 

Bruckner). 

Section through normal pharynx 

of a polyp on Porites astreoides 

(left). Note brown granular 

chromophore cells. Stained with 

Harris's hematoxylin and eosin. 

(Photomicrograph: Esther 

Peters). 

Gregarine cysts within the 

calicoblastic epidermis of Decalcified Oculina varicosa. Porites porites. Stained with Decalcification is one of the first steps Heidenhain's aniline blue. in preparing coral for histo­ (Photomicrograph: Esther pathological examinations. This is a Peters). fragment of coral with its skeleton 

removed, showing the extensive 

network of tissue buried inside the 

protective skeleton. (Photo: Dorothy 

Howard ). 

To assist in advancing our understanding and better interpretation 

of health and disease in corals, the DWG recommends creating a 

repository of coral tissue samples, and providing a forum for 

discussion and dissemination of information on coral health and 

disease. The reference collection could include an archive of 

histological slides representing healthy and abnormal tissues from 

representative coral species. This collection would be available on 

loan for researchers. In addition, a journal dedicated to coral health 

and disease could be developed with online access provided through 

the CDHC. 

29 
c) Develop non-invasive sampling techniques and educate divers and

 investigators on bio-containment issues. 

Sample collection procedures should incorporate preservation and 

conservation practices and use appropriate bio-containment and 

safety measures. One way this can be achieved is by establishing 

vessels designed specifically for coral research, equipped with 

appropriate sampling tools and laboratories incorporating various 

levels of bio-safety practices. However, because the vast majority of 

coral researchers are not operating out of large research vessels, 

standardized protocols to minimize diver impacts and reduce 

potential for introduction or spread of pathogens must be 

developed. 

This should include: 

•	 environmentally friendly tissue sampling protocols that minimize 

the size of the core removed and provide techniques for patching 

the lesions with clay, cement or underwater epoxy; 

•	 methods to prevent dispersal or spread of microorganisms 

associated with coral mucus or band diseases (e.g, BBD) when 

collecting samples or treating corals; and 

•	 proper approaches for disposing of used fixative. 

It is also recommended that samples are collected only by researchers with expertise in coral biology, 

physiology, taxonomy and/or diseases. Volunteer and recreational divers, dive masters, and others 

conducting monitoring as well as non-coral disease experts on rapid response teams should not collect samples 

unless they have the proper training and supplies or are accompanied by an expert with proper training. 

Diver with two small (2.5 cm diameter) 

cores removed from Montastraea 

faveolata. Mona Island, Puerto Rico. 

(Photo: Andy Bruckner). 

Diver treating a colony of Montastraea 

faveolata affected by yellow-blotch 

disease using underwater putty. 

(Photo: Andy Bruckner). 

Diver is removing a small tissue sample from a colony of Montastraea 

faveolata using a rock hammer and small leather punch. (Photo: Richard 

Curry). 

30 
d) Involve the State Department, U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, and the CITES

 Secretariat in facilitating the collection permit process. 

All stony corals are listed on Appendix II of the Convention on the International Trade in Endangered Species 

(CITES) (http://www.cites.org/eng/disc/text.shtml) which requires that researchers transporting corals across 

national borders acquire an export permit from the country of origin. While the U.S. does not require import 

permits, other locations such as countries in the European Union do require this. In addition, permits for coral 

research must also be obtained in writing from the appropriate state, federal or territorial government prior to 

the start of a research project. While this often places a great burden on researchers, these permits are 

necessary to avoid prosecution or confiscation of samples, and are required for publication of the data. This 

process can be facilitated by educating government officials to the present gaps in knowledge and reinforcing 

the need for action. By bringing together officials and organizations at all levels of the research and 

management process, effective coral assessment studies can be developed and maintained, and processes for 

obtaining permits can be facilitated. 

Example of a CITES permit 

from the United States for wild 

animals required by 

researchers transporting live 

corals or coral samples 

across international borders. 

31 
STRATEGIC OBJECTIVE 4: Establish a centralized data system that 

incorporates a bioinformatic approach that compiles relevant data, 

transforms the data into information, and formulates a synthesis of the 

information into a multidimensional understanding of coral health and 

disease. 

The DWG recognizes the importance of interdisciplinary studies, incorporating information from analytical 

chemistry, biochemistry, microbiology, molecular biology, physiology, and new developments in histopathology techniques, as well as oceanography and ecology, to enhance our understanding of the effects of 

environmental stressors and disease on coral reefs. The DWG identified the need for the application of new 

tools to analyze and interpret these data as they relate to the occurrence, spread and impacts of coral diseases. 

In addition to typical correlative analyses that are frequently performed with ecological data sets, multidisciplinary 

data should be compiled into relational databases and examined for non-linear correlations using a bioinformatic 

approach. 

Bioinformatics is the study of the inherent structure of biological information and biological systems that brings 

together systematic biological data with analytical theory and practical tools of mathematics and computer 

science. The goal of bioinformatics is to apply tools and techniques from computer science, mathematics and 

statistics to analyze and manage biological data. The development of an ‘intelligent’ system that can assimilate 

data into knowledge about coral health and disease involves three phases in a bioinformatics approach: 

1) the collection of data of all types, including those not necessarily compatible, into specific databases; 

2) the interpretation of specific data sets using typical statistical and comparative approaches; and 

3) the drawing of conclusions using many data sets and pieces of information (metadata) to develop new 

concepts. 

The recommendations for this objective have been formulated around these three phases. 

RECOMMENDATIONS: 

a)	 Develop standard methods for data collection that will enable 

centralization of data, via several centralized repositories; compile 

protocols from published field and laboratory methods, focusing on 

procedures related to coral assessment. 

Standard methods and protocols should be developed for all aspects of clinical diagnostics including 

histopathology, microbiology, molecular biotechnology, and toxicology, as well as field diagnostics. 

The DWG recommends that the CDHC establish committees to develop Standard Operating 

Procedures (SOPs) and establish a centralized means of data collection that integrates clinical data 

with biological, genetic, environmental and climatic data in formats conducive to bioinformatics and 

exploratory analyses. 

32 
b)	 Assimilate and analyze data, compare with other relevant parameters, and 

interpret data and publish the results in standard formats. 

There are a variety of databases and websites that provide general information on coral reefs, as 

well as several targeted programs such as the United Nations Environmental Programs World 

Conservation Monitoring Centre’s (WCMC) Global Coral Disease Database 

(http://www.wcmc.org.uk/marine/coraldis/), The World Resources Institute’s Reefs at Risk 

program (http://www.wri.org/wri/reefsatrisk/), Reefbase (http://www.reefbase.org/), and other 

programs that have detailed information on specific aspects of corals, coral reefs, and natural 

and anthropogenic stressors affecting these ecosystems. One of the problems often encountered 

when compiling or analyzing these types of information is the lack of standardization in data 

collection, making interpretation difficult. Another limitation is the recognition that 

environmental and anthropogenic stressors are prevalent on most coral reefs to varying degrees, yet 

relationships with coral disease and health are incompletely known. 

The DWG recommends that all available information on coral reefs and specifically on coral 

physiology, disease and health, and environmental and anthropogenic stresses operating on these 

systems be assessed using a bioinformatic similative approach. By providing computational algorithms, 

databases, data mining, statistical and visualization tools, bioinformatics can be used to answer 

questions on coral disease and health such as relationships among environmental and anthropogenic 

stressors and gene expression. Furthermore, once a database and necessary analysis and 

visualization tools are developed, new information can be added as it becomes available. 

STRATEGIC OBJECTIVE 5: Draw upon data, information, and knowledge 

generated by coral studies conducted under uniform standards and reported with 

standardized terminology to develop ‘coral specific’ diagnostics. 

RECOMMENDATIONS: 

a) Conduct special emphasis workshops with the goal of applying medical/ 

veterinary diagnostic processes to coral disease study/investigation. 

The DWG recommends that the CDHC convene a meeting of disease experts, including coral 

physiologists, coral disease researchers, medical doctors, veterinarians, and other researchers with 

medical and immunological backgrounds to develop diagnostic criteria and procedures that would 

be applicable to the study of coral diseases. At minimum, this workshop would bring together existing 

approaches and develop specific guidelines and protocols for application of histopathology, 

microbiology, molecular biotechnology, and toxicology techniques to the understanding of coral 

disease processes. For example, the group could recommend the use of a particular diagnostic 

biomarkers to diagnose the state of health or identify disease (e.g., heat shock, carcinogen 

metabolism, general health status); validate specific biomarkers with disease identification; or 

evaluate new biomarkers that indicate disease susceptibility or can be used in the diagnostic process. 

33 
b)	 Establish a working committee that will maintain a list of recognized 

coral diseases/syndromes, screen new additions to the list, and report 

regularly to the CDHC. 

The DWG recommends the creation of a Nomenclature Committee that will review and evaluate all of 

the described coral diseases/syndromes and develop a standardized, agreed upon list of names. This 

list will include as a first tier the peer-reviewed coral diseases for which a causative agent has been 

identified and additional diseases/syndromes that have been described in peer-reviewed literature, but 

for which a confirmed pathogen has not yet been identified. As a second tier, other diseases/ 

syndromes that have been reported by monitoring programs, researchers, and other divers, but have 

not appeared in the peer-reviewed literature will be described. The standardized coral disease 

terminology that is developed will include reference to synonyms of syndromes that have been used in 

the past but are being replaced by standardized nomenclature, as well as a description of other coral 

anomalies, signs of predation, competitive organisms and other causes of mortality. The list will be 

based on standard terminology incorporating veterinary and medical classifications as appropriate. 

This committee will also be responsible for reviewing new additions and providing regular updates to 

the CDHC. The established list of coral diseases/syndromes and other conditions will be maintained 

on the CDHC website, along with photographs and descriptions to assist in field identification, 

illustrations of pathogens (if available), gross and microscopic characteristics, including histological 

changes to coral tissue in response to diseases, toxins, and other stresses, and other diagnostic 

information when possible. 

Diagnostics Working Group Members (DWG) 

Kay Briggs – US Minerals Management Service 

Colleen Charles – US Geological Survey 

Phil Dustan – College of Charleston 

Judy Halas – Environmental Moorings International 

Laura Kracker – NOAA/National Ocean Service 

Kristy Lide – Medical University of South Carolina 

Lynda Lanning – Otsuka Maryland Research Institute 

Shawn McLaughlin (Chair) – NOAA/National Ocean Service 

Esther Peters – Tetra Tech Inc 

Charles Robinson – EnVirtue Biotechnologies, Inc 

Lou Sileo – US Geological Survey 

Garriet Smith – University of South Carolina, Aiken 

Darren Wray – NOAA/National Ocean Service 

White-band disease, Mona Island, Puerto 

Rico. WBD is believed to be one of the most 

significant causes of decline in Acropora 

palmata and A. cervicornis, but researchers 

have been unable to identify a causative 

agent. (Photo: Andy Bruckner). 

34 
V. ENVIRONMENTAL FACTORS AFFECTING INFECTIVITY AND

 SUSCEPTIBILITY 

1. Background 

Over the last 220,000 years, geological records show that the Caribbean coral community structure has been 

stable, despite vast changes in natural environmental conditions. However, in the last 30 years, coral 

communities have been dramatically altered. The most disconcerting observations suggest that corals are not 

recovering. Disturbances of various types, including hurricanes, coral bleaching, diseases of corals and other 

organisms, and other natural stressors have been invoked to explain the decline in coral cover and concurrent 

increases in fleshy and filamentous macro-algae (Aronson and Precht, 2001). However, the substantial coral 

decline and reef changes observed since the 1970s point convincingly to human activities as one of the major 

causes. A growing number of threats to coral reefs have been documented and evaluated over the past 

decade, including both anthropogenic and climatic changes. These threats translate into multiple stressors with 

synergistic impacts, and include physical factors (i.e., elevated temperatures, sedimentation, UV, overfishing, 

storm damage, vessel groundings), chemical factors (i.e., pesticides, herbicides, nutrients, pharmaceuticals in 

sewage, oil spills, and industrial discharge) and biological factors (i.e., disease, bleaching, predation, algal and 

invertebrate competition). In addition, effects of anthropogenic impacts are often exacerbated by climate 

change events (i.e., El Niño Southern Oscillations) which are increasing in intensity and frequency. This, 

coupled with the fact that corals live in low nutrient, relatively stable and uniform conditions, makes them 

vulnerable and very sensitive to physical and/or chemical changes in their environment. 

Climate change is suggested to be the cause of many problems affecting coral reefs today (Reaser et al., 

2000). Global climate change has led to increases in sea surface temperature (SST), sea level, atmospheric 

CO2

, solar irradiance, and other environmental features of critical importance to coral health. Short-term 

effects of these environmental changes can alter basal metabolic function, including effects on coral 

respiration and algal symbiont photosynthesis. Longer-term stress can increase disease susceptibility and 

mortality rates or reduce growth and reproductive rates. 

The earth’s atmosphere and oceans have warmed significantly in the last century; the estimated average 

increase in ocean temperature was 0.5° C, with more pronounced increases in tropical and subtropical water, 

where most coral reefs occur (Pittock, 1999). The most dramatic change in climate on record occurred when 

a major El Niño event, starting in early 1997 and lasting 12 months, was followed by a La Niña event in 1998 

that lasted 11 months. During these climatic events there was a major coral bleaching event associated with 

extensive tissue mortality of corals, mostly in the Indo-Pacific. Coral bleaching events of varied scope and 

1998 Satellite Annual Composite HotSpot Chart (derived from Pathfinder AVHRR SSTs). (Photo: Gang Lui 

and Al Strong). 

35 
scale were also documented in early 2000, 2001, and again in early 2002, with the most dramatic effects in the 

Indian Ocean and the Western Pacific (Hoegh-Guldberg, 1999). Coral bleaching and mortality is, however, 

only one of many global effects of elevated sea surface temperature. According to Status of Coral Reefs of 

the World: 2000, the most alarming report is that increasing concentrations of CO2 in seawater have reduced 

rates of coral calcification (Wilkinson, 2000). This condition slows growth, reduces skeletal density, leading to 

increased coral fragility and decreased reef-building capacity.Atmospheric CO2 concentrations have risen 

exponentially in the last century and a half. This has caused a decrease in ocean pH and total alkalinity. 

Simulations indicate these elevations of ocean geochemistry will significantly reduce coral calcification, 

independent of temperature effects (Gattuso et al., 1999). 

1998 Satellite Annual Composite 

Degree Heating Week Chart 

(DHW)derived from Pathfinder 

AVHRR SSTs. (Photo: Gang Lui 

and Al Strong). 

Although it is clear that diseases are emerging at an accelerated rate, cause and effect relationships are 

not well documented, especially in terms of what effect environmental changes have on the occurrence, 

proliferation and impact of coral diseases. It is now recognized that coral disease has played an 

important role in the loss of coral cover, especially in the wider Caribbean. For instance, mortality from whiteband disease (WBD) has modified the structure and composition of reefs throughout the Caribbean by 

contributing to the loss of two of the most common and abundant species, Acropora palmata and Acropora 

cervicornis. Yet factors that triggered or exacerbated the impacts of WBD are unknown, and coral 

populations were affected by WBD on reefs near human population centers as well as offshore reefs in 

protected watersheds. The role of environmental stressors must be carefully evaluated before concrete 

conclusions of relationships with disease can be made. Most coastal environments are affected by a suite of 

anthropogenic inputs, making it difficult to identify any one specific cause associated with deteriorating health 

or an increased prevalence of disease. Differences in prevalence, severity, or impact of coral diseases may be 

related to specific anthropogenic stressors, other biotic or abiotic parameters, or more likely, multiple factors. 

Throughout the Caribbean high relief Acropora cervicornis 

dominated habitats (left) have been transformed into rubble fields 

by disease and other factors and recovery has failed to occur 

(above). (Photos: Andy Bruckner). 

36 
2. Challenges and Recommendations 

A persistent lack of knowledge about the history of coral health and diseases has prevented scientists from 

understanding the changes to reefs being seen today. In addition, our ability to understand these changes is 

stymied by the lack of historical data to compare these gross changes. Because there are no standard records 

of disease or changes in the growth or distribution of corals in many regions, few attempts have been made to 

correlate coral susceptibility with known environmental changes. 

While examining environmental factors affecting coral disease and health, the Environmental Factors Working 

Group (EFWG) identified the lack of urgency to protect and conserve coral reefs as the most serious 

impediment facing coral reefs worldwide. They suggest that those with the means to achieve protection and 

conservation of coral reefs are implementing a reactive approach instead of proactive measures to insure coral 

reef survival for future generations. The EFWG agreed that the most important challenge was to convince 

policy makers of the real and urgent threat of losing the world’s coral reefs caused by declining health of corals. 

OVERALL RECOMMENDATION: Develop An Approach To Understand 

Relationships Between Environmental Factors And Coral Disease And Health. 

OVERALL STRATEGIC OBJECTIVE: Provide compelling evidence to convince 

the public, policy makers, managers, and regulators that declining coral health 

and increases in disease are caused primarily by changes in land-use patterns 

that contribute to degraded water quality through eutrophication, 

sedimentation, and chemical loading. 

In the following sections, the EFWG provides recommended mechanisms to achieve the Overall 

Strategic Objective. This includes eleven key strategies that are critical to advancing our understanding 

of environmental factors that affect coral health by (1) increased susceptibility to disease, (2) greater 

impacts from coral diseases, and (3) critical to developing and implementing strategies to mitigate 

these impacts. The eleven strategic objectives are subdivided into field and laboratory categories. 

FIELD 

STRATEGIC OBJECTIVE 1: Conduct epizootiological studies to determine the 

relationships between coral disease, coral health and changing environmental 

conditions. 

RECOMMENDATION: Support more comprehensive epizootiological studies 

relating coral health and coral diseases to environmental conditions, 

especially associations involving changes in water quality and climatic 

parameters. 

There have been very few epizootiological studies examining the relationships between coral health and 

environmental parameters. A recent study that mapped the spatial distribution of coral diseases in 

37 
the western Atlantic, using published reports, found that 97% of all locations affected by disease correspond to 

areas where human activities are expected to have medium to high impacts, based on the Reefs at Risk 

analysis (Green and Bruckner, 2000). However, a causal link cannot be drawn from this observation, as it is 

at least partially due to the fact that most coral disease research has been conducted on reefs located adjacent 

to developed coastlines, and fewer studies have been carried out in remote locations. 

Because of the paucity of recent epizootiological studies, and a lack of historical data, it is unclear what 

“background levels” of disease prevalence are normal for reefs and the threshold levels that indicate an 

epizootic. In addition, scientists currently cannot discriminate among disease events that are natural and those 

indicative of anthropogenic stress causing elevated responses, except in the case of certain mass mortalities. 

Furthermore, most studies from the 1970s-1990s reported a fairly low prevalence of disease (often less than 

1%) with localized outbreaks affecting up to 50% or more of the corals, but these studies rarely included 

information on environmental parameters that may have been associated with the outbreak. 

Environmental stressors, including those associated with degraded water quality and/or climatic parameters, 

are most often cited as potential factors causing coral mortality and death. Unfortunately, there are not 

adequate measurements and studies correlating coral health and disease to exposures to environmental 

stressors. Even when disease epizootics have been observed, few environmental measurements have been 

made, and even fewer are made on a regular basis to distinguish an irregular trend over time. 

During periods of heavy rainfall, sediment, 

nutrients, pesticides, sewage and other landbased pollutants may be transported from land 

to coral reef habitats, affecting water quality (as 

depicted in the photograph to the left) and 

possibly contributing to increased bleaching, 

diseases and coral mortality. (Photo: Andy 

Bruckner). 

A better understanding is required of the impacts of environmental 

stressors. There is a need for additional field studies that examine the 

prevalence and incidence of coral disease and changes in coral health, 

and simultaneously collect data on different environmental parameters 

to understand cause and effect relationships. There is also a need for 

studies that evaluate the effect of chronic stressors (i.e., 

sedimentation and nitrification) on coral health, including their impact 

on coral survival and recovery following major natural disturbances 

such as hurricanes or predator outbreaks. 

Diver collecting sediment traps to 

determine sediment loading. 

(Photo: Kathy Price). 

38 
STRATEGIC OBJECTIVE 2: Determine whether recent declines in coral health are 

unprecedented, or whether similar declines occurred in the past in the absence 

of anthropogenic stressors. 

RECOMMENDATION: Consult literature, historical records, cultural 

knowledge and sclero-chronology for evidence of past mortality events; 

changes in growth, reproduction, and distributions of corals; and presence 

and prevalence of disease. Correlate this information with known 

historical environmental changes. 

The EFWG concluded that there is insufficient evidence to support the fact that the destruction of 

thousands of hectares of modern coral reefs, documented over the last several decades is unprecedented 

in geological history. While location-specific cores (i.e. Belize) have revealed no evidence of 

population declines over the last 2500 years; in some locations (USVI and Florida) there are gaps in the 

fossil record. For instance, coring off Buck Island, USVI has shown that some shallow reef 

communities were initially dominated by Acropora palmata over the last 7000 years, but its presence 

was interrupted, with it disappearing from the reef system 3000 years before present and then reestablishing 

after nearly a 1000 year hiatus (D. Hubbard, unpubl. data). 

Through the development of a larger, regional scale coring program, it would be possible to compile a 

long term record and compare this to present day changes, by correlating environmental change with 

fossil records. While certain environmental variables (i.e. temperature, changes in sea level and 

antecedent topography) are preserved in the geochemistry of fossils, additional research is needed to 

determine whether evidence of coral diseases are preserved in the geochemistry or in the composition 

or nature of fossil assemblages. This information could provide evidence as to whether observable 

disease signs are new or if they have historical precedent, and also may help determine background 

levels of past disease prevalence. Literature dating back to the early 1920’s discussed the presence of 

bacterial aggregates in corals, and used the term “bacteriosis.” Molecular approaches to evolutionary 

studies of corals and known pathogens, such as quantifying levels of “biomarkers” that remain stable 

over time, can be used to understand changes seen today. 

Coral geologists removing a core from a large 

Montastraea faveolata colony. (Photo: Andy 

Bruckner). 

39 
STRATEGIC OBJECTIVE 3: Support research to identify possible vectors for 

disease-causing pathogens, with an emphasis on understanding the role of 

environmental factors in the spread and virulence of these pathogens. 

RECOMMENDATION: Support a multidisciplinary effort to conduct controlled 

experiments that evaluate possible sources of pathogens and relationships 

among environmental factors and the dispersal and spread of pathogens, 

including terrestrial runoff and sewage discharge, aerosols and dust, ballast 

water, invasive species, and biotic vectors. 

Research should be targeted toward understanding patterns of susceptibility to disease and factors that 

promote the proliferation and spread of pathogens, examining possible disease vectors, natural reservoirs and 

possible external sources for the introduction of disease-causing agents. Studies should include an examination 

of the potential introduction via aerosols and dust, terrestrial runoff (including point and non-point source 

pollution), ballast water, or pathogens transported through introduction of exotic species or through 

aquaculture and mariculture. Emphasis should also be placed on understanding the role of other reef 

organisms, such as parrotfish, damselfish and snails, as a source of and vector for the dispersal of pathogenic 

microorganisms. In recent literature, at least two known pathogens are reputed to have been transported into 

the reef environment from external sources. This includes 

Aspergillus spp., a fungus that affects sea fans and other 

gorgonians which may have been introduced via terrigenous 

runoff or through deposition of African dust. Also, Serratia 

marcescens, the causative agent of white pox in Florida, is a 

common intestinal bacteria that inhabits the human gut and is 

also found in reef fishes and other organisms (Patterson et 

al., 2002). Additionally, it has been reported that 60% or 

more of all marine phytoplankton die from viruses, and that 

zooplankton consume both phytoplankton and bacteria. 

Zooplankton themselves are a primary food source for those 

coral species most affected by coral diseases. Pelagic 

dispersal of such contaminated food fits with limited 

epizootiological data and disease models, and yet remains 

largely unexplored. 

Through the identification of possible sources and vectors of pathogenic organisms, managers can begin to 

develop strategies to prevent their transmission. For instance, if the causative agent of white pox is found to be 

human in origin and is introduced into the marine environment via sewage discharge, this could become the 

impetus for legislation initiating proper wastewater treatment systems in the Florida Keys. 

Schematic diagram of the transport of African dust 

to the Caribbean (modified from Perry et al). Some 

researchers suggest a link between disease outbreaks 

and African dust, and at least one putative coral 

pathogen (Aspergillus) is known to occur in dust. 

Many fish and invertebrates feed on or around corals, 

such as the stoplight parrotfish (Sparisoma viride) which 

is known to feed on live coral (right) and algae. Through 

routine feeding, the behavior of parrotfish may serve as a 

vector for disease-causing pathogens. (Photo: Andy 

Bruckner). 

40 
STRATEGIC OBJECTIVE 4: Support international efforts to allow ecosystem level 

understandings that ignore political boundaries. 

RECOMMENDATION: Support research, monitoring, and assessment efforts 

aimed at understanding large-scale ecosystem phenomena, and foster 

strategic partnerships with other countries, international organizations and 

institutions to conduct large scale studies and to share expertise and 

information. 

The EFWG emphasized the importance of removing jurisdictional limits on the scientific investigation of 

ecosystem processes, since ecosystems know no political boundaries. Coral reefs are closely linked to water 

circulation patterns which influence larval transport and retention, and the dispersal and spread of putative 

pathogens and pollutants. Although it is possible to identify direct causes of mortality (e.g., bleaching, diseases, 

hurricane damage), reefs are often highly variable in their responses to apparently similar stressors. Our limited 

understanding of ecological processes and interactions at the population and community level, and 

oceanographic processes that affect ecological connectivity of reefs, reduces our ability to identify and 

understand unique indicators of coral health and mortality. Furthermore, most coral disease studies in the 

western Atlantic to date have focused on Florida, which may not be representative of the rest of the Caribbean, 

much less the vast Indo-Pacific region, emphasizing the need for more international efforts. 

Mangroves (above) are a key component of coral reef ecosystems. 

They provide critical nursery areas for commercially important 

species and also trap sediment and pollutants from land, among 

other values. (Photo: Andy Bruckner). 

Blue tangs feeding on algae (right). Coral disease studies 

should integrate ecosystem-scale data including information 

on fish communities, algae, and benthic invertebrates. 

(Photo: Andy Bruckner). 

Since coral reefs extend beyond state and national 

boundaries, the strongest efforts should be 

coordinated at adequate spatial scales (i.e. regional 

studies) to integrate surveys, assessments, and 

monitoring of environmental parameters and their 

impacts on coral health and disease. Those efforts 

should be coordinated with mechanistic studies of 

disease dynamics and they need to insure that 

standardization of methods, parameters measured, 

and quality control measures are consistent and 

comparable between the different studies. 

Adequate funding should be included for training 

and regular meetings between participating parties. 

41 
STRATEGIC OBJECTIVE 5: Establish a standard for scientific information, 

communication and field observations to provide efficient and effective 

communication among scientists, managers, dive operators, and recreational 

divers; to coordinate information; and to maximize resources for 

understanding relationships between coral health and environmental influences. 

RECOMMENDATION: Develop and maintain a specific Coral Disease and Health 

Consortium (CHDC) website and list-server for information exchange and to 

facilitate communication about coral health between coral reef workers. 

The creation of a CDHC website would facilitate communication between workers in different 

disciplines actively researching issues of coral health and disease. This group could include resource 

managers, researchers, dive masters and other professionals. Many resource managers and dive shop 

operators are the eyes and the ears of the coral reefs. They visit the reefs on a regular basis and can offer 

accounts of unusual sightings or report changes from normal conditions. Often, the lack of 

communication and technical training to adequately report detailed observations of coral reef condition 

to the scientific community prevents the information and sample flow to those who are trained to study 

the problem. Greater benefits to respond and learn about these events could be obtained by educating 

resource managers to adequately report to and collect samples for the scientists who study coral 

diseases. The resource managers then could train appropriate individuals to precisely describe 

conditions and abnormalities of coral health, to document these events, and obtain samples for 

histopathological, microbiological, molecular, and environmental condition studies. 

The proposed website* also could be used to link or advertise the presence of different databases available to 

use in epizootiological studies. For example, databases containing information regarding water quality, climatic 

change measurements, other environmental parameters, or information about coral health that are maintained 

by different groups could be disseminated for applications in other studies. 

WCMC maintains the Global Coral Disease Database. This site contains records of all published accounts of coral 

disease, as well as unpublished monitoring data and it allows users to map the distribution of coral diseases. This site 

could be linked to other GIS databases with environmental data and other information. 

* The Draft CDHC website can be accessed at: http://www.coral.noaa.gov/coral_disease/cdhc.shtml. 

42 
 

STRATEGIC OBJECTIVE 6: Standardize monitoring, assessment/collection 

protocols, reporting standards, and nomenclature of disease/syndromes 

including disease signs and diagnosis. 

RECOMMENDATION: Form a committee to study and recommend 

standardized monitoring, assessment and collection protocols for 

epizootiological studies, and to standardize coral disease nomenclature. 

There is a need to establish a committee to improve the collection and reporting of data on coral health 

and disease. This committee should address the types of environmental parameters that should be 

monitored, how to collect data, and how to analyze the biotic and abiotic data collected. The committee 

should also prescribe specific procedures to ensure data consistency and quality. Any program to monitor 

environmental parameters should use consistent techniques with sufficiently high resolution to detect 

significant changes. The data obtained should be amenable to statistical analyses and they should be 

accessible at a future date to allow a comparison of existing conditions with conditions at that time. 

Standardizing these approaches would allow the integration and comparisons of numerous studies in 

order to understand large-scale epizootiological perspectives. The committee would recommend 

standardized data collection protocols for physical, chemical and biological parameters; analytical 

chemistry protocols to ensure the precision, accuracy, sensitivity, and quality of comparable 

measurements; and other guidance to ensure high data quality are comparable across different regions 

and laboratories. It is proposed that a hierarchical approach, based on several criteria, should be 

developed to direct different levels of efforts. The committee’s recommendations should consider 

factors such as cost effectiveness, ease of use, and facilities and equipment required to define a 

prioritized and tiered approach to set the parameters of importance to monitor. It is recommended that 

the committee use information already available or that is being developed by national or state monitoring 

programs that have an obligation to assess the coastal conditions of their marine resources. 

To promote meaningful descriptive observations used in the 

scientific literature, the EFWG recommends the implementation 

of standardized disease nomenclature that follows established 

aquatic health and/or veterinarian standards. Often the incorrect 

use of terms or description of conditions due to inadequate 

definition in the literature prevents a clear understanding of the 

abnormality being described. In many cases, what is presumed 

to be the same condition has been reported by different names, 

depending on the observer, making it difficult to integrate data. It 

is recommended that the list server/website be used to coordinate 

these efforts between scientists. Furthermore, because of recent 

controversy surrounding several proposed or described syndromes, 

it is imperative that the terminology is developed in coordination 

with all participants of the CDHC. 

A researcher setting up a gel to assess the 

purity of DNA extracted from a pathogenic 

organism. (Photo: Teresa Lewis). 

43 
STRATEGIC OBJECTIVE 7: Obtain adequate funding to ensure that costeffective technologies are available to assess and understand relationships 

between coral health and environmental parameters (e.g. water quality and 

climate). 

RECOMMENDATION: Increased funding to support technological development 

for assessment of biological, chemical, and physical resources applicable to 

the study of coral reef environments. 

A priority should be placed on funding the development and 

improvement of instrumentation, biosensors, and other innovative 

technology to increase sensitivity and/or reduce cost for in situ 

assessments of coral reef health and disease. Monitoring and 

diagnostic technologies applicable to study coral reefs are nonexistent. The unparalleled environmental conditions and unique 

biodiversity of coral reefs creates many challenges that must be 

mastered to overcome the existing technological limitations. For 

example, most instrumentation used to measure in situ water 

quality does not have the sensitivity to measure the low levels of 

analytes present in oligotrophic reef environments. Additionally, 

high salinity and rapid fouling of instruments typical in these 

environments complicate the deployment and maintenance of 

equipment for any length of time. Examples of technologies 

under development are: in situ probes designed to measure a 

suite of nutrients on regular intervals; antifouling devices for 

dissolved oxygen meters; and aerial surveillance devices needed 

to assess coral condition. These and other technologies, e.g. 

biosensors for detecting changes in coral health status, should be 

added to the resource manager’s “tool box” to enable them to 

monitor environmental conditions in real time. 

NOAA's Coral Reef Early Warning 

System (CREWS) station in St. Croix. 

CREWS stations collect hourly 

meteorological and oceanographic data 

(air temperature, wind speed, wind 

direction, barometric pressure, sea 

temperature, light [above and below the 

water], salinity, pulse-amplitudemodulated [PAM] fluorometry, and CO2 

partial pressure [pCO2]). What makes 

these CREWS stations unique is that 

expert system software screens the 

incoming data to not only look for 

anomalous data, but also for matching 

patterns (which serve as models and 

environmental indices) to discern what 

environmental combinations result in 

biological phenomena observed at the 

CREWS station site, for instance coral 

bleaching. (Photo: Jim Hendee and 

Monika Gurnee). 

Sensitive ELISA assays are being used by high 

through-put robotic screening facility to 

enhance determination of environmental and 

disease impacts on susceptible coral species. 

(Photos: Sara Polson). 

44 
 

Laboratory Research and Development
 

Information derived from environmental field studies will stimulate hypotheses formulation required 

to drive laboratory testing. These studies will enable researchers to prioritize relevant environmental 

stressors for laboratory assessment. 

STRATEGIC OBJECTIVE 8: Establish appropriate model system(s) for 

standardized coral studies in the laboratory. 

RECOMMENDATION: Create model systems for studies relating to the health 

of reef-building corals and their symbiotic algae. Establish “lab rat” 

equivalents to be used for standardized, repeatable experiments studying 

pathogenic coral diseases and their relationship to environmental factors. 

A facility should be established and supported to supply cultured coral 

animals. Other model systems including symbiotic algal cultures, coral cell 

lines, and pathogenic microorganisms should be deposited in existing 

facilities designed to supply and maintain such biological materials for the 

research community. 

Culture facilities should be established to create, maintain, and supply lines of coral animals that can be 

used for coral studies by the general research community. The facility should ensure the genetic 

integrity, health, fitness, and availability of the corals supplied for different studies. The facility should 

be responsible for assuring the quality of the test animals so that studies made by any lab in the world 

will be comparable. In addition, established symbiotic algal cultures, coral cell lines, and pathogenic 

bacterial cultures should be deposited in the appropriate commercial type collections after they are 

thoroughly described and documented in the literature by their originators. All cultured materials should 

be made readily available to interested researchers to promote rapid development in the state of 

knowledge of coral health and disease. 

These model systems are important to study the impact of individual and/or multiple environmental stressors on 

coral health, and how they can exacerbate coral disease. Propagation of test corals in culture facilities will 

decrease the field collection of this rare and protected resource by overcoming the problems with acquiring 

enough tissue samples for analyte analyses. The culture facility also should lead the effort in training the 

scientific community for maintaining coral culture and promoting responsible coral husbandry by setting 

standards and guidelines, and by conducting training workshops. 

45 
STRATEGIC OBJECTIVE 9: Implement focused research to determine coral 

disease etiologies including infectious and non-infectious diseases. 

RECOMMENDATION: Provide competitive peer-reviewed research funding with 

priorities focused on determining etiologies of infectious and noninfectious diseases of corals, including an emphasis on evaluating 

mechanisms of resistance and physiological endpoints that are indicative of 

changes of coral health. 

Coral infectious disease studies should follow the same processes and precepts established in human 

and veterinary medical studies employing Koch’s, Rivers’, and Evan’s Postulates as models for 

etiological description. A limited number of such studies have been conducted to date. A lack of 

funding directed toward the study of coral disease has slowed progress in this arena. Several coral 

disease syndromes may be caused by abiotic or non-infectious factors such as the exposure of coral reef 

organisms to harmful substances and conditions that occur regularly in our coastal areas. It is 

recognized that these studies should be undertaken in closed systems to contain hazardous materials 

and prevent potentially dangerous exposures to the natural reef environment. Little knowledge is available on 

the genetics of corals or of the impact of changing environmental parameters as an influence on gene 

expression. Research should be encouraged in disciplines related to health and fitness with the goal of 

providing needed insight into mechanisms of resistance, immunity, and a detailed understanding of the coralalgal symbiotic complex. 

Peer-reviewed research using the principles of pathology, i.e., Koch’s, Rivers’ and 

Evan’s Postulates, are vital for verifying agents of disease. (Artwork: Sara Polson). 

46 
 

STRATEGIC OBJECTIVE 10: Determine the cause and effects of environmental 

and climatic stressors on the health of coral and the role of abiotic diseases. 

RECOMMENDATION: Provide competitive peer-reviewed research funding with 

priorities focused on determining the effects of environmental and climatic 

stressors on coral health using laboratory studies. 

In addition to the lack of knowledge concerning coral disease etiologies, even less is understood about 

the acute and chronic effect of different environmental and climatic stressors. Since many of the real 

declines in coral coverage and health have been attributed to anthropogenic impacts changing the 

natural state of the environment or climate around reefs, it is necessary to test hypotheses generated 

from field epizootiological studies in laboratory settings. Coral model systems should be used to test 

the effects of these stresses, which range from chemical to physical to biological factors. Acute and 

chronic exposure studies under controlled laboratory conditions should be used to investigate changes 

in coral fitness. The advantage to these studies is that corals may be exposed to both individual 

stressors and complex mixtures to determine health impacts that simulate realistic environmental 

conditions. These research efforts need to develop and incorporate appropriate end points to identify 

stress, e.g., biomarkers that correlate health effects with environmental parameters, and biomarkers that 

signal a decline in the health status of corals. The goal of these studies is to determine how abioticinduced diseases might be manifested in the field and to provide information about disease 

susceptibility and persistence when corals are under stressful conditions. Information gleaned during 

the recovery of diseased corals could lead to mitigative activities. 

Cartoon depicting the ubiquiting pathway that is involved 

in protein turnover at a cellular physiological level (top right). 

It is used when there is a lot of growth or a lot of damage. 

Samples taken from Montastraea annularis show increases 

of ubiquitin under stressful experimental conditions. (Artwork: 

Cheryl Woodley). 

47 
STRATEGIC OBJECTIVE 11: Determine environmental parameters that are 

optimal for coral growth as well as optimal conditions for known and 

putative pathogens. 

RECOMMENDATION: Support research to understand the relationships between 

environmental factors and optimal coral health, as well as the effects of 

environmental factors on pathogenic microorganisms. 

Little is known about basic coral biology and physiology, including immunity and symbiotic relationships, or the 

effects of various environmental parameters on coral growth, reproduction and other functions. The EFWG 

encourages the study of the basic biology/physiology of corals, including which environmental conditions 

promote optimal coral growth and those which favor declines in coral health. Research targeted towards 

understanding the optimal conditions for coral growth, reproduction and other organism-level processes may 

improve our capacity to predict factors that increase disease susceptibility, as well as possible mechanisms of 

resistance to infection and/or resilience of corals exposed to disease agents. In addition, the relationships 

between environmental factors and the proliferation of pathogenic microorganisms should be evaluated to 

determine optimal conditions for the survival, virulence, and spread of pathogens. While recent studies on 

black-band disease have identified possible natural reservoirs for the cyanobacteria involved in the disease, as 

well as the presence of the cyanobacteria on a coral host in a non-infectious state, environmental factors that 

may trigger a change from a non-infectious to an infectious stage are unknown (Richardson, 1997). The cause 

of Vibrio shiloi infection of Oculina pategonica illustrates how environmental conditions, specifically climatic 

change are linked to virulence and pathogenicity of a normally non-virulent bacteria. This bacterium expresses 

virulence genes that cause coral disease when SSTs are only slightly elevated above the average SST 

maximum. 

Bacterial bleaching in Oculina caused by Vibrio shiloi. Light microscope of the causative agent, V. shiloi 

(left), and examples of partially (a) and fully (b) bleached colonies. (Photos: Eugene Rosenberg). 

Environmental Factors Working Group Members (EFWG) 

Eric Borneman – University of Houston 

Andy Bruckner – NOAA/National Marine Fisheries Service 

Richard Curry – Biscayne National Park 

Craig Downs – EnVirtue Biotechnologies, Inc. 

Chris Johnston – Medical University of South Carolina 

Frank Morado – NOAA/National Marine Fisheries Service 

Pam Morris – Medical University of South Carolina 

Debbie Santavy – US Environmental Protection Agency 

Gloria Seaborn – NOAA/National Ocean Service 

Ernesto Weil – University of Puerto Rico 

48 
VI. SUMMARY
 

The preceding text lists numerous impediments to progress in the area of coral disease and health and 

addresses each with a series of recommendations. The length of these lists defines the major challenge 

before us if the goal of the Coral Disease and Health National Research Plan is to be realized. Some might 

conclude from the many impediments identified that past research has made little progress; however, this is 

certainly not the case. The scientific and policy disciplines involved are healthy and maturing, though 

significantly under-funded relative to the expanding problem. 

The major recommended strategic objectives can be summarized as follows: 

Establishment of standard terminology, methodology and protocols: 

There is limited application of human and veterinary medical knowledge to the study of coral health and 

disease; standard medical terminology has not been used in descriptive interpretations of clinical anomalies 

noted during field collections or in the laboratory, resulting in ambiguous and often misleading communication 

of findings. This is compounded by inadequate diagnostic tools and a deficiency in consistent, comprehensive 

monitoring, assessment and collection protocols. A review of the existing and emerging coral disease 

syndromes that institutes clinical diagnostic criteria, including visual and descriptive details is paramount to 

understanding and combating coral disease. 

Expansion of knowledge in basic coral physiology, biology and disease etiology: 

There is limited information on the physiological parameters that define healthy coral and even less on coral 

disease dynamics. By expanding our understanding in areas of cellular physiology, genomics and proteomics 

we will be able to (1) define baseline measures of coral health and vitality such as non-stress levels and 

deviations that indicate an altered state; (2) identify normal changes in physiological parameters occurring 

seasonally, annually, and along geographic, bathymetric, and other physical and/or environmental gradients to 

increase diagnostic accuracy; (3) identify mechanisms of resistance and susceptibility to disease and factors 

that modulate defense mechanisms; and (4) characterize processes at individual, population and community 

levels that affect ecological connectivity of reefs and discover critical control points for management strategies. 

Development of model coral species: 

All aspects of coral disease and health research have been hampered by the lack of an established coral 

laboratory model species (analogous to “lab rats”), coral cell lines and standardized sources of algal and 

bacterial cultures that are routinely available for research. There is a critical need to develop models and 

provide the infrastructure to maintain these living stock collections. Providing well-characterized and 

documented experimental organisms to domestic and international researchers will enable rapid advances 

through the use of modern biomedical techniques to investigate coral health and disease and by focusing 

research on fundamental biological concepts broadly applicable across the taxon. 

49 
Development of a Centralized Data/Knowledge System, Website, Repository and Core Diagnostic 

Facilities: 

Understanding mechanisms of coral disease in order to devise appropriate treatment, mitigation or 

management regimes has been limited by static databases, comprised of independent datasets that are 

incompatible with modern integrated analyses. New analytical technologies of bioinformatics now allow the 

development of an “intelligent” system that can assimilate data of all types into information that can be 

synthesized into knowledge. Application of bioinformatics to the study and investigation of coral health and 

disease is critically needed to disentangle the multi-factorial nature of coral disease dynamics. The logistics of 

this approach demands a centralized system that receives data from field units and is supported by regional 

response teams, diagnostic laboratories with critical assay capabilities and an underpinning of training and 

voucher specimen archive. 

The rate and extent of progress in coral disease research will depend in part on how effectively the 

recommendations in this National Research Plan are implemented. Our hope is that numerous state and federal 

agencies as well as private institutes will use this document to identify topics that relate to their particular 

responsibilities or purviews, and that scientists and private industry will use these ideas to guide their activities 

as well. No single agency can address all of the identified impediments, though most can be covered by the 

combined efforts of several organizations. Overlap and omissions in critical scientific information needs and 

technology developments for treatment, mitigation or restoration of coral reefs are likely unless further 

coordination is attempted at the agency level. The Consortium has been established to make this possible by 

providing the focal point around which to organize and coordinate scientific resources nationally and 

internationally to address coral health issues. Concerted efforts will be necessary to keep the lines of 

communication and coordination open. 

Students preparing 

presentations on the coral 

research projects they 

carried out during the 

Molecular Techniques 

Wokshop held in Hawaii 

(Photo: Teresa Lewis). 

50 
VII. ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
 

We would like to acknowledge the CDHC Workshop Organizing Committee composed of Dr. Kay Briggs 

(DOI/MMS), Dr. Andy Bruckner (NOAA/NMFS), Dr. Colleen Charles (DOI/USGS), Dr. Sylvia Galloway 

(NOAA/NOS), Dr. Lynda Lanning (Otsuka Maryland Research Institute), Dr. Shawn McLaughlin (NOSS/ 

NOS), Dr. Deborah Santavy (USEPA), Dr. William Walker (DOI/USGS), Dr. Thierry Work (DOI/USGS), 

and Dr. Cheryl Woodley, Chair (NOAA/NOS) for their collective efforts in the weeks prior to the workshop. 

This team set the vision for the CDHC Workshop, developed the agenda and identified experts to invite that 

could represent key disciplines in the deliberations. 

The foundational background information for the participants was provided in the form of six white 

papers and ten oral presentations. 

Dr. Ernesto Weil provided a white paper entitled: Coral Disease Epizootiology: Status and Research 

Needs this paper and Dr. Weil’s presentation on Coral Disease: A Global Perspective set the stage for the 

extent to which coral disease is a global crisis. 

Dr. Laurie Richardson provided a white paper entitled: Infectious diseases of reef corals as well as a 

talk entitled: Coral Disease: What We Know that clarified to the participants the current state of 

knowledge for known coral disease agents, as well as providing the need for standardized nomenclature 

and rigorous criteria for disease identifications. 

Dr. Eugene Rosenberg provided a white paper entitled: The Oculina patagonica-Vibrio shiloi model 

system for coral bleaching. He also provided a presentation entitled: Vibrio shiloi: Case Study both of 

which documented the thorough investigative process used to identify and document a causative agent for the 

pathology of coral bleaching. 

Dr. Pamela Parnell, a State Veterinary Diagnostician, provided a roadmap to investigate disease 

outbreaks. Her white paper was entitled: Pathogens, Predators and Predicaments: The Process of 

Disease Investigation and her very stimulating oral presentation: Disease Investigation: The Process. 

Dr. Esther Peters, a coral histopathologist, provided the white paper: Coral Disease Diagnostics: 

Histopathology and an oral presentation entitled the same where she discussed the state of the technology for 

corals and pointed out some unique procedures and criteria for scleractinian corals. 

Dr. Andrew Bruckner provided an examination of a manager’s perspective of coral disease in his white paper: 

Priorities for Effective Management of Coral Disease and a clear presentation for the workshop in his oral 

presentation, How is Coral Disease Managed and What are the Management Issues? 

The white papers were supplemented with three additional oral presentations. 

Mr. Craig Downs presented, Abiotic Factors Affecting Susceptibility & Infectivity, in which laboratory 

studies of the effect of iron on Vibrio shiloi infectivity was used to demonstrate how a limiting nutrient can 

affect infectivity without increased temperatures. 

51 
Dr. Garriet Smith presented a talk on Disease Identification: Technologies, in which he provided the most 

current microbiological and molecular techniques being employed to study coral disease. 

Dr. Jonas Almeida presented a stimulating talk entitled: Bioinformatics & Coral Disease, in which he 

showed the power and possibilities of applying bioinformatic approaches to the study of coral disease. 

We would also like to thank Judy and John Halas who provided a special presentation at our reception 

entitled: Social & Economic Consequences of Coral Degradation. 

We are especially grateful to the Working Group Chairs, the Facilitators and their Rapporteurs that not 

only presided over the deliberations during the workshop but also provided the group’s draft reports 

that were used for preparing this document. The Biology Working Group was chaired by Dr. John 

Fauth, facilitator, Dr. Sylvia Galloway and rapporteur, Ms. Maggie Holbrook. The Disease Identification 

Disease Investigation Working Group was chaired by Dr. Emmett Shotts, facilitator, Dr. Brian Keller and 

rapporteur, Mr. Diego Gil-Agudelo. The Diagnostics Working Group was chaired by Dr. Shawn McLaughlin, 

facilitator Dr. Colleen Charles and rapporteur, Ms. Kristy Lidie. The Environmental Factors Working Group 

was chaired by Mr. Craig Downs, facilitator Dr. Deborah Santavy and rapporteur, Mr. Chris Johnston. A 

special thanks goes to Kristy Lide for her technical writing and assistance in pulling together the first draft of this 

document. 

We would also like to express our sincere thanks to those individuals working behind the scenes to 

make this workshop a success. Darren Wray was responsible for all of the audiovisual equipment, set-up and 

logistics both at the workshop and at the reception as well as providing photography during the entire workshop. We would like to thank Kellee James for her administrative assistance and Samantha Ryan for logistical 

assistance. 

Particular thanks go to Lynda Lanning, Kristy Lidie, and Kay Briggs who arrived two days in advance of the 

workshop ( a holiday weekend) to help with last minute details involving phoning and faxing news releases to 

the media, xeroxing late arriving white papers and assembling the notebooks for each participant into the wee 

hours of the morning to have them ready by registration at 8:00 am. 

Financial support for this workshop was provided by NOAA through the Coral Conservation Program. 

We would also like to thank the Living Oceans Foundation and Dr. Mohammed Faisal, for contributing 

the time and skills of Ms. Kim Hopkins, their graphic artist, to design the logo for the Workshop and for 

providing folders for the Workshop documents. 

52 
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Koop, K., Booth, D., Broadbent, A., Brodie, J., Bucher,D., Capone, D., Coll, J., Dennison, W., Erdmann, 

M., Harrison, P., Hoegh-Guldberg, O., Hutchings, P., Jones, G.B., Larkum, A.W.D., O’Neil, J., Steven, A., 

Tentori, E., Ward, S., Williamson, J., and Yellowlees., D. (2001). ENCORE: The Effect of Nutrient 

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55 
IX. WORKSHOP AGENDA
 

Tuesday, Jan. 22, 2002 

7:30	 Breakfast 

8:00	 Registration 

8:45	 Welcome 

Cheryl Woodley / Geoff Scott 

9:00	 Workshop Goals & Objectives 

Cheryl Woodley 

9:30	 Coral Disease: A Global Perspective 

Ernesto Weil 

10:00	 Break 

10:20	 Participant Introductions 

10:30	 Coral Disease: What We Know 

Laurie Richardson 

11:00	 Vibrio shiloi: Case Study 

Eugene Rosenberg 

11:30	 Abiotic Factors Affecting Susceptibility & Infectivity 

Craig Downs 

12:00	 Lunch 

1:00	 Participant Introductions (cont.) 

1:15	 Disease Investigation: The Process 

Pamela Parnell 

2:00	 Coral Disease Diagnostics: Histopathology 

Esther Peters 

2:30	 Disease Identification: Technologies 

Garriet Smith 

3:00	 Break 

3:20	 Participant Introductions (cont.) 

3:30	 Bioinformatics & Coral Disease 

Jonas Almeida 

56 
 

 

4:00	 How is Coral Disease Managed? & What are the Management Issues? 

Andy Bruckner 

4:30	 Mission Review & Workgroup Objectives
 

Debbie Santavy
 

6:30	 Transportation to S.C. Aquarium 

7:00	 Reception at the S.C. Aquarium 

7:30	 Social & Economic Consequences of Coral Degradation
 

Judy & John Halas

 9:00 Return to Charleston Place Hotel 

Wednesday, Jan. 23, 2002 

7:30	 Breakfast 

8:00	 Break into Small Group Discussion

 Cheryl Woodley

 Group and Room Assignments Rooms: 

Biology 2-K
 

Disease I/I Edmunds
 

Diagnostics Fenwick
 

Environmental Factors Hampton
 

Thursday, Jan. 24, 2002 

7:30	 Breakfast 

8:00	 Break into Small Group Discussion

 Cheryl Woodley

 Group and Room Assignments Rooms: 

Biology 2-K
 

Disease I/I Edmunds
 

Diagnostics Fenwick
 

Environmental Factors Hampton
 

Friday, Jan. 25, 2002 

7:30 Breakfast 

8:00 Reconvene into Large Group & Present your Groups Ideas and Solutions

 10:00	 Break

 12:00	 Say Goodbye & Have a Safe Journey Home 

57 
X. PARTICIPANTS
 

Dr. Jonas Almeida 

Medical University of South Carolina 

Dept. of Biometry and Epidemiology 

135 Rutledge Avenue 

PO Box 250551 

Charleston, SC 29425 

843/876-1589 

almeidaj@musc.edu 

Dr. John Argyle 

BIOLOG 

949 Lincoln Place 

Pacifica, CA 94044 

510/785-2564 x333 

jargyle@biolog.com 

Mr. John Bemiss 

NOAA/NOS/CCEHBR 

219 Fort Johnson Rd. 

Charleston, SC 29412 

843/762-8511 

John.Bemiss@noaa.gov 

Mr. Eric Borneman 

University of Houston 

Dept. of Biology/Biochemistry 

Section of Evolution/Ecology 

258/SR11 

Houston, TX 77204 

832/443-7018 

EricHugo@aol.com 

Dr. Kay Briggs 

Dept. of Interior 

Minerals Management Service 

14001 Dancing Twig Dr. 

Gainesville, VA 20155 

703/787-1646 

kaybriggs@att.net 

Dr. Andy Bruckner 

National Marine Fisheries Service 

Office of Habitat Conservation 

1315 East-West Highway 

Rm 15829 

Silver Spring, MD 20910 

301/713-3459x 190 

Andy.Bruckner@noaa.gov 

Dr. Colleen Charles 

US Geological Survey 

Biological Resources Division 

12201 Sunrise Valley Rd. 

Mailstop 301 

Reston, VA20192 

703/648-4110 

colleen_charles@usgs.gov 

Dr. JW Costerton 

Center for Biofilm Engineering Research

 and NSF Engineering Research Center 

Montana State University-Bozeman 

366 EPS Building 

Bozeman, MT 59717 

406/994-1960 

bill_c@erc.montana.edu 

Mr. Richard Curry 

Biscayne National Park 

9700 Southwest 328th St. 

Homestead, FL 33033 

305/230-1141 x3010 

Richard_Curry@nps.gov 

Mr. Craig Downs 

EnVirtue Biotechnologies 

35 Picadilly St 

Winchester, VA22601 

540/723-0597 

craigdowns@envirtue.com 

Dr. Phil Dustan 

Dept of Biology 

College of Charleston 

66 George St. 

Charleston, SC 29424 

843/953-8086 

dustanp@cofc.edu 

Dr. Mohamed Faisal 

Living Oceans Foundation 

1504 East Grand River 

Suite 200 

East Lansing, MI 48823 

517/333-8400 

58 
Dr. John Fauth 

Department of Biology 

University of Central Florida 

4000 Central Florida Boulevard 

Orlando, FL 32816-2368 

407/823-1661 

Fax: 407-823-5769 

jfauth@pegasus.cc.ucf.edu 

Dr. Sylvia Galloway 

National Ocean Service at MUSC 

221 Ft Johnson Rd 

Charleston, SC 29412 

843/953-0772 

Sylvia.Galloway@noaa.gov 

Mr. Diego Gil-Agudelo 

Marine Science Dept 

University of SC 

604 Earth and Water Science Bldg 

Columbia, SC 29169 

803/791-5106 

dl_gil@yahoo.com 

Dr. Tom Greig 

NOAA/NOS/CCEHBR 

219 Fort Johnson Rd. 

Charleston, SC 29412 

843/762-8511 

Thomas.Greig@noaa.gov 

Mr. John Halas 

FL Keys NMS 

MM 95.230 

Overseas Hwy 

Key Largo, FL 33037 

305/852-7717 ext 34 

john.halas@noaa.gov 

Ms. Judith Halas 

Environmental Moorings, Intl. 

172 Lorelane Pl. 

Key Largo, FL 33037 

305/451-5984 

EMIHALAS@aol.com 

Dr. Hal Helbock 

University of California, Berkeley 

Molecular & Cell Biology 

3588 Sunny Hills Lane 

Vacaville, CA 95688 

510/450-7600 x4333 

helbock@community.net 

Ms. Maggie Holbrook 

NOAA/NOS/CCEHBR 

219 Ft Johnson Rd 

Charleston, SC 29412 

843/762-8535 

Margaret.Holbrook@noaa.gov 

Ms. Kellee James 

NOAA/NOS/CCEHBR 

219 Fort Johnson Rd. 

Charleston, SC 29412 

843/762-8511 

kellee.james@noaa.gov 

Mr. Chris Johnston 

Medical University of South Carolina 

221 Fort Johnson Rd. 

Charleston, SC 29412 

843/953-0770 

johnston@musc.edu 

Dr. Brian Keller 

FL Keys NMS 

P. O. Box 500368 

Marathon, FL 33050 

305/743-2437 x25 

Dr. Laura Kracker 

NOAA/NOS/CCEHBR 

219 Fort Johnson Rd. 

Charleston, SC 29412 

843/762-8640 

Laura.Kracker@noaa.gov 

Dr. Lynda Lanning 

Assoc. Director, 

Nonclinical Drug Safety Evaluation 

Otsuka Maryland Research Institute 

9900 Medical Center Drive 

Rockville, MD 20850 

LLLpath@aol.com 

Ms. Kristy Lidie 

Medical University of South Carolina 

221 Fort Johnson Rd. 

Charleston, SC 29412 

843/953-0770 

larkin@musc.edu 

59 
Dr. Jo-Ann Leong 

University of Hawai’i 

Hawaii Institute of Marine Biology 

46-007 Lilipuna Rd 

Kane’ohe, Hawaii 96744 

808/236-7401 

joannleo@hawaii.edu 

Dr. Tom MacRae 

Dalhousie University 

Dept of Biology 

1355 Oxford St 

Halifax,NS B3H 4J1 

902/494-6525 

Tmacrae@is.dal.ca 

Dr. Shawn McLaughlin 

NOAA/NOS/CCEHBR 

Cooperative Oxford Laboratory 

904 South Morris St 

Oxford, MD 21654 

410/226-5193 

Shawn.McLaughlin@noaa.gov 

Mr. Jeff Miller 

National Park Service 

1300 Cruz Bay Creek 

St. John, USVI 00830 

340/693-8950 x227 

jeffmiller@islands.vi 

Ms. Kathy Moore 

NOAA/NOS/CCEHBR 

219 Fort Johnson Rd. 

Charleston, SC 29412 

843/762-8511 

Kathy.moore@noaa.gov 

Dr. Frank Morado 

NOAA/NMFS/AFSC RACE Division 

7600 Sandpoint Way NE 

Seattle, WA 98115 

206/526-6572 

Frank.Morado@noaa.gov 

Dr. Pamela Morris 

Medical University of South Carolina 

221 Ft Johnson Road 

Charleston, SC 29412 

843/953-0771 

morrisp@musc.edu 

Dr. Erich Mueller 

Mote Marine Laboratory 

Center for Tropical Research 

24244 Overseas Hwy 

Summerland Key, FL 33042 

305/745-2729 

emueller@mote.org 

Dr. Gary Ostrander 

Johns Hopkins University 

Krieger School of Arts and Sciences 

Mergentaler 237 

3400 N Charles St 

Baltimore, MD 21218 

410/516-8215 

gofish@jhu.edu 

Dr. Pamela Parnell 

Clemson Veterinary Diagnostic Center 

PO Box 102406 

Columbia, SC 29224 

803/788-2260 

pprnll@clemson.edu 

Dr. Esther Peters 

Tetra Tech Inc. 

10306 Eaton Place Suite 340 

Fairfax, VA 22030 

703/385-6000 

McCarty_and_Peters@compuserve.com 

Mr. Shawn Polson 

MBES 

Medical University of South Carolina 

221 Ft Johnson Rd 

Charleston, SC 29412 

843/762-8959 

polsons@musc.edu 

Ms. Sara Polson 

MBES 

Medical University of South Carolina 

221 Ft Johnson Rd 

Charleston, SC 29412 

843/762-8959 

polson@musc.edu 

Dr. James Porter 

University of Georgia 

Institute of Ecology 

1033 Green Street 

Athens, GA 30602 

706/542-3410 

jporter@arches.uga.edu 

60 
Dr. Laurie Richardson 

Florida International University 

Dept of Biological Sciences 

11200 SW Eighth St 

University Park Campus 

Miami, FL 33199 

305/348-1988 

richardl@FIU.edu 

Dr. Charles Robinson 

EnVirtue Biotechnologies 

35 Picadilly St 

Winchester, VA 22601 

540/723-0597 

charlesrobinson@envirtue.com 

Dr. Caroline Rogers 

US Geological Survey 

Caribbean Field Station 

1300 Cruz Bay Creek 

St. John, USVI 00830 

340/693-8950 x221 

caroline_rogers@usgs.gov 

Dr. Eugene Rosenberg 

Dept of Molecular Microbiology and Biotech Faculty of Life Sciences 

Tel Aviv University 

Ramat Aviv, Israel 69978 

972/640-9838 

eros@post.tau.ac.il 

Ms. Samantha Ryan 

NOAA/NOS/CCEHBR 

331 Fort Johnson Rd. 

Charleston, SC 29412 

843/762-8959 

Samantha.Ryan@noaa.gov 

Dr. Deborah Santavy 

US Environmental Protection Agency 

One Sabine Island Drive 

Gulf Breeze, FL 32561 

850/934-9358 

Santavy.Debbie@epa.gov 

Dr. Emmett Shotts 

1112 Logans Ridge 

Cleveland, GA 30528 

706/865-0621 

emshotts@alltel.net 

Dr. Lou Sileo 

US Geological Survey 

National Wildlife Health Center 

6006 Schroeder Rd 

Madison, WI 53711 

608/270-2461 

lou_sileo@usgs.gov 

Ms. Gloria Seaborn 

NOAA/NOS/CCEHBR 

219 Fort Johnson Rd. 

Charleston, SC 29412 

843/762-8511 

Gloria.seaborn@noaa.gov 

Dr. Garriett Smith 

University of SC, Aiken 

Dept of Biology and Geology 

471 University Pkwy 

Aiken, SC 29801 

803/641-3427 

garries@aiken.sc.edu 

Dr. Ernesto Weil 

University of Puerto Rico 

Dept of Marine Science 

P. O. Box 908 

Lajas, PR 

787 8992048 

eweil@caribe.net 

Dr. Bette Willis 

School of Marine Biology and Aquaculture 

James Cook University 

Townsville, Queensland 04811 

61 7 47815349 

Bette.Willis@jcu.edu.au 

Dr. Cheryl Woodley 

Hollings Marine Laboratory 

NOAA/NOS/CCEHBR 

331 Fort Johnson Rd. 

Charleston, SC 29412 

843/762-8862 

Cheryl.Woodley@noaa.gov 

Dr. Thierry Work 

US Geological Survey 

National Wildlife Health Center 

Hawaii Field Station 

PO Box 50167 

Honolulu, HI 

808/541-3472 

thierry_work@usgs.gov 

Mr. Darren Wray 

NOAA/NOS/CCEHBR 

219 Fort Johnson Rd. 

Charleston, SC 29412 

843/762-8511 

Darren.wray@noaa.gov 

61 
APPENDIX I: CDHC Mission, Objectives, Partners and Structure 

Proposed U.S. Coral Reef Task Force Coral Disease and Health Consortium (CDHC)* 

1. Mission Statement: Create a Coral Disease and Health Consortium 

•	 Promote health and sustainable use of Nation’s Coral Reef Ecosystems 

•	 Focus on understanding & assessing health of reef-building corals communities & ecosystems 

•	 Understand disease processes including etiology and transmission, synergistic effects of diseases 

with environmental stresses, and how they impact health of coral reef ecosystems 

•	 Coordinate an interagency research strategy to study coral diseases, coral bleaching 

•	 Biomarkers of coral health 

2. Background: 

•	 Executive Order (#13089) decreed to preserve and protect the biodiversity, health, heritage, and 

social and economic value of U.S. coral reef ecosystems 

•	 Recommendation by Ecosystem Science and Conservation Working Group, in “Research and 

Monitoring: Proposed Actions” was to form a Coral Disease Consortium 

•	 Increased mortality as a result of coral diseases and coral bleaching 

•	 Over the last decade, coral diseases increased in frequency, distribution, & numbers of coral 

species affected 

•	 Trend especially evident in Western Atlantic and Caribbean regions 

•	 Emergence of new disease syndromes with new types of pathologies 

•	 Most diseases appearing on coral reefs have not been thoroughly characterized and their etiologies, 

including the causative agent, often remain unknown. 

•	 International Society of Reef Studies (ISRS) has produced two issue statements detailing the 

scientific community’s concerns of irreversible damage to coral reefs by coral diseases and coral 

bleaching. 

3. Objectives: 

The Coral Disease and Health Consortium will provide a comprehensive approach to understanding coral 

health. The CDHC will focus on disease and bleaching dynamics, the effect of anthropogenic, climatic, and 

natural factors on the transmission of coral diseases, and the proliferation of the biotic and abiotic agents 

responsible for the diseases. The approach will use investigations of the disease etiologies of both host and 

symbiont, disease agents, host and symbiont responses, defense mechanisms, disease agent and host/symbiont 

interactions, disease transmission, coupled with an understanding of the factors that influence the susceptibility 

of the host to the disease and the role of anthropogenic factors in the distribution and abundance of diseases. 

The Coral Disease and Health Consortium will address coral health issues, with emphasis on the diagnosis and 

etiology of coral diseases and bleaching. The Consortium would draw on the expertise of scientists from 

around the U.S. and internationally who are actively involved in bleaching and disease research; provide a 

focal point for researching and tracking the progression of bleaching and disease events; and help identify 

environmental influences that affect these phenomena. The Consortium would be developed through an interagency planning process. 

* presented to the US CRTF at the March, 2000 meeting in Washington D.C. 

62 
 

 

 

 

 

 

4. Structure and Function: The proposed investigations will: 

1)	 Increase our fundamental understanding of the nature and diversity of coral diseases; 

2)	 Increase our understanding of the disease process (i.e. host susceptibility, role of genetic 

variants/mutants and virulence factors); 

3)	 Allow for the development of rapid diagnostics, including the development of molecular 

probes and other means that could be used to identify and verify a specific disease condition 

in the field; 

4)	 Allow for the development of “curative” treatments and remediative management for 

infected areas; 

5)	 Increase our understanding of the impact of coral diseases on the coral reef community 

structure; 

6)	 Describe, on temporal and geographical scales, the type and density of the various forms of 

coral diseases; 

7)	 Characterize infectious and noninfectious disease agents this will include histopathology, 

genetics, in vitro culturing; 

8)	 Establish a functional genomics/proteomics approach to understanding coral defense 

strategies and factors affecting defense mechanisms; and 

9)	 Develop a data repository for coral diseases. 

5. Who are partners in this effort? The Coral Disease and Bleaching Center will be a cooperative effort 

involving NOAA (NOS, NESDIS, OAR and NMFS), EPA, the Department of Interior, States and Territories 

with coral reefs, and other U.S. Coral Reef Task Force Agencies, in addition to partnering with University 

participants. It is recommended that a Scientific Advisory Board provide oversight, coordination and direction 

to the Consortium. 

6. Structure and Functional Units 

Clinical Pathology Unit 

• Diagnostic Services: Histopathology, Clinical assays, Collection/Preservation and

 Specimen Submission Protocol 

• Registry of Coral Disease: Repository of voucher or type specimens (tissues and slide 

collections); provide “type” slides to researchers; develop electronic atlas of coral 

diseases 

• Electronic Map-based database for disease reports/tracking of occurrence, abundance & 

distribution to evaluate occurrence of epizootics 

Risk Assessment Unit

 • Compile field data on occurrence; disease surveys on regional & global scale 

• Compile environmental data i.e., climatic, land-use patterns, hazardous events data 

• Epidemiologically evaluate field, clinical and environmental data to establish cause and 

effect models of disease outbreaks and transmission patterns. 

• Provide an information dissemination mechanism for the public, managers and researchers 

Health Assessment Unit (R& D) 

• Disease Etiology: Disease Agent Characterization; Transmission Dynamics 

• Indicators of Health Status: Host Susceptibility/System Tolerance; Stress, Defense and 

Detoxification Responses/Tolerances 

• Indicators of Coral Health: Biomarkers (Physiology, Genetics) 

63 
 

 

APPENDIX II: Time Lines for Objectives 

OBJECTIVE Time Line* 

Biology Working Group 

1. Determine the mechanism(s) of coral bleaching.......................................................... 1-3 years 

2. Develop model laboratory species to spur advances in coral research.................................... 1-3 years 

3. Establish coral and zooxanthellae cell cultures for use in laboratory research.............................. 3-5 years 

4. Determine physiological parameters typical of normal, healthy coral.................................... 5-7 years** 

5. Determine basic host defense mechanisms and immune responses of corals.............................. 5-7 years** 

6. Determine patterns of coral gene expression, and genetic mechanisms of

 resistance and susceptibility to disease................................................................ 8+ years** 

Disease Identification and Disease Investigation Working Group 

1. Standardize terms and descriptive interpretations of clinical abnomalities noted field observations..... 1-2 years 

2. Establish standardized monitoring protocols for field assessments.................................... 1-3 years 

3. Establish Regional Coral Disease Diagnostic Center.................................................. 1-2 years

4. Devote training programs to the mechanisms underlying coral disease................................ 2 years 

Diagnostics Working Group 

1. Improve methods of taking case histories by developing response teams............................ 2-3 years

 implementing standard monitoring protocols..................................................... 1 year 

and integrating ecosystem level data............................................................ 3-5 years** 

2. Implement standard terminology for describing changes in coral health.............................. 1-2 years

3. Incorporate standard protocols, routine collection permits, cross-border transportation, and

 adequate bio-containment measures in coral sampling 

a) sample collection protocol................................................................. 1 year 

b) atlas of diseased and normal tissue......................................................... 3-5 years 

c) non-invasive sampling techniques and biocontainment measures........................... 1-3 years 

4. Establish a centralized data system that incorporates a bioinformatic approach that compiles

 relevant data, transforms the data into information formulates a synthesis of the information into a

 multidimensional understanding of coral health and disease....................................... . 3-5 years

5. Draw upon data, information, and knowledge generated by coral studies conducted under

 uniform standards and reported with standardized terminology to develop ‘coral specific’

 diagnostics..................................................................... ....................... 5 years 

64 
Environmental Factors Working Group 

1. Conduct epizootiological studies to determine the relationships between coral disease, coral health and

 changing environmental conditions ................................................................... 3-5 years**

2. Determine whether recent declines in coral health are unprecedented, or whether similar declines

 occurred in the past in the absence of anthropogenic stressors............................................ 2-3 years

3. Support research to identify possible vectors for disease-causing pathogens, with an emphasis on

 understanding the role of environmental factors in the spread and virulence of these pathogens......... 5-7 years**

4. Support international efforts to allow ecosystem level understandings that ignore political boundaries... 1-2 years

5. Establish a standard for scientific information, communication and field observations to provide efficient

 and effective communication among scientists, managers, dive operators, and recreational divers; to

 coordinate information; and to maximize resources for understanding relationships between coral health 2-3 years and environmental influences............................................................................ 

6. Standardize monitoring, assessment/collection protocols, reporting standards, and nomenclature of

 disease/syndromes including disease signs and diagnosis............................................... 2-3 years 

7. Obtain adequate funding to ensure that cost-effective technologies are available to assess and

 understand relationships between coral health and environmental parameters.......... .................. 5-10 years**

8. Establish appropriate model system(s) for standardized coral studies in the laboratory................... 1-3 years

9. Implement focused research to determine coral disease etiologies including infectious and

 non-infectious diseases................................................................................ 2-5 years** 

10. Determine the cause and effects of environmental and climatic stressors on the health of coral

 and the role of abiotic diseases......................................................................... 5-10 years**

11. Determine environmental parameters that are optimal for coral growth as well as optimal

 conditions for known and putative pathogens........................................................... 3-5 years** 

*The estimated time required to complete each objectives is dependent on adequate funding to carry out the 

activity .

** Many of the objectives require long term monitoring and research and multi-disciplinary teams to be fully 

completed, however parts of these (e.g., etiology of a specific disease; relationships between a specific 

diseases and certain environmental pollutants; or the development of a new tool) can be accomplished over the 

short term (1-3 years), given adequate funding levels . 

65 
 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

APPENDIX III: Recommended CDHC Committees and Participants 

Each Committee was asked to select a chair and to develop a statement of their goals and objectives or 

responsibilities. The committees were formed and asked to initiate activity with the goal of quickly making 

information available via the CDHC webpage. Their activities and products will be described in the CDHC 

Annual Report. 

i. Nomenclature Committee 

Responsibilities: 

• Develop a manual containing a glossary of common medical terms for use in the field of coral health; 

• Review the existing clinical syndromes in coral disease including visual and descriptive detail; 

• Provide the Bioinformatics Committee with key terms for data collection; and 

• Provide web-based access to this information. 

Suggested Participants:

 Laurie Richardson (Chair), Pam Parnell, Lynda Lanning, Esther Peters, John Halas, Jim Hendee. 

ii. Field Assessment Committee

 Responsibilities: 

• To develop standard assessment protocols and associated data collection forms; 

• Incorporate rigorous QA/QC procedures in protocols; 

• Develop standard recording procedures and formats; 

• Develop protocols for the transfer of samples; and 

• Provide bioinformatics team with parameters (i.e. skeleton, tissue, substrate, etc.) that would require

 data collection in the field. 

Suggested Participants:

 Erich Muller (Chair), Janet Foley, Andrew Bruckner, Cindy Hunter, Ernesto Weil, James Porter. 

iii. Model Systems Committee

 Responsibilities: 

• Determine whichspecies are most suitable for use as a coral ‘lab rat’; and 

• Develop a standard operating protocol for the maintenance, acclimation and experimental exposure

 conditions of model systems, primarily (but not limited to) those for use in laboratory work

 investigating aspects of coral disease.

 Suggested Participants:

 Eric Borneman (Chair), Richard Curry, Erich Mueller, Phil Dustan, Alan Pinder, Melody Moore,

 Frank Morado , Gary Ostrander, Tom Capo. 

66 
 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

iv. Education and Outreach Committee

 Responsibilities: 

• Identify the courses available on coral reef health and disease; 

• Recommend a method for coordinating short courses or workshops; 

• Develop a website for communicating information about coral health and activities of the consortium; 

• Develop draft curricula for a training or certification program in coral health & disease; 

• Develop training materials for courses (videos, identification cards, etc.); 

• Develop a draft curriculum for cross-disciplinary training for graduate degrees with a specialty in coral

 health & disease; 

• Organize an annual meeting of coral health and disease specialists (consider a Gordon Conference

 format). 

• Identify sources of funding for these programs; and 

• In all cases, efforts should be made to ensure international collaboration.

 Suggested Participants:

 Jo Ann Leong (Chair), Garriet Smith, Ernesto Weil. 

v. Histopathology Committee

 Responsibilities: 

• Develop Standard Operating Procedures (SOP) which provide general method guidance; 

• Identify essential procedures for the collection, transport, processing, and analysis of coral samples; 

• Provide the Bioinformatics Committee with relevant datafields associated with microscopic analysis.

 Suggested Participants:

 Lou Sileo (Chair), Lynda Lanning, Pam Parnell, Esther Peters, Taylor Reynolds, Frank Morado,

 Shawn McLaughlin, Thierry Work. 

vi. Microbiology Committee

 Responsibilities: 

• Develop Standard Operating Procedures (SOP) for microbial sample collection from the field, 

including: 

-the defining of equipment and supplies needed; 

-the protocols for collection of live microorganisms (isolation and culturing) and whole microbial

 communities, collected and preserved suitably for molecular analysis. 

• Provide protocols that deal with shipping requirements as well as shipping procedures that will

 ensure sample integrity and prompt arrival to the designated laboratory. 

Laboratory microbiology is not part of the scope of this assignment. Relevant descriptive terminology will 

be provided to the Bioinformatics Committee.

 Suggested Participants:

 Kay Briggs (Chair), Bob Jonas, David Bourne, Rocco Cipriano, Pam Morris, Garriet Smith, John 

Argyle, Eugene Rosenburg, Emmett Shotts, Ginger Garrison, Debbie Santavy. 

67 
 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

vii. Toxicology Committee 

Responsibilities: 

• Develop Standard Operating Procedures (SOP) which provide general method guidance; and 

• Identify essential procedures for the collection, transport, processing, and analysis of coral samples

 for chemical content/contaminants.

 Suggested Participants:

 Marie Delorenzo (Chair), Jane Hawkridge, Geoff Scott, Stephen Klaine, Chip McCarty, Gary Rand. 

viii. Bioinformatics Committee 

Responsibilities: 

• Organize a CDHC database that integrates standardized parameters and terminology used in data

 collection efforts and observations from the field and the laboratory. Selection and definition of these

 data have been tasked to the respective committees of the CDHC. 

• Recommend and test appropriate data analysis methods to develop a better understanding of the

 factors associated with coral health and epidemiology. 

Suggested Participants:

 Laura Kracker (Chair), Kristy Larkin, Jonas Almeida, Colleen Charles, Sylvia Galloway, Jim Hendee. 

ix. Molecular Committee 

Responsibilities: 

• Develop Standard Operating Procedures (SOP) that provide general method guidance; and 

• Identify essential procedures for the collection, transport, processing and analysis of coral samples

 for cellular biochemicals, including DNA, RNA, and proteins.

 Suggested Participants:

 Charles Robinson (Chair), Craig Downs, Cheryl Woodley, Jo Ann Leong. 

68 
69

U.S. Department of Commerce 

Donald L. Evans, Secretary 

National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration 

Vice Admiral Conrad C. Lautenbacher, Jr., USN (Ret.) 

Under Secretary for Oceans and Atmosphere